diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-8.txt | 7245 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-8.zip | bin | 0 -> 149175 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 1516035 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/34028-h.htm | 7955 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/frontis.jpg | bin | 0 -> 35941 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p024.jpg | bin | 0 -> 60729 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p036.jpg | bin | 0 -> 72745 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p050.jpg | bin | 0 -> 40669 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p064.jpg | bin | 0 -> 103161 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p064tmb.jpg | bin | 0 -> 61378 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p078.jpg | bin | 0 -> 40071 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p090.jpg | bin | 0 -> 83878 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p096.jpg | bin | 0 -> 87233 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p120.png | bin | 0 -> 60044 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p121.png | bin | 0 -> 32697 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p122.jpg | bin | 0 -> 91541 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p142.jpg | bin | 0 -> 29973 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p154.jpg | bin | 0 -> 25233 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p162_bot.jpg | bin | 0 -> 39467 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p162_top.jpg | bin | 0 -> 44841 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p163.jpg | bin | 0 -> 167449 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p163tmb.jpg | bin | 0 -> 86252 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p168.jpg | bin | 0 -> 38405 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p186.jpg | bin | 0 -> 86817 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p202.jpg | bin | 0 -> 39941 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p216.jpg | bin | 0 -> 42134 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/illo_p230.jpg | bin | 0 -> 32923 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028-h/images/printer.png | bin | 0 -> 3116 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028.txt | 7245 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 34028.zip | bin | 0 -> 149117 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 |
33 files changed, 22461 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/34028-8.txt b/34028-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a066025 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7245 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Races and Immigrants in America, by John R. Commons + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Races and Immigrants in America + +Author: John R. Commons + +Release Date: October 4, 2010 [EBook #34028] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA *** + + + + +Produced by Brian Foley and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + +RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA + + + + +[Illustration: ELLIS ISLAND, IMMIGRATION STATION] + + + + + RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA + + + BY JOHN R. COMMONS + + PROFESSOR OF POLITICAL ECONOMY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN + + + New York + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD. + 1907 + + _All rights reserved_ + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1907, + BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. + + Set up and electrotyped. Published May, 1907. + + + Norwood Press + J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. + Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + REFERENCES vii + + CHAPTER + + I. RACE AND DEMOCRACY 1 + + II. COLONIAL RACE ELEMENTS 22 + + III. THE NEGRO 39 + + IV. NINETEENTH CENTURY ADDITIONS 63 + + V. INDUSTRY 107 + + VI. LABOR 135 + + VII. CITY LIFE, CRIME, AND POVERTY 160 + + VIII. POLITICS 179 + + IX. AMALGAMATION AND ASSIMILATION 198 + + INDEX 239 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + + ELLIS ISLAND, IMMIGRANT STATION _Frontispiece_ + + PAGE + + "RETURN OF THE MAYFLOWER." Painting By Boughton, 1834 _opposite_ 24 + + ANGLO-SAXON MOUNTAINEERS, BEREA COLLEGE, KENTUCKY _opposite_ 36 + + COUNTIES HAVING A LARGER PROPORTION OF NEGROES IN 1900 + THAN IN 1880 _opposite_ 50 + + MOVEMENT OF IMMIGRANTS, IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE PER + CAPITA AND IMMIGRANTS PER 10,000 POPULATION _between_ 63-64 + + ALIENS AWAITING ADMISSION AT ELLIS ISLAND _opposite_ 78 + + NORWEGIAN, ITALIAN, AND ARABIC TYPES " 90 + + SLAV, JEWISH, POLACK, AND LITHUANIAN TYPES " 96 + + INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS OF IMMIGRANTS--1906 _between_ 108-109 + + AMERICAN SCHOOL BOYS _opposite_ 122 + + FILIPINO GOVERNORS " 142 + + GOVERNOR JOHNSON OF MINNESOTA.--SWEDE " 154 + + DR. ORONHYATEKHA, MOHAWK INDIAN. LATE CHIEF OF + ORDER OF FORESTERS " 168 + + CHINESE STUDENTS, HONOLULU " 186 + + FACULTY OF TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE " 202 + + SLAVIC HOME MISSIONARIES " 216 + + ALIENS AWAITING ADMISSION AT ELLIS ISLAND " 230 + + + + +REFERENCES CITED IN FOOTNOTES + + +"AMERICA'S RACE PROBLEMS." A series of discussions on indigenous race +elements and the negro. _American Academy of Political and Social +Science_, Vol. XVIII, No. 1 (1901). + +ATLANTA UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS:-- + + No. 1. "Mortality among Negroes in Cities" (1896). + No. 2. "Social and Physical Condition of Negroes in Cities" (1897). + No. 3. "Some Efforts of Negroes for Social Betterment" (1898). + No. 6. "The Negro Common School" (1901). + No. 7. "The Negro Artisan" (1902). + No. 8. "The Negro Church" (1903). + No. 9. "Notes on Negro Crime" (1904). + No. 10. "A Select Bibliography of the Negro American" (1905). + +BALCH, EMILY GREENE, "Slav Emigration at its Source," _Charities_, 1906. +"Introductory," Jan. 6; "Bohemians," Feb. 3; "Slovaks," March 3, April +7; "Galicia, Austrian Poles, Ruthenians," May 5. + +BLUNTSCHLI, J. K., _The Theory of the State_. New York, 1885. + +BRANDENBURG, BROUGHTON, _Imported Americans_ (1904). Description of trip +by author and wife through southern Italy and Sicily and return by +steerage with immigrants. + +BRINTON, DANIEL G., _Religions of Primitive Peoples_. New York, 1897. + +BUREAU OF LABOR, Seventh Special Report, _The Slums of Baltimore, +Chicago, New York, and Philadelphia_ (1894). Ninth Special Report, _The +Italians in Chicago_ (1897). + +BURGESS, JOHN W., _Reconstruction and the Constitution_, 1866-1876. New +York, 1903. + +BUSHEE, FREDERICK A., "Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston," +_American Economic Association_, 3d Series, Vol. IV, pp. 305-470 (1903). + +CASSON, HERBERT N., _Munsey's Magazine_, "The Jews in America," 34:381; +"The Sons of Old Scotland in America," 34:599; "The Germans in America," +34:694; "The Scandinavians in America," 35:613; "The Welsh in America," +35:749; "The Italians in America," 35:122; "The Dutch in America," +35:238; "The Spanish in America," 35:294. + +COMAN, KATHERINE, "The History of Contract Labor in the Hawaiian +Islands," _American Economic Association_, 3d Series, Vol. IV, No. 3 +(1903). "The Negro as Peasant Farmer," _American Statistical +Association_, June, 1904, pp. 39-54. + +COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, _Annual Reports_, Washington. + +COMMISSIONER-GENERAL OF IMMIGRATION, _Annual Reports_, Washington. + +COMMONS, J. R., _Proportional Representation_. New York, 1907. + +CUTLER, JAMES E., _Lynch Law. An Investigation into the History of +Lynching in the United States_. New York, 1905. + +DE FOREST AND VEILLIER, _The Tenement House Problem_, 2 vols. New York, +1903. + +DU BOIS, W. E. B., _The Philadelphia Negro_. Philadelphia, 1899; _The +Soul of Black Folk._ New York, 1903; "Negroes," Twelfth Census, +_Supplementary Analysis_, pp. 185-275; "The Negro Farmer," pp. 511-579. + +EATON, DORMAN B., _The Civil Service in Great Britain_. New York, 1880. + + +EMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES, Special Consular Reports, Vol. XXX. +Department of Commerce and Labor, 1904. + +_Facts about Immigration._ Reports of Conferences of the Immigration +Department of the National Civic Federation, Sept. 14 and Dec. 12, 1906. +New York, 1907. + +_Federation._ Quarterly Journal of Federation of Churches and Christian +Organizations, New York. Especially June, July, December, 1902, March, +June, October, 1903. Also annual reports and sociological canvasses of +the Federation. + +FISKE, JOHN, _Old Virginia and her Neighbors_, 2 vols. New York, 1897. + +FLEMING, WALTER L., _Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama_. New York, +1897. + +FRANKLIN, F. J., _The Legislative History of Naturalization in the +United States_. Chicago, 1906. + +GROSE, HOWARD B., _Aliens or Americans?_ Forward Mission Study Courses. +New York, 1906. + +HALL, PRESCOTT F., _Immigration and its Effect upon the United States_. +New York, 1906. + +HAMPTON NEGRO CONFERENCE, Annual, 1897-1901. + +HANNA, CHARLES A., _The Scotch-Irish_, 2 vols. New York, 1902. + +HAWAII, REPORTS ON, United States Bureau of Labor, 1st Report, Sen. Doc. +169, 57th Congress, 1st Sess., 13:4231; 2d Report, _Bulletin_ No. 47 +(1903); 3d Report, _Bulletin_ No. 66 (1906). + +HOFFMAN, FREDERICK L., "Race Traits and Tendencies of the American +Negro," _Publications of the American Economic Association_, Vol. XI, +Nos. 1, 2, 3 (1896). + +HUEBNER, GROVER G., "The Americanization of the Immigrant," _American +Academy of Political and Social Science_, May, 1906, p. 191. + +_Hull House Maps and Papers, A Presentation of Nationalities and Wages +in a Congested District of Chicago_, by residents of Hull House. New +York, 1895. + +HUNTER, ROBERT, _Poverty_. New York, 1904. Chapter VI, "The Immigrant." + +_Immigration Laws and Regulations and Chinese Exclusion Laws_, Bureau of +Immigration and Naturalization, Washington. + +IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION LEAGUE, Prescott F. Hall, Secretary, Boston, +Mass. Leaflets. + +INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION, Vol. XV, _Immigration and Education_; Vol. XIX, +_Miscellaneous_ (1901). + +JACKSON, HELEN HUNT, _A Century of Dishonor_. New York, 1881. + +JAPANESE AND KOREAN EXCLUSION LEAGUE, San Francisco. Leaflets. + +JENKS, J. W., _Certain Economic Questions in the English and Dutch +Colonies in the Orient_. War Department, Bureau of Insular Affairs, +1902, Doc. No. 168. + +JEWISH AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL AID SOCIETY, _Annual Reports_. New +York. + +KELLOR, FRANCES A., _Out of Work_. New York, 1904. + +KELSEY, CARL, _The Negro Farmer_. Chicago, 1903. Also _Annals of the +American Academy of Political and Social Science_, January, 1903. + +KING AND OKEY, _Italy To-day_. London, 1901. + +KUCZYNSKI, R., "The Fecundity of the Native and Foreign Born Population +in Massachusetts," _Quarterly Journal of Economics_, November, 1901, +February, 1902. "Die Einwanderungspolitik und die Bevölkerungsfrage der +Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika," _Volkswirthschaftliche Zeitfragen_. +Berlin, 1903. + +LAZARE, BERNARD, _Antisemitism, Its History and Causes_. New York, 1903. + +LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, _Select List of References on the Negro Question +(1903). List of Works relating to the Germans in the United States +(1904). Select List of References on Chinese Immigration (1904). +Fourteenth Amendment_. List of Discussions of Fourteenth and Fifteenth +Amendments with Special Reference to Negro Suffrage (1906). _List of +References on Naturalization (1907)._ + +LODGE, HENRY CABOT, _Historical and Political Essays_. Boston, 1892. + +LORD, TRENOR, AND BARROWS, _The Italian in America_. New York, 1905. +Especially Italians in American agriculture. + +MALLOCK, W. H., _Aristocracy and Evolution_. New York, 1898. + +MARSHALL, ALFRED, _Principles of Economics_. New York, 1891. + +MERRIAM, G. S., _The Negro and the Nation_. New York, 1906. + +MUIRHEAD, JAMES F., _The Land of Contrasts_. London and New York, 1900. + +MÜNSTERBERG, HUGO, _American Traits_. New York, 1902. + +NATURALIZATION, REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE COMMISSION ON. Submitted +Nov. 8, 1905, 59th Cong., 1st Sess., H. R. Doc. 46. + +NEGRO. Series of Articles on the Reconstruction Period, _Atlantic +Monthly_. "The Reconstruction of the Southern States," Woodrow Wilson, +87:1; "The Conditions of the Reconstruction Problem," Hilary A. Herbert, +87:145; "The Freedman's Bureau," W. E. B. Du Bois, 87:354; +"Reconstruction in South Carolina," Daniel H. Chamberlain, 87:473; "The +Ku-Klux Movement," William G. Brown, 87:634; "Washington during +Reconstruction," S. W. McCall, 87:817; "Reconstruction and +Disfranchisement," Editors, 88:31; "New Orleans and Reconstruction," +Albert Phelps, 88:121; "The Southern People during Reconstruction," +Thomas Nelson Page, 88:289; "The Undoing of Reconstruction," William A. +Dunning, 88:437. + +United States Bureau of Labor, _Bulletin_ No. 22, "The Negro in the +Black Belt"; No. 32, "The Negroes of Sandy Spring, Maryland"; No. 35, +"The Negro Landholder of Georgia"; No. 37, "The Negroes of Litwalton, +Virginia"; No. 38, "Negroes of Cinclare Central Factory and Calumet +Plantation, Louisiana"; No. 48, "The Negroes of Xenia, Ohio." + +"NEGROES, SOCIAL INTERESTS OF, IN NORTHERN CITIES." _Charities_, special +number, Oct. 7, 1905. + +RIPLEY, W. Z., _The Races of Europe_. New York, 1899. + +ROOSEVELT, THEODORE, _The Winning of the West_, 4 vols. New York, +1889-1894. + +ROSENBERG, EDWARD, "Chinese Workers in China," "Filipinos as Workmen," +"Labor Conditions in Hawaii," _American Federationist_, August, October, +December, 1905. + +ROSS, EDWARD A., "The Causes of Race Superiority," _Annals of the +American Academy of Political and Social Science_, July, 1901, pp. +67-89. The notable address in which the term "race suicide" was coined. + +ROWE, LEO S., _The United States and Porto Rico_. New York, 1904. + +SEMPLE, ELLEN CHURCHILL, _American History and its Geographic +Conditions_. New York, 1903. "The Anglo-Saxons of the Kentucky +Mountains: A Study in Anthropogeography," _Geographical Journal_, 17:588 +(1901). + +SLAV IN AMERICA, THE, _Charities_, December, 1904. Descriptive articles +by representatives of the several Slav nationalities. + +SMITH, R. M., _Emigration and Immigration_. New York, 1890. +"Assimilation of Nationalities in the United States," _Political Science +Quarterly_, Vol. IX, pp. 426-444, 650-670 (1894). + +STEWART, ETHELBERT, "Influence of Trade Unions on Immigrants," Bureau of +Labor, _Bulletin_ No. 56. + +STONE, A. H., "The Negro in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta," _American +Economic Association_, 3d Series, Vol. III, pp. 235-278 (1901). "The +Mulatto Factor in the Race Problem," _Atlantic Monthly_, May, 1903. "A +Plantation Experiment," _Quarterly Journal Economics_, 19:270 (1905). +"The Italian Cotton Grower: The Negro's Problem," _South Atlantic +Quarterly_, 4:45 (1905). + +SUFFRAGE, SUPPRESSION OF THE. Report of the Committee on Political +Reform of the Union League Club. New York, 1903. + +THOMAS, W. H., _The American Negro_, 1901. + +TILLINGHAST, JOSEPH A., "The Negro in Africa and America," _American +Economic Association_, 3d Series, Vol. III, No. 2 (1902). + +VAN VORST, MRS. JOHN AND MARIE, _The Woman who Toils_. New York, 1903. +Contains introduction by President Roosevelt. + +WALKER, FRANCIS A., _Discussions in Economics and Statistics_, 2 vols., +1897. + +WARD, ROBERT DE C., "Sane Methods of Regulating Immigration," _Review of +Reviews_, March, 1906. + +WARNE, FRANK JULIAN, _The Slav Invasion and the Mine Workers_, 1904. + +WASHINGTON, BOOKER T., _The Future of the American Negro_, 1900. _Up +from Slavery_, 1901. + +WATSON, ELKANAH, _Men and Times of the Revolution_. Edited by his son, +Winslow C. Watson, 2d edition. New York, 1861. + +WELFARE WORK, CONFERENCE ON, National Civic Federation. New York, 1904. + +WHELPLEY, JAMES D., _The Problem of the Immigrant_, 1905. Emigration +laws of European countries and immigration laws of British Colonies and +the United States. + +WOODS, R. A., _The City Wilderness_, 1898. _Americans in Process_, 1902. + + + + + +RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA + + + + +CHAPTER I + +RACE AND DEMOCRACY + + +"All men are created equal." So wrote Thomas Jefferson, and so agreed +with him the delegates from the American colonies. But we must not press +them too closely nor insist on the literal interpretation of their +words. They were not publishing a scientific treatise on human nature +nor describing the physical, intellectual, and moral qualities of +different races and different individuals, but they were bent upon a +practical object in politics. They desired to sustain before the world +the cause of independence by such appeals as they thought would have +effect; and certainly the appeal to the sense of equal rights before God +and the law is the most powerful that can be addressed to the masses of +any people. This is the very essence of American democracy, that one man +should have just as large opportunity as any other to make the most of +himself, to come forward and achieve high standing in any calling to +which he is inclined. To do this the bars of privilege have one by one +been thrown down, the suffrage has been extended to every man, and +public office has been opened to any one who can persuade his +fellow-voters or their representatives to select him. + +But there is another side to the successful operations of democracy. It +is not enough that equal opportunity to participate in making and +enforcing the laws should be vouchsafed to all--it is equally important +that all should be capable of such participation. The individuals, or +the classes, or the races, who through any mental or moral defect are +unable to assert themselves beside other individuals, classes, or races, +and to enforce their right to an equal voice in determining the laws and +conditions which govern all, are just as much deprived of the privilege +as though they were excluded by the constitution. In the case of +individuals, when they sink below the level of joint participation, we +recognize them as belonging to a defective or criminal or pauper class, +and we provide for them, not on the basis of their rights, but on the +basis of charity or punishment. Such classes are exceptions in point of +numbers, and we do not feel that their non-participation is a flaw in +the operations of democratic government. But when a social class or an +entire race is unable to command that share in conducting government to +which the laws entitle it, we recognize at once that democracy as a +practical institution has in so far broken down, and that, under the +forms of democracy, there has developed a class oligarchy or a race +oligarchy. + +Two things, therefore, are necessary for a democratic government such as +that which the American people have set before themselves: equal +opportunities before the law, and equal ability of classes and races to +use those opportunities. If the first is lacking, we have legal +oligarchy; if the second is lacking, we have actual oligarchy disguised +as democracy. + +Now it must be observed that, compared with the first two centuries of +our nation's history, the present generation is somewhat shifting its +ground regarding democracy. While it can never rightly be charged that +our fathers overlooked the inequalities of races and individuals, yet +more than the present generation did they regard with hopefulness the +educational value of democracy. "True enough," they said, "the black man +is not equal to the white man, but once free him from his legal bonds, +open up the schools, the professions, the businesses, and the offices to +those of his number who are most aspiring, and you will find that, as a +race, he will advance favorably in comparison with his white +fellow-citizens." + +It is now nearly forty years since these opportunities and educational +advantages were given to the negro, not only on equal terms, but +actually on terms of preference over the whites, and the fearful +collapse of the experiment is recognized even by its partisans as +something that was inevitable in the nature of the race at that stage +of its development. We shall have reason in the following pages to enter +more fully into this discussion, because the race question in America +has found its most intense expression in the relations between the white +and the negro races, and has there shown itself to be the most +fundamental of all American social and political problems. For it was +this race question that precipitated the Civil War, with the ominous +problems that have followed upon that catastrophe; and it is this same +race problem that now diverts attention from the treatment of those +pressing economic problems of taxation, corporations, trusts, and labor +organizations which themselves originated in the Civil War. The race +problem in the South is only one extreme of the same problem in the +great cities of the North, where popular government, as our forefathers +conceived it, has been displaced by one-man power, and where a profound +distrust of democracy is taking hold upon the educated and +property-holding classes who fashion public opinion. + +This changing attitude toward the educational value of self-government +has induced a more serious study of the nature of democratic +institutions and of the classes and races which are called upon to share +in them. As a people whose earlier hopes have been shocked by the hard +blows of experience, we are beginning to pause and take invoice of the +heterogeneous stocks of humanity that we have admitted to the management +of our great political enterprise. We are trying to look beneath the +surface and to inquire whether there are not factors of heredity and +race more fundamental than those of education and environment. We find +that our democratic theories and forms of government were fashioned by +but one of the many races and peoples which have come within their +practical operation, and that that race, the so-called Anglo-Saxon, +developed them out of its own insular experience unhampered by inroads +of alien stock. When once thus established in England and further +developed in America we find that other races and peoples, accustomed to +despotism and even savagery, and wholly unused to self-government, have +been thrust into the delicate fabric. Like a practical people as we +pride ourselves, we have begun actually to despotize our institutions in +order to control these dissident elements, though still optimistically +holding that we retain the original democracy. The earlier problem was +mainly a political one--how to unite into one self-governing nation a +scattered population with the wide diversity of natural resources, +climates, and interests that mark a country soon to stretch from ocean +to ocean and from the arctics to the subtropics. The problem now is a +social one,--how to unite into one people a congeries of races even more +diverse than the resources and climates from which they draw their +subsistence. That motto, "_E pluribus unum_," which in the past has +guided those who through constitutional debate and civil war worked out +our form of government, must now again be the motto of those who would +work out the more fundamental problem of divergent races. Here is +something deeper than the form of government--it is the essence of +government--for it is that union of the hearts and lives and abilities +of the people which makes government what it really is. + +The conditions necessary for democratic government are not merely the +constitutions and laws which guarantee equality, liberty, and the +pursuit of happiness, for these after all are but paper documents. They +are not merely freedom from foreign power, for the Australian colonies +enjoy the most democratic of all governments, largely because they are +owned by another country which has protected them from foreign and civil +wars. Neither are wealth and prosperity necessary for democracy, for +these may tend to luxury, inequality, and envy. World power, however +glorious and enticing, is not helpful to democracy, for it inclines to +militarism and centralization, as did Rome in the hands of an emperor, +or Venice in the hands of an oligarchy. The true foundations of +democracy are in the character of the people themselves, that is, of the +individuals who constitute the democracy. These are: first, +intelligence--the power to weigh evidence and draw sound conclusions, +based on adequate information; second, manliness, that which the Romans +called virility, and which at bottom is dignified self-respect, +self-control, and that self-assertion and jealousy of encroachment +which marks those who, knowing their rights, dare maintain them; third, +and equally important, the capacity for coöperation, that willingness +and ability to organize, to trust their leaders, to work together for a +common interest and toward a common destiny, a capacity which we +variously designate as patriotism, public spirit, or self-government. +These are the basic qualities which underlie democracy,--intelligence, +manliness, coöperation. If they are lacking, democracy is futile. Here +is the problem of races, the fundamental division of mankind. Race +differences are established in the very blood and physical constitution. +They are most difficult to eradicate, and they yield only to the slow +processes of the centuries. Races may change their religions, their +forms of government, their modes of industry, and their languages, but +underneath all these changes they may continue the physical, mental, and +moral capacities and incapacities which determine the real character of +their religion, government, industry, and literature. Race and heredity +furnish the raw material, education and environment furnish the tools, +with which and by which social institutions are fashioned; and in a +democracy race and heredity are the more decisive, because the very +education and environment which fashion the oncoming generations are +themselves controlled through universal suffrage by the races whom it is +hoped to educate and elevate. + +=Social Classes.=--Closely connected with race division in its effect upon +democracy are the divisions between social classes. In America we are +wont to congratulate ourselves on the absence of classes with their +accompanying hatred and envy. Whether we shall continue thus to commend +ourselves depends partly on what we mean by social classes. If we +compare our situation with an extreme case, that of India,[1] where +social classes have been hardened into rigid castes, we can see the +connection between races and classes. For it is generally held that the +castes of India originated in the conquests by an Aryan race of an +indigenous dark or colored race. And while the clear-cut race +distinctions have been blended through many centuries of amalgamation, +yet it is most apparent that a gradation in the color of the skin +follows the gradation in social position, from the light-colored, +high-caste Brahman to the dark-colored, low-caste Sudra, or outcast +pariah. Race divisions have been forgotten, but in their place religion +has sanctified a division even more rigid than that of race, for it is +sacrilege and defiance of the gods when a man of low caste ventures into +the occupation and calling of the high caste. India's condition now is +what might be conceived for our Southern states a thousand years from +now, when the black man who had not advanced to the lighter shades of +mulatto should be excluded from all professions and skilled trades and +from all public offices, and should be restricted to the coarsest kind +of service as a day laborer or as a field hand on the agricultural +plantations. Confined to this limited occupation, with no incentive to +economize because of no prospect to rise above his station, and with his +numbers increasing, competition would reduce his wages to the lowest +limit consistent with the continuance of his kind. Such a development is +plainly going on at the present day, and we may feel reasonably certain +that we can see in our own South the very historical steps by which in +the forgotten centuries India proceeded to her rigid system of castes. + +There is lacking but one essential to the Indian system; namely, a +religion which ascribes to God himself the inequalities contrived by +man. For the Indian derives the sacred Brahman from the mouth of God, to +be His spokesman on earth, while the poor Sudra comes from the feet of +God, to be forever the servant of all the castes above him. But the +Christian religion has set forth a different theory, which ascribes to +God entire impartiality toward races and individuals. He has "made of +one blood all nations." It is out of this doctrine that the so-called +"self-evident" assertion in the Declaration of Independence originated, +and it is this doctrine which throughout the history of European +civilization has contributed to smoothen out the harsh lines of caste +into the less definite lines of social classes. For it must be +remembered that Europe, like India, is built upon conquest, and the +earlier populations were reduced to the condition of slaves and serfs to +the conquering races. True, there was not the extreme opposition of +white and colored races which distinguished the conquests of India, and +this is also one of the reasons why slavery and serfdom gradually gave +way and races coalesced. Nevertheless, the peasantry of Europe to-day is +in large part the product of serfdom and of that race-subjection which +produced serfdom. Herein we may find the source of that arrogance on the +one hand and subserviency on the other, which so closely relate class +divisions to race divisions. The European peasant, says Professor +Shaler,[2] "knows himself to be by birthright a member of an inferior +class, from which there is practically no chance of escaping.... It is +characteristic of peasants that they have accepted this inferior lot. +For generations they have regarded themselves as separated from their +fellow-citizens of higher estate. They have no large sense of citizenly +motives; they feel no sense of responsibility for any part of the public +life save that which lies within their own narrow round of action." + +How different from the qualities of the typical American citizen whose +forefathers have erected our edifice of representative democracy! It was +not the peasant class of Europe that sought these shores in order to +found a free government. It was the middle class, the merchants and +yeomen, those who in religion and politics were literally "protestants," +and who possessed the intelligence, manliness, and public spirit which +urged them to assert for themselves those inalienable rights which the +church or the state of their time had arrogated to itself. With such a +social class democracy is the only acceptable form of government. They +demand and secure equal opportunities because they are able to rise to +those opportunities. By their own inherent nature they look forward to +and aspire to the highest positions. + +But the peasants of Europe, especially of Southern and Eastern Europe, +have been reduced to the qualities similar to those of an inferior race +that favor despotism and oligarchy rather than democracy. Their only +avenues of escape from their subordinate positions have been through the +army and the church, and these two institutions have drawn from the +peasants their ablest and brightest intellects into a life which +deprived them of offspring. "Among the prosperous folk there have been +ever many classes of occupations tempting the abler youths, while among +the laborers the church has afforded the easiest way to rise, and that +which is most tempting to the intelligent. The result has been, that +while the priesthood and monastic orders have systematically debilitated +all the populations of Catholic Europe, their influence has been most +efficient in destroying talent in the peasant class."[3] + +Thus it is that the peasants of Catholic Europe, who constitute the bulk +of our immigration of the past thirty years, have become almost a +distinct race, drained of those superior qualities which are the +foundation of democratic institutions. If in America our boasted freedom +from the evils of social classes fails to be vindicated in the future, +the reasons will be found in the immigration of races and classes +incompetent to share in our democratic opportunities. Already in the +case of the negro this division has hardened and seems destined to +become more rigid. Therein we must admit at least one exception to our +claim of immunity from social classes. Whether with our public schools, +our stirring politics, our ubiquitous newspapers, our common language, +and our network of transportation, the children of the European +immigrant shall be able to rise to the opportunities unreached by his +parents is the largest and deepest problem now pressing upon us. It +behooves us as a people to enter into the practical study of this +problem, for upon its outcome depends the fate of government of the +people, for the people, and by the people. + +=Races in the United States.=--We use the term "race" in a rather loose +and elastic sense; and indeed we are not culpable in so doing, for the +ethnographers are not agreed upon it. Races have been classified on the +basis of color, on the basis of language, on the basis of supposed +origin, and in these latter days on the basis of the shape of the skull. +For our purpose we need consider only those large and apparent divisions +which have a direct bearing on the problem of assimilation, referring +those who seek the more subtle problems to other books.[4] + +Mankind in general has been divided into three and again into five great +racial stocks, and one of these stocks, the Aryan or Indo-Germanic, is +represented among us by ten or more subdivisions which we also term +races. It need not cause confusion if we use the term "race" not only to +designate these grand divisions which are so far removed by nature one +from another as to render successful amalgamation an open question, but +also to designate those peoples or nationalities which we recognize as +distinct yet related within one of the large divisions. Within the area +controlled by the United States are now to be found representatives of +each of the grand divisions, or primary racial groups, and it would be a +fascinating study to turn from the more practical topics before us and +follow the races of man in their dispersion over the globe and their +final gathering together again under the republic of America. First is +the Aryan, or Indo-Germanic race, which, wherever it originated, sent +its Sanskrit conquerors to the South to plant themselves upon a black +race related to the Africans and the Australians. Its Western branch, +many thousand miles away, made the conquest and settlement of Europe. +Here it sent out many smaller branches, among them the Greeks and +Latins, whose situation on the Mediterranean helped in great measure to +develop brilliant and conquering civilizations, and who, after twenty +centuries of decay and subjection, have within the past twenty years +begun again their westward movement, this time to North and South +America. North of Greece the Aryans became the manifold Slavs, that most +prolific of races. One branch of the Slavs has spread the power of +Russia east and west, and is now crushing the alien Hebrew, Finn, +Lithuanian, and German, and even its fellow-Slav, the Pole, who, to +escape their oppressors, are moving to America. The Russian himself, +with his vast expanse of fertile prairie and steppe, does not migrate +across the water, but drives away those whom he can not or will not +assimilate. From Austria-Hungary, with its medley of races, come other +branches of the Slavs, the Bohemians, Moravians, Slovaks, Slovenians, +Croatians, Roumanians, Poles, and Ruthenians, some of them mistakenly +called Huns, but really oppressed by the true Hun, the Magyar, and by +the German. To the west of the Slavs we find the Teutonic branches of +the Aryans, the Germans, the Scandinavians, and, above all, the English +and Scotch-Irish with their descent from the Angles, Saxons, and Franks, +who have given to America our largest accessions in numbers, besides our +language, our institutions, and forms of government. Then other branches +of the Aryans known as Celtic, including the Irish, Scotch, and Welsh, +formerly driven into the hills and islands by the Teutons, have in these +latter days vied with the English and Germans in adding to our +population. The French, a mixture of Teuton and Celt, a nationality +noted above all others for its stationary population and dislike of +migration, are nevertheless contributing to our numbers by the +circuitous route of Canada, and are sending to us a class of people more +different from the present-day Frenchman in his native home than the +Italian or Portuguese is different from the Frenchman. + +In the fertile valleys of Mesopotamia and the Tigris the Semitic race +had separated from its cousins, the Aryans, and one remarkable branch of +this race, the Hebrews, settling on a diminutive tract of land on the +eastern shore of the Mediterranean and finally driven forth as wanderers +to live upon their wits, exploited by and exploiting in turn every race +of Europe, have ultimately been driven forth to America by the thousands +from Russia and Austria where nearly one-half of their present number is +found. + +Another race, the Mongolian, multiplying on the plains of Asia, sent a +conquering branch to the west, scattering the Slavs and Teutons and +making for itself a permanent wedge in the middle of Europe, whence, +under the name of Magyar, the true Hungarian, the Mongolians come to +America. Going in another direction from this Asiatic home the Mongolian +race has made the circuit of the globe, and the Chinese, Japanese, and +Koreans meet in America their unrecognized cousins of many thousand +years ago. + +Last of the immigrants to be mentioned, but among the earliest in point +of time, is the black race from the slave coast of Africa. This was not +a free and voluntary migration of a people seeking new fields to escape +oppression, but a forced migration designed to relieve the white race of +toil. All of the other races mentioned, the Aryan, the Semitic, the +Mongolian, had in early times met one another and even perhaps had +sprung from the same stock, so that when in America they come together +there is presumably a renewal of former ties. But as far back as we can +trace the history of races in the records of archæology or philology, we +find no traces of affiliation with the black race. The separation by +continents, by climate, by color, and by institutions is the most +diametrical that mankind exhibits anywhere. It is even greater than that +between the Aryan and the native American, improperly called the Indian, +whose presence on the soil which we have seized from him has furnished +us with a peculiar variation in our multiform race problem. For the +Indian tribes, although within our acquired territory, have been treated +as foreign nations, and their reservations have been saved to them under +the forms of treaties. Only recently has there sprung up a policy of +admitting them to citizenship, and therefore the Indian, superior in +some respects to the negro, has not interfered with our experiment in +democracy. + +Last in point of time we have taken into our fold the Malay race, with +some seven million representatives in the Hawaiian and Philippine +Islands. Like the Indian and the negro, this race never in historic +times prior to the discovery of the new world came into close contact +with the white races. With its addition we have completed the round of +all the grand divisions of the human family, and have brought together +for a common experiment in self-government the white, yellow, black, +red, and brown races of the earth. + +=Amalgamation and Assimilation.=--Scarcely another nation in ancient or +modern history can show within compact borders so varied an aggregation. +It is frequently maintained that a nation composed of a mixed stock is +superior in mind and body to one of single and homogeneous stock. But it +must be remembered that amalgamation requires centuries. The English +race is probably as good an example of a mixed race as can be found in +modern history, yet this race, though a mixture of the closely related +primitive Celt, the conquering Teuton, and the Latinized Scandinavian, +did not reach a common language and homogeneity until three hundred +years after the last admixture. We know from modern researches that all +of the races of Europe are mixed in their origin, but we also know that +so much of that mixture as resulted in amalgamation occurred at a time +so remote that it has been ascribed to the Stone Age.[5] The later +inroads have either been but temporary and have left but slight +impression, or they have resulted in a division of territory. Thus the +conquest of Britain by the Teutons and the Normans has not produced +amalgamation so much as it has caused a segregation of the Celts in +Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, and of the Teutons, with their later but +slight infusion of Normans, in England. On the continent of Europe this +segregation has been even more strongly marked. The present +stratification of races and nationalities has followed the upheavals and +inroads of a thousand years introduced by the decline and fall of the +Roman Empire. Two developments have taken place. A conquering race has +reduced a native population in part to subjection and has imposed upon +the natives its laws, customs, and language. In course of time the +subject race becomes a lower social class and slowly assimilates with +the upper classes, producing a homogeneous nationality with a new +evolution of laws, customs, and language. This is the history of four +great nations of Europe,--the French, the German, the English, the +Italian. The other development has been the segregation of a portion of +the conquered race, who having fled their conquerors avoid actual +subjection by escaping to the mountains and islands. Here they preserve +their original purity of stock and language. This is the history of +Austria-Hungary, whose earlier population of Slavs has been scattered +right and left by German and Hun and who now constitute separate +branches and dialects of the unassimilated races. That Austria-Hungary +with its dozen languages should be able to hold together as a "dual +empire" for many years is one of the marvels of history, and is +frequently ascribed to that which is the essence of autocracy, the +personal hold of the emperor. + +The little bundle of republics known as Switzerland is a federation of +French, Germans, and Italians, who retain their languages and have +developed what out of such a conflict of races has elsewhere never been +developed, a high grade of democratic government. Here in historic times +there has been no amalgamation of races or assimilation of languages, +but there has been the distinct advantage of a secluded freedom from +surrounding feudal lords, which naturally led to a loose federation of +independent cantons. It is Switzerland's mountains and not her mixed +races that have promoted her democracy. At the other end of the world +the highest development of democracy is in the colonies of Australasia, +where a homogeneous race, protected from foreign foes, and prohibiting +the immigration of alien races and inferior classes, has worked out +self-government in politics and industry. In the Roman Empire we see the +opposite extreme. At first a limited republic, the extension of +conquests, and the incorporation of alien races led to that +centralization of power in the hands of one man which transformed the +republic into the empire. The British Empire, which to-day covers all +races of the earth, is growingly democratic as regards Englishmen, but +despotic as regards subject races. Taking the empire as a whole, neither +amalgamation nor self-government is within the possibilities of its +constitutional growth. + +In America, on the other hand, we have attempted to unite all races in +one commonwealth and one elective government. We have, indeed, a most +notable advantage compared with other countries where race divisions +have undermined democracy. A single language became dominant from the +time of the earliest permanent settlement, and all subsequent races and +languages must adopt the established medium. This is essential, for it +is not physical amalgamation that unites mankind; it is mental +community. To be great a nation need not be of one blood, it must be of +one mind. Racial inequality and inferiority are fundamental only to the +extent that they prevent mental and moral assimilation. If we think +together, we can act together, and the organ of common thought and +action is common language. Through the prism of this noble instrument of +the human mind all other instruments focus their powers of assimilation +upon the new generations as they come forth from the disunited +immigrants. The public schools, the newspapers, the books, the political +parties, the trade unions, the religious propagandists with their +manifold agencies of universal education, the railroads with their +inducements to our unparalleled mobility of population, are all +dependent upon our common language for their high efficiency. Herein are +we fortunate in our plans for the Americanization of all races within +our borders. We are not content to let the fate of our institutions wait +upon the slow and doubtful processes of blood amalgamation, but are +eager to direct our energies toward the more rapid movements of mental +assimilation. Race and heredity may be beyond our organized control; but +the instrument of a common language is at hand for conscious improvement +through education and social environment. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +COLONIAL RACE ELEMENTS + + +Doubtless the most fascinating topic in the study of races is that of +the great men whom each race has produced. The personal interest +surrounding those who have gained eminence carries us back over each +step of their careers to their childhood, their parents, and their +ancestry.[6] Pride of race adds its zest, and each race has its +eulogists who claim every great man whose family tree reveals even a +single ancestor, male or female, near or remote, of the eulogized race. +Here is a "conflict of jurisdiction," and the student who is without +race prejudice begins to look for causes other than race origin to which +should be ascribed the emergence of greatness. + +Mr. Henry Cabot Lodge[7] attempted, some years ago, to assign to the +different races in America the 14,243 men eminent enough to find a place +in "Appleton's Encyclopedia of American Biography." He prepared a +statistical summary as follows:-- + + EMINENT AMERICANS + + English 10,376 + Scotch-Irish 1,439 + German 659 + Huguenot 589 + Scotch 436 + Dutch 336 + Welsh 159 + Irish 109 + French 85 + Scandinavian 31 + Spanish 7 + Italian 7 + Swiss 5 + Greek 3 + Russian 1 + Polish 1 + ------ + Total 14,243 + +When we inquire into the methods necessarily adopted in preparing a +statistical table of this kind we discover serious limitations. Mr. +Lodge was confined to the paternal line alone, but if, as some +biologists assert, the female is the conservative element which holds to +the type, and the male is the variable element which departs from the +type, then the specific contribution of the race factor would be found +in the maternal line. However, let this dubious point pass. We find that +in American life two hundred years of intermingling has in many if not +in most cases of greatness broken into the continuity of race. True, the +New England and Virginia stock has remained during most of this time of +purely English origin, but the very fact that in Mr. Lodge's tables +Massachusetts has produced 2686 notables, while Virginia, of the same +blood, has produced only 1038, must lead to the suspicion that factors +other than race extraction are the mainspring of greatness. + +It must be remembered that ability is not identical with eminence. +Ability is the product of ancestry and training. Eminence is an accident +of social conditions. The English race was the main contributor to +population during the seventeenth century, and English conquest +determined the form of government, the language, and the opportunities +for individual advancement. During the succeeding century the +Scotch-Irish and the Germans migrated in nearly equal numbers, and their +combined migration was perhaps as great as that of the English in the +seventeenth century. But they were compelled to move to the interior, to +become frontiersmen, to earn their living directly from the soil, and to +leave to their English-sprung predecessors the more prominent +occupations of politics, literature, law, commerce, and the army. The +Germans, who, according to Lodge, "produced fewer men of ability than +any other race in the United States," were further handicapped by their +language and isolation, which continue to this day in the counties of +Pennsylvania where they originally settled. On the other hand, the +Huguenots and the Dutch came in the first century of colonization. They +rapidly merged with the English, lost their language, and hence +contributed their full share of eminence. Finally, the Irish, +Scandinavian and other races, inconspicuous in the galaxy of +notables, did not migrate in numbers until the middle of the nineteenth +century, and, in addition to the restraints of language and poverty, +they found the roads to prominence preoccupied. + + +[Illustration: "RETURN OF THE MAYFLOWER" Painting by Boughton, 1834] + + +Besides the accident of precedence in time, a second factor distinct +from race itself has contributed to the eminence of one race over +another. The Huguenots and the French, according to Lodge's statistics, +show a percentage of ability in proportion to their total immigration +much higher than that of any other race. But the Huguenots were a select +class of people, manufacturers and merchants, perhaps the most +intelligent and enterprising of Frenchmen in the seventeenth century. +Furthermore the direct migration from France to this country has never +included many peasants and wage-earners, but has been limited to the +adventurous and educated. Had the French-Canadians who represent the +peasantry of France been included in these comparisons, the proportion +of French eminence would have been materially reduced. + +The same is true of the English. Although sprung from one race, those +who came to America represented at least two grades of society as widely +apart as two races. The Pilgrims and Puritans of New England were the +yeomen, the merchants, the manufacturers, skilled in industry, often +independent in resources, and well trained in the intellectual +controversies of religion and politics. The Southern planters also +sprang from a class of similar standing, though not so strongly addicted +to intellectual pursuits. Beneath both these classes were the indentured +servants, a few of whom were men of ability forced to pay their passage +by service. But the majority of them were brought to this country +through the advertisements of shipowners and landholders or even +forcibly captured on the streets of cities or transported for crimes and +pauperism. Though all of these classes were of the same race, they were +about as widely divergent as races themselves in point of native ability +and preparatory training. + +The third and most important cause of eminence, apart from ancestry, is +the industrial and legal environment. An agricultural community produces +very few eminent men compared with the number produced where +manufactures and commerce vie with agriculture to attract the youth. A +state of widely diversified industrial interests is likely to create +widely diversified intellectual and moral interests. Complicated +problems of industry and politics stimulate the mind and reflect their +influence in literature, art, education, science, and the learned +professions. Most of all, equal opportunity for all classes and large +prizes for the ambitious and industrious serve to stimulate individuals +of native ability to their highest endeavor. It was the deadening +effects of slavery, creating inequalities among the whites themselves, +that smothered the genius of the Southerner whether Englishman, +Huguenot, or Scotch-Irish, and it was the free institutions of the +North that invited their genius to unfold and blossom. + +These considerations lead us to look with distrust on the claims of +those who find in race ancestry or in race intermixture the reasons for +such eminence as Americans have attained. While the race factor is +decisive when it marks off inferior and primitive races, yet, in +considering those Europeans races which have joined in our civilization, +the important questions are: From what social classes is immigration +drawn? and, Do our social institutions offer free opportunity and high +incentive to the youth of ability? In so far as we get a choice +selection of immigrants, and in so far as we afford them free scope for +their native gifts, so far do they render to our country the services of +genius, talent, and industry. + +=Incentives to Immigration.=--It is the distinctive fact regarding +colonial migration that it was Teutonic in blood and Protestant in +religion. The English, Dutch, Swedes, Germans, and even the +Scotch-Irish, who constituted practically the entire migration, were +less than two thousand years ago one Germanic race in the forests +surrounding the North Sea. The Protestant Reformation, sixteen centuries +later, began among those peoples and found in them its sturdiest +supporters. The doctrines of the Reformation, adapted as they were to +the strong individualism of the Germanic races, prepared the hearts of +men for the doctrines of political liberty and constitutional government +of the succeeding century. The Reformation banished the idea that men +must seek salvation through the intercession of priests and popes, who, +however sacred, are only fellow-men, and set up the idea that each soul +has direct access to God. With the Bible as a guide and his own +conscience as a judge, each man was accountable only to one divine +sovereign. + +From the standpoint of the age this doctrine was too radical. It tended +to break up existing society into sects and factions, and to precipitate +those civil and religious wars which ended in a Catholic or aristocratic +reaction. When this reaction came, the numerous Protestant sects of the +extremer types found themselves the objects of persecution, and nothing +remained but to seek a new land where the heavy hand of repression could +not reach them. Thus America became the home of numberless religious +sects and denominations of these several races. From England came +Congregationalists (the "Pilgrims"), Puritans, Quakers, Baptists; from +Scotland and Ireland came Presbyterians; from Germany came Quakers, +Dunkards, Pietists, Ridge Hermits, Salzburgers, and Moravians. + +It is not to be inferred that religious persecution alone in the early +colonial period caused emigration. In point of numbers commercial +enterprise was probably equally influential. In Holland all religious +sects were welcomed with a liberality far in advance of any other +nation, and at the same time the Dutch people were the most advanced in +the modern pursuits of trade and commerce. The Dutch settlement of New +Amsterdam was therefore a business enterprise, and neither before nor +after the conquest by the British was there any religious obstacle to +the reception of other races and religions. In this respect New York +differed widely from New England, where religious exclusiveness +preserved the English race as a peculiar people until the middle of the +nineteenth century. So diverse were the races in New York, and so +liberal were the opportunities open to all, that Governor Horatio +Seymour was able to say that nine men prominent in its early history +represented the same number of nationalities. Schuyler was of Dutch +descent, Herkimer of German, Jay of French, Livingston of Scotch, +Clinton of Irish, Morris of Welsh, Hoffman of Swedish, while Hamilton +was a West India Englishman and Baron Steuben a Prussian.[8] + +Another colony to which all races and religions were welcomed was +Pennsylvania. William Penn established this colony both as a refuge for +the persecuted Quakers of England and as a real estate venture. He was +the first American to advertise his dominions widely throughout Europe, +offering to sell one hundred acres of land at two English pounds and a +low rental. His advertisements combined humanity and business, for they +called attention to popular government and universal suffrage; equal +rights to all regardless of race or religious belief; trial by jury; +murder and treason the only capital crimes, and reformation, not +retaliation, the object of punishment for other offences. Thus +Pennsylvania, although settled a half century later than the Southern +and Northern colonies, soon exceeded them in population. Penn sent his +agents to Germany and persuaded large numbers of German Quakers and +Pietists to cast their lot in his plantation, so that in twenty years +the Germans numbered nearly one-half the population. Again, in the +beginning of the eighteenth century, when Louis XIV overran the +Palatinate and thousands of Germans fled to England, the English +government encouraged their migration to America. In one year four +thousand of them, the largest single emigration of the colonial period, +embarked for New York, but their treatment was so illiberal that they +moved to Pennsylvania, and thenceforth the German migration sought the +latter colony. These people settled at Germantown, near Philadelphia, +and occupied the counties of Bucks and Montgomery, where they continue +to this day with their peculiar language, the "Pennsylvania Dutch." Not +only William Penn himself, but other landowners in Pennsylvania and also +the shipowners advertised the country in Germany, and thousands of the +poorer sort of Germans were induced to indenture themselves to the +settlers to whom they were auctioned off by the ship captains in payment +for transportation. Probably one-half of all the immigrants of the +colonial period came under this system of postpaid transportation, just +as at the present time nearly two-thirds come on prepaid tickets. It was +in Pennsylvania that the largest portion of the Scotch-Irish settled, +and before the time of the Revolution that colony had become the most +populous and most diversified of all the colonies. It was the only +colony, except Maryland, that tolerated Roman Catholics, and with all +phases of the Christian religion and all branches of the Teutonic and +Celtic races, Pennsylvania set the original type to which all of America +has conformed, that of race intermixture on the basis of religious and +political equality. + +=The Scotch-Irish.=--It has long been recognized that among the most +virile and aggressive people who came to America in colonial times, and +who have contributed a peculiar share to the American character, are the +Scotch-Irish. Their descendants boast of their ancestry and cite long +lists of notables as their coderivatives. Yet until recent years it has +been the misfortune of the Scotch-Irish to have escaped historical +investigation; for American history has been written chiefly in New +England, whose colonial Puritans forbade them in their midst. In fact, +from the earliest settlement, the Scotch-Irish have been pioneers and +men of action. They have contributed to America few writers and artists, +but many generals, politicians, and captains of industry. In literature +they claim two eminent names, Irving and Poe; but in the army, navy, +politics, and business they claim John Paul Jones, Perry, Andrew +Jackson, Winfield Scott, Zachary Taylor, Ulysses S. Grant, Stonewall +Jackson, George B. McClellan, Alexander Hamilton, John C. Calhoun, James +G. Blaine, Jefferson Davis, Thomas Benton, Hendricks, John G. Carlisle, +Mark Hanna, William McKinley, Matthew S. Quay, Andrew Carnegie, John D. +Rockefeller, Horace Greeley, Henry Watterson, and hundreds alike famous +in the more strenuous movements of American life. + +A paradoxical fact regarding the Scotch-Irish is that they are very +little Scotch and much less Irish. That is to say, they do not belong +mainly to the so-called Celtic race, but they are the most composite of +all the people of the British Isles. They are called Scots because they +lived in Scotia, and they are called Irish because they moved to +Ireland. Geography and not ethnology has given them their name. They are +a mixed race through whose veins run the Celtic blood of the primitive +Scot and Pict, the primitive Briton, the primitive Irish, but with a +larger admixture of the later Norwegian, Dane, Saxon, and Angle. How +this amalgamation came about we may learn from the geography of +Scotland. + +The Highlands of Scotland begin at the Grampian Hills and the Lowlands +extend south from this line to the British border, and include the +cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh. The Scotch-Irish came from that +southwestern part of the Lowlands which bulges out toward Ireland north +of the Solway Firth. Over these Lowland counties, bounded by water and +hills on three sides, successive waves of conquest and migration +followed. First the primitive Caledonian or Pict was driven to the +Highlands, which to this day is the Celtic portion of Scotland. The +Briton from the south, pressed on by Roman and then by Teuton, occupied +the country. Then Irish tribes crossed over and gained a permanent hold. +Then the Norwegian sailors came around from the north, and to this day +there are pure Scandinavian types on the adjacent islands. Then the +Saxons and Angles, driven by the Danes and Normans, gained a foothold +from the east, and lastly the Danes themselves added their contingent. +Here in this Lowland pocket of territory, no larger than a good-sized +American county, was compounded for five hundred years this remarkable +amalgam of races. + +A thousand years later, after they had become a united people and had +shown their metal in the trying times of the Reformation, they furnished +the emigrants who displaced the Irish in the north of Ireland. James I, +whom Scotland gave to England, determined to transform Catholic Ireland +into Protestant England, and thereupon confiscated the lands of the +native chiefs in Ulster and bestowed them upon Scottish and English +lords on condition that they settle the territory with tenants from +Scotland and England. This was the "great settlement" of 1610, and from +that time to the present Ulster has been the Protestant stronghold of +Ireland. In 1901 the population of Ulster was 44 per cent Catholic, 23 +per cent Episcopalian, and 27 per cent Presbyterian, an ecclesiastical +division corresponding almost exactly to the racial division of Irish, +English, and Scotch. During the whole of the seventeenth century--the +first century of this occupation--the Catholics and Episcopalians were +in a much smaller proportion than these figures show for the present +time, and the relative increase in Irish and Episcopalians during the +eighteenth century was closely connected with the migration of the +Scotch to America. + +For one hundred years the Scotch multiplied in Ulster and had no +dealings with the remnants of the Irish, whom they crowded into the +barren hills and whom they treated like savages. They retained their +purity of race, and although when they came to America they called +themselves Irish and were known as Irish wherever they settled, yet they +had no Irish blood except that which entered into their composition +through the Irish migration to Scotia fifteen hundred years before. + +Yet, though they despised the Irish, they could not escape the unhappy +fate of Ireland. The first blow came in 1698, nearly one hundred years +after their settlement. English manufacturers complained of Irish +competition, and the Irish Parliament, a tool of the British crown, +passed an act totally forbidding the exportation of Irish woollens, and +another act forbidding the exportation of Irish wool to any country +save England. Their slowly growing linen industry was likewise +discriminated against in later years. Presbyterian Ulster had been the +industrial centre of Ireland, and these acts nearly destroyed her +industry. Next Queen Anne's Parliament adopted penal laws directed +against Roman Catholics and Presbyterians, and the Test Act, which +compelled public officials to take the communion of the Established +Church, deprived the entire Scotch population of self-government. +Nevertheless they were compelled to pay tithes to support the +Established Church to which they were opposed. Lastly, the hundred-year +leases of the tenants began to run out, and the landlords offered +renewals to the highest bidders on short leases. Here the +poverty-stricken Irish gained an unhappy revenge on the Scotch who had +displaced them of their ancestral lands, for their low standard of +living enabled them to offer rack-rents far above what the Scotch could +afford. No longer did religion, race pride, or gratitude have a part in +holding Ulster to Protestant supremacy. The greed of absentee landlords +began to have full sway, and in the resulting struggle for livelihood, +hopeless poverty was fitter to survive than ambitious thrift. + +The Scotch tenants, their hearts bitter against England and aristocracy, +now sought a country where they might have free land and +self-government. In 1718 it is stated that 4200 of them left for +America. After the famine of 1740 there were 12,000 who left annually. +Altogether, in the half century just preceding the American Revolution, +200,000[9] persons, or one-third of the Protestant population of Ulster, +are said to have emigrated, and the majority came to America. This was +by far the largest contribution of any race to the population of America +during the eighteenth century, and the injustice they suffered at the +hands of England made them among the most determined and effective +recruits to the armies that won our independence. + +Before the Scotch-Irish moved to America the Atlantic coast line had +been well occupied. Consequently, in order to obtain land for +themselves, they were forced to go to the interior and to become +frontiersmen. They found in Massachusetts a state church to which they +must conform in order to be admitted to citizenship. But what they had +left Ireland to escape they would not consent in a new country to do. +The Puritans were willing that they should occupy the frontier as a +buffer against the Indians, and so they took up lands in New Hampshire, +Vermont, Western Massachusetts, and Maine. Only a few congregations, +however, settled in New England--the bulk of the immigrants entered by +way of Philadelphia and Baltimore and went to the interior of +Pennsylvania surrounding and south of Harrisburg. They spread through +the Shenandoah valley and in the foothill regions of Virginia and +North and South Carolina. Gradually, they pushed farther west, across +the mountains into Western Pennsylvania about Pittsburg, and into Ohio, +Kentucky, and Tennessee. In all of these regions they fought the +Indians, protected the older inhabitants from inroads, and developed +those pioneer qualities which for one hundred years have characterized +the "winning of the West." + + +[Illustration: ANGLO-SAXON MOUNTAINEERS, BEREA COLLEGE, KENTUCKY] + + +The Scotch-Irish occupied a peculiar place in the new world. More than +any other race they served as the amalgam to produce, out of divergent +races, a new race, the American. The Puritans of New England, the +Quakers of Pennsylvania, the Cavaliers of Virginia, were as radically +different as peoples of different races, and they were separated from +each other in their own exclusive communities. The Germans were +localized in Pennsylvania and Maryland, the Dutch in New York, but the +Scotch-Irish "alone of the various races in America were present in +sufficient numbers in all of the colonies to make their influence count; +and they alone of all the races had one uniform religion; had +experienced together the persecutions by state and church which had +deprived them at home of their civil and religious liberties; and were +the common heirs to those principles of freedom and democracy which had +been developed in Scotland as nowhere else. At the time of the American +Revolution there were ... in all above five hundred settlements +scattered over practically all the American colonies."[10] Trained as +they were in the representative democracy of the Scottish kirk, thrown +on their own resources in the wilderness, mingling with the pioneers of +many other races, they took the lead in developing that Western type +which in politics and industry became ultimately the American type; yet +they retained their original character, and the American to-day is more +at home in Glasgow than in London. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE NEGRO + + +Although the negro races of Africa extend across the continent and from +the Sudan to Cape Colony, yet the races which yielded the largest supply +of slaves for America were confined to a narrow stretch of the Atlantic +coast near the equator. For nearly two thousand miles from Cape Verde +the coast of Africa runs southeast and easterly, and then for another +thousand miles it runs to the south, forming the Gulf of Guinea, and +from a belt of land along this coast practically all the negro +immigrants to America have come. Here several large rivers, the Senegal, +the Gambia, the Niger, and the Congo--furnished harbors for slave ships +and routes for slave traders from the interior. Two circumstances, the +climate and the luxuriant vegetation, render this region hostile to +continuous exertion. The torrid heat and the excessive humidity weaken +the will and exterminate those who are too strenuous; but this same heat +and humidity, with the fertile soil, produce unparalleled crops of +bananas, yams, and grains. Thus nature conspires to produce a race +indolent, improvident, and contented. Seventy-five per cent of the +deaths are said to be executions for supposed witchcraft, which has +killed more men and women than the slave trade. Formerly cannibalism +prevailed, but it has now been largely stamped out by European +governments. The native governments are tribal, and the chiefs sustain +themselves by their physical prowess and the help of priests and +medicine men. Property is mainly in women and slaves, and inheritance is +through the female, except among the nobility of Dahomey, where +primogeniture rules. Written laws and records are unknown. The people +are unstable, indifferent to suffering, and "easily aroused to ferocity +by the sight of blood or under great fear." They exhibit aversion to +silence and solitude, love of rhythm, excitability, and lack of reserve. +All travellers speak of their impulsiveness, strong sexual passion, and +lack of will power.[11] + +Such, in brief, were the land and the people that furnished one-sixth of +our total population and two-fifths of our Southern population. In +shifting such a people from the torrid climate of equatorial Africa to +the temperate regions of America, and from an environment of savagery to +one of civilization, changes more momentous than those of any other +migration have occurred. First, it was only the strongest physical +specimens who survived the horrible tests of the slave catcher and the +slave ship. Slavery, too, as a system, could use to best advantage those +who were docile and hardy, and not those who were independent and +feeble. Just as in the many thousand years of man's domestication of +animals, the breechy cow and the balky horse have been almost eliminated +by artificial selection, so slavery tended to transform the savage by +eliminating those who were self-willed, ambitious, and possessed of +individual initiative. Other races of immigrants, by contact with our +institutions, have been civilized--the negro has been only domesticated. +Democratic civilization offers an outlet for those who are morally and +intellectually vigorous enough to break away from the stolid mass of +their fellows; domestication dreads and suppresses them as dangerous +rebels. The very qualities of intelligence and manliness which are +essential for citizenship in a democracy were systematically expunged +from the negro race through two hundred years of slavery. And then, by +the cataclysm of a war in which it took no part, this race, after many +thousand years of savagery and two centuries of slavery, was suddenly +let loose into the liberty of citizenship and the electoral suffrage. +The world never before had seen such a triumph of dogmatism and +partizanship. It was dogmatism, because a theory of abstract equality +and inalienable rights of man took the place of education and the slow +evolution of moral character. It was partisanship, because a political +party, taking advantage of its triumph in civil war, sought to +perpetuate itself through the votes of its helpless beneficiaries. No +wonder that this fateful alliance of doctrinaires and partizans brought +fateful results, and that, after a generation of anarchy and race +hatred, the more fundamental task of education has only just begun. + +True, there was a secondary object in view in granting the freedmen +suffrage. The thirteenth amendment, adopted in 1865, legalized and +extended the proclamation of emancipation, which had been a war measure. +But this was followed by servile and penal laws in all the Southern +states that looked like peonage in place of slavery.[12] Congress then +submitted the fourteenth amendment, which was adopted in 1867, creating +a new grade of citizenship--citizenship of the nation--and prohibiting +any state from depriving "any person of life, liberty, or property +without the due process of law" and from denying to any person "the +equal protection of the laws." But this was not enough. The next step +was the fifteenth amendment adopted in 1869, prohibiting any state from +denying the suffrage to citizens of the United States "on account of +race, color, or previous condition of servitude." Thus equality before +the law was to be protected by equality in making the law. This object +was a worthy one, and it added the appearance of logical necessity to +the theories of doctrinaires and the schemes of partisans. But it failed +because based on a wrong theory of the ballot. Suffrage means +self-government. Self-government means intelligence, self-control, and +capacity for coöperation. If these are lacking, the ballot only makes +way for the "boss," the corruptionist, or the oligarchy. The suffrage +must be earned, not merely conferred, if it is to be an instrument of +self-protection. + +But it is the peculiar fate of race problems that they carry contestants +to bitter extremes and afford no field for constructive compromise. +Could the nation have adopted Lincoln's project of a hundred years, or +even thirty years, of gradual emancipation, it might have avoided both +the evils of war and the fallacies of self-government. But the spirit of +race aggrandisement that precipitated the one rendered the other +inevitable. With the negro suddenly made free by conquest, each fatal +step in reconstruction was forced by the one that preceded. The North, +the South, and the negro were placed in an impossible situation, and a +nation which dreaded negro suffrage in 1868[13] adopted it in 1869. + +For eight years the government of the Southern states was in the hands +of the negroes. The result of turning the states over to ignorant and +untried voters was an enormous increase of debt without corresponding +public improvements or public enterprises. Even the negro governments +themselves began to repudiate these debts and they were almost wholly +repudiated by the whites after returning to power. + +It is not necessary to dwell upon the methods by which the white voters +regained and kept control of the states. Admittedly it was through +intimidation, murder, ballot-box "stuffing," and false counting. The +negro vote has almost disappeared, and in more recent years that which +was accomplished through violence is perpetuated through law. +Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, and +Virginia have adopted so-called "educational" tests with such adroit +exceptions that white illiterates may vote, but negroes, whether +literate or illiterate, may be excluded from voting. As stated by a +prominent white Virginian, "the negro can vote if he has $300, or if he +is a veteran of the Federal or Confederate armies, or if he is a +profound constitutional lawyer." The fifteenth amendment, by decisions +of the United States Supreme Court, has been rendered inoperative, and +the fourteenth amendment, without helping the negro, for whom it was +designed,[14] has raised up government by private corporations which +never had been thought of as needing an amendment. With these decisions +it may be taken for granted that the negro will not again in the near +future enjoy the privilege of a free ballot. + +This is a situation in which the North is as deeply interested as the +South. The South, during the period of slavery, through the privilege of +counting three-fifths of the slaves, enjoyed a predominance in Congress +and in presidential elections beyond its proportion of white voters. The +South now enjoys a greater privilege because it counts all the negroes. +The fourteenth amendment expressly provides for a situation like this. +It says:-- + +"When the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for +president and vice-president of the United States, representatives in +Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a state, or the members +of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of +such state, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United +States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or +other crime, the basis of representation shall be reduced in the +proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the +whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such state." + +Whether it will be possible under our form of government to carry out +this provision of the fourteenth amendment may be doubted, but that it +is fast becoming a question of live interest is certain. The educational +test is a rational test, but it is rational only when the state makes an +honest and diligent effort to equip every man to pass the test. The +former slave states spend $2.21 per child for educating the negroes, and +$4.92 per child for educating the whites.[15] The great lesson already +learned is that we must "begin over again" the preparation of the negro +for citizenship. This time the work will begin at the bottom by +educating the negro for the ballot, instead of beginning at the top by +giving him the ballot before he knows what it should do for him. What +shall be the nature of this education? + +=Education and Self-help.=--We have argued that democracy must be based +upon intelligence, manliness, and coöperation. How can these qualities +be produced in a race just emerged from slavery? + +Intelligence is more than books and letters--it is knowledge of the +forces of nature and ingenuity enough to use them for human service. The +negro is generally acknowledged to be lacking in "the mechanical idea." +In Africa he hardly knows the simplest mechanical principles. In America +the brightest of the negroes were trained during slavery by their +masters in the handicrafts, such as carpentry, shoemaking, spinning, +weaving, blacksmithing, tailoring, and so on. A plantation became a +self-supporting unit under the oversight and discipline of the whites. +But the work of the negro artisans was careless and inefficient. The +negro blacksmith fastened shoes to the plantation mule, but the horses +were taken to the white blacksmith in town. Since emancipation the young +generation has not learned the mechanical trades to the same extent as +the slave generations. Moreover, as machinery supplants tools and +factories supplant handicrafts, the negro is left still farther behind. +"White men," says a negro speaker,[16] "are bringing science and art +into menial occupations and lifting them beyond our reach. In my boyhood +the walls and ceilings were whitewashed each spring by colored men; now +this is done by a white man managing a steam carpet-cleaning works. +Then the laundry work was done by negroes; now they are with difficulty +able to manage the new labor-saving machinery." Even in the +non-mechanical occupations the negro is losing where he once had a +monopoly. In Chicago "there is now scarcely a negro barber in the +business district. Nearly all the janitor work in the large buildings +has been taken away from them by the Swedes. White men and women as +waiters have supplanted colored men in nearly all the first-class hotels +and restaurants. Practically all of the shoe polishing is now done by +Greeks."[17] + +Individual negroes have made great progress, but what we need to know is +whether the masses of the negroes have advanced. The investigators of +Atlanta University, in summarizing the reports of three hundred and +forty-four employers of negroes, conclude: "There are a large number of +negro mechanics all over the land, but especially in the South. Some of +these are progressive, efficient workmen. More are careless, slovenly, +and ill-trained. There are signs of lethargy among these artisans, and +work is slipping from them in some places; in others they are awakening +and seizing the opportunities of the new industrial South."[18] + +The prejudice of white workmen has undoubtedly played a part in +excluding the negro from mechanical trades, but the testimony of large +employers, who have no race prejudice where profits can be made, also +shows that low-priced negro labor often costs more than high-priced +white labor. The iron and steel mills of Alabama have no advantage in +labor cost over mills of Pennsylvania and Ohio. + +The foundation of intelligence for the modern workingman is his +understanding of mechanics. Not until he learns through manual and +technical training to handle the forces of nature can the workingman +rise to positions of responsibility and independence. This is as +important in agricultural labor, to which the negro is largely +restricted, as in manufactures. Intelligence in mechanics leads to +intelligence in economics and politics, and the higher wages of +mechanical intelligence furnish the resources by which the workman can +demand and secure his political and economic rights. + +The second requisite of democracy is independence and manliness. These +are moral qualities based on will power and steadfastness in pursuit of +a worthy object. But these qualities are not produced merely by +exhortation and religious revivals. They have a more prosaic and secular +foundation. History shows that no class or nation has risen to +independence without first accumulating property. However much we +disparage the qualities of greed and selfishness which the rush for +wealth has made obnoxious, we must acknowledge that the solid basis of +the virtues is thrift. The improvidence of the negro is notorious. His +neglect of his horse, his mule, his machinery, his eagerness to spend +his earnings on finery, his reckless purchase of watermelons, chickens, +and garden stuff, when he might easily grow them on his own patch of +ground,--these and many other incidents of improvidence explain the +constant dependence of the negro upon his employer and his creditor. +There are, of course, notable exceptions where negroes have accumulated +property through diligent attention and careful oversight.[19] These are +all the more notable when it is remembered that the education of the +negro has directed his energies to the honors of the learned professions +rather than to the commonplace virtues of ownership, and that one great +practical experiment in thrift--the Freedman's Bank--went down through +dishonesty and incapacity. With the more recent development of the +remarkable institutions of Hampton and Tuskegee and their emphasis on +manual training and property accumulation, it is to be expected that +these basic qualities of intelligence and independence will receive +practical and direct encouragement. + +Coöperation is the third and capital equipment for attaining the rights +of citizenship. There are two forms of coöperation--a lower and a +higher. The lower is that of the chief or the boss who marshals his +ignorant followers through fear or spoils. The higher is that of +self-government where those who join together do so through their own +intelligence and mutual confidence. In the lower form there are +personal jealousies and factional contests which prevent united action +under elected leaders. Negro bosses and foremen are more despotic than +white bosses. The Colored Farmers' Alliance depended upon a white man +for leadership. The white "carpet-baggers" organized the negro vote in +the reconstruction period. The negro was in this low stage of +coöperation because he was jealous or distrustful of his fellow-negro +and could rally together only under the banner of a leader whom he could +not depose. With the growth of intelligence and moral character there +comes a deepening sense of the need of organization as well as leaders +of their own race whom they can trust. The most hopeful indication of +progress for the negroes is the large number of voluntary religious, +beneficial, and insurance societies whose membership is limited to those +of their own color.[20] + +Liberty has always come through organization. The free cities of Europe +were simply the guilds of peasants and merchants who organized to +protect themselves against the feudal lords and bishops. Latterly they +gained a voice in parliaments as the "third estate" and established our +modern representative democracy. The modern trade unions have become a +power far in excess of their numbers through the capacity of the workman +to organize. With the modest beginnings of self-organization among +negroes the way is opening for their more effective participation in +the higher opportunities of our civilization. + + +[Illustration: COUNTIES HAVING A LARGER PROPORTION OF NEGROES IN 1900 +THAN IN 1880] + + +The negro trade unionist has not as yet shown the organizing capacity of +other races. Only among the mine workers, the longshoremen, and +bricklayers are they to be found in considerable numbers, although the +carpenters have negro organizers. But in most of these cases the negro +is being organized by the white man not so much for his own protection +as for the protection of the white workman. If the negro is brought to +the position of refusing to work for lower wages than the white man he +has taken the most difficult step in organization; for the labor union +requires, more than any other economic or business association in modern +life, reliance upon the steadfastness of one's fellows. Unfortunately, +when the negro demands the same wages as white men, his industrial +inferiority leads the employer to take white men in his place, and here +again we see how fundamental is manual and technical intelligence as a +basis for other progress.[21] + +It must not be inferred because we have emphasized these qualities of +intelligence--manliness and coöperation as preparatory to political +rights--that the negro race should be deprived of the suffrage until +such time as its members acquire these qualities. Many individuals have +already acquired them. To exclude such individuals from the suffrage is +to shut the door of hope to all. An honest educational test honestly +enforced on both whites and blacks is the simplest rough-and-ready +method for measuring the progress of individuals in these qualities of +citizenship. There is no problem before the American people more vital +to democratic institutions than that of keeping the suffrage open to the +negro and at the same time preparing the negro to profit by the +suffrage. + +Neither should the negro be excluded from the higher education. +Leadership is just as necessary in a democracy as in a tribe. +Self-government is not suppression of leaders but coöperation with them. +The true leader is one who knows his followers because he has suffered +with them, but who can point the way out and inspire them with +confidence. He feels what they feel, but can state what they cannot +express. He is their spokesman, defender, and organizer. Not a social +class nor a struggling race can reach equality with other classes and +races until its leaders can meet theirs on equal terms. It cannot depend +on others, but must raise up leaders from its own ranks. This is the +problem of higher education--not that scholastic education that ends in +itself, but that broad education that equips for higher usefulness. If +those individuals who are competent to become lawyers, physicians, +teachers, preachers, organizers, guides, innovators, experimenters, are +prevented from getting the right education, then there is little hope +for progress among the race as a whole, in the intelligence, manliness, +and coöperation needed for self-government. + +=Growth of Negro Population.=--After the census of 1880 it was confidently +asserted that the negro population was increasing more rapidly than the +white population. But these assertions, since the census of 1890, have +disappeared. It then became apparent that the supposed increase from +1870 to 1880 was based on a defective count in 1870, the first census +after emancipation. In reality the negro element, including mulattoes, +during the one hundred and ten years of census taking, has steadily +declined in proportion to the white element. Although negroes in +absolute numbers have increased from 757,000 in 1790 to 4,442,000 in +1860, and 8,834,000 in 1900, yet in 1790 they were one-fifth of the +total population; in 1860 they were one-seventh and in 1900 only +one-ninth. + +It is naturally suggested that this relative decrease in negro +population has been owing to the large immigration of whites, but the +inference is unwarranted. In the Southern states the foreign element has +increased less rapidly than the native white element, yet it is in the +Southern states that the negro is most clearly falling behind. In the +twenty years from 1880 to 1900 the whites in eighteen Southern states +without the aid of foreign immigration increased 57 per cent and the +negroes only 33 per cent.[22] In only six Southern states, West +Virginia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, have +the negroes, during the past ten years, increased more rapidly than the +whites, and in only three of these states, Alabama, Mississippi, and +Arkansas, was the relative increase significant. In but two states, +South Carolina and Mississippi, does the negro element predominate, and +in another state, Louisiana, a majority were negroes in 1890, but a +majority were whites in 1900. "At the beginning of the nineteenth +century the Southern negroes were increasing much faster than the +Southern whites. At the end of it they were increasing only about +three-fifths as fast."[23] + +This redistribution of negroes is an interesting and significant fact +regarding the race and has a bearing on its future. Two movements are +taking place, first to the fertile bottom lands of the Southern states, +second to the cities, both North and South. Mr. Carl Kelsey has shown +this movement to the lowlands in an interesting way.[24] He has prepared +a geological map of Alabama, which with Mississippi has received the +largest accession of negroes, and has shown the density of negro +population according to the character of the soil. In this map it +appears that the prairie and valley regions contain a proportion of 50 +per cent to 90 per cent negroes, while the sand hill and pine levels +contain only 10 per cent to 50 per cent, and the piedmont or foothill +region less than 10 per cent. A similar segregation is found in other +Southern states, especially the alluvial districts of Mississippi and +Arkansas. In these fertile sections toward which the negroes gravitate, +the crops are enormous, and Mr. Kelsey points out a curious +misconception in the census summary, wherein the inference is drawn that +negroes are better farmers than whites because they raise larger crops. +"No wonder the negroes' crops are larger," when the whites farm the hill +country and the negroes till the delta, which "will raise twice as much +cotton per acre as the hills." Furthermore the negro, whether tenant or +owner, is under the close supervision of a white landlord or creditor, +who in self-protection keeps control of him, whereas the white farmer is +left to succeed or fail without expert guidance. + +The migration of negroes to the cities is extremely significant. In ten +Southern states the proportion of the colored population was almost +exactly the same in 1890 as it had been in 1860,--namely, 36 per +cent,--yet in sixteen cities of those states, as shown by Mr. +Hoffman,[25] the colored proportion increased from 19 per cent in 1860 +to 29 per cent in 1890. This relative increase, however, did not +continue after 1890, for, according to the census of 1900, the +proportion of negroes in those cities was still 29 per cent. During the +past decade the negroes have increased relatively faster in Northern +cities. The white population of Chicago increased threefold from 1880 to +1900, and the colored population fivefold. The white population of +Philadelphia during the same period increased 50 per cent and the +colored population 100 per cent. In the thirty-eight largest cities of +the country the negro population in ten years increased 38 per cent and +the white population, including foreign immigration, increased 33 per +cent. In thirty Northern and border cities during the past census decade +the negroes gained 167,000, and in twenty Southern cities they gained +80,000.[26] + +The Southern whites also are moving from the South, and in larger +proportions than the negroes, though the movement of both is small. In +1900, 7 per cent of the whites of Southern birth lived in the North and +West and only 4.3 per cent of the negroes of Southern birth. But the +negroes who go North go to the cities, and the whites to the country. +Three-fifths (58 per cent) of these northbound negroes moved to the +larger cities and only one-fourth (26 per cent) of the northbound +whites.[27] + +The accompanying map, derived from the census of 1900,[28] shows clearly +both of these movements of negro population. The shaded areas indicate +the counties where negroes formed a larger proportion of the population +in 1900 than they did twenty years earlier, in 1880. Here can be seen +the movement to the low and fertile lands of the South and the cities of +the North and South. There are but two areas in California and Colorado, +not included on the map, where the population of negroes has increased, +and one of these contains the city of Los Angeles. + +Were the negroes in the cities to scatter through all the sections, the +predominating numbers of the white element might have an elevating +influence, but, instead, the negroes congregate in the poorer wards, +where both poverty and vice prevail. Hoffman has shown that two-thirds +of the negroes in Chicago live in three wards, which contain all the +houses of ill-fame in that part of the city. The same is true of +Philadelphia, Boston, and Cincinnati.[29] In these sections negro +prostitution has become an established institution, catering to the +Italian and other lower grades of immigrants, and supporting in idleness +many negro men as solicitors. + +We have seen that the negro population has not kept pace with the native +white population. The reason is found in the smaller excess of births +over deaths. Statistics of births are almost entirely lacking in the +United States. Statistics of deaths are complete for only portions of +Northern states and a few Southern cities, containing, in 1900, in all, +27,500,000 whites and 1,180,000 negroes. Of this number, 20,500,000 +whites and 1,100,000 negroes lived in cities, so that the showing which +the census is able to give is mainly for cities North and South and for +rural sections only in the North.[30] It appears that for every 1000 +colored persons living in these cities the deaths in 1900 were 31.1, +while for every 1000 white persons the deaths were only 17.9. That is to +say, the colored death-rate was 73 per cent greater than the white +death-rate. + +In the rural districts there was much less difference. The colored +death-rate was 19.1 and the white death-rate 15.3, a colored excess of +25 per cent. + +=Morals and Environment.=--In explaining the excessive colored mortality +there are two classes of opinions. One explains it by social conditions, +the other by race traits. The one points to environment, the other to +moral character. The one is socialistic, the other individualistic. +These different views exist among colored people themselves, and one of +the encouraging signs is the scientific and candid interest in the +subject taken by them under the leadership of Atlanta University. A +colored physician who takes the first view states his case +forcibly:[31]-- + +"Is it any wonder that we die faster than our white brother when he gets +the first and best attention, while we are neglected on all sides? They +have the best wards and treatment at the hospital, while we must take it +second hand or not at all; they have all the homes for the poor and +friendless, we have none; they have a home for fallen women, we have +none; they have the public libraries where they can get and read books +on hygiene and other subjects pertaining to health, we have no such +privileges; they have the gymnasiums where they can go and develop +themselves physically, we have not; they have all the parks where they +and their children can go in the hot summer days and breathe the pure, +cool air, but for fear we might catch a breath of that air and live, +they put up large signs, which read thus, 'For white people only'; they +live in the best homes, while we live in humble ones; they live in the +cleanest and healthiest parts of the city, while we live in the +sickliest and filthiest parts of the city; the streets on which they +live are cleaned once and twice a day, the streets on which we live are +not cleaned once a month, and some not at all; besides, they have plenty +of money with which they can get any physician they wish, any medicine +they need, and travel for their health when necessary; all of these +blessings we are deprived of. Now, my friends, in the face of all these +disadvantages, do you not think we are doing well to stay here as long +as we do?" + +Another colored writer, less eloquent, but not less accurate, in +summarizing the statistics collected under the guidance of Atlanta +University concludes:[32]-- + +"Overcrowding in tenements and houses occupied by colored people does +not exist to any great extent, and is less than was supposed. + +"In comparison with white women, an excess of colored women support +their families, or contribute to the family support, by occupation which +takes them much of their time from home, to the neglect of their +children. + +"Environment and the sanitary condition of houses are not chiefly +responsible for the excessive mortality among colored people. + +"Ignorance and disregard of the laws of health are responsible for a +large proportion of this excessive mortality." + +It is pointed out by these colored students and by many others that the +excessive mortality of colored people is owing to pulmonary consumption, +scrofula, and syphilis, all of which are constitutional; and to infant +mortality due also to constitutional and congenital disease. The census +of 1900 reports for a portion of the Northern states that for every 1000 +white children under five years of age there were 49.7 deaths in one +year, and for every 1000 colored children under five years there were +118.5 deaths, an excess of negro infant mortality of 137 per cent.[33] +The census also reports that negro deaths in cities owing to consumption +are proportionately 2.8 times as many as white deaths,[34] deaths owing +to pneumonia are 89 per cent greater,[35] while deaths owing to +contagious causes, such as measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria,[36] are +but slightly greater or actually less than the white deaths in +proportion to population. In the city of Charleston, where mortality +statistics of negroes were compiled before the war, it has been shown +that from 1822 to 1848 the colored death-rate from consumption was a +trifle less than the white, but since 1865 the white mortality from that +cause has decreased 38 per cent, while the negro mortality has increased +70 per cent.[37] The death-rates from consumption in Charleston in 1900 +were 189.8 for 100,000 whites and 647.7 for 100,000 negroes, an excess +of 241 per cent. The lowest negro death-rate reported from consumption +in cities is 378.5 for Memphis, but in that city the white death-rate +from the same cause is 169.9, a negro excess of 123 per cent.[38] + +At a conference held at Atlanta University, Professor Harris, of Fisk +University, concluded:[39]-- + +"I have now covered the ground to which our excessive death-rate is +mainly due; namely, pulmonary diseases, especially consumption and +pneumonia, scrofula, venereal diseases, and infant mortality. If we +eliminate these diseases, our excessive death-rate will be a thing of +the past.... While I do not depreciate sanitary regulations and a +knowledge of hygienic laws, I am convinced that a _sine qua non_ of a +change for the better in the negro's physical condition is a higher +social morality.... From the health reports of all our large Southern +cities we learn that a considerable amount of our infant mortality is +due to inanition, infantile debility, and infantile marasmus. Now what +is the case in regard to these diseases? The fact is that they are not +diseases at all, but merely the names of symptoms due to enfeebled +constitutions and congenital diseases, inherited from parents suffering +from the effects of sexual immorality and debauchery.... It is true that +much of the moral laxity which exists among us to-day arose out of +slavery.... But to explain it is not to excuse it. It is no longer our +misfortune as it was before the war; it is our sin, the wages of which +is our excessive number of deaths.... The presence of tubercular and +scrofulous diseases, consumption, syphilis, and leprosy, has caused the +weaker nations of the earth to succumb before the rising tide of +Christian civilization.... The history of nations teaches us that +neither war, nor famine, nor pestilence, exterminates them so completely +as do sexual vices." + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +NINETEENTH CENTURY ADDITIONS + + +It is only since the year 1820 that the government of the United States +has kept a record of alien passengers arriving in this country. For +several years following 1820 the immigration was so slight as to be +almost negligible. It was not until 1820 that there were more than +20,000 arrivals. So accustomed have we become to large figures of +immigration that nothing less than 100,000 seems worth noting, and this +figure was not reached until 1842. Since then there have been only four +years of less than 100,000, and two of these were years of the Civil +War. + +A striking fact which first attracts the attention of one who examines +the statistics since 1840 is the close sympathy between immigration and +the industrial prosperity and depression of this country. Indeed, so +close is the connection that many who comment on the matter have held +that immigration during the past century has been strictly an industrial +or economic phenomenon, depending on the opportunities in this country, +and that the religious and political causes which stimulated earlier +immigration no longer hold good. + +A curved line on the accompanying chart has been drawn so as to show +the relative numbers of immigrants since 1800, and another line shows +the movement of imports of merchandise per capita of the population. The +latter, except for tariff changes, is a fair index of the cycles of +prosperity and depression. By following these two lines on the chart we +notice the coincidence is close, except for a few years prior to the +Civil War. Both movements reached high points in 1873, and fell to very +low points in 1879; then rose in 1882 and fell in 1885; then reached +another high point in 1892 and a low point in 1897; and finally, the +present period of prosperity and heavy imports brings the largest +immigration in the history of the country. + +In following the history of immigration by races we shall see to what +extent the alleged coincidence between prosperity and immigration may be +counted as a social law. Probably in the middle of the century it was +not so much the opportunities for employment in this country as it was +conditions in Europe that drove people to our shores. When we come to +inquire as to the nationalities which constituted immigration at that +period, we shall find what these causes were. In 1846 occurred the +unparalleled potato rot in Ireland, when the year's crop of what had +become the sole food staple of the peasantry of that island was entirely +lost. The peasants had been reduced to subsistence on the cheapest of +all staples through the operations of a system of landlordism scarcely +ever paralleled on a large scale as a means of exploiting tenants. +It was found that land used for potatoes would support three times the +number of people as the same land sown to wheat, and the small tenants +or the cotter peasants paid the landlord a higher rent than could be +obtained from larger cultivators. Reduced to a diet of potatoes by an +economic system imposed by an alien race, the Irish people are one of +the many examples which we find throughout our studies of a subject +people driven to emigration by the economic injustices of a dominant +race. We shall find the same at a later time in Austria-Hungary, whence +the conquered Slav peoples are fleeing from the discrimination and +impositions of the ruling Magyar. We shall find it in Russia, whence the +Jew, the Finn, and the German are escaping from the oppression of the +Slav; and we shall find it in Turkey, whence the Armenian and the Syrian +flee from the exactions of the Turk. Just so was it in Ireland in the +latter half of the decade, 1840 to 1850, and the contention of the +apologist for England that the famine which drove the Irish across the +seas was an act of God, is but a weak effort to charge to a higher power +the sufferings of a heartless system devised to convert the utmost life +and energy of a subject race into gold for their exploiters. Much more +nearly true of the part played by the Divine hand in this catastrophe is +the report of the Society of Friends in Ireland, saying that the +mysterious dispensation with which their country had been visited was +"a means permitted by an All-wise Providence to exhibit more strikingly +the unsound state of its social condition." + + +[Illustration: MOVEMENT OF IMMIGRANTS, IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE PER +CAPITA, AND IMMIGRANTS PER 10,000 POPULATION--1800 TO 1906.] + + +Thus we have an explanation of the incentives under which, even in a +period of industrial depression in this country, the unfortunate Irish +flocked hither. It is true that the population of Ireland had increased +during the century preceding the famine at a rate more rapid than that +of any other country of Europe. It was 3,000,000 in 1790, and over +8,000,000 in the year of the famine. At the present time it is only +5,000,000. The potato, above all other crops, enables the cultivator to +live from hand to mouth, and coupled with a landlord system which takes +away all above mere subsistence, this "de-moralizing esculent" aided the +apparent overpopulation. Certainly the dependence of an entire people on +a single crop was a most precarious condition. + +During the five years, 1846 to 1850, more than a million and a quarter +of Irish emigrants left the ports of the United Kingdom, and during the +ten years, 1845 to 1855, more than a million and a quarter came to the +United States. So great a number could not have found means of +transportation had it not been for the enormous contributions of +government and private societies for assistance. Here began that +exportation of paupers on a large scale against which our country has +protested and finally legislated. Even this enormous migration was not +greatly in excess of the number that actually perished from starvation +or from the diseases incident thereto. The Irish migration since that +time has never reached so high a point, although it made a second great +advance in 1882, succeeding another famine, and it has now fallen far +below that of eastern races of Europe. Altogether the total Irish +immigration of over four million since 1821 places that race second of +the contributors to our foreign-born population, and, compared with its +own numbers, it leads the world, for in sixty years it has sent to us +half as many people as it contained at the time of its greatest +population. Scarcely another country has sent more than one-fifth. + +Looking over a period of nearly three centuries, it is probably true +that the Germans have crossed the ocean in larger numbers than any other +race. We have already noted the large migration during the eighteenth +century, and the official records show that since 1820 there have +entered our ports more than 5,200,000 Germans, while Ireland was sending +4,000,000 and Great Britain 3,300,000. + +The German migration of the nineteenth century was quite distinct in +character from that of the preceding century. The colonial migration was +largely induced on religious grounds, but that of the past century was +political and economic, with at first a notable prominence of +materialism respecting religion. From the time of the Napoleonic wars to +the revolution of 1848, the governments of Germany were despotic in +character, supporting an established church, while at the same time the +marvellous growth of the universities produced a class of educated +liberals. In the revolution of 1848 these took a leading part, and +although constitutional governments were then established, yet those who +had been prominent in the popular uprisings found their position +intolerable under the reactionary governments that followed. The +political exiles sought America, bringing their liberalism in politics +and religion, and forming with their descendants in American cities an +intellectual aristocracy. They sprang from the middle classes of +Germany, and latterly, when the wars with Austria and France had +provoked the spirit of militarism, thousands of peasants looked to +emigration for escape from military service. The severe industrial +depression of 1873-79 added a powerful contributing cause. Thus there +were two periods when German migration culminated; first in 1854, on +political grounds, second in 1882, on military and economic grounds. +Since the latter date a significant decline has ensued, and the present +migration of 32,000 from Germany is mainly the remnants of families +seeking here their relatives. A larger number of German immigrants, +55,000, comes from Austria-Hungary and Russia, those from the latter +country being driven from the Baltic provinces and the Volga settlements +by the "Russianizing" policy of the Slav. + +=The Changing Character of European Immigration.=--Besides the Germans +and the Irish, the races which contributed the largest numbers of +immigrants during the middle years of the nineteenth century were the +English and Scandinavian. After the decline during the depression of +1879 there was an increase of all those races in 1882, a year when +nearly 800,000 immigrants arrived. At about that time began a remarkable +change in the character of immigration destined to produce profound +consequences. + +This change was the rapid shifting of the sources of immigration from +Western to Eastern and Southern Europe. A line drawn across the +continent of Europe from northeast to southwest, separating the +Scandinavian Peninsula, the British Isles, Germany, and France from +Russia, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Turkey, separates countries not only +of distinct races but also of distinct civilizations. It separates +Protestant Europe from Catholic Europe; it separates countries of +representative institutions and popular government from absolute +monarchies; it separates lands where education is universal from lands +where illiteracy predominates; it separates manufacturing countries, +progressive agriculture, and skilled labor from primitive hand +industries, backward agriculture, and unskilled labor; it separates an +educated, thrifty peasantry from a peasantry scarcely a single +generation removed from serfdom; it separates Teutonic races from Latin, +Slav, Semitic, and Mongolian races. When the sources of American +immigration are shifted from the Western countries so nearly allied to +our own, to Eastern countries so remote in the main attributes of +Western civilization, the change is one that should challenge the +attention of every citizen. Such a change has occurred, and it needs +only a comparison of the statistics of immigration for the year 1882 +with those of 1902 and 1906 to see its extent. While the total number of +immigrants from Europe and Asiatic Turkey was approximately equal in +1882 and 1902, as shown in the accompanying table, yet in 1882 Western +Europe furnished 87 per cent of the immigrants and in 1902 only 22 per +cent, while the share of Southeastern Europe and Asiatic Turkey +increased from 13 per cent in 1882 to 78 per cent in 1902. During twenty +years the immigration of the Western races most nearly related to those +which have fashioned American institutions declined more than 75 per +cent, while the immigrants of Eastern and Southern races, untrained in +self-government, increased nearly sixfold. For the year 1906 the +proportions remain the same, although in the four years the total +immigration had increased two-thirds. + +IMMIGRATION FROM EUROPE AND ASIATIC TURKEY BY COUNTRIES, 1882, 1902, 1906 + + 1882 1902 1905 + ------------- ------------- ------------- + NUMBER PER NUMBER PER NUMBER PER + CENT CENT CENT + + Total Europe and + Asiatic Turkey 647,082 100 622,987 100 1,024,719 100 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Great Britain and + Ireland 179,423 27.7 46,036 7.4 102,241 10.0 + Belgium 1,431 .2 2,577 .4 5,099 .5 + Denmark 11,618 1.8 5,660 .9 7,741 .8 + France 6,003 .9 5,117 .8 9,386 .9 + Germany 250,630 38.7 26,304 4.2 37,564 3.7 + Netherlands 9,517 1.1 2,284 .4 4,946 .5 + Norway 29,101 4.5 17,404 2.8 21,730 2.1 + Sweden 64,607 10.0 30,894 5.0 23,310 2.3 + Switzerland 10,884 1.7 2,344 .4 3,846 .4 + + Total Western Europe 563,174 87.0 136,620 22.0 215,863 21.7 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Italy 32,159 5.0 178,375 28.6 273,120 26.7 + Portugal 42 [41] 5,307 .9 8,517 .8 + Spain 378 [41] 975 .1 1,921 .1 + Austria-Hungary 29,150 4.5 171,989 27.6 265,138 25.9 + Russia 21,590 3.3 107,347 17.2 215,665 21.0 + Greece [40]73 [41] 8,104 1.3 19,489 1.9 + Roumania [40]77 [41] 7,196 1.2 4,476 .5 + Servia, Bulgaria, + and Montenegro [41] 851 [41] 4,666 .5 + Turkey in Europe [40]86 [41] 187 [41] 9,510 .9 + Turkey in Asia 82 [41] 6,223 1.0 6,354 .6 + + Total Southern and + Eastern Europe and + Asiatic Turkey 83,637 13.0 486,367 78.0 808,856 78.9 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +=Italians.=--It was at this period that Italian immigration first became +noticeable. Prior to 1880 this stream had been but the merest trickle, +which now has become the greatest of all the foreign tributaries to our +population. In 1873 the Italians for the first time reached 8000 in +number, but they fell to 3000 in 1876 and so continued in moderate +proportions, but suddenly in 1880 jumped to 12,000, and in 1882 to +32,000. Falling off again with the industrial depression to 13,000 in +1885, they reached 76,000 in 1891, and then with another depression to +35,000 in 1895 they have now gone forward by leaps to the high mark of +287,000.[42] The Italians seem destined to rival the Germans and Irish +as the leading contributors to our social amalgam. Of course only a +small part are as yet women and children, but this is because the +immigration is in its early and pioneer stages. The women and children +follow rapidly when the men have saved enough money to send for them. +One-fourth of the emigration is on tickets and money furnished by +friends and relatives in the United States.[43] + +The immigrants from Italy differ from those from Austria, Russia, +Hungary, and Ireland, in that they are not driven forth by the +oppressions of a dominant race, but as a result of the economic and +political conditions of a united people. This does not indeed exclude +oppression as a cause of expatriation, but it transfers the oppression +from that of one race to that of one class upon another. By far the +larger portion of Italian immigration comes from the southern provinces +and from Sicily, where the power of the landlords is greatest. In these +provinces of large estates held by the nobility, the rents have been +forced to the highest notch, an orange garden paying as high as $160 per +year per acre, and the leases are short, so that the tenant has little +to encourage improvement.[44] In many cases the land is rented by large +capitalist farmers, who raise therefrom cattle, wheat, and olives, and +are prosperous men. But their prosperity is extracted from the miserable +wages of their laborers. The agricultural laborer gets from 8 cents to +32 cents a day through the year and 10 cents to 38 cents through the +summer. Unskilled laborers get 25 cents to 50 cents a day, and such +skilled trades as masons and carpenters get only 27 cents to $1.40 a +day. This wide range of wages corresponds generally with the South and +North, the lowest rates being in the South and the highest toward the +North. In France and England wages are two and one-half times higher +than in Italy, while in Germany they are about 30 per cent to 50 per +cent higher. + +Nor must it be supposed that the cost of living is low to correspond +with the low wages. This is largely owing to the exaggerated system of +indirect taxes. Although wheat is a staple crop, yet the peasants eat +corn in preference, because, for a given expenditure, it gives a +stronger sense of repletion. Of wheat and corn meal together the Italian +peasant eats in a year only three-fourths as much as the inmate of an +English poorhouse. Of meat the peasant in Apulia gets no more than ten +pounds a year, while the English workhouse pauper gets fifty-seven +pounds. The local taxes on flour, bread, and macaroni are as high as 10 +or 15 per cent of the value, and the state tax on imported wheat is +nearly 50 per cent of its value. The consumption of sugar has decreased +one-fourth since heavy duties were imposed to protect native beet sugar, +and it averages barely over five pounds per head. The consumption in the +United States is sixty-five pounds per head. The iniquitous salt tax +raises the price of salt from eleven pounds for two cents to one pound +for two cents, and the peasants sometimes cook their corn meal in sea +water, although this is smuggling. What the peasants lack in grain and +meat they strive to supply by vegetables, and the proportion of +vegetables, peas, and beans consumed is greater than that for any other +country of Europe. The peasants drink no beer, spirits, tea, nor coffee, +but the average annual consumption of wine is twenty gallons a head. +Food alone costs the peasants 85 per cent of their wages, whereas it +costs the German peasant 62 per cent and the American workman 41 per +cent. The poor and working classes pay over one-half the taxes, +amounting, even without wine, to 10 or 20 per cent of their wages. There +are in the south and Sardinia some 13,000 sales of land a year on +distress for non-payment of taxes, and the expropriated owners become +tenants. Several villages in Southern Italy have been almost wholly +abandoned and one village has recently announced its intention of +removing itself entire to one of the South American republics.[45] The +rich escape taxation, which is laid largely on consumption. Besides the +state tax on imports, each city and town has its _octroi_, or import +tax, on everything brought into the city. These "protective duties rob +the poor to fill the pockets of the rich landlord and manufacturer." +Since 1870 wealth has increased 17 per cent and taxes 30 per cent. Taxes +are nearly one-fifth of the nation's income, against one-twelfth in +Germany, one-sixteenth in England, and one-fifteenth in the United +States. Wages rose from 1860 to 1885, but since 1890 they have fallen. + +The army and navy are the greatest drain on the resources of the people. +They cost one-fourth more of the national income than do the armies and +navies of France and Germany. Eighty million dollars a year for military +expenditures in Italy is over 5 per cent of the income of the people, +whereas $194,000,000 for the same purpose in the United States is less +than 2 per cent of our incomes. In the Triple Alliance of Germany, +Austria, and Italy, the latter country crushes its peasants in order to +make a showing by the side of its wealthier partners. The army takes +every able-bodied peasant from industry into barracks and drills for two +years of his best vigor. But the long line of exposed coast and the +general military situation in Europe make it unlikely that Italy for +many years can shake off this incubus. + +In addition to all these economic and political causes of pressure, +there is another cause of a more profound nature, the rapid growth of +population. Strange as it may seem, the very poverty of Italy increases +the tendency to a high birth-rate, and the rate is highest in the very +districts where illiteracy and poverty are greatest. Only the great +number of deaths produced by poverty and lack of sanitation prevents the +increase of population from exceeding that of the more rapidly growing +countries of Germany, Great Britain, and Scandinavia. It is not among +those classes and nations, like the middle classes and the thrifty +people of France, that the largest number of children are born, but it +is among those ignorant and low-standard peoples to whom the future +offers no better prospect for their children than for themselves. Early +marriages and large families are both a result and a cause of poverty. +Parts of Lombardy and Venetia have a thicker population than any other +European country except Belgium, which is really not a country, but a +manufacturing centre of Europe. The density of population in Italy is in +excess of that of Germany, France, India, and even China. It is exceeded +only by the islands of Great Britain and Japan, and the states of Rhode +Island and Massachusetts.[46] Emigration is the only immediate relief +from this congestion. All other remedies which operate through raising +the intelligence and the standards of living require years for +appreciable results, but meanwhile the persistent birth-rate crowds new +competitors into the new openings and multiplies the need of economic +and political reforms before they can be put into effect. Emigration is +a relief ready at hand, but it is not a lessening of population. For +many years to come Italy will furnish a surplus population to overflow +to America.[47] Emigration is also a means of revenue for the mother +country. For it is estimated that the peasants in foreign countries send +back to their families and relatives $30,000,000 to $80,000,000 each +year, and many of them return with what to them is a fortune, and with +new ideas of industry and progress, to purchase and improve a farm and +cottage for their declining years. It is said that already there are +several small country towns in Southern Italy which have risen from +squalor to something of prosperity through the money and influence of +those who have come home. This temporary emigration is probably over +150,000 each year going abroad or to adjoining countries expecting to +return. + +Besides this temporary emigration there is an equally large permanent +emigration. This is of two kinds, almost as entirely distinct from each +other as the emigration from two separate nations. The North Italian is +an educated, skilled artisan, coming from a manufacturing section and +largely from the cities. He is Teutonic in blood and appearance. The +South Italian is an illiterate peasant from the great landed estates, +with wages less than one-third his northern compatriot. He descends with +less mixture from the ancient inhabitants of Italy. Unhappily for us, +the North Italians do not come to the United States in considerable +numbers, but they betake themselves to Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil in +about the same numbers as the South Italians come to us. It is estimated +that in those three countries there are 3,000,000 Italians in a total +population of 23,000,000, and they are mainly derived from the north of +Italy. Surrounded by the unenterprising Spanish and Portuguese, they +have shown themselves to be the industrial leaders of the country. Some +of the chief buildings, banks, flour mills, textile mills, and a +majority of the wheat farms of Argentina belong to Italians. They are +one-third of the population of Buenos Ayres and own one-half of the +commercial capital of that city. They become lawyers, engineers, members +of parliament, and an Italian by descent has been president of the +Republic of Argentina, while other Italians have been ministers of war +and education.[48] While these North Italians, with their enterprise, +intelligence, and varied capacities, go to South America, we receive +the South Italians, who are nearly the most illiterate of all immigrants +at the present time, the most subservient to superiors, the lowest in +their standards of living, and at the same time the most industrious and +thrifty of all common laborers. + + +[Illustration: ALIENS AWAITING ADMISSION AT ELLIS ISLAND] + + +=Austria-Hungary.=--Next to that from Italy the immigration from the +Austro-Hungarian Empire in recent decades has reached the largest +dimensions. While Italy sent 273,000 people in 1906, Austria-Hungary +sent 265,000 in that year and 276,000 the year before. Like the +immigration from Italy, this increase has occurred since 1880. Prior to +that date the largest number reported from Austria-Hungary was 9000 in +1874. + +While these figures compare with those of the Italians, yet, unlike the +Italians, they refer to a congeries of races and languages distinct one +from another. The significance of Austro-Hungarian immigration is +revealed only when we analyze it by races. The race map of this empire +shows at once the most complicated social mosaic of all modern nations. +Here we see, not that mixture of races and assimilation of language +which in our own country has evolved a vigorous, united people, but a +juxtaposition of hostile races and a fixity of language held together +only by the outside pressure of Russia, Germany, Italy, and Turkey. This +conflict of races has made the politics of the empire nearly +incomprehensible to foreigners, and has aggravated the economic +inequalities which drive the unprivileged masses to emigrate. + +Not only are there in Austria-Hungary five grand divisions of the human +family,--the German, the Slav, the Magyar, the Latin, and the Jew,--but +these are again subdivided. In the northern mountainous and hilly +sections are 13,000,000 Slavic peoples, the Czechs, or Bohemians, with +their closely related Moravians, and the Slavic Slovaks, Poles, and +Ruthenians (known also as Russniaks); while in the southern hills and +along the Adriatic are another 4,000,000 Slavs, the Croatians, Servians, +Dalmatians, and Slovenians. Between these divisions on the fertile +plains 8,000,000 Magyars and 10,000,000 Germans have thrust themselves +as the dominant races. To the southwest are nearly a million Italians, +and in the east 2,500,000 Latinized Slavs, the Roumanians. The Slavs are +in general the conquered peoples, with a German and Magyar nobility +owning their land, making their laws, and managing their administration. +The northern Slavs are subject to Austria and Hungary, and the +Ruthenians suffer a double subjection, for they were the serfs of their +fellow-Slavs, the Poles, whom they continue to hate, and in whose +longings for a reunited Poland they do not participate. The southern +Slavs and Roumanians are subject to Hungary. The Roumanians are a +widespread and disrupted nationality of Slavs, conquered by the Romans, +from whom they imperfectly took their language, but now distributed +partly in independent kingdoms and partly under the dominion of the +Magyars. The Croatians from the southwest mountains are among the finest +specimens of physical manhood coming to our shores. They are a vigorous +people, hating Hungary which owns them and calling themselves +"Austrians" to ward off the name "Hun," by which Americans mistakenly +designate them. The Magyars are the Asiactic conquerors who overran +Europe ten centuries ago, and being repulsed by the Teutons to the west +established themselves on the Slavs in the valley and plains of the +Danube. Boasting a republican constitution a thousand years old they +have not until the past year been compelled to share it with the people +whom they subdued. Astute politicians and dashing military leaders, they +are as careless in business as the Slavs, and the supremacy which they +maintained in politics has slipped into the hands of the Jews in +economics. In no other modern country has the Jew been so liberally +treated, and in no other country have public and private finance come +more completely under his control. Profiting by the Magyars' suppression +of the Slavs, the Jew has monopolized the business opportunities denied +to the Slovak and the Croatian, and with this leverage has quietly +elbowed out the Magyar himself. No longer is the Magyar the dominant +race, and in the past year he has contributed to America more immigrants +than any branch of his conquered Slavs. In the Austrian dominions of +former Poland the Jew likewise has become the financier, and both the +Ruthenian and the Pole, unable to rise under their burden of debt, +contribute their more enterprising peasants to America. + +By a perverse system of representative government, based on +representation of classes both in Austria and in Hungary, the great +landowners and wealthy merchants have heretofore elected three-fourths +of the parliaments, but recently in both countries the emperor has +granted universal manhood suffrage. The peasant Slavs will henceforth be +on equal footing with the German, the Magyar, and the Jew, and whether +out of the belated equality of races there will come equality of +economic opportunity remains to be seen. For the past few years the +emigration from the unfortunate dual empire has amazingly increased. + +With all of this confusing medley of races, with this diversity of Greek +and Roman Catholicism and Judaism, with this history of race oppression +and hatred, it is not surprising that the immigrants should break out +into factions and feuds wherever thrown together among us. It is the +task of America to lift them to a patriotism which hitherto in their +native land they could not know. + +The earliest migration from Austria-Hungary was that of the Bohemians, +the most highly educated and ardently patriotic of the Slavic people. +After the revolution of 1848, when the Germans suppressed their +patriotic uprising, students, professional men, and well-to-do peasants +came to America and settled in New York, St. Louis, Milwaukee, Chicago, +and in the rural districts of Texas, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and +California. Again, after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, skilled +laborers were added to the stream, and they captured a large part of the +cigar-making industry of New York and the clothing trade of Chicago. +Latterly recruits from the peasants and unskilled laborers sought the +sections where the pioneers had located, learned the same trades, or +joined the armies of common labor. In Chicago the Bohemian section is +almost a self-governing city, with its own language, industries, +schools, churches, and newspapers. After a slight decline there is again +an increasing flow of immigrants, the number in 1906 being 13,000. Those +who come bring their families, and few return. In these earlier days the +Polish and Hungarian Jews also began their migration, following the +steps of their German precursors. + +In the decade of the eighties the increase of immigration from +Austria-Hungary was first that of the Poles, now numbering 44,000, then +the Magyars, now 43,000, then the Slovaks, now 37,000. In the latter +part of the nineties the Southern Slavs--Croatians and Slovenians--suddenly +took up their burden, and 43,000 of them came in 1906. Following them +came the Ruthenians from the North, numbering 16,000 in 1906. Last of +all, the Latinized Slavs, the Roumanians, began their flight from the +Magyar, to the number of less than 400 in the year 1900, but swelling +to 11,000 in 1906. Only 300 additional came from their own proper +kingdom--Roumania. During all this period there has been also a +considerable migration of Germans, reaching 35,000 in 1906. + +In the face of this swollen migration the Hungarian government has at +last taken alarm. They see even their own people, the Magyars, escaping. +Recently the government has attempted to restrict the unrest by +prohibiting advertisements or public speeches advocating emigration, by +prohibiting the sale of tickets or solicitation by any one not holding a +government license for the purpose, by contracting with a steamship line +from their own Adriatic part of Fiume in order to reduce migration +across the German and Italian frontiers. This may account for the +decline of ten thousand immigrants from Austria-Hungary in 1906. + +Practically the entire migration of the Slavic elements at the present +time is that of peasants. In Croatia the forests have been depleted, and +thousands of immigrant wood-choppers have sought the forests of our +South and the railway construction of the West. The natural resources of +Croatia are by no means inadequate, but the discriminating taxes and +railway freight rates imposed by Hungary have prevented the development +of these resources. The needed railways are not obtainable for the +development of the mines and minerals of Croatia, and the peasants, +unable to find employment at home, are allured by the advertisements of +American steamships and the agents of American contractors. + +So it is with the Slovak peasants and mine workers of the northern +mountains and foothills. With agricultural wages only eighteen cents a +day, they find employment in the American mines, rolling-mills, +stock-yards, and railroad construction at $1.50 a day. + +In addition to race discrimination, the blight of Austria-Hungary is +landlordism. Considerable reforms, indeed, have been made in certain +sections. The free alienation of landed property was adopted in the +Austrian dominions in 1869, and in the following twelve years 42,000 new +holdings were carved out of the existing peasant proprietorships in +Bohemia. Similar transfers have occurred elsewhere, but even where this +peasant ownership has gained, the enormous prices are an obstacle to +economic independence. They compel the land-owning peasant to content +himself with five to twelve acres, the size of four-fifths of the farms +in Galicia. His eagerness to own land is his dread of the mere +wage-earner's lot, which he no longer dreads when he lands in America. +"The fear of falling from the social position of a peasant to that, +immeasurably inferior, of a day laborer, is the great spur which drives +over the seas alike the Slovak, the Pole, and the Ruthenian."[49] These +high rentals and fabulous values can exist only where wages and +standards of living are at the bare subsistence level, leaving a heavy +surplus for capitalization. They also exist as a result of most +economical and minute cultivation, so that, with this training, the +Bohemian or Polish farmer who takes up land in America soon becomes a +well-to-do citizen. + +Taxation, too, is unequal. For many years the government suffered +deficits, the military expenses increased, and worst of all, the +nobility were exempt from taxation. The latter injustice, however, was +remedied by the revolution of 1848, and yet at the present time the +great landowners pay much less than their proportionate share of the +land-tax, to say nothing of the heavy taxes on consumption and industry. + +As in other countries of low standards, the number of births is large in +proportion to the inhabitants. For every one thousand persons in +Hungary, there are forty-three births each year,[50] a number exceeded +by but one great country of Europe, Russia. Yet, with this large number +of births, because the economic conditions are so onerous and the +consequent deaths so frequent, the net increase is less than that of any +other country except France. In Austria the births and deaths are less +and the net increase greater, and they run close to those of prolific +Italy. + +In each of these countries the figures for births and deaths stand near +those of the negroes in America, and like the negroes, two-fifths of the +mortality is that of children under five years of age, whereas with +other more favored countries and races this proportion is only one-fifth +or one-fourth. It is not so much the overpopulation of Austria-Hungary +that incites emigration as it is the poverty, ignorance, inequality, and +helplessness that produce a seeming overpopulation. While these +conditions continue, emigration will continue to increase, and the +efforts of the Hungarian government to reduce it will not succeed. + +=Russia.=--The Russian Empire is at the present time the third in the rank +of contributors to American immigration. Russian immigration, like that +of Italy and Austria-Hungary, is practically limited to the past two +decades. In 1881 it first reached 10,000. In 1893 it was 42,000, and in +1906, 216,000. + +The significant fact of this immigration is that it is only 2 per cent +Russian and 98 per cent non-Russian. The Russian peasant is probably the +most oppressed of the peasants of Europe, and though his recent uprising +has aroused his intellect and disabused the former opinion of his +stupidity, yet he has been so tied to the soil by his system of +communism, his burden of taxes and debt and his subjection to landlords, +that he is as yet immune to the fever of migration. In so far as he has +moved from his native soil he has done so through the efforts of a +despotic government to Russianize Siberia and the newly conquered +regions of his own vast domain. On the other hand, the races which have +abandoned the Russian Empire have been driven forth because they refused +to submit to the policy which would by force assimilate them to the +language or religion of the dominant race. Even the promises of the +aristocracy under the fright of recent revolution have not mitigated the +persecutions, and the number taking refuge in flight has doubled in four +years. Foremost are the Jews, 125,000 in 1906, an increase from 37,000 +four years ago; next the Poles, 46,000 in 1906; next 14,000 Lithuanians, +13,000 Finns, and 10,000 Germans. The Poles and Lithuanians are Slavic +peoples long since conquered and annexed by the Russians. The Finns are +a Teutonic people with a Mongol language; the Germans are an isolated +branch of that race settled far to the east on the Volga River by +invitation of the Czar more than one hundred years ago, or on the Baltic +provinces adjoining Germany; while the Jews are the unhappy descendants +of a race whom the Russians found in territory conquered during the past +two centuries. + +=The Jews.=--Russia, at present, sends us five-sixths of the Jewish +immigration, but the other one-sixth comes from adjoining territory in +Austria-Hungary and Roumania. About six thousand temporarily sojourn in +England, and the Whitechapel district of East London is a reduced +picture of the East Side, New York. During American history Jews have +come hither from all countries of Europe. The first recorded immigration +was that of Dutch Jews, driven from Brazil by the Portuguese and +received by the Dutch government of New Amsterdam. The descendants of +these earliest immigrants continue at the present time in their own +peculiar congregation in lower New York City. Quite a large number of +Portuguese and Spanish Jews, expelled from those countries in the time +of Columbus, have contributed their descendants to America by way of +Holland. The German Jews began their migration in small numbers during +colonial times, but their greatest influx followed the Napoleonic wars +and reached its height at the middle of the century. Prior to the last +two decades so predominant were the German Jews that, to the ordinary +American, all Jews were Germans. Strangely enough, the so-called Russian +Jew is also a German, and in Russia among the masses of people the words +"German" and "Jew" also mean the same thing. Hereby hangs a tale of +interest in the history of this persecuted race. Jews are known to have +settled at the site of the present city of Frankfort in Southern Germany +as early as the third century, when that town was a trading post on the +Roman frontier. At the present time the region about Frankfort, +extending south through Alsace, contains the major part of the German +and French Jews. To this centre they flocked during the Middle Ages, and +their toleration in this region throws an interesting light on the +reasons for their persecution in other countries. + +Under the Catholic polity following the crusades the Jew had no rights, +and he could therefore gain protection only through the personal favor +of emperor, king, or feudal lord. This protection was arbitrary and +capricious, but it was always based on a pecuniary consideration. +Unwittingly the Catholic Church, by its prohibition of usury to all +believers, had thrown the business of money lending into the hands of +the Jews, and since the Jew was neither inclined toward agriculture nor +permitted to follow that vocation, his only sources of livelihood were +trade and usury. The sovereigns of Europe who protected the Jews did so +in view of the large sums which they could exact from their profits as +usurers and traders. They utilized the Jews like sponges to draw from +their subjects illicit taxes. When, therefore, the people gained power +over their sovereigns, and the spirit of nationality arose, the Jew, +without his former protector, was the object of persecution. England was +the first country where this spirit of nationality emerged and the first +to expel the Jews (1290); France followed a century later (1395); and +Spain and Portugal two centuries later (1492 and 1495). But in Germany +and other parts of the Holy Roman Empire political confusion and anarchy +prevailed, and the emperor and petty sovereigns were able to continue +their protection of the Jews. + + +[Illustration: NORWEGIAN ITALIAN ARABIC (From _The Home Missionary_)] + + +The Russian people, at that time, were confined to the interior +surrounding Moscow, but even before the crusades they had expelled the +Jews. As rapidly as they conquered territory to the south from Turkey, +or to the west from Poland, they carried forward the same hostility. +There was only one country, Poland, in the centre of Europe, where the +kings, desiring to build up their cities, invited the Jews, and hither +the persecuted race fled from the East before the Russians, and latterly +from the West, driven out by the Germans. When finally, a hundred years +ago, the remnant of the Polish Empire was divided between Russia, +Prussia, and Austria, the Jewish population in this favored area had +become the largest aggregation of that people since the destruction of +Jerusalem. To-day in certain of these provinces belonging to Russia the +Jews number as high as one-sixth of the entire population, and more than +half of that of several cities. Fifteen provinces taken from Poland and +Turkey, extending 1500 miles along the border of Germany and +Austria-Hungary and 240 miles in width, constitute to-day the "Pale of +Settlement," the region where Jews are permitted to live. Here are found +one-third of the world's 11,000,000 Jews.[51] Here they formerly engaged +in all lines of industry, including agriculture. + +Now we come to the last great national uprising, like that which began +in England six hundred years ago. The Russian serfs had been freed in +1861. But they were left without land or capital and were burdened by +high rents and enormous taxes. The Jews became their merchants, +middlemen, and usurers. Suddenly, in 1881, the peasants, oppressed and +neglected by landlord and government, turned in their helplessness upon +the intermediate cause of their misery, the Jew. The anti-Semitic riots +of that year have perhaps never been exceeded in ferocity and +indiscriminate destruction. Then began the migration to America. The +next year the Russian government took up the persecution, and the +notorious "May Orders" of 1882 were promulgated. These, at the +instigation of the Greek Church, have been followed by orders more +stringent, so that to-day, unless relieved by the terrorized promises of +the Czar, the Jew is not permitted to foreclose a mortgage or to lease +or purchase land; he cannot do business on Sundays or Christian +holidays; he cannot hold office; he cannot worship or assemble without +police permit; he must serve in the army, but cannot become an officer; +he is excluded from schools and universities; he is fined for conducting +manufactures and commerce; he is almost prohibited from the learned +professions. While all other social questions are excluded from +discussion, the anti-Semitic press is given free play, and the popular +hatred of the Jew is stirred to frenzy by "yellow" journals. Only when +this hatred breaks out in widespread riots does the news reach America, +but the persecution is constant and relentless. The government and the +army join with the peasants, for, true to the character of this +versatile race, the Jews are leaders of the revolutionary and +socialistic patriots who seek to overthrow the government and restore +the land to the people. + +Nor is this uprising confined to Russia. Galician Jews in the Austrian +possessions of former Poland, where the Slavs bitterly complain of them +as saloon-keepers and money-lenders,[52] have suffered the persecutions +of their race, and in the last ten years Roumania, a country of peasants +adjoining Hungary and Russia, has adopted laws and regulations even more +oppressive than those of her neighbor. + +Thus it is that this marvellous and paradoxical race, the parent of +philosophers, artists, reformers, martyrs, and also of the shrewdest +exploiters of the poor and ignorant, has, in two decades, come to +America in far greater numbers than in the two centuries preceding. + +It should not be inferred that the Jews are a race of pure descent. +Coming as they do from all sections and nations of Europe, they are +truly cosmopolitan, and have taken on the language, customs, and modes +of thought of the people among whom they live. More than this, in the +course of centuries, their physical characteristics have departed from +those of their Semitic cousins in the East, and they have become +assimilated in blood with their European neighbors. In Russia, +especially in the early centuries, native tribes were converted to +Judaism and mingled with their proselyters. That which makes the Jew a +peculiar people is not altogether the purity of his blood, but +persecution, devotion to his religion, and careful training of his +children. Among the Jews from Eastern Europe there are marked +intellectual and moral differences. The Hungarian Jew, who emigrated +earliest, is adventurous and speculative: the Southern Russian keeps few +of the religious observances, is the most intellectual and socialistic, +and most inclined to the life of a wage-earner; the Western Russian is +orthodox and emotional, saves money, becomes a contractor and retail +merchant; the Galician Jew is the poorest, whose conditions at home were +the harshest, and he begins American life as a pedler. That which unites +them all as a single people is their religious training and common +language. + +The Hebrew language is read and written by all the men and half of the +women, but is not spoken except by a few especially orthodox Jews on +Saturday. Hebrew is the language of business and correspondence, Yiddish +the language of conversation, just as Latin in the Middle Ages was the +official and international language, while the various peoples spoke +each its own vernacular. The Yiddish spoken by the Russian Jews in +America is scarcely a language--it is a jargon without syntax, +conjugation, or declension. Its basis is sixty per cent German of the +sixteenth century, showing the main origin of the people, and forty per +cent the language of the countries whence they come. + +That which most of all has made the Jew a cause of alarm to the peasants +of Eastern Europe is the highest mark of his virtue, namely, his rapid +increase in numbers. A high birth-rate, a low death-rate, a long life, +place the Jew as far above the average as the negro is below the +average. These two races are the two extremes of American race vitality. +Says Ripley:[53]-- + +"Suppose two groups of one hundred infants each, one Jewish, one of +average American parentage (Massachusetts), to be born on the same day. +In spite of the disparity of social conditions in favor of the latter, +the chances, determined by statistical means, are that one-half of the +Americans will die within forty-seven years; while the first half of the +Jews will not succumb to disease or accident before the expiration of +seventy-one years. The death-rate is really but little over half that of +the average American population." + +While the negro exceeds all races in the constitutional diseases of +consumption and pneumonia, the Jew excels all in immunity from these +diseases. His vitality is ascribed to his sanitary meat inspection, his +sobriety, temperance, and self-control. Of the Jew it might be said more +truly than of any other European people that the growth of population +has led to overcrowding and has induced emigration. Yet of no people is +this less true, for, were it not for the discrimination and persecution +directed against them, the Jews would be the most prosperous and least +overcrowded of the races of Europe. + +=The Finns.=--Until the year 1901 Finland was the freest and best governed +part of the Russian Empire. Wrested from Sweden in 1809, it became a +grand duchy of the Czar, guaranteed self-government, and confirmed by +coronation oath of each successor. It was the only section of the +Russian Empire with a constitutional government in which the laws, +taxes, and army were controlled by a legislature representing the +people. Here alone in all his empire was the Czar compelled to ask the +consent of parliament in order to enact laws. But these free +institutions within the past seven years were by his decree abrogated. +The Czar claimed the right to put into force such laws as he chose +without discussion or acceptance by the Finnish diet. The Russian +language took the place of Swedish and Finnish as the official medium, a +severe censorship of the press was introduced, the Lutheran religion, +devoutly adhered to, was subordinated to the "orthodox," the independent +Finnish army was abolished and Finns were distributed throughout the +armies of the empire, and a Russian governor with absolute powers was +placed over all. Thus have 2,000,000 of the sturdiest specimens of +humanity been suddenly reduced to the level of Asiatic despotism. They +had managed by industry and thrift to extort a livelihood from a sterile +soil, and had developed a school system with universal education, +culminating in one of the noblest universities of Europe. Their peasants +are healthy, intelligent, honest, and sober. In one year, 1900, their +emigration increased from 6000 to 12,000, and it continues at 14,000, +notwithstanding the repentance of the Czar and his restoration of +their stolen rights. Compared with the population of the country, the +present immigration from Finland is proportionately greater than that of +any race except the Jews; and famine, adding its horrors to the loss of +their liberties, has served to augment the army of exiles. + + +[Illustration: SLAV JEWISH POLACK LITHUANIAN (From _The Home Missionary_)] + + +Much dispute has arisen respecting the racial relations of the Finns. +Their language is like that of the Magyars, an agglutinative tongue with +tendencies towards inflections, but their physical structure allies them +more nearly to the Teutons. Their Lutheran religion also separates them +from other peoples of the Russian Empire. Their sober industriousness +and high intelligence give them a place above that of their intolerant +conquerors; and the futile attempts of the Slav to "Russify" them drove +to America many of our most desirable immigrants. + +=The French Canadians.=--When Canada was conquered by England in 1759, it +contained a French population of 65,000. Without further immigration the +number had increased in 1901 to 2,400,000, including 1,600,000 in Canada +and 800,000 emigrants and their children in the United States. Scarcely +another race has multiplied as rapidly, doubling every twenty-five +years. The contrast with the same race in France, where population is +actually declining, is most suggestive. French Canada is, as it were, a +bit of mediæval France, picked out and preserved for the curious student +of social evolution. No French revolution broke down its old +institutions, and the English conquest changed little else than the +oath of allegiance. Language, customs, laws, and property rights +remained intact. The only state church in North America is the Roman +Catholic Church of Quebec, with its great wealth, its control of +education, and its right to levy tithes and other church dues. With a +standard of living lower than that of the Irish or Italians, and a +population increasing even more rapidly, the French from Canada for a +time seemed destined to displace other races in the textile mills of New +England. Yet they came only as sojourners, intending by the work of +every member of the family to save enough money to return to Canada, +purchase a farm, and live in relative affluence. Their migration began +at the close of the Civil War, and during periods of prosperity they +swarmed to the mill towns, while in periods of depression they returned +to their Northern homes. Gradually an increasing proportion remained in +"the States," and the number in 1900 was 395,000 born in Canada, and +436,000 children born on this side of the line. + +=The Portuguese.=--A diminutive but interesting migration of recent years +is that of the Portuguese, who come, not from Portugal, but from the +Cape Verde and Azores Islands, near equatorial Africa. These islands are +remarkably overpopulated, and the emigration, nearly 9000 souls in 1906, +is a very large proportion of the total number of inhabitants. By two +methods did they find their way to America. One was almost accidental, +for it was the wreck of a Portuguese vessel on the New England coast +that first directed their attention to that section. They have settled +mainly at New Bedford, Massachusetts, where they follow the fisheries in +the summer and enter the mills in the winter. The other method was +solicitation, which took several thousand of them to Hawaii as contract +laborers on the sugar plantations. Unlike the Oriental importations to +these islands the Portuguese insisted that their families be imported, +and then as soon as their contracts expired they left the planters to +become small farmers, and are now the backbone of the coffee industry. +They and their children are nearly half of the "Caucasian" element of +30,000. In Massachusetts they are of two distinct types, the whites from +the Azores and the blacks from the Cape Verde Islands, the latter +plainly a blend of Portuguese and Africans. Their standards of living +are similar to those of the Italians, though they are distinguished by +their cleanliness and the neatness of their homes. + +=Syrians and Armenians.=--That the recruiting area of American immigration +is extending eastward is no more clearly evident than in the recent +migration of Syrians and Armenians. These peoples belong to the +Christian races of Asiatic Turkey, whence they are escaping the +oppressions of a government which deserves the name of organized robbery +rather than government. Within the past thirty years many thousand +Syrians of Mount Lebanon have emigrated to Egypt and other +Mediterranean countries, to the dependencies of Great Britain and South +America. Six thousand of them came to the United States in 1906. They +belong mainly to the Greek Church or the Maronite branch of the Roman +Catholic Church, and it is mainly American missionary effort that has +diverted them to the United States. Unlike other immigrants, they come +principally from the towns, and are traders and pedlers. Broadly +speaking, says an agent of the Charity Organization Society of New York, +"the well-intentioned efforts of the missionaries have been abused by +their protégés.... It is these alleged proselytes who have contributed +largely to bring into relief the intrinsically servile character of the +Syrian, his ingratitude and mendacity, his prostitution of all ideals to +the huckster level.... As a rule they affiliate themselves with some +Protestant church or mission, abandoning such connections when no longer +deemed necessary or profitable."[54] + +The Armenian migration began with the monstrous Kurdish atrocities of +recent years, instigated and supported by the Turkish government. +Armenians are a primitive branch of the Christian religion, and at an +early date became separated from both the Greek and Roman churches. They +are among the shrewdest of merchants, traders, and money-lenders of the +Orient, and, like the Jews, are hated by the peasantry and persecuted by +the government. Like the Jews also, religious persecution has united +them to the number of five million in a racial type of remarkable purity +and distinctness from the surrounding races. + +=Asiatic Immigration.=--Utterly distinct from all other immigrants in the +nineteenth century are the Chinese. Coming from a civilization already +ancient when Europe was barbarian, the Chinaman complacently refuses to +assimilate with Americans, and the latter reciprocate by denying him the +right of citizenship. His residence is temporary, he comes without his +family, and he accumulates what to him is a fortune for his declining +years in China. The gold discoveries of California first attracted him, +and the largest migration was 40,000 in 1882, the year when Congress +prohibited further incoming. In 1906, 3015 Chinamen tried to get in, and +2732 were admitted, mainly as United States citizens, returning +merchants and returning laborers. One-half of the 1448 admitted as +"exempt" were believed by the immigration officials to have been coolies +in disguise.[55] Within the past ten years the Japanese have taken his +place, and 14,000 of his Mongolian cousins arrived in 1906. + +The immigration of the Japanese has taken a peculiar turn owing to the +annexation of Hawaii. While these islands were yet a kingdom in 1868 +this immigration began, and in 1886 a treaty was concluded with Japan +for the immigration of Japanese contract laborers for the benefit of +the sugar planters. Many thousand were imported under this arrangement, +and "the fear that the islands would be annexed to Japan was one of the +prime factors in the demand for annexation to the United States."[56] +With annexation in 1900 contract labor was abolished, and the Japanese, +freed from servitude, indulged in "an epidemic of strikes." The Japanese +government retained paternal oversight of its laborers migrating to +foreign lands, which is done through some thirty-four emigrant companies +chartered by the government. Since opening up Korea for settlement Japan +has granted but a limited number of passports to its citizens destined +for the mainland of America, so that almost the entire immigration comes +first to Honolulu through arrangements made between the emigrant +companies and the planters. But the planters are not able to keep them +on the island on account of the higher wages on the Pacific coast. Since +the alien contract-labor law does not apply to immigrants from Hawaii, a +_padroni_ system has sprung up for importing Japanese from that island. +As a result, the arrivals at Honolulu are equalled by the departures to +the mainland, and Hawaii becomes the American side entrance for the +Japanese.[57] This evasion has been stopped by the law of February 20, +1906. + +Hawaii also is showing another Asiatic race the opening to America. The +growing independence of the Japanese led the planters to seek Koreans, +since the Chinese exclusion law came into force with annexation. In this +effort to break down Japanese solidarity some eight thousand Koreans +have been mixed with them during the past five years, and these also +have begun the transit to California. + +Although the Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans are the familiar examples +often cited of low standards of living, yet their wages in their native +countries are higher than those of the South Italians and equal to those +of the Slavs. They earn $4 or $5 a month and spend $2 or $3 for living. +In Hawaii they get $18 to $20 a month, and on the Pacific coast $35 to +$50. + +In the past two or three years a tiny dripping of immigration has found +its way from another vast empire of Asiatic population--India. Some two +hundred are admitted each year. The populations of that land are growing +discontented as they see Indians returned from Natal, where they earned +$20 to $35 a month, while at home they get only $3 to $7 under a penal +contract system. The American consul at Calcutta reports ten sturdy +Punjab Mohammedans inquiring the way to America and telling of their +friends at work on American dairy farms. In his judgment they are +stronger and more intelligent than the Chinese coolies and are +preferable for work on the Panama Canal. The self-governing British +colonies have educational restrictions designed to prevent Asiatic +immigration, whether of British subjects or aliens;[58] other colonies +have contract labor. The unrest of India therefore turns the native eyes +towards America. + +While America has been welcoming the eastward and backward races she has +begun to lose her colonial stock and her Americanized Teutonic stock. +These pioneer elements have kept in front of the westward movement, and +now that the American frontier is gone they seek a new frontier in +Canada. The Canadian government for several years has sought to fill its +vast Western plains with Teutonic races and to discourage others. It has +expended many thousand dollars for advertising and soliciting in the +British Isles, and has maintained twenty to thirty immigration agents in +our Western states. The opportunities of British Columbia are now well +known, and the American farmers, with agricultural land rising +enormously in value, sell out to the newcomer or the acclimated +immigrant and betake themselves to double or treble the area for +cultivation under the flag of England. They push onward by rail and by +wagon, and the ingress of millions of immigrants is reflected in the +egress of thousands of Americans.[59] + +=Indigenous Races.=--It is not enough that we have opened our gates to the +millions of divergent races in Europe, Asia, and Africa; we have in +these latter days admitted to our fold new types by another +process--annexation. + +The Hawaiians are the latest of these oversea races to be brought under +our flag, although in the course of eighty years they have been brought +under our people. Nowhere else in the world has been seen such finished +effect on an aboriginal race of the paradoxes of Western +civilization--Christianity, private property, and sexual disease. With a +population of some 300,000 at the time of discovery they had dwindled by +domestic wars and imported disease to 140,000 when the missionaries came +in 1820, then to 70,000 in 1850 when private property began its hunt for +cheap labor, and now they number but 30,000. A disease eliminating the +unfit of a race protected by monogamy decimates this primitive people on +a lower stage of morals. Missionaries from the most intellectual type of +American Protestantism converted the diminishing nation to Christianity +in fifty years. A soil and climate the most favorable in the world for +sugar-cane inspired American planters and sons of missionaries to +displace the unsteady Hawaiians with industrious coolies, and finally to +overthrow the government they had undermined and then annex it to +America. Although acquiring American citizenship and sharing equally the +suffrage with Caucasians, the decreasing influence of the Hawaiians is +further diminished by the territorial form of government. + +The Spanish War added islands on opposite sides of the globe, with +races resulting from diametrically opposite effects of three centuries +of Spanish rule. From Porto Rico the aboriginal Carib had long +disappeared under the slavery of his conquerors, and his place had been +filled by the negro slave in sugar cultivation and by the Spaniard and +other Europeans in coffee cultivation. To-day the negro and mulatto are +two-fifths of the million population and the whites three-fifths.[60] In +the Philippine Islands the native races have survived under a theocratic +protectorate and even their tribal and racial subdivisions have been +preserved. Two-fifths of their population of 7,600,000 belong to the +leading tribe, the Visayans, and one-fifth to another, the Tagalogs. Six +other tribes complete the list of "civilized" or Christianized peoples, +while 10 per cent remain pagan in the mountains and forests. Four-fifths +of the population are illiterate, a proportion the same as in Porto +Rico, compared with less than half of the negroes and only one-sixteenth +of the whites in the United States.[61] + + + + +CHAPTER V + +INDUSTRY + + +In preceding chapters we have seen the conditions in their foreign homes +which spurred the emigrants to seek America. We have seen religious +persecution, race oppression, political revolution, militarism, +taxation, famine, and poverty conspiring to press upon the unprivileged +masses and to drive the more adventurous across the water. But it would +be a mistake should we stop at that point and look upon the migration of +these dissatisfied elements as only a voluntary movement to better their +condition. In fact, had it been left to the initiative of the emigrants +the flow of immigration to America could scarcely ever have reached +one-half its actual dimensions. While various motives and inducements +have always worked together, and it would be rash to assert dogmatically +the relative weight of each, yet to one who has carefully noted all the +circumstances it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that even more +important than the initiative of immigrants have been the efforts of +Americans and ship-owners to bring and attract them. Throughout our +history these efforts have been inspired by one grand, effective +motive,--that of making a profit upon the immigrants. The desire to get +cheap labor, to take in passenger fares, and to sell land have probably +brought more immigrants than the hard conditions of Europe, Asia, and +Africa have sent. Induced immigration has been as potent as voluntary +immigration. And it is to this mercenary motive that we owe our manifold +variety of races, and especially our influx of backward races. One +entire race, the negro, came solely for the profit of ship-owners and +landowners. Working people of the colonial period were hoodwinked and +kidnapped by shippers and speculators who reimbursed themselves by +indenturing them to planters and farmers. The beginners of other races +have come through similar but less coercive inducements, initiated, +however, by the demand of those who held American property for +speculation or investment. William Penn and his lessees, John Law, the +Dutch East India Company, and many of the grantees of lands in the +colonies, sent their agents through Western Europe and the British Isles +with glowing advertisements, advanced transportation, and contracts for +indentured service by way of reimbursement. In the nineteenth century +new forms of induced migration appeared. Victims of the Irish famine +were assisted to emigrate by local and general governments and by +philanthropic societies, and both the Irish and the Germans, whose +migration began towards the middle of the century, were, in a measure, +exceptions to the general rule of induced immigration for profit. +Several Western states created immigration bureaus which advertised +their own advantages for intending immigrants, and Wisconsin, +especially, in this way settled her lands with a wide variety of races. +After the Civil War, induced migration entered upon a vigorous revival. +The system of indenturing had long since disappeared, because +legislatures and courts declined to recognize and enforce contracts for +service. Consequently a new form of importation appeared under the +direction of middlemen of the same nativity as that of the immigrant. +Chinese coolies came under contract with the Six Companies, who advanced +their expenses and looked to their own secret agents and tribunals to +enforce repayment with profit.[62] Japanese coolies, much later, came +under contract with immigration companies chartered by the Japanese +government.[63] Italians were recruited by the _padroni_, and the bulk +of the new Slav immigration from Southeastern Europe is in charge of +their own countrymen acting as drummers and middlemen. + +INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS OF IMMIGRANTS--1906[64] + + ===============+========+=========+==================+========================== + | | SEXES | AGES | OCCUPATIONS[65] + | +----+----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+----+----+---- + | TOTAL, | | | | | | TOTAL,|Professional + RACE OR PEOPLE | 100 | | |Under|14-45|Over | 100 | |Commercial + |PER CENT| M | F | 14 |years| 45 | PER | | |Skilled + | | | |years| |years| CENT | | | |Unskilled + ---------------+--------+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+----+----+---- + African (black)| 3,786|62.2|37.8| 9.1| 86.8| 4.1| 2,921| 3.0| 2.6|45.6|48.8 + Armenian | 1,895|75.1|24.9| 11.8| 84.3| 3.9| 1,390| 3.4| 5.1|38.5|53.0 + Bohemian and | | | | | | | | | | | + Moravian | 12,958|57.3|42.8| 20.7| 73.9| 5.4| 7,985| 1.3| 1.2|43.6|53.9 + Bulgarian, | | | | | | | | | | | + Servian, and | | | | | | | | | | | + Montenegrin | 11,548|96.2| 3.8| 1.9| 96.2| 1.9| 11,025| 0.1| 0.3| 3.7|95.9 + Chinese | 1,485|94.1| 5.9| 4.5| 81.5| 14.0| 1,261| 6.9|66.0| 1.5|25.6 + Croatian and | | | | | | | | | | | + Slovenian | 44,272|86.5|13.5| 3.8| 94.1| 2.1| 40,125| 0.1| 0.1| 3.7|96.1 + Cuban | 5,591|67.4|32.6| 17.2| 73.2| 9.6| 2,842|10.3|19.1|55.9|14.7 + Dalmatian, | | | | | | | | | | | + Bosnian, and | | | | | | | | | | | + Herzegovinian| 4,568|95.1| 4.9| 1.7| 96.3| 2.0| 4,373| 0.1| 0.3| 7.7|91.9 + Dutch and | | | | | | | | | | | + Flemish | 9,735|67.0|33.0| 17.6| 76.4| 6.0| 5,849| 5.2| 7.9|30.1|56.8 + East Indian | 271|93.0| 7.0| 5.5| 90.5| 4.0| 222| 9.9|52.7| 5.4|32.0 + English | 45,079|62.1|37.9| 13.5| 75.3| 11.2| 28,249|10.8|13.5|51.3|24.4 + Finnish | 14,136|67.4|32.6| 7.1| 90.8| 2.1| 11,959| 0.4| 0.3| 7.2|92.1 + French | 10,379|57.1|42.9| 8.6| 81.7| 9.7| 6,823|16.5|12.9|31.3|39.3 + German | 86,813|59.2|40.8| 15.1| 78.6| 6.3| 55,095| 4.3| 6.7|29.7|59.3 + Greek | 23,127|96.3| 3.7| 3.1| 95.9| 1.0| 21,615| 0.5| 2.6| 9.4|87.5 + Hebrew | 153,748|52.1|47.9| 28.3| 66.3| 5.4| 76,605| 1.4| 5.6|66.7|26.3 + Irish | 40,959|50.9|49.1| 4.6| 90.9| 4.5| 35,387| 1.7| 2.9|15.1|80.3 + Italian (North)| 46,286|78.9|21.1| 8.6| 87.9| 3.5| 36,980| 1.4| 2.3|19.4|76.9 + Italian (South)| 240,528|79.4|20.6| 11.1| 84.3| 4.6|190,105| 0.4| 1.3|16.0|82.3 + Japanese | 14,243|89.6|10.4| 1.0| 97.1| 1.9| 11,797| 2.2|10.3| 2.8|84.7 + Korean | 127|81.1|18.9| 16.5| 81.1| 2.4| 80| 6.3|15.0| 2.5|76.2 + Lithuanian | 14,257|66.1|33.9| 8.9| 89.5| 1.6| 11,568| 0.2| 0.2| 9.2|90.4 + Magyar | 44,261|71.8|28.2| 9.0| 87.5| 3.5| 34,559| 0.6| 0.5| 9.3|89.6 + Mexican | 141|66.0|34.0| 14.9| 74.5| 10.6| 65|23.1|35.4|24.6|16.9 + Pacific | | | | | | | | | | | + Islander | 13|76.9|23.1| 7.7| 76.9| 15.4| 9|33.3| 0.0|66.7| 0.0 + Polish | 95,835|69.3|30.7| 9.3| 88.5| 2.2| 77,437| 0.2| 0.2| 7.7|91.9 + Portuguese | 8,729|58.4|41.6| 20.9| 70.7| 8.4| 5,815| 0.5| 1.1| 4.8|93.6 + Roumanian | 11,425|92.5| 7.5| 2.0| 94.0| 4.0| 10,759| 0.2| 0.2| 2.5|97.1 + Russian | 5,814|81.7|18.3| 10.0| 86.8| 3.2| 4,591| 3.2| 2.4|10.8|83.6 + Ruthenian | 16,257|75.7|24.3| 3.6| 93.9| 2.5| 14,899| 0.1|[66]| 2.7|97.2 + Scandinavian | 58,141|62.1|37.9| 9.1| 86.4| 4.5| 47,352| 1.8| 1.6|23.5|73.1 + Scotch | 16,463|66.1|33.9| 12.9| 78.8| 8.3| 11,207| 5.7| 9.9|62.8|21.6 + Slovak | 38,221|69.6|30.4| 8.9| 88.4| 2.7| 29,817|[66]| 0.1| 4.9|95.0 + Spanish | 5,332|83.6|16.4| 7.1| 84.6| 8.3| 4,211| 5.7|19.2|44.4|30.7 + Spanish | | | | | | | | | | | + American | 1,585|69.7|30.3| 17.0| 74.4| 8.6| 790|23.7|37.1|21.1|18.1 + Syrian | 5,824|70.4|29.6| 15.2| 80.9| 3.9| 4,023| 1.1|11.1|19.9|67.9 + Turkish | 2,033|95.7| 4.3| 1.9| 96.0| 2.1| 1,914| 1.5| 4.4| 8.3|85.8 + Welsh | 2,367| 7.1|29.9| 12.5| 78.2| 9.3| 1,639| 4.9| 6.7|62.4|26.0 + West Indian | | | | | | | | | | | + (except | | | | | | | | | | | + Cuban) | 1,476|58.9|41.1| 14.8| 76.1| 9.1| 900| 7.6|15.0|49.4|28.0 + Other Peoples | 1,027|94.5| 5.5| 2.6| 96.0| 1.4| 932| 1.2| 4.1|18.0|76.7 + ---------+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+----+----+---- + Total 1,100,735|69.5|30.5| 12.4| 83.0| 4.6|815,275| 1.8| 3.1|21.7|73.4 + ===============+========+====+====+=====+=====+=====+=======+====+====+====+==== + +These labor speculators have perfected a system of inducements and +through billing as effective as that by which horse and cattle buyers in +Kentucky or Iowa collect and forward their living freight to the markets +of Europe. A Croatian of the earlier immigration, for example, sets up a +saloon in South Chicago and becomes an employment bureau for his +"greener" countrymen, and also ticket agent on commission for the +steamship companies. His confederates are stationed along the entire +route at connecting points, from the villages of Croatia to the saloon +in Chicago. In Croatia they go among the laborers and picture to them +the high wages and abundant work in America. They induce them to sell +their little belongings and they furnish them with through tickets. They +collect them in companies, give them a countersign, and send them on to +their fellow-agent at Fiume, thence to Genoa or other port whence the +American steerage vessel sails. In New York they are met by other +confederates, whom they identify by their countersign, and again they +are safely transferred and shipped to their destination. Here they are +met by their enterprising countryman, lodged and fed, and within a day +or two handed over to the foreman in a great steel plant, or to the +"boss" of a construction gang on a railway, or to a contractor on a +large public improvement. After they have earned and saved a little +money they send for their friends, to whom the "boss" has promised jobs. +Again their lodging-house countryman sells them the steamship ticket and +arranges for the safe delivery of those for whom they have sent. In this +way immigration is stimulated, and new races are induced to begin their +American colonization. Eventually the pioneers send for their families, +and it is estimated that nearly two-thirds of the immigrants in recent +years have come on prepaid tickets or on money sent to them from +America.[67] + +The significance of this new and highly perfected form of inducement +will appear when we look back for a moment upon the legislation +governing immigration. + +=Immigration Legislation.=--At the close of the Civil War, with a vast +territory newly opened to the West by the railroads, Congress enacted a +law throwing wide open our doors to the immigrants of all lands. It gave +new guaranties for the protection of naturalized citizens in renouncing +allegiance to their native countries, declaring that "expatriation is a +natural and inherent right of all people, indispensable to the enjoyment +of the rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."[68] + +In the same year, 1868, the famous Burlingame treaty was negotiated with +China, by which Americans in China and Chinese in America should enjoy +all the privileges, immunities, and exemptions enjoyed by citizens of +the most favored nation. These steps favorable to immigration were in +line with the long-continued policy of the country from the earliest +colonial times. + +But a new force had come into American politics--the wage-earner. From +this time forth the old policies were violently challenged. High wages +were to be pitted against high profits. The cheap labor which was +eagerly sought by the corporations and large property owners was just as +eagerly fought by the unpropertied wage-earners. Of course neither party +conceded that it was selfishly seeking its own interest. Those who +expected profits contended that cheap foreign labor was necessary for +the development of the country; that American natural resources were +unbounded, but American workmen could not be found for the rough work +needed to turn these resources into wealth; that America should be in +the future, as it had been in the past, a haven for the oppressed of all +lands; and that in no better way could the principles of American +democracy be spread to all peoples of the earth than by welcoming them +and teaching them in our midst. + +The wage-earners have not been so fortunate in their protestations of +disinterestedness. They were compelled to admit that though they +themselves had been immigrants or the children of immigrants, they were +now denying to others what had been a blessing to them. Yet they were +able to set forward one supreme argument which our race problems are +every day more and more showing to be sound. The future of American +democracy is the future of the American wage-earner. To have an +enlightened and patriotic citizenship we must protect the wages and +standard of living of those who constitute the bulk of the citizens. +This argument had been offered by employers themselves when they were +seeking a protective tariff against the importation of "pauper-made" +goods. What wonder that the wage-earner should use the same argument to +keep out the pauper himself, and especially that he should begin by +applying the argument to those races which showed themselves unable +rapidly to assimilate, and thereby make a stand for high wages and high +standards of living. Certain it is that had the white wage-earners +possessed the suffrage and political influence during colonial times, +the negro would not have been admitted in large numbers, and we should +have been spared that race problem which of all is the largest and most +nearly insoluble. + +For it must be observed in general that race antagonism occurs on the +same competitive level. What appear often to be religious, political, +and social animosities are economic at bottom, and the substance of the +economic struggle is the advantage which third parties get when +competitors hold each other down. The Southern planter was not hostile +to the negro slave--he was his friend and protector. His nurse was the +negro "mammy," his playmates were her children, and the mulatto throws +light on his views of equality. It was the poor white who hated the +negro and fled from his presence to the hills and the frontier, or sank +below his level, despised by white and black. In times of freedom and +reconstruction it is not the great landowner or employer that leads in +the exhibition of race hostility, but the small farmer or +wage-earner.[69] The one derives a profit from the presence of the +negro--the other loses his job or his farm. With the progress of white +democracy in place of the old aristocracy, as seen in South Carolina, +hostility to the negro may be expected to increase. With the elimination +of the white laborer, as seen in the black counties, the relations of +negro and planter are harmonious.[70] + +So it is in the North. The negro or immigrant strike breaker is +befriended by the employer, but hated by the employee. The Chinaman or +Japanese in Hawaii or California is praised and sought after by the +employer and householder, but dreaded by the wage-earner and domestic. +Investors and landowners see their properties rise in value by the +competition of races, but the competitors see their wages and jobs +diminish. The increase of wealth intensifies the difference and raises +up professional classes to the standpoint of the capitalists. With both +of them the privilege of leisure depends on the presence of servants, +but the wage-earners do their own work. As the immigrant rises in the +scale, the small farmer, contractor, or merchant feels his competition +and begins to join in measures of race protection. + +This hostility is not primarily racial in character. It is the +competitive struggle for standards of living. It appears to be racial +because for the most part races have different standards. But where +different races agree on their standards the racial struggle ceases, and +the negro, Italian, Slav, and American join together in the class +struggle of a trade-union. On the other hand, if the same race has +different standards, the economic struggle breaks down even the +strongest affinities of race. The Russian Jew in the sweat-shop turns +against the immigrant Jew, fleeing from the very persecution that he +himself has escaped, and taking his place in the employment of the +capitalist German Jew.[71] It is an easy and patriotic matter for the +lawyer, minister, professor, employer, or investor, placed above the +arena of competition, to proclaim the equal right of all races to +American opportunities; to avow his own willingness to give way should +even a better Chinaman, Hindu, or Turk come in to take his place; and to +rebuke the racial hatred of those who resist this displacement. His +patriotism and world-wide brotherhood cost him and his family nothing, +and indeed they add to his profits and leisure. Could he realize his +industrial position, and picture in imagination that of his +fellow-citizens, their attitude would not appear less disinterested than +his own. The immigrant comes as a wage-earner, and the American +wage-earner bears the initial cost of his Americanization. Before he +acquired the suffrage his protest was unheard--after he gained political +power he began to protect himself. + +The first outbreak of the new-found strength of the American wage-earner +was directed against a race superior even to the negro immigrants in +industry, frugality, intelligence, and civilization--the Chinese. And +this outbreak was so powerful that, in spite of all appeals to the +traditions and liberties of America, the national government felt driven +to repudiate the treaty so recently signed with the highest +manifestations of faith, good-will, and international comity. + +Very early in the settlement of California the Chinaman had encountered +hostile legislation. The state election had been carried by the +Knownothings as early as 1854. Discriminating taxes, ordinances, and +laws were adopted, and even immigration was regulated by the state +legislature. But the state and federal courts declared such legislation +invalid as violating treaties or interfering with international +relations. Then the wage-earning element of California joined as one man +in demanding action by the federal government, and eventually, by the +treaty of 1880 and the law of 1888, Chinese laborers were excluded.[72] +Thus did the Caucasian wage-earner score his first and signal victory +in reversing what his opponents proclaimed were "principles coeval with +the foundation of our government." + +The next step was the Alien Contract Labor law of 1885 and 1888, placed +on the statute books through the efforts of the Knights of Labor and the +trades-unions. As early as 1875 Congress had prohibited the immigration +of paupers, criminal, and immoral persons, but the law of 1885 went to +the other extreme and was designed to exclude industrial classes. The +law is directed against prepayment of transportation, assistance, or +encouragement of foreigners to immigrate _under contract_ to perform +labor in the United States, and provides for the prosecution of the +importer and deportation of the contract immigrant. This law has been +enforced against skilled labor, which comes mainly from northwestern +Europe, but, owing to the new system of _padroni_ and middlemen above +described, it cannot be enforced against the unskilled laborers of +Southern and Eastern Europe, since it cannot be shown that they have +come under contract to perform labor. By the amendment and revised law +adopted in 1903, after considerable discussion, and an effort on the +part of the labor unions to strengthen the law, it was extended so as to +exclude not only those coming under contract but also those coming under +_offers_ and _promises_ of employment.[73] + +From what precedes we see that there are two exactly opposite points of +view from which the subject of immigration is approached. One is the +production of wealth; the other is the distribution of wealth. He who +takes the standpoint of production sees the enormous undeveloped +resources of this country--the mines to be exploited, railroads and +highways to be built and rebuilt, farms to be opened up or to be more +intensively cultivated, manufactures to be multiplied, and the markets +of the world to be conquered by our exports, while there are not enough +workmen, or not enough willing to do the hard and disagreeable work at +the bottom. + +He who takes the standpoint of distribution sees the huge fortunes, the +low wages, the small share of the product going to labor, the +sweat-shop, the slums, all on account of the excessive competition of +wage-earner against wage-earner. + +Consider first the bearing of immigration on the production of wealth. + + +[Illustration: AGE GROUPS, FOREIGN AND NATIVE-BORN] + + +=Immigration and Wealth Production.=--Over four-fifths of the immigrants +are in the prime of life--the ages between fourteen and forty-five. In +the year 1906 only 12 out of every 100 were under fourteen years of age, +and only 4.5 out of every 100 over forty-five years of age. The census +of 1900 offers some interesting comparisons between the native-born and +the foreign-born in this matter of age distribution. It shows quite +plainly that a large proportion of the native-born population is below +the age of industrial production, fully 39 per cent, or two-fifths, +being under fifteen years of age, while only 5 per cent of the +foreign-born are of corresponding ages. On the other hand, the ages +fifteen to forty-four include 46 per cent of the native and 58 per cent +of the foreign-born. This is shown in the diagram based on five-year age +periods. The native born are seen to group themselves in a symmetrical +pyramid, with the children under five as the wide foundation, gradually +tapering to the ages of eighty and eighty-four, but for the foreign-born +they show a double pyramid, tapering in both directions from the ages of +thirty-five to thirty-nine, which include the largest five-year group. +Thus, immigration brings to us a population of working ages unhampered +by unproductive mouths to be fed, and, if we consider alone that which +produces the wealth of this country and not that which consumes it, the +immigrants add more to the country than does the same number of native +of equal ability. Their home countries have borne the expense of rearing +them up to the industrial period of their lives, and then America, +without that heavy expense, reaps whatever profits there are on the +investment. + + +[Illustration: PROPORTION OF SEXES. NATIVE AND FOREIGN-BORN WHITES, +1900, AND IMMIGRANTS 1906] + + +In another respect does immigration add to our industrial population +more than would be done by an equal increase in native population, +namely, by the large excess of men over women. In 1906, over two-thirds +of the immigrants were males and less than one-third were females. This +is shown on the accompanying diagram, as well as the fact based on the +census statistics that among the foreign-born the men predominate over +the women in the ratio of 540 to 460, while among the native-born +population the sexes are about equal, being in the proportion of 507 +males to 493 females. + +This small proportion of women and children shows, of course, that it is +the workers, not the families, who seek America. Yet the proportions +widely vary for different nationalities. Among the Jews 48 per cent are +females and 28 per cent children. This persecuted race moves in a body, +expecting to make America its home. At the other extreme the Greeks send +only 4 per cent females and 3 per cent children, the Croatians 13 per +cent females and 4 per cent children, the South Italians 21 per cent +females and 11 per cent children. These are races whose immigration has +only recently begun, and naturally enough the women and children, except +in the case of the Jews, do not accompany the workmen. A race of longer +migration, like the Germans, has 41 per cent females and 15 per cent +children. The Irish have a peculiar position. Alone of all the races do +the women equal the men, but only 5 per cent are children. Irish girls +seeking domestic service explain this preponderance of women. +Significant and interesting facts regarding other races may be seen by +studying the table entitled "Industrial Relations of Immigrants." + + +[Illustration: SWEDEN GREECE GERMANY RUSSIA CHINA SCOTLAND AUSTRIA +AUSTRALIA CANADA ENGLAND ITALY ROUMANIA AMERICAN SCHOOL BOYS (From +_World's Work_)] + + +Such being the proportions of industrial energy furnished by +immigration, what is the quality? Much the larger proportion of +immigrants are classed as unskilled, including laborers and servants. +Omitting those who have "no occupation," including mainly women and +children, who are 30.5 per cent of the total, only 21.7 per cent of the +remainder who are working immigrants are skilled, and 73.4 per cent are +unskilled. The proportions vary greatly among the different races. The +largest element of skilled labor is among the Jews, a city people, +two-thirds of whom are skilled workmen. Nearly the same proportion of +the Scotch and Welsh and over one-half of the English and Bohemians are +skilled mechanics. Nearly one-third of the Germans and Dutch are +skilled, and one-fourth of the Scandinavians. At the other extreme, only +3 to 5 per cent of the Ruthenians, Croatians, Roumanians, and Slovaks +are skilled, and 8 to 10 per cent of the Magyars, Lithuanians, and +Poles. One-fifth of the North Italians and one-sixth of the South +Italians are skilled. These and other proportions are shown in the +statistical table. + +The skilled labor which comes to America, especially from Northern and +Western Europe, occupies a peculiar position in our industries. In the +first place, the most capable workmen have permanent places at home, +and it is, in general, only those who cannot command situations who seek +their fortunes abroad. The exceptions to this rule are in the beginnings +of an industry like that of tin plate, when a large proportion of the +industry moved bodily to America, and the highly skilled tin workers of +Wales brought a kind of industrial ability that had not hitherto existed +in this country. As for the bulk of skilled immigrants, they do not +represent the highest skill of the countries whence they come. + +On the other hand, the European skilled workman is usually better +trained than the American, and in many branches of industry, especially +machinery and ship-building, the English and Scotch immigrants command +those superior positions where an all-round training is required. + +This peculiar situation is caused by the highly specialized character of +American industry. In no country has division of labor and machinery +been carried as far as here. By division of labor the skilled trades +have been split up into simple operations, each of which in itself +requires little or no skill, and the boy who starts in as a beginner is +kept at one operation so that he does not learn a trade. The old-time +journeyman tailor was a skilled mechanic who measured his customer, cut +the cloth and trimmings, basted, sewed, and pressed the suit. Now we +have factories which make only coats, others which make only vests, +others trousers, and there are children's knee-pants factories and even +ladies' tailor establishments where the former seamstress sees her +precious skill dissipated among a score of unskilled workers. Thus the +journeyman tailor is displaced by the factory, where the coat passes +through the hands of thirty to fifty different men and women, each of +whom can learn his peculiar operation in a month or two. The same is +true in greater or less degree in all industries. Even in the building +trades in the larger cities there are as many kinds of bricklayers as +there are kinds of walls to be built, and as many kinds of carpenters as +there are varieties of woodwork. + +So it is with machinery. The American employer does not advertise for a +"machinist"--he wants a "lathe hand" or a "drill-press hand," and the +majority of his "hands" are perhaps only automatic machine tenders. The +employer cannot afford to transfer these hands from one job to another +to enable them to "learn the trade." He must keep them at one operation, +for it is not so much skill that he wants as cheap labor and speed. +Consequently, American industry is not producing all-round mechanics, +and the employers look to Europe for their skilled artisans. In England +the trade-unions have made it their special business to see that every +apprentice learns every part of his trade, and they have prevented +employers from splitting up the trades and specializing machinery and +thereby transforming the mechanic into the "hand." Were it not for +immigration, American industries would ere now have been compelled to +give more attention to apprenticeship and the training of competent +mechanics. The need of apprenticeship and trade schools is being more +seriously felt every year, for, notwithstanding the progress of division +of labor and machinery, the all-round mechanic continues to play an +important part in the shop and factory. American trade-unions are +gaining strength, and one of their most insistent demands is the +protection of apprenticeship. The bricklayers' and carpenters' unions of +Chicago even secure from their employers instruction for apprentices in +school. Not much headway in this line, however, has yet been made, and +American industry has become abnormal, we might almost say suicidal, or +at any rate, non-self-supporting. By extreme division of labor and +marvellous application of machinery it makes possible the wholesale +employment in factories of the farm laborers of Europe and their +children, and then depends on Europe for the better-trained types of the +skilled mechanic, who, on account of the farm laborer, have not been +able to learn their trade in America. + +Not only does immigration bring to America the strongest, healthiest, +and most energetic and adventurous of the work-people of Europe and +Asia, but those who come work much harder than they did at home. +Migration tears a man away from the traditions, the routine, the social +props on which he has learned to rely, and throws him among strangers +upon his own resources. He must swim or drown. At the same time he +earns higher wages and eats more nourishing food than he had ever +thought within reach of one in his station. His ambition is fired, he is +stirred by the new tonic of feeling himself actually rising in the +world. He pictures to himself a home of his own, he economizes and saves +money to send to his friends and family, or to return to his beloved +land a person of importance. Watch a gang of Italians shovelling dirt +under an Irish boss, or a sweat-shop of Jewish tailors under a small +contractor, and you shall see such feverish production of wealth as an +American-born citizen would scarcely endure. Partly fear, partly hope, +make the fresh immigrant the hardest, if not the most intelligent, +worker in our industries. + +=Industrial Capacities of Different Races.=--But, however hard one may +work, he can only exercise the gifts with which nature has endowed him. +Whether these gifts are contributed by race or by civilization, we shall +inquire when we come to the problems of amalgamation and assimilation. +At present we are concerned with the varying industrial gifts and +capacities of the various races as they actually exist at the time when +immigration, annexation, or conquest takes place. + +The mental and moral qualities suited to make productive workers depend +upon the character of the industry. It is not conceivable that the +immigrants of the present day from Southern Europe and from Asia could +have succeeded as frontiersmen and pioneers in the settlement of the +country. In all Europe, Asia, and Africa there was but one race in the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that had the preliminary training +necessary to plunge into the wilderness, and in the face of the Indian +to establish homes and agriculture. This was the English and the +Scotch-Irish. The Spaniards and the French were pioneers and +adventurers, but they established only trading stations. Accustomed to a +paternal government they had not, as a people, the self-reliance and +capacity for sustained exertion required to push forward as individuals, +and to cut themselves off from the support of a government across the +ocean. They shrank from the herculean task of clearing the forests, +planting crops among the stumps, and living miles away from their +neighbors. True, the pioneers had among their number several of German, +French, and Dutch descent, but these belonged to the second and third +generations descended from the immigrants and thrown from the time of +childhood among their English-Scotch neighbors. The French trappers and +explorers are famous, and have left their names on our map. But it was +the English race that established itself in America, not because it was +first to come, not because of its armies and navies, but because of its +agriculture. Every farm newly carved out of the wilderness became a +permanent foothold, and soon again sent out a continuous colony of sons +and daughters to occupy the fertile land. Based on this self-reliant, +democratic, industrial conquest of the new world the military conquest +naturally, inevitably followed. + +But at the present day the character of industry has entirely changed. +The last quarter of the nineteenth century saw the vacant lands finally +occupied and the tribe of frontiersmen coming to an end. Population now +began to recoil upon the East and the cities. This afforded to +manufactures and to the mining industries the surplus labor-market so +necessary for the continuance of large establishments which to-day need +thousands of workmen and to-morrow hundreds. Moreover, among the +American-born workmen, as well as the English and Scotch, are not found +that docility, obedience to orders, and patient toil which employers +desire where hundreds and thousands are brought like an army under the +direction of foremen, superintendents, and managers. Employers now turn +for their labor supply to those eastern and southern sections of Europe +which have not hitherto contributed to immigration. The first to draw +upon these sources in large numbers were the anthracite coal operators +of Pennsylvania. In these fields the English, Scotch, Welsh, and Irish +miners, during and following the period of the Civil War, had effected +an organization for the control of wages, and the outrages of a secret +society known as the Molly Maguires gave occasion for the importation of +new races unaccustomed to unionism, and incapable, on account of +language, of coöperation with English-speaking miners. Once introduced +in the mining industry, these races rapidly found their way into the +unskilled parts of manufactures, into the service of railroads and large +contractors. On the construction of the Erie Canal in 1898, of 16,000 +workmen, 15,000 were unnaturalized Italians.[74] The census of 1900 +showed that while the foreign-born males were one-fourteenth of the +laborers in agriculture, they were three-fourths of the tailors, more +than one-half of the cabinet makers, nearly one-half of the miners and +quarrymen, tannery workers, marble and stonecutters, more than +two-fifths of the boot and shoe-makers and textile workers, one-third of +the coopers, iron and steel workers, wood-workers and miscellaneous +laborers, one-fourth of the carpenters, painters, and plasterers, and +one-fifth of the sawmill workers.[75] The foreign-born females numbered +nearly two-fifths of the female cotton-mill operatives and tailors, +one-third of the woollen-mill operatives, one-fourth of the tobacco and +silk-mill operatives. + +On the Pacific slope the Chinese and Japanese immigrants have filled the +place occupied by the southeast European in the East and the negro in +the South. They were the workmen who built the Pacific railroads, and +without them it is said that these railroads could not have been +constructed until several years after their actual completion. + +The immigration of the Chinese reached its highest figures prior to the +exclusion laws of 1882, and since that time has been but an +insignificant contribution. In their place have come the Japanese, a +race whose native land, in proportion to its cultivable area, is more +densely populated than any other country in the world. The Chinese and +Japanese are perhaps the most industrious of all races, while the +Chinese are the most docile. The Japanese excel in imitativeness, but +are not as reliable as the Chinese. Neither race, so far as their +immigrant representatives are concerned, possesses the originality and +ingenuity which characterize the competent American and British +mechanic. In the Hawaiian Islands, where they have enjoyed greater +opportunities than elsewhere, they are found to be capable workmen of +the skilled trades, provided they are under the direction of white +mechanics.[76] But their largest field of work in Hawaii is in the +unskilled cultivation of the great sugar plantations. Here they have +been likened to "a sort of agricultural automaton," and it becomes +possible to place them in large numbers under skilled direction, and +thus to secure the best results from their docility and industry. + +In the United States itself the plantation form of agriculture, as +distinguished from the domestic form, has always been based on a supply +of labor from backward or un-Americanized races. This fact has a bearing +on the alleged tendency of agriculture toward large farms. Ten years +ago it seemed that the great "bonanza" farms were destined to displace +the small farms, just as the trust displaces the small manufacturer. But +it is now recognized that the reverse movement is in progress, and that +the small farmer can compete successfully with the great farmer. It has +not, however, been pointed out that the question is not merely an +economic one and that it depends upon the industrial character of the +races engaged in agriculture. The thrifty, hard-working and intelligent +American or Teutonic farmer is able to economize and purchase his own +small farm and compete successfully with the large undertaking. He is +even beginning to do this in Hawaii since the compulsory labor of his +large competitors was abolished.[77] But the backward, thriftless, and +unintelligent races succeed best when employed in gangs on large +estates. The cotton and sugar fields of the South with their negro +workers have their counterpart in the plantations of Hawaii with their +Chinese and Japanese, and in the newly developed sugar-beet fields of +Nebraska, Colorado, and California, with their Russians, Bohemians, +Japanese, and Mexicans. In the domestic or small form of agriculture the +bulk of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe are not greatly +desired as wage-earners, and they do not succeed as proprietors and +tenants because they lack oversight and business ability. Where they are +located in colonies under favorable auspices the Italians have achieved +notable success, and in the course of Americanization they will +doubtless rival older nationalities. But in the immigrant stage they are +helpless, and it is the immigrants from Northwestern Europe, the Germans +and Scandinavians, whose thrift, self-reliance, and intensive +agriculture have made them from the start the model farmers of America. + +The Jewish immigrant, particularly, is unfitted for the life of a +pioneer. Remarkably individualistic in character, his field of +enterprise is society, and not the land. Of the thirty thousand families +sent out from New York by industrial and agricultural removal societies, +nine-tenths are located in industry and trade, and the bulk of the +remainder, who are placed on farms, succeed by keeping summer boarders. +Depending on boarders, they neglect agriculture and buy their +food-stuff. Their largest colony of hoped-for agriculturists, Woodbine, +New Jersey, has become a clothing factory.[78] Yet the factory system, +with its discipline and regular hours, is distasteful to the Jew's +individualism. He prefers the sweat-shop, with its going and coming. If +possible, he rises through peddling and merchandising. + +These are a few of the many illustrative facts which might be set forth +to show that the changing character of immigration is made possible by +the changing character of industry; and that races wholly incompetent +as pioneers and independent proprietors are able to find a place when +once manufactures, mines, and railroads have sprung into being, with +their captains of industry to guide and supervise their semi-intelligent +work. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +LABOR + + +We have seen that the character of the immigrants for whom a place can +be found depends upon the character of the industry. It also depends +upon the laws governing property in labor. Here the industrial problem +widens out into the social problem. + +There are four variations in the treatment of labor as property in the +United States, each of which has had its peculiar effect on the +character of immigration, or has grown out of the relations between +races. They are slavery, peonage, contract labor, and free labor. Under +slavery the laborer and his children are compelled by law throughout +their lifetime to work for an owner on terms dictated and enforced by +him. Under peonage the laborer is compelled by law to pay off a debt by +means of his labor, and under contract labor he is compelled by law to +carry out a contract to work. To enforce peonage and contract labor the +offence of "running away" is made punishable by imprisonment at forced +labor, or by extension of the period of service. Under freedom the law +refuses to enforce a contract to work, making this an exception to the +sacredness of contracts, and refuses to enforce the payment of a debt +by specific service. This leaves to the contractor or creditor the +usually empty relief of suing for damages. The significance of these +varying degrees of servile, semi-servile, and free labor will be seen in +the following discussion of the social relations of the superior and +inferior races. + +In the entire circuit of the globe those races which have developed +under a tropical sun are found to be indolent and fickle. From the +standpoint of survival of the fittest, such vices are virtues, for +severe and continuous exertion under tropical conditions bring +prostration and predisposition to disease. Therefore, if such races are +to adopt that industrious life which is a second nature to races of the +temperate zones, it is only through some form of compulsion. The negro +could not possibly have found a place in American industry had he come +as a free man, and at the present time contract labor and peonage with +the crime of "running away" are recognized in varying degrees by the +laws of Southern states. These statutes have been held unconstitutional +by the Supreme Court,[79] under an act of Congress passed in 1867, but +the condition of peonage which they contemplate is considered by many +planters as essential to the continuance of the cotton industry. One of +them, in southwestern Georgia, a graduate of Columbia College, with five +years of business training in the Northern states, is quoted in an +interview as follows:[80]-- + +"We have two ways of handling our plantations. We rent small sections of +forty acres each, and with these go a plough and the mule. In addition, +I have about 450 hands who work on wages. These men are paid nine +dollars a month, in addition to a fixed rate of food, which amounts to +four pounds of meat a week, a certain percentage of vegetables, tobacco, +sugar, flour, and some other commodities. + +"These negroes live on the plantation, are given a roof over their +heads, have garden patches, and several other more or less valuable +privileges. They invariably come to me for small advances of money. + +"These advances of money and rations and clothing, although there is not +much of the latter, are frequently sufficient to put the negro in debt +to us. The minute he finds he is in debt he naturally conceives it to be +easier to go to work somewhere else and begin all over again, instead of +paying his debts. + +"Now, when a negro runs away and violates his contract, leaving us in +the lurch, not only short of his labor, but short of the advances we +have made to him in money and goods, what would happen if we depended +simply and solely on our right to sue? In the first place, with 450 +hands we would have 450 suits before the season is out, and if we won +them all we would not be able to collect forty-five cents. + +"The result is, that in Georgia and Alabama, and I believe in other +states, the law recognizes the right of the planter to reclaim the +laborer who has left in violation of his contract, whether he be +actually in debt or not. + +"Whether Judge Jones has declared this law constitutional or not, the +planters in the black belt will have to maintain their right to claim +their contract labor, or else they will have to go out of the business. +Under any other system you would find it impossible to get in your +cotton, because the negroes at the critical time would simply sit down +and refuse to work. When they are well, we compel laborers to go to the +field by force. This is the truth, and there is no use lying about it." + +This reasoning is entirely logical from the business standpoint. If +production of wealth is the standard, contracts must be fulfilled and +debts must be paid. Otherwise capital will not embark in business. But +the reasoning does not stop with the negro. Once established, the +practice spreads to other races. Instances are cited of white men held +in peonage, negroes holding other negroes, and Italians forced to work +in a phosphate mine.[81] It is an easy matter to get working men in +debt. Many thousand rural justices keeping no records of convictions, +hundreds of constables with fees depending on convictions, scores of +petty crimes with penalties not usually enforced, contractors and +planters eager for labor at the convict's rating of 35 cents a +day--neither the negro nor the poor white is safe. Immigrants avoid a +country with such a record. Not only the dread of forced labor for +themselves but the dread of competition with the low wages that the +forced labor of others implies, keep the immigrants away from the South. +The fame of peonage is spread among them before they leave their native +land. The business that rests on coerced labor damages the whole +community for its own temporary gain. The right to quit work is as +sacred for the workman as the right to enforce contracts for the +capitalist. It is just as necessary to get energetic labor as it is to +get abundant capital to embark in business. By recognizing the right of +workmen to violate contracts, the employer learns to content himself +with contracts that will not hurt when violated. He learns to appeal to +the workman's motive to industry by methods that are not coercive. +Admitting that the bulk of what is said about the negro's fickleness is +true, he nevertheless is indiscriminately maligned. The thousands that +are unreliable furnish a cloak for suppressing the hundreds that are +industrious. I have made comparisons of the pay-rolls of two gas works +in Southern cities--the one employing negro stokers at 11 cents an hour, +the other whites at 22 cents an hour, and both working 12 hours a day +seven days a week. The negroes put in as many hours between pay-days as +did the whites, and if they "laid off" after pay-day it is no more than +any class of white workmen would do after two weeks of such exhausting +work. The negro in Southern cities can scarcely hope to rise above 12 +cents an hour, and white mechanics have a way of working with negro +helpers at 10 cents an hour in order to lift their own wages to 20 cents +an hour. White wage-earners and white employers in the South speak of +the negroes' efforts to get higher wages in the same words and tones as +employers in the North speak of white wage-earners who have organized +unions and demanded more pay. A foreman condemned his "niggers" for +instability when they were leaving him at 10 cents an hour for a +railroad job at 12-1/2 cents an hour. Praising the Italians in +comparison with the negro, he could not think of paying 17-1/2 cents an +hour for pick-and-shovel work, which Italians were said to be getting in +another section of the state. The right to quit work is the right to get +higher wages. If the higher wages are paid and proper treatment +accorded, a process of natural selection ensues. The industrious and +steady workmen of all races retain the jobs. The gas company referred to +above, by a system of graded pay advancing with years of service, had +sorted out a more steady and reliable force of negroes than they could +have secured of whites at the rate of wages paid. The test is indeed a +severe one where a race has always been looked upon as servile. With +high wages regarded as "white man's wages," the process of individual +selection does not work out, and the dominant race excuses its resort +to whipping, beating, and peonage on the ground of the laziness which +its methods of remuneration have not learned to counterbalance. Even the +industrious Italians treated in this way would not be industrious--they +would leave for other states. + +The Malay races, to which the Filipinos belong, are, like the negroes, +careless, thriftless, and disinclined to continuous exertion. In order +to induce the Javanese to work, the Dutch government of Java sets aside +a certain tract of government land for coffee planting, and compels each +head of a household to set out and keep in order a certain number of +coffee trees. On private estates in Java and in other Malay and Indian +colonies, such as Burma, Ceylon, British India, where the government +does not compel the native to take a contract to work, it nevertheless +enforces contracts voluntarily made. In certain provinces of the +Philippines "the tenants are usually in debt, and the old law which +permits the creditor to imprison the debtor for non-payment of debt is +still in force.... Landowners of a district frequently come together +shortly before the crops are sold and agree among themselves how much +interest to charge the tenants on their debts. This is for the purpose +of charging the highest possible rate and at the same time retain +tenants, who then could not leave, finding the same conditions +prevailing throughout the district."[82] In densely populated countries +like Java and Southern India, where the native cannot set up for +himself, he has no alternative except to work under these contracts, and +this is also true in the more thickly populated districts of the +Philippine Islands. But the case is different in sparsely settled +countries like Burma, East Sumatra, and the greater part of the +Philippines, where wages are so high that natives are not compelled by +necessity to work continuously. "Speaking generally," says Professor +Jenks, "the unskilled Filipino laborer, while intelligent enough, is +careless and thriftless. He in most cases wishes to take two or three +days a week, on the average, to celebrate as feast days. In individual +cases, where his wages have been increased, he has been known to lessen +correspondingly the number of days per month which he would work. His +income being sufficient to satisfy his modest needs, he could see no +reason why he should toil longer than was necessary to earn his +income."[83] + +Hence in these sparsely settled countries the Dutch and English +governments have adopted, and Professor Jenks, in his report to the War +Department, has recommended a limited use of the system of contract +labor, not, however, for the native, but for imported Chinese. This +system has existed in another of our newly acquired possessions, Hawaii, +since 1852, where it applied to Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, and +German immigrants, and whence it was abolished by the act of +annexation in 1898.[84] + + +[Illustration: FILIPINO GOVERNORS (From Census of the Philippine Islands)] + + +Contract labor of this kind is quite different from the peonage and +contract labor of the non-industrial races. It is similar to the +indentured service of colonial times, in that the term of each contract +is limited to a few years, and the contract is made by way of +compensation for advanced expenses of immigration. The object is not, as +in the case of slavery and peonage, to compel a shiftless race to work, +but it is to develop the country by the introduction of an industrious +race. The Chinese, after the expiration of their contracts, often become +skilled laborers and merchants, and in the latter position their +frugality and wiliness make them dangerous neighbors for the native +Malay and Filipino races.[85] For this reason Professor Jenks recommends +that employers be placed under bonds to return each contract Chinese +coolie to China at the expiration of the period of contract, not to +exceed three years, unless the government gives special permission for +renewal of the contract. Governor Taft, in his report for the year 1902, +while advocating a limited employment of Chinese contract coolies, said, +"the truth is that, from a political standpoint, the unlimited +introduction of the Chinese into these islands would be a great mistake. +I believe the objection on the part of the Filipinos to such a course to +be entirely logical and justified. The development of the islands by +Chinamen would be at the expense of the Filipino people, and they may +very well resent such a suggestion."[86] + +Governor Taft's opinion is strongly supported by the special +commissioner of the American Federation of Labor, who, after inquiries +in the district surrounding Manila, reports as follows:-- + +"Their reluctance to work, continually harped upon by many employers, is +simply the natural reluctance of a progressive people to work for low +wages under bad treatment. When wages rise above the level of the barest +and poorest necessaries of life, and where treatment is fair, there +Filipinos are at work in any numbers required."[87] + +The situation here is similar to that of the negroes. In order to get +two hundred steady workers at high wages it is necessary to try out a +thousand or more. But the reports of the Philippine Commission show that +with the process of selection which their engineers can pursue by means +of the high wages on government work the results are satisfactory.[88] + +"Of course," continues Mr. Rosenberg in his report, "the Filipino worker +cannot successfully compete--cheap as he can live--with the Chinese +standard of living, hence the unceasing vilification of the Filipino +workers by those employers and their following, who, seeing near by the +unlimited supply of cheap Chinese labor, wish these islands to be +thrown open to such labor, not only for the purpose of reducing the +small wages of the Filipinos, but also to reduce that of the Chinese +laborers now here. As one employer stated to me, 'We want more Chinese, +to keep them here for one or two years, then ship them back and get +another lot, for the Chinese I have here now are becoming too +independent and want more pay.'" + +=Free Labor.=--The free laborer is not compelled by law to work. Then why +should he work? Why does he work? The answer is found within himself. He +wants something that he cannot get without working. Though this may seem +a trifling question and a self-evident answer, the question and answer +are the foundation of all questions of free institutions. For the +non-working races and classes or the spasmodic and unreliable workers +are the savages, paupers, criminals, idiots, lunatics, drunkards, and +the great tribe of exploiters, "grafters," despots, and "leisure +classes," who live on the work of others. Nearly every question of +social pathology may be resolved to this, Why does he not work? And +nearly every social ill would be cured if the non-workers could be +brought voluntarily to work. + +There are just two grand motives which induce the freeman to +work--necessity and ambition. Necessity is the desire for quantity, +quality, and variety of things to be used. The term is elastic. It is +psychological, not material. It includes, of course, the wants of mere +animal existence--food, clothing, shelter. But this is a small part. The +cost of the mere quantity needed to support life is less than the added +cost needed to secure the quality and variety that satisfy the taste and +habits. A pig enjoys raw corn, but a man requires corn cake at five +times the cost. Tastes and habits depend on one's childhood, one's +training, one's associations, and kind of work. The necessities of a +Chinese coolie, Italian immigrant, or negro plantation hand are less, +and cost less, than those of a skilled mechanic or a college graduate, +because his associations have been different, and his present work is +different. But necessity goes farther. It includes the wants of the +family considered as a unit, and not merely the wants of the single man +or woman, else the race would not continue to increase. Furthermore, +social obligations impose added necessity. Compulsory education of +children compels parents to support their children instead of living on +their wages. Laws regulating sanitation and tenements compel the tenant +to pay more rent. The necessities of a farm-hand on the estates of Italy +are less than those of the same hand in the cities of America. + +Ambition is the desire for an improved position for one's self and +family--for better quality and greater variety of material things. It +demands a style of clothing and living suitable to the improved position +aspired to. It demands an education for one's children superior to the +minimum set by compulsory schooling. It demands thrift and economy for +the sake of independence or the ability to hold on until one's demands +are conceded. Ambition looks to the future--necessity is based on the +past. The negro or the Malay works three days and loafs three because +three days' wages procure his necessities. The Chinaman, or Italian, or +Jewish immigrant works six days and saves the wages of three because the +future is vivid to his imagination. With similar necessities one is +ambitious, the other is content. + +The scope and possibility of evoking ambition depend upon the +institution of private property. Property in human beings suppresses it, +unless occasionally a slave is permitted to purchase his freedom. The +wage system evokes ambition if the way is open for promotion or for +escape by becoming an owner. Tenancy is on a still higher level, but +most of all, for the masses of men, the ownership of his own small +property is the keenest spur to ambition, for it rewards the worker with +all of his product. This motive is the surest test of an individual's or +a race's future. Compare the negro and the Italian cotton grower as +tenants in the new vocation opening up to the latter. "It is always +difficult," says the observant planter, Mr. Stone,[89] "to get a negro +to plant and properly cultivate the outer edges of his field--the +extreme ends of his rows, his ditch banks, etc. The Italian is so +jealous of the use of every foot for which he pays rent that he will +cultivate with a hoe places too small to be worked with a plough, and +derive a revenue from spots to which a negro would not give a moment's +thought. I have seen them cultivate right down to the water's edge the +banks of bayous that had never been touched by the plough. I have seen +them walk through their fields and search out every skipped place in +every row and carefully put in seed to secure a perfect stand. I have +seen them make more cotton per acre than the negro on the adjoining cut, +gather it from two to four weeks earlier, and then put in the extra time +earning money by picking in the negro's field." + +But ambition has its penalty. It is equivalent to an increase in the +supply of labor. As an ambitious proprietor the increase goes into his +permanent property, but the ambitious wage-earner accepts a lower rate +of pay. His fellows see the reduction and go still lower. The see-saw +continues until wages reach the level of necessities, and there is +nothing left for ambition. The Jewish sweat-shop is the tragic penalty +paid by that ambitious race. In the Illinois coal mines the wages were +reduced one-third during twelve years of Italian and Slav immigration. +The ambitious races are the industrial races. But their ambition and +their industry bring the momentous problem of destructive competition. +It might seem that this evil would correct itself--that an increase in +the products of one industry would be offset by an increase in other +industries; that therefore the increased supply in one would not be +forced upon the market at lower prices, but would be exchanged on the +same terms as before for the increased supply in others. This is indeed +the case in prosperous times. All industries advance together, and the +increasing supply of one is merely an increasing demand for others. But +for some reason, industries do not always harmoniously advance together. +And when the disproportion appears, the workers who are blindly but +ambitiously pushing ahead endeavor to overcome, by increasing the +quantity of output, what they lose by reducing the price. There is but +one immediate and practical remedy--the organization of labor to +regulate competition. The method of organization is to do in concert +through self-sacrifice what the non-industrial races do individually for +self-indulgence; namely, refuse to work. Where the one loafs the other +strikes. While the necessities of the workers set the minimum below +which wages cannot fall, and their physical endurance sets the maximum +hours beyond which they cannot work, the labor-union, by means of the +strike or the threat to strike, sets a higher minimum of wages and a +lower maximum of hours, which leaves room for ambition. Eventually the +higher wage and the shorter hours become habitual and become a higher +level of necessities. Gifted individuals may, indeed, rise above the +wage-earning class by their own efforts, but labor organization alone +can raise the class as a whole. + +The organization of workmen in labor unions has been more difficult in +this than in other free countries, owing to the competition of races. +Heretofore it has been the easiest possible matter for a manager, +apprehensive of agitators in forming a union, to introduce a new race +and a new language into his works. Indeed, almost the only device and +symptom of originality displayed by American employers in disciplining +their labor force has been that of playing one race against another. +They have, as a rule, been weak in methods of conciliation and feelings +of consideration for their employees, as well as in the means of +safeguarding life and health, but they have been strong with the weapon +"divide and conquer." The number of races they have drawn upon is often +amazing. The anthracite mine workers comprise nineteen languages and +dialects. The employees of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company belong to +thirty-two nationalities and speak twenty-seven languages. Such a medley +of races offers indeed a disheartening prospect to the union organizer. +And therefore when these races finally organize, the change in their +moral character must be looked upon as the most significant of the +social and industrial revolutions of our time. The United Mine Workers +of America, with 300,000 members, is very largely composed of recent +immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe. So with the Longshoremen, +the United Garment Workers, and the Butcher Workmen. These are or have +been among the strongest and best disciplined of American labor-unions. +The newest races of the past twenty years have been coming long enough +to have members who speak the English language and act as interpreters +and leaders, and this is essential where the speeches at a union meeting +must be translated often into four or five languages before the subject +can be voted upon. Furthermore, the recruiting area for new races has +been nearly exhausted, and the races now coming find their +fellow-countrymen already in the unions. In the anthracite coal field I +saw a dozen Slovaks just arrived from Hungary, but persuaded by their +unionized precursors not to take the places of strikers. In New York a +shipload of Italians in time of strike has been taken directly into the +union. Such a sight would have been unlikely a dozen years ago. + +The competition of races is the competition of standards of living. The +reason the Chinaman or the Italian can save three days' wages is because +wages have been previously fixed by the greater necessities of more +advanced races. But competition has no respect for superior races. The +race with lowest necessities displaces others. The cotton textile +industry of New England was originally operated by the educated sons and +daughters of American stock. The Irish displaced many of them, then the +French Canadians completed the displacement; then, when the children of +the French had begun to acquire a higher standard, contingents of +Portuguese, Greeks, Syrians, Poles, and Italians entered to prevent a +rise, and latterly the Scotch-Irish from the Appalachian Mountains came +down to the valleys of the South, and with their low wages, long hours, +and child labor, set another brake on the standard of living. Lastly, +Italians are beginning to be imported to supplement the "poor whites." +Branches of the clothing industry in New York began with English and +Scotch tailors, were then captured by Irish and Germans, then by Russian +Jews, and lastly by Italians, while in Boston the Portuguese took a +share, and in Chicago the Poles, Bohemians, and Scandinavians. Almost +every great manufacturing and mining industry has experienced a similar +substitution of races. As rapidly as a race rises in the scale of +living, and through organization begins to demand higher wages and +resist the pressure of long hours and overexertion, the employers +substitute another race and the process is repeated. Each race comes +from a country lower in the scale than that of the preceding, until +finally the ends of the earth have been ransacked in the search for low +standards of living combined with patient industriousness. Europe has +been exhausted, Asia has been drawn upon, and there remain but three +regions of the temperate zones from which a still lower standard can be +expected. These are China, Japan, and India. The Chinese have been +excluded by law, the Japanese and Koreans are coming in increasing +numbers, and the Indian coolies remain to be experimented upon. That +employers will make strenuous efforts to bring in these last remaining +races in the progressive decline of standards, to repeal the Chinese +prohibitive laws and to prevent additions to these laws, naturally +follows from the progress toward higher standards and labor +organization already made by the Italian and the Slav. + +The trade-union is often represented as an imported and un-American +institution. It is true that in some unions the main strength is in the +English workmen. But the majority of unionists are immigrants and +children of immigrants from countries that know little of unionism. +Ireland and Italy have nothing to compare with the trade-union movement +of England, but the Irish are the most effective organizers of the +American unions, and the Italians are becoming the most ardent +unionists. Most remarkable of all, the individualistic Jew from Russia, +contrary to his race instinct, is joining the unions. The American +unions, in fact, grow out of American conditions, and are an American +product. Although wages are two or three times as high as in his +European home, the immigrant is driven by competition and the pressure +of employers into a physical exertion which compels him to raise his +standard of living in order to have strength to keep at work. He finds +also that the law forbids his children to work, and compels him to send +them to school to maintain a higher standard and to support his children +he must earn more wages. This he can do in no other way than by +organizing a union. The movement is of course aided by English-speaking +outsiders or "agitators," especially by the Irish, but it finds a prompt +response in the necessities of the recruits. Labor organization is +essentially the outcome of American freedom, both as a corrective to the +evils of free competition and as an exercise of the privilege of free +association. + +When once moved by the spirit of unionism, the immigrants from +low-standard countries are the most dangerous and determined of +unionists. They have no obligations, little property, and but meagre +necessities that compel them to yield. The bituminous coal miners were +on strike four months in 1897 and the anthracite mine workers five +months in 1902. Unionism comes to them as a discovery and a revelation. +Suddenly to find that men of other races whom they have hated are really +brothers, and that their enmity has been encouraged for the profit of a +common oppressor, is the most profound awakening of which they are +capable. Their resentment toward employers who have kept them apart, +their devotion to their new-found brothers, are terrible and pathetic. +With their emotional temperament, unionism becomes not merely a fight +for wages but a religious crusade. It is in the nature of retribution +that, after bringing to this country all the industrial races of Europe +and Asia in the effort to break down labor organizations, these races +should so soon have wiped out race antagonism and, joining together in +the most powerful of labor-unions, have wrenched from their employers +the greatest advances in wages. + +There is but one thing that stands in the way of complete unionization +in many of the industries; namely, a flood of immigration too great +for assimilation. With nearly a million immigrants a year the pressure +upon unions seems almost resistless. A few of the unions which control +the trade, like the mine workers and longshoremen, with high initiation +fees and severe terms of admission, are able to protect themselves by +virtue of strength already gained. But in the coast states and on +miscellaneous labor this strategic advantage does not exist, and the +standards are set by the newest immigrants. + + +[Illustration: GOVERNOR JOHNSON OF MINNESOTA.--SWEDE (From _The World +To-Day_)] + + +=Profits and Wages.=--We have now stated at some length in this and the +preceding chapter the two standpoints from which the immigration of +industrial races is viewed. One standpoint is that of the production of +wealth, the other the distribution of wealth. One is the development of +our natural resources, the other is the elevation of our working +population. If we inquire somewhat more critically and take into account +all of the circumstances, we shall find that the motives animating this +difference of policy are not really the above distinction between +production and distribution, but the distinction between two opposing +interests in distribution; namely, profits and wages. Unfortunately it +is too readily assumed that whatever increases profits does so by +increasing production. As a matter of fact it is only secondarily the +production of wealth and development of resources that is sought by one +of the interests concerned--it is primarily increase of profits at the +expense of wages. Cheap labor, it is asserted, is needed to develop the +less productive resources of the country--what the economists call the +margin of production. It is needed to develop the less productive +industries, like sugar beet, and the less productive branches of other +industries, like the construction of railways in undeveloped regions or +the reconstruction of railways in older regions, or the extension of a +coal mine into the narrow veins, and so on. Without cheap labor these +marginal resources, it is asserted, could not profitably be exploited, +and would therefore not be developed. + +This argument, within limits, is undoubtedly true, but it overlooks the +part played by machinery and inventions where wages are high. The +cigar-making machine cannot extensively be introduced on the Pacific +coast because Chinese cheap labor makes the same cigars at less cost +than the machines. High wages stimulate the invention and use of +machinery and scientific processes, and it is machinery and science, +more than mere hand labor, on which reliance must be placed to develop +the natural resources of a country. + +But machinery and science cannot be as quickly introduced as cheap +immigrant labor. Machinery requires accumulation of capital in advance +of production, but labor requires only the payment of daily wages in the +course of production. Consequently in the haste to get profits the +immigrant is more desired than machinery. But excessive profits secured +in this way bring reaction and a period of business depression which +check the production of wealth even more than the period of prosperity +has stimulated production. Consider the extreme vacillations of +prosperity and depression which characterize American industry. In a +period of prosperity the prices of commodities rise rapidly, but the +wages of labor, especially unorganized labor, follow slowly, and do not +rise proportionately as high as prices. This means an enormous increase +in profits and production of commodities. But commodities are produced +to be sold, and if the market falls off, then production comes to a +standstill with what is known as "overproduction." Now, wage-earners are +the mass of consumers. If their wages do not rise in proportion to +prices and profits, they cannot purchase as large a proportion of the +country's products as they did before the period of prosperity began. +"Overproduction" is mainly the "underconsumption" of wage-earners. +Immigration intensifies this fatal cycle of "booms" and "depressions." A +natural increase in population by excess of births over deaths, +continues at practically the same rate year after year, in good times +and bad times, but an artificial increase through immigration falls off +in hard times and becomes excessive in good times. Thus, in 1879, at the +lowest point of depression, the number of immigrants was 177,826, but +three years later, in the "boom" culminating in 1882, it rose to +788,992. In nine years following the depression of 1897 the number +increased from 230,000 to 1,100,000. + +Even this does not tell the story complete, for the effects of free +immigration are intensified by the opposite policy of a protective +tariff on imports. While labor is admitted practically free, the +products of labor are taxed to prevent free ingress. The following table +shows the extreme points in the rise and fall of immigration and +imports:-- + +CULMINATING POINTS OF IMMIGRATION AND IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE + + =================+=========================+======================= + | IMMIGRATION | IMPORTS + YEAR ENDING +----------+----------+--------------+------------ + JUNE 30 |Prosperity|Depression| Prosperity | Depression + -----------------+----------+----------+--------------+------------ + 1873 | 459,803 | | $642,000,000| + 1879 and 1878[90]| | 177,826 | |$437,000,000 + 1882 | 788,992 | | 725,000,000| + 1886 and 1885[90]| | 334,203 | | 578,000,000 + 1893 | 439,307 | | 866,000,000| + 1897 and 1898[90]| | 230,832 | | 616,000,000 + 1906 |1,100,735 | | 1,226,000,000| + -----------------+----------+----------+--------------+------------ + +By comparing the two sets of columns it will be seen that, owing to the +protective tariff, the imports of merchandise vary but slightly in +periods of prosperity and depression compared with the variation in +number of immigrants. Thus in the recent period of prosperity, the +imports increased twofold above the lowest point of the preceding +depression, while the number of immigrants increased nearly fivefold. + +The swell of immigration in the above-mentioned periods of prosperity +increases the supply of labor, but the protective tariff prevents a +similar increase in the supply of products. Thus immigration and the +tariff together prevent wages from rising with the rise in prices of +commodities and cost of living. This permits profits to increase more +than wages, to be followed by overproduction and stoppage of business. + +Furthermore, when once the flow of immigrants is stimulated it continues +for some time after the pinnacle of prosperity has been reached. In 1903 +the boom met a check at the beginning of the year, but the number of +immigrants continued to increase during the summer and fall at the rate +of 20,000 per month in excess of the number during the high period of +prosperity in 1902. This makes it possible for great corporations to +continue their investments by means of cheap labor beyond the probable +demands of the country, with the result of overproduction, loss of +profits, inability to pay fixed charges, and consequent panics. Thus it +is that immigration, instead of increasing the production of wealth by a +steady, healthful growth, joins with other causes to stimulate the +feverish overproduction, with its inevitable collapse, that has +characterized the industry of America more than that of any other +country. It helps to create fortunes during a period of speculation, and +intensifies the reaction during a period of stagnation. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +CITY LIFE, CRIME, AND POVERTY + + +Statistics are considered by many people as dry and uninteresting, and +the fact that a book is statistical is a warning that it should not be +read, or that the statistical paragraphs should be passed over for the +narrative and historical parts. This is a dilettante and lazy attitude +to take, and especially so in the study of social subjects, for in these +subjects it is only statistics that tell us the true proportions and +relative importance of our facts. The study of statistics leads us to a +study of social causes and forces, and when we see that in the year 1790 +three per cent of our population lived in cities, and in the year 1900 +thirty-three per cent lived in cities of 8000 population and over, we +are aroused to the importance of making a serious inquiry into the +reasons for this growth of cities and the effects of city life on the +future of democracy and the welfare of the nation. More impressive to +the student of race problems becomes the inquiry when we realize that +while one-fifth of our entire population lives in the thirty-eight +cities of over 100,000 population, two-fifths of our foreign-born +population, one-third of our native offspring of foreign parents, and +only one-tenth of our people of native parentage live in such cities. +That is to say, the proportion of the foreign-born in great cities is +four times as great, and the proportion of the children of foreign +parents is three and one-third times as great as that of the colonial +and older native stock. These proportions appear in the accompanying +table and the upper diagram on page 162. + +POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES AND LARGE CITIES: 1900 + + =======================+===================+=========================== + | | IN 38 CITIES OF 100,000 + | IN UNITED STATES | POPULATION AND OVER + +-----------+-------+------------+-------------- + TOTAL FOR UNITED STATES| | | | Per cent of + | | Per | | total of + | Number | cent | Number | corresponding + | | | | class + -----------------------+-----------+-------+------------+-------------- + Population |75,994,575 | 100.0 | 14,208,347 | 18.7 + Native white, native | | | | + parents |40,958,216 | 53.9 | 4,245,817 | 10.3 + Native white, foreign | | | | + parents |15,637,063 | 20.6 | 5,280,186 | 33.2 + Foreign white |10,213,817 | 13.4 | 3,972,324 | 39.7 + Negroes | 8,833,994 | 11.6 | 668,324 | 7.6 + Indian and Mongolians | 351,385 | .5 | 32,696 | 9.3 + -----------------------+-----------+-------+------------+-------------- + +If we present the matter in another form in order to show the full +extent of foreign influence in our great cities, we have another +diagram, which shows that 59 per cent of the population outside, and +only 30 per cent of the population within these cities is of native +parentage, while 27 per cent of the population outside, and 65 per cent +of the population within these cities is of foreign parentage. The +census enumeration carries us back only to the parents, but if we had +knowledge of the grandparents we should probably find that the +immigrant element of the nineteenth century contributed a goodly portion +of those set down as of native parentage. + + +[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION: 1900] + +[Illustration: PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION IN CITIES: 1900] + +[Illustration: CONSTITUENTS OF THE POPULATION OF CITIES OF MORE THAN +100,000 INHABITANTS: 1900] + + +Still more significant becomes the comparison when we take each of these +cities separately, as is done in the chart reproduced on page 163 from +the Statistical Atlas of the Twelfth Census. + +Here it appears that the extreme is reached in the textile manufacturing +city of Fall River, where but 14 per cent of the population is of native +extraction, while in the two greatest cities, New York and Chicago, the +proportion is 21 per cent, and the only large cities with a predominance +of the native element are St. Joseph, Columbus, Indianapolis, and Kansas +City, with Denver equally divided. As already stated, grandparents would +still further diminish the proportion of native element. + +If we carry our comparison down to the 160 cities of 25,000 population, +we shall find that in such cities is one-half of the foreign-born +population,[91] and we shall also see marked differences among the +races. At one extreme, three-fourths of those born in Russia, mainly +Jews, live in these principal cities, and at the other extreme, +one-fifth of the Norwegians. + +The other Scandinavian countries and the Welsh and Swiss have about +one-third, while the English and Scotch are two-fifths, Germany, +Austria, Bohemia, and Poland, one-half to three-fifths, Ireland and +Italy nearly two-thirds. + +Individual cities suggest striking comparisons. In New York, +computations based on the census show 785,035 persons of German +descent, a number nearly equal to the population of Hamburg, and larger +than the native element in New York (737,477). New York has twice as +many Irish (710,510) as Dublin, two and one-half times as many Jews as +Warsaw, half as many Italians as Naples, and 50,000 to 150,000 first and +second generations from Scotland, Hungary, Poland, Austria, and +England.[92] Chicago has nearly as many Germans as Dresden, one-third as +many Bohemians as Prague, one-half as many Irish as Belfast, one-half as +many Scandinavians as Stockholm.[93] + +The variety of races, too, is astonishing. New York excels Babel. A +newspaper writer finds in that city sixty-six languages spoken, +forty-nine newspapers published in foreign languages, and one school at +Mulberry Bend with children of twenty-nine nationalities. Several of the +smaller groups live in colonies, like the Syrians, Greeks, and Chinese. +But the colonies of the larger groups are reservoirs perpetually filling +and flowing.[94] + +The influx of population to our cities, the most characteristic and +significant movement of the present generation, has additional +significance when we classify it according to the motives of those who +seek the cities, whether industrial or parasitic. The transformation +from agriculture to manufactures and transportation has designated city +occupations as the opportunities for quick and speculative accumulation +of wealth, and in the cities the energetic, ambitious, and educated +classes congregate. From the farms of the American stock the sons leave +a humdrum existence for the uncertain but magnificent rewards of +industrialism. These become the business men, the heads of great +enterprises, and the millionaires whose example hypnotizes the +imagination of the farm lads throughout the land. Many of them find +their level in clerical and professional occupations, but they escape +the manual toil which to them is the token of subordination. These +manual portions are the peculiar province of the foreign immigrant, and +foreign immigration is mainly a movement from the farms of Europe to the +cities of America. The high wages of the industries and occupations +which radiate from American cities are to them the magnet which +fortune-seeking is to the American-born. The cities, too, furnish that +choice of employers and that easy reliance on charitable and friendly +assistance which is so necessary to the indigent laborer looking for +work. Thus it is that those races of immigrants the least self-reliant +or forehanded, like the Irish and the Italians, seek the cities in +greater proportions than those sturdy races like the Scandinavians, +English, Scotch, and Germans. The Jew, also, coming from the cities of +Europe, seeks American cities by the very reason of his racial distaste +for agriculture, and he finds there in his coreligionists the necessary +assistance for a beginning in American livelihood. + +At this point we gradually pass over from the industrial motives of city +influx to the parasitic motives. The United Hebrew Charities of New York +have asserted that one-fourth of the Jews of that city are applicants +for charity, and the other charitable societies make similar estimates +for the population at large. These estimates must certainly be +exaggerated, and a careful analysis of their methods of keeping +statistics will surely moderate such startling statements, but we must +accept them as the judgment of those who have the best means of knowing +the conditions of poverty and pauperism in the metropolis. However +exaggerated, they indicate an alarming extent of abject penury brought +on by immigration, for it is mainly the immigrant and the children of +the immigrant who swell the ranks of this indigent element in our great +cities. + +Those who are poverty-stricken are not necessarily parasitic, but they +occupy that intermediate stage between the industrial and the parasitic +classes from which either of these classes may be recruited. If through +continued poverty they become truly parasitic, then they pass over to +the ranks of the criminal, the pauper, the vicious, the indolent, and +the vagrant, who, like the industrial class, seek the cities. + +The dangerous effects of city life on immigrants and the children of +immigrants cannot be too strongly emphasized. This country can absorb +millions of all races from Europe and can raise them and their +descendants to relatively high standards of American citizenship in so +far as it can find places for them on the farms. "The land has been our +great solvent."[95] But the cities of this country not only do not raise +the immigrants to the same degree of independence, but are themselves +dragged down by the parasitic and dependent conditions which they foster +among the immigrant element. + + +[Illustration: DR. ORONHYATEKHA MOHAWK INDIAN, LATE CHIEF OF ORDER OF +FORESTERS] + + +=Crime.=--This fact is substantiated by a study of criminal and pauper +statistics. Great caution is needed in this line of inquiry, especially +since the eleventh census in 1890 promulgated most erroneous inferences +from the statistics compiled under its direction. It was contended by +the census authorities that for each million of the foreign-born +population there were 1768 prisoners, while for each million of the +native-born there were only 898 prisoners, thus showing a tendency to +criminality of the foreign-born twice as great as that of the white +native-born. This inference was possible through oversight of the +important fact that prisoners are recruited mainly from adults, and that +the proportion of foreign-born adults to the foreign-born population is +much greater than that of the native-born adults to the native +population. If comparison be made of the number of male prisoners with +the number of males of voting age, the proportions are materially +different and more accurate, as follows:-- + +NUMBER OF MALE PRISONERS PER MILLION OF VOTING POPULATION, 1890 (OMITTING +"UNKNOWN")[96] + + Native white, native parents 3,395 + Native white, foreign parents 5,886 + Native white, total 3,482[97] + Foreign white 3,270 + Negro 13,219 + +Here the foreign-born show actually a lower rate of criminality (3270) +than the total native-born (3482). This inference harmonizes with our +general observations of the immigrants, namely, that they belong to the +industrial classes, and that our immigration laws are designed to +exclude criminals. + +But this analysis brings out a fact far more significant than any yet +adverted to; namely, that the native-born children of immigrants show a +proportion of criminality (5886 per million) much greater than that of +the foreign-born themselves (3270 per million), and 70 per cent greater +than that of the children of native parents. + +This significant fact is further brought out, and with it the obverse of +the census mistake above referred to, when we examine the census +inferences respecting juvenile criminals. The census calculations show +that there are 250 juvenile offenders for every million of the +native-born population, and only 159 such offenders for every million of +the foreign-born population; but if we remember that the proportion of +foreign-born children is small, and then proceed to compare the number +of boys who are offenders with the number of boys 10 to 19 years of age +rather than with the number of persons of all ages, we shall have the +following results, confining our attention to the North Atlantic states, +where juvenile reformatories are more liberally provided than in other +sections:-- + +MALE JUVENILE OFFENDERS PER MILLION OF MALE POPULATION TEN TO NINETEEN +YEARS OF AGE, NORTH ATLANTIC STATES, 1890 (OMITTING "UNKNOWN")[98] + + Native white, native parents 1,744 + Native white, foreign parents 3,923 + Foreign white 3,316 + Colored 17,915 + +This table throws a different light on the situation, for it shows that +the tendency towards crime among juveniles, instead of being less for +the foreign-born than for the native-born, is nearly twice as great as +that of the children of American parentage, and that the tendency among +native children of foreign parentage (3923 per million) is more than +twice as great as that among children of American parents (1744 per +million). + +This amazing criminality of the children of immigrants is almost wholly +a product of city life, and it follows directly upon the incapacity of +immigrant parents to control their children under city conditions. The +boys, especially, at an early age lose respect for their parents, who +cannot talk the language of the community, and who are ignorant and +helpless in the whirl of the struggle for existence, and are shut up +during the daytime in shops and factories. On the streets and alleys, in +their gangs and in the schools, the children evade parental discipline, +and for them the home is practically non-existent. Says a well-informed +student of race problems in New York,[99] "Example after example might +be given of tenement-house families in which the parents--industrious +peasant laborers--have found themselves disgraced by idle and vicious +grown sons and daughters. Cases taken from the records of charitable +societies almost at random show these facts again and again." Even the +Russian Jew, more devoted and self-sacrificing in the training of his +children than any other race of immigrants, sees them soon earning more +money than their parents and breaking away from the discipline of +centuries. + +Far different is it with those foreigners who settle in country +districts where their children are under their constant oversight, and +while the youngsters are learning the ways of America they are also held +by their parents to industrious habits. Children of such immigrants +become substantial citizens, while children of the same race brought up +in the cities become a recruiting constituency for hoodlums, vagabonds, +and criminals. + +The reader must have observed in the preceding statistical estimates +the startling preëminence of the negro in the ranks of criminals. His +proportion of prisoners for adult males (13,219 per million) seems to be +four times as great as that of the native stock, and more than twice as +great as that of foreign parentage, while for boys his portion in the +North Atlantic states (17,915 per million) is ten times as great as that +of the corresponding native stock, and four times as great as that of +foreign parentage. + +The negro perhaps suffers by way of discrimination in the number of +arrests and convictions compared with the whites, yet it is significant +that in proportion to total numbers the negro prisoners in the Northern +states are nearly twice as many as in the Southern states. Here, again, +city life works its degenerating effects, for the Northern negroes are +congregated mainly in towns and cities, while the Southern negroes +remain in the country. + +Did space permit, it would prove an interesting quest to follow the +several races through the various classes of crime, noticing the +relative seriousness of their offences, and paying attention to the +female offenders. Only one class of offences can here be noted in +detail; namely, that of public intoxication. Although classed as a +crime, this offence borders on pauperism and the mental diseases, and +its extreme prevalence indicates that the race in question is not +overcoming the degenerating effects of competition and city life. +Statistics from Massachusetts seem to show that drunkenness prevails to +the greatest extent in the order of preëminence among the Irish, Welsh, +English, and Scotch, and least among the Portuguese, Italians, Germans, +Poles, and Jews. The Italians owe their prominence in the lists of +prisoners to their crimes of violence, and very slightly to +intoxication, though the latter is increasing among them. In the +Southern states the ravages of drink among the negroes have been so +severe and accompanied with such outbreaks of violence that the policy +of prohibition of the liquor traffic has been carried farther than in +any other section of the country. Probably three-fourths of the Southern +negroes live in prohibition counties, and were it not for the paternal +restrictions imposed by such laws, the downward course of the negro race +would doubtless have outrun considerably the speed it has actually +attained. + +Besides the crimes which spring from racial tendencies, there is a +peculiar class of crimes springing largely from race prejudice and +hatred. These are lynchings and mob violence. The United States presents +the paradox of a nation where respect for law and constitutional forms +has won most signal triumphs, yet where concerted violations of law have +been most widespread. By a queer inversion of thought, a crime committed +jointly by many is not a crime, but a vindication of justice, just as a +crime committed by authority of a nation is not a crime, but a virtue. +Such crimes have not been continuous, but have arisen at times out of +acute racial antagonisms. The Knownothing agitation of 1850 to 1855, +which prevailed among religious and patriotic Americans, was directed +against the newly arrived flood of immigrants from Europe and Asia, and +was marked by a state of lawlessness and mob rule such as had never +before existed, especially in the cities of Boston, New York, Pittsburg, +Cincinnati, Louisville, and Baltimore.[100] These subsided or changed +their object under the oncoming slavery crisis, and the Civil War itself +was a grand resort to violence by the South on a question of race +domination. Beginning again with the Kuklux and White-cap uprisings in +the seventies, mob rule drove the negroes back to a condition of +subordination, but the lawless spirit then engendered has continued to +show itself in the annual lynching of fifty to one hundred and fifty +negroes suspected or convicted of the more heinous crimes.[101] Nor has +this crime of the mob been restricted to the South, but it has spread to +the North, and has become almost the accepted code of procedure +throughout the land wherever negroes are heinously accused. In the +Northern instances this vengeance of the mob is sometimes wreaked on the +entire race, for in the North the negro is more assertive, and defends +his accused brother. But in the South the mob usually, though not +always, stops with vengeance on the individual guilty, or supposedly +guilty, since the race in general is already cowed. + +Other races suffer at the hands of mobs, such as the Chinese in Wyoming +and California at the hands of American mine workers, Italians in +Louisiana and California at the hands of citizens and laborers, Slovaks +and Poles in Latimer, Pennsylvania, at the hands of a mob militia. With +the rise of organized labor these race riots and militia shootings +increased in number, often growing out of the efforts of older races of +workmen to drive newer and backward races from their jobs, or the +efforts of employers to destroy newly formed unions of these immigrant +races. Many strikes are accompanied by an incipient race war where +employers are endeavoring to make substitution, one race for another, of +Irish, Germans, native whites, Italians, negroes, Poles, and so on. Even +the long series of crimes against the Indians, to which the term "A +Century of Dishonor" seems to have attached itself without protest, must +be looked upon as the mob spirit of a superior race bent on despoiling a +despised and inferior race. That the frenzied spirit of the mob, whether +in strikes, panicky militia, Indian slaughter, or civil war, should so +often have blackened the face of a nation sincerely dedicated to law and +order is one of the penalties paid for experimenting on a problem of +political and economic equality with material marked by extreme racial +inequality. + +=Poverty and Pauperism.=--Prior to year 1875 the laws of the United States +imposed no prohibition upon the immigration of paupers from foreign +countries, and not until the federal government took from the states +the administration of the law in 1891 did the prohibitions of the +existing law become reasonably effective. Since that year there have +been annually debarred, as likely to become public charges, 431 to 7898 +arrivals, the latter number being debarred in the year 1905. In addition +to those debarred at landing, there have been annually returned within +one to three years after landing, 177 to 845 immigrants, many of whom +had meantime become public charges. From these statements it will be +seen that, prior to 1891, it was possible and quite probable that many +thousand paupers and prospective paupers were admitted by the +immigration authorities, and consequently the proportion of paupers +among the foreign-born should appear larger than it would in later +years. In the earlier years systematic arrangements were in force in +foreign countries, especially Great Britain, to assist in the +deportation of paupers to the United States, and therefore it is not +surprising that, apart from race characteristics, there should have come +to this country larger numbers of Irish paupers than those from any +other nationality. Since these exportations have been stopped, it is not +so much the actual pauper as the prospective pauper who gets admission. +96 per cent of the paupers in almshouses have been in this country ten +years or more, showing that the exclusion laws are still defective, in +that large numbers of poor physique are admitted. Taking the census +reports for 1904, and confining our attention to the North Atlantic +states, where children are generally provided for in separate +establishments, we are able to compute the following as the relative +extent of pauperism among males:-- + +MALE PAUPERS IN ALMSHOUSES PER MILLION VOTING POPULATION, NORTH ATLANTIC +STATES, 1904. + + Native white, native parents 2,360 + Native white, foreign parents 2,252 + Foreign white 5,119 + Colored 4,056 + +Here we see the counterpart of the estimates on crime, for the natives +of foreign parentage show a smaller proportion of paupers than the +natives of native parentage, while the foreign-born themselves show more +than double the relative amount of pauperism of the native element, and +the colored paupers are nearly twice the native stock. + +The census bureau also furnishes computations showing the contributions +of the different races and nationalities to the insane asylums and +benevolent institutions.[102] In general it appears that the +foreign-born and the negroes exceed the native classes in their burden +on the public. A report of the Department of Labor of great value and +significance, incidentally bearing on this subject, shows for the +Italians in Chicago their industrial and social conditions. According to +this report the average earnings of Italians in that city in 1896 while +at work were $6.41 per week for men and $2.11 per week for women, and +the average time unemployed by the wage-earning element was over seven +months. In another report of the Department of Labor it appears that the +slum population of the cities of Baltimore, Chicago, New York, and +Philadelphia in 1893 was unemployed three months each year. With wages +one dollar a day, and employment only five months during the year, it is +marvellous that the Italians of Chicago, during the late period of +depression, were not thrown in great numbers upon public relief. Yet, +with the strict administration of the exclusion laws leading to the +deportation of over 2000 Italians a year as liable to become public +charges, it is likely that the immigrants of that race, although low in +physique, poverty, and standards of living, are fairly well screened of +actual paupers. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +POLITICS + + +American democracy was ushered in on a theory of equality. And no word +has been more strangely used and abused. There is the monarchical idea +of equality, and Mr. Mallock begs the question when he gives the title +"Aristocracy and Evolution" to a book on the necessary part played by +great men. Doubtless, in Greek, aristocracy means "government by the +best," but in history it means government by the privilege of birth and +landed property. Democracy may be in philology "government by the mob," +but in politics and industry it has been opportunity for great men +without blood or property. Mr. Münsterberg, too, sees the breakdown of +American democracy and the reaction towards aristocracy in the +prominence of civil-service reform, the preëminence conceded to business +ability, the deference to wealth, and the conquest of the +Philippines.[103] But civil-service reform is only a device for opening +the door to merit that has been shut by privilege. In England it was the +means by which the mercantile classes broke into the offices preëmpted +by the younger sons of aristocracy.[104] In America it is an awkward +means of admitting ability wherever found to positions seized upon by +political usurpers. It appealed to the American democracy only when its +advocates learned to call it, not "civil-service reform," but "the merit +system." As for the astonishing power of mere wealth in American affairs +the testimony of another English observer is based on wider observation +when he says, "Even the tyranny of trusts is not to be compared with the +tyranny of landlordism; for the one is felt to be merely an unhappy and +(it is hoped) temporary aberration of well-meant social machinery, while +the other seems bred in the very bone of the national existence."[105] + +A feeling of disappointment holds true of the conquest and treatment of +the Philippines. That a war waged out of sympathy for an oppressed +island nearby should have shaken down an unnoticed archipelago across +the ocean was taken in childlike glee as the unexpected reward of +virtue. But serious thinking has followed on seeing that these islands +have added another race problem to the many that have thwarted +democracy. Only a plutocracy sprung from race divisions at home could +profit by race-subjection abroad, and the only alternative to +race-subjection is equal representation in Congress. But to admit +another race to partnership without the hope of assimilation is to +reject experience. Independence or cession to Japan is the +self-preservation of American democracy. + +Another idea of equality is the socialist idea. Infatuated by an +"economic interpretation of history," they overlook the racial +interpretation. Permitting and encouraging plutocracy, they hope to see +the dispossessed masses take possession when conditions become +intolerable. But the "masses" would not be equal to the task. Privileged +wealth knows too well how to buy up or promote their leaders, how to +weaken them by internal dissensions, how to set race against race. Most +of all, the inexperienced despotism of the masses is worse than the +smooth despotism of wealth. The government of the South by the negro, +the government of San Francisco by "labor," fell into the hands of the +"carpet-bagger" and the "boss." Once in power, internal strife and +jealousy, struggle for office, or racial antagonism disrupt the rulers, +and a reaction throws them back more helpless than before. Men are not +equal, neither are races or classes equal. True equality comes through +equal opportunity. If individuals go forward, their race or class is +elevated. They become spokesmen, defenders, examples. No race or class +can rise without its own leaders. If they get admitted on equal terms +with other leaders, whether it be in the councils of the church, the +law-making bodies of the city, state, and nation, or the wage +conferences of employers, they then can command the hearing which their +abilities justify. They secure for their followers the equal +opportunity to which they are entitled. + +This is exactly the political problem that grows out of the presence of +races and immigrants. With these admitted to the suffrage on the basis +of mere manhood inspired by a generosity unknown to the people of any +other land, the machinery of representative government inherited from +England does not, for some reason, permit the free choice of leaders. +The difficulties may be seen in cities where the system first broke +down. A variety of races and nationalities living in the same ward are +asked to elect aldermen and other officers by majority vote. No one +nationality has a majority, but each sets up its list of candidates. The +nationality with a mere plurality elects all of its candidates, and the +other nationalities--a majority of the voters--are unrepresented. This +is an extreme case, and has not often been allowed to happen. But the +only means of preventing it is the "ward boss." The boss emerges from +the situation as inevitably as the survival of the fittest. And the +fittest is the Irishman. The Irishman has above all races the mixture of +ingenuity, firmness, human sympathy, comradeship, and daring that makes +him the amalgamator of races. He conciliates them all by nominating a +ticket on which the offices are shrewdly distributed; and out of the +Babel his "slate" gets the majority. + +The boss's problem is not an easy one. His ward may contain business men +on the hill and negroes along the canal. To nominate a business man +would lose the negro vote--to nominate a negro would lose the business +vote. He selects a nondescript somewhere between, and discards him for +another at the next election. The representative becomes a tool in the +hands of the boss. The boss sells his power to corporations, franchise +speculators, and law-evaders. Representative democracy becomes +bossocracy in the service of plutocracy. The ward system worked well +when the suffrage was limited. Then the business men elected their +business man unimpeded. But a system devised for restricted suffrage +breaks down under universal suffrage. Could the ward lines be abolished, +could the business men come together regardless of residence and elect +their choice without the need of a majority vote, could the negroes and +other races and classes do the same, then each would be truly +represented by their natural leaders. So it is, not only in cities, but +in county, state, and nation. Universal suffrage, clannish races, social +classes, diversified interests, seem to explain and justify the presence +of the party "machine" and its boss. Otherwise races, classes, and +interests are in helpless conflict and anarchy. But the true explanation +is an obsolete ward and district system of plurality representation +adopted when but one race, class, or interest had the suffrage. Forms of +government are the essence of government, notwithstanding the poet. An +aristocratic form with a democratic suffrage is a plutocratic +government. Belgium and Switzerland have shown that a democratic form +is possible and practicable. Proportional representation instead of +district representation is the corollary of universal suffrage which +those countries have worked out as a model for others.[106] The model is +peculiarly adapted to a country of manifold nationalities, interests, +and classes. Races and immigrants in America have not disproved +democracy--they have proved the need of more democracy. + +This is seen also in the distinction between men and measures. It often +has been noted that in American elections the voters are more interested +in voting for candidates than they are in voting on issues. The +candidate arouses a personal and concrete interest--the issue is +abstract and complicated. The candidate calls out a full vote--the issue +is decided by a partial vote. + +This difference is partly the result of organization. The candidate has +a political party, campaign funds, and personal workers to bring out the +vote. The issue has only its merits and demerits. Equally important +under American conditions is the race or nationality of the candidate. +This feature is often concealed by the ingenuity of political managers +in nominating a ticket on which the several nationalities are +"recognized." But with the recent progress of the movement to abolish +party conventions and to nominate candidates directly at the primaries +the racial prejudices of the voters show themselves. The nationalities +line up for their own nationality, and the political and economic issues +are thrown in the background. It is different when they vote on the +issues directly. The vital questions of politics, industry, +corporations, and monopoly which menace the country, unless rightly +answered, cut across the lines of nationality. The German farmer, +manufacturer, wage-earner, merchant, capitalist, and monopolist may all +unite to elect a popular German to office, but they do not unite to give +a corporation a monopoly. The same is true of other nationalities. +Wherever the referendum has been fairly tested, in Chicago, Detroit, +Oregon, and elsewhere, the sound judgment of all races has prevailed +over bias, prejudice, or racial jealousy. There none can claim +preëminence, for all have shown their share of patriotism, intelligence, +and regard for equal rights. By an automatic self-disfranchisement the +ignorant, the corrupt, and the indifferent of all races eliminate +themselves by failing to vote. Instead of being dismissed on the ground +that voters care mainly for men and less for measures, the referendum +should be adopted on the ground that it permits those interested in +measures to decide the question. Those who are not interested enough to +vote do thereby proclaim that they are satisfied whichever side wins. +The initiative and referendum are, above all other forms of government, +the specific remedy for the ills of universal suffrage and conflicting +nationalities. Race antagonism springs from personalities, race +coalescence from community of interest. A vote for candidates +intensifies antagonism--a vote on measures promotes community. + +There are, indeed, some kinds of measures which stir up race antagonism. +But the keenest of these have happily been eliminated. More intense than +any other source of discord is religious belief. Religious differences +in America are not so much theological as racial in character. The +Judaism of the Jew, the Protestantism of the British and colonial +American, the Lutheranism of the German, the Roman Catholicism of the +Irish, Italian, and Slav, the Greek Catholicism of other Slavs, all +testify to the history and psychology of races. Far-sighted indeed were +our fathers who separated Church and State. Were the people taxed to +support religion, every election would be a contest of races. All other +questions would be subordinate, and democracy impossible. But with +religion relegated to private judgment, each race is free to cultivate +at will that one of its own peculiarities most fanatically adhered to, +but most repellent to other races, while uniting with the others on what +is most essential to democracy. Religious freedom is more than a private +right--it is an American necessity. + + +[Illustration: CHINESE STUDENTS, HONOLULU (From _The Independent_)] + + +Another class of measures running partly along race lines are sumptuary +laws, especially those regulating saloons and Sunday observance. In +the Southern states saloon prohibition is largely a race +discrimination and a race protection. In the North it often is American +puritanism of the country against European liberalism of the cities. +Here the referendum shows itself as the conciliator of nationalities. +Upon no other issue has the popular vote been so generally resorted to. +This issue comes close to the habits and passions of the masses. It +takes precedence of all others except religion, but cannot be evaded +like religion. If legislative bodies and executive officials decide the +question, then the German or the Irishman adds to his zeal for the +election of a conationalist his thirst for the election of a candidate +with habits like his own. But when left to a popular vote, the saloon +question is separated from the choice of candidates, and other issues +come forward. A majority vote, too, pacifies the minority of all races, +where the act of a legislative body leaves the suspicion of unfair +advantage taken by unrepresentative politicians. By the exigencies of +the situation the referendum has been invoked to take both the saloon +problem and its share of the race problem "out of politics." The lesson +is applicable wherever race or nationality conflicts with democracy. +With questions of religious belief eliminated by the constitution, and +questions of personal habits eliminated by the referendum, other +questions of race antagonism will be eliminated by the initiative and +the referendum.[107] + +=Suffrage.=--The climax of liberality in donating the suffrage to all +races and conditions was reached with the fifteenth amendment in 1869. +At that time not only had the negro been enfranchised; but nearly a +score of Western and Southern states and territories had enfranchised +the alien. So liberal were these states in welcoming the immigrant that +they allowed him to vote as soon as he declared his intention to take +out naturalization papers. This declaration, under the federal law, is +made at least two years before the papers are granted, and it may be +made as soon as the immigrant has landed. Thus in some of those states +he could vote as soon as he acquired a legal residence, that is, four or +four and one-half years before he acquired citizenship. Several of these +states have recently changed these laws, but there remain nine that +continue to accept the alien as a voter. + +In the Eastern states such generosity was not granted by law but was +practised by fraud. Naturalization papers are issued by federal courts +and by state courts of record. The law gives the judge much discretion, +for he is required to refuse the certificate if he is not satisfied that +the alien is of good moral character, attached to the Constitution, and +well disposed. But so careless or crowded are the judges that seldom +have they examined the applicants. Indeed the political managers have +had the option of judges and could take their immigrants to the court +that would shut its eyes. Many thousands of fraudulent papers have been +secured in this way, beginning at the very time when the naturalization +law was enacted in 1802, but increasing enormously during the past forty +years.[108] + +Finally, in 1906, Congress enacted a law giving to the Bureau of +Immigration control over naturalization. The object is to bring all of +the courts under a uniform practice, to provide complete records and +means of identification, to establish publicity, to enable the +government to appear in court and resist fraudulent naturalization, and +to impose severe penalties.[109] The law also adds something to the +qualifications required of the alien. He must not be an anarchist or a +polygamist, nor a believer of such doctrines; he must be able to speak +the English language, and must intend to reside permanently in the +United States.[110] The language restriction affects but few, since in +1900 only 3.3 per cent of the naturalized foreign-born males of voting +age could not speak English.[111] The intention of permanent residence, +as well as the entire measure, is designed to remove the abuse of +foreigners' acquiring citizenship in order to return to their native +land and defy their rightful government. On the administrative side this +law is of great significance. It marks a serious beginning on the part +of the federal government of protecting the citizenship that a +generation before it had so liberally bestowed. + +There are certain races which by law are prohibited from naturalization. +For nearly seventy years the law on the subject enacted in 1802 admitted +to citizenship only free white persons. This was amended in 1870 to +admit "aliens of African nationality and persons of African descent." +But other colored races were not admitted, so that the Chinese, +Japanese, or Malay immigrant has never been eligible to citizenship. His +children, however, born in this country are citizens, and cannot be +excluded from voting on account of race or color. Indians living in +tribes are foreigners, but if they recognize allegiance by paying taxes +or dividing up their land in severalty they are citizens and voters. + +Of the immigrant races eligible to citizenship their importance as +possible voters is greater than their importance in the population. This +is because men and boys come in greater numbers than women and children. +Ten million foreign-born population furnishes 5,000,000 males of voting +age, but 66,000,000 native population furnishes only 16,000,000 males of +voting age. In other words, one-half of the foreign-born, and only +one-fourth of the native-born, are potential voters. But not all of the +potential voters are actual voters. With a grand total in the year 1900 +of 21,000,000 of the proper sex and age, only 15,000,000 went to the +polls. The ratio is five out of seven. Two million negroes were +excluded, and 1,400,000 foreign-born had not yet naturalized. This +leaves 2,600,000 natives and foreign-born who might have voted but did +not. The foreigner who takes out his citizenship papers does it mainly +to vote. Two-thirds of them had done so or declared their intention in +1900.[112] Probably the proportion of native whites who did not vote was +15 per cent of their total number, and the proportion of foreign-born +who did not, or could not, was over 40 per cent. + +But this proportion differs greatly among the several races. It is not +so much a difference in willingness as a difference in opportunity. Five +years are required for naturalization, and while 40 per cent of those +who have been here six to nine years have not declared their intention +nor taken out their papers, only 7 per cent of those who have been here +twenty years retain their allegiance to foreign governments.[113] This +increases relatively the political weight of the Teutonic and Celtic +races which are oldest in point of immigration, and reduces relatively +the weight of the Italian, Slav, and Jewish races. The figures below +make this quite plain. The table shows the proportion of foreign-born +who remain aliens, in the sense that they have neither taken out +citizenship papers nor declared their intention of doing so. Only 7 to +13 per cent of the foreigners from Northwestern Europe are aliens, +compared with 35 to 60 per cent of those from Eastern and Southern +Europe. In course of time these differences will diminish, and the +Italian and Slav will approach the Irishman and German in their share of +American suffrage:-- + +PER CENT OF ALIENS AMONG FOREIGN-BORN MALES OF VOTING AGE[114] + + Wales 7.1 + Germany 8.3 + Norway 9.7 + Ireland 10.1 + Denmark 10.3 + Holland 11.6 + Sweden 11.9 + Scotland 12.5 + Bohemia 12.6 + England 12.9 + Canada, English 21.1 + Russia (mainly Jews) 35.2 + Canada, French 38.5 + Finland 38.6 + Austria (largely Slavs) 44.6 + Portugal 51.6 + Italy 53.0 + Hungary (mainly Slavs) 53.1 + Greece 57.8 + Austria, Poland 61.6 + +The right to vote is not "inalienable," neither is the right to life or +liberty. Governments give them, refuse them, and take them away. In +America this means the state governments. The federal government only +declares that the states must follow the "due process of law," and not +discriminate on account of race, religion, or servitude. In allowing the +right to vote they may and do discriminate on other grounds, such as +morals, illiteracy, intelligence, property, and sex. This may result in +race or immigrant discrimination, and does so in the case of illiteracy +and intelligence. After the Irish immigration of the forties, +Connecticut in 1855 and Massachusetts in 1857 refused thenceforth to +enfranchise those who could not read the Constitution. Since 1889 six +other Northern and Western states--Wyoming, Maine, California, +Washington, Delaware, and New Hampshire, in the order named--have +erected barriers against those who cannot read or write the English +language or the Constitution.[115] Six Southern states have done the +same, but one of them, Mississippi, has added another permanent +barrier,--intelligence. This is supposed to be measured by ability to +"understand" the Constitution as read by a white man. Southern states +have also added vagrancy, poll tax, and property clauses even more +exclusive than reading and writing.[116] The federal courts have refused +to interfere because these restrictions in their legal form bear alike +on white and black. If in practice they bear unequally, that is a matter +for the state courts.[117] + +To take away the suffrage from many of those who enjoy it is peacefully +impossible under our system. But voters who hold fast to the privilege +for themselves may be induced to deny it to the next generation. It was +in this way usually that the foregoing restrictions were introduced. +Massachusetts set the example by retaining all who could vote when the +test was adopted, and making the exclusion apply only to those who came +after. The Southern states did the same by "grandfather" and +"understanding" clauses. By either method, in course of time, the +favored voters disappear by death or removal, and the restrictions apply +in full to the succeeding generation.[118] + +The effect of the educational test on the suffrage of the foreign-born +is not as great as might be supposed. Naturalization itself is almost an +educational test. Only 6.3 per cent of the naturalized foreigners are +illiterate, but 28 per cent of those who remain aliens are unable to +read. In Boston only 2 per cent are excluded from voting through +inability to read English, although the corresponding aliens are 22 per +cent. Probably the educational qualification in Massachusetts affects +these proportions by lessening the inducement to naturalize, but in +Chicago and New York, where that qualification is not required, scarcely +more than 5 per cent of those who get naturalized would be unable to +vote under such a law, compared with less than 1 per cent of the native +voters.[119] In the country at large the disproportion is not so great. +Five and eight-tenths per cent of the sons of native parents would be +excluded by an educational test against 6.3 per cent of the naturalized +foreigners, and only 2 per cent of the native sons of foreigners. In the +several Southern states the test, if equally applied, will exclude 6 to +20 per cent of the white voters and 35 to 60 per cent of the colored +voters.[120] In a Southern city like Memphis it would exclude 1 per cent +of the white and 38 per cent of the colored. + +Tested by the standards of democracy, the ability to read and write the +English language is a proper qualification. It is perhaps the maximum +that can be required, for to test the ability to understand what is read +and written is to open the door to partisanship and race discrimination. +Yet it is intelligence that makes the suffrage an instrument of +protection, and it is not a denial of rights to refuse such an +instrument to one who injures himself with it. The literacy +qualification is one that can be acquired by effort. Other tests, +especially the property qualification, are an assertion of inequality. +Yet it is not strange that with the corrupt and inefficient governments +that have accompanied universal suffrage there should have occurred a +reaction. This has not always expressed itself in the policy of +restricting the suffrage, for that can with difficulty be accomplished. +It has shown itself rather in withdrawing government as far as possible +from the control of the voters. The so-called "business theory" which +has so generally been applied to the reform of city governments has +converted the city as far as possible to the model of a private +corporation, with its general manager, the mayor. The city has been +denied its proper functions, and these have been turned over to private +parties. But this reaction seems to have reached its limit. It is now +understood to have been simply the legal recognition of an incipient +plutocracy establishing itself under the forms of democracy. The return +movement has begun, and the rescue of democracy is sought, as stated +above, in forms and functions of government still more democratic. + +The way plutocracy looks when it has passed the incipient stage may be +seen in Hawaii.[121] It is as though we had annexed those islands in +order to watch in our own back yard the fruit of excessive immigration. +A population of 154,000 furnishes 65,000 Hawaiians, Portuguese, and +other Caucasians. The Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans have 87,000 +population and no votes. The American contingent is some 17,000 souls +and 3000 votes. The latter represent four classes or interests: the +capitalist planters owning two-thirds of the property; superintendents, +engineers, and foremen managing the plantation labor; skilled mechanics; +small employers, merchants, and farmers. In order to get plantation +labor and to keep the supply too large and diversified for concerted +wage demands the planters imported contract Chinese in place of +Hawaiians, then Japanese, then Koreans. As each race rises in standards +and independence it leaves the plantations to enter trades, +manufactures, and merchandising. It drives out the wage-earners from the +less skilled occupations, then from the more skilled, then the small +manufacturers, contractors, and merchants. The American middle classes +disappear, partly by emigration to California, partly by abandoning +business and relying on the values of real estate which rise through the +competition of low standards of wages and profits, and partly by +attaching themselves to the best-paid positions offered by the planters. +In proportion as they move up in the scale through the entrance of +immigrants in the lower positions, they transfer their allegiance from +democracy to plutocracy. The planters themselves are caught in a circle. +The rising values of their land absorb the high tariff on sugar and +prevent rising wages if the values are to be kept up. The Japanese, with +contract labor abolished, have shown a disposition to strike for higher +wages. This has led to advances at the expense of profits, and the +resulting "scarcity of labor" compels the planters again to ask for +contract Chinese coolies. Immigration is thus only a makeshift remedy +for the exactions of unions and the undevelopment of resources. More +immigration requires perpetually more and still more, till the resulting +plutocracy seeks to save itself by servile labor. A moderate amount of +immigrant labor, assimilated and absorbed into the body politic, +stimulates industry and progress, but an excessive and indigestible +amount leads to the search for coercive remedies and ends in the +stagnation of industry. The protective tariff was supposed to build up +free American labor, but in Hawaii, with unrestricted immigration, it +has handed us American plutocracy. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +AMALGAMATION AND ASSIMILATION + + +A German statistician,[122] after studying population statistics of the +United States and observing the "race suicide" of the native American +stock, concludes: "The question of restriction on immigration is not a +matter of higher or lower wages, nor a matter of more or less criminals +and idiots, but the exclusion of a large part of the immigrants might +cost the United States their place among the world powers." + +Exactly the opposite opinion was expressed in 1891 by Francis A. +Walker,[123] the leading American statistician of his time, and +superintendent of the censuses of 1870 and 1880. He said: "Foreign +immigration into this country has, from the time it first assumed large +proportions, amounted not to a reinforcement of our population, but a +replacement of native by foreign stock.... The American shrank from the +industrial competition thus thrust upon him. He was unwilling himself to +engage in the lowest kind of day labor with these new elements of +population; he was even more unwilling to bring sons and daughters into +the world to enter into that competition.... The more rapidly +foreigners came into the United States, the smaller was the rate of +increase, not merely among the native population separately, but +throughout the population of the country as a whole," including the +descendants of the earlier foreign immigrants. + +Walker's statements of fact, whatever we may say of his explanations, +are easily substantiated. From earliest colonial times until the census +of 1840 the people of the United States multiplied more rapidly than the +people of any other modern nation, not excepting the prolific French +Canadians. The first six censuses, beginning in 1790, show that, without +appreciable immigration, the population doubled every twenty years, and +had this rate of increase continued until the present time, the +descendants of the colonial white and negro stock in the year 1900 would +have numbered 100,000,000 instead of the combined colonial, immigrant, +and negro total of 76,000,000. Indeed, if we take the total immigration +from 1820 to 1900, exceeding 19,000,000 people, and apply a slightly +higher than the average rate of increase from births, we shall find that +in the year 1900 one-half of the white population is derived from +immigrant stock, leaving the other half, or but 33,000,000 whites, +derived from the colonial stock.[124] This is scarcely more than +one-third of the number that should have been expected had the colonial +element continued to multiply from 1840 to 1900 as it had multiplied +from 1790 to 1840. + +An interesting corroboration of these speculations is the prediction +made in the year 1815, thirty years before the great migration of the +nineteenth century, by the mathematician and publicist, Elkanah +Watson.[125] On the basis of the increase shown in the first three +censuses he made computations of the probable population for each census +year to 1900, and I have drawn up the following table, showing the +actual population compared with his estimates. Superintendent Walker, in +the essay above quoted, uses Watson's figures, and points out the +remarkable fact that those predictions were within less than one per +cent of the actual population until the year 1860, although, meanwhile, +there had come nearly 5,000,000 immigrants whom Watson could not have +foreseen. Thus the population of 1860, notwithstanding access of the +millions of immigrants, was only 310,000, or one per cent less than +Watson had predicted. And the falling off since 1860 has been even +greater, for, notwithstanding the immigration of 20,000,000 persons +since 1820, the population in 1900 was 75,000,000, or 25 per cent less +than Watson's computations. + +POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION + + ------+------------+---------------+-------------+----------- + | POPULATION | WATSON'S | WATSON'S | FOREIGN + | (CENSUS) | ESTIMATE | ERROR |IMMIGRATION + | | | |FOR DECADE + ------+------------+---------------+-------------+----------- + 1790 | 3,929,214 | | | + 1800 | 5,308,483 | | | 50,000 + 1810 | 7,239,881 | | | 70,000 + 1820 | 9,633,822 | 9,625,734 | -8,088 | 114,000 + 1830 | 12,866,020 | 12,833,645 | -32,375 | 143,439 + 1840 | 17,069,453 | 17,116,526 | +47,073 | 599,125 + 1850 | 23,191,876 | 23,185,368 | -6,508 | 1,713,251 + 1860 | 31,443,321 | 31,753,825 | +310,503 | 2,598,214 + 1870 | 38,558,371 | 42,328,432 | +3,770,061 | 2,314,824 + 1880 | 50,155,783 | 56,450,241 | +6,294,458 | 2,812,191 + 1890 | 62,622,250 | 77,266,989 | +14,644,739 | 5,246,613 + 1900 | 75,559,258 | 100,235,985 | +24,676,727 | 3,687,564 + ------+------------+---------------+-------------+----------- + Total immigration 1820-1900 19,229,224 + ------------------------------------------------------------- + +This question of the "race suicide" of the American or colonial stock +should be regarded as the most fundamental of our social problems, or +rather as the most fundamental consequence of our social and industrial +institutions. It may be met by exhortation, as when President Roosevelt +says, "If the men of the nation are not anxious to work in many +different ways, with all their might and strength, and ready and able to +fight at need, and anxious to be fathers of families, and if the women +do not recognize that the greatest thing for any woman is to be a good +wife and mother, why that nation has cause to be alarmed about its +future."[126] + +The anxiety of President Roosevelt is well grounded; but if race suicide +is not in itself an original cause, but is the result of other causes, +then exhortation will accomplish but little, while the removal or +amelioration of the other causes will of itself correct the resulting +evil. Where, then, shall we look for the causes of race suicide, or, +more accurately speaking, for the reduced proportion of children brought +into the world? The immediate circumstances consist in postponing the +age of marriage, in limiting the number of births after marriage, and in +an increase in the proportion of unmarried people. The reasons are +almost solely moral and not physical. Those who are ambitious and +studious, who strive to reach a better position in the world for +themselves and their children, and who have not inherited wealth, will +generally postpone marriage until they have educated themselves, or +accumulated property, or secured a permanent position. They will then +not bring into the world a larger number of children than they can +provide for on the basis of the standing which they themselves have +attained; for observation shows that those who marry early have large +families, and are generally kept on a lower station in life. The real +problem, therefore, with this class of people, is the opportunities for +earning a living. In the earlier days, when the young couple could take +up vacant land, and farming was the goal of all, a large family and the +coöperation of wife and children were a help rather than a hindrance. +To-day the couple, unless the husband has a superior position, must go +together to the factory or mill, and the children are a burden until +they reach the wage-earning age. Furthermore, wage-earning is uncertain, +factories shut down, and the man with a large family is thrown upon his +friends or charity. To admonish people living under these conditions +to go forth and multiply is to advise the cure of race suicide by race +deterioration. + + +[Illustration: FACULTY OF TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE (From _World's Work_)] + + +Curiously enough, these observations apply with even greater force to +the second generation of immigrants than to the native stock, for among +the daughters of the foreign-born only 19 per cent of those aged 15 to +24 years are married, while among daughters of native parents 30 per +cent are married; and for the men of 20 to 29 only 26.8 per cent of the +native sons of foreigners are married and 38.5 per cent of the sons of +natives.[127] These figures sustain what can be observed in many large +cities, that the races of immigrants who came to this country +twenty-five or more years ago are shrinking from competition with the +new races from Southern Europe. + +Boston, for example, with its large Irish immigration beginning two +generations ago, shows a similar disproportion. Of the American +daughters of foreign parents 15 to 24 years of age, only 12 per cent are +married, but of the daughters of native parents 17 per cent are married; +of the sons of foreign parents 20 to 29 years of age, only 20 per cent +are married, but of the sons of native parents 26 per cent are married. +The contrast with the immigrants themselves is striking. In Boston, 24 +per cent of the foreign-born women aged 15 to 24 are married, and 35 per +cent of the foreign-born men aged 20 to 29.[128] In other words, the +early marriages of immigrant men and women are nearly twice as many as +those of the American-born sons and daughters of immigrants, and only +one-third more than those of the sons and daughters of native stock. +With such a showing as this it would seem that our "place among the +world powers" depends indeed on immigration, for the immigrants' +children are more constrained to race suicide than the older American +stock.[129] + +The competition is not so severe in country districts where the native +stock prevails; but in the cities and industrial centres the skilled and +ambitious workman and workwoman discover that in order to keep +themselves above the low standards of the immigrants they must postpone +marriage. The effect is noticeable and disastrous in the case of the +Irish-Americans. Displaced by Italians and Slavs, many of the young men +have fallen into the hoodlum and criminal element. Here moral causes +produce physical causes of race destruction, for the vicious elements of +the population disappear through the diseases bequeathed to their +progeny, and are recruited only from the classes forced down from above. +On the other hand, many more Irish have risen to positions of +foremanship, or have lived on their wits in politics, or have entered +the priesthood. The Irish-American girls, showing independence and +ambition, have refused to marry until they could be assured of a husband +of steady habits, and they have entered clerical positions, factories, +and mills. Thus this versatile race, with distinct native ability, is +meeting in our cities the same displacement and is resorting to the same +race suicide which itself inflicted a generation or two earlier on the +native colonial stock. But the effect is more severe, for the native +stock was able to leave the scenes of competition, to go West and take +up farms or build cities, but the Irish-American has less opportunity to +make such an escape. + +Great numbers of Irishmen, together with others of English, Scotch, +German, and American descent, remaining in these industrial centres, +have sought to protect themselves and maintain high standards through +labor-unions and the so-called "closed shop," by limiting the number of +apprentices, excluding immigrants, and giving their sons a preference of +admission. But even with the unions they find it necessary also to limit +the size of their families, and I am convinced from personal +observation, that, were the statistics on this point compiled from the +unions of skilled workmen, there would be found even stronger evidences +of race suicide than among other classes in the nation. + +To the well-to-do classes freedom from the care of children is not a +necessity, but an opportunity for luxury and indulgence. These include +the very wealthy, whose round of social functions would be interrupted +by home obligations. To them, of course, immigration brings no need of +prudence--it rather helps to bring the enormous fortunes which distract +their attention from the home. But their numbers are insignificant +compared with the millions who determine the fate of the nation. More +significant are the well-to-do farmers and their wives who have +inherited the soil redeemed by their fathers, and whose desire to be +free for enjoying the fruits of civilization lead them to the position +so strongly condemned by President Roosevelt. This class of farmers, as +shown in the census map of the size of private families,[130] may be +traced across the Eastern and Northern states, running through New +England, rural New York, Northern Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Michigan, +parts of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa. In the rich counties of +southern Michigan, settled and occupied mainly by native stock from New +York, the average size of families is less than four persons, as it is +in a large area of Central New York, whereas for the country at large it +is 4.7, and for counties in the mining sections of Michigan occupied by +immigrants it rises as high as 5.8 persons. + +The census figures showing the size of families do not, however, reveal +the number of children born to a family, since they show only those +living together and not those who have moved away or died. This +especially affects the large-sized families, and does not reveal, for +example, a fact shown by Kuczynski from the state census of +Massachusetts that the average number of children of the foreign-born +women in that state is 4.5, while for native women it is only 2.7.[131] +This also affects the showing for a state like West Virginia, composed +almost entirely of native Americans of colonial stock, with only 2 per +cent foreign-born and 5 per cent colored, where the average size of +families is 5.1 persons, the highest in the United States, but where in +the Blue Ridge Mountains I have come upon two couples of native white +Americans who claimed respectively eighteen and twenty-two children. +Throughout the South the reduction in size of families and the +postponement of marriage have not occurred to any great extent either +among the white or colored races, and these are states to which +immigration has contributed less than 3 per cent of their population. +Yet, if Superintendent Walker's view is sound in all respects, the +Southern whites should shrink from competition with the negro in the +same way that the Northern white shrinks from competition with the +immigrant. He does not do so, and the reasons are probably found in the +fact that the South has been remote from the struggle of modern +competition, and that ignorance and proud contentment fail to spur the +masses to that ambitious striving which rises by means of what Malthus +called the prudential restraints on population. It is quite probable +that in the South, with the spread of the factory system and universal +education, the growth in numbers through excess of births over deaths +will be retarded. + +On the whole it seems that immigration and the competition of inferior +races tends to dry up the older and superior races wherever the latter +have learned to aspire to an improved standard of living, and that among +well-to-do classes not competing with immigrants, but made wealthier by +their low wages, a similar effect is caused by the desire for luxury and +easy living.[132] + +=Americanization.=--A line on the chart opposite page 63 shows the +proportions between the number of immigrants and the existing +population. From this it appears that the enormous immigration of 1906 +is relatively not as large as the smaller immigration of the years 1849 +to 1854, or the year 1882. Three hundred thousand immigrants in 1850 was +as large an addition to a population of 23,000,000 as 1,000,000 in 1906 +to a population of 85,000,000. Judged by mere numbers, the present +immigration is not greater than that witnessed by two former periods. +Judged by saturation it may be greater, for the former immigrants were +absorbed by colonial Americans, but the present immigrants enter a +solution half colonial and half immigrant. The problem of +Americanization increases more than the number to be Americanized. What +is the nature of this problem, and what are the forces available for its +solution? + +The term amalgamation may be used for that mixture of blood which unites +races in a common stock, while assimilation is that union of their minds +and wills which enables them to think and act together. Amalgamation is +a process of centuries, but assimilation is a process of individual +training. Amalgamation is a blending of races, assimilation a blending +of civilizations. Amalgamation is beyond the organized efforts of +government, but assimilation can be promoted by social institutions and +laws. Amalgamation therefore cannot attract our practical interest, +except as its presence or absence sets limits to our efforts toward +assimilation. + +Our principal interest in amalgamation is its effect on the negro race. +The census statisticians discontinued after 1890 the inquiry into the +number of mulattoes, but the census of 1890 showed that mulattoes were +15 per cent of the total negro population. This was a slightly larger +proportion than that of preceding years. The mulatto element of the +negro race is almost a race of itself. Its members on the average differ +but little if at all from those of the white race in their capacity for +advancement, and it is the tragedy of race antagonism that they with +their longings should suffer the fate of the more contented and +thoughtless blacks.[133] In their veins runs the blood of white +aristocracy, and it is a curious psychology of the Anglo-Saxon that +assigns to the inferior race those equally entitled to a place among the +superior. But sociology offers compensation for the injustice to +physiology. The mulatto is the natural leader, instructor, and spokesman +of the black. Prevented from withdrawing himself above the fortunes of +his fellows, he devotes himself to their elevation. This fact becomes +clear in proportion as the need of practical education becomes clear. +The effective work of the whites through missionary schools and colleges +has not been the elevation of the black, but the elevation of mulattoes +to teach the blacks. A new era for the blacks is beginning when the +mulatto sees his own future in theirs. + +Apart from the negro we have very little knowledge of the amalgamation +of races in America. We only know that for the most part they have +blended into a united people with harmonious ideals, and the English, +the German, the Scotch-Irish, the Dutch, and the Huguenot have become +the American. + +We speak of superior and inferior races, and this is well enough, but +care should be taken to distinguish between inferiority and +backwardness--between that superiority which is the original endowment +of race and that which results from the education and training which we +call civilization. While there are superior and inferior races, there +are primitive, mediæval, and modern civilizations, and there are certain +mental qualities required for and produced by these different grades of +civilization. A superior race may have a primitive or mediæval +civilization, and therefore its individuals may never have exhibited the +superior mental qualities with which they are actually endowed, and +which a modern civilization would have called into action. The adults +coming from such a civilization seem to be inferior in their mental +qualities, but their children, placed in the new environments of the +advanced civilization, exhibit at once the qualities of the latter. The +Chinaman comes from a mediæval civilization--he shows little of those +qualities which are the product of Western civilization, and with his +imitativeness, routine, and traditions, he has earned the reputation of +being entirely non-assimilable. But the children of Chinamen, born and +reared in this country, entirely disprove this charge, for they are as +apt in absorbing the spirit and method of American institutions as any +Caucasian.[134] The race is superior but backward. + +The Teutonic races until five hundred years after Christ were primitive +in their civilization, yet they had the mental capacities which made +them, like Arminius, able to comprehend and absorb the highest Roman +civilization. They passed through the mediæval period and then came out +into the modern period of advanced civilization, yet during these two +thousand years their mental capacities, the original endowment of race, +have scarcely improved. It is civilization, not race evolution, that +has transformed the primitive warrior into the philosopher, scientist, +artisan, and business man. Could their babies have been taken from the +woods two thousand years ago and transported to the homes and schools of +modern America, they could have covered in one generation the progress +of twenty centuries. Other races, like the Scotch and the Irish, made +the transition from primitive institutions to modern industrial habits +within a single century, and Professor Brinton, our most profound +student of the American Indian, has said,[135] "I have been in close +relations to several full-blood American Indians who had been removed +from an aboriginal environment and instructed in this manner [in +American schools and communities], and I could not perceive that they +were either in intellect or sympathies inferior to the usual type of the +American gentleman. One of them notably had a refined sense of humor as +well as uncommon acuteness of observation." + +The line between superior and inferior, as distinguished from advanced +and backward, races appears to be the line between the temperate and +tropical zones. The two belts of earth between the tropics of Capricorn +and Cancer and the arctic and antarctic circles have been the areas +where man in his struggle for existence developed the qualities of mind +and will--the ingenuity, self-reliance, self-control, strenuous +exertion, and will power--which befit the modern industrial +civilization. But in the tropics these qualities are less essential, for +where nature lavishes food, and winks at the neglect of clothing and +shelter, there ignorance, superstition, physical prowess, and sexual +passion have an equal chance with intelligence, foresight, thrift, and +self-control. The children of all the races of the temperate zones are +eligible to the highest American civilization, and it only needs that +they be "caught" young enough. There is perhaps no class of people more +backward than the 3,000,000 poor whites of the Appalachian Mountains, +but there is no class whose children are better equipped by heredity to +attain distinction in any field of American endeavor. This much cannot +be said for the children of the tropical zones. Amalgamation is their +door to assimilation. + +Before we can intelligently inquire into the agencies of Americanization +we must first agree on what we mean by the term. I can think of no +comprehensive and concise description equal to that of Abraham Lincoln: +"Government of the people, by the people, for the people." This +description should be applied not only to the state but to other +institutions. In the home it means equality of husband and wife; in the +church it means the voice of the laity; in industry the participation of +the workmen. + +Unhappily it cannot be said that Lincoln's description has ever been +attained. It is the goal which he and others whom we recognize as true +Americans have pointed out. Greater than any other obstacle in the road +toward that goal have been our race divisions. Government for the people +depends on government by the people, and this is difficult where the +people cannot think and act together. Such is the problem of +Americanization. + +In the earlier days the most powerful agency of assimilation was +frontier life. The pioneers "were left almost entirely to their own +resources in this great struggle. They developed a spirit of +self-reliance, a capacity for self-government, which are the most +prominent characteristics of the American people."[136] Frontier life +includes pioneer mining camps as well as pioneer farming. + +Next to the frontier the farms of America are the richest field of +assimilation. Here the process is sometimes thought to be slower than it +is in the cities, but any one who has seen it under both conditions +cannot doubt that if it is slower it is more real. In the cities the +children are more regularly brought under the influence of the public +schools, but more profound and lasting than the education of the schools +is the education of the street and the community. The work of the +schools in a great city like New York cannot be too highly praised, and +without such work the future of the immigrant's child would be dark. In +fact the children of the immigrant are better provided with school +facilities than the children of the Americans. Less than 1 per cent of +their children 10 to 14 years of age are illiterate, but the proportion +of illiterates among children of native parents is over 4 per cent. This +is not because the foreigner is more eager to educate his child than is +the native, but because nearly three-fourths of the foreigners' children +and only one-sixth of the natives' children live in the larger cities, +where schools and compulsory attendance prevail. Were it not for +compulsory education, the child of the peasant immigrant would be, like +the child of the Slav in the anthracite coal fields, "the helpless +victim of the ignorance, frugality, and industrial instincts of his +parents."[137] As it is, they drop out of the schools at the earliest +age allowed by law, and the hostility of foreigners to factory +legislation and its corollary compulsory school legislation is more +difficult to overcome than the hostility of American employers, both of +whom might profit by the work of their children. The thoroughness with +which the great cities of the North enforce the requirements of primary +education leaves but little distinction between the children of natives +and the children of foreigners, but what difference remains is to the +advantage of the natives. In Boston in 1900 only 5 children of native +parents were illiterate, and 22 native children of foreign parents, a +ratio of one-twentieth of 1 per cent for the natives and one-tenth of 1 +per cent for the foreigners. In New York 68 of the 83,000 children of +native parents were illiterate, and 311 of the 166,000 native children +of foreign parents, a ratio insignificant in both cases, but more than +twice as great for the foreigners as for the natives.[138] Taking all of +the cities of at least 50,000 population, more than one-fourth of the +foreign-born children 10 to 15 years of age are bread-winners, and only +one-tenth of the children of native parents. The influence of residence +in America is shown by the fact that of the children of foreigners born +in this country the proportion of bread-winners is reduced to +one-seventh.[139] + +But it is the community more than the school that gives the child his +actual working ideals and his habits and methods of life. And in a great +city, with its separation of classes, this community is the slums, with +its mingling of all races and the worst of the Americans. He sees and +knows surprisingly little of the America that his school-books describe. +The American churches, his American employers, are in other parts of the +city, and his Americanization is left to the school-teacher, the +policeman, and the politician, who generally are but one generation +before him from Europe. But on the farm he sees and knows all classes, +the best and the worst, and even where his parents strive to isolate +their community and to preserve the language and the methods of the old +country, only a generation or two are required for the surrounding +Americanism to permeate. Meanwhile healthful work, steady, industrious, +and thrifty habits, have made him capable of rising to the best that +his surroundings exemplify. + + +[Illustration: SLAVIC HOME MISSIONARIES (From _The Home Missionary_)] + + +Since the year 1900 the Immigration Bureau has not inquired as to the +religious faith of the immigrants. In that year, when the number +admitted was 361,000, one-fifth were Protestants, mainly from Great +Britain, the Scandinavian countries, Germany, and Finland. One-tenth +were Jews, 4 per cent were Greek Catholics, and 52 per cent were Roman +Catholics. With the shifting of the sources toward the east and south of +Europe the proportion of Catholic and Jewish faith has increased. During +this transition the Protestant churches of America have begun to awaken +to a serious problem confronting them. The three New England states +which have given their religion and political character to Northern and +Western states are themselves now predominantly Catholic. In all of the +Northern manufacturing and industrial states and in their great cities +the marvellous organization and discipline of the Roman Catholic Church +has carefully provided every precinct, ward, or district with chapels, +cathedrals, and priests even in advance of the inflow of population, +while the scattered forces of Protestantism overlap in some places and +overlook other places. Two consequences have followed. The Protestant +churches in much the larger part of their activities have drawn +themselves apart in an intellectual and social round of polite +entertainment for the families of the mercantile, clerical, +professional, and employing classes, while the Catholic churches +minister to the laboring and wage-earning classes. In a minor and +relatively insignificant part of their activities the Protestant +churches have supported missionaries, colporters, and chapels among the +immigrants, the wage-earners, and their children. Their home missionary +societies, which in the earlier days followed up their own believers on +the frontier and enabled them to establish churches in their new homes, +have in the past decade or two become foreign missionary societies +working at home. Nothing is more significant or important in the history +of American Protestantism than the zeal and patriotism with which a few +missionaries in this unaccustomed field have begun to lead the way. By +means of addresses, periodicals, books, study classes, they are +gradually awakening the churches to the needs of the foreigner at +home.[140] Among certain nationalities, especially the Italians and +Slavs, they find an open field, for thousands of those nationalities, +though nominally Catholic, are indifferent to the church that they +associate with oppression at home. Among these nationalities already +several converts have become missionaries in turn to their own people, +and with the barrier of language and suspicion thus bridged over, the +influence of the Protestant religion is increasing. Perhaps more than +anything else is needed a federation of the Protestant denominations +similar to that recently arranged in Porto Rico. That island has been +laid out in districts through mutual agreement of the home missionary +societies, and each district is assigned exclusively to a single +denomination. + +While the Protestant churches have been withdrawing from the districts +invaded by the foreigners, the field has been entered by the "social +settlement." This remarkable movement, eliminating religious propaganda, +is essentially religious in its zeal for social betterment. Its +principal service has been to raise up Americans who know and understand +the life and needs of the immigrants and can interpret them to others. +In the "institutional church" is also to be found a similar adaptation +of the more strictly religious organization to the social and +educational needs of the immigrants and their children. + +More than any other class in the community, it is the employers who +determine the progress of the foreigner and his children towards +Americanization. They control his waking hours, his conditions of +living, and his chances of advancement. In recent years a few employers +have begun to realize their responsibilities, and a great corporation +like the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company establishes its "sociological" +department with its schools, kindergartens, hospitals, recreation +centres, and model housing, on an equal footing with its engineering and +sales departments. Other employers are interesting themselves in various +degrees and ways in "welfare work," or "industrial betterment," and +those who profit most by this awakening interest are the foreign-born +and their families. This interest has not yet shown itself in a +willingness to shorten the hours of labor, and this phase of welfare +work must probably be brought about by other agencies. + +The influence of schools, churches, settlements, and farming communities +applies more to the children of immigrants than their parents. The +immigrants themselves are too old for Americanization, especially when +they speak a non-English language. To them the labor-union is at present +the strongest Americanizing force. The effort of organized labor to +organize the unskilled and the immigrant is the largest and most +significant fact of the labor movement. Apart from the labor question +itself, it means the enlistment of a powerful self-interest in the +Americanization of the foreign-born. For it is not too much to say that +the only effective Americanizing force for the Southeastern European is +the labor-union. The church to which he gives allegiance is the Roman +Catholic, and, however much the Catholic Church may do for the ignorant +peasant in his European home, such instruction as the priest gives is +likely to tend toward an acceptance of their subservient position on the +part of the workingmen. It is a frequently observed fact that when +immigrants join a labor-union they almost insolently warn the priest to +keep his advice to himself. + +Universal suffrage admits the immigrant to American politics within one +to five years after landing. But the suffrage is not looked upon to-day +as the sufficient Americanizing force that a preceding generation +imagined. The suffrage appeals very differently to the immigrant voter +and to the voter who has come up through the American schools and +American life. The American has learned not only that this is a free +government, but that its freedom is based on constitutional principles +of an abstract nature. Freedom of the press, trial by jury, separation +of powers, independence of the judiciary, equality of opportunity, and +several other governmental and legal principles have percolated through +his subconscious self, and when he contemplates public questions these +abstract principles have more or less influence as a guide to his +ballot. But the immigrant has none of these. He comes here solely to +earn a better living. The suffrage is nothing to him but a means of +livelihood. Not that he readily sells his vote for money--rather does he +simply "vote for his job." He votes as instructed by his employer or his +political "boss," because it will help his employer's business or +because his boss will get him a job, or will, in some way, favor him and +others of his nationality. There is a noticeable difference between the +immigrant and the children of the immigrant in this regard. The young +men, when they begin to vote, can be appealed to on the ground of public +spirit; their fathers can be reached only on the ground of private +interest. + +Now it cannot be expected that the labor-union or any other influence +will greatly change the immigrant in this respect. But the union does +this much: it requires every member to be a citizen, or to have declared +his intention of taking out naturalization papers. The reasons for doing +this are not political; they are sentimental and patriotic. The union +usually takes pride in showing that its members are Americans, and have +foregone allegiance to other countries. In a union like the musicians' +the reasons for requiring citizenship are also protective, since they +serve to exclude transient musical immigrants from American audiences. +Again, the union frees its members from the dictation of employers, +bosses, and priests. Politicians, of course, strive to control the vote +of organized labor, but so disappointing has been the experience of the +unions that they have quite generally come to distrust the leader who +combines labor and politics. The immigrant who votes as a unionist has +taken the first step, in casting his ballot, towards considering the +interests of others, and this is also the first step towards giving +public spirit and abstract principles a place alongside private interest +and his own job. + +But there is another way, even more impressive, in which the union +asserts the preëminence of principles over immediate self-interest. When +the foreigner from Southern Europe is inducted into the union, then for +the first time does he get the idea that his job belongs to him by +virtue of a right to work, and not as the personal favor or whim of a +boss. These people are utterly obsequious before their foremen or +bosses, and it is notorious that nearly always they pay for the +privilege of getting and keeping a job. This bribery of bosses, as well +as the padrone system, proceed from the deep-seated conviction that +despotism is the natural social relation, and that therefore they must +make terms with the influential superior who is so fortunate as to have +favor with the powers that be. + +The anthracite coal operators represented such men, prior to joining the +union, as disciplined and docile workmen, but in doing so they +disregarded the fact that outside the field where they were obsequious +they were most violent, treacherous, and factional. Before the +organization of the union in the coal fields these foreigners were given +over to the most bitter and often murderous feuds among the ten or +fifteen nationalities and the two or three factions within each +nationality. The Polish worshippers of a given saint would organize a +night attack on the Polish worshippers of another saint; the Italians +from one province would have a knife for the Italians of another +province, and so on. When the union was organized the antagonisms of +race, religion, and faction were eliminated. The immigrants came down to +an economic basis and turned their forces against their bosses. "We +fellows killed this country," said a Polish striker to Father Curran, +"and now we are going to make it." The sense of a common cause, and, +more than all else, the sense of individual rights as men, have come to +these people through the organization of their labor unions, and it +could come in no other way, for the union appeals to their necessities, +while other forces appeal to their prejudices. They are even yet far +from ideal Americans, but those who have hitherto imported them and +profited by their immigration should be the last to cry out against the +chief influence that has started them on the way to true +Americanism.[141] + +=Agricultural Distribution of Immigrants.=--The congestion and colonizing +of immigrants in the cities and their consequent poverty and the +deterioration of the second generation have brought forth various +proposals for inducing them to settle upon the farms. The commissioners +of immigration[142] at various times have advocated an industrial museum +at Ellis Island, wherein the resources and opportunities of the several +states could be displayed before the eyes of the incoming thousands. +They and others have gone further and advocated the creation of a bureau +of immigrant distribution to help the immigrants out of the crowded +cities into the country districts. Still others have urged the +establishment of steamship lines to Southern ports and the Gulf of +Mexico, so that immigrants may be carried directly to the regions that +"need them." Very little can be expected from projects of this +kind,[143] for the present contingent of immigrants from Southeastern +Europe is too poor in worldly goods and too ignorant of American +business to warrant an experiment in the isolation and self-dependence +of farming. The farmers of the South and West welcome the settler who +has means of purchase, but they distrust the newly arrived immigrant. +Scandinavians and Germans in large numbers find their way to their +countrymen on the farms, but the newer nationalities would require the +fostering care of government or of wealthy private societies. The Jews +have, indeed, taken up the matter, and the Jewish Agricultural and +Industrial Aid Society of New York, by means of subventions from the +Baron de Hirsch fund, has distributed many families throughout the +country, partly in agriculture, but more generally in trade. The Society +for the Protection of Italian Immigrants is doing similar work. Great +railway systems and land companies in the South and West have their +agricultural and industrial agents on the lookout for eligible settlers. +All of the Southern states have established bureaus of immigration, and +they are advertising the North and Europe for desirable immigrants. But +these agencies seek mainly those immigrants who have resided in the +country for a time, and have learned the language and American +practices, and, in the case of the railroad and land companies, those +who have accumulated some property. + +The immigration bureaus of the Southern states and railways, the most +urgent applicants at the present time for immigrants, are strongly +opposed to the plan of federal distribution. They want farmers who will +do their own work. From the standpoint of the immigrant himself this +position is correct. To find a place as an agriculturist he must find a +place as a farmer and not a harvest hand.[144] Speaking for the Southern +bureaus, Professor Fleming says,[145] "The South decidedly objects to +being made the government dumping-ground for undesirable immigrants. It +does not want the lower class foreigners who have swarmed into the +Northern cities. It wants the same sort of people who settled so much of +the West." The state board of South Carolina officially invites +immigration of "white citizens of the United States, citizens of +Ireland, Scotland, Switzerland, and France, and all other foreigners of +Saxon origin." + +As for those without money who must depend on their daily labor for +wages, they must go where employment is most regular and the best wages +are paid. This is not on the farms, with a few months' work in summer +and no homes in winter. It is unmistakably in the great cities and +industrial centres. The commissioner of immigration at Ellis Island, +speaking of the cordon established by his bureau along the Canadian +frontier from Halifax to Winnipeg in order to catch those who tried to +escape inspection at New York, said, "All those immigrants who had New +York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Cleveland, or Cincinnati in mind as a +destination when they left Europe and came to Quebec, went all the way +around that wall to its western end at Winnipeg, and then took trains +and came back to the very places they had in mind when they left Europe; +and if you were to land all the ships that now come to New York at +Galveston, New Orleans, or Charleston, every one of the immigrants would +come to the place he had in mind when he decided to emigrate."[146] + +Professor Wilcox contends that the immigrants already distribute +themselves according to their economic advantage as completely as do the +natives. They seem to congest in the cities because the cities are +necessarily their places of first arrival. "Our foreign-born arrive, in +at least nine-tenths of the cases, at some city. Our native citizens +arrive by birth, in at least three-fourths of the cases, in the country. +The foreign-born arrive mainly at seaport cities, and disperse gradually +from those cities to and through other interior cities, ultimately +reaching in many cases the small towns or open country. It is in no +sense surprising, or an evidence of imperfect distribution, that the +foreign-born should be massed in the cities when nine-tenths of them +arrive there, and the native population massed in the country districts +when three-fourths of them arrive there."[147] Artificial distribution +would not relieve the pressure as long as the character and amount of +immigration continue--it can only be relieved by creating greater +economic inducements in the country. Natives and foreigners both crowd +to the cities because wages and profits are higher than they are in the +country. + +Even supposing the congestion in the cities could be relieved by making +the inducements in the country greater, the relief could not continue, +for it would only invite more immigration. Emigration has not relieved +the pressure of population in Europe. In no period of their history, +with the exception of Ireland, have the populations of Europe increased +at a greater rate than during the last half century of migration to +America. It is not emigration but improved standards of living that +lessens the pressure of numbers, and France with the widest diffusion of +property has little emigration and no increase in population. With the +redundant millions of Europe, increasing thousands would migrate if they +got word from their friends that the American government is finding jobs +for them. Just as we have already seen that the tide of immigration +rises with a period of prosperity in America, so would it rise with +agricultural distribution of immigrants. Both are simply more openings +for employment, and the knowledge of such opportunities is promptly +carried to the waiting multitudes abroad. + +Consider also the political jeopardy of an administration at Washington +conducting a bureau for the distribution of immigrants. If it refused +to direct immigrants to one section of the country because it found that +the wages were low, it would arouse the hostility of employers. If it +directed them to another section, where the wages offered were high +because the employers were preparing for a lockout, or the unions were +on strike, it would lose the votes of workingmen. The administration +would soon learn that safely to conduct such a bureau it must not +conduct it at all. + +Far better is it that the federal government should leave the +distribution of immigrants to private employment agencies. It might then +license all such agencies that conduct an interstate business. With the +power to take away the license on proof of fraud and misrepresentation, +and with the prosecution of agencies and employers that deceive and +enslave the immigrant, the government would accomplish all that it could +directly do for better distribution. Unquestionably the employment +agencies, with their _padroni_, their bankers, and their false promises, +are the source of miserable abuse to thousands of immigrants.[148] They +require interstate as well as state regulation. By weeding out the +dishonest agencies the field would be occupied by the honest ones, and +the immigrant could trust himself to their assistance. But such +regulation would not be merely for the sake of the immigrant. It would, +as it should, aid the American as well. + +This suggests to us the true nature of the problem of city congestion +and the nature of its solution. It is not to be found in special efforts +on behalf of the immigrant, but in efforts to better the condition of +both Americans and immigrants. The congestion of cities is owing to +discriminations in favor of cities. If the government gives aid to +agriculture as it does to manufactures, if it provides better +communication, equalizes taxes, reduces freight rates to the level +enjoyed by cities, then agriculture and the small towns will be more +attractive. Americans will not crowd to the cities, and the more +provident of the immigrants will find their way to the country. The +proposition of federal distribution of immigrants is merely a clever +illusion kept up to lead Congress astray from the restriction of +immigration. + +=Higher Standards of Immigration.=--As for the inferior, defective, and +undesirable classes of immigrants, there is no protection except +stringent selection. The Commissioner of Immigration at New York +estimates that 200,000 of the million immigrants in 1903 were an injury +instead of a benefit to the industries of the country,[149] and he +advocates a physical examination and the exclusion of those who fall +below a certain physical standard. During the past ten years the +educational, or rather, illiteracy test, has come to the front, and the +advantages of this test are its simplicity and its specific application +to those races whose standards are lowest. + + +[Illustration: ALIENS AWAITING ADMISSION AT ELLIS ISLAND] + + +Much discussion has been carried on respecting this test, and there has +been considerable misunderstanding and misrepresentation as to its +probable effects. The principal mistake has been the assumption that it +is designed to take the place of other tests of admission, and that +therefore it would permit, for example, the most dangerous +criminals--those who are intelligent--to enter this country. If we +examine existing laws, and seek to understand the real nature of +immigration restriction, we can see the character of this mistake. All +of our legislation governing immigration should be described as +_improvement_ of immigration rather than _restriction_ of immigration. +The object has always been to raise the average character of those +admitted by excluding those who fall below certain standards. And higher +standards have been added from time to time as rapidly as the lawmakers +perceived the need of bettering the quality of our future citizenship. +Although in 1862 Congress had enacted a law prohibiting the shipment of +Chinese coolies in American vessels,[150] it was not until 1875 that the +lawmakers first awoke to the evil of unrestricted immigration. In that +year a law was enacted to exclude convicts and prostitutes. This law +made an exception in favor of those who had been convicted of political +offences. Next, in 1882, Congress added lunatics, idiots, paupers, and +Chinese. In 1885 laborers under contract were for the first time to be +excluded, but an exception was made in order to admit actors, artists, +lecturers, singers, domestics, and skilled workmen for new industries. +In 1891 the list of ineligibles was again extended so as to shut out not +only convicts but persons convicted of crime, also "assisted" +immigrants, polygamists, and persons with loathsome or dangerous +contagious diseases. In 1903 the law added epileptics, persons who have +had two or more attacks of insanity, professional beggars, and +anarchists. Notwithstanding these successive additions of excluded +classes, the number of immigrants has continually increased until it is +greater to-day than in any preceding period, and while the standards +have been raised in one direction, the average quality has been lowered +in other directions. The educational and physical tests, while not +needed for the races from Northwestern Europe, are now advocated as +additions to the existing tests on account of the flood of races from +Southeastern Europe. + +The question of "poor physique" has come seriously to the front in +recent reports of immigration officials. The decline in the average of +physical make-up to which they call attention accompanies the increase +in numbers of Southern and Eastern Europeans. While the commissioner at +Ellis Island estimates that 200,000 immigrants are below the physical +standards that should be required to entitle them to admission, the +number certified by the surgeons is much less than this. Yet nine-tenths +of even that smaller number are admitted, since the law excludes them +only if other grounds of exclusion appear. That the physical test is +practicable is shown by the following description of the qualities taken +into account by the medical examiners at the immigrant stations; +qualities which would be made even more definite if they were authorized +to be acted upon:[151]-- + +"A certificate of this nature implies that the alien concerned is +afflicted with a body not only but illy adapted to the work necessary to +earn his bread, but also but poorly able to withstand the onslaught of +disease. It means that he is undersized, poorly developed, with feeble +heart action, arteries below the standard size; that he is physically +degenerate, and as such not only unlikely to become a desirable citizen, +but also very likely to transmit his undesirable qualities to his +offspring should he, unfortunately for the country in which he is +domiciled, have any. + +"Of all causes for rejection, outside of those for dangerous, +contagious, or loathsome diseases, or for mental disease, that of 'poor +physique' should receive the most weight, for in admitting such aliens +not only do we increase the number of public charges by their inability +to gain their bread through their physical inaptitude and their low +resistance to disease, but we admit likewise progenitors to this country +whose offspring will reproduce, often in an exaggerated degree, the +physical degeneracy of their parents." + +The history of the illiteracy test in Congress is a curious comment on +lobbying. First introduced in 1895, it passed the House by a vote of 195 +to 26, and the Senate in another form by a vote of 52 to 10. Referred to +a conference committee, an identical bill again passed both Houses by +reduced majorities. But irrelevant amendments had been tacked on and the +President vetoed it. The House passed it over his veto by 193 to 37, but +it was too late in the session to reach a vote in the Senate. Introduced +again in 1898, it passed the Senate by 45 to 28, but pressure of the +Spanish War prevented a vote in the House. The bill came up in +subsequent Congresses but did not reach a vote.[152] The lobby is +directed by the steamship companies, supported by railway companies, the +Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, and other great employers of +labor. By misrepresentation, these interested agencies have been able at +times to arouse the fears of the older races of immigrants not affected +by the measure. Their fears were groundless, for the illiteracy test is +not a test of the English language, but a test of any language, and it +applies only to those who are 15 years of age and over, but does not +apply to wife, children, parents, or grandparents of those who are +admitted. With these reasonable limitations it would exclude only 1 in +200 of the Scandinavians, 1 in 100 of the English, Scotch, and Finns, 2 +or 3 in 100 of the Germans, Irish, Welsh, and French; but it would +exclude one-half of the South Italians, one-seventh of the North +Italians, one-third to two-fifths of the several Slav races, one-seventh +of the Russian Jews, altogether one-fifth or one-fourth of the total +immigration.[153] But these proportions would not long continue. +Elementary education is making progress in Eastern and Southern Europe, +and a test of this kind would stimulate it still more among the +peasants. Restrictive at first, it is only selective; it would not +permanently reduce the number of immigrants, but would raise their level +of intelligence and their ability to take care of themselves. + +The foregoing principles do not apply to Chinese immigration. There the +law is strictly one of exclusion and not selection. This distinction is +often overlooked in the discussion of the subject. Respecting European, +Japanese, and Korean immigration, the law _admits_ all except certain +classes definitely described, such as paupers, criminals, and so on. +Respecting Chinese immigration the law _excludes_ all except certain +classes described, such as teachers, merchants, travellers, and +students. In the case of European immigration the burden of proof is +upon the immigration authorities to show that the immigrant should be +excluded. In the case of the Chinese, the burden of proof is on the +immigrant to show that he should be admitted. In the administration of +the law the difference is fundamental. If the Chinese law is liberalized +so as to admit doctors, lawyers, and other professional classes, +against whom there is no objection, it can be done in one of two ways. +It can name and specify the additional classes to be admitted. To this +there is little objection, for it retains the existing spirit of the +law. Or it can be reversed, and can admit all classes of Chinese except +coolies, laborers, and the classes now excluded by other laws. If this +were done, the enforcement of the law would break down, for the burden +of proof would be lifted from the immigrant and placed on the examining +board. The law is with great difficulty enforced as it is, but the +evasions bear no comparison in number with those practised under the +other law. European immigration is encouraged, provided it passes a +minimum standard. Chinese immigration is prohibited unless it exceeds a +maximum standard. One is selection, the other is exclusion. One should +be amended by describing new classes _not_ to be admitted, the other by +describing classes which _may_ be admitted. + +This difference between the two laws may be seen in the effects of the +restrictions which have from time to time been added to the immigration +laws. Each additional ground of restriction or selection has not +decreased the total amount of immigration, nor has it increased the +proportion of those debarred from admission. In 1898, 3200 aliens were +sent back, and this was 1.4 per cent of those who arrived. In 1901, 3900 +were sent back, but this was only three-fourths of 1 per cent of those +arriving. In 1906, 13,000 sent back were 1.2 per cent of the arrivals. +Intending immigrants as well as steamship companies learn the standards +of exclusion and the methods of evasion, so that the proportion who take +their chances and fail in the attempt is very small. Nevertheless, this +deportation of immigrants, though averaging less than 1 per cent, is a +hardship that should be avoided. It has often been proposed that this +should be done through examination abroad by American consuls or by +agents of the Immigration Bureau. Attractive and humane as this proposal +appears, the foreign examination could not be made final. It would +remove the examiners from effective control, and would require a large +additional force as well as the existing establishment to deport those +who might evade the foreign inspection. It does not strike at the root +of the evil, which is the business energy of the steamship companies in +soliciting immigration, and their business caution in requiring doubtful +immigrants to give bonds in advance to cover the cost of carrying them +back.[154] It is not the exclusion law that causes hardship, but the +steamship companies that connive at evasions of the law. The law of 1903 +for the first time adopted the correct principle to meet this evasion, +but with a limited application. Since 1898, the Bureau had debarred +increasing numbers on account of loathsome and contagious diseases. But +these had already done the injury which their deportation was designed +to prevent. In the crowded steerage the entire shipload was exposed to +this contagion. Congress then enacted the law of 1903, not only +requiring the steamship companies to carry them back, as before, but +requiring the companies to pay a fine of $100 for every alien debarred +on that account. In 1906, the companies paid fines of $24,300 on 243 +such deportations. The principle should be extended to all classes +excluded by law, and the fine should be raised to $500. Then every agent +of the steamship companies in the remotest hamlets of Europe would be an +immigration inspector. Their surgeons and officials already know the law +and its standards of administration as thoroughly as the immigration +officials. It only needs an adequate motive to make them cooperators +with the Bureau instead of evaders of the law. Already the law of 1903 +has partly had that effect. One steamship company has arranged with the +Bureau to locate medical officers at its foreign ports of embarkation. +However, the penalty is not yet heavy enough, and the Commissioner-General +recommends its increase to $500. By extending the law to all grounds of +deportation in addition to contagious diseases, the true source of +hardship to debarred aliens will be dried up.[155] + + + + +INDEX + + + A + + Advertising, 26, 29, 84, 85, 104, 108, 109. + + Age Composition of Immigrants, 119. + + Agriculture, 130, 131, 132, 133. + + Alien Contract Labor Law, 118. + + American Federation of Labor, 144. + + Americanization, 208. + + Armenians, 65, 99. + + Asiatic Immigration, 101-104. + + Assimilation, 17-21, 113, 198. + + Atlanta University, 58, 59, 61. + + Australia, 6, 19. + + Austria-Hungary, 18, 65, 79-87. + + + B + + Births, 57, 86, 94. + + Bohemians, 80, 82, 132. + + Boston, 203, 215. + + Brinton, Daniel G., 212. + + Burlingame Treaty, 111. + + Butcher Workmen, 150. + + + C + + California, 101, 103, 117. + + Canada, 104. (See "French Canadians.") + + Carib, 106. + + Castes, 8. + + Charity, 108. + + Charity Organization Society of New York, 100. + + Chicago, 47, 110, 165, 178. + + Child Labor, 152. + + Chinese, 101, 109, 111, 114, 117, 130, 131, 132, 143, 144, 146, 156, + 231. (See "Coolies.") + + Chinese Exclusion, 117, 152, 235. + + Cities, 54, 55, 164, 165, 166, 215. + + Civil War, 3, 63, 64, 98, 111, 129, 175. + + Classes in America, 8, 12. + + Closed Shop, 205. + + Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, 150, 219. + + Colored Farmers' Alliance, 50. + + Competition, Race, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 148, 149, 151, 204, 208. + + Contract Labor, 99, 102, 104, 108, 109, 110, 118, 135, 138, 141, 142, + 143, 231. (See "Coolies," "Peonage.") + + Coolies, 109, 152. (See "Chinese," "Japanese.") + + Coöperation, 49, 50. + + Cost of Living, 73. (See also "Standard of Living.") + + Crime, 26, 168-175. + + Croatians, 80, 81, 83, 84, 109, 122, 123. + + Curran, Father, 223. + + + D + + Death-rate, 58, 60, 61, 86, 95. (See "Infant Mortality.") + + Distribution of Immigrants, 130, 224-230. + + Drunkenness, 172. + + Dutch, 24, 88, 89, 123. + + Dutch East India Company, 108. + + + E + + Education, 45, 46, 52, 146, 214. (See "Illiteracy.") + + Educational Tests, 44, 45, 52, 194, 231, 232, 234. (See "Negro.") + + Eminence of Races in America, 23-27, 31, 32. + + Employment Agencies, 229. + + English Race, 17, 23, 25, 128. + + Erie Canal, 130. + + + F + + Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, 42, 44, 188. + + Filipinos, 140, 142, 143, 144. + + Finns, 95-97. + + Fleming, Professor W. L., 226. + + Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, 42, 44, 45. + + French, 25, 128. + + French Canadians, 25, 97, 151, 199. + + + G + + Galicia, 93. (See also "Austria-Hungary.") + + Germans, 24, 30, 65, 67-68, 84, 122, 132, 152. + + Greeks, 47, 122. + + + H + + Hampton Institute, 49. + + Hawaii, 99, 101, 102, 103, 105, 131, 132, 142, 196. + + Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, 234. + + Heredity, 5. + + Hoffman, Fred L., 55, 57. + + Huguenots, 24-25. + + + I + + Illiteracy, 76, 79, 194. + + Immigration, 22-38, 63-106. + + Immigration Bureaus, 225, 237. + + Incentives to Immigration, 27-31, 63-68, 72, 76, 77, 80, 84-87, 88, 95, + 96, 99, 100, 101, 107, 108. + + India, 9, 10, 103, 141, 142. + + Indigenous Races, 104. + + Industrial Capacity of Races, 127-134. + + Industrial Education, 46, 47, 48. (See "Negro.") + + Industrial Prosperity and Depression, 63, 68, 72, 157. + + Infant Mortality, 60, 62, 87. (See "Death-rate.") + + Initiative and Referendum, 185-187. + + Irish, 24, 34, 65, 66, 67, 122, 151, 153, 204, 205. + + Italians, 70-79, 109, 122, 123, 127, 130, 132, 140, 141, 147, 151, 153. + + + J + + Japanese, 101, 102, 109, 114, 130, 131, 132. + + Jefferson, Thomas, 1. + + Jenks, J. W., 142. + + Jews, 65, 81, 83, 87-95, 115, 122, 123, 127, 132, 133, 152, 153, 164. + + + K + + Kelsey, Carl, 54, 55. + + Knights of Labor, 118. + + Knownothings, 117, 173. + + Koreans, 103. + + Kuczynski, R. R., 198, 207. + + + L + + Labor, 124, 125, 126, 131, 134-159. (See "Wage Earners," "Trade Unions.") + + Labor, Department of, 177, 178. + + Landlordism, 64, 66, 72, 85, 87, 180. + + Languages, 20, 94, 97. + + Law, John, 108. + + Leadership, 52. + + Legislation, 111, 117, 118, 136, 231, 234, 236. + + Lincoln, Abraham, 43, 213. + + Lodge, Henry Cabot, 22-25. + + Longshoremen, 150. + + + M + + Machinery, 125, 156. + + Magyars, 81, 82, 83, 84, 123. + + Malay Races, 140, 142. + + Mallock, W. H., 179. + + Marriage, 203. + + Mexicans, 132. + + Military Duties, 75. + + Miners, 129, 130, 150, 154. + + Mob Violence, 173, 174, 175. + + Molly Maguires, 129. + + Morality, 61, 62, 204. (See "Prostitution.") + + Münsterberg, Hugo, 179. + + + N + + Naturalization, 111, 188, 189, 190, 194. + + Negro, 3, 12, 16, 39-62, 106, 108, 112, 113, 114, 136, 137, 139, 140, + 147, 172, 209. + + New York, 164, 214, 215. + + Norwegians, 164. (See "Scandinavians.") + + + P + + Padroni, 102, 103, 109, 118, 229. + + "Pale of Settlement," 91. + + Penn, William, 29, 108. + + Pennsylvania, 29, 30, 31. + + Peonage, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141. + + Philippine Commission, 144. + + Philippine Islands, 106, 141, 179, 180. + + Poles, 83, 123, 152. + + Political Boss, The, 182. + + Political Exiles, 68. + + Population, 53-58, 76, 157, 160. (See "Births" and "Death-rates.") + + Porto Rico, 106, 218. + + Portuguese, 98, 152. + + Poverty and Pauperism, 26, 66, 76, 167, 175-178. + + Primaries, Direct, 185. + + Profits, 108, 155. + + Prohibition, 173. + + Proportional Representation, 184. + + Prostitution, 57. + + Protective Tariff, 158. + + + Q + + Quakers, 28, 29. + + + R + + Race Problem, 4, 8, 40, 42, 43, 44, 113. (See "Negro.") + + Races, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12-17, 87, 88, 104-106, 108, 211. (See individual + name of race.) + + Race Suicide, 198, 200. + + Railroads, 130, 156, 225. + + Reconstruction, 43, 50. + + Religion, 28, 186, 217-219. (See "Incentives to Immigration.") + + Restriction of Immigration, 116 n., 117, 118, 175, 230, 231. + + Ripley, W. Z., 95. + + Roosevelt, Theodore, 201, 206. + + Rosenberg, Edward, 144. + + Roumanians, 83, 84, 123. + + Russia, 87, 92, 93, 132. + + Ruthenians, 80, 83, 123. + + + S + + Scandinavians, 24, 132, 152. (See "Norwegians.") + + Scotch Irish, 23-24, 31-38, 128, 151. (See "Irish.") + + Self-government, 2-4, 42, 43, 49, 53. + + Seymour, Governor Horatio, 29. + + Shaler, Professor N. S., 10. + + Slavs, 14, 65, 80, 82, 83, 152. + + Slovaks, 81, 83, 151. + + Social Settlements, 219. + + Socialism, 181. + + Spaniards, 128. + + Standard of Living, 112, 115, 151, 153, 208. + + Statistics, 119, 130, 158, 160-178, 198. (See "Population," "Births," + "Death-rate.") + + Steamship Lines, 84, 85, 107, 110, 237, 238. + + Stone, A. H., 147. + + Strikes, 102, 149. + + Suffrage, 2, 42, 43, 44, 51, 52, 117, 182, 183, 188, 220. (See also + "Educational Tests.") + + Sweatshops, 115, 133, 148. + + Swedes, 47. + + Syrians, 99, 151. + + + T + + Taft, Governor, 143. + + Taxation, 74, 75, 84, 86. + + Temporary Immigration, 77, 98, 101. + + Test Act, 35. + + Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, 42. + + Trade Unions, 50, 51, 115, 129, 149, 150, 152, 154, 205, 220, 221, 222, + 223, 224. (See "Labor" and "Wage Earners.") + + Triple Alliance, 75. + + Tuskegee Institute, 49. + + + U + + United Garment Workers of America, 115 n., 150. + + United Hebrew Charities of New York, 167. + + United Mine Workers of America, 150. + + + W + + Wage Earners, 111-118, 157.(See "Labor.") + + Wages, 112, 113, 129, 140, 148, 152, 153, 155, 157, 159. (See "Labor.") + + Wage System, The, 147. + + Walker, Francis A., 198, 200, 207. + + Watson, Elkanah, 200. + + Wealth Production and Immigration, 119, 159. + + Welfare Work, 219. + + Wilcox, Professor, 227. + + + + +Footnotes: + +[1] Bluntschli, "Theory of the State," pp. 108-181. + +[2] _Atlantic Monthly_, May, 1903, p. 649. + +[3] Shaler, p. 651. + +[4] Ripley, "The Races of Europe." + +[5] Ripley, Chs. XVII and XVIII. + +[6] See the interesting series of articles by H. N. Casson, _Munsey's_, +1906. + +[7] Lodge, p. 138. + +[8] "History and Topography of New York," Address at Cornell University, +June 30, 1870. + +[9] These figures are probably exaggerated, but authorities agree upon +the magnitude of the migration. Fiske, "Old Virginia," Vol. II, p. 594. + +[10] Hanna, "The Scotch-Irish," Vol. II, p. 2. + +[11] Tillinghast, "The Negro in Africa and America." + +[12] Burgess, pp. 45, 225; Fleming, pp. 380, 433. + +[13] Burgess, p. 207. + +[14] See Ch. VIII, "Politics." + +[15] Commission of Education _Report_, 1900-1901, Vol. I, p. ci. + +[16] Hugh M. Browne, A.M.E., _Zion Church Quarterly_, April, 1894, +quoted by Tillinghast, p. 186. + +[17] Fannie B. Williams, _Charities_, October 7, 1905, p. 43. + +[18] _Atlanta University Publications_, No. 7, p. 188. + +[19] Bureau of Labor, _Bulletin_, No. 35. + +[20] _Atlanta University Publications_, Nos. 3 and 8. + +[21] _Atlanta University Publications_, No. 3, pp. 153-178. + +[22] Twelfth Census, _Supplementary Analysis_, p. 203. + +[23] Willcox, "Census Statistics of the Negro," _Yale Review_, 13:279 +(1904). + +[24] "The Negro Farmer," p. 90. + +[25] Pp. 9, 10. + +[26] Dabney, Commissioner of Education, _Report_, 1902, Vol. I, p. 797. + +[27] Twelfth Census, _Supplementary Analysis_, pp. 305, 307. + +[28] _Supplementary Analysis_, p. 204. + +[29] Pp. 16, 17; Wood, "American in Process," p. 218. + +[30] Twelfth Census, Vol. III, p. lxix. + +[31] _Atlanta University Publications_, No. 1, p. 24. + +[32] _Atlanta University Publications_, No. 2, p. 9. + +[33] Twelfth Census, Vol. III, p. lxxxii. + +[34] P. clxxvi. + +[35] P. ccxviii. + +[36] Pp. cxix, cxxiii, cxxvii. + +[37] Hoffman, p. 70. + +[38] Twelfth Census, _Supplementary Analysis_, pp. 496, 497. + +[39] _Atlanta University Publications_, No. 1, p. 26. + +[40] Figures for 1883. + +[41] Less than one-tenth of one per cent. + +[42] This is the number according to race; the table gives the number +according to last place of residence. + +[43] _Review of Reviews_, 33:491 (1906). + +[44] Statistics mainly from King and Okey, "Italy To-day." + +[45] _Review of Reviews_, 33:491 (1906). + +[46] Twelfth Census, _Supplementary Analysis_, p. 27. + +[47] _Review of Reviews_, 33:491 (1906). + +[48] King and Okey, pp. 316-318. + +[49] Balch, _Charities_, May, 1906, p. 179. + +[50] Marshall, "Principles of Economics," p. 248. + +[51] "Jewish Encyclopedia," 2:532. + +[52] Balch, _Charities_, May, 1906, p. 180. + +[53] P. 380. + +[54] "Industrial Commission," 15:442. + +[55] Commissioner-General, 1906, p. 85. + +[56] Coman, "History of Contract Labor," etc., p. 47. + +[57] Reports on Hawaii; Commissioner-General of Immigration. See Index. + +[58] Report of the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration, 1903. Cd. +1741. + +[59] Semple, "American History," etc., p. 332. + +[60] Rowe, Chapter V. + +[61] Census of the Philippine Islands. + +[62] Lalor's "Cyclopedia of Political Economy, Political Science, and +United States History," article on "Chinese Immigration." + +[63] Industrial Commission, 19:679. + +[64] Computed from Table VIII, p. 28 _et seq._, Report of +Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1906. "Commercial" includes agents, +bankers, hotel-keepers, manufacturers, merchants, and dealers, and other +miscellaneous. "Unskilled" includes draymen, hackmen, and teamsters, +farm laborers, farmers, fishermen, laborers, and servants. + +[65] Two hundred and eighty-five thousand four hundred and sixty +immigrants set down as "no occupation," including mainly women and +children, are omitted from this computation. + +[66] Less than one-tenth of one per cent. + +[67] Industrial Commission, Vol. XV, see index, "Prepaid Tickets," p. +818. + +[68] United States Revised Statutes, 1901, Section 1999, Act of July 28, +1868. + +[69] Fleming, pp. 692, 693. + +[70] "If I were asked what one factor makes most for the amicable +relations between the races in the Delta, I should say, without +hesitation, the absence of a white laboring class, particularly of field +laborers."--Stone, "The Negro in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta," p. 241. +"There is comparatively little crime in the Black Belt and in the White +Belt. It is in the counties where the races meet on something like +numerical equality and in economic competition that the maximum of crime +is charged against negroes."--_Atlanta University Publications_, No. 9, +p. 48. + +[71] In 1905, after losing a strike in New York, the General Executive +Board of the United Garment Workers of America, consisting with one +exception of Russian Jews, adopted the following resolutions:-- + +Resolved, That the unprecedented movement of the very poor in America +from Europe in the last three years has resulted in wholly changing the +previous social, political, and economic aspects of the immigration +question. The enormous accessions to the ranks of our competing +wage-workers, being to a great extent unemployed, or only partly +employed at uncertain wages, are lowering the standard of living among +the masses of the working people of this country, without giving promise +to uplift the great body of immigrants themselves. The overstocking of +the labor market has become a menace to many trade-unions, especially +those of the lesser skilled workers. Little or no benefit can possibly +accrue to an increasing proportion of the great numbers yet coming; they +are unfitted to battle intelligently for their rights in this republic, +to whose present burdens they but add others still greater. The fate of +the majority of the foreign wage-workers now here has served to +demonstrate on the largest possible scale that immigration is no +solution of the world-wide problem of poverty. + +Resolved, That we call on American trade unionists to oppose +emphatically the proposed scheme of government distribution of +immigrants, since it would be an obvious means of directly and cheaply +furnishing strike breakers to the combined capitalists now seeking +destruction of the trade-unions. + +Resolved, That we condemn all forms of assisted immigration, through +charitable agencies or otherwise. + +Resolved, That we warn the poor of the earth against coming to America +with false hopes; it is our duty to inform them that the economic +situation in this country is changing with the same rapidity as the +methods of industry and commerce. + +Resolved, That with respect to immigration we call on the government of +the United States for a righteous relief of the wage-workers now in +America. We desire that Congress should either (1) suspend immigration +totally for a term of years; or (2) put into force such an illiteracy +test as will exclude the ignorant, and also impose such a head tax as +will compel immigrants to pay their full footing here and be sufficient +to send back all those who within a stated period should become public +dependants. + +[72] Smith, "Emigration and Immigration," pp. 238-263. + +[73] Act of March 3, 1903, Sec. 2. + +[74] New York Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1898, p. 1155. + +[75] Twelfth Census, "Occupations," p. clxxxvii. + +[76] Report on Hawaii, _Bulletin_ No. 47, pp. 780-783. + +[77] Report on Hawaii, _Bulletin_ No. 66, pp. 441-447. + +[78] Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society, _Annual Reports_. + +[79] Clyatt _v._ U.S., 97 U.S., 207 (1903); Peonage Cases, 123 Fed. 671. + +[80] New York _Herald_, June 24, 1903. + +[81] _The Nation_, 83:379 (1906); Durand, Herbert, "Peonage in America," +_Cosmopolitan_, 39:423 (1905). + +[82] Rosenberg, _American Federationist_, October, 1903, p. 1026. + +[83] Jenks, "Certain Economic Questions," etc., p. 157. + +[84] Coman, and "Reports on Hawaii." + +[85] Jenks, pp. 47, 54, 55, 158. + +[86] United States Philippine Commission, 1902, Part I, p. 22. + +[87] Rosenberg, p. 1021. + +[88] Philippine Commission, 1902, index, "The Labor Situation." + +[89] "The Italian Cotton Grower," p. 45. + +[90] Where two years are given, the first is for Immigration and the +second for Imports. + +[91] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, p. clxxvi. + +[92] See _Federation_, June 1902, p. 40. + +[93] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, pp. 878-881. + +[94] New York _Sun_, Nov. 29, 1903. + +[95] Semple, 312. + +[96] Prisoners having one parent foreign are apportioned in the ratio of +native and foreign parentage. + +[97] Includes native-born, parentage unknown. + +[98] Offenders having one parent foreign are apportioned in the ratio of +native and foreign parentage. + +[99] Kate Holladay Claghorn, "The Tenement House Problem," Vol. II, p. +79. + +[100] John B. McMaster, "The Riotous Career of the Knownothings," +_Forum_, July, 1894, p. 524. + +[101] Cutler, "Lynch Law"; Bishop, "Lynching," _International +Quarterly_, September, 1903. + +[102] Bureau of the Census, Special Reports, "Paupers in Almshouses, +1904," "Benevolent Institutions, 1904," "Insane and Feeble-minded in +Hospitals and Institutions, 1904." + +[103] Münsterberg, "American Traits," p. 225 ff. + +[104] Eaton, "The Civil Service in Great Britain," p. 160 ff. + +[105] Muirhead, "The Land of Contrasts," p. 274. + +[106] See description of the Belgium system by the author, _Review of +Reviews_, May, 1900; also, "Representation of Interests," _Independent_, +June, 1900; "Proportional Representation." + +[107] Commons, "Proportional Representation," Appendix. Publications of +the Federation for Majority Rule, Washington, D.C. + +[108] Hunt, Gaillard, "Federal Control of Naturalization," _World's +Work_, 11:7095 (1906). + +[109] "Report to the President on Naturalization." + +[110] "Naturalization Laws and Regulations of October, 1906," published +by the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization. + +[111] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, p. 929. + +[112] Twelfth Census, "Abstract," p. 18. + +[113] Twelfth Census, "Abstract," p. 19. + +[114] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, p. ccxvii. + +[115] Phillips, J. B., "Educational Qualifications of Voters," +_University of Colorado Studies_, Vol. III, No. 2 (1906). + +[116] Caffey, Francis G., "Suffrage Limitations at the South," +_Political Science Quarterly_, 20:53 (1905). Report on Political Reform, +Union League Club, New York, 1903. + +[117] Williams _v._ Mississippi, 170 U.S., 213; Giles _v._ Harris, 189 +U.S., 475; Giles _v._ Teasley, 193 U.S., 146. + +[118] This does not apply to the "understanding" clause in Mississippi, +which is permanent. + +[119] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, pp. ccxiii, ccxv. + +[120] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, pp. cciv, ccv. + +[121] See "Reports on Hawaii." + +[122] Kuczynski, "Einwanderungspolitik," p. 35. + +[123] _Forum_, 11:634-743 (1891). Reprinted in "Discussions," etc., pp. +417-426. + +[124] Professor Smith, for the year 1888, estimated the colonial element +at 29,000,000 and the immigrant element at 26,000,000, applying to the +immigrants the average rate of increase from births. "Emigration and +Immigration," pp. 60-61. + +[125] Watson, p. 522. + +[126] Van Vorst, "The Woman Who Toils," p. viii. + +[127] Computed from the Twelfth Census, Vol. II, p. lxxxvii, ff. + +[128] Computed from the Twelfth Census, Vol. II, p. 312. + +[129] Kuczynski concludes from his study of Massachusetts statistics +that "the native population cannot hold its own. It seems to be dying +out." Could he have separated the two elements of the native population, +he would have found that the immigrant element is dying out faster than +the older native element. "The Fecundity of the Native and Foreign Born +Population in Massachusetts," p. 186. + +[130] Twelfth Census, "Statistical Atlas," plate 98. + +[131] "Fecundity," etc., p. 157. + +[132] Ross, "Causes of Race Superiority." + +[133] See Du Bois, "The Souls of Black Folk." + +[134] Report on Hawaii, _Bulletin_ No. 47, p. 715. + +[135] "Religions of Primitive People," p. 15. + +[136] Smith, "Assimilation of Nationalities," p. 440. + +[137] Lovejoy, "The Slav Child," _Charities_, July, 1905, p. 884. + +[138] Twelfth Census, _Supplementary Analysis_, p. 374. + +[139] "Child Labor in the United States," p. 15, Bureau of the Census. + +[140] Grose, "Aliens or Americans?" + +[141] See also Stewart and Huebner. + +[142] Report, 1903, p. 60; 1904, p. 44; 1905, p. 58; 1906, p. 64. + +[143] Industrial Commission, 15:492-646; 19:971-977. + +[144] Tosti, Gustavo, "The Agricultural Possibilities of Italian +Immigration," _Charities_, May 5, 1904, p. 472. + +[145] "Immigration to the Southern States," _Political Science +Quarterly_, 20:276 (1905). + +[146] "Facts about Immigration," p. 11. + +[147] _Ibid._, p. 119. + +[148] Kellor, "Out of Work," pp. 17, 50-53, 70; _Charities_, Feb. 6, +1904, p. 151. + +[149] Commissioner-General, 1903, p. 70. + +[150] Chapter 27, Laws of 1862. + +[151] Commissioner-General, 1906, p. 62. + +[152] For details of the several measures, see Hall, "Immigration." + +[153] "Industrial Commission," 19:1001-1003. Hall, "Immigration." + +[154] Commissioner-General, 1904, p. 41. + +[155] The National Immigration Conference, December 8, 1905, adopted the +following resolution: "That the penalty of $100, now imposed on the +steamship companies for bringing diseased persons to the United States, +be also imposed for bringing in any person excluded by law." _National +Civic Federation Review_, January, 1906, p. 19. + + + + +POVERTY + +By ROBERT HUNTER + + Paper 12mo 25 cents net + Cloth 12mo $1.50 net + +"A book that should be read by every one who has the promotion of social +betterment at heart."--_Milwaukee Sentinel._ + +"A most interesting, a most startling, and a most instructive book."--_Los +Angeles Times._ + +"His book is largely a result of personal experience, and the aid of +such works as his observation has led him to believe are approximately +accurate and worthy of credence. 'Poverty' seeks to define its subject +estimate its extent, describe some of its effects, and point out the +necessary remedial action, as seen by a settlement worker. The result is +a collection of data of considerable value."--_New York Daily People._ + +"This is in many ways a noteworthy book. The author has long lived face +to face with the almost incredible conditions which he here portrays. He +has extended his work and observations from the crowded tenement +districts of the great cities to the smaller industrial towns, and what +he finds reveals conditions in this country--even in times of industrial +prosperity--very similar to those found in England by Booth and other +investigators; namely, that a percentage of poverty exists in the +smaller industrial centres not far below that of the great industrial +places, and that this percentage is extraordinarily high."--_Springfield +Republican._ + +"The book is written with earnestness, but without exaggeration. Every +one familiar with the facts knows that conditions are even more cruel +and brutal than as here described. And yet, no one of the great +industrial nations is so backward as our own in devising and employing +the legislative and other necessary remedies. Mr. Hunter's presentation +of the situation is of the greatest value, and deserves the widest +consideration."--_The Congregationalist._ + + + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + 64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. + +Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=. + +The following misprints have been corrected: + "conquerers" corrected to "conquerors" (page 97) + "Amercianized" corrected to "Americanized" (page 104) + "anequal" corrected to "an equal" (page 121) + "780 783" corrected to "780-783" (footnote 76) + "Soul" corrected to "Souls" (footnote 133) + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Races and Immigrants in America, by +John R. Commons + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA *** + +***** This file should be named 34028-8.txt or 34028-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/0/2/34028/ + +Produced by Brian Foley and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/34028-8.zip b/34028-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c56bb36 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-8.zip diff --git a/34028-h.zip b/34028-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fb7add5 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h.zip diff --git a/34028-h/34028-h.htm b/34028-h/34028-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4c685f7 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/34028-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,7955 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Races and Immigrants in America, by John R. Commons. + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> + + p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;} + body {margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%;} + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right; font-style: normal;} + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {text-align: center; clear: both;} + hr {width: 33%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + .bb {border-bottom: solid black 1px; padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} + .br {border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} + .bt {border-top: solid black 1px; padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} + .bbr {border-bottom: solid black 1px; border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} + .bbt {border-bottom: solid black 1px; border-top: solid black 1px;} + .bbtr {border-bottom: solid black 1px; border-top: solid black 1px; border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} + .btr {border-top: solid black 1px; border-right: solid black 1px; padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} + .dent {padding-left: .5em; padding-right: .5em;} + .line {border-bottom: solid black 1px;} + + .index {margin-left: 20%;} + + .right {text-align: right;} + .center {text-align: center;} + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + a:link {color:#0000ff; text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:#6633cc; text-decoration:none} + + .spacer {padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + .spacer4 {padding-left: 4em; padding-right: 4em;} + + ins.correction {text-decoration:none; border-bottom: thin solid gray;} + + .adverts {margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%;} + + .hang {margin-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Races and Immigrants in America, by John R. Commons + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Races and Immigrants in America + +Author: John R. Commons + +Release Date: October 4, 2010 [EBook #34028] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA *** + + + + +Produced by Brian Foley and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<h1>RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA</h1> +<p> </p><p> </p> + +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/printer.png" alt="" /></div> +<p> </p> + +<p> <a name="front" id="front"></a></p><p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/frontis.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Ellis Island, Immigration Station</span></p> + +<p> </p><p> </p> + + +<h1>RACES AND IMMIGRANTS<br /> +IN AMERICA</h1> +<p> </p> +<h4>BY</h4> +<h3>JOHN R. COMMONS</h3> +<p class="center">PROFESSOR OF POLITICAL ECONOMY, UNIVERSITY<br />OF WISCONSIN</p> +<p> </p><p> </p> +<p class="center">New York<br /> +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br /> +LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span><br /> +1907<br /><br /> +<i>All rights reserved</i></p> + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1907</span>,<br /> +<span class="smcap">By</span> THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.<br /><br /> +Set up and electrotyped. Published May, 1907.<br /> +<br /><br /> +Norwood Press<br /> +J. S. Cushing & Co.—Berwick & Smith Co.<br /> +Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="contents"> +<tr><td> </td><td> </td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">References</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_vii">vii</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"><small>CHAPTER</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Race and Democracy</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Colonial Race Elements</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">The Negro</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Nineteenth Century Additions</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Industry</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Labor</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">City Life, Crime, and Poverty</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Politics</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Amalgamation and Assimilation</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span></p> +<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="illustrations"> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Ellis Island, Immigrant Station</span></td> + <td colspan="2" align="right"><a href="#front"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">“Return of the Mayflower.”</span> Painting By Boughton, 1834</td> + <td align="center"><i>opposite</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">24</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Anglo-Saxon Mountaineers, Berea College, Kentucky</span></td> + <td align="center"><i>opposite</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_37">36</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Counties Having a Larger Proportion of Negroes in 1900 than in 1880 </span></td> + <td align="center"><i>opposite</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_51">50</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Movement of Immigrants, Imports of Merchandise Per Capita and</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Immigrants per 10,000 Population</span></span></td><td align="center"><i>between</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_63">63-64</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Aliens Awaiting Admission at Ellis Island</span></td> + <td align="center"><i>opposite</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Norwegian, Italian, and Arabic Types</span></td> + <td align="center">"</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Slav, Jewish, Polack, and Lithuanian Types</span></td> + <td align="center">"</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Industrial Relations of Immigrants—1906</span></td> + <td align="center"><i>between</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">108-109</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">American School Boys</span></td> + <td align="center"><i>opposite</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_123">122</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Filipino Governors</span></td> + <td align="center">"</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_143">142</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Governor Johnson of Minnesota.—Swede</span></td> + <td align="center">"</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_155">154</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Dr. Oronhyatekha, Mohawk Indian. Late Chief of Order of Foresters</span></td> + <td align="center"><i>opposite</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Chinese Students, Honolulu</span></td> + <td align="center">"</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Faculty of Tuskegee Institute</span></td> + <td align="center">"</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_203">202</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Slavic Home Missionaries</span></td> + <td align="center">"</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_217">216</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Aliens awaiting Admission at Ellis Island</span></td> + <td align="center">"</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> +<h2>REFERENCES CITED IN FOOTNOTES</h2> + + +<p class="hang">“<span class="smcap">America’s Race Problems.</span>” A series of discussions on indigenous race +elements and the negro. <i>American Academy of Political and Social Science</i>, Vol. XVIII, No. 1 (1901).</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Atlanta University Publications:</span>—<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">No. 1. “Mortality among Negroes in Cities” (1896).</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">No. 2. “Social and Physical Condition of Negroes in Cities” (1897).</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">No. 3. “Some Efforts of Negroes for Social Betterment” (1898).</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">No. 6. “The Negro Common School” (1901).</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">No. 7. “The Negro Artisan” (1902).</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">No. 8. “The Negro Church” (1903).</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">No. 9. “Notes on Negro Crime” (1904).</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">No. 10. “A Select Bibliography of the Negro American” (1905).</span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Balch, Emily Greene</span>, “Slav Emigration at its Source,” <i>Charities</i>, 1906. +“Introductory,” Jan. 6; “Bohemians,” Feb. 3; “Slovaks,” March 3, April +7; “Galicia, Austrian Poles, Ruthenians,” May 5.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Bluntschli, J. K.</span>, <i>The Theory of the State</i>. New York, 1885.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Brandenburg, Broughton</span>, <i>Imported Americans</i> (1904). Description of trip +by author and wife through southern Italy and Sicily and return by steerage with immigrants.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Brinton, Daniel G.</span>, <i>Religions of Primitive Peoples</i>. New York, 1897.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Bureau of Labor</span>, Seventh Special Report, <i>The Slums of Baltimore, +Chicago, New York, and Philadelphia</i> (1894). Ninth Special Report, <i>The Italians in Chicago</i> (1897).</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Burgess, John W.</span>, <i>Reconstruction and the Constitution</i>, 1866-1876. New York, 1903.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Bushee, Frederick A.</span>, “Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston,” +<i>American Economic Association</i>, 3d Series, Vol. IV, pp. 305-470 (1903).</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Casson, Herbert N.</span>, <i>Munsey’s Magazine</i>, “The Jews in America,” 34:381; +“The Sons of Old Scotland in America,” 34:599; “The Germans in America,” +34:694; “The Scandinavians in America,” 35:613; “The Welsh in America,” +35:749; “The Italians in America,” 35:122; “The Dutch in America,” 35:238; “The Spanish in America,” 35:294.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Coman, Katherine</span>, “The History of Contract Labor in the Hawaiian +Islands,” <i>American Economic Association</i>, 3d Series, Vol. IV, No. 3 +(1903). “The Negro as Peasant Farmer,” <i>American Statistical Association</i>, June, 1904, pp. 39-54.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Commissioner of Education</span>, <i>Annual Reports</i>, Washington.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Commissioner-General of Immigration</span>, <i>Annual Reports</i>, Washington.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Commons, J. R.</span>, <i>Proportional Representation</i>. New York, 1907.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Cutler, James E.</span>, <i>Lynch Law. An Investigation into the History of +Lynching in the United States</i>. New York, 1905.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">De Forest and Veillier</span>, <i>The Tenement House Problem</i>, 2 vols. New York, 1903.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Du Bois, W. E. B.</span>, <i>The Philadelphia Negro</i>. Philadelphia, 1899; <i>The +Soul of Black Folk.</i> New York, 1903; “Negroes,” Twelfth Census, +<i>Supplementary Analysis</i>, pp. 185-275; “The Negro Farmer,” pp. 511-579.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Eaton, Dorman B.</span>, <i>The Civil Service in Great Britain</i>. New York, 1880.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Emigration to the United States</span>, Special Consular Reports, Vol. XXX. +Department of Commerce and Labor, 1904.</p> + +<p class="hang"><i>Facts about Immigration.</i> Reports of Conferences of the Immigration +Department of the National Civic Federation, Sept. 14 and Dec. 12, 1906. New York, 1907.</p> + +<p class="hang"><i>Federation.</i> Quarterly Journal of Federation of Churches and Christian +Organizations, New York. Especially June, July, December, 1902, March, +June, October, 1903. Also annual reports and sociological canvasses of the Federation.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Fiske, John</span>, <i>Old Virginia and her Neighbors</i>, 2 vols. New York, 1897.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Fleming, Walter L.</span>, <i>Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama</i>. New York, 1897.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Franklin, F. J.</span>, <i>The Legislative History of Naturalization in the United States</i>. Chicago, 1906.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Grose, Howard B.</span>, <i>Aliens or Americans?</i> Forward Mission Study Courses. New York, 1906.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Hall, Prescott F.</span>, <i>Immigration and its Effect upon the United States</i>. New York, 1906.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Hampton Negro Conference</span>, Annual, 1897-1901.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Hanna, Charles A.</span>, <i>The Scotch-Irish</i>, 2 vols. New York, 1902.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Hawaii, Reports on</span>, United States Bureau of Labor, 1st Report, Sen. Doc. +169, 57th Congress, 1st Sess., 13:4231; 2d Report, <i>Bulletin</i> No. 47 (1903); 3d Report, <i>Bulletin</i> No. 66 (1906).</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Hoffman, Frederick L.</span>, “Race Traits and Tendencies of the American +Negro,” <i>Publications of the American Economic Association</i>, Vol. XI, Nos. 1, 2, 3 (1896).</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Huebner, Grover G.</span>, “The Americanization of the Immigrant,” <i>American +Academy of Political and Social Science</i>, May, 1906, p. 191.</p> + +<p class="hang"><i>Hull House Maps and Papers, A Presentation of Nationalities and Wages +in a Congested District of Chicago</i>, by residents of Hull House. New York, 1895.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Hunter, Robert</span>, <i>Poverty</i>. New York, 1904. Chapter VI, “The Immigrant.”</p> + +<p class="hang"><i>Immigration Laws and Regulations and Chinese Exclusion Laws</i>, Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization, Washington.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Immigration Restriction League</span>, Prescott F. Hall, Secretary, Boston, Mass. Leaflets.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Industrial Commission</span>, Vol. XV, <i>Immigration and Education</i>; Vol. XIX, <i>Miscellaneous</i> (1901).</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Jackson, Helen Hunt</span>, <i>A Century of Dishonor</i>. New York, 1881.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Japanese and Korean Exclusion League</span>, San Francisco. Leaflets.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Jenks, J. W.</span>, <i>Certain Economic Questions in the English and Dutch +Colonies in the Orient</i>. War Department, Bureau of Insular Affairs, 1902, Doc. No. 168.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society</span>, <i>Annual Reports</i>. New York.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Kellor, Frances A.</span>, <i>Out of Work</i>. New York, 1904.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Kelsey, Carl</span>, <i>The Negro Farmer</i>. Chicago, 1903. Also <i>Annals of the +American Academy of Political and Social Science</i>, January, 1903.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">King and Okey</span>, <i>Italy To-day</i>. London, 1901.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Kuczynski, R.</span>, “The Fecundity of the Native and Foreign Born Population +in Massachusetts,” <i>Quarterly Journal of Economics</i>, November, 1901, +February, 1902. “Die Einwanderungspolitik und die Bevölkerungsfrage der +Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika,” <i>Volkswirthschaftliche Zeitfragen</i>. Berlin, 1903.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Lazare, Bernard</span>, <i>Antisemitism, Its History and Causes</i>. New York, 1903.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Library of Congress</span>, <i>Select List of References on the Negro Question +(1903). List of Works relating to the Germans in the United States (1904). Select List of References on Chinese Immigration (1904). +Fourteenth Amendment.</i> List of Discussions of Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments +with Special Reference to Negro Suffrage (1906). <i>List of References on Naturalization (1907).</i></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Lodge, Henry Cabot</span>, <i>Historical and Political Essays</i>. Boston, 1892.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Lord, Trenor, and Barrows</span>, <i>The Italian in America</i>. New York, 1905. Especially Italians in American agriculture.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Mallock, W. H.</span>, <i>Aristocracy and Evolution</i>. New York, 1898.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Marshall, Alfred</span>, <i>Principles of Economics</i>. New York, 1891.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Merriam, G. S.</span>, <i>The Negro and the Nation</i>. New York, 1906.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Muirhead, James F.</span>, <i>The Land of Contrasts</i>. London and New York, 1900.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Münsterberg, Hugo</span>, <i>American Traits</i>. New York, 1902.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Naturalization, Report to the President of the Commission on.</span> Submitted Nov. 8, 1905, 59th Cong., 1st Sess., H. R. Doc. 46.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Negro.</span> Series of Articles on the Reconstruction Period, <i>Atlantic +Monthly</i>. “The Reconstruction of the Southern States,” Woodrow Wilson, +87:1; “The Conditions of the Reconstruction Problem,” Hilary A. Herbert, +87:145; “The Freedman’s Bureau,” W. E. B. Du Bois, 87:354; +“Reconstruction in South Carolina,” Daniel H. Chamberlain, 87:473; “The +Ku-Klux Movement,” William G. Brown, 87:634; “Washington during +Reconstruction,” S. W. McCall, 87:817; “Reconstruction and +Disfranchisement,” Editors, 88:31; “New Orleans and Reconstruction,” +Albert Phelps, 88:121; “The Southern People during Reconstruction,” +Thomas Nelson Page, 88:289; “The Undoing of Reconstruction,” William A. Dunning, 88:437.</p> + +<p class="hang">United States Bureau of Labor, <i>Bulletin</i> No. 22, “The Negro in the +Black Belt”; No. 32, “The Negroes of Sandy Spring, Maryland”; No. 35, +“The Negro Landholder of Georgia”; No. 37, “The Negroes of Litwalton, +Virginia”; No. 38, “Negroes of Cinclare Central Factory and Calumet +Plantation, Louisiana”; No. 48, “The Negroes of Xenia, Ohio.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></p> +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">“Negroes, Social Interests of, in Northern Cities.”</span> <i>Charities</i>, special number, Oct. 7, 1905.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Ripley, W. Z.</span>, <i>The Races of Europe</i>. New York, 1899.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Roosevelt, Theodore</span>, <i>The Winning of the West</i>, 4 vols. New York, 1889-1894.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Rosenberg, Edward</span>, “Chinese Workers in China,” “Filipinos as Workmen,” +“Labor Conditions in Hawaii,” <i>American Federationist</i>, August, October, December, 1905.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Ross, Edward A.</span>, “The Causes of Race Superiority,” <i>Annals of the +American Academy of Political and Social Science</i>, July, 1901, pp. +67-89. The notable address in which the term “race suicide” was coined.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Rowe, Leo S.</span>, <i>The United States and Porto Rico</i>. New York, 1904.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Semple, Ellen Churchill</span>, <i>American History and its Geographic +Conditions</i>. New York, 1903. “The Anglo-Saxons of the Kentucky +Mountains: A Study in Anthropogeography,” <i>Geographical Journal</i>, 17:588 (1901).</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Slav in America, The</span>, <i>Charities</i>, December, 1904. Descriptive articles +by representatives of the several Slav nationalities.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Smith, R. M.</span>, <i>Emigration and Immigration</i>. New York, 1890. +“Assimilation of Nationalities in the United States,” <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>, Vol. IX, pp. 426-444, 650-670 (1894).</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Stewart, Ethelbert</span>, “Influence of Trade Unions on Immigrants,” Bureau of Labor, <i>Bulletin</i> No. 56.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Stone, A. H.</span>, “The Negro in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta,” <i>American +Economic Association</i>, 3d Series, Vol. III, pp. 235-278 (1901). “The +Mulatto Factor in the Race Problem,” <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, May, 1903. “A +Plantation Experiment,” <i>Quarterly Journal Economics</i>, 19:270 (1905). +“The Italian Cotton Grower: The Negro’s Problem,” <i>South Atlantic Quarterly</i>, 4:45 (1905).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Suffrage, Suppression of the.</span> Report of the Committee on Political Reform of the Union League Club. New York, 1903.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Thomas, W. H.</span>, <i>The American Negro</i>, 1901.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Tillinghast, Joseph A.</span>, “The Negro in Africa and America,” <i>American +Economic Association</i>, 3d Series, Vol. III, No. 2 (1902).</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Van Vorst, Mrs. John and Marie</span>, <i>The Woman who Toils</i>. New York, 1903. +Contains introduction by President Roosevelt.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Walker, Francis A.</span>, <i>Discussions in Economics and Statistics</i>, 2 vols., 1897.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Ward, Robert De C.</span>, “Sane Methods of Regulating Immigration,” <i>Review of Reviews</i>, March, 1906.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Warne, Frank Julian</span>, <i>The Slav Invasion and the Mine Workers</i>, 1904.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Washington, Booker T.</span>, <i>The Future of the American Negro</i>, 1900. <i>Up from Slavery</i>, 1901.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Watson, Elkanah</span>, <i>Men and Times of the Revolution</i>. Edited by his son, +Winslow C. Watson, 2d edition. New York, 1861.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Welfare Work, Conference on</span>, National Civic Federation. New York, 1904.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Whelpley, James D.</span>, <i>The Problem of the Immigrant</i>, 1905. Emigration +laws of European countries and immigration laws of British Colonies and the United States.</p> + +<p class="hang"><span class="smcap">Woods, R. A.</span>, <i>The City Wilderness</i>, 1898. <i>Americans in Process</i>, 1902.</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h1>RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA</h1> +<p> </p> +<h2>CHAPTER I</h2> +<h3>RACE AND DEMOCRACY</h3> + +<p><br />“All men are created equal.” So wrote Thomas Jefferson, and so agreed +with him the delegates from the American colonies. But we must not press +them too closely nor insist on the literal interpretation of their +words. They were not publishing a scientific treatise on human nature +nor describing the physical, intellectual, and moral qualities of +different races and different individuals, but they were bent upon a +practical object in politics. They desired to sustain before the world +the cause of independence by such appeals as they thought would have +effect; and certainly the appeal to the sense of equal rights before God +and the law is the most powerful that can be addressed to the masses of +any people. This is the very essence of American democracy, that one man +should have just as large opportunity as any other to make the most of +himself, to come forward and achieve high standing in any calling to +which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> he is inclined. To do this the bars of privilege have one by one +been thrown down, the suffrage has been extended to every man, and +public office has been opened to any one who can persuade his +fellow-voters or their representatives to select him.</p> + +<p>But there is another side to the successful operations of democracy. It +is not enough that equal opportunity to participate in making and +enforcing the laws should be vouchsafed to all—it is equally important +that all should be capable of such participation. The individuals, or +the classes, or the races, who through any mental or moral defect are +unable to assert themselves beside other individuals, classes, or races, +and to enforce their right to an equal voice in determining the laws and +conditions which govern all, are just as much deprived of the privilege +as though they were excluded by the constitution. In the case of +individuals, when they sink below the level of joint participation, we +recognize them as belonging to a defective or criminal or pauper class, +and we provide for them, not on the basis of their rights, but on the +basis of charity or punishment. Such classes are exceptions in point of +numbers, and we do not feel that their non-participation is a flaw in +the operations of democratic government. But when a social class or an +entire race is unable to command that share in conducting government to +which the laws entitle it, we recognize at once that democracy as a +practical institution has in so far broken down, and that, under the +forms of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>democracy, there has developed a class oligarchy or a race +oligarchy.</p> + +<p>Two things, therefore, are necessary for a democratic government such as +that which the American people have set before themselves: equal +opportunities before the law, and equal ability of classes and races to +use those opportunities. If the first is lacking, we have legal +oligarchy; if the second is lacking, we have actual oligarchy disguised +as democracy.</p> + +<p>Now it must be observed that, compared with the first two centuries of +our nation’s history, the present generation is somewhat shifting its +ground regarding democracy. While it can never rightly be charged that +our fathers overlooked the inequalities of races and individuals, yet +more than the present generation did they regard with hopefulness the +educational value of democracy. “True enough,” they said, “the black man +is not equal to the white man, but once free him from his legal bonds, +open up the schools, the professions, the businesses, and the offices to +those of his number who are most aspiring, and you will find that, as a +race, he will advance favorably in comparison with his white +fellow-citizens.”</p> + +<p>It is now nearly forty years since these opportunities and educational +advantages were given to the negro, not only on equal terms, but +actually on terms of preference over the whites, and the fearful +collapse of the experiment is recognized even by its partisans as +something that was inevitable in the nature of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> race at that stage +of its development. We shall have reason in the following pages to enter +more fully into this discussion, because the race question in America +has found its most intense expression in the relations between the white +and the negro races, and has there shown itself to be the most +fundamental of all American social and political problems. For it was +this race question that precipitated the Civil War, with the ominous +problems that have followed upon that catastrophe; and it is this same +race problem that now diverts attention from the treatment of those +pressing economic problems of taxation, corporations, trusts, and labor +organizations which themselves originated in the Civil War. The race +problem in the South is only one extreme of the same problem in the +great cities of the North, where popular government, as our forefathers +conceived it, has been displaced by one-man power, and where a profound +distrust of democracy is taking hold upon the educated and +property-holding classes who fashion public opinion.</p> + +<p>This changing attitude toward the educational value of self-government +has induced a more serious study of the nature of democratic +institutions and of the classes and races which are called upon to share +in them. As a people whose earlier hopes have been shocked by the hard +blows of experience, we are beginning to pause and take invoice of the +heterogeneous stocks of humanity that we have admitted to the management +of our great political enterprise. We<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> are trying to look beneath the +surface and to inquire whether there are not factors of heredity and +race more fundamental than those of education and environment. We find +that our democratic theories and forms of government were fashioned by +but one of the many races and peoples which have come within their +practical operation, and that that race, the so-called Anglo-Saxon, +developed them out of its own insular experience unhampered by inroads +of alien stock. When once thus established in England and further +developed in America we find that other races and peoples, accustomed to +despotism and even savagery, and wholly unused to self-government, have +been thrust into the delicate fabric. Like a practical people as we +pride ourselves, we have begun actually to despotize our institutions in +order to control these dissident elements, though still optimistically +holding that we retain the original democracy. The earlier problem was +mainly a political one—how to unite into one self-governing nation a +scattered population with the wide diversity of natural resources, +climates, and interests that mark a country soon to stretch from ocean +to ocean and from the arctics to the subtropics. The problem now is a +social one,—how to unite into one people a congeries of races even more +diverse than the resources and climates from which they draw their +subsistence. That motto, “<i>E pluribus unum</i>,” which in the past has +guided those who through constitutional debate and civil war worked out +our form of government,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> must now again be the motto of those who would +work out the more fundamental problem of divergent races. Here is +something deeper than the form of government—it is the essence of +government—for it is that union of the hearts and lives and abilities +of the people which makes government what it really is.</p> + +<p>The conditions necessary for democratic government are not merely the +constitutions and laws which guarantee equality, liberty, and the +pursuit of happiness, for these after all are but paper documents. They +are not merely freedom from foreign power, for the Australian colonies +enjoy the most democratic of all governments, largely because they are +owned by another country which has protected them from foreign and civil +wars. Neither are wealth and prosperity necessary for democracy, for +these may tend to luxury, inequality, and envy. World power, however +glorious and enticing, is not helpful to democracy, for it inclines to +militarism and centralization, as did Rome in the hands of an emperor, +or Venice in the hands of an oligarchy. The true foundations of +democracy are in the character of the people themselves, that is, of the +individuals who constitute the democracy. These are: first, +intelligence—the power to weigh evidence and draw sound conclusions, +based on adequate information; second, manliness, that which the Romans +called virility, and which at bottom is dignified self-respect, +self-control, and that self-assertion and jealousy of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>encroachment +which marks those who, knowing their rights, dare maintain them; third, +and equally important, the capacity for coöperation, that willingness +and ability to organize, to trust their leaders, to work together for a +common interest and toward a common destiny, a capacity which we +variously designate as patriotism, public spirit, or self-government. +These are the basic qualities which underlie democracy,—intelligence, +manliness, coöperation. If they are lacking, democracy is futile. Here +is the problem of races, the fundamental division of mankind. Race +differences are established in the very blood and physical constitution. +They are most difficult to eradicate, and they yield only to the slow +processes of the centuries. Races may change their religions, their +forms of government, their modes of industry, and their languages, but +underneath all these changes they may continue the physical, mental, and +moral capacities and incapacities which determine the real character of +their religion, government, industry, and literature. Race and heredity +furnish the raw material, education and environment furnish the tools, +with which and by which social institutions are fashioned; and in a +democracy race and heredity are the more decisive, because the very +education and environment which fashion the oncoming generations are +themselves controlled through universal suffrage by the races whom it is +hoped to educate and elevate.</p> + +<p><b>Social Classes.</b>—Closely connected with race division in its effect upon +democracy are the divisions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> between social classes. In America we are +wont to congratulate ourselves on the absence of classes with their +accompanying hatred and envy. Whether we shall continue thus to commend +ourselves depends partly on what we mean by social classes. If we +compare our situation with an extreme case, that of India,<small><a name="f1.1" id="f1.1" href="#f1">[1]</a></small> where +social classes have been hardened into rigid castes, we can see the +connection between races and classes. For it is generally held that the +castes of India originated in the conquests by an Aryan race of an +indigenous dark or colored race. And while the clear-cut race +distinctions have been blended through many centuries of amalgamation, +yet it is most apparent that a gradation in the color of the skin +follows the gradation in social position, from the light-colored, +high-caste Brahman to the dark-colored, low-caste Sudra, or outcast +pariah. Race divisions have been forgotten, but in their place religion +has sanctified a division even more rigid than that of race, for it is +sacrilege and defiance of the gods when a man of low caste ventures into +the occupation and calling of the high caste. India’s condition now is +what might be conceived for our Southern states a thousand years from +now, when the black man who had not advanced to the lighter shades of +mulatto should be excluded from all professions and skilled trades and +from all public offices, and should be restricted to the coarsest kind +of service as a day laborer or as a field hand on the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>agricultural +plantations. Confined to this limited occupation, with no incentive to +economize because of no prospect to rise above his station, and with his +numbers increasing, competition would reduce his wages to the lowest +limit consistent with the continuance of his kind. Such a development is +plainly going on at the present day, and we may feel reasonably certain +that we can see in our own South the very historical steps by which in +the forgotten centuries India proceeded to her rigid system of castes.</p> + +<p>There is lacking but one essential to the Indian system; namely, a +religion which ascribes to God himself the inequalities contrived by +man. For the Indian derives the sacred Brahman from the mouth of God, to +be His spokesman on earth, while the poor Sudra comes from the feet of +God, to be forever the servant of all the castes above him. But the +Christian religion has set forth a different theory, which ascribes to +God entire impartiality toward races and individuals. He has “made of +one blood all nations.” It is out of this doctrine that the so-called +“self-evident” assertion in the Declaration of Independence originated, +and it is this doctrine which throughout the history of European +civilization has contributed to smoothen out the harsh lines of caste +into the less definite lines of social classes. For it must be +remembered that Europe, like India, is built upon conquest, and the +earlier populations were reduced to the condition of slaves and serfs to +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> conquering races. True, there was not the extreme opposition of +white and colored races which distinguished the conquests of India, and +this is also one of the reasons why slavery and serfdom gradually gave +way and races coalesced. Nevertheless, the peasantry of Europe to-day is +in large part the product of serfdom and of that race-subjection which +produced serfdom. Herein we may find the source of that arrogance on the +one hand and subserviency on the other, which so closely relate class +divisions to race divisions. The European peasant, says Professor +Shaler,<small><a name="f2.1" id="f2.1" href="#f2">[2]</a></small> “knows himself to be by birthright a member of an inferior +class, from which there is practically no chance of escaping.... It is +characteristic of peasants that they have accepted this inferior lot. +For generations they have regarded themselves as separated from their +fellow-citizens of higher estate. They have no large sense of citizenly +motives; they feel no sense of responsibility for any part of the public +life save that which lies within their own narrow round of action.”</p> + +<p>How different from the qualities of the typical American citizen whose +forefathers have erected our edifice of representative democracy! It was +not the peasant class of Europe that sought these shores in order to +found a free government. It was the middle class, the merchants and +yeomen, those who in religion and politics were literally “protestants,” +and who possessed the intelligence, manliness, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> public spirit which +urged them to assert for themselves those inalienable rights which the +church or the state of their time had arrogated to itself. With such a +social class democracy is the only acceptable form of government. They +demand and secure equal opportunities because they are able to rise to +those opportunities. By their own inherent nature they look forward to +and aspire to the highest positions.</p> + +<p>But the peasants of Europe, especially of Southern and Eastern Europe, +have been reduced to the qualities similar to those of an inferior race +that favor despotism and oligarchy rather than democracy. Their only +avenues of escape from their subordinate positions have been through the +army and the church, and these two institutions have drawn from the +peasants their ablest and brightest intellects into a life which +deprived them of offspring. “Among the prosperous folk there have been +ever many classes of occupations tempting the abler youths, while among +the laborers the church has afforded the easiest way to rise, and that +which is most tempting to the intelligent. The result has been, that +while the priesthood and monastic orders have systematically debilitated +all the populations of Catholic Europe, their influence has been most +efficient in destroying talent in the peasant class.”<small><a name="f3.1" id="f3.1" href="#f3">[3]</a></small></p> + +<p>Thus it is that the peasants of Catholic Europe, who constitute the bulk +of our immigration of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> past thirty years, have become almost a +distinct race, drained of those superior qualities which are the +foundation of democratic institutions. If in America our boasted freedom +from the evils of social classes fails to be vindicated in the future, +the reasons will be found in the immigration of races and classes +incompetent to share in our democratic opportunities. Already in the +case of the negro this division has hardened and seems destined to +become more rigid. Therein we must admit at least one exception to our +claim of immunity from social classes. Whether with our public schools, +our stirring politics, our ubiquitous newspapers, our common language, +and our network of transportation, the children of the European +immigrant shall be able to rise to the opportunities unreached by his +parents is the largest and deepest problem now pressing upon us. It +behooves us as a people to enter into the practical study of this +problem, for upon its outcome depends the fate of government of the +people, for the people, and by the people.</p> + +<p><b>Races in the United States.</b>—We use the term “race” in a rather loose +and elastic sense; and indeed we are not culpable in so doing, for the +ethnographers are not agreed upon it. Races have been classified on the +basis of color, on the basis of language, on the basis of supposed +origin, and in these latter days on the basis of the shape of the skull. +For our purpose we need consider only those large and apparent divisions +which have a direct bearing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> on the problem of assimilation, referring +those who seek the more subtle problems to other books.<small><a name="f4.1" id="f4.1" href="#f4">[4]</a></small></p> + +<p>Mankind in general has been divided into three and again into five great +racial stocks, and one of these stocks, the Aryan or Indo-Germanic, is +represented among us by ten or more subdivisions which we also term +races. It need not cause confusion if we use the term “race” not only to +designate these grand divisions which are so far removed by nature one +from another as to render successful amalgamation an open question, but +also to designate those peoples or nationalities which we recognize as +distinct yet related within one of the large divisions. Within the area +controlled by the United States are now to be found representatives of +each of the grand divisions, or primary racial groups, and it would be a +fascinating study to turn from the more practical topics before us and +follow the races of man in their dispersion over the globe and their +final gathering together again under the republic of America. First is +the Aryan, or Indo-Germanic race, which, wherever it originated, sent +its Sanskrit conquerors to the South to plant themselves upon a black +race related to the Africans and the Australians. Its Western branch, +many thousand miles away, made the conquest and settlement of Europe. +Here it sent out many smaller branches, among them the Greeks and +Latins, whose situation on the Mediterranean helped in great measure to +develop brilliant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> and conquering civilizations, and who, after twenty +centuries of decay and subjection, have within the past twenty years +begun again their westward movement, this time to North and South +America. North of Greece the Aryans became the manifold Slavs, that most +prolific of races. One branch of the Slavs has spread the power of +Russia east and west, and is now crushing the alien Hebrew, Finn, +Lithuanian, and German, and even its fellow-Slav, the Pole, who, to +escape their oppressors, are moving to America. The Russian himself, +with his vast expanse of fertile prairie and steppe, does not migrate +across the water, but drives away those whom he can not or will not +assimilate. From Austria-Hungary, with its medley of races, come other +branches of the Slavs, the Bohemians, Moravians, Slovaks, Slovenians, +Croatians, Roumanians, Poles, and Ruthenians, some of them mistakenly +called Huns, but really oppressed by the true Hun, the Magyar, and by +the German. To the west of the Slavs we find the Teutonic branches of +the Aryans, the Germans, the Scandinavians, and, above all, the English +and Scotch-Irish with their descent from the Angles, Saxons, and Franks, +who have given to America our largest accessions in numbers, besides our +language, our institutions, and forms of government. Then other branches +of the Aryans known as Celtic, including the Irish, Scotch, and Welsh, +formerly driven into the hills and islands by the Teutons, have in these +latter days vied with the English and Germans in adding to our +population.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> The French, a mixture of Teuton and Celt, a nationality +noted above all others for its stationary population and dislike of +migration, are nevertheless contributing to our numbers by the +circuitous route of Canada, and are sending to us a class of people more +different from the present-day Frenchman in his native home than the +Italian or Portuguese is different from the Frenchman.</p> + +<p>In the fertile valleys of Mesopotamia and the Tigris the Semitic race +had separated from its cousins, the Aryans, and one remarkable branch of +this race, the Hebrews, settling on a diminutive tract of land on the +eastern shore of the Mediterranean and finally driven forth as wanderers +to live upon their wits, exploited by and exploiting in turn every race +of Europe, have ultimately been driven forth to America by the thousands +from Russia and Austria where nearly one-half of their present number is +found.</p> + +<p>Another race, the Mongolian, multiplying on the plains of Asia, sent a +conquering branch to the west, scattering the Slavs and Teutons and +making for itself a permanent wedge in the middle of Europe, whence, +under the name of Magyar, the true Hungarian, the Mongolians come to +America. Going in another direction from this Asiatic home the Mongolian +race has made the circuit of the globe, and the Chinese, Japanese, and +Koreans meet in America their unrecognized cousins of many thousand +years ago.</p> + +<p>Last of the immigrants to be mentioned, but among<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> the earliest in point +of time, is the black race from the slave coast of Africa. This was not +a free and voluntary migration of a people seeking new fields to escape +oppression, but a forced migration designed to relieve the white race of +toil. All of the other races mentioned, the Aryan, the Semitic, the +Mongolian, had in early times met one another and even perhaps had +sprung from the same stock, so that when in America they come together +there is presumably a renewal of former ties. But as far back as we can +trace the history of races in the records of archæology or philology, we +find no traces of affiliation with the black race. The separation by +continents, by climate, by color, and by institutions is the most +diametrical that mankind exhibits anywhere. It is even greater than that +between the Aryan and the native American, improperly called the Indian, +whose presence on the soil which we have seized from him has furnished +us with a peculiar variation in our multiform race problem. For the +Indian tribes, although within our acquired territory, have been treated +as foreign nations, and their reservations have been saved to them under +the forms of treaties. Only recently has there sprung up a policy of +admitting them to citizenship, and therefore the Indian, superior in +some respects to the negro, has not interfered with our experiment in +democracy.</p> + +<p>Last in point of time we have taken into our fold the Malay race, with +some seven million representatives in the Hawaiian and Philippine +Islands. Like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> the Indian and the negro, this race never in historic +times prior to the discovery of the new world came into close contact +with the white races. With its addition we have completed the round of +all the grand divisions of the human family, and have brought together +for a common experiment in self-government the white, yellow, black, +red, and brown races of the earth.</p> + +<p><b>Amalgamation and Assimilation.</b>—Scarcely another nation in ancient or +modern history can show within compact borders so varied an aggregation. +It is frequently maintained that a nation composed of a mixed stock is +superior in mind and body to one of single and homogeneous stock. But it +must be remembered that amalgamation requires centuries. The English +race is probably as good an example of a mixed race as can be found in +modern history, yet this race, though a mixture of the closely related +primitive Celt, the conquering Teuton, and the Latinized Scandinavian, +did not reach a common language and homogeneity until three hundred +years after the last admixture. We know from modern researches that all +of the races of Europe are mixed in their origin, but we also know that +so much of that mixture as resulted in amalgamation occurred at a time +so remote that it has been ascribed to the Stone Age.<small><a name="f5.1" id="f5.1" href="#f5">[5]</a></small> The later +inroads have either been but temporary and have left but slight +impression, or they have resulted in a division of territory. Thus the +conquest of Britain by the Teutons and the Normans<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> has not produced +amalgamation so much as it has caused a segregation of the Celts in +Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, and of the Teutons, with their later but +slight infusion of Normans, in England. On the continent of Europe this +segregation has been even more strongly marked. The present +stratification of races and nationalities has followed the upheavals and +inroads of a thousand years introduced by the decline and fall of the +Roman Empire. Two developments have taken place. A conquering race has +reduced a native population in part to subjection and has imposed upon +the natives its laws, customs, and language. In course of time the +subject race becomes a lower social class and slowly assimilates with +the upper classes, producing a homogeneous nationality with a new +evolution of laws, customs, and language. This is the history of four +great nations of Europe,—the French, the German, the English, the +Italian. The other development has been the segregation of a portion of +the conquered race, who having fled their conquerors avoid actual +subjection by escaping to the mountains and islands. Here they preserve +their original purity of stock and language. This is the history of +Austria-Hungary, whose earlier population of Slavs has been scattered +right and left by German and Hun and who now constitute separate +branches and dialects of the unassimilated races. That Austria-Hungary +with its dozen languages should be able to hold together as a “dual +empire” for many years is one of the marvels of history, and is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>frequently ascribed to that which is the essence of autocracy, the +personal hold of the emperor.</p> + +<p>The little bundle of republics known as Switzerland is a federation of +French, Germans, and Italians, who retain their languages and have +developed what out of such a conflict of races has elsewhere never been +developed, a high grade of democratic government. Here in historic times +there has been no amalgamation of races or assimilation of languages, +but there has been the distinct advantage of a secluded freedom from +surrounding feudal lords, which naturally led to a loose federation of +independent cantons. It is Switzerland’s mountains and not her mixed +races that have promoted her democracy. At the other end of the world +the highest development of democracy is in the colonies of Australasia, +where a homogeneous race, protected from foreign foes, and prohibiting +the immigration of alien races and inferior classes, has worked out +self-government in politics and industry. In the Roman Empire we see the +opposite extreme. At first a limited republic, the extension of +conquests, and the incorporation of alien races led to that +centralization of power in the hands of one man which transformed the +republic into the empire. The British Empire, which to-day covers all +races of the earth, is growingly democratic as regards Englishmen, but +despotic as regards subject races. Taking the empire as a whole, neither +amalgamation nor self-government is within the possibilities of its +constitutional growth.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>In America, on the other hand, we have attempted to unite all races in +one commonwealth and one elective government. We have, indeed, a most +notable advantage compared with other countries where race divisions +have undermined democracy. A single language became dominant from the +time of the earliest permanent settlement, and all subsequent races and +languages must adopt the established medium. This is essential, for it +is not physical amalgamation that unites mankind; it is mental +community. To be great a nation need not be of one blood, it must be of +one mind. Racial inequality and inferiority are fundamental only to the +extent that they prevent mental and moral assimilation. If we think +together, we can act together, and the organ of common thought and +action is common language. Through the prism of this noble instrument of +the human mind all other instruments focus their powers of assimilation +upon the new generations as they come forth from the disunited +immigrants. The public schools, the newspapers, the books, the political +parties, the trade unions, the religious propagandists with their +manifold agencies of universal education, the railroads with their +inducements to our unparalleled mobility of population, are all +dependent upon our common language for their high efficiency. Herein are +we fortunate in our plans for the Americanization of all races within +our borders. We are not content to let the fate of our institutions wait +upon the slow and doubtful processes of blood<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> amalgamation, but are +eager to direct our energies toward the more rapid movements of mental +assimilation. Race and heredity may be beyond our organized control; but +the instrument of a common language is at hand for conscious improvement +through education and social environment.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> +<h3>COLONIAL RACE ELEMENTS</h3> + +<p><br />Doubtless the most fascinating topic in the study of races is that of +the great men whom each race has produced. The personal interest +surrounding those who have gained eminence carries us back over each +step of their careers to their childhood, their parents, and their +ancestry.<small><a name="f6.1" id="f6.1" href="#f6">[6]</a></small> Pride of race adds its zest, and each race has its +eulogists who claim every great man whose family tree reveals even a +single ancestor, male or female, near or remote, of the eulogized race. +Here is a “conflict of jurisdiction,” and the student who is without +race prejudice begins to look for causes other than race origin to which +should be ascribed the emergence of greatness.</p> + +<p>Mr. Henry Cabot Lodge<small><a name="f7.1" id="f7.1" href="#f7">[7]</a></small> attempted, some years ago, to assign to the +different races in America the 14,243 men eminent enough to find a place +in “Appleton’s Encyclopedia of American Biography.” He prepared a +statistical summary as follows:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p> + +<p class="center">EMINENT AMERICANS</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>English</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td align="right">10,376</td></tr> +<tr><td>Scotch-Irish</td><td> </td><td align="right">1,439</td></tr> +<tr><td>German</td><td> </td><td align="right">659</td></tr> +<tr><td>Huguenot</td><td> </td><td align="right">589</td></tr> +<tr><td>Scotch</td><td> </td><td align="right">436</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dutch</td><td> </td><td align="right">336</td></tr> +<tr><td>Welsh</td><td> </td><td align="right">159</td></tr> +<tr><td>Irish</td><td> </td><td align="right">109</td></tr> +<tr><td>French</td><td> </td><td align="right">85</td></tr> +<tr><td>Scandinavian</td><td> </td><td align="right">31</td></tr> +<tr><td>Spanish</td><td> </td><td align="right">7</td></tr> +<tr><td>Italian</td><td> </td><td align="right">7</td></tr> +<tr><td>Swiss</td><td> </td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td>Greek</td><td> </td><td align="right">3</td></tr> +<tr><td>Russian</td><td> </td><td align="right">1</td></tr> +<tr><td>Polish</td><td> </td><td class="line" align="right">1</td></tr> +<tr><td><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Total</span></td><td> </td><td align="right">14,243</td></tr></table> + +<p>When we inquire into the methods necessarily adopted in preparing a +statistical table of this kind we discover serious limitations. Mr. +Lodge was confined to the paternal line alone, but if, as some +biologists assert, the female is the conservative element which holds to +the type, and the male is the variable element which departs from the +type, then the specific contribution of the race factor would be found +in the maternal line. However, let this dubious point pass. We find that +in American life two hundred years of intermingling has in many if not +in most cases of greatness broken into the continuity of race. True, the +New England and Virginia stock has remained during most of this time of +purely English origin, but the very fact that in Mr. Lodge’s tables +Massachusetts has produced 2686 notables,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> while Virginia, of the same +blood, has produced only 1038, must lead to the suspicion that factors +other than race extraction are the mainspring of greatness.</p> + +<p>It must be remembered that ability is not identical with eminence. +Ability is the product of ancestry and training. Eminence is an accident +of social conditions. The English race was the main contributor to +population during the seventeenth century, and English conquest +determined the form of government, the language, and the opportunities +for individual advancement. During the succeeding century the +Scotch-Irish and the Germans migrated in nearly equal numbers, and their +combined migration was perhaps as great as that of the English in the +seventeenth century. But they were compelled to move to the interior, to +become frontiersmen, to earn their living directly from the soil, and to +leave to their English-sprung predecessors the more prominent +occupations of politics, literature, law, commerce, and the army. The +Germans, who, according to Lodge, “produced fewer men of ability than +any other race in the United States,” were further handicapped by their +language and isolation, which continue to this day in the counties of +Pennsylvania where they originally settled. On the other hand, the +Huguenots and the Dutch came in the first century of colonization. They +rapidly merged with the English, lost their language, and hence +contributed their full share of eminence. Finally, the Irish, +Scandinavian <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>and other races, inconspicuous in the galaxy of +notables, did not migrate in numbers until the middle of the nineteenth +century, and, in addition to the restraints of language and poverty, +they found the roads to prominence preoccupied.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p024.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center">“<span class="smcap">Return of the Mayflower</span>”<br />Painting by Boughton, 1834</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>Besides the accident of precedence in time, a second factor distinct +from race itself has contributed to the eminence of one race over +another. The Huguenots and the French, according to Lodge’s statistics, +show a percentage of ability in proportion to their total immigration +much higher than that of any other race. But the Huguenots were a select +class of people, manufacturers and merchants, perhaps the most +intelligent and enterprising of Frenchmen in the seventeenth century. +Furthermore the direct migration from France to this country has never +included many peasants and wage-earners, but has been limited to the +adventurous and educated. Had the French-Canadians who represent the +peasantry of France been included in these comparisons, the proportion +of French eminence would have been materially reduced.</p> + +<p>The same is true of the English. Although sprung from one race, those +who came to America represented at least two grades of society as widely +apart as two races. The Pilgrims and Puritans of New England were the +yeomen, the merchants, the manufacturers, skilled in industry, often +independent in resources, and well trained in the intellectual +controversies of religion and politics. The Southern planters also<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +sprang from a class of similar standing, though not so strongly addicted +to intellectual pursuits. Beneath both these classes were the indentured +servants, a few of whom were men of ability forced to pay their passage +by service. But the majority of them were brought to this country +through the advertisements of shipowners and landholders or even +forcibly captured on the streets of cities or transported for crimes and +pauperism. Though all of these classes were of the same race, they were +about as widely divergent as races themselves in point of native ability +and preparatory training.</p> + +<p>The third and most important cause of eminence, apart from ancestry, is +the industrial and legal environment. An agricultural community produces +very few eminent men compared with the number produced where +manufactures and commerce vie with agriculture to attract the youth. A +state of widely diversified industrial interests is likely to create +widely diversified intellectual and moral interests. Complicated +problems of industry and politics stimulate the mind and reflect their +influence in literature, art, education, science, and the learned +professions. Most of all, equal opportunity for all classes and large +prizes for the ambitious and industrious serve to stimulate individuals +of native ability to their highest endeavor. It was the deadening +effects of slavery, creating inequalities among the whites themselves, +that smothered the genius of the Southerner whether Englishman, +Huguenot, or Scotch-Irish, and it was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> the free institutions of the +North that invited their genius to unfold and blossom.</p> + +<p>These considerations lead us to look with distrust on the claims of +those who find in race ancestry or in race intermixture the reasons for +such eminence as Americans have attained. While the race factor is +decisive when it marks off inferior and primitive races, yet, in +considering those Europeans races which have joined in our civilization, +the important questions are: From what social classes is immigration +drawn? and, Do our social institutions offer free opportunity and high +incentive to the youth of ability? In so far as we get a choice +selection of immigrants, and in so far as we afford them free scope for +their native gifts, so far do they render to our country the services of +genius, talent, and industry.</p> + +<p><b>Incentives to Immigration.</b>—It is the distinctive fact regarding +colonial migration that it was Teutonic in blood and Protestant in +religion. The English, Dutch, Swedes, Germans, and even the +Scotch-Irish, who constituted practically the entire migration, were +less than two thousand years ago one Germanic race in the forests +surrounding the North Sea. The Protestant Reformation, sixteen centuries +later, began among those peoples and found in them its sturdiest +supporters. The doctrines of the Reformation, adapted as they were to +the strong individualism of the Germanic races, prepared the hearts of +men for the doctrines of political liberty and constitutional government +of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> succeeding century. The Reformation banished the idea that men +must seek salvation through the intercession of priests and popes, who, +however sacred, are only fellow-men, and set up the idea that each soul +has direct access to God. With the Bible as a guide and his own +conscience as a judge, each man was accountable only to one divine +sovereign.</p> + +<p>From the standpoint of the age this doctrine was too radical. It tended +to break up existing society into sects and factions, and to precipitate +those civil and religious wars which ended in a Catholic or aristocratic +reaction. When this reaction came, the numerous Protestant sects of the +extremer types found themselves the objects of persecution, and nothing +remained but to seek a new land where the heavy hand of repression could +not reach them. Thus America became the home of numberless religious +sects and denominations of these several races. From England came +Congregationalists (the “Pilgrims”), Puritans, Quakers, Baptists; from +Scotland and Ireland came Presbyterians; from Germany came Quakers, +Dunkards, Pietists, Ridge Hermits, Salzburgers, and Moravians.</p> + +<p>It is not to be inferred that religious persecution alone in the early +colonial period caused emigration. In point of numbers commercial +enterprise was probably equally influential. In Holland all religious +sects were welcomed with a liberality far in advance of any other +nation, and at the same time the Dutch<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> people were the most advanced in +the modern pursuits of trade and commerce. The Dutch settlement of New +Amsterdam was therefore a business enterprise, and neither before nor +after the conquest by the British was there any religious obstacle to +the reception of other races and religions. In this respect New York +differed widely from New England, where religious exclusiveness +preserved the English race as a peculiar people until the middle of the +nineteenth century. So diverse were the races in New York, and so +liberal were the opportunities open to all, that Governor Horatio +Seymour was able to say that nine men prominent in its early history +represented the same number of nationalities. Schuyler was of Dutch +descent, Herkimer of German, Jay of French, Livingston of Scotch, +Clinton of Irish, Morris of Welsh, Hoffman of Swedish, while Hamilton +was a West India Englishman and Baron Steuben a Prussian.<small><a name="f8.1" id="f8.1" href="#f8">[8]</a></small></p> + +<p>Another colony to which all races and religions were welcomed was +Pennsylvania. William Penn established this colony both as a refuge for +the persecuted Quakers of England and as a real estate venture. He was +the first American to advertise his dominions widely throughout Europe, +offering to sell one hundred acres of land at two English pounds and a +low rental. His advertisements combined humanity and business, for they +called attention to popular government and universal suffrage; equal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +rights to all regardless of race or religious belief; trial by jury; +murder and treason the only capital crimes, and reformation, not +retaliation, the object of punishment for other offences. Thus +Pennsylvania, although settled a half century later than the Southern +and Northern colonies, soon exceeded them in population. Penn sent his +agents to Germany and persuaded large numbers of German Quakers and +Pietists to cast their lot in his plantation, so that in twenty years +the Germans numbered nearly one-half the population. Again, in the +beginning of the eighteenth century, when Louis XIV overran the +Palatinate and thousands of Germans fled to England, the English +government encouraged their migration to America. In one year four +thousand of them, the largest single emigration of the colonial period, +embarked for New York, but their treatment was so illiberal that they +moved to Pennsylvania, and thenceforth the German migration sought the +latter colony. These people settled at Germantown, near Philadelphia, +and occupied the counties of Bucks and Montgomery, where they continue +to this day with their peculiar language, the “Pennsylvania Dutch.” Not +only William Penn himself, but other landowners in Pennsylvania and also +the shipowners advertised the country in Germany, and thousands of the +poorer sort of Germans were induced to indenture themselves to the +settlers to whom they were auctioned off by the ship captains in payment +for transportation. Probably one-half of all the immigrants of the +colonial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> period came under this system of postpaid transportation, just +as at the present time nearly two-thirds come on prepaid tickets. It was +in Pennsylvania that the largest portion of the Scotch-Irish settled, +and before the time of the Revolution that colony had become the most +populous and most diversified of all the colonies. It was the only +colony, except Maryland, that tolerated Roman Catholics, and with all +phases of the Christian religion and all branches of the Teutonic and +Celtic races, Pennsylvania set the original type to which all of America +has conformed, that of race intermixture on the basis of religious and +political equality.</p> + +<p><b>The Scotch-Irish.</b>—It has long been recognized that among the most +virile and aggressive people who came to America in colonial times, and +who have contributed a peculiar share to the American character, are the +Scotch-Irish. Their descendants boast of their ancestry and cite long +lists of notables as their coderivatives. Yet until recent years it has +been the misfortune of the Scotch-Irish to have escaped historical +investigation; for American history has been written chiefly in New +England, whose colonial Puritans forbade them in their midst. In fact, +from the earliest settlement, the Scotch-Irish have been pioneers and +men of action. They have contributed to America few writers and artists, +but many generals, politicians, and captains of industry. In literature +they claim two eminent names, Irving and Poe; but in the army, navy, +politics, and business<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> they claim John Paul Jones, Perry, Andrew +Jackson, Winfield Scott, Zachary Taylor, Ulysses S. Grant, Stonewall +Jackson, George B. McClellan, Alexander Hamilton, John C. Calhoun, James +G. Blaine, Jefferson Davis, Thomas Benton, Hendricks, John G. Carlisle, +Mark Hanna, William McKinley, Matthew S. Quay, Andrew Carnegie, John D. +Rockefeller, Horace Greeley, Henry Watterson, and hundreds alike famous +in the more strenuous movements of American life.</p> + +<p>A paradoxical fact regarding the Scotch-Irish is that they are very +little Scotch and much less Irish. That is to say, they do not belong +mainly to the so-called Celtic race, but they are the most composite of +all the people of the British Isles. They are called Scots because they +lived in Scotia, and they are called Irish because they moved to +Ireland. Geography and not ethnology has given them their name. They are +a mixed race through whose veins run the Celtic blood of the primitive +Scot and Pict, the primitive Briton, the primitive Irish, but with a +larger admixture of the later Norwegian, Dane, Saxon, and Angle. How +this amalgamation came about we may learn from the geography of +Scotland.</p> + +<p>The Highlands of Scotland begin at the Grampian Hills and the Lowlands +extend south from this line to the British border, and include the +cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh. The Scotch-Irish came from that +southwestern part of the Lowlands which bulges out toward Ireland north +of the Solway Firth. Over<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> these Lowland counties, bounded by water and +hills on three sides, successive waves of conquest and migration +followed. First the primitive Caledonian or Pict was driven to the +Highlands, which to this day is the Celtic portion of Scotland. The +Briton from the south, pressed on by Roman and then by Teuton, occupied +the country. Then Irish tribes crossed over and gained a permanent hold. +Then the Norwegian sailors came around from the north, and to this day +there are pure Scandinavian types on the adjacent islands. Then the +Saxons and Angles, driven by the Danes and Normans, gained a foothold +from the east, and lastly the Danes themselves added their contingent. +Here in this Lowland pocket of territory, no larger than a good-sized +American county, was compounded for five hundred years this remarkable +amalgam of races.</p> + +<p>A thousand years later, after they had become a united people and had +shown their metal in the trying times of the Reformation, they furnished +the emigrants who displaced the Irish in the north of Ireland. James I, +whom Scotland gave to England, determined to transform Catholic Ireland +into Protestant England, and thereupon confiscated the lands of the +native chiefs in Ulster and bestowed them upon Scottish and English +lords on condition that they settle the territory with tenants from +Scotland and England. This was the “great settlement” of 1610, and from +that time to the present Ulster has been the Protestant stronghold of +Ireland.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> In 1901 the population of Ulster was 44 per cent Catholic, 23 +per cent Episcopalian, and 27 per cent Presbyterian, an ecclesiastical +division corresponding almost exactly to the racial division of Irish, +English, and Scotch. During the whole of the seventeenth century—the +first century of this occupation—the Catholics and Episcopalians were +in a much smaller proportion than these figures show for the present +time, and the relative increase in Irish and Episcopalians during the +eighteenth century was closely connected with the migration of the +Scotch to America.</p> + +<p>For one hundred years the Scotch multiplied in Ulster and had no +dealings with the remnants of the Irish, whom they crowded into the +barren hills and whom they treated like savages. They retained their +purity of race, and although when they came to America they called +themselves Irish and were known as Irish wherever they settled, yet they +had no Irish blood except that which entered into their composition +through the Irish migration to Scotia fifteen hundred years before.</p> + +<p>Yet, though they despised the Irish, they could not escape the unhappy +fate of Ireland. The first blow came in 1698, nearly one hundred years +after their settlement. English manufacturers complained of Irish +competition, and the Irish Parliament, a tool of the British crown, +passed an act totally forbidding the exportation of Irish woollens, and +another act forbidding the exportation of Irish wool to any country<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +save England. Their slowly growing linen industry was likewise +discriminated against in later years. Presbyterian Ulster had been the +industrial centre of Ireland, and these acts nearly destroyed her +industry. Next Queen Anne’s Parliament adopted penal laws directed +against Roman Catholics and Presbyterians, and the Test Act, which +compelled public officials to take the communion of the Established +Church, deprived the entire Scotch population of self-government. +Nevertheless they were compelled to pay tithes to support the +Established Church to which they were opposed. Lastly, the hundred-year +leases of the tenants began to run out, and the landlords offered +renewals to the highest bidders on short leases. Here the +poverty-stricken Irish gained an unhappy revenge on the Scotch who had +displaced them of their ancestral lands, for their low standard of +living enabled them to offer rack-rents far above what the Scotch could +afford. No longer did religion, race pride, or gratitude have a part in +holding Ulster to Protestant supremacy. The greed of absentee landlords +began to have full sway, and in the resulting struggle for livelihood, +hopeless poverty was fitter to survive than ambitious thrift.</p> + +<p>The Scotch tenants, their hearts bitter against England and aristocracy, +now sought a country where they might have free land and +self-government. In 1718 it is stated that 4200 of them left for +America. After the famine of 1740 there were 12,000 who left<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> annually. +Altogether, in the half century just preceding the American Revolution, +200,000<small><a name="f9.1" id="f9.1" href="#f9">[9]</a></small> persons, or one-third of the Protestant population of Ulster, +are said to have emigrated, and the majority came to America. This was +by far the largest contribution of any race to the population of America +during the eighteenth century, and the injustice they suffered at the +hands of England made them among the most determined and effective +recruits to the armies that won our independence.</p> + +<p>Before the Scotch-Irish moved to America the Atlantic coast line had +been well occupied. Consequently, in order to obtain land for +themselves, they were forced to go to the interior and to become +frontiersmen. They found in Massachusetts a state church to which they +must conform in order to be admitted to citizenship. But what they had +left Ireland to escape they would not consent in a new country to do. +The Puritans were willing that they should occupy the frontier as a +buffer against the Indians, and so they took up lands in New Hampshire, +Vermont, Western Massachusetts, and Maine. Only a few congregations, +however, settled in New England—the bulk of the immigrants entered by +way of Philadelphia and Baltimore and went to the interior of +Pennsylvania surrounding and south of Harrisburg. They spread through +the Shenandoah<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> valley and in the foothill regions of Virginia and +North and South Carolina. Gradually, they pushed farther west, across +the mountains into Western Pennsylvania about Pittsburg, and into Ohio, +Kentucky, and Tennessee. In all of these regions they fought the +Indians, protected the older inhabitants from inroads, and developed +those pioneer qualities which for one hundred years have characterized +the “winning of the West.”</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p036.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Anglo-Saxon Mountaineers, Berea College, Kentucky</span></p> +<p> </p> + +<p>The Scotch-Irish occupied a peculiar place in the new world. More than +any other race they served as the amalgam to produce, out of divergent +races, a new race, the American. The Puritans of New England, the +Quakers of Pennsylvania, the Cavaliers of Virginia, were as radically +different as peoples of different races, and they were separated from +each other in their own exclusive communities. The Germans were +localized in Pennsylvania and Maryland, the Dutch in New York, but the +Scotch-Irish “alone of the various races in America were present in +sufficient numbers in all of the colonies to make their influence count; +and they alone of all the races had one uniform religion; had +experienced together the persecutions by state and church which had +deprived them at home of their civil and religious liberties; and were +the common heirs to those principles of freedom and democracy which had +been developed in Scotland as nowhere else. At the time of the American +Revolution there were ... in all above five hundred settlements +scattered over practically<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> all the American colonies.”<small><a name="f10.1" id="f10.1" href="#f10">[10]</a></small> Trained as +they were in the representative democracy of the Scottish kirk, thrown +on their own resources in the wilderness, mingling with the pioneers of +many other races, they took the lead in developing that Western type +which in politics and industry became ultimately the American type; yet +they retained their original character, and the American to-day is more +at home in Glasgow than in London.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> +<h3>THE NEGRO</h3> + +<p><br />Although the negro races of Africa extend across the continent and from +the Sudan to Cape Colony, yet the races which yielded the largest supply +of slaves for America were confined to a narrow stretch of the Atlantic +coast near the equator. For nearly two thousand miles from Cape Verde +the coast of Africa runs southeast and easterly, and then for another +thousand miles it runs to the south, forming the Gulf of Guinea, and +from a belt of land along this coast practically all the negro +immigrants to America have come. Here several large rivers, the Senegal, +the Gambia, the Niger, and the Congo—furnished harbors for slave ships +and routes for slave traders from the interior. Two circumstances, the +climate and the luxuriant vegetation, render this region hostile to +continuous exertion. The torrid heat and the excessive humidity weaken +the will and exterminate those who are too strenuous; but this same heat +and humidity, with the fertile soil, produce unparalleled crops of +bananas, yams, and grains. Thus nature conspires to produce a race +indolent, improvident, and contented. Seventy-five per cent of the +deaths are said to be executions for supposed <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>witchcraft, which has +killed more men and women than the slave trade. Formerly cannibalism +prevailed, but it has now been largely stamped out by European +governments. The native governments are tribal, and the chiefs sustain +themselves by their physical prowess and the help of priests and +medicine men. Property is mainly in women and slaves, and inheritance is +through the female, except among the nobility of Dahomey, where +primogeniture rules. Written laws and records are unknown. The people +are unstable, indifferent to suffering, and “easily aroused to ferocity +by the sight of blood or under great fear.” They exhibit aversion to +silence and solitude, love of rhythm, excitability, and lack of reserve. +All travellers speak of their impulsiveness, strong sexual passion, and +lack of will power.<small><a name="f11.1" id="f11.1" href="#f11">[11]</a></small></p> + +<p>Such, in brief, were the land and the people that furnished one-sixth of +our total population and two-fifths of our Southern population. In +shifting such a people from the torrid climate of equatorial Africa to +the temperate regions of America, and from an environment of savagery to +one of civilization, changes more momentous than those of any other +migration have occurred. First, it was only the strongest physical +specimens who survived the horrible tests of the slave catcher and the +slave ship. Slavery, too, as a system, could use to best advantage those +who were docile and hardy, and not those who were independent and +feeble. Just as in the many thousand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> years of man’s domestication of +animals, the breechy cow and the balky horse have been almost eliminated +by artificial selection, so slavery tended to transform the savage by +eliminating those who were self-willed, ambitious, and possessed of +individual initiative. Other races of immigrants, by contact with our +institutions, have been civilized—the negro has been only domesticated. +Democratic civilization offers an outlet for those who are morally and +intellectually vigorous enough to break away from the stolid mass of +their fellows; domestication dreads and suppresses them as dangerous +rebels. The very qualities of intelligence and manliness which are +essential for citizenship in a democracy were systematically expunged +from the negro race through two hundred years of slavery. And then, by +the cataclysm of a war in which it took no part, this race, after many +thousand years of savagery and two centuries of slavery, was suddenly +let loose into the liberty of citizenship and the electoral suffrage. +The world never before had seen such a triumph of dogmatism and +partizanship. It was dogmatism, because a theory of abstract equality +and inalienable rights of man took the place of education and the slow +evolution of moral character. It was partisanship, because a political +party, taking advantage of its triumph in civil war, sought to +perpetuate itself through the votes of its helpless beneficiaries. No +wonder that this fateful alliance of doctrinaires and partizans brought +fateful results, and that, after a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> generation of anarchy and race +hatred, the more fundamental task of education has only just begun.</p> + +<p>True, there was a secondary object in view in granting the freedmen +suffrage. The thirteenth amendment, adopted in 1865, legalized and +extended the proclamation of emancipation, which had been a war measure. +But this was followed by servile and penal laws in all the Southern +states that looked like peonage in place of slavery.<small><a name="f12.1" id="f12.1" href="#f12">[12]</a></small> Congress then +submitted the fourteenth amendment, which was adopted in 1867, creating +a new grade of citizenship—citizenship of the nation—and prohibiting +any state from depriving “any person of life, liberty, or property +without the due process of law” and from denying to any person “the +equal protection of the laws.” But this was not enough. The next step +was the fifteenth amendment adopted in 1869, prohibiting any state from +denying the suffrage to citizens of the United States “on account of +race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” Thus equality before +the law was to be protected by equality in making the law. This object +was a worthy one, and it added the appearance of logical necessity to +the theories of doctrinaires and the schemes of partisans. But it failed +because based on a wrong theory of the ballot. Suffrage means +self-government. Self-government means intelligence, self-control, and +capacity for coöperation. If these are lacking, the ballot only makes +way for the “boss,” the corruptionist, or the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>oligarchy. The suffrage +must be earned, not merely conferred, if it is to be an instrument of +self-protection.</p> + +<p>But it is the peculiar fate of race problems that they carry contestants +to bitter extremes and afford no field for constructive compromise. +Could the nation have adopted Lincoln’s project of a hundred years, or +even thirty years, of gradual emancipation, it might have avoided both +the evils of war and the fallacies of self-government. But the spirit of +race aggrandisement that precipitated the one rendered the other +inevitable. With the negro suddenly made free by conquest, each fatal +step in reconstruction was forced by the one that preceded. The North, +the South, and the negro were placed in an impossible situation, and a +nation which dreaded negro suffrage in 1868<small><a name="f13.1" id="f13.1" href="#f13">[13]</a></small> adopted it in 1869.</p> + +<p>For eight years the government of the Southern states was in the hands +of the negroes. The result of turning the states over to ignorant and +untried voters was an enormous increase of debt without corresponding +public improvements or public enterprises. Even the negro governments +themselves began to repudiate these debts and they were almost wholly +repudiated by the whites after returning to power.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary to dwell upon the methods by which the white voters +regained and kept control of the states. Admittedly it was through +intimidation, murder, ballot-box “stuffing,” and false counting.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> The +negro vote has almost disappeared, and in more recent years that which +was accomplished through violence is perpetuated through law. +Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, and +Virginia have adopted so-called “educational” tests with such adroit +exceptions that white illiterates may vote, but negroes, whether +literate or illiterate, may be excluded from voting. As stated by a +prominent white Virginian, “the negro can vote if he has $300, or if he +is a veteran of the Federal or Confederate armies, or if he is a +profound constitutional lawyer.” The fifteenth amendment, by decisions +of the United States Supreme Court, has been rendered inoperative, and +the fourteenth amendment, without helping the negro, for whom it was +designed,<small><a name="f14.1" id="f14.1" href="#f14">[14]</a></small> has raised up government by private corporations which +never had been thought of as needing an amendment. With these decisions +it may be taken for granted that the negro will not again in the near +future enjoy the privilege of a free ballot.</p> + +<p>This is a situation in which the North is as deeply interested as the +South. The South, during the period of slavery, through the privilege of +counting three-fifths of the slaves, enjoyed a predominance in Congress +and in presidential elections beyond its proportion of white voters. The +South now enjoys a greater privilege because it counts all the negroes. +The fourteenth amendment expressly provides for a situation like this. +It says:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>“When the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for +president and vice-president of the United States, representatives in +Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a state, or the members +of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of +such state, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United +States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or +other crime, the basis of representation shall be reduced in the +proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the +whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such state.”</p> + +<p>Whether it will be possible under our form of government to carry out +this provision of the fourteenth amendment may be doubted, but that it +is fast becoming a question of live interest is certain. The educational +test is a rational test, but it is rational only when the state makes an +honest and diligent effort to equip every man to pass the test. The +former slave states spend $2.21 per child for educating the negroes, and +$4.92 per child for educating the whites.<small><a name="f15.1" id="f15.1" href="#f15">[15]</a></small> The great lesson already +learned is that we must “begin over again” the preparation of the negro +for citizenship. This time the work will begin at the bottom by +educating the negro for the ballot, instead of beginning at the top by +giving him the ballot before he knows what it should do for him. What +shall be the nature of this education?</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span><b>Education and Self-help.</b>—We have argued that democracy must be based +upon intelligence, manliness, and coöperation. How can these qualities +be produced in a race just emerged from slavery?</p> + +<p>Intelligence is more than books and letters—it is knowledge of the +forces of nature and ingenuity enough to use them for human service. The +negro is generally acknowledged to be lacking in “the mechanical idea.” +In Africa he hardly knows the simplest mechanical principles. In America +the brightest of the negroes were trained during slavery by their +masters in the handicrafts, such as carpentry, shoemaking, spinning, +weaving, blacksmithing, tailoring, and so on. A plantation became a +self-supporting unit under the oversight and discipline of the whites. +But the work of the negro artisans was careless and inefficient. The +negro blacksmith fastened shoes to the plantation mule, but the horses +were taken to the white blacksmith in town. Since emancipation the young +generation has not learned the mechanical trades to the same extent as +the slave generations. Moreover, as machinery supplants tools and +factories supplant handicrafts, the negro is left still farther behind. +“White men,” says a negro speaker,<small><a name="f16.1" id="f16.1" href="#f16">[16]</a></small> “are bringing science and art +into menial occupations and lifting them beyond our reach. In my boyhood +the walls and ceilings were whitewashed each spring by colored men; now +this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> is done by a white man managing a steam carpet-cleaning works. +Then the laundry work was done by negroes; now they are with difficulty +able to manage the new labor-saving machinery.” Even in the +non-mechanical occupations the negro is losing where he once had a +monopoly. In Chicago “there is now scarcely a negro barber in the +business district. Nearly all the janitor work in the large buildings +has been taken away from them by the Swedes. White men and women as +waiters have supplanted colored men in nearly all the first-class hotels +and restaurants. Practically all of the shoe polishing is now done by +Greeks.”<small><a name="f17.1" id="f17.1" href="#f17">[17]</a></small></p> + +<p>Individual negroes have made great progress, but what we need to know is +whether the masses of the negroes have advanced. The investigators of +Atlanta University, in summarizing the reports of three hundred and +forty-four employers of negroes, conclude: “There are a large number of +negro mechanics all over the land, but especially in the South. Some of +these are progressive, efficient workmen. More are careless, slovenly, +and ill-trained. There are signs of lethargy among these artisans, and +work is slipping from them in some places; in others they are awakening +and seizing the opportunities of the new industrial South.”<small><a name="f18.1" id="f18.1" href="#f18">[18]</a></small></p> + +<p>The prejudice of white workmen has undoubtedly played a part in +excluding the negro from mechanical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> trades, but the testimony of large +employers, who have no race prejudice where profits can be made, also +shows that low-priced negro labor often costs more than high-priced +white labor. The iron and steel mills of Alabama have no advantage in +labor cost over mills of Pennsylvania and Ohio.</p> + +<p>The foundation of intelligence for the modern workingman is his +understanding of mechanics. Not until he learns through manual and +technical training to handle the forces of nature can the workingman +rise to positions of responsibility and independence. This is as +important in agricultural labor, to which the negro is largely +restricted, as in manufactures. Intelligence in mechanics leads to +intelligence in economics and politics, and the higher wages of +mechanical intelligence furnish the resources by which the workman can +demand and secure his political and economic rights.</p> + +<p>The second requisite of democracy is independence and manliness. These +are moral qualities based on will power and steadfastness in pursuit of +a worthy object. But these qualities are not produced merely by +exhortation and religious revivals. They have a more prosaic and secular +foundation. History shows that no class or nation has risen to +independence without first accumulating property. However much we +disparage the qualities of greed and selfishness which the rush for +wealth has made obnoxious, we must acknowledge that the solid basis of +the virtues is thrift. The improvidence of the negro<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> is notorious. His +neglect of his horse, his mule, his machinery, his eagerness to spend +his earnings on finery, his reckless purchase of watermelons, chickens, +and garden stuff, when he might easily grow them on his own patch of +ground,—these and many other incidents of improvidence explain the +constant dependence of the negro upon his employer and his creditor. +There are, of course, notable exceptions where negroes have accumulated +property through diligent attention and careful oversight.<small><a name="f19.1" id="f19.1" href="#f19">[19]</a></small> These are +all the more notable when it is remembered that the education of the +negro has directed his energies to the honors of the learned professions +rather than to the commonplace virtues of ownership, and that one great +practical experiment in thrift—the Freedman’s Bank—went down through +dishonesty and incapacity. With the more recent development of the +remarkable institutions of Hampton and Tuskegee and their emphasis on +manual training and property accumulation, it is to be expected that +these basic qualities of intelligence and independence will receive +practical and direct encouragement.</p> + +<p>Coöperation is the third and capital equipment for attaining the rights +of citizenship. There are two forms of coöperation—a lower and a +higher. The lower is that of the chief or the boss who marshals his +ignorant followers through fear or spoils. The higher is that of +self-government where those who join together do so through their own +intelligence and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> mutual confidence. In the lower form there are +personal jealousies and factional contests which prevent united action +under elected leaders. Negro bosses and foremen are more despotic than +white bosses. The Colored Farmers’ Alliance depended upon a white man +for leadership. The white “carpet-baggers” organized the negro vote in +the reconstruction period. The negro was in this low stage of +coöperation because he was jealous or distrustful of his fellow-negro +and could rally together only under the banner of a leader whom he could +not depose. With the growth of intelligence and moral character there +comes a deepening sense of the need of organization as well as leaders +of their own race whom they can trust. The most hopeful indication of +progress for the negroes is the large number of voluntary religious, +beneficial, and insurance societies whose membership is limited to those +of their own color.<small><a name="f20.1" id="f20.1" href="#f20">[20]</a></small></p> + +<p>Liberty has always come through organization. The free cities of Europe +were simply the guilds of peasants and merchants who organized to +protect themselves against the feudal lords and bishops. Latterly they +gained a voice in parliaments as the “third estate” and established our +modern representative democracy. The modern trade unions have become a +power far in excess of their numbers through the capacity of the workman +to organize. With the modest beginnings of self-organization among +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>negroes the way is opening for their more effective participation in +the higher opportunities of our civilization.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p050.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Counties having a Larger Proportion of Negroes<br />in 1900 than in 1880</span></p> +<p> </p> + +<p>The negro trade unionist has not as yet shown the organizing capacity of +other races. Only among the mine workers, the longshoremen, and +bricklayers are they to be found in considerable numbers, although the +carpenters have negro organizers. But in most of these cases the negro +is being organized by the white man not so much for his own protection +as for the protection of the white workman. If the negro is brought to +the position of refusing to work for lower wages than the white man he +has taken the most difficult step in organization; for the labor union +requires, more than any other economic or business association in modern +life, reliance upon the steadfastness of one’s fellows. Unfortunately, +when the negro demands the same wages as white men, his industrial +inferiority leads the employer to take white men in his place, and here +again we see how fundamental is manual and technical intelligence as a +basis for other progress.<small><a name="f21.1" id="f21.1" href="#f21">[21]</a></small></p> + +<p>It must not be inferred because we have emphasized these qualities of +intelligence—manliness and coöperation as preparatory to political +rights—that the negro race should be deprived of the suffrage until +such time as its members acquire these qualities. Many individuals have +already acquired them. To exclude such individuals from the suffrage is +to shut<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> the door of hope to all. An honest educational test honestly +enforced on both whites and blacks is the simplest rough-and-ready +method for measuring the progress of individuals in these qualities of +citizenship. There is no problem before the American people more vital +to democratic institutions than that of keeping the suffrage open to the +negro and at the same time preparing the negro to profit by the +suffrage.</p> + +<p>Neither should the negro be excluded from the higher education. +Leadership is just as necessary in a democracy as in a tribe. +Self-government is not suppression of leaders but coöperation with them. +The true leader is one who knows his followers because he has suffered +with them, but who can point the way out and inspire them with +confidence. He feels what they feel, but can state what they cannot +express. He is their spokesman, defender, and organizer. Not a social +class nor a struggling race can reach equality with other classes and +races until its leaders can meet theirs on equal terms. It cannot depend +on others, but must raise up leaders from its own ranks. This is the +problem of higher education—not that scholastic education that ends in +itself, but that broad education that equips for higher usefulness. If +those individuals who are competent to become lawyers, physicians, +teachers, preachers, organizers, guides, innovators, experimenters, are +prevented from getting the right education, then there is little hope +for progress among the race as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> a whole, in the intelligence, manliness, +and coöperation needed for self-government.</p> + +<p><b>Growth of Negro Population.</b>—After the census of 1880 it was confidently +asserted that the negro population was increasing more rapidly than the +white population. But these assertions, since the census of 1890, have +disappeared. It then became apparent that the supposed increase from +1870 to 1880 was based on a defective count in 1870, the first census +after emancipation. In reality the negro element, including mulattoes, +during the one hundred and ten years of census taking, has steadily +declined in proportion to the white element. Although negroes in +absolute numbers have increased from 757,000 in 1790 to 4,442,000 in +1860, and 8,834,000 in 1900, yet in 1790 they were one-fifth of the +total population; in 1860 they were one-seventh and in 1900 only +one-ninth.</p> + +<p>It is naturally suggested that this relative decrease in negro +population has been owing to the large immigration of whites, but the +inference is unwarranted. In the Southern states the foreign element has +increased less rapidly than the native white element, yet it is in the +Southern states that the negro is most clearly falling behind. In the +twenty years from 1880 to 1900 the whites in eighteen Southern states +without the aid of foreign immigration increased 57 per cent and the +negroes only 33 per cent.<small><a name="f22.1" id="f22.1" href="#f22">[22]</a></small> In only six Southern states, West +Virginia, Florida,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> Alabama, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, have +the negroes, during the past ten years, increased more rapidly than the +whites, and in only three of these states, Alabama, Mississippi, and +Arkansas, was the relative increase significant. In but two states, +South Carolina and Mississippi, does the negro element predominate, and +in another state, Louisiana, a majority were negroes in 1890, but a +majority were whites in 1900. “At the beginning of the nineteenth +century the Southern negroes were increasing much faster than the +Southern whites. At the end of it they were increasing only about +three-fifths as fast.”<small><a name="f23.1" id="f23.1" href="#f23">[23]</a></small></p> + +<p>This redistribution of negroes is an interesting and significant fact +regarding the race and has a bearing on its future. Two movements are +taking place, first to the fertile bottom lands of the Southern states, +second to the cities, both North and South. Mr. Carl Kelsey has shown +this movement to the lowlands in an interesting way.<small><a name="f24.1" id="f24.1" href="#f24">[24]</a></small> He has prepared +a geological map of Alabama, which with Mississippi has received the +largest accession of negroes, and has shown the density of negro +population according to the character of the soil. In this map it +appears that the prairie and valley regions contain a proportion of 50 +per cent to 90 per cent negroes, while the sand hill and pine levels +contain only 10 per cent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> to 50 per cent, and the piedmont or foothill +region less than 10 per cent. A similar segregation is found in other +Southern states, especially the alluvial districts of Mississippi and +Arkansas. In these fertile sections toward which the negroes gravitate, +the crops are enormous, and Mr. Kelsey points out a curious +misconception in the census summary, wherein the inference is drawn that +negroes are better farmers than whites because they raise larger crops. +“No wonder the negroes’ crops are larger,” when the whites farm the hill +country and the negroes till the delta, which “will raise twice as much +cotton per acre as the hills.” Furthermore the negro, whether tenant or +owner, is under the close supervision of a white landlord or creditor, +who in self-protection keeps control of him, whereas the white farmer is +left to succeed or fail without expert guidance.</p> + +<p>The migration of negroes to the cities is extremely significant. In ten +Southern states the proportion of the colored population was almost +exactly the same in 1890 as it had been in 1860,—namely, 36 per +cent,—yet in sixteen cities of those states, as shown by Mr. +Hoffman,<small><a name="f25.1" id="f25.1" href="#f25">[25]</a></small> the colored proportion increased from 19 per cent in 1860 +to 29 per cent in 1890. This relative increase, however, did not +continue after 1890, for, according to the census of 1900, the +proportion of negroes in those cities was still 29 per cent. During the +past decade the negroes have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> increased relatively faster in Northern +cities. The white population of Chicago increased threefold from 1880 to +1900, and the colored population fivefold. The white population of +Philadelphia during the same period increased 50 per cent and the +colored population 100 per cent. In the thirty-eight largest cities of +the country the negro population in ten years increased 38 per cent and +the white population, including foreign immigration, increased 33 per +cent. In thirty Northern and border cities during the past census decade +the negroes gained 167,000, and in twenty Southern cities they gained +80,000.<small><a name="f26.1" id="f26.1" href="#f26">[26]</a></small></p> + +<p>The Southern whites also are moving from the South, and in larger +proportions than the negroes, though the movement of both is small. In +1900, 7 per cent of the whites of Southern birth lived in the North and +West and only 4.3 per cent of the negroes of Southern birth. But the +negroes who go North go to the cities, and the whites to the country. +Three-fifths (58 per cent) of these northbound negroes moved to the +larger cities and only one-fourth (26 per cent) of the northbound +whites.<small><a name="f27.1" id="f27.1" href="#f27">[27]</a></small></p> + +<p>The accompanying map, derived from the census of 1900,<small><a name="f28.1" id="f28.1" href="#f28">[28]</a></small> shows clearly +both of these movements of negro population. The shaded areas indicate +the counties where negroes formed a larger proportion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> of the population +in 1900 than they did twenty years earlier, in 1880. Here can be seen +the movement to the low and fertile lands of the South and the cities of +the North and South. There are but two areas in California and Colorado, +not included on the map, where the population of negroes has increased, +and one of these contains the city of Los Angeles.</p> + +<p>Were the negroes in the cities to scatter through all the sections, the +predominating numbers of the white element might have an elevating +influence, but, instead, the negroes congregate in the poorer wards, +where both poverty and vice prevail. Hoffman has shown that two-thirds +of the negroes in Chicago live in three wards, which contain all the +houses of ill-fame in that part of the city. The same is true of +Philadelphia, Boston, and Cincinnati.<small><a name="f29.1" id="f29.1" href="#f29">[29]</a></small> In these sections negro + +prostitution has become an established institution, catering to the +Italian and other lower grades of immigrants, and supporting in idleness +many negro men as solicitors.</p> + +<p>We have seen that the negro population has not kept pace with the native +white population. The reason is found in the smaller excess of births +over deaths. Statistics of births are almost entirely lacking in the +United States. Statistics of deaths are complete for only portions of +Northern states and a few Southern cities, containing, in 1900, in all, +27,500,000 whites and 1,180,000 negroes. Of this number, 20,500,000 +whites and 1,100,000<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> negroes lived in cities, so that the showing which +the census is able to give is mainly for cities North and South and for +rural sections only in the North.<small><a name="f30.1" id="f30.1" href="#f30">[30]</a></small> It appears that for every 1000 +colored persons living in these cities the deaths in 1900 were 31.1, +while for every 1000 white persons the deaths were only 17.9. That is to +say, the colored death-rate was 73 per cent greater than the white +death-rate.</p> + +<p>In the rural districts there was much less difference. The colored +death-rate was 19.1 and the white death-rate 15.3, a colored excess of +25 per cent.</p> + +<p><b>Morals and Environment.</b>—In explaining the excessive colored mortality +there are two classes of opinions. One explains it by social conditions, +the other by race traits. The one points to environment, the other to +moral character. The one is socialistic, the other individualistic. +These different views exist among colored people themselves, and one of +the encouraging signs is the scientific and candid interest in the +subject taken by them under the leadership of Atlanta University. A +colored physician who takes the first view states his case +forcibly:<small><a name="f31.1" id="f31.1" href="#f31">[31]</a></small>—</p> + +<p>“Is it any wonder that we die faster than our white brother when he gets +the first and best attention, while we are neglected on all sides? They +have the best wards and treatment at the hospital, while we must take it +second hand or not at all; they have all the homes for the poor and +friendless, we have none;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> they have a home for fallen women, we have +none; they have the public libraries where they can get and read books +on hygiene and other subjects pertaining to health, we have no such +privileges; they have the gymnasiums where they can go and develop +themselves physically, we have not; they have all the parks where they +and their children can go in the hot summer days and breathe the pure, +cool air, but for fear we might catch a breath of that air and live, +they put up large signs, which read thus, ‘For white people only’; they +live in the best homes, while we live in humble ones; they live in the +cleanest and healthiest parts of the city, while we live in the +sickliest and filthiest parts of the city; the streets on which they +live are cleaned once and twice a day, the streets on which we live are +not cleaned once a month, and some not at all; besides, they have plenty +of money with which they can get any physician they wish, any medicine +they need, and travel for their health when necessary; all of these +blessings we are deprived of. Now, my friends, in the face of all these +disadvantages, do you not think we are doing well to stay here as long +as we do?”</p> + +<p>Another colored writer, less eloquent, but not less accurate, in +summarizing the statistics collected under the guidance of Atlanta +University concludes:<small><a name="f32.1" id="f32.1" href="#f32">[32]</a></small>—</p> + +<p>“Overcrowding in tenements and houses occupied by colored people does +not exist to any great extent, and is less than was supposed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>“In comparison with white women, an excess of colored women support +their families, or contribute to the family support, by occupation which +takes them much of their time from home, to the neglect of their +children.</p> + +<p>“Environment and the sanitary condition of houses are not chiefly +responsible for the excessive mortality among colored people.</p> + +<p>“Ignorance and disregard of the laws of health are responsible for a +large proportion of this excessive mortality.”</p> + +<p>It is pointed out by these colored students and by many others that the +excessive mortality of colored people is owing to pulmonary consumption, +scrofula, and syphilis, all of which are constitutional; and to infant +mortality due also to constitutional and congenital disease. The census +of 1900 reports for a portion of the Northern states that for every 1000 +white children under five years of age there were 49.7 deaths in one +year, and for every 1000 colored children under five years there were +118.5 deaths, an excess of negro infant mortality of 137 per cent.<small><a name="f33.1" id="f33.1" href="#f33">[33]</a></small> +The census also reports that negro deaths in cities owing to consumption +are proportionately 2.8 times as many as white deaths,<small><a name="f34.1" id="f34.1" href="#f34">[34]</a></small> deaths owing +to pneumonia are 89 per cent greater,<small><a name="f35.1" id="f35.1" href="#f35">[35]</a></small> while deaths owing to +contagious causes, such as measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria,<small><a name="f36.1" id="f36.1" href="#f36">[36]</a></small> are +but slightly greater or actually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> less than the white deaths in +proportion to population. In the city of Charleston, where mortality +statistics of negroes were compiled before the war, it has been shown +that from 1822 to 1848 the colored death-rate from consumption was a +trifle less than the white, but since 1865 the white mortality from that +cause has decreased 38 per cent, while the negro mortality has increased +70 per cent.<small><a name="f37.1" id="f37.1" href="#f37">[37]</a></small> The death-rates from consumption in Charleston in 1900 +were 189.8 for 100,000 whites and 647.7 for 100,000 negroes, an excess +of 241 per cent. The lowest negro death-rate reported from consumption +in cities is 378.5 for Memphis, but in that city the white death-rate +from the same cause is 169.9, a negro excess of 123 per cent.<small><a name="f38.1" id="f38.1" href="#f38">[38]</a></small></p> + +<p>At a conference held at Atlanta University, Professor Harris, of Fisk +University, concluded:<small><a name="f39.1" id="f39.1" href="#f39">[39]</a></small>—</p> + +<p>“I have now covered the ground to which our excessive death-rate is +mainly due; namely, pulmonary diseases, especially consumption and +pneumonia, scrofula, venereal diseases, and infant mortality. If we +eliminate these diseases, our excessive death-rate will be a thing of +the past.... While I do not depreciate sanitary regulations and a +knowledge of hygienic laws, I am convinced that a <i>sine qua non</i> of a +change for the better in the negro’s physical condition is a higher +social morality.... From<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> the health reports of all our large Southern +cities we learn that a considerable amount of our infant mortality is +due to inanition, infantile debility, and infantile marasmus. Now what +is the case in regard to these diseases? The fact is that they are not +diseases at all, but merely the names of symptoms due to enfeebled +constitutions and congenital diseases, inherited from parents suffering +from the effects of sexual immorality and debauchery.... It is true that +much of the moral laxity which exists among us to-day arose out of +slavery.... But to explain it is not to excuse it. It is no longer our +misfortune as it was before the war; it is our sin, the wages of which +is our excessive number of deaths.... The presence of tubercular and +scrofulous diseases, consumption, syphilis, and leprosy, has caused the +weaker nations of the earth to succumb before the rising tide of +Christian civilization.... The history of nations teaches us that +neither war, nor famine, nor pestilence, exterminates them so completely +as do sexual vices.”</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> +<h3>NINETEENTH CENTURY ADDITIONS</h3> + +<p><br />It is only since the year 1820 that the government of the United States +has kept a record of alien passengers arriving in this country. For +several years following 1820 the immigration was so slight as to be +almost negligible. It was not until 1820 that there were more than +20,000 arrivals. So accustomed have we become to large figures of +immigration that nothing less than 100,000 seems worth noting, and this +figure was not reached until 1842. Since then there have been only four +years of less than 100,000, and two of these were years of the Civil +War.</p> + +<p>A striking fact which first attracts the attention of one who examines +the statistics since 1840 is the close sympathy between immigration and +the industrial prosperity and depression of this country. Indeed, so +close is the connection that many who comment on the matter have held +that immigration during the past century has been strictly an industrial +or economic phenomenon, depending on the opportunities in this country, +and that the religious and political causes which stimulated earlier +immigration no longer hold good.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p064tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/illo_p064.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Movement of Immigrants, Imports of Merchandise per capita, and Immigrants per 10,000 Population—1800 to 1906.</span></p> +<p> </p> + +<p>A curved line on the accompanying chart has been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> drawn so as to show +the relative numbers of immigrants since 1800, and another line shows +the movement of imports of merchandise per capita of the population. The +latter, except for tariff changes, is a fair index of the cycles of +prosperity and depression. By following these two lines on the chart we +notice the coincidence is close, except for a few years prior to the +Civil War. Both movements reached high points in 1873, and fell to very +low points in 1879; then rose in 1882 and fell in 1885; then reached +another high point in 1892 and a low point in 1897; and finally, the +present period of prosperity and heavy imports brings the largest +immigration in the history of the country.</p> + +<p>In following the history of immigration by races we shall see to what +extent the alleged coincidence between prosperity and immigration may be +counted as a social law. Probably in the middle of the century it was +not so much the opportunities for employment in this country as it was +conditions in Europe that drove people to our shores. When we come to +inquire as to the nationalities which constituted immigration at that +period, we shall find what these causes were. In 1846 occurred the +unparalleled potato rot in Ireland, when the year’s crop of what had +become the sole food staple of the peasantry of that island was entirely +lost. The peasants had been reduced to subsistence on the cheapest of +all staples through the operations of a system of landlordism scarcely +ever paralleled on a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> large scale as a means of exploiting tenants. +It was found that land used for potatoes would support three times the +number of people as the same land sown to wheat, and the small tenants +or the cotter peasants paid the landlord a higher rent than could be +obtained from larger cultivators. Reduced to a diet of potatoes by an +economic system imposed by an alien race, the Irish people are one of +the many examples which we find throughout our studies of a subject +people driven to emigration by the economic injustices of a dominant +race. We shall find the same at a later time in Austria-Hungary, whence +the conquered Slav peoples are fleeing from the discrimination and +impositions of the ruling Magyar. We shall find it in Russia, whence the +Jew, the Finn, and the German are escaping from the oppression of the +Slav; and we shall find it in Turkey, whence the Armenian and the Syrian +flee from the exactions of the Turk. Just so was it in Ireland in the +latter half of the decade, 1840 to 1850, and the contention of the +apologist for England that the famine which drove the Irish across the +seas was an act of God, is but a weak effort to charge to a higher power +the sufferings of a heartless system devised to convert the utmost life +and energy of a subject race into gold for their exploiters. Much more +nearly true of the part played by the Divine hand in this catastrophe is +the report of the Society of Friends in Ireland, saying that the +mysterious dispensation with which their country had been visited was +“a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> means permitted by an All-wise Providence to exhibit more strikingly +the unsound state of its social condition.”</p> + +<p>Thus we have an explanation of the incentives under which, even in a +period of industrial depression in this country, the unfortunate Irish +flocked hither. It is true that the population of Ireland had increased +during the century preceding the famine at a rate more rapid than that +of any other country of Europe. It was 3,000,000 in 1790, and over +8,000,000 in the year of the famine. At the present time it is only +5,000,000. The potato, above all other crops, enables the cultivator to +live from hand to mouth, and coupled with a landlord system which takes +away all above mere subsistence, this “de-moralizing esculent” aided the +apparent overpopulation. Certainly the dependence of an entire people on +a single crop was a most precarious condition.</p> + +<p>During the five years, 1846 to 1850, more than a million and a quarter +of Irish emigrants left the ports of the United Kingdom, and during the +ten years, 1845 to 1855, more than a million and a quarter came to the +United States. So great a number could not have found means of +transportation had it not been for the enormous contributions of +government and private societies for assistance. Here began that +exportation of paupers on a large scale against which our country has +protested and finally legislated. Even this enormous migration was not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +greatly in excess of the number that actually perished from starvation +or from the diseases incident thereto. The Irish migration since that +time has never reached so high a point, although it made a second great +advance in 1882, succeeding another famine, and it has now fallen far +below that of eastern races of Europe. Altogether the total Irish +immigration of over four million since 1821 places that race second of +the contributors to our foreign-born population, and, compared with its +own numbers, it leads the world, for in sixty years it has sent to us +half as many people as it contained at the time of its greatest +population. Scarcely another country has sent more than one-fifth.</p> + +<p>Looking over a period of nearly three centuries, it is probably true +that the Germans have crossed the ocean in larger numbers than any other +race. We have already noted the large migration during the eighteenth +century, and the official records show that since 1820 there have +entered our ports more than 5,200,000 Germans, while Ireland was sending +4,000,000 and Great Britain 3,300,000.</p> + +<p>The German migration of the nineteenth century was quite distinct in +character from that of the preceding century. The colonial migration was +largely induced on religious grounds, but that of the past century was +political and economic, with at first a notable prominence of +materialism respecting religion. From the time of the Napoleonic wars to +the revolution of 1848, the governments of Germany<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> were despotic in +character, supporting an established church, while at the same time the +marvellous growth of the universities produced a class of educated +liberals. In the revolution of 1848 these took a leading part, and +although constitutional governments were then established, yet those who +had been prominent in the popular uprisings found their position +intolerable under the reactionary governments that followed. The +political exiles sought America, bringing their liberalism in politics +and religion, and forming with their descendants in American cities an +intellectual aristocracy. They sprang from the middle classes of +Germany, and latterly, when the wars with Austria and France had +provoked the spirit of militarism, thousands of peasants looked to +emigration for escape from military service. The severe industrial +depression of 1873-79 added a powerful contributing cause. Thus there +were two periods when German migration culminated; first in 1854, on +political grounds, second in 1882, on military and economic grounds. +Since the latter date a significant decline has ensued, and the present +migration of 32,000 from Germany is mainly the remnants of families +seeking here their relatives. A larger number of German immigrants, +55,000, comes from Austria-Hungary and Russia, those from the latter +country being driven from the Baltic provinces and the Volga settlements +by the “Russianizing” policy of the Slav.</p> + +<p><b>The Changing Character of European Immigration.</b><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>—Besides the Germans +and the Irish, the races which contributed the largest numbers of +immigrants during the middle years of the nineteenth century were the +English and Scandinavian. After the decline during the depression of +1879 there was an increase of all those races in 1882, a year when +nearly 800,000 immigrants arrived. At about that time began a remarkable +change in the character of immigration destined to produce profound +consequences.</p> + +<p>This change was the rapid shifting of the sources of immigration from +Western to Eastern and Southern Europe. A line drawn across the +continent of Europe from northeast to southwest, separating the +Scandinavian Peninsula, the British Isles, Germany, and France from +Russia, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Turkey, separates countries not only +of distinct races but also of distinct civilizations. It separates +Protestant Europe from Catholic Europe; it separates countries of +representative institutions and popular government from absolute +monarchies; it separates lands where education is universal from lands +where illiteracy predominates; it separates manufacturing countries, +progressive agriculture, and skilled labor from primitive hand +industries, backward agriculture, and unskilled labor; it separates an +educated, thrifty peasantry from a peasantry scarcely a single +generation removed from serfdom; it separates Teutonic races from Latin, +Slav, Semitic, and Mongolian races. When the sources of American +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>immigration are shifted from the Western countries so nearly allied to +our own, to Eastern countries so remote in the main attributes of +Western civilization, the change is one that should challenge the +attention of every citizen. Such a change has occurred, and it needs +only a comparison of the statistics of immigration for the year 1882 +with those of 1902 and 1906 to see its extent. While the total number of +immigrants from Europe and Asiatic Turkey was approximately equal in +1882 and 1902, as shown in the accompanying table, yet in 1882 Western +Europe furnished 87 per cent of the immigrants and in 1902 only 22 per +cent, while the share of Southeastern Europe and Asiatic Turkey +increased from 13 per cent in 1882 to 78 per cent in 1902. During twenty +years the immigration of the Western races most nearly related to those +which have fashioned American institutions declined more than 75 per +cent, while the immigrants of Eastern and Southern races, untrained in +self-government, increased nearly sixfold. For the year 1906 the +proportions remain the same, although in the four years the total +immigration had increased two-thirds.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p> + +<p class="center">IMMIGRATION FROM EUROPE AND ASIATIC TURKEY BY COUNTRIES, 1882, 1902, 1906</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="btr"> </td> + <td colspan="2" class="btr" align="center">1882</td> + <td colspan="2" class="btr" align="center">1902</td> + <td colspan="2" class="bt" align="center">1905</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr"> </td> + <td class="btr" align="center">NUMBER</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">PER CENT</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">NUMBER</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">PER CENT</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">NUMBER</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">PER CENT</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">Total Europe and<br />Asiatic Turkey</td> + <td class="btr" align="right">647,082</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">100</td> + <td class="btr" align="right">622,987</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">100</td> + <td class="btr" align="right">1,024,719</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">Great Britain and Ireland</td> + <td class="btr" align="right">179,423</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">27.7</td> + <td class="btr" align="right">46,036</td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7.4</span></td> + <td class="btr" align="right">102,241</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">10.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Belgium</td> + <td class="br" align="right">1,431</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.2</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">2,577</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.4</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">5,099</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.5</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Denmark</td> + <td class="br" align="right">11,618</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.8</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">5,660</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">7,741</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.8</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">France</td> + <td class="br" align="right">6,003</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">5,117</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.8</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">9,386</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.9</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Germany</td> + <td class="br" align="right">250,630</td> + <td class="br" align="center">38.7</td> + <td class="br" align="right">26,304</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.2</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">37,564</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3.7</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Netherlands</td> + <td class="br" align="right">9,517</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">2,284</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.4</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">4,946</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.5</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Norway</td> + <td class="br" align="right">29,101</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.5</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">17,404</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.8</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">21,730</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.1</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Sweden</td> + <td class="br" align="right">64,607</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">10.0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">30,894</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5.0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">23,310</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.3</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Switzerland</td> + <td class="bbr" align="right">10,884</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.7</span></td> + <td class="bbr" align="right">2,344</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.4</span></td> + <td class="bbr" align="right">3,846</td> + <td class="bb" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.4</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br"><br />Total Western Europe</td> + <td class="br" align="right" valign="bottom">563,174</td> + <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">87.0</td> + <td class="br" align="right" valign="bottom">136,620</td> + <td class="br" align="center" valign="bottom">22.0</td> + <td class="br" align="right" valign="bottom">215,863</td> + <td class="dent" align="center" valign="bottom">21.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr"> </td> + <td class="btr"> </td> + <td class="btr"> </td> + <td class="btr"> </td> + <td class="btr"> </td> + <td class="btr"> </td> + <td class="bt"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">Italy</td> + <td class="btr" align="right">32,159</td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5.0</span></td> + <td class="btr" align="right">178,375</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">28.6</td> + <td class="btr" align="right">273,120</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">26.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Portugal</td> + <td class="br" align="right">42</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><small><a name="f41.1" id="f41.1" href="#f41">[41]</a></small></td> + <td class="br" align="right">5,307</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">8,517</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.8</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Spain</td> + <td class="br" align="right">378</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><small><a href="#f41">[41]</a></small></td> + <td class="br" align="right">975</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">1,921</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.1</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Austria-Hungary</td> + <td class="br" align="right">29,150</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.5</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">171,989</td> + <td class="br" align="center">27.6</td> + <td class="br" align="right">265,138</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">25.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Russia</td> + <td class="br" align="right">21,590</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3.3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">107,347</td> + <td class="br" align="center">17.2</td> + <td class="br" align="right">215,665</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">21.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Greece</td> + <td class="br" align="right"><small><a name="f40.1" id="f40.1" href="#f40">[40]</a></small>73</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><small><a href="#f41">[41]</a></small></td> + <td class="br" align="right">8,104</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">19,489</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.9</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Roumania</td> + <td class="br" align="right"><small><a href="#f40">[40]</a></small>77</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><small><a href="#f41">[41]</a></small></td> + <td class="br" align="right">7,196</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.2</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">4,476</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.5</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Servia, Bulgaria,<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Montenegro</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right"> </td> + <td class="br" align="center"><small><a href="#f41">[41]</a></small></td> + <td class="br" align="right">851</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><small><a href="#f41">[41]</a></small></td> + <td class="br" align="right">4,666</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.5</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Turkey in Europe</td> + <td class="br" align="right"><small><a href="#f40">[40]</a></small>86</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><small><a href="#f41">[41]</a></small></td> + <td class="br" align="right">187</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><small><a href="#f41">[41]</a></small></td> + <td class="br" align="right">9,510</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.9</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Turkey in Asia</td> + <td class="br" align="right">82</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><small><a href="#f41">[41]</a></small></td> + <td class="br" align="right">6,223</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="right">6,354</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">.6</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bbr"><br />Total Southern and<br /><span style="margin-left: .5em;">Eastern Europe</span><br /><span style="margin-left: .5em;">and Asiatic Turkey</span></td> + <td class="bbtr" align="right" valign="bottom">83,637</td> + <td class="bbtr" align="center" valign="bottom">13.0</td> + <td class="bbtr" align="right" valign="bottom">486,367</td> + <td class="bbtr" align="center" valign="bottom">78.0</td> + <td class="bbtr" align="right" valign="bottom">808,856</td> + <td class="bbt" align="center" valign="bottom">78.9</td></tr></table> + +<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span><b>Italians.</b>—It was at this period that Italian immigration first became +noticeable. Prior to 1880 this stream had been but the merest trickle, +which now has become the greatest of all the foreign tributaries to our +population. In 1873 the Italians for the first time reached 8000 in +number, but they fell to 3000 in 1876 and so continued in moderate +proportions, but suddenly in 1880 jumped to 12,000, and in 1882 to +32,000. Falling off again with the industrial depression to 13,000 in +1885, they reached 76,000 in 1891, and then with another depression to +35,000 in 1895 they have now gone forward by leaps to the high mark of +287,000.<small><a name="f42.1" id="f42.1" href="#f42">[42]</a></small> The Italians seem destined to rival the Germans and Irish +as the leading contributors to our social amalgam. Of course only a +small part are as yet women and children, but this is because the +immigration is in its early and pioneer stages. The women and children +follow rapidly when the men have saved enough money to send for them. +One-fourth of the emigration is on tickets and money furnished by +friends and relatives in the United States.<small><a name="f43.1" id="f43.1" href="#f43">[43]</a></small></p> + +<p>The immigrants from Italy differ from those from Austria, Russia, +Hungary, and Ireland, in that they are not driven forth by the +oppressions of a dominant race, but as a result of the economic and +political conditions of a united people. This does not indeed exclude +oppression as a cause of expatriation, but it transfers the oppression +from that of one race to that of one class upon another. By far the +larger portion of Italian immigration comes from the southern provinces +and from Sicily, where the power of the landlords is greatest. In these +provinces of large estates held by the nobility, the rents have been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +forced to the highest notch, an orange garden paying as high as $160 per +year per acre, and the leases are short, so that the tenant has little +to encourage improvement.<small><a name="f44.1" id="f44.1" href="#f44">[44]</a></small> In many cases the land is rented by large +capitalist farmers, who raise therefrom cattle, wheat, and olives, and +are prosperous men. But their prosperity is extracted from the miserable +wages of their laborers. The agricultural laborer gets from 8 cents to +32 cents a day through the year and 10 cents to 38 cents through the +summer. Unskilled laborers get 25 cents to 50 cents a day, and such +skilled trades as masons and carpenters get only 27 cents to $1.40 a +day. This wide range of wages corresponds generally with the South and +North, the lowest rates being in the South and the highest toward the +North. In France and England wages are two and one-half times higher +than in Italy, while in Germany they are about 30 per cent to 50 per +cent higher.</p> + +<p>Nor must it be supposed that the cost of living is low to correspond +with the low wages. This is largely owing to the exaggerated system of +indirect taxes. Although wheat is a staple crop, yet the peasants eat +corn in preference, because, for a given expenditure, it gives a +stronger sense of repletion. Of wheat and corn meal together the Italian +peasant eats in a year only three-fourths as much as the inmate of an +English poorhouse. Of meat the peasant<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> in Apulia gets no more than ten +pounds a year, while the English workhouse pauper gets fifty-seven +pounds. The local taxes on flour, bread, and macaroni are as high as 10 +or 15 per cent of the value, and the state tax on imported wheat is +nearly 50 per cent of its value. The consumption of sugar has decreased +one-fourth since heavy duties were imposed to protect native beet sugar, +and it averages barely over five pounds per head. The consumption in the +United States is sixty-five pounds per head. The iniquitous salt tax +raises the price of salt from eleven pounds for two cents to one pound +for two cents, and the peasants sometimes cook their corn meal in sea +water, although this is smuggling. What the peasants lack in grain and +meat they strive to supply by vegetables, and the proportion of +vegetables, peas, and beans consumed is greater than that for any other +country of Europe. The peasants drink no beer, spirits, tea, nor coffee, +but the average annual consumption of wine is twenty gallons a head. +Food alone costs the peasants 85 per cent of their wages, whereas it +costs the German peasant 62 per cent and the American workman 41 per +cent. The poor and working classes pay over one-half the taxes, +amounting, even without wine, to 10 or 20 per cent of their wages. There +are in the south and Sardinia some 13,000 sales of land a year on +distress for non-payment of taxes, and the expropriated owners become +tenants. Several villages in Southern Italy have been almost wholly +abandoned and one village<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> has recently announced its intention of +removing itself entire to one of the South American republics.<small><a name="f45.1" id="f45.1" href="#f45">[45]</a></small> The +rich escape taxation, which is laid largely on consumption. Besides the +state tax on imports, each city and town has its <i>octroi</i>, or import +tax, on everything brought into the city. These “protective duties rob +the poor to fill the pockets of the rich landlord and manufacturer.” +Since 1870 wealth has increased 17 per cent and taxes 30 per cent. Taxes +are nearly one-fifth of the nation’s income, against one-twelfth in +Germany, one-sixteenth in England, and one-fifteenth in the United +States. Wages rose from 1860 to 1885, but since 1890 they have fallen.</p> + +<p>The army and navy are the greatest drain on the resources of the people. +They cost one-fourth more of the national income than do the armies and +navies of France and Germany. Eighty million dollars a year for military +expenditures in Italy is over 5 per cent of the income of the people, +whereas $194,000,000 for the same purpose in the United States is less +than 2 per cent of our incomes. In the Triple Alliance of Germany, +Austria, and Italy, the latter country crushes its peasants in order to +make a showing by the side of its wealthier partners. The army takes +every able-bodied peasant from industry into barracks and drills for two +years of his best vigor. But the long line of exposed coast and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +general military situation in Europe make it unlikely that Italy for +many years can shake off this incubus.</p> + +<p>In addition to all these economic and political causes of pressure, +there is another cause of a more profound nature, the rapid growth of +population. Strange as it may seem, the very poverty of Italy increases +the tendency to a high birth-rate, and the rate is highest in the very +districts where illiteracy and poverty are greatest. Only the great +number of deaths produced by poverty and lack of sanitation prevents the +increase of population from exceeding that of the more rapidly growing +countries of Germany, Great Britain, and Scandinavia. It is not among +those classes and nations, like the middle classes and the thrifty +people of France, that the largest number of children are born, but it +is among those ignorant and low-standard peoples to whom the future +offers no better prospect for their children than for themselves. Early +marriages and large families are both a result and a cause of poverty. +Parts of Lombardy and Venetia have a thicker population than any other +European country except Belgium, which is really not a country, but a +manufacturing centre of Europe. The density of population in Italy is in +excess of that of Germany, France, India, and even China. It is exceeded +only by the islands of Great Britain and Japan, and the states of Rhode +Island and Massachusetts.<small><a name="f46.1" id="f46.1" href="#f46">[46]</a></small> Emigration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> is the only immediate relief +from this congestion. All other remedies which operate through raising +the intelligence and the standards of living require years for +appreciable results, but meanwhile the persistent birth-rate crowds new +competitors into the new openings and multiplies the need of economic +and political reforms before they can be put into effect. Emigration is +a relief ready at hand, but it is not a lessening of population. For +many years to come Italy will furnish a surplus population to overflow +to America.<small><a name="f47.1" id="f47.1" href="#f47">[47]</a></small> Emigration is also a means of revenue for the mother +country. For it is estimated that the peasants in foreign countries send +back to their families and relatives $30,000,000 to $80,000,000 each +year, and many of them return with what to them is a fortune, and with +new ideas of industry and progress, to purchase and improve a farm and +cottage for their declining years. It is said that already there are +several small country towns in Southern Italy which have risen from +squalor to something of prosperity through the money and influence of +those who have come home. This temporary emigration is probably over +150,000 each year going abroad or to adjoining countries expecting to +return.</p> + +<p>Besides this temporary emigration there is an equally large permanent +emigration. This is of two kinds, almost as entirely distinct from each +other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> as the emigration from two separate nations. The North Italian is +an educated, skilled artisan, coming from a manufacturing section and +largely from the cities. He is Teutonic in blood and appearance. The +South Italian is an illiterate peasant from the great landed estates, +with wages less than one-third his northern compatriot. He descends with +less mixture from the ancient inhabitants of Italy. Unhappily for us, +the North Italians do not come to the United States in considerable +numbers, but they betake themselves to Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil in +about the same numbers as the South Italians come to us. It is estimated +that in those three countries there are 3,000,000 Italians in a total +population of 23,000,000, and they are mainly derived from the north of +Italy. Surrounded by the unenterprising Spanish and Portuguese, they +have shown themselves to be the industrial leaders of the country. Some +of the chief buildings, banks, flour mills, textile mills, and a +majority of the wheat farms of Argentina belong to Italians. They are +one-third of the population of Buenos Ayres and own one-half of the +commercial capital of that city. They become lawyers, engineers, members +of parliament, and an Italian by descent has been president of the +Republic of Argentina, while other Italians have been ministers of war +and education.<small><a name="f48.1" id="f48.1" href="#f48">[48]</a></small> While these North Italians, with their enterprise, +intelligence, and varied capacities,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> go to South America, we receive +the South Italians, who are nearly the most illiterate of all immigrants +at the present time, the most subservient to superiors, the lowest in +their standards of living, and at the same time the most industrious and +thrifty of all common laborers.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p078.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Aliens awaiting Admission at Ellis Island</span></p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Austria-Hungary.</b>—Next to that from Italy the immigration from the +Austro-Hungarian Empire in recent decades has reached the largest +dimensions. While Italy sent 273,000 people in 1906, Austria-Hungary +sent 265,000 in that year and 276,000 the year before. Like the +immigration from Italy, this increase has occurred since 1880. Prior to +that date the largest number reported from Austria-Hungary was 9000 in +1874.</p> + +<p>While these figures compare with those of the Italians, yet, unlike the +Italians, they refer to a congeries of races and languages distinct one +from another. The significance of Austro-Hungarian immigration is +revealed only when we analyze it by races. The race map of this empire +shows at once the most complicated social mosaic of all modern nations. +Here we see, not that mixture of races and assimilation of language +which in our own country has evolved a vigorous, united people, but a +juxtaposition of hostile races and a fixity of language held together +only by the outside pressure of Russia, Germany, Italy, and Turkey. This +conflict of races has made the politics of the empire nearly +incomprehensible to foreigners, and has aggravated the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> economic +inequalities which drive the unprivileged masses to emigrate.</p> + +<p>Not only are there in Austria-Hungary five grand divisions of the human +family,—the German, the Slav, the Magyar, the Latin, and the Jew,—but +these are again subdivided. In the northern mountainous and hilly +sections are 13,000,000 Slavic peoples, the Czechs, or Bohemians, with +their closely related Moravians, and the Slavic Slovaks, Poles, and +Ruthenians (known also as Russniaks); while in the southern hills and +along the Adriatic are another 4,000,000 Slavs, the Croatians, Servians, +Dalmatians, and Slovenians. Between these divisions on the fertile +plains 8,000,000 Magyars and 10,000,000 Germans have thrust themselves +as the dominant races. To the southwest are nearly a million Italians, +and in the east 2,500,000 Latinized Slavs, the Roumanians. The Slavs are +in general the conquered peoples, with a German and Magyar nobility +owning their land, making their laws, and managing their administration. +The northern Slavs are subject to Austria and Hungary, and the +Ruthenians suffer a double subjection, for they were the serfs of their +fellow-Slavs, the Poles, whom they continue to hate, and in whose +longings for a reunited Poland they do not participate. The southern +Slavs and Roumanians are subject to Hungary. The Roumanians are a +widespread and disrupted nationality of Slavs, conquered by the Romans, +from whom they imperfectly took their language, but now distributed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +partly in independent kingdoms and partly under the dominion of the +Magyars. The Croatians from the southwest mountains are among the finest +specimens of physical manhood coming to our shores. They are a vigorous +people, hating Hungary which owns them and calling themselves +“Austrians” to ward off the name “Hun,” by which Americans mistakenly +designate them. The Magyars are the Asiactic conquerors who overran +Europe ten centuries ago, and being repulsed by the Teutons to the west +established themselves on the Slavs in the valley and plains of the +Danube. Boasting a republican constitution a thousand years old they +have not until the past year been compelled to share it with the people +whom they subdued. Astute politicians and dashing military leaders, they +are as careless in business as the Slavs, and the supremacy which they +maintained in politics has slipped into the hands of the Jews in +economics. In no other modern country has the Jew been so liberally +treated, and in no other country have public and private finance come +more completely under his control. Profiting by the Magyars’ suppression +of the Slavs, the Jew has monopolized the business opportunities denied +to the Slovak and the Croatian, and with this leverage has quietly +elbowed out the Magyar himself. No longer is the Magyar the dominant +race, and in the past year he has contributed to America more immigrants +than any branch of his conquered Slavs. In the Austrian dominions of +former Poland the Jew<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> likewise has become the financier, and both the +Ruthenian and the Pole, unable to rise under their burden of debt, +contribute their more enterprising peasants to America.</p> + +<p>By a perverse system of representative government, based on +representation of classes both in Austria and in Hungary, the great +landowners and wealthy merchants have heretofore elected three-fourths +of the parliaments, but recently in both countries the emperor has +granted universal manhood suffrage. The peasant Slavs will henceforth be +on equal footing with the German, the Magyar, and the Jew, and whether +out of the belated equality of races there will come equality of +economic opportunity remains to be seen. For the past few years the +emigration from the unfortunate dual empire has amazingly increased.</p> + +<p>With all of this confusing medley of races, with this diversity of Greek +and Roman Catholicism and Judaism, with this history of race oppression +and hatred, it is not surprising that the immigrants should break out +into factions and feuds wherever thrown together among us. It is the +task of America to lift them to a patriotism which hitherto in their +native land they could not know.</p> + +<p>The earliest migration from Austria-Hungary was that of the Bohemians, +the most highly educated and ardently patriotic of the Slavic people. +After the revolution of 1848, when the Germans suppressed their +patriotic uprising, students, professional men,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> and well-to-do peasants +came to America and settled in New York, St. Louis, Milwaukee, Chicago, +and in the rural districts of Texas, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and +California. Again, after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, skilled +laborers were added to the stream, and they captured a large part of the +cigar-making industry of New York and the clothing trade of Chicago. +Latterly recruits from the peasants and unskilled laborers sought the +sections where the pioneers had located, learned the same trades, or +joined the armies of common labor. In Chicago the Bohemian section is +almost a self-governing city, with its own language, industries, +schools, churches, and newspapers. After a slight decline there is again +an increasing flow of immigrants, the number in 1906 being 13,000. Those +who come bring their families, and few return. In these earlier days the +Polish and Hungarian Jews also began their migration, following the +steps of their German precursors.</p> + +<p>In the decade of the eighties the increase of immigration from +Austria-Hungary was first that of the Poles, now numbering 44,000, then +the Magyars, now 43,000, then the Slovaks, now 37,000. In the latter +part of the nineties the Southern Slavs—Croatians and +Slovenians—suddenly took up their burden, and 43,000 of them came in +1906. Following them came the Ruthenians from the North, numbering +16,000 in 1906. Last of all, the Latinized Slavs, the Roumanians, began +their flight from the Magyar, to the number of less than 400 in the +year<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> 1900, but swelling to 11,000 in 1906. Only 300 additional came +from their own proper kingdom—Roumania. During all this period there +has been also a considerable migration of Germans, reaching 35,000 in +1906.</p> + +<p>In the face of this swollen migration the Hungarian government has at +last taken alarm. They see even their own people, the Magyars, escaping. +Recently the government has attempted to restrict the unrest by +prohibiting advertisements or public speeches advocating emigration, by +prohibiting the sale of tickets or solicitation by any one not holding a +government license for the purpose, by contracting with a steamship line +from their own Adriatic part of Fiume in order to reduce migration +across the German and Italian frontiers. This may account for the +decline of ten thousand immigrants from Austria-Hungary in 1906.</p> + +<p>Practically the entire migration of the Slavic elements at the present +time is that of peasants. In Croatia the forests have been depleted, and +thousands of immigrant wood-choppers have sought the forests of our +South and the railway construction of the West. The natural resources of +Croatia are by no means inadequate, but the discriminating taxes and +railway freight rates imposed by Hungary have prevented the development +of these resources. The needed railways are not obtainable for the +development of the mines and minerals of Croatia, and the peasants, +unable to find employment at home, are allured by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> the advertisements of +American steamships and the agents of American contractors.</p> + +<p>So it is with the Slovak peasants and mine workers of the northern +mountains and foothills. With agricultural wages only eighteen cents a +day, they find employment in the American mines, rolling-mills, +stock-yards, and railroad construction at $1.50 a day.</p> + +<p>In addition to race discrimination, the blight of Austria-Hungary is +landlordism. Considerable reforms, indeed, have been made in certain +sections. The free alienation of landed property was adopted in the +Austrian dominions in 1869, and in the following twelve years 42,000 new +holdings were carved out of the existing peasant proprietorships in +Bohemia. Similar transfers have occurred elsewhere, but even where this +peasant ownership has gained, the enormous prices are an obstacle to +economic independence. They compel the land-owning peasant to content +himself with five to twelve acres, the size of four-fifths of the farms +in Galicia. His eagerness to own land is his dread of the mere +wage-earner’s lot, which he no longer dreads when he lands in America. +“The fear of falling from the social position of a peasant to that, +immeasurably inferior, of a day laborer, is the great spur which drives +over the seas alike the Slovak, the Pole, and the Ruthenian.”<small><a name="f49.1" id="f49.1" href="#f49">[49]</a></small> These +high rentals and fabulous values can exist only where wages and +standards of living<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> are at the bare subsistence level, leaving a heavy +surplus for capitalization. They also exist as a result of most +economical and minute cultivation, so that, with this training, the +Bohemian or Polish farmer who takes up land in America soon becomes a +well-to-do citizen.</p> + +<p>Taxation, too, is unequal. For many years the government suffered +deficits, the military expenses increased, and worst of all, the +nobility were exempt from taxation. The latter injustice, however, was +remedied by the revolution of 1848, and yet at the present time the +great landowners pay much less than their proportionate share of the +land-tax, to say nothing of the heavy taxes on consumption and industry.</p> + +<p>As in other countries of low standards, the number of births is large in +proportion to the inhabitants. For every one thousand persons in +Hungary, there are forty-three births each year,<small><a name="f50.1" id="f50.1" href="#f50">[50]</a></small> a number exceeded +by but one great country of Europe, Russia. Yet, with this large number +of births, because the economic conditions are so onerous and the +consequent deaths so frequent, the net increase is less than that of any +other country except France. In Austria the births and deaths are less +and the net increase greater, and they run close to those of prolific +Italy.</p> + +<p>In each of these countries the figures for births and deaths stand near +those of the negroes in America, and like the negroes, two-fifths of the +mortality<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> is that of children under five years of age, whereas with +other more favored countries and races this proportion is only one-fifth +or one-fourth. It is not so much the overpopulation of Austria-Hungary +that incites emigration as it is the poverty, ignorance, inequality, and +helplessness that produce a seeming overpopulation. While these +conditions continue, emigration will continue to increase, and the +efforts of the Hungarian government to reduce it will not succeed.</p> + +<p><b>Russia.</b>—The Russian Empire is at the present time the third in the rank +of contributors to American immigration. Russian immigration, like that +of Italy and Austria-Hungary, is practically limited to the past two +decades. In 1881 it first reached 10,000. In 1893 it was 42,000, and in +1906, 216,000.</p> + +<p>The significant fact of this immigration is that it is only 2 per cent +Russian and 98 per cent non-Russian. The Russian peasant is probably the +most oppressed of the peasants of Europe, and though his recent uprising +has aroused his intellect and disabused the former opinion of his +stupidity, yet he has been so tied to the soil by his system of +communism, his burden of taxes and debt and his subjection to landlords, +that he is as yet immune to the fever of migration. In so far as he has +moved from his native soil he has done so through the efforts of a +despotic government to Russianize Siberia and the newly conquered +regions of his own vast domain. On the other hand, the races which have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +abandoned the Russian Empire have been driven forth because they refused +to submit to the policy which would by force assimilate them to the +language or religion of the dominant race. Even the promises of the +aristocracy under the fright of recent revolution have not mitigated the +persecutions, and the number taking refuge in flight has doubled in four +years. Foremost are the Jews, 125,000 in 1906, an increase from 37,000 +four years ago; next the Poles, 46,000 in 1906; next 14,000 Lithuanians, +13,000 Finns, and 10,000 Germans. The Poles and Lithuanians are Slavic +peoples long since conquered and annexed by the Russians. The Finns are +a Teutonic people with a Mongol language; the Germans are an isolated +branch of that race settled far to the east on the Volga River by +invitation of the Czar more than one hundred years ago, or on the Baltic +provinces adjoining Germany; while the Jews are the unhappy descendants +of a race whom the Russians found in territory conquered during the past +two centuries.</p> + +<p><b>The Jews.</b>—Russia, at present, sends us five-sixths of the Jewish +immigration, but the other one-sixth comes from adjoining territory in +Austria-Hungary and Roumania. About six thousand temporarily sojourn in +England, and the Whitechapel district of East London is a reduced +picture of the East Side, New York. During American history Jews have +come hither from all countries of Europe. The first recorded immigration +was that of Dutch Jews, driven from Brazil by the Portuguese and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>received by the Dutch government of New Amsterdam. The descendants of +these earliest immigrants continue at the present time in their own +peculiar congregation in lower New York City. Quite a large number of +Portuguese and Spanish Jews, expelled from those countries in the time +of Columbus, have contributed their descendants to America by way of +Holland. The German Jews began their migration in small numbers during +colonial times, but their greatest influx followed the Napoleonic wars +and reached its height at the middle of the century. Prior to the last +two decades so predominant were the German Jews that, to the ordinary +American, all Jews were Germans. Strangely enough, the so-called Russian +Jew is also a German, and in Russia among the masses of people the words +“German” and “Jew” also mean the same thing. Hereby hangs a tale of +interest in the history of this persecuted race. Jews are known to have +settled at the site of the present city of Frankfort in Southern Germany +as early as the third century, when that town was a trading post on the +Roman frontier. At the present time the region about Frankfort, +extending south through Alsace, contains the major part of the German +and French Jews. To this centre they flocked during the Middle Ages, and +their toleration in this region throws an interesting light on the +reasons for their persecution in other countries.</p> + +<p>Under the Catholic polity following the crusades the Jew had no rights, +and he could therefore gain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> protection only through the personal favor +of emperor, king, or feudal lord. This protection was arbitrary and +capricious, but it was always based on a pecuniary consideration. +Unwittingly the Catholic Church, by its prohibition of usury to all +believers, had thrown the business of money lending into the hands of +the Jews, and since the Jew was neither inclined toward agriculture nor +permitted to follow that vocation, his only sources of livelihood were +trade and usury. The sovereigns of Europe who protected the Jews did so +in view of the large sums which they could exact from their profits as +usurers and traders. They utilized the Jews like sponges to draw from +their subjects illicit taxes. When, therefore, the people gained power +over their sovereigns, and the spirit of nationality arose, the Jew, +without his former protector, was the object of persecution. England was +the first country where this spirit of nationality emerged and the first +to expel the Jews (1290); France followed a century later (1395); and +Spain and Portugal two centuries later (1492 and 1495). But in Germany +and other parts of the Holy Roman Empire political confusion and anarchy +prevailed, and the emperor and petty sovereigns were able to continue +their protection of the Jews.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p090.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Norwegian</span><span class="spacer4"> </span><span class="smcap">Italian</span><span class="spacer4"> </span> +<span class="smcap">Arabic</span><br />(From <i>The Home Missionary</i>)</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>The Russian people, at that time, were confined to the interior +surrounding Moscow, but even before the crusades they had expelled the +Jews. As rapidly as they conquered territory to the south from Turkey, +or to the west from Poland, they carried forward the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> same hostility. +There was only one country, Poland, in the centre of Europe, where the +kings, desiring to build up their cities, invited the Jews, and hither +the persecuted race fled from the East before the Russians, and latterly +from the West, driven out by the Germans. When finally, a hundred years +ago, the remnant of the Polish Empire was divided between Russia, +Prussia, and Austria, the Jewish population in this favored area had +become the largest aggregation of that people since the destruction of +Jerusalem. To-day in certain of these provinces belonging to Russia the +Jews number as high as one-sixth of the entire population, and more than +half of that of several cities. Fifteen provinces taken from Poland and +Turkey, extending 1500 miles along the border of Germany and +Austria-Hungary and 240 miles in width, constitute to-day the “Pale of +Settlement,” the region where Jews are permitted to live. Here are found +one-third of the world’s 11,000,000 Jews.<small><a name="f51.1" id="f51.1" href="#f51">[51]</a></small> Here they formerly engaged +in all lines of industry, including agriculture.</p> + +<p>Now we come to the last great national uprising, like that which began +in England six hundred years ago. The Russian serfs had been freed in +1861. But they were left without land or capital and were burdened by +high rents and enormous taxes. The Jews became their merchants, +middlemen, and usurers. Suddenly, in 1881, the peasants, oppressed and +neglected by landlord and government, turned in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> their helplessness upon +the intermediate cause of their misery, the Jew. The anti-Semitic riots +of that year have perhaps never been exceeded in ferocity and +indiscriminate destruction. Then began the migration to America. The +next year the Russian government took up the persecution, and the +notorious “May Orders” of 1882 were promulgated. These, at the +instigation of the Greek Church, have been followed by orders more +stringent, so that to-day, unless relieved by the terrorized promises of +the Czar, the Jew is not permitted to foreclose a mortgage or to lease +or purchase land; he cannot do business on Sundays or Christian +holidays; he cannot hold office; he cannot worship or assemble without +police permit; he must serve in the army, but cannot become an officer; +he is excluded from schools and universities; he is fined for conducting +manufactures and commerce; he is almost prohibited from the learned +professions. While all other social questions are excluded from +discussion, the anti-Semitic press is given free play, and the popular +hatred of the Jew is stirred to frenzy by “yellow” journals. Only when +this hatred breaks out in widespread riots does the news reach America, +but the persecution is constant and relentless. The government and the +army join with the peasants, for, true to the character of this +versatile race, the Jews are leaders of the revolutionary and +socialistic patriots who seek to overthrow the government and restore +the land to the people.</p> + +<p>Nor is this uprising confined to Russia. Galician<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> Jews in the Austrian +possessions of former Poland, where the Slavs bitterly complain of them +as saloon-keepers and money-lenders,<small><a name="f52.1" id="f52.1" href="#f52">[52]</a></small> have suffered the persecutions +of their race, and in the last ten years Roumania, a country of peasants +adjoining Hungary and Russia, has adopted laws and regulations even more +oppressive than those of her neighbor.</p> + +<p>Thus it is that this marvellous and paradoxical race, the parent of +philosophers, artists, reformers, martyrs, and also of the shrewdest +exploiters of the poor and ignorant, has, in two decades, come to +America in far greater numbers than in the two centuries preceding.</p> + +<p>It should not be inferred that the Jews are a race of pure descent. +Coming as they do from all sections and nations of Europe, they are +truly cosmopolitan, and have taken on the language, customs, and modes +of thought of the people among whom they live. More than this, in the +course of centuries, their physical characteristics have departed from +those of their Semitic cousins in the East, and they have become +assimilated in blood with their European neighbors. In Russia, +especially in the early centuries, native tribes were converted to +Judaism and mingled with their proselyters. That which makes the Jew a +peculiar people is not altogether the purity of his blood, but +persecution, devotion to his religion, and careful training of his +children. Among the Jews from Eastern Europe there are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> marked +intellectual and moral differences. The Hungarian Jew, who emigrated +earliest, is adventurous and speculative: the Southern Russian keeps few +of the religious observances, is the most intellectual and socialistic, +and most inclined to the life of a wage-earner; the Western Russian is +orthodox and emotional, saves money, becomes a contractor and retail +merchant; the Galician Jew is the poorest, whose conditions at home were +the harshest, and he begins American life as a pedler. That which unites +them all as a single people is their religious training and common +language.</p> + +<p>The Hebrew language is read and written by all the men and half of the +women, but is not spoken except by a few especially orthodox Jews on +Saturday. Hebrew is the language of business and correspondence, Yiddish +the language of conversation, just as Latin in the Middle Ages was the +official and international language, while the various peoples spoke +each its own vernacular. The Yiddish spoken by the Russian Jews in +America is scarcely a language—it is a jargon without syntax, +conjugation, or declension. Its basis is sixty per cent German of the +sixteenth century, showing the main origin of the people, and forty per +cent the language of the countries whence they come.</p> + +<p>That which most of all has made the Jew a cause of alarm to the peasants +of Eastern Europe is the highest mark of his virtue, namely, his rapid +increase in numbers. A high birth-rate, a low death-rate,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> a long life, +place the Jew as far above the average as the negro is below the +average. These two races are the two extremes of American race vitality. +Says Ripley:<small><a name="f53.1" id="f53.1" href="#f53">[53]</a></small>—</p> + +<p>“Suppose two groups of one hundred infants each, one Jewish, one of +average American parentage (Massachusetts), to be born on the same day. +In spite of the disparity of social conditions in favor of the latter, +the chances, determined by statistical means, are that one-half of the +Americans will die within forty-seven years; while the first half of the +Jews will not succumb to disease or accident before the expiration of +seventy-one years. The death-rate is really but little over half that of +the average American population.”</p> + +<p>While the negro exceeds all races in the constitutional diseases of +consumption and pneumonia, the Jew excels all in immunity from these +diseases. His vitality is ascribed to his sanitary meat inspection, his +sobriety, temperance, and self-control. Of the Jew it might be said more +truly than of any other European people that the growth of population +has led to overcrowding and has induced emigration. Yet of no people is +this less true, for, were it not for the discrimination and persecution +directed against them, the Jews would be the most prosperous and least +overcrowded of the races of Europe.</p> + +<p><b>The Finns.</b>—Until the year 1901 Finland was the freest and best governed +part of the Russian Empire.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> Wrested from Sweden in 1809, it became a +grand duchy of the Czar, guaranteed self-government, and confirmed by +coronation oath of each successor. It was the only section of the +Russian Empire with a constitutional government in which the laws, +taxes, and army were controlled by a legislature representing the +people. Here alone in all his empire was the Czar compelled to ask the +consent of parliament in order to enact laws. But these free +institutions within the past seven years were by his decree abrogated. +The Czar claimed the right to put into force such laws as he chose +without discussion or acceptance by the Finnish diet. The Russian +language took the place of Swedish and Finnish as the official medium, a +severe censorship of the press was introduced, the Lutheran religion, +devoutly adhered to, was subordinated to the “orthodox,” the independent +Finnish army was abolished and Finns were distributed throughout the +armies of the empire, and a Russian governor with absolute powers was +placed over all. Thus have 2,000,000 of the sturdiest specimens of +humanity been suddenly reduced to the level of Asiatic despotism. They +had managed by industry and thrift to extort a livelihood from a sterile +soil, and had developed a school system with universal education, +culminating in one of the noblest universities of Europe. Their peasants +are healthy, intelligent, honest, and sober. In one year, 1900, their +emigration increased from 6000 to 12,000, and it continues at 14,000, +notwithstanding the repentance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> of the Czar and his restoration of +their stolen rights. Compared with the population of the country, the +present immigration from Finland is proportionately greater than that of +any race except the Jews; and famine, adding its horrors to the loss of +their liberties, has served to augment the army of exiles.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p096.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Slav</span> <span class="smcap">Jewish</span> <span class="smcap">Polack</span> <span class="smcap">Lithuanian</span><br />(From <i>The Home Missionary</i>)</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>Much dispute has arisen respecting the racial relations of the Finns. +Their language is like that of the Magyars, an agglutinative tongue with +tendencies towards inflections, but their physical structure allies them +more nearly to the Teutons. Their Lutheran religion also separates them +from other peoples of the Russian Empire. Their sober industriousness +and high intelligence give them a place above that of their intolerant +<ins class="correction" title="original: conquerers">conquerors</ins>; and the futile attempts of the Slav to “Russify” them drove +to America many of our most desirable immigrants.</p> + +<p><b>The French Canadians.</b>—When Canada was conquered by England in 1759, it +contained a French population of 65,000. Without further immigration the +number had increased in 1901 to 2,400,000, including 1,600,000 in Canada +and 800,000 emigrants and their children in the United States. Scarcely +another race has multiplied as rapidly, doubling every twenty-five +years. The contrast with the same race in France, where population is +actually declining, is most suggestive. French Canada is, as it were, a +bit of mediæval France, picked out and preserved for the curious student +of social evolution. No French revolution broke down its old +institutions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> and the English conquest changed little else than the +oath of allegiance. Language, customs, laws, and property rights +remained intact. The only state church in North America is the Roman +Catholic Church of Quebec, with its great wealth, its control of +education, and its right to levy tithes and other church dues. With a +standard of living lower than that of the Irish or Italians, and a +population increasing even more rapidly, the French from Canada for a + +time seemed destined to displace other races in the textile mills of New +England. Yet they came only as sojourners, intending by the work of +every member of the family to save enough money to return to Canada, +purchase a farm, and live in relative affluence. Their migration began +at the close of the Civil War, and during periods of prosperity they +swarmed to the mill towns, while in periods of depression they returned +to their Northern homes. Gradually an increasing proportion remained in +“the States,” and the number in 1900 was 395,000 born in Canada, and +436,000 children born on this side of the line.</p> + +<p><b>The Portuguese.</b>—A diminutive but interesting migration of recent years +is that of the Portuguese, who come, not from Portugal, but from the +Cape Verde and Azores Islands, near equatorial Africa. These islands are +remarkably overpopulated, and the emigration, nearly 9000 souls in 1906, +is a very large proportion of the total number of inhabitants. By two +methods did they find their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> way to America. One was almost accidental, +for it was the wreck of a Portuguese vessel on the New England coast +that first directed their attention to that section. They have settled +mainly at New Bedford, Massachusetts, where they follow the fisheries in +the summer and enter the mills in the winter. The other method was +solicitation, which took several thousand of them to Hawaii as contract +laborers on the sugar plantations. Unlike the Oriental importations to +these islands the Portuguese insisted that their families be imported, +and then as soon as their contracts expired they left the planters to +become small farmers, and are now the backbone of the coffee industry. +They and their children are nearly half of the “Caucasian” element of +30,000. In Massachusetts they are of two distinct types, the whites from +the Azores and the blacks from the Cape Verde Islands, the latter +plainly a blend of Portuguese and Africans. Their standards of living +are similar to those of the Italians, though they are distinguished by +their cleanliness and the neatness of their homes.</p> + +<p><b>Syrians and Armenians.</b>—That the recruiting area of American immigration +is extending eastward is no more clearly evident than in the recent +migration of Syrians and Armenians. These peoples belong to the +Christian races of Asiatic Turkey, whence they are escaping the +oppressions of a government which deserves the name of organized robbery +rather than government. Within the past thirty years many thousand +Syrians of Mount Lebanon have emigrated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> to Egypt and other +Mediterranean countries, to the dependencies of Great Britain and South +America. Six thousand of them came to the United States in 1906. They +belong mainly to the Greek Church or the Maronite branch of the Roman +Catholic Church, and it is mainly American missionary effort that has +diverted them to the United States. Unlike other immigrants, they come +principally from the towns, and are traders and pedlers. Broadly +speaking, says an agent of the Charity Organization Society of New York, +“the well-intentioned efforts of the missionaries have been abused by +their protégés.... It is these alleged proselytes who have contributed +largely to bring into relief the intrinsically servile character of the +Syrian, his ingratitude and mendacity, his prostitution of all ideals to +the huckster level.... As a rule they affiliate themselves with some +Protestant church or mission, abandoning such connections when no longer +deemed necessary or profitable.”<small><a name="f54.1" id="f54.1" href="#f54">[54]</a></small></p> + +<p>The Armenian migration began with the monstrous Kurdish atrocities of +recent years, instigated and supported by the Turkish government. +Armenians are a primitive branch of the Christian religion, and at an +early date became separated from both the Greek and Roman churches. They +are among the shrewdest of merchants, traders, and money-lenders of the +Orient, and, like the Jews, are hated by the peasantry and persecuted by +the government. Like<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> the Jews also, religious persecution has united +them to the number of five million in a racial type of remarkable purity +and distinctness from the surrounding races.</p> + +<p><b>Asiatic Immigration.</b>—Utterly distinct from all other immigrants in the +nineteenth century are the Chinese. Coming from a civilization already +ancient when Europe was barbarian, the Chinaman complacently refuses to +assimilate with Americans, and the latter reciprocate by denying him the +right of citizenship. His residence is temporary, he comes without his +family, and he accumulates what to him is a fortune for his declining +years in China. The gold discoveries of California first attracted him, +and the largest migration was 40,000 in 1882, the year when Congress +prohibited further incoming. In 1906, 3015 Chinamen tried to get in, and +2732 were admitted, mainly as United States citizens, returning +merchants and returning laborers. One-half of the 1448 admitted as +“exempt” were believed by the immigration officials to have been coolies +in disguise.<small><a name="f55.1" id="f55.1" href="#f55">[55]</a></small> Within the past ten years the Japanese have taken his +place, and 14,000 of his Mongolian cousins arrived in 1906.</p> + +<p>The immigration of the Japanese has taken a peculiar turn owing to the +annexation of Hawaii. While these islands were yet a kingdom in 1868 +this immigration began, and in 1886 a treaty was concluded with Japan +for the immigration of Japanese<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> contract laborers for the benefit of +the sugar planters. Many thousand were imported under this arrangement, +and “the fear that the islands would be annexed to Japan was one of the +prime factors in the demand for annexation to the United States.”<small><a name="f56.1" id="f56.1" href="#f56">[56]</a></small> +With annexation in 1900 contract labor was abolished, and the Japanese, +freed from servitude, indulged in “an epidemic of strikes.” The Japanese +government retained paternal oversight of its laborers migrating to +foreign lands, which is done through some thirty-four emigrant companies +chartered by the government. Since opening up Korea for settlement Japan +has granted but a limited number of passports to its citizens destined +for the mainland of America, so that almost the entire immigration comes +first to Honolulu through arrangements made between the emigrant +companies and the planters. But the planters are not able to keep them +on the island on account of the higher wages on the Pacific coast. Since +the alien contract-labor law does not apply to immigrants from Hawaii, a +<i>padroni</i> system has sprung up for importing Japanese from that island. +As a result, the arrivals at Honolulu are equalled by the departures to +the mainland, and Hawaii becomes the American side entrance for the +Japanese.<small><a name="f57.1" id="f57.1" href="#f57">[57]</a></small> This evasion has been stopped by the law of February 20, 1906.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>Hawaii also is showing another Asiatic race the opening to America. The +growing independence of the Japanese led the planters to seek Koreans, +since the Chinese exclusion law came into force with annexation. In this +effort to break down Japanese solidarity some eight thousand Koreans +have been mixed with them during the past five years, and these also +have begun the transit to California.</p> + +<p>Although the Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans are the familiar examples +often cited of low standards of living, yet their wages in their native +countries are higher than those of the South Italians and equal to those +of the Slavs. They earn $4 or $5 a month and spend $2 or $3 for living. +In Hawaii they get $18 to $20 a month, and on the Pacific coast $35 to $50.</p> + +<p>In the past two or three years a tiny dripping of immigration has found +its way from another vast empire of Asiatic population—India. Some two +hundred are admitted each year. The populations of that land are growing +discontented as they see Indians returned from Natal, where they earned +$20 to $35 a month, while at home they get only $3 to $7 under a penal +contract system. The American consul at Calcutta reports ten sturdy +Punjab Mohammedans inquiring the way to America and telling of their +friends at work on American dairy farms. In his judgment they are +stronger and more intelligent than the Chinese coolies and are +preferable for work on the Panama Canal. The self-governing British +colonies have educational restrictions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> designed to prevent Asiatic +immigration, whether of British subjects or aliens;<small><a name="f58.1" id="f58.1" href="#f58">[58]</a></small> other colonies +have contract labor. The unrest of India therefore turns the native eyes +towards America.</p> + +<p>While America has been welcoming the eastward and backward races she has +begun to lose her colonial stock and her <ins class="correction" title="original: Amercianized">Americanized</ins> Teutonic stock. +These pioneer elements have kept in front of the westward movement, and +now that the American frontier is gone they seek a new frontier in +Canada. The Canadian government for several years has sought to fill its +vast Western plains with Teutonic races and to discourage others. It has +expended many thousand dollars for advertising and soliciting in the +British Isles, and has maintained twenty to thirty immigration agents in +our Western states. The opportunities of British Columbia are now well +known, and the American farmers, with agricultural land rising +enormously in value, sell out to the newcomer or the acclimated +immigrant and betake themselves to double or treble the area for +cultivation under the flag of England. They push onward by rail and by +wagon, and the ingress of millions of immigrants is reflected in the +egress of thousands of Americans.<small><a name="f59.1" id="f59.1" href="#f59">[59]</a></small></p> + +<p><b>Indigenous Races.</b>—It is not enough that we have opened our gates to the +millions of divergent races in Europe, Asia, and Africa; we have in +these latter days<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> admitted to our fold new types by another +process—annexation.</p> + +<p>The Hawaiians are the latest of these oversea races to be brought under +our flag, although in the course of eighty years they have been brought +under our people. Nowhere else in the world has been seen such finished +effect on an aboriginal race of the paradoxes of Western +civilization—Christianity, private property, and sexual disease. With a +population of some 300,000 at the time of discovery they had dwindled by +domestic wars and imported disease to 140,000 when the missionaries came +in 1820, then to 70,000 in 1850 when private property began its hunt for +cheap labor, and now they number but 30,000. A disease eliminating the +unfit of a race protected by monogamy decimates this primitive people on +a lower stage of morals. Missionaries from the most intellectual type of +American Protestantism converted the diminishing nation to Christianity +in fifty years. A soil and climate the most favorable in the world for +sugar-cane inspired American planters and sons of missionaries to +displace the unsteady Hawaiians with industrious coolies, and finally to +overthrow the government they had undermined and then annex it to +America. Although acquiring American citizenship and sharing equally the +suffrage with Caucasians, the decreasing influence of the Hawaiians is +further diminished by the territorial form of government.</p> + +<p>The Spanish War added islands on opposite sides<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> of the globe, with +races resulting from diametrically opposite effects of three centuries +of Spanish rule. From Porto Rico the aboriginal Carib had long +disappeared under the slavery of his conquerors, and his place had been +filled by the negro slave in sugar cultivation and by the Spaniard and +other Europeans in coffee cultivation. To-day the negro and mulatto are +two-fifths of the million population and the whites three-fifths.<small><a name="f60.1" id="f60.1" href="#f60">[60]</a></small> In +the Philippine Islands the native races have survived under a theocratic +protectorate and even their tribal and racial subdivisions have been +preserved. Two-fifths of their population of 7,600,000 belong to the +leading tribe, the Visayans, and one-fifth to another, the Tagalogs. Six +other tribes complete the list of “civilized” or Christianized peoples, +while 10 per cent remain pagan in the mountains and forests. Four-fifths +of the population are illiterate, a proportion the same as in Porto +Rico, compared with less than half of the negroes and only one-sixteenth +of the whites in the United States.<small><a name="f61.1" id="f61.1" href="#f61">[61]</a></small></p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> +<h3>INDUSTRY</h3> + +<p><br />In preceding chapters we have seen the conditions in their foreign homes +which spurred the emigrants to seek America. We have seen religious +persecution, race oppression, political revolution, militarism, +taxation, famine, and poverty conspiring to press upon the unprivileged +masses and to drive the more adventurous across the water. But it would +be a mistake should we stop at that point and look upon the migration of +these dissatisfied elements as only a voluntary movement to better their +condition. In fact, had it been left to the initiative of the emigrants +the flow of immigration to America could scarcely ever have reached +one-half its actual dimensions. While various motives and inducements +have always worked together, and it would be rash to assert dogmatically +the relative weight of each, yet to one who has carefully noted all the +circumstances it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that even more +important than the initiative of immigrants have been the efforts of +Americans and ship-owners to bring and attract them. Throughout our +history these efforts have been inspired by one grand, effective +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>motive,—that of making a profit upon the immigrants. The desire to get +cheap labor, to take in passenger fares, and to sell land have probably +brought more immigrants than the hard conditions of Europe, Asia, and +Africa have sent. Induced immigration has been as potent as voluntary +immigration. And it is to this mercenary motive that we owe our manifold +variety of races, and especially our influx of backward races. One +entire race, the negro, came solely for the profit of ship-owners and +landowners. Working people of the colonial period were hoodwinked and +kidnapped by shippers and speculators who reimbursed themselves by +indenturing them to planters and farmers. The beginners of other races +have come through similar but less coercive inducements, initiated, +however, by the demand of those who held American property for +speculation or investment. William Penn and his lessees, John Law, the +Dutch East India Company, and many of the grantees of lands in the +colonies, sent their agents through Western Europe and the British Isles +with glowing advertisements, advanced transportation, and contracts for +indentured service by way of reimbursement. In the nineteenth century +new forms of induced migration appeared. Victims of the Irish famine +were assisted to emigrate by local and general governments and by +philanthropic societies, and both the Irish and the Germans, whose +migration began towards the middle of the century, were, in a measure, +exceptions to the general rule of induced immigration for profit. +Several Western states created immigration bureaus which advertised +their own advantages for intending immigrants, and Wisconsin, +especially, in this way settled her lands with a wide variety of races. +After the Civil War, induced migration entered upon a vigorous revival. +The system of indenturing had long since disappeared, because +legislatures and courts declined to recognize and enforce contracts for +service. Consequently a new form of importation appeared under the +direction of middlemen of the same nativity as that of the immigrant. +Chinese coolies came under contract with the Six Companies, who advanced +their expenses and looked to their own secret agents and tribunals to +enforce repayment with profit.<small><a name="f62.1" id="f62.1" href="#f62">[62]</a></small> Japanese coolies, much later, came +under contract with immigration companies chartered by the Japanese +government.<small><a name="f63.1" id="f63.1" href="#f63">[63]</a></small> Italians were recruited by the <i>padroni</i>, and the bulk +of the new Slav immigration from Southeastern Europe is in charge of +their own countrymen acting as drummers and middlemen.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p> + +<p class="center">INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS OF IMMIGRANTS—1906<small><a name="f64.1" id="f64.1" href="#f64">[64]</a></small></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="btr" rowspan="2" align="center"><span class="smcap">Race or People</span></td> + <td class="btr" rowspan="2" align="center"><span class="smcap">Total,<br />100<br />Per Cent</span></td> + <td class="btr" colspan="2" align="center"><span class="smcap">Sexes</span></td> + <td class="btr" colspan="3" align="center"><span class="smcap">Ages</span></td> + <td class="bt" colspan="5" align="center"><span class="smcap">Occupations</span><small><a name="f65.1" id="f65.1" href="#f65">[65]</a></small></td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Males</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Females</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Under 14<br />years</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">14-45<br />years</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Over 45<br />years</td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span class="smcap">Total,<br />100<br />Per Cent</span></td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Professional</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Commercial</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Skilled</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">Unskilled</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">African (black)</td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3,786</span></td> + <td class="btr" align="center">62.2</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">37.8</td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9.1</span></td> + <td class="btr" align="center">86.8</td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.1</span></td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2,921</span></td> + <td class="btr" align="center">3.0</td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.6</span></td> + <td class="btr" align="center">45.6</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">48.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Armenian</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1,895</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">75.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">24.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">11.8</td> + <td class="br" align="center">84.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1,390</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">3.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">38.5</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">53.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Bohemian and<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Moravian</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">12,958</td> + <td class="br" align="center">57.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center">42.8</td> + <td class="br" align="center">20.7</td> + <td class="br" align="center">73.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5.4</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7,985</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">1.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.2</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">43.6</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">53.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Bulgarian,<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Servian, and</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Montenegrin</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">11,548</td> + <td class="br" align="center">96.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3.8</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">96.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">11,025</td> + <td class="br" align="center">0.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0.3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3.7</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">95.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Chinese</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1,485</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">94.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.5</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">81.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center">14.0</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1,261</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">6.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">66.0</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.5</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">25.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Croatian and<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Slovenian</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">44,272</td> + <td class="br" align="center">86.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center">13.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3.8</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">94.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">40,125</td> + <td class="br" align="center">0.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3.7</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">96.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Cuban</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5,591</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">67.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center">32.6</td> + <td class="br" align="center">17.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center">73.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9.6</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2,842</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">10.3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">19.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">55.9</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">14.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Dalmatian,<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bosnian, and</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Herzegovinian</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4,568</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">95.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.7</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">96.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4,373</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">0.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0.3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7.7</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">91.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Dutch and<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flemish</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9,735</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">67.0</td> + <td class="br" align="center">33.0</td> + <td class="br" align="center">17.6</td> + <td class="br" align="center">76.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6.0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5,849</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">5.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">30.1</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">56.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">East Indian</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">271</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">93.0</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7.0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5.5</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">90.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">222</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">9.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">52.7</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5.4</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">32.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">English</td> + <td class="br" align="center">45,079</td> + <td class="br" align="center">62.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">37.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">13.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center">75.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center">11.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center">28,249</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">10.8</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">13.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center">51.3</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">24.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Finnish</td> + <td class="br" align="center">14,136</td> + <td class="br" align="center">67.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center">32.6</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">90.8</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">11,959</td> + <td class="br" align="center">0.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0.3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7.2</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">92.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">French</td> + <td class="br" align="center">10,379</td> + <td class="br" align="center">57.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">42.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8.6</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">81.7</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9.7</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6,823</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">16.5</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">12.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">31.3</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">39.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">German</td> + <td class="br" align="center">86,813</td> + <td class="br" align="center">59.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center">40.8</td> + <td class="br" align="center">15.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">78.6</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6.3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">55,095</td> + <td class="br" align="center">4.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6.7</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">29.7</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">59.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Greek</td> + <td class="br" align="center">23,127</td> + <td class="br" align="center">96.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3.7</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">95.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">21,615</td> + <td class="br" align="center">0.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.6</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9.4</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">87.5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Hebrew</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">153,748</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">52.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">47.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">28.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center">66.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5.4</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">76,605</td> + <td class="br" align="center">1.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5.6</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">66.7</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">26.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Irish</td> + <td class="br" align="center">40,959</td> + <td class="br" align="center">50.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">49.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.6</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">90.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.5</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">35,387</td> + <td class="br" align="center">1.7</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">15.1</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">80.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Italian (North)</td> + <td class="br" align="center">46,286</td> + <td class="br" align="center">78.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">21.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8.6</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">87.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3.5</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">36,980</td> + <td class="br" align="center">1.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">19.4</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">76.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Italian (South)</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">240,528</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">79.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center">20.6</td> + <td class="br" align="center">11.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">84.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.6</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">190,105</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">0.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">16.0</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">82.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Japanese</td> + <td class="br" align="center">14,243</td> + <td class="br" align="center">89.6</td> + <td class="br" align="center">10.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">97.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">11,797</td> + <td class="br" align="center">2.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center">10.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.8</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">84.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Korean</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">127</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">81.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">18.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">16.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center">81.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.4</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">80</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">6.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center">15.0</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.5</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">76.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Lithuanian</td> + <td class="br" align="center">14,257</td> + <td class="br" align="center">66.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">33.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">89.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.6</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">11,568</td> + <td class="br" align="center">0.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0.2</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9.2</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">90.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Magyar</td> + <td class="br" align="center">44,261</td> + <td class="br" align="center">71.8</td> + <td class="br" align="center">28.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9.0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">87.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3.5</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">34,559</td> + <td class="br" align="center">0.6</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0.5</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9.3</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">89.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Mexican</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">141</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">66.0</td> + <td class="br" align="center">34.0</td> + <td class="br" align="center">14.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">74.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center">10.6</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">65</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">23.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">35.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center">24.6</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">16.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Pacific Islander</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">13</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">76.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">23.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7.7</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">76.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">15.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">33.3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0.0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">66.7</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0.0</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Polish</td> + <td class="br" align="center">95,835</td> + <td class="br" align="center">69.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center">30.7</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9.3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">88.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.2</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">77,437</td> + <td class="br" align="center">0.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0.2</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7.7</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">91.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Portuguese</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8,729</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">58.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center">41.6</td> + <td class="br" align="center">20.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">70.7</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8.4</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5,815</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">0.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.8</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">93.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Roumanian</td> + <td class="br" align="center">11,425</td> + <td class="br" align="center">92.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7.5</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">94.0</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.0</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">10,759</td> + <td class="br" align="center">0.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0.2</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.5</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">97.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Russian</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5,814</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">81.7</td> + <td class="br" align="center">18.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center">10.0</td> + <td class="br" align="center">86.8</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3.2</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4,591</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">3.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.4</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">10.8</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">83.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Ruthenian</td> + <td class="br" align="center">16,257</td> + <td class="br" align="center">75.7</td> + <td class="br" align="center">24.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3.6</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">93.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.5</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">14,899</td> + <td class="br" align="center">0.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><small><a name="f66.1" id="f66.1" href="#f66">[66]</a></small></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.7</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">97.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Scandinavian</td> + <td class="br" align="center">58,141</td> + <td class="br" align="center">62.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">37.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">86.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.5</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">47,352</td> + <td class="br" align="center">1.8</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.6</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">23.5</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">73.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Scotch</td> + <td class="br" align="center">16,463</td> + <td class="br" align="center">66.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">33.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">12.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">78.8</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8.3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">11,207</td> + <td class="br" align="center">5.7</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">62.8</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">21.6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Slovak</td> + <td class="br" align="center">38,221</td> + <td class="br" align="center">69.6</td> + <td class="br" align="center">30.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">88.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.7</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">29,817</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><small><a href="#f66">[66]</a></small></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.9</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">95.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Spanish</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5,332</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">83.6</td> + <td class="br" align="center">16.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">84.6</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8.3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4,211</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">5.7</td> + <td class="br" align="center">19.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center">44.4</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">30.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Spanish American</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1,585</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">69.7</td> + <td class="br" align="center">30.3</td> + <td class="br" align="center">17.0</td> + <td class="br" align="center">74.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8.6</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">790</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">23.7</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">37.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">21.1</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">18.1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Syrian</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5,824</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">70.4</td> + <td class="br" align="center">29.6</td> + <td class="br" align="center">15.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center">80.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4,023</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">1.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">11.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">19.9</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">67.9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Turkish</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2,033</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">95.7</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.9</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">96.0</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1,914</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">1.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.4</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8.3</span></td> + <td class="dent" align="center">85.8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Welsh</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2,367</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">29.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">12.5</td> + <td class="br" align="center">78.2</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9.3</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1,639</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">4.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6.7</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">62.4</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">26.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">West Indian<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">(except Cuban)</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1,476</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">58.9</td> + <td class="br" align="center">41.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center">14.8</td> + <td class="br" align="center">76.1</td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9.1</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">900</span></td> + <td class="br" align="center">7.6</td> + <td class="br" align="center">15.0</td> + <td class="br" align="center">49.4</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">28.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Other Peoples</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1,027</span></td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">94.5</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5.5</span></td> + <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2.6</span></td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">96.0</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1.4</span></td> + <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">932</span></td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">1.2</td> + <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.1</span></td> + <td class="bbr" align="center">18.0</td> + <td class="bb" align="center">76.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bbr"><br /><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Total</span></td> + <td class="bbr" valign="bottom" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -1em;">1,100,735</span></td> + <td class="bbr" valign="bottom" align="center">69.5</td> + <td class="bbr" valign="bottom" align="center">30.5</td> + <td class="bbr" valign="bottom" align="center">12.4</td> + <td class="bbr" valign="bottom" align="center">83.0</td> + <td class="bbr" valign="bottom" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4.6</span></td> + <td class="bbr" valign="bottom" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">815,275</span></td> + <td class="bbr" valign="bottom" align="center">1.8</td> + <td class="bbr" valign="bottom" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3.1</span></td> + <td class="bbr" valign="bottom" align="center">21.7</td> + <td class="bb" valign="bottom" align="center">73.4</td></tr></table> + +<p>These labor speculators have perfected a system of inducements and +through billing as effective as that by which horse and cattle buyers in +Kentucky or Iowa collect and forward their living freight to the markets +of Europe. A Croatian of the earlier immigration, for example, sets up a +saloon in South<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> Chicago and becomes an employment bureau for his +“greener” countrymen, and also ticket agent on commission for the +steamship companies. His confederates are stationed along the entire +route at connecting points, from the villages of Croatia to the saloon +in Chicago. In Croatia they go among the laborers and picture to them +the high wages and abundant work in America. They induce them to sell +their little belongings and they furnish them with through tickets. They +collect them in companies, give them a countersign, and send them on to +their fellow-agent at Fiume, thence to Genoa or other port whence the +American steerage vessel sails. In New York they are met by other +confederates, whom they identify by their countersign, and again they +are safely transferred and shipped to their destination. Here they are +met by their enterprising countryman, lodged and fed, and within a day +or two handed over to the foreman in a great steel plant, or to the +“boss” of a construction gang on a railway, or to a contractor on a +large public improvement. After they have earned and saved a little +money they send for their friends, to whom the “boss” has promised jobs. +Again their lodging-house countryman sells them the steamship ticket and +arranges for the safe delivery of those for whom they have sent. In this +way immigration is stimulated, and new races are induced to begin their +American colonization. Eventually the pioneers send for their families, +and it is estimated that nearly two-thirds of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>immigrants in recent +years have come on prepaid tickets or on money sent to them from America.<small><a name="f67.1" id="f67.1" href="#f67">[67]</a></small></p> + +<p>The significance of this new and highly perfected form of inducement +will appear when we look back for a moment upon the legislation +governing immigration.</p> + +<p><b>Immigration Legislation.</b>—At the close of the Civil War, with a vast +territory newly opened to the West by the railroads, Congress enacted a +law throwing wide open our doors to the immigrants of all lands. It gave +new guaranties for the protection of naturalized citizens in renouncing +allegiance to their native countries, declaring that “expatriation is a +natural and inherent right of all people, indispensable to the enjoyment +of the rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”<small><a name="f68.1" id="f68.1" href="#f68">[68]</a></small></p> + +<p>In the same year, 1868, the famous Burlingame treaty was negotiated with +China, by which Americans in China and Chinese in America should enjoy +all the privileges, immunities, and exemptions enjoyed by citizens of +the most favored nation. These steps favorable to immigration were in +line with the long-continued policy of the country from the earliest +colonial times.</p> + +<p>But a new force had come into American politics—the wage-earner. From +this time forth the old<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> policies were violently challenged. High wages +were to be pitted against high profits. The cheap labor which was +eagerly sought by the corporations and large property owners was just as +eagerly fought by the unpropertied wage-earners. Of course neither party +conceded that it was selfishly seeking its own interest. Those who +expected profits contended that cheap foreign labor was necessary for +the development of the country; that American natural resources were +unbounded, but American workmen could not be found for the rough work +needed to turn these resources into wealth; that America should be in +the future, as it had been in the past, a haven for the oppressed of all +lands; and that in no better way could the principles of American +democracy be spread to all peoples of the earth than by welcoming them +and teaching them in our midst.</p> + +<p>The wage-earners have not been so fortunate in their protestations of +disinterestedness. They were compelled to admit that though they +themselves had been immigrants or the children of immigrants, they were +now denying to others what had been a blessing to them. Yet they were +able to set forward one supreme argument which our race problems are +every day more and more showing to be sound. The future of American +democracy is the future of the American wage-earner. To have an +enlightened and patriotic citizenship we must protect the wages and +standard of living of those who constitute the bulk of the citizens. +This argument had been offered by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> employers themselves when they were +seeking a protective tariff against the importation of “pauper-made” +goods. What wonder that the wage-earner should use the same argument to +keep out the pauper himself, and especially that he should begin by +applying the argument to those races which showed themselves unable +rapidly to assimilate, and thereby make a stand for high wages and high +standards of living. Certain it is that had the white wage-earners +possessed the suffrage and political influence during colonial times, +the negro would not have been admitted in large numbers, and we should +have been spared that race problem which of all is the largest and most +nearly insoluble.</p> + +<p>For it must be observed in general that race antagonism occurs on the +same competitive level. What appear often to be religious, political, +and social animosities are economic at bottom, and the substance of the +economic struggle is the advantage which third parties get when +competitors hold each other down. The Southern planter was not hostile +to the negro slave—he was his friend and protector. His nurse was the +negro “mammy,” his playmates were her children, and the mulatto throws +light on his views of equality. It was the poor white who hated the +negro and fled from his presence to the hills and the frontier, or sank +below his level, despised by white and black. In times of freedom and +reconstruction it is not the great landowner or employer that leads in +the exhibition of race hostility, but the small farmer or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +wage-earner.<small><a name="f69.1" id="f69.1" href="#f69">[69]</a></small> The one derives a profit from the presence of the +negro—the other loses his job or his farm. With the progress of white +democracy in place of the old aristocracy, as seen in South Carolina, +hostility to the negro may be expected to increase. With the elimination +of the white laborer, as seen in the black counties, the relations of +negro and planter are harmonious.<small><a name="f70.1" id="f70.1" href="#f70">[70]</a></small></p> + +<p>So it is in the North. The negro or immigrant strike breaker is +befriended by the employer, but hated by the employee. The Chinaman or +Japanese in Hawaii or California is praised and sought after by the +employer and householder, but dreaded by the wage-earner and domestic. +Investors and landowners see their properties rise in value by the +competition of races, but the competitors see their wages and jobs +diminish. The increase of wealth intensifies the difference and raises +up professional classes to the standpoint of the capitalists. With both +of them the privilege of leisure depends on the presence of servants, +but the wage-earners do their own work. As the immigrant rises in the +scale, the small farmer,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> contractor, or merchant feels his competition +and begins to join in measures of race protection.</p> + +<p>This hostility is not primarily racial in character. It is the +competitive struggle for standards of living. It appears to be racial +because for the most part races have different standards. But where +different races agree on their standards the racial struggle ceases, and +the negro, Italian, Slav, and American join together in the class +struggle of a trade-union. On the other hand, if the same race has +different standards, the economic struggle breaks down even the +strongest affinities of race. The Russian Jew in the sweat-shop turns +against the immigrant Jew, fleeing from the very persecution that he +himself has escaped, and taking his place in the employment of the +capitalist German Jew.<small><a name="f71.1" id="f71.1" href="#f71">[71]</a></small> It is an easy and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> patriotic matter for the +lawyer, minister, professor, employer, or investor, placed above the +arena of competition, to proclaim the equal right of all races to +American opportunities; to avow his own willingness to give way should +even a better Chinaman, Hindu, or Turk come in to take his place; and to +rebuke the racial hatred of those who resist this displacement. His +patriotism and world-wide brotherhood cost him and his family nothing, +and indeed they add to his profits and leisure. Could he realize his +industrial position, and picture in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> imagination that of his +fellow-citizens, their attitude would not appear less disinterested than +his own. The immigrant comes as a wage-earner, and the American +wage-earner bears the initial cost of his Americanization. Before he +acquired the suffrage his protest was unheard—after he gained political +power he began to protect himself.</p> + +<p>The first outbreak of the new-found strength of the American wage-earner +was directed against a race superior even to the negro immigrants in +industry, frugality, intelligence, and civilization—the Chinese. And +this outbreak was so powerful that, in spite of all appeals to the +traditions and liberties of America, the national government felt driven +to repudiate the treaty so recently signed with the highest +manifestations of faith, good-will, and international comity.</p> + +<p>Very early in the settlement of California the Chinaman had encountered +hostile legislation. The state election had been carried by the +Knownothings as early as 1854. Discriminating taxes, ordinances, and +laws were adopted, and even immigration was regulated by the state +legislature. But the state and federal courts declared such legislation +invalid as violating treaties or interfering with international +relations. Then the wage-earning element of California joined as one man +in demanding action by the federal government, and eventually, by the +treaty of 1880 and the law of 1888, Chinese laborers were excluded.<small><a name="f72.1" id="f72.1" href="#f72">[72]</a></small> +Thus did the Caucasian <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>wage-earner score his first and signal victory +in reversing what his opponents proclaimed were “principles coeval with +the foundation of our government.”</p> + +<p>The next step was the Alien Contract Labor law of 1885 and 1888, placed +on the statute books through the efforts of the Knights of Labor and the +trades-unions. As early as 1875 Congress had prohibited the immigration +of paupers, criminal, and immoral persons, but the law of 1885 went to +the other extreme and was designed to exclude industrial classes. The +law is directed against prepayment of transportation, assistance, or +encouragement of foreigners to immigrate <i>under contract</i> to perform +labor in the United States, and provides for the prosecution of the +importer and deportation of the contract immigrant. This law has been +enforced against skilled labor, which comes mainly from northwestern +Europe, but, owing to the new system of <i>padroni</i> and middlemen above +described, it cannot be enforced against the unskilled laborers of +Southern and Eastern Europe, since it cannot be shown that they have +come under contract to perform labor. By the amendment and revised law +adopted in 1903, after considerable discussion, and an effort on the +part of the labor unions to strengthen the law, it was extended so as to + +exclude not only those coming under contract but also those coming under +<i>offers</i> and <i>promises</i> of employment.<small><a name="f73.1" id="f73.1" href="#f73">[73]</a></small></p> + +<p>From what precedes we see that there are two<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> exactly opposite points of +view from which the subject of immigration is approached. One is the +production of wealth; the other is the distribution of wealth. He who +takes the standpoint of production sees the enormous undeveloped +resources of this country—the mines to be exploited, railroads and +highways to be built and rebuilt, farms to be opened up or to be more +intensively cultivated, manufactures to be multiplied, and the markets +of the world to be conquered by our exports, while there are not enough +workmen, or not enough willing to do the hard and disagreeable work at +the bottom.</p> + +<p>He who takes the standpoint of distribution sees the huge fortunes, the +low wages, the small share of the product going to labor, the +sweat-shop, the slums, all on account of the excessive competition of +wage-earner against wage-earner.</p> + +<p>Consider first the bearing of immigration on the production of wealth.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p120.png" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Age Groups, Foreign and Native-born</span></p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Immigration and Wealth Production.</b>—Over four-fifths of the immigrants +are in the prime of life—the ages between fourteen and forty-five. In +the year 1906 only 12 out of every 100 were under fourteen years of age, +and only 4.5 out of every 100 over forty-five years of age. The census +of 1900 offers some interesting comparisons between the native-born and +the foreign-born in this matter of age distribution. It shows quite +plainly that a large proportion of the native-born population is below +the age of industrial production, fully 39 per cent, or<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> two-fifths, +being under fifteen years of age, while only 5 per cent of the +foreign-born are of corresponding ages. On the other hand, the ages +fifteen to forty-four include 46 per cent of the native and 58 per cent +of the foreign-born. This is shown in the diagram based on five-year age +periods. The native born are seen to group themselves in a symmetrical +pyramid, with the children under five as the wide foundation, gradually +tapering to the ages of eighty and eighty-four, but for the foreign-born +they show a double pyramid, tapering in both directions from the ages of +thirty-five to thirty-nine, which include<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> the largest five-year group. +Thus, immigration brings to us a population of working ages unhampered +by unproductive mouths to be fed, and, if we consider alone that which +produces the wealth of this country and not that which consumes it, the +immigrants add more to the country than does the same number of native +of equal ability. Their home countries have borne the expense of rearing +them up to the industrial period of their lives, and then America, +without that heavy expense, reaps whatever profits there are on the +investment.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p121.png" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Proportion of Sexes. Native and Foreign-born Whites, 1900, and Immigrants 1906</span></p> +<p> </p> + +<p>In another respect does immigration add to our industrial population +more than would be done by <ins class="correction" title="original: anequal">an equal</ins> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>increase in native population, +namely, by the large excess of men over women. In 1906, over two-thirds +of the immigrants were males and less than one-third were females. This +is shown on the accompanying diagram, as well as the fact based on the +census statistics that among the foreign-born the men predominate over +the women in the ratio of 540 to 460, while among the native-born +population the sexes are about equal, being in the proportion of 507 +males to 493 females.</p> + +<p>This small proportion of women and children shows, of course, that it is +the workers, not the families, who seek America. Yet the proportions +widely vary for different nationalities. Among the Jews 48 per cent are +females and 28 per cent children. This persecuted race moves in a body, +expecting to make America its home. At the other extreme the Greeks send +only 4 per cent females and 3 per cent children, the Croatians 13 per +cent females and 4 per cent children, the South Italians 21 per cent +females and 11 per cent children. These are races whose immigration has +only recently begun, and naturally enough the women and children, except +in the case of the Jews, do not accompany the workmen. A race of longer +migration, like the Germans, has 41 per cent females and 15 per cent +children. The Irish have a peculiar position. Alone of all the races do +the women equal the men, but only 5 per cent are children. Irish girls +seeking domestic service explain this preponderance of women.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +Significant and interesting facts regarding other races may be seen by +studying the table entitled “Industrial Relations of Immigrants.”</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p122.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">Sweden<span class="spacer"> </span>Greece<span class="spacer"> </span>Germany<span class="spacer"> </span>Russia<span class="spacer"> </span>China<span class="spacer"> </span>Scotland<br /> +Austria<span class="spacer"> </span>Australia<span class="spacer"> </span>Canada<span class="spacer"> </span>England<span class="spacer"> </span>Italy<span class="spacer"> </span>Roumania<br /> +American School Boys</span><br />(From <i>World’s Work</i>)</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>Such being the proportions of industrial energy furnished by +immigration, what is the quality? Much the larger proportion of +immigrants are classed as unskilled, including laborers and servants. +Omitting those who have “no occupation,” including mainly women and +children, who are 30.5 per cent of the total, only 21.7 per cent of the +remainder who are working immigrants are skilled, and 73.4 per cent are +unskilled. The proportions vary greatly among the different races. The +largest element of skilled labor is among the Jews, a city people, +two-thirds of whom are skilled workmen. Nearly the same proportion of +the Scotch and Welsh and over one-half of the English and Bohemians are +skilled mechanics. Nearly one-third of the Germans and Dutch are +skilled, and one-fourth of the Scandinavians. At the other extreme, only +3 to 5 per cent of the Ruthenians, Croatians, Roumanians, and Slovaks +are skilled, and 8 to 10 per cent of the Magyars, Lithuanians, and +Poles. One-fifth of the North Italians and one-sixth of the South +Italians are skilled. These and other proportions are shown in the +statistical table.</p> + +<p>The skilled labor which comes to America, especially from Northern and +Western Europe, occupies a peculiar position in our industries. In the +first place, the most capable workmen have <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>permanent places at home, +and it is, in general, only those who cannot command situations who seek +their fortunes abroad. The exceptions to this rule are in the beginnings +of an industry like that of tin plate, when a large proportion of the +industry moved bodily to America, and the highly skilled tin workers of +Wales brought a kind of industrial ability that had not hitherto existed +in this country. As for the bulk of skilled immigrants, they do not +represent the highest skill of the countries whence they come.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the European skilled workman is usually better +trained than the American, and in many branches of industry, especially +machinery and ship-building, the English and Scotch immigrants command +those superior positions where an all-round training is required.</p> + +<p>This peculiar situation is caused by the highly specialized character of +American industry. In no country has division of labor and machinery +been carried as far as here. By division of labor the skilled trades +have been split up into simple operations, each of which in itself +requires little or no skill, and the boy who starts in as a beginner is +kept at one operation so that he does not learn a trade. The old-time +journeyman tailor was a skilled mechanic who measured his customer, cut +the cloth and trimmings, basted, sewed, and pressed the suit. Now we +have factories which make only coats, others which make only vests, +others trousers, and there are children’s knee-pants factories and even +ladies’ tailor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> establishments where the former seamstress sees her +precious skill dissipated among a score of unskilled workers. Thus the +journeyman tailor is displaced by the factory, where the coat passes +through the hands of thirty to fifty different men and women, each of +whom can learn his peculiar operation in a month or two. The same is +true in greater or less degree in all industries. Even in the building +trades in the larger cities there are as many kinds of bricklayers as +there are kinds of walls to be built, and as many kinds of carpenters as +there are varieties of woodwork.</p> + +<p>So it is with machinery. The American employer does not advertise for a +“machinist”—he wants a “lathe hand” or a “drill-press hand,” and the +majority of his “hands” are perhaps only automatic machine tenders. The +employer cannot afford to transfer these hands from one job to another +to enable them to “learn the trade.” He must keep them at one operation, +for it is not so much skill that he wants as cheap labor and speed. +Consequently, American industry is not producing all-round mechanics, +and the employers look to Europe for their skilled artisans. In England +the trade-unions have made it their special business to see that every +apprentice learns every part of his trade, and they have prevented +employers from splitting up the trades and specializing machinery and +thereby transforming the mechanic into the “hand.” Were it not for +immigration, American industries would ere now have been compelled to +give more attention<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> to apprenticeship and the training of competent +mechanics. The need of apprenticeship and trade schools is being more +seriously felt every year, for, notwithstanding the progress of division +of labor and machinery, the all-round mechanic continues to play an +important part in the shop and factory. American trade-unions are +gaining strength, and one of their most insistent demands is the +protection of apprenticeship. The bricklayers’ and carpenters’ unions of +Chicago even secure from their employers instruction for apprentices in +school. Not much headway in this line, however, has yet been made, and +American industry has become abnormal, we might almost say suicidal, or +at any rate, non-self-supporting. By extreme division of labor and +marvellous application of machinery it makes possible the wholesale +employment in factories of the farm laborers of Europe and their +children, and then depends on Europe for the better-trained types of the +skilled mechanic, who, on account of the farm laborer, have not been +able to learn their trade in America.</p> + +<p>Not only does immigration bring to America the strongest, healthiest, +and most energetic and adventurous of the work-people of Europe and +Asia, but those who come work much harder than they did at home. +Migration tears a man away from the traditions, the routine, the social +props on which he has learned to rely, and throws him among strangers +upon his own resources. He must swim or drown.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> At the same time he +earns higher wages and eats more nourishing food than he had ever +thought within reach of one in his station. His ambition is fired, he is +stirred by the new tonic of feeling himself actually rising in the +world. He pictures to himself a home of his own, he economizes and saves +money to send to his friends and family, or to return to his beloved +land a person of importance. Watch a gang of Italians shovelling dirt +under an Irish boss, or a sweat-shop of Jewish tailors under a small +contractor, and you shall see such feverish production of wealth as an +American-born citizen would scarcely endure. Partly fear, partly hope, +make the fresh immigrant the hardest, if not the most intelligent, +worker in our industries.</p> + +<p><b>Industrial Capacities of Different Races.</b>—But, however hard one may +work, he can only exercise the gifts with which nature has endowed him. +Whether these gifts are contributed by race or by civilization, we shall +inquire when we come to the problems of amalgamation and assimilation. +At present we are concerned with the varying industrial gifts and +capacities of the various races as they actually exist at the time when +immigration, annexation, or conquest takes place.</p> + +<p>The mental and moral qualities suited to make productive workers depend +upon the character of the industry. It is not conceivable that the +immigrants of the present day from Southern Europe and from Asia could +have succeeded as frontiersmen and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> pioneers in the settlement of the +country. In all Europe, Asia, and Africa there was but one race in the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that had the preliminary training +necessary to plunge into the wilderness, and in the face of the Indian +to establish homes and agriculture. This was the English and the +Scotch-Irish. The Spaniards and the French were pioneers and +adventurers, but they established only trading stations. Accustomed to a +paternal government they had not, as a people, the self-reliance and +capacity for sustained exertion required to push forward as individuals, +and to cut themselves off from the support of a government across the +ocean. They shrank from the herculean task of clearing the forests, +planting crops among the stumps, and living miles away from their +neighbors. True, the pioneers had among their number several of German, +French, and Dutch descent, but these belonged to the second and third +generations descended from the immigrants and thrown from the time of +childhood among their English-Scotch neighbors. The French trappers and +explorers are famous, and have left their names on our map. But it was +the English race that established itself in America, not because it was +first to come, not because of its armies and navies, but because of its +agriculture. Every farm newly carved out of the wilderness became a +permanent foothold, and soon again sent out a continuous colony of sons +and daughters to occupy the fertile land. Based on this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> self-reliant, +democratic, industrial conquest of the new world the military conquest +naturally, inevitably followed.</p> + +<p>But at the present day the character of industry has entirely changed. +The last quarter of the nineteenth century saw the vacant lands finally +occupied and the tribe of frontiersmen coming to an end. Population now +began to recoil upon the East and the cities. This afforded to +manufactures and to the mining industries the surplus labor-market so +necessary for the continuance of large establishments which to-day need +thousands of workmen and to-morrow hundreds. Moreover, among the +American-born workmen, as well as the English and Scotch, are not found +that docility, obedience to orders, and patient toil which employers +desire where hundreds and thousands are brought like an army under the +direction of foremen, superintendents, and managers. Employers now turn +for their labor supply to those eastern and southern sections of Europe +which have not hitherto contributed to immigration. The first to draw +upon these sources in large numbers were the anthracite coal operators +of Pennsylvania. In these fields the English, Scotch, Welsh, and Irish +miners, during and following the period of the Civil War, had effected +an organization for the control of wages, and the outrages of a secret +society known as the Molly Maguires gave occasion for the importation of +new races unaccustomed to unionism, and incapable, on account of +language, of coöperation with <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>English-speaking miners. Once introduced +in the mining industry, these races rapidly found their way into the +unskilled parts of manufactures, into the service of railroads and large +contractors. On the construction of the Erie Canal in 1898, of 16,000 +workmen, 15,000 were unnaturalized Italians.<small><a name="f74.1" id="f74.1" href="#f74">[74]</a></small> The census of 1900 +showed that while the foreign-born males were one-fourteenth of the +laborers in agriculture, they were three-fourths of the tailors, more +than one-half of the cabinet makers, nearly one-half of the miners and +quarrymen, tannery workers, marble and stonecutters, more than +two-fifths of the boot and shoe-makers and textile workers, one-third of +the coopers, iron and steel workers, wood-workers and miscellaneous +laborers, one-fourth of the carpenters, painters, and plasterers, and +one-fifth of the sawmill workers.<small><a name="f75.1" id="f75.1" href="#f75">[75]</a></small> The foreign-born females numbered +nearly two-fifths of the female cotton-mill operatives and tailors, +one-third of the woollen-mill operatives, one-fourth of the tobacco and +silk-mill operatives.</p> + +<p>On the Pacific slope the Chinese and Japanese immigrants have filled the +place occupied by the southeast European in the East and the negro in +the South. They were the workmen who built the Pacific railroads, and +without them it is said that these railroads could not have been +constructed until several years after their actual completion.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>The immigration of the Chinese reached its highest figures prior to the +exclusion laws of 1882, and since that time has been but an +insignificant contribution. In their place have come the Japanese, a +race whose native land, in proportion to its cultivable area, is more +densely populated than any other country in the world. The Chinese and +Japanese are perhaps the most industrious of all races, while the +Chinese are the most docile. The Japanese excel in imitativeness, but +are not as reliable as the Chinese. Neither race, so far as their +immigrant representatives are concerned, possesses the originality and +ingenuity which characterize the competent American and British +mechanic. In the Hawaiian Islands, where they have enjoyed greater +opportunities than elsewhere, they are found to be capable workmen of +the skilled trades, provided they are under the direction of white +mechanics.<small><a name="f76.1" id="f76.1" href="#f76">[76]</a></small> But their largest field of work in Hawaii is in the +unskilled cultivation of the great sugar plantations. Here they have +been likened to “a sort of agricultural automaton,” and it becomes +possible to place them in large numbers under skilled direction, and +thus to secure the best results from their docility and industry.</p> + +<p>In the United States itself the plantation form of agriculture, as +distinguished from the domestic form, has always been based on a supply +of labor from backward or un-Americanized races. This fact has a bearing +on the alleged tendency of agriculture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> toward large farms. Ten years +ago it seemed that the great “bonanza” farms were destined to displace +the small farms, just as the trust displaces the small manufacturer. But +it is now recognized that the reverse movement is in progress, and that +the small farmer can compete successfully with the great farmer. It has +not, however, been pointed out that the question is not merely an +economic one and that it depends upon the industrial character of the +races engaged in agriculture. The thrifty, hard-working and intelligent +American or Teutonic farmer is able to economize and purchase his own +small farm and compete successfully with the large undertaking. He is +even beginning to do this in Hawaii since the compulsory labor of his +large competitors was abolished.<small><a name="f77.1" id="f77.1" href="#f77">[77]</a></small> But the backward, thriftless, and +unintelligent races succeed best when employed in gangs on large +estates. The cotton and sugar fields of the South with their negro +workers have their counterpart in the plantations of Hawaii with their +Chinese and Japanese, and in the newly developed sugar-beet fields of +Nebraska, Colorado, and California, with their Russians, Bohemians, +Japanese, and Mexicans. In the domestic or small form of agriculture the +bulk of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe are not greatly +desired as wage-earners, and they do not succeed as proprietors and +tenants because they lack oversight and business ability. Where they are +located in colonies under favorable auspices the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> Italians have achieved +notable success, and in the course of Americanization they will +doubtless rival older nationalities. But in the immigrant stage they are +helpless, and it is the immigrants from Northwestern Europe, the Germans +and Scandinavians, whose thrift, self-reliance, and intensive +agriculture have made them from the start the model farmers of America.</p> + +<p>The Jewish immigrant, particularly, is unfitted for the life of a +pioneer. Remarkably individualistic in character, his field of +enterprise is society, and not the land. Of the thirty thousand families +sent out from New York by industrial and agricultural removal societies, +nine-tenths are located in industry and trade, and the bulk of the +remainder, who are placed on farms, succeed by keeping summer boarders. +Depending on boarders, they neglect agriculture and buy their +food-stuff. Their largest colony of hoped-for agriculturists, Woodbine, +New Jersey, has become a clothing factory.<small><a name="f78.1" id="f78.1" href="#f78">[78]</a></small> Yet the factory system, +with its discipline and regular hours, is distasteful to the Jew’s +individualism. He prefers the sweat-shop, with its going and coming. If +possible, he rises through peddling and merchandising.</p> + +<p>These are a few of the many illustrative facts which might be set forth +to show that the changing character of immigration is made possible by +the changing character of industry; and that races<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> wholly incompetent +as pioneers and independent proprietors are able to find a place when +once manufactures, mines, and railroads have sprung into being, with +their captains of industry to guide and supervise their semi-intelligent work.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> +<h3>LABOR</h3> + +<p><br />We have seen that the character of the immigrants for whom a place can +be found depends upon the character of the industry. It also depends +upon the laws governing property in labor. Here the industrial problem +widens out into the social problem.</p> + +<p>There are four variations in the treatment of labor as property in the +United States, each of which has had its peculiar effect on the +character of immigration, or has grown out of the relations between +races. They are slavery, peonage, contract labor, and free labor. Under +slavery the laborer and his children are compelled by law throughout +their lifetime to work for an owner on terms dictated and enforced by +him. Under peonage the laborer is compelled by law to pay off a debt by +means of his labor, and under contract labor he is compelled by law to +carry out a contract to work. To enforce peonage and contract labor the +offence of “running away” is made punishable by imprisonment at forced +labor, or by extension of the period of service. Under freedom the law +refuses to enforce a contract to work, making this an exception to the +sacredness of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>contracts, and refuses to enforce the payment of a debt +by specific service. This leaves to the contractor or creditor the +usually empty relief of suing for damages. The significance of these +varying degrees of servile, semi-servile, and free labor will be seen in +the following discussion of the social relations of the superior and +inferior races.</p> + +<p>In the entire circuit of the globe those races which have developed +under a tropical sun are found to be indolent and fickle. From the +standpoint of survival of the fittest, such vices are virtues, for +severe and continuous exertion under tropical conditions bring +prostration and predisposition to disease. Therefore, if such races are +to adopt that industrious life which is a second nature to races of the +temperate zones, it is only through some form of compulsion. The negro +could not possibly have found a place in American industry had he come +as a free man, and at the present time contract labor and peonage with +the crime of “running away” are recognized in varying degrees by the +laws of Southern states. These statutes have been held unconstitutional +by the Supreme Court,<small><a name="f79.1" id="f79.1" href="#f79">[79]</a></small> under an act of Congress passed in 1867, but +the condition of peonage which they contemplate is considered by many +planters as essential to the continuance of the cotton industry. One of +them, in southwestern Georgia, a graduate of Columbia College, with five +years of business training in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> Northern states, is quoted in an +interview as follows:<small><a name="f80.1" id="f80.1" href="#f80">[80]</a></small>—</p> + +<p>“We have two ways of handling our plantations. We rent small sections of +forty acres each, and with these go a plough and the mule. In addition, +I have about 450 hands who work on wages. These men are paid nine +dollars a month, in addition to a fixed rate of food, which amounts to +four pounds of meat a week, a certain percentage of vegetables, tobacco, +sugar, flour, and some other commodities.</p> + +<p>“These negroes live on the plantation, are given a roof over their +heads, have garden patches, and several other more or less valuable +privileges. They invariably come to me for small advances of money.</p> + +<p>“These advances of money and rations and clothing, although there is not +much of the latter, are frequently sufficient to put the negro in debt +to us. The minute he finds he is in debt he naturally conceives it to be +easier to go to work somewhere else and begin all over again, instead of +paying his debts.</p> + +<p>“Now, when a negro runs away and violates his contract, leaving us in +the lurch, not only short of his labor, but short of the advances we +have made to him in money and goods, what would happen if we depended +simply and solely on our right to sue? In the first place, with 450 +hands we would have 450 suits before the season is out, and if we won +them all we would not be able to collect forty-five cents.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>“The result is, that in Georgia and Alabama, and I believe in other +states, the law recognizes the right of the planter to reclaim the +laborer who has left in violation of his contract, whether he be +actually in debt or not.</p> + +<p>“Whether Judge Jones has declared this law constitutional or not, the +planters in the black belt will have to maintain their right to claim +their contract labor, or else they will have to go out of the business. +Under any other system you would find it impossible to get in your +cotton, because the negroes at the critical time would simply sit down +and refuse to work. When they are well, we compel laborers to go to the +field by force. This is the truth, and there is no use lying about it.”</p> + +<p>This reasoning is entirely logical from the business standpoint. If +production of wealth is the standard, contracts must be fulfilled and +debts must be paid. Otherwise capital will not embark in business. But +the reasoning does not stop with the negro. Once established, the +practice spreads to other races. Instances are cited of white men held +in peonage, negroes holding other negroes, and Italians forced to work +in a phosphate mine.<small><a name="f81.1" id="f81.1" href="#f81">[81]</a></small> It is an easy matter to get working men in +debt. Many thousand rural justices keeping no records of convictions, +hundreds of constables with fees depending on convictions, scores of +petty crimes with penalties not usually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> enforced, contractors and +planters eager for labor at the convict’s rating of 35 cents a +day—neither the negro nor the poor white is safe. Immigrants avoid a +country with such a record. Not only the dread of forced labor for +themselves but the dread of competition with the low wages that the +forced labor of others implies, keep the immigrants away from the South. +The fame of peonage is spread among them before they leave their native +land. The business that rests on coerced labor damages the whole +community for its own temporary gain. The right to quit work is as +sacred for the workman as the right to enforce contracts for the +capitalist. It is just as necessary to get energetic labor as it is to +get abundant capital to embark in business. By recognizing the right of +workmen to violate contracts, the employer learns to content himself +with contracts that will not hurt when violated. He learns to appeal to +the workman’s motive to industry by methods that are not coercive. +Admitting that the bulk of what is said about the negro’s fickleness is +true, he nevertheless is indiscriminately maligned. The thousands that +are unreliable furnish a cloak for suppressing the hundreds that are +industrious. I have made comparisons of the pay-rolls of two gas works +in Southern cities—the one employing negro stokers at 11 cents an hour, +the other whites at 22 cents an hour, and both working 12 hours a day +seven days a week. The negroes put in as many hours between pay-days as +did the whites, and if they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> “laid off” after pay-day it is no more than +any class of white workmen would do after two weeks of such exhausting +work. The negro in Southern cities can scarcely hope to rise above 12 +cents an hour, and white mechanics have a way of working with negro +helpers at 10 cents an hour in order to lift their own wages to 20 cents +an hour. White wage-earners and white employers in the South speak of +the negroes’ efforts to get higher wages in the same words and tones as +employers in the North speak of white wage-earners who have organized +unions and demanded more pay. A foreman condemned his “niggers” for +instability when they were leaving him at 10 cents an hour for a +railroad job at 12½ cents an hour. Praising the Italians in +comparison with the negro, he could not think of paying 17½ cents an +hour for pick-and-shovel work, which Italians were said to be getting in +another section of the state. The right to quit work is the right to get +higher wages. If the higher wages are paid and proper treatment +accorded, a process of natural selection ensues. The industrious and +steady workmen of all races retain the jobs. The gas company referred to +above, by a system of graded pay advancing with years of service, had +sorted out a more steady and reliable force of negroes than they could +have secured of whites at the rate of wages paid. The test is indeed a +severe one where a race has always been looked upon as servile. With +high wages regarded as “white man’s wages,” the process of individual +selection does not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> work out, and the dominant race excuses its resort +to whipping, beating, and peonage on the ground of the laziness which +its methods of remuneration have not learned to counterbalance. Even the +industrious Italians treated in this way would not be industrious—they +would leave for other states.</p> + +<p>The Malay races, to which the Filipinos belong, are, like the negroes, +careless, thriftless, and disinclined to continuous exertion. In order +to induce the Javanese to work, the Dutch government of Java sets aside +a certain tract of government land for coffee planting, and compels each +head of a household to set out and keep in order a certain number of +coffee trees. On private estates in Java and in other Malay and Indian +colonies, such as Burma, Ceylon, British India, where the government +does not compel the native to take a contract to work, it nevertheless +enforces contracts voluntarily made. In certain provinces of the +Philippines “the tenants are usually in debt, and the old law which +permits the creditor to imprison the debtor for non-payment of debt is +still in force.... Landowners of a district frequently come together +shortly before the crops are sold and agree among themselves how much +interest to charge the tenants on their debts. This is for the purpose +of charging the highest possible rate and at the same time retain +tenants, who then could not leave, finding the same conditions +prevailing throughout the district.”<small><a name="f82.1" id="f82.1" href="#f82">[82]</a></small> In densely populated countries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +like Java and Southern India, where the native cannot set up for +himself, he has no alternative except to work under these contracts, and +this is also true in the more thickly populated districts of the +Philippine Islands. But the case is different in sparsely settled +countries like Burma, East Sumatra, and the greater part of the +Philippines, where wages are so high that natives are not compelled by +necessity to work continuously. “Speaking generally,” says Professor +Jenks, “the unskilled Filipino laborer, while intelligent enough, is +careless and thriftless. He in most cases wishes to take two or three +days a week, on the average, to celebrate as feast days. In individual +cases, where his wages have been increased, he has been known to lessen +correspondingly the number of days per month which he would work. His +income being sufficient to satisfy his modest needs, he could see no +reason why he should toil longer than was necessary to earn his +income.”<small><a name="f83.1" id="f83.1" href="#f83">[83]</a></small></p> + +<p>Hence in these sparsely settled countries the Dutch and English +governments have adopted, and Professor Jenks, in his report to the War +Department, has recommended a limited use of the system of contract +labor, not, however, for the native, but for imported Chinese. This +system has existed in another of our newly acquired possessions, Hawaii, +since 1852, where it applied to Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, and +German immigrants, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> whence it was abolished by the act of +annexation in 1898.<small><a name="f84.1" id="f84.1" href="#f84">[84]</a></small></p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p142.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Filipino Governors</span><br />(From Census of the Philippine Islands)</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>Contract labor of this kind is quite different from the peonage and +contract labor of the non-industrial races. It is similar to the +indentured service of colonial times, in that the term of each contract +is limited to a few years, and the contract is made by way of +compensation for advanced expenses of immigration. The object is not, as +in the case of slavery and peonage, to compel a shiftless race to work, +but it is to develop the country by the introduction of an industrious +race. The Chinese, after the expiration of their contracts, often become +skilled laborers and merchants, and in the latter position their +frugality and wiliness make them dangerous neighbors for the native +Malay and Filipino races.<small><a name="f85.1" id="f85.1" href="#f85">[85]</a></small> For this reason Professor Jenks recommends +that employers be placed under bonds to return each contract Chinese +coolie to China at the expiration of the period of contract, not to +exceed three years, unless the government gives special permission for +renewal of the contract. Governor Taft, in his report for the year 1902, +while advocating a limited employment of Chinese contract coolies, said, +“the truth is that, from a political standpoint, the unlimited +introduction of the Chinese into these islands would be a great mistake. +I believe the objection on the part of the Filipinos to such a course to +be entirely logical and justified.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> The development of the islands by +Chinamen would be at the expense of the Filipino people, and they may +very well resent such a suggestion.”<small><a name="f86.1" id="f86.1" href="#f86">[86]</a></small></p> + +<p>Governor Taft’s opinion is strongly supported by the special +commissioner of the American Federation of Labor, who, after inquiries +in the district surrounding Manila, reports as follows:—</p> + +<p>“Their reluctance to work, continually harped upon by many employers, is +simply the natural reluctance of a progressive people to work for low +wages under bad treatment. When wages rise above the level of the barest +and poorest necessaries of life, and where treatment is fair, there +Filipinos are at work in any numbers required.”<small><a name="f87.1" id="f87.1" href="#f87">[87]</a></small></p> + +<p>The situation here is similar to that of the negroes. In order to get +two hundred steady workers at high wages it is necessary to try out a +thousand or more. But the reports of the Philippine Commission show that +with the process of selection which their engineers can pursue by means +of the high wages on government work the results are satisfactory.<small><a name="f88.1" id="f88.1" href="#f88">[88]</a></small></p> + +<p>“Of course,” continues Mr. Rosenberg in his report, “the Filipino worker +cannot successfully compete—cheap as he can live—with the Chinese +standard of living, hence the unceasing vilification of the Filipino +workers by those employers and their following, who, seeing near by the +unlimited supply<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> of cheap Chinese labor, wish these islands to be +thrown open to such labor, not only for the purpose of reducing the +small wages of the Filipinos, but also to reduce that of the Chinese +laborers now here. As one employer stated to me, ‘We want more Chinese, +to keep them here for one or two years, then ship them back and get +another lot, for the Chinese I have here now are becoming too +independent and want more pay.’”</p> + +<p><b>Free Labor.</b>—The free laborer is not compelled by law to work. Then why +should he work? Why does he work? The answer is found within himself. He +wants something that he cannot get without working. Though this may seem +a trifling question and a self-evident answer, the question and answer +are the foundation of all questions of free institutions. For the +non-working races and classes or the spasmodic and unreliable workers +are the savages, paupers, criminals, idiots, lunatics, drunkards, and +the great tribe of exploiters, “grafters,” despots, and “leisure +classes,” who live on the work of others. Nearly every question of +social pathology may be resolved to this, Why does he not work? And +nearly every social ill would be cured if the non-workers could be +brought voluntarily to work.</p> + +<p>There are just two grand motives which induce the freeman to +work—necessity and ambition. Necessity is the desire for quantity, +quality, and variety of things to be used. The term is elastic. It is +psychological, not material. It includes, of course,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> the wants of mere +animal existence—food, clothing, shelter. But this is a small part. The +cost of the mere quantity needed to support life is less than the added +cost needed to secure the quality and variety that satisfy the taste and +habits. A pig enjoys raw corn, but a man requires corn cake at five +times the cost. Tastes and habits depend on one’s childhood, one’s +training, one’s associations, and kind of work. The necessities of a +Chinese coolie, Italian immigrant, or negro plantation hand are less, +and cost less, than those of a skilled mechanic or a college graduate, +because his associations have been different, and his present work is +different. But necessity goes farther. It includes the wants of the +family considered as a unit, and not merely the wants of the single man +or woman, else the race would not continue to increase. Furthermore, +social obligations impose added necessity. Compulsory education of +children compels parents to support their children instead of living on +their wages. Laws regulating sanitation and tenements compel the tenant +to pay more rent. The necessities of a farm-hand on the estates of Italy +are less than those of the same hand in the cities of America.</p> + +<p>Ambition is the desire for an improved position for one’s self and +family—for better quality and greater variety of material things. It +demands a style of clothing and living suitable to the improved position +aspired to. It demands an education for one’s children superior to the +minimum set by <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>compulsory schooling. It demands thrift and economy for +the sake of independence or the ability to hold on until one’s demands +are conceded. Ambition looks to the future—necessity is based on the +past. The negro or the Malay works three days and loafs three because +three days’ wages procure his necessities. The Chinaman, or Italian, or +Jewish immigrant works six days and saves the wages of three because the +future is vivid to his imagination. With similar necessities one is +ambitious, the other is content.</p> + +<p>The scope and possibility of evoking ambition depend upon the +institution of private property. Property in human beings suppresses it, +unless occasionally a slave is permitted to purchase his freedom. The +wage system evokes ambition if the way is open for promotion or for +escape by becoming an owner. Tenancy is on a still higher level, but +most of all, for the masses of men, the ownership of his own small +property is the keenest spur to ambition, for it rewards the worker with +all of his product. This motive is the surest test of an individual’s or +a race’s future. Compare the negro and the Italian cotton grower as +tenants in the new vocation opening up to the latter. “It is always +difficult,” says the observant planter, Mr. Stone,<small><a name="f89.1" id="f89.1" href="#f89">[89]</a></small> “to get a negro +to plant and properly cultivate the outer edges of his field—the +extreme ends of his rows, his ditch banks, etc. The Italian is so +jealous of the use of every foot for which he pays rent that he will +cultivate with a hoe places too small to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> worked with a plough, and +derive a revenue from spots to which a negro would not give a moment’s +thought. I have seen them cultivate right down to the water’s edge the +banks of bayous that had never been touched by the plough. I have seen +them walk through their fields and search out every skipped place in +every row and carefully put in seed to secure a perfect stand. I have +seen them make more cotton per acre than the negro on the adjoining cut, +gather it from two to four weeks earlier, and then put in the extra time +earning money by picking in the negro’s field.”</p> + +<p>But ambition has its penalty. It is equivalent to an increase in the +supply of labor. As an ambitious proprietor the increase goes into his +permanent property, but the ambitious wage-earner accepts a lower rate +of pay. His fellows see the reduction and go still lower. The see-saw +continues until wages reach the level of necessities, and there is +nothing left for ambition. The Jewish sweat-shop is the tragic penalty +paid by that ambitious race. In the Illinois coal mines the wages were +reduced one-third during twelve years of Italian and Slav immigration. +The ambitious races are the industrial races. But their ambition and +their industry bring the momentous problem of destructive competition. +It might seem that this evil would correct itself—that an increase in +the products of one industry would be offset by an increase in other +industries; that therefore the increased supply in one would not be +forced upon the market at lower prices, but would be exchanged on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> the +same terms as before for the increased supply in others. This is indeed +the case in prosperous times. All industries advance together, and the +increasing supply of one is merely an increasing demand for others. But +for some reason, industries do not always harmoniously advance together. +And when the disproportion appears, the workers who are blindly but +ambitiously pushing ahead endeavor to overcome, by increasing the +quantity of output, what they lose by reducing the price. There is but +one immediate and practical remedy—the organization of labor to +regulate competition. The method of organization is to do in concert +through self-sacrifice what the non-industrial races do individually for +self-indulgence; namely, refuse to work. Where the one loafs the other +strikes. While the necessities of the workers set the minimum below +which wages cannot fall, and their physical endurance sets the maximum +hours beyond which they cannot work, the labor-union, by means of the +strike or the threat to strike, sets a higher minimum of wages and a +lower maximum of hours, which leaves room for ambition. Eventually the +higher wage and the shorter hours become habitual and become a higher +level of necessities. Gifted individuals may, indeed, rise above the +wage-earning class by their own efforts, but labor organization alone +can raise the class as a whole.</p> + +<p>The organization of workmen in labor unions has been more difficult in +this than in other free countries, owing to the competition of races. +Heretofore it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> has been the easiest possible matter for a manager, +apprehensive of agitators in forming a union, to introduce a new race +and a new language into his works. Indeed, almost the only device and +symptom of originality displayed by American employers in disciplining +their labor force has been that of playing one race against another. +They have, as a rule, been weak in methods of conciliation and feelings +of consideration for their employees, as well as in the means of +safeguarding life and health, but they have been strong with the weapon +“divide and conquer.” The number of races they have drawn upon is often +amazing. The anthracite mine workers comprise nineteen languages and +dialects. The employees of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company belong to +thirty-two nationalities and speak twenty-seven languages. Such a medley +of races offers indeed a disheartening prospect to the union organizer. +And therefore when these races finally organize, the change in their +moral character must be looked upon as the most significant of the +social and industrial revolutions of our time. The United Mine Workers +of America, with 300,000 members, is very largely composed of recent +immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe. So with the Longshoremen, +the United Garment Workers, and the Butcher Workmen. These are or have +been among the strongest and best disciplined of American labor-unions. +The newest races of the past twenty years have been coming long enough +to have members who speak the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> English language and act as interpreters +and leaders, and this is essential where the speeches at a union meeting +must be translated often into four or five languages before the subject +can be voted upon. Furthermore, the recruiting area for new races has +been nearly exhausted, and the races now coming find their +fellow-countrymen already in the unions. In the anthracite coal field I +saw a dozen Slovaks just arrived from Hungary, but persuaded by their +unionized precursors not to take the places of strikers. In New York a +shipload of Italians in time of strike has been taken directly into the +union. Such a sight would have been unlikely a dozen years ago.</p> + +<p>The competition of races is the competition of standards of living. The +reason the Chinaman or the Italian can save three days’ wages is because +wages have been previously fixed by the greater necessities of more +advanced races. But competition has no respect for superior races. The +race with lowest necessities displaces others. The cotton textile +industry of New England was originally operated by the educated sons and +daughters of American stock. The Irish displaced many of them, then the +French Canadians completed the displacement; then, when the children of +the French had begun to acquire a higher standard, contingents of +Portuguese, Greeks, Syrians, Poles, and Italians entered to prevent a +rise, and latterly the Scotch-Irish from the Appalachian Mountains came +down to the valleys of the South, and with their low wages, long hours, +and child<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> labor, set another brake on the standard of living. Lastly, +Italians are beginning to be imported to supplement the “poor whites.” +Branches of the clothing industry in New York began with English and +Scotch tailors, were then captured by Irish and Germans, then by Russian +Jews, and lastly by Italians, while in Boston the Portuguese took a +share, and in Chicago the Poles, Bohemians, and Scandinavians. Almost +every great manufacturing and mining industry has experienced a similar +substitution of races. As rapidly as a race rises in the scale of +living, and through organization begins to demand higher wages and +resist the pressure of long hours and overexertion, the employers +substitute another race and the process is repeated. Each race comes +from a country lower in the scale than that of the preceding, until +finally the ends of the earth have been ransacked in the search for low +standards of living combined with patient industriousness. Europe has +been exhausted, Asia has been drawn upon, and there remain but three +regions of the temperate zones from which a still lower standard can be +expected. These are China, Japan, and India. The Chinese have been +excluded by law, the Japanese and Koreans are coming in increasing +numbers, and the Indian coolies remain to be experimented upon. That +employers will make strenuous efforts to bring in these last remaining +races in the progressive decline of standards, to repeal the Chinese +prohibitive laws and to prevent additions to these laws, naturally +follows<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> from the progress toward higher standards and labor +organization already made by the Italian and the Slav.</p> + +<p>The trade-union is often represented as an imported and un-American +institution. It is true that in some unions the main strength is in the +English workmen. But the majority of unionists are immigrants and +children of immigrants from countries that know little of unionism. +Ireland and Italy have nothing to compare with the trade-union movement +of England, but the Irish are the most effective organizers of the +American unions, and the Italians are becoming the most ardent +unionists. Most remarkable of all, the individualistic Jew from Russia, +contrary to his race instinct, is joining the unions. The American +unions, in fact, grow out of American conditions, and are an American +product. Although wages are two or three times as high as in his +European home, the immigrant is driven by competition and the pressure +of employers into a physical exertion which compels him to raise his +standard of living in order to have strength to keep at work. He finds +also that the law forbids his children to work, and compels him to send +them to school to maintain a higher standard and to support his children +he must earn more wages. This he can do in no other way than by +organizing a union. The movement is of course aided by English-speaking +outsiders or “agitators,” especially by the Irish, but it finds a prompt +response in the necessities of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> recruits. Labor organization is +essentially the outcome of American freedom, both as a corrective to the +evils of free competition and as an exercise of the privilege of free +association.</p> + +<p>When once moved by the spirit of unionism, the immigrants from +low-standard countries are the most dangerous and determined of +unionists. They have no obligations, little property, and but meagre +necessities that compel them to yield. The bituminous coal miners were +on strike four months in 1897 and the anthracite mine workers five +months in 1902. Unionism comes to them as a discovery and a revelation. +Suddenly to find that men of other races whom they have hated are really +brothers, and that their enmity has been encouraged for the profit of a +common oppressor, is the most profound awakening of which they are +capable. Their resentment toward employers who have kept them apart, +their devotion to their new-found brothers, are terrible and pathetic. +With their emotional temperament, unionism becomes not merely a fight +for wages but a religious crusade. It is in the nature of retribution +that, after bringing to this country all the industrial races of Europe +and Asia in the effort to break down labor organizations, these races +should so soon have wiped out race antagonism and, joining together in +the most powerful of labor-unions, have wrenched from their employers +the greatest advances in wages.</p> + +<p>There is but one thing that stands in the way of complete unionization +in many of the industries;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> namely, a flood of immigration too great +for assimilation. With nearly a million immigrants a year the pressure +upon unions seems almost resistless. A few of the unions which control +the trade, like the mine workers and longshoremen, with high initiation +fees and severe terms of admission, are able to protect themselves by +virtue of strength already gained. But in the coast states and on +miscellaneous labor this strategic advantage does not exist, and the +standards are set by the newest immigrants.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p154.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Governor Johnson of Minnesota.—Swede</span><br />(From <i>The World To-Day</i>)</p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Profits and Wages.</b>—We have now stated at some length in this and the +preceding chapter the two standpoints from which the immigration of +industrial races is viewed. One standpoint is that of the production of +wealth, the other the distribution of wealth. One is the development of +our natural resources, the other is the elevation of our working +population. If we inquire somewhat more critically and take into account +all of the circumstances, we shall find that the motives animating this +difference of policy are not really the above distinction between +production and distribution, but the distinction between two opposing +interests in distribution; namely, profits and wages. Unfortunately it +is too readily assumed that whatever increases profits does so by +increasing production. As a matter of fact it is only secondarily the +production of wealth and development of resources that is sought by one +of the interests concerned—it is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> primarily increase of profits at the +expense of wages. Cheap labor, it is asserted, is needed to develop the +less productive resources of the country—what the economists call the +margin of production. It is needed to develop the less productive +industries, like sugar beet, and the less productive branches of other +industries, like the construction of railways in undeveloped regions or +the reconstruction of railways in older regions, or the extension of a +coal mine into the narrow veins, and so on. Without cheap labor these +marginal resources, it is asserted, could not profitably be exploited, +and would therefore not be developed.</p> + +<p>This argument, within limits, is undoubtedly true, but it overlooks the +part played by machinery and inventions where wages are high. The +cigar-making machine cannot extensively be introduced on the Pacific +coast because Chinese cheap labor makes the same cigars at less cost +than the machines. High wages stimulate the invention and use of +machinery and scientific processes, and it is machinery and science, +more than mere hand labor, on which reliance must be placed to develop +the natural resources of a country.</p> + +<p>But machinery and science cannot be as quickly introduced as cheap +immigrant labor. Machinery requires accumulation of capital in advance +of production, but labor requires only the payment of daily wages in the +course of production. Consequently in the haste to get profits the +immigrant is more desired<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> than machinery. But excessive profits secured +in this way bring reaction and a period of business depression which +check the production of wealth even more than the period of prosperity +has stimulated production. Consider the extreme vacillations of +prosperity and depression which characterize American industry. In a +period of prosperity the prices of commodities rise rapidly, but the +wages of labor, especially unorganized labor, follow slowly, and do not +rise proportionately as high as prices. This means an enormous increase +in profits and production of commodities. But commodities are produced +to be sold, and if the market falls off, then production comes to a +standstill with what is known as “overproduction.” Now, wage-earners are +the mass of consumers. If their wages do not rise in proportion to +prices and profits, they cannot purchase as large a proportion of the +country’s products as they did before the period of prosperity began. +“Overproduction” is mainly the “underconsumption” of wage-earners. +Immigration intensifies this fatal cycle of “booms” and “depressions.” A +natural increase in population by excess of births over deaths, +continues at practically the same rate year after year, in good times +and bad times, but an artificial increase through immigration falls off +in hard times and becomes excessive in good times. Thus, in 1879, at the +lowest point of depression, the number of immigrants was 177,826, but +three years later, in the “boom” culminating in 1882, it rose to +788,992.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> In nine years following the depression of 1897 the number +increased from 230,000 to 1,100,000.</p> + +<p>Even this does not tell the story complete, for the effects of free +immigration are intensified by the opposite policy of a protective +tariff on imports. While labor is admitted practically free, the +products of labor are taxed to prevent free ingress. The following table +shows the extreme points in the rise and fall of immigration and +imports:—</p> + +<p class="center">CULMINATING POINTS OF IMMIGRATION AND IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="btr" rowspan="2" align="center"><span class="smcap">Year Ending</span><br /><span class="smcap">June 30</span></td> + <td class="btr" colspan="2" align="center"><span class="smcap">Immigration</span></td> + <td class="bt" colspan="2" align="center"><span class="smcap">Imports</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Prosperity</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Depression</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Prosperity</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">Depression</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">1873</td> + <td class="btr" align="right">459,803</td> + <td class="btr"> </td> + <td class="btr" align="right">$642,000,000</td> + <td class="bt"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">1879 and 1878<small><a name="f90.1" id="f90.1" href="#f90">[90]</a></small></td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br" align="right">177,826</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="dent" align="right">$437,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">1882</td> + <td class="br" align="right">788,992</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br" align="right">725,000,000</td> + <td class="dent"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">1886 and 1885<small><a href="#f90">[90]</a></small></td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br" align="right">334,203</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="dent" align="right">578,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">1893</td> + <td class="br" align="right">439,307</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br" align="right">866,000,000</td> + <td class="dent"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">1897 and 18985<small><a href="#f90">[90]</a></small></td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br" align="right">230,832</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="dent" align="right">616,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bbr">1906</td> + <td class="bbr" align="right">1,100,735</td> + <td class="bbr"> </td> + <td class="bbr" align="right">1,226,000,000</td> + <td class="bb"> </td></tr></table> + +<p>By comparing the two sets of columns it will be seen that, owing to the +protective tariff, the imports of merchandise vary but slightly in +periods of prosperity and depression compared with the variation in +number of immigrants. Thus in the recent period of prosperity, the +imports increased twofold above the lowest point of the preceding +depression, while the number of immigrants increased nearly fivefold.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>The swell of immigration in the above-mentioned periods of prosperity +increases the supply of labor, but the protective tariff prevents a +similar increase in the supply of products. Thus immigration and the +tariff together prevent wages from rising with the rise in prices of +commodities and cost of living. This permits profits to increase more +than wages, to be followed by overproduction and stoppage of business.</p> + +<p>Furthermore, when once the flow of immigrants is stimulated it continues +for some time after the pinnacle of prosperity has been reached. In 1903 +the boom met a check at the beginning of the year, but the number of +immigrants continued to increase during the summer and fall at the rate +of 20,000 per month in excess of the number during the high period of +prosperity in 1902. This makes it possible for great corporations to +continue their investments by means of cheap labor beyond the probable +demands of the country, with the result of overproduction, loss of +profits, inability to pay fixed charges, and consequent panics. Thus it +is that immigration, instead of increasing the production of wealth by a +steady, healthful growth, joins with other causes to stimulate the +feverish overproduction, with its inevitable collapse, that has +characterized the industry of America more than that of any other +country. It helps to create fortunes during a period of speculation, and +intensifies the reaction during a period of stagnation.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> +<h3>CITY LIFE, CRIME, AND POVERTY</h3> + +<p><br />Statistics are considered by many people as dry and uninteresting, and +the fact that a book is statistical is a warning that it should not be +read, or that the statistical paragraphs should be passed over for the +narrative and historical parts. This is a dilettante and lazy attitude +to take, and especially so in the study of social subjects, for in these +subjects it is only statistics that tell us the true proportions and +relative importance of our facts. The study of statistics leads us to a +study of social causes and forces, and when we see that in the year 1790 +three per cent of our population lived in cities, and in the year 1900 +thirty-three per cent lived in cities of 8000 population and over, we +are aroused to the importance of making a serious inquiry into the +reasons for this growth of cities and the effects of city life on the +future of democracy and the welfare of the nation. More impressive to +the student of race problems becomes the inquiry when we realize that +while one-fifth of our entire population lives in the thirty-eight +cities of over 100,000 population, two-fifths of our foreign-born +population, one-third of our native offspring of foreign parents, and +only one-tenth of our<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> people of native parentage live in such cities. +That is to say, the proportion of the foreign-born in great cities is +four times as great, and the proportion of the children of foreign +parents is three and one-third times as great as that of the colonial +and older native stock. These proportions appear in the accompanying +table and the upper diagram on page 162.</p> + +<p class="center">POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES AND LARGE CITIES: 1900</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="btr" rowspan="2" align="center"><span class="smcap">Total for United States</span></td> + <td class="btr" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">In United States</span></td> + <td class="bt" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">In 38 Cities of 100,000<br />Population and Over</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Number</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Per<br />cent</td> + <td class="btr" align="center">Number</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">Per cent of<br />total of<br />corresponding<br />class</td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">Population</td> + <td class="btr" align="right">75,994,575</td> + <td class="btr" align="right">100.0</td> + <td class="btr" align="right">14,208,347</td> + <td class="bt" align="center">18.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Native white, native parents</td> + <td class="br" align="right">40,958,216</td> + <td class="br" align="right">53.9</td> + <td class="br" align="right">4,245,817</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">10.3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Native white, foreign parents</td> + <td class="br" align="right">15,637,063</td> + <td class="br" align="right">20.6</td> + <td class="br" align="right">5,280,186</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">33.2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Foreign white</td> + <td class="br" align="right">10,213,817</td> + <td class="br" align="right">13.4</td> + <td class="br" align="right">3,972,324</td> + <td class="dent" align="center">39.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">Negroes</td> + <td class="br" align="right">8,833,994</td> + <td class="br" align="right">11.6</td> + <td class="br" align="right">668,324</td> + <td class="dent" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7.6</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="bbr">Indian and Mongolians</td> + <td class="bbr" align="right">351,385</td> + <td class="bbr" align="right">.5</td> + <td class="bbr" align="right">32,696</td> + <td class="bb" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9.3</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>If we present the matter in another form in order to show the full +extent of foreign influence in our great cities, we have another +diagram, which shows that 59 per cent of the population outside, and +only 30 per cent of the population within these cities is of native +parentage, while 27 per cent of the population outside, and 65 per cent +of the population within these cities is of foreign parentage. The +census enumeration carries us back only to the parents, but if we had +knowledge of the grandparents we should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> probably find that the +immigrant element of the nineteenth century contributed a goodly portion +of those set down as of native parentage.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p162_top.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Distribution of Population</span>: 1900</p> +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p162_bot.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Percentage of Population in Cities</span>: 1900</p> +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"><small>CONSTITUENTS OF THE POPULATION OF CITIES OF MORE THAN 100,000 INHABITANTS: 1900</small></p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p163tmb.jpg" alt="" /><br /> +<a href="images/illo_p163.jpg"><small>Larger Image</small></a></div> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>Still more significant becomes the comparison when we take each of these +cities separately, as is done in the chart reproduced on page 163 from +the Statistical Atlas of the Twelfth Census.</p> + +<p>Here it appears that the extreme is reached in the textile manufacturing +city of Fall River, where but 14 per cent of the population is of native +extraction, while in the two greatest cities, New York and Chicago, the +proportion is 21 per cent, and the only large cities with a predominance +of the native element are St. Joseph, Columbus, Indianapolis, and Kansas +City, with Denver equally divided. As already stated, grandparents would +still further diminish the proportion of native element.</p> + +<p>If we carry our comparison down to the 160 cities of 25,000 population, +we shall find that in such cities is one-half of the foreign-born +population,<small><a name="f91.1" id="f91.1" href="#f91">[91]</a></small> and we shall also see marked differences among the +races. At one extreme, three-fourths of those born in Russia, mainly +Jews, live in these principal cities, and at the other extreme, +one-fifth of the Norwegians.</p> + +<p>The other Scandinavian countries and the Welsh and Swiss have about +one-third, while the English and Scotch are two-fifths, Germany, +Austria, Bohemia, and Poland, one-half to three-fifths, Ireland and +Italy nearly two-thirds.</p> + +<p>Individual cities suggest striking comparisons. In New York, +computations based on the census show<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> 785,035 persons of German +descent, a number nearly equal to the population of Hamburg, and larger +than the native element in New York (737,477). New York has twice as +many Irish (710,510) as Dublin, two and one-half times as many Jews as +Warsaw, half as many Italians as Naples, and 50,000 to 150,000 first and +second generations from Scotland, Hungary, Poland, Austria, and +England.<small><a name="f92.1" id="f92.1" href="#f92">[92]</a></small> Chicago has nearly as many Germans as Dresden, one-third as +many Bohemians as Prague, one-half as many Irish as Belfast, one-half as +many Scandinavians as Stockholm.<small><a name="f93.1" id="f93.1" href="#f93">[93]</a></small></p> + +<p>The variety of races, too, is astonishing. New York excels Babel. A +newspaper writer finds in that city sixty-six languages spoken, +forty-nine newspapers published in foreign languages, and one school at +Mulberry Bend with children of twenty-nine nationalities. Several of the +smaller groups live in colonies, like the Syrians, Greeks, and Chinese. +But the colonies of the larger groups are reservoirs perpetually filling +and flowing.<small><a name="f94.1" id="f94.1" href="#f94">[94]</a></small></p> + +<p>The influx of population to our cities, the most characteristic and +significant movement of the present generation, has additional +significance when we classify it according to the motives of those who +seek the cities, whether industrial or parasitic. The transformation +from agriculture to manufactures and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> transportation has designated city +occupations as the opportunities for quick and speculative accumulation +of wealth, and in the cities the energetic, ambitious, and educated +classes congregate. From the farms of the American stock the sons leave +a humdrum existence for the uncertain but magnificent rewards of +industrialism. These become the business men, the heads of great +enterprises, and the millionaires whose example hypnotizes the +imagination of the farm lads throughout the land. Many of them find +their level in clerical and professional occupations, but they escape +the manual toil which to them is the token of subordination. These +manual portions are the peculiar province of the foreign immigrant, and +foreign immigration is mainly a movement from the farms of Europe to the +cities of America. The high wages of the industries and occupations +which radiate from American cities are to them the magnet which +fortune-seeking is to the American-born. The cities, too, furnish that +choice of employers and that easy reliance on charitable and friendly +assistance which is so necessary to the indigent laborer looking for +work. Thus it is that those races of immigrants the least self-reliant +or forehanded, like the Irish and the Italians, seek the cities in +greater proportions than those sturdy races like the Scandinavians, +English, Scotch, and Germans. The Jew, also, coming from the cities of +Europe, seeks American cities by the very reason of his racial distaste +for agriculture, and he finds there in his coreligionists<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> the necessary +assistance for a beginning in American livelihood.</p> + +<p>At this point we gradually pass over from the industrial motives of city +influx to the parasitic motives. The United Hebrew Charities of New York +have asserted that one-fourth of the Jews of that city are applicants +for charity, and the other charitable societies make similar estimates +for the population at large. These estimates must certainly be +exaggerated, and a careful analysis of their methods of keeping +statistics will surely moderate such startling statements, but we must +accept them as the judgment of those who have the best means of knowing +the conditions of poverty and pauperism in the metropolis. However +exaggerated, they indicate an alarming extent of abject penury brought +on by immigration, for it is mainly the immigrant and the children of +the immigrant who swell the ranks of this indigent element in our great +cities.</p> + +<p>Those who are poverty-stricken are not necessarily parasitic, but they +occupy that intermediate stage between the industrial and the parasitic +classes from which either of these classes may be recruited. If through +continued poverty they become truly parasitic, then they pass over to +the ranks of the criminal, the pauper, the vicious, the indolent, and +the vagrant, who, like the industrial class, seek the cities.</p> + +<p>The dangerous effects of city life on immigrants and the children of +immigrants cannot be too strongly emphasized. This country can absorb +millions of all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> races from Europe and can raise them and their +descendants to relatively high standards of American citizenship in so +far as it can find places for them on the farms. “The land has been our +great solvent.”<small><a name="f95.1" id="f95.1" href="#f95">[95]</a></small> But the cities of this country not only do not raise +the immigrants to the same degree of independence, but are themselves +dragged down by the parasitic and dependent conditions which they foster +among the immigrant element.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p168.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Dr. Oronhyatekha<br />Mohawk Indian, Late Chief of Order of Foresters</span></p> +<p> </p> + +<p><b>Crime.</b>—This fact is substantiated by a study of criminal and pauper +statistics. Great caution is needed in this line of inquiry, especially +since the eleventh census in 1890 promulgated most erroneous inferences +from the statistics compiled under its direction. It was contended by +the census authorities that for each million of the foreign-born +population there were 1768 prisoners, while for each million of the +native-born there were only 898 prisoners, thus showing a tendency to +criminality of the foreign-born twice as great as that of the white +native-born. This inference was possible through oversight of the +important fact that prisoners are recruited mainly from adults, and that +the proportion of foreign-born adults to the foreign-born population is +much greater than that of the native-born adults to the native +population. If comparison be made of the number of male prisoners with +the number of males of voting age, the proportions are materially +different and more accurate, as follows:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Number of Male Prisoners per Million of Voting Population, 1890 (Omitting “Unknown”)</span><small><a name="f96.1" id="f96.1" href="#f96">[96]</a></small></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Native white, native parents</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td align="right">3,395</td></tr> +<tr><td>Native white, foreign parents</td><td> </td><td align="right">5,886</td></tr> +<tr><td>Native white, total</td><td> </td><td align="right">3,482<small><a name="f97.1" id="f97.1" href="#f97">[97]</a></small></td></tr> +<tr><td>Foreign white</td><td> </td><td align="right">3,270</td></tr> +<tr><td>Negro</td><td> </td><td align="right">13,219</td></tr></table> + +<p>Here the foreign-born show actually a lower rate of criminality (3270) +than the total native-born (3482). This inference harmonizes with our +general observations of the immigrants, namely, that they belong to the +industrial classes, and that our immigration laws are designed to +exclude criminals.</p> + +<p>But this analysis brings out a fact far more significant than any yet +adverted to; namely, that the native-born children of immigrants show a +proportion of criminality (5886 per million) much greater than that of +the foreign-born themselves (3270 per million), and 70 per cent greater +than that of the children of native parents.</p> + +<p>This significant fact is further brought out, and with it the obverse of +the census mistake above referred to, when we examine the census +inferences respecting juvenile criminals. The census calculations show +that there are 250 juvenile offenders for every million of the +native-born population, and only 159 such offenders for every million of +the foreign-born population; but if we remember that the proportion of +foreign-born children is small, and then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> proceed to compare the number +of boys who are offenders with the number of boys 10 to 19 years of age +rather than with the number of persons of all ages, we shall have the +following results, confining our attention to the North Atlantic states, +where juvenile reformatories are more liberally provided than in other +sections:—</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Male Juvenile Offenders per Million of Male Population Ten To Nineteen Years of Age, North Atlantic +States, 1890 (Omitting “Unknown”)</span><small><a name="f98.1" id="f98.1" href="#f98">[98]</a></small></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Native white, native parents</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td align="right">1,744</td></tr> +<tr><td>Native white, foreign parents</td><td> </td><td align="right">3,923</td></tr> +<tr><td>Foreign white</td><td> </td><td align="right">3,316</td></tr> +<tr><td>Colored</td><td> </td><td align="right">17,915</td></tr></table> + +<p>This table throws a different light on the situation, for it shows that +the tendency towards crime among juveniles, instead of being less for +the foreign-born than for the native-born, is nearly twice as great as +that of the children of American parentage, and that the tendency among +native children of foreign parentage (3923 per million) is more than +twice as great as that among children of American parents (1744 per +million).</p> + +<p>This amazing criminality of the children of immigrants is almost wholly +a product of city life, and it follows directly upon the incapacity of +immigrant parents to control their children under city conditions. The +boys, especially, at an early age lose respect for their parents, who +cannot talk the language of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> community, and who are ignorant and +helpless in the whirl of the struggle for existence, and are shut up +during the daytime in shops and factories. On the streets and alleys, in +their gangs and in the schools, the children evade parental discipline, +and for them the home is practically non-existent. Says a well-informed +student of race problems in New York,<small><a name="f99.1" id="f99.1" href="#f99">[99]</a></small> “Example after example might +be given of tenement-house families in which the parents—industrious +peasant laborers—have found themselves disgraced by idle and vicious +grown sons and daughters. Cases taken from the records of charitable +societies almost at random show these facts again and again.” Even the +Russian Jew, more devoted and self-sacrificing in the training of his +children than any other race of immigrants, sees them soon earning more +money than their parents and breaking away from the discipline of +centuries.</p> + +<p>Far different is it with those foreigners who settle in country +districts where their children are under their constant oversight, and +while the youngsters are learning the ways of America they are also held +by their parents to industrious habits. Children of such immigrants +become substantial citizens, while children of the same race brought up +in the cities become a recruiting constituency for hoodlums, vagabonds, +and criminals.</p> + +<p>The reader must have observed in the preceding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> statistical estimates +the startling preëminence of the negro in the ranks of criminals. His +proportion of prisoners for adult males (13,219 per million) seems to be +four times as great as that of the native stock, and more than twice as +great as that of foreign parentage, while for boys his portion in the +North Atlantic states (17,915 per million) is ten times as great as that +of the corresponding native stock, and four times as great as that of +foreign parentage.</p> + +<p>The negro perhaps suffers by way of discrimination in the number of +arrests and convictions compared with the whites, yet it is significant +that in proportion to total numbers the negro prisoners in the Northern +states are nearly twice as many as in the Southern states. Here, again, +city life works its degenerating effects, for the Northern negroes are +congregated mainly in towns and cities, while the Southern negroes +remain in the country.</p> + +<p>Did space permit, it would prove an interesting quest to follow the +several races through the various classes of crime, noticing the +relative seriousness of their offences, and paying attention to the +female offenders. Only one class of offences can here be noted in +detail; namely, that of public intoxication. Although classed as a +crime, this offence borders on pauperism and the mental diseases, and +its extreme prevalence indicates that the race in question is not +overcoming the degenerating effects of competition and city life. +Statistics from Massachusetts seem to show that drunkenness prevails to +the greatest extent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> in the order of preëminence among the Irish, Welsh, +English, and Scotch, and least among the Portuguese, Italians, Germans, +Poles, and Jews. The Italians owe their prominence in the lists of +prisoners to their crimes of violence, and very slightly to +intoxication, though the latter is increasing among them. In the +Southern states the ravages of drink among the negroes have been so +severe and accompanied with such outbreaks of violence that the policy +of prohibition of the liquor traffic has been carried farther than in +any other section of the country. Probably three-fourths of the Southern +negroes live in prohibition counties, and were it not for the paternal +restrictions imposed by such laws, the downward course of the negro race +would doubtless have outrun considerably the speed it has actually +attained.</p> + +<p>Besides the crimes which spring from racial tendencies, there is a +peculiar class of crimes springing largely from race prejudice and +hatred. These are lynchings and mob violence. The United States presents +the paradox of a nation where respect for law and constitutional forms +has won most signal triumphs, yet where concerted violations of law have +been most widespread. By a queer inversion of thought, a crime committed +jointly by many is not a crime, but a vindication of justice, just as a +crime committed by authority of a nation is not a crime, but a virtue. +Such crimes have not been continuous, but have arisen at times out of +acute racial antagonisms. The Knownothing agitation of 1850 to 1855, +which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> prevailed among religious and patriotic Americans, was directed +against the newly arrived flood of immigrants from Europe and Asia, and +was marked by a state of lawlessness and mob rule such as had never +before existed, especially in the cities of Boston, New York, Pittsburg, +Cincinnati, Louisville, and Baltimore.<small><a name="f100.1" id="f100.1" href="#f100">[100]</a></small> These subsided or changed +their object under the oncoming slavery crisis, and the Civil War itself +was a grand resort to violence by the South on a question of race +domination. Beginning again with the Kuklux and White-cap uprisings in +the seventies, mob rule drove the negroes back to a condition of +subordination, but the lawless spirit then engendered has continued to +show itself in the annual lynching of fifty to one hundred and fifty +negroes suspected or convicted of the more heinous crimes.<small><a name="f101.1" id="f101.1" href="#f101">[101]</a></small> Nor has +this crime of the mob been restricted to the South, but it has spread to +the North, and has become almost the accepted code of procedure +throughout the land wherever negroes are heinously accused. In the +Northern instances this vengeance of the mob is sometimes wreaked on the +entire race, for in the North the negro is more assertive, and defends +his accused brother. But in the South the mob usually, though not +always, stops with vengeance on the individual guilty, or supposedly +guilty, since the race in general is already cowed.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>Other races suffer at the hands of mobs, such as the Chinese in Wyoming +and California at the hands of American mine workers, Italians in +Louisiana and California at the hands of citizens and laborers, Slovaks +and Poles in Latimer, Pennsylvania, at the hands of a mob militia. With +the rise of organized labor these race riots and militia shootings +increased in number, often growing out of the efforts of older races of +workmen to drive newer and backward races from their jobs, or the +efforts of employers to destroy newly formed unions of these immigrant +races. Many strikes are accompanied by an incipient race war where +employers are endeavoring to make substitution, one race for another, of +Irish, Germans, native whites, Italians, negroes, Poles, and so on. Even +the long series of crimes against the Indians, to which the term “A +Century of Dishonor” seems to have attached itself without protest, must +be looked upon as the mob spirit of a superior race bent on despoiling a +despised and inferior race. That the frenzied spirit of the mob, whether +in strikes, panicky militia, Indian slaughter, or civil war, should so +often have blackened the face of a nation sincerely dedicated to law and +order is one of the penalties paid for experimenting on a problem of +political and economic equality with material marked by extreme racial +inequality.</p> + +<p><b>Poverty and Pauperism.</b>—Prior to year 1875 the laws of the United States +imposed no prohibition upon the immigration of paupers from foreign +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>countries, and not until the federal government took from the states +the administration of the law in 1891 did the prohibitions of the +existing law become reasonably effective. Since that year there have +been annually debarred, as likely to become public charges, 431 to 7898 +arrivals, the latter number being debarred in the year 1905. In addition +to those debarred at landing, there have been annually returned within +one to three years after landing, 177 to 845 immigrants, many of whom +had meantime become public charges. From these statements it will be +seen that, prior to 1891, it was possible and quite probable that many +thousand paupers and prospective paupers were admitted by the +immigration authorities, and consequently the proportion of paupers +among the foreign-born should appear larger than it would in later +years. In the earlier years systematic arrangements were in force in +foreign countries, especially Great Britain, to assist in the +deportation of paupers to the United States, and therefore it is not +surprising that, apart from race characteristics, there should have come +to this country larger numbers of Irish paupers than those from any +other nationality. Since these exportations have been stopped, it is not +so much the actual pauper as the prospective pauper who gets admission. +96 per cent of the paupers in almshouses have been in this country ten +years or more, showing that the exclusion laws are still defective, in +that large numbers of poor physique are admitted. Taking the census +reports for 1904, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>confining our attention to the North Atlantic +states, where children are generally provided for in separate +establishments, we are able to compute the following as the relative +extent of pauperism among males:—</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Male Paupers in Almshouses Per Million Voting Population, North Atlantic States, 1904.</span></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Native white, native parents</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td align="right">2,360</td></tr> +<tr><td>Native white, foreign parents</td><td> </td><td align="right">2,252</td></tr> +<tr><td>Foreign white</td><td> </td><td align="right">5,119</td></tr> +<tr><td>Colored</td><td> </td><td align="right">4,056</td></tr></table> + +<p>Here we see the counterpart of the estimates on crime, for the natives +of foreign parentage show a smaller proportion of paupers than the +natives of native parentage, while the foreign-born themselves show more +than double the relative amount of pauperism of the native element, and +the colored paupers are nearly twice the native stock.</p> + +<p>The census bureau also furnishes computations showing the contributions +of the different races and nationalities to the insane asylums and +benevolent institutions.<small><a name="f102.1" id="f102.1" href="#f102">[102]</a></small> In general it appears that the +foreign-born and the negroes exceed the native classes in their burden +on the public. A report of the Department of Labor of great value and +significance, incidentally bearing on this subject, shows for the +Italians in Chicago their industrial and social conditions. According to +this report the average earnings of Italians in that city in 1896 while +at work were $6.41<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> per week for men and $2.11 per week for women, and +the average time unemployed by the wage-earning element was over seven +months. In another report of the Department of Labor it appears that the +slum population of the cities of Baltimore, Chicago, New York, and +Philadelphia in 1893 was unemployed three months each year. With wages +one dollar a day, and employment only five months during the year, it is +marvellous that the Italians of Chicago, during the late period of +depression, were not thrown in great numbers upon public relief. Yet, +with the strict administration of the exclusion laws leading to the +deportation of over 2000 Italians a year as liable to become public +charges, it is likely that the immigrants of that race, although low in +physique, poverty, and standards of living, are fairly well screened of +actual paupers.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> +<h3>POLITICS</h3> + +<p><br />American democracy was ushered in on a theory of equality. And no word +has been more strangely used and abused. There is the monarchical idea +of equality, and Mr. Mallock begs the question when he gives the title +“Aristocracy and Evolution” to a book on the necessary part played by +great men. Doubtless, in Greek, aristocracy means “government by the +best,” but in history it means government by the privilege of birth and +landed property. Democracy may be in philology “government by the mob,” +but in politics and industry it has been opportunity for great men +without blood or property. Mr. Münsterberg, too, sees the breakdown of +American democracy and the reaction towards aristocracy in the +prominence of civil-service reform, the preëminence conceded to business +ability, the deference to wealth, and the conquest of the +Philippines.<small><a name="f103.1" id="f103.1" href="#f103">[103]</a></small> But civil-service reform is only a device for opening +the door to merit that has been shut by privilege. In England it was the +means by which the mercantile classes broke into the offices preëmpted +by the younger<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> sons of aristocracy.<small><a name="f104.1" id="f104.1" href="#f104">[104]</a></small> In America it is an awkward +means of admitting ability wherever found to positions seized upon by +political usurpers. It appealed to the American democracy only when its +advocates learned to call it, not “civil-service reform,” but “the merit +system.” As for the astonishing power of mere wealth in American affairs +the testimony of another English observer is based on wider observation +when he says, “Even the tyranny of trusts is not to be compared with the +tyranny of landlordism; for the one is felt to be merely an unhappy and +(it is hoped) temporary aberration of well-meant social machinery, while +the other seems bred in the very bone of the national existence.”<small><a name="f105.1" id="f105.1" href="#f105">[105]</a></small></p> + +<p>A feeling of disappointment holds true of the conquest and treatment of +the Philippines. That a war waged out of sympathy for an oppressed +island nearby should have shaken down an unnoticed archipelago across +the ocean was taken in childlike glee as the unexpected reward of +virtue. But serious thinking has followed on seeing that these islands +have added another race problem to the many that have thwarted +democracy. Only a plutocracy sprung from race divisions at home could +profit by race-subjection abroad, and the only alternative to +race-subjection is equal representation in Congress. But to admit +another race to partnership without the hope of assimilation is to +reject experience. Independence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> or cession to Japan is the +self-preservation of American democracy.</p> + +<p>Another idea of equality is the socialist idea. Infatuated by an +“economic interpretation of history,” they overlook the racial +interpretation. Permitting and encouraging plutocracy, they hope to see +the dispossessed masses take possession when conditions become +intolerable. But the “masses” would not be equal to the task. Privileged +wealth knows too well how to buy up or promote their leaders, how to +weaken them by internal dissensions, how to set race against race. Most +of all, the inexperienced despotism of the masses is worse than the +smooth despotism of wealth. The government of the South by the negro, +the government of San Francisco by “labor,” fell into the hands of the +“carpet-bagger” and the “boss.” Once in power, internal strife and +jealousy, struggle for office, or racial antagonism disrupt the rulers, +and a reaction throws them back more helpless than before. Men are not +equal, neither are races or classes equal. True equality comes through +equal opportunity. If individuals go forward, their race or class is +elevated. They become spokesmen, defenders, examples. No race or class +can rise without its own leaders. If they get admitted on equal terms +with other leaders, whether it be in the councils of the church, the +law-making bodies of the city, state, and nation, or the wage +conferences of employers, they then can command the hearing which their +abilities justify. They secure for their <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>followers the equal +opportunity to which they are entitled.</p> + +<p>This is exactly the political problem that grows out of the presence of +races and immigrants. With these admitted to the suffrage on the basis +of mere manhood inspired by a generosity unknown to the people of any +other land, the machinery of representative government inherited from +England does not, for some reason, permit the free choice of leaders. +The difficulties may be seen in cities where the system first broke +down. A variety of races and nationalities living in the same ward are +asked to elect aldermen and other officers by majority vote. No one +nationality has a majority, but each sets up its list of candidates. The +nationality with a mere plurality elects all of its candidates, and the +other nationalities—a majority of the voters—are unrepresented. This +is an extreme case, and has not often been allowed to happen. But the +only means of preventing it is the “ward boss.” The boss emerges from +the situation as inevitably as the survival of the fittest. And the +fittest is the Irishman. The Irishman has above all races the mixture of +ingenuity, firmness, human sympathy, comradeship, and daring that makes +him the amalgamator of races. He conciliates them all by nominating a +ticket on which the offices are shrewdly distributed; and out of the +Babel his “slate” gets the majority.</p> + +<p>The boss’s problem is not an easy one. His ward may contain business men +on the hill and negroes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> along the canal. To nominate a business man +would lose the negro vote—to nominate a negro would lose the business +vote. He selects a nondescript somewhere between, and discards him for +another at the next election. The representative becomes a tool in the +hands of the boss. The boss sells his power to corporations, franchise +speculators, and law-evaders. Representative democracy becomes +bossocracy in the service of plutocracy. The ward system worked well +when the suffrage was limited. Then the business men elected their +business man unimpeded. But a system devised for restricted suffrage +breaks down under universal suffrage. Could the ward lines be abolished, +could the business men come together regardless of residence and elect +their choice without the need of a majority vote, could the negroes and +other races and classes do the same, then each would be truly +represented by their natural leaders. So it is, not only in cities, but +in county, state, and nation. Universal suffrage, clannish races, social +classes, diversified interests, seem to explain and justify the presence +of the party “machine” and its boss. Otherwise races, classes, and +interests are in helpless conflict and anarchy. But the true explanation +is an obsolete ward and district system of plurality representation +adopted when but one race, class, or interest had the suffrage. Forms of +government are the essence of government, notwithstanding the poet. An +aristocratic form with a democratic suffrage is a plutocratic +government. Belgium and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> Switzerland have shown that a democratic form +is possible and practicable. Proportional representation instead of +district representation is the corollary of universal suffrage which +those countries have worked out as a model for others.<small><a name="f106.1" id="f106.1" href="#f106">[106]</a></small> The model is +peculiarly adapted to a country of manifold nationalities, interests, +and classes. Races and immigrants in America have not disproved +democracy—they have proved the need of more democracy.</p> + +<p>This is seen also in the distinction between men and measures. It often +has been noted that in American elections the voters are more interested +in voting for candidates than they are in voting on issues. The +candidate arouses a personal and concrete interest—the issue is +abstract and complicated. The candidate calls out a full vote—the issue +is decided by a partial vote.</p> + +<p>This difference is partly the result of organization. The candidate has +a political party, campaign funds, and personal workers to bring out the +vote. The issue has only its merits and demerits. Equally important +under American conditions is the race or nationality of the candidate. +This feature is often concealed by the ingenuity of political managers +in nominating a ticket on which the several nationalities are +“recognized.” But with the recent progress of the movement to abolish +party conventions and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> to nominate candidates directly at the primaries +the racial prejudices of the voters show themselves. The nationalities +line up for their own nationality, and the political and economic issues +are thrown in the background. It is different when they vote on the +issues directly. The vital questions of politics, industry, +corporations, and monopoly which menace the country, unless rightly +answered, cut across the lines of nationality. The German farmer, +manufacturer, wage-earner, merchant, capitalist, and monopolist may all +unite to elect a popular German to office, but they do not unite to give +a corporation a monopoly. The same is true of other nationalities. +Wherever the referendum has been fairly tested, in Chicago, Detroit, +Oregon, and elsewhere, the sound judgment of all races has prevailed +over bias, prejudice, or racial jealousy. There none can claim +preëminence, for all have shown their share of patriotism, intelligence, +and regard for equal rights. By an automatic self-disfranchisement the +ignorant, the corrupt, and the indifferent of all races eliminate +themselves by failing to vote. Instead of being dismissed on the ground +that voters care mainly for men and less for measures, the referendum +should be adopted on the ground that it permits those interested in +measures to decide the question. Those who are not interested enough to +vote do thereby proclaim that they are satisfied whichever side wins. +The initiative and referendum are, above all other forms of government, +the specific remedy for the ills<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> of universal suffrage and conflicting +nationalities. Race antagonism springs from personalities, race +coalescence from community of interest. A vote for candidates +intensifies antagonism—a vote on measures promotes community.</p> + +<p>There are, indeed, some kinds of measures which stir up race antagonism. +But the keenest of these have happily been eliminated. More intense than +any other source of discord is religious belief. Religious differences +in America are not so much theological as racial in character. The +Judaism of the Jew, the Protestantism of the British and colonial +American, the Lutheranism of the German, the Roman Catholicism of the +Irish, Italian, and Slav, the Greek Catholicism of other Slavs, all +testify to the history and psychology of races. Far-sighted indeed were +our fathers who separated Church and State. Were the people taxed to +support religion, every election would be a contest of races. All other +questions would be subordinate, and democracy impossible. But with +religion relegated to private judgment, each race is free to cultivate +at will that one of its own peculiarities most fanatically adhered to, +but most repellent to other races, while uniting with the others on what +is most essential to democracy. Religious freedom is more than a private +right—it is an American necessity.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p186.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Chinese Students, Honolulu</span><br />(From <i>The Independent</i>)</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>Another class of measures running partly along race lines are sumptuary +laws, especially those regulating saloons and Sunday observance. In +the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> Southern states saloon prohibition is largely a race +discrimination and a race protection. In the North it often is American +puritanism of the country against European liberalism of the cities. +Here the referendum shows itself as the conciliator of nationalities. +Upon no other issue has the popular vote been so generally resorted to. +This issue comes close to the habits and passions of the masses. It +takes precedence of all others except religion, but cannot be evaded +like religion. If legislative bodies and executive officials decide the +question, then the German or the Irishman adds to his zeal for the +election of a conationalist his thirst for the election of a candidate +with habits like his own. But when left to a popular vote, the saloon +question is separated from the choice of candidates, and other issues +come forward. A majority vote, too, pacifies the minority of all races, +where the act of a legislative body leaves the suspicion of unfair +advantage taken by unrepresentative politicians. By the exigencies of +the situation the referendum has been invoked to take both the saloon +problem and its share of the race problem “out of politics.” The lesson +is applicable wherever race or nationality conflicts with democracy. +With questions of religious belief eliminated by the constitution, and +questions of personal habits eliminated by the referendum, other +questions of race antagonism will be eliminated by the initiative and +the referendum.<small><a name="f107.1" id="f107.1" href="#f107">[107]</a></small></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span><b>Suffrage.</b>—The climax of liberality in donating the suffrage to all +races and conditions was reached with the fifteenth amendment in 1869. +At that time not only had the negro been enfranchised; but nearly a +score of Western and Southern states and territories had enfranchised +the alien. So liberal were these states in welcoming the immigrant that +they allowed him to vote as soon as he declared his intention to take +out naturalization papers. This declaration, under the federal law, is +made at least two years before the papers are granted, and it may be +made as soon as the immigrant has landed. Thus in some of those states +he could vote as soon as he acquired a legal residence, that is, four or +four and one-half years before he acquired citizenship. Several of these +states have recently changed these laws, but there remain nine that +continue to accept the alien as a voter.</p> + +<p>In the Eastern states such generosity was not granted by law but was +practised by fraud. Naturalization papers are issued by federal courts +and by state courts of record. The law gives the judge much discretion, +for he is required to refuse the certificate if he is not satisfied that +the alien is of good moral character, attached to the Constitution, and +well disposed. But so careless or crowded are the judges that seldom +have they examined the applicants. Indeed the political managers have +had the option of judges and could take their immigrants to the court +that would shut its eyes. Many thousands of fraudulent papers have been +secured in this way, beginning<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> at the very time when the naturalization +law was enacted in 1802, but increasing enormously during the past forty +years.<small><a name="f108.1" id="f108.1" href="#f108">[108]</a></small></p> + +<p>Finally, in 1906, Congress enacted a law giving to the Bureau of +Immigration control over naturalization. The object is to bring all of +the courts under a uniform practice, to provide complete records and +means of identification, to establish publicity, to enable the +government to appear in court and resist fraudulent naturalization, and +to impose severe penalties.<small><a name="f109.1" id="f109.1" href="#f109">[109]</a></small> The law also adds something to the +qualifications required of the alien. He must not be an anarchist or a +polygamist, nor a believer of such doctrines; he must be able to speak +the English language, and must intend to reside permanently in the +United States.<small><a name="f110.1" id="f110.1" href="#f110">[110]</a></small> The language restriction affects but few, since in +1900 only 3.3 per cent of the naturalized foreign-born males of voting +age could not speak English.<small><a name="f111.1" id="f111.1" href="#f111">[111]</a></small> The intention of permanent residence, +as well as the entire measure, is designed to remove the abuse of +foreigners’ acquiring citizenship in order to return to their native +land and defy their rightful government. On the administrative side this +law is of great significance. It marks a serious beginning on the part +of the federal government<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> of protecting the citizenship that a +generation before it had so liberally bestowed.</p> + +<p>There are certain races which by law are prohibited from naturalization. +For nearly seventy years the law on the subject enacted in 1802 admitted +to citizenship only free white persons. This was amended in 1870 to +admit “aliens of African nationality and persons of African descent.” +But other colored races were not admitted, so that the Chinese, +Japanese, or Malay immigrant has never been eligible to citizenship. His +children, however, born in this country are citizens, and cannot be +excluded from voting on account of race or color. Indians living in +tribes are foreigners, but if they recognize allegiance by paying taxes +or dividing up their land in severalty they are citizens and voters.</p> + +<p>Of the immigrant races eligible to citizenship their importance as +possible voters is greater than their importance in the population. This +is because men and boys come in greater numbers than women and children. +Ten million foreign-born population furnishes 5,000,000 males of voting +age, but 66,000,000 native population furnishes only 16,000,000 males of +voting age. In other words, one-half of the foreign-born, and only +one-fourth of the native-born, are potential voters. But not all of the +potential voters are actual voters. With a grand total in the year 1900 +of 21,000,000 of the proper sex and age, only 15,000,000 went to the +polls. The ratio is five out of seven. Two million negroes were +excluded, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> 1,400,000 foreign-born had not yet naturalized. This +leaves 2,600,000 natives and foreign-born who might have voted but did +not. The foreigner who takes out his citizenship papers does it mainly +to vote. Two-thirds of them had done so or declared their intention in +1900.<small><a name="f112.1" id="f112.1" href="#f112">[112]</a></small> Probably the proportion of native whites who did not vote was +15 per cent of their total number, and the proportion of foreign-born +who did not, or could not, was over 40 per cent.</p> + +<p>But this proportion differs greatly among the several races. It is not +so much a difference in willingness as a difference in opportunity. Five +years are required for naturalization, and while 40 per cent of those +who have been here six to nine years have not declared their intention +nor taken out their papers, only 7 per cent of those who have been here +twenty years retain their allegiance to foreign governments.<small><a name="f113.1" id="f113.1" href="#f113">[113]</a></small> This +increases relatively the political weight of the Teutonic and Celtic +races which are oldest in point of immigration, and reduces relatively +the weight of the Italian, Slav, and Jewish races. The figures below +make this quite plain. The table shows the proportion of foreign-born +who remain aliens, in the sense that they have neither taken out +citizenship papers nor declared their intention of doing so. Only 7 to +13 per cent of the foreigners from Northwestern Europe are aliens, +compared with 35 to 60 per cent of those from Eastern and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> Southern +Europe. In course of time these differences will diminish, and the +Italian and Slav will approach the Irishman and German in their share of +American suffrage:—</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Per cent of Aliens among Foreign-born Males of Voting Age<small><a name="f114.1" id="f114.1" href="#f114">[114]</a></small></span></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Wales</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td align="right">7.1</td></tr> +<tr><td>Germany</td><td> </td><td align="right">8.3</td></tr> +<tr><td>Norway</td><td> </td><td align="right">9.7</td></tr> +<tr><td>Ireland</td><td> </td><td align="right">10.1</td></tr> +<tr><td>Denmark</td><td> </td><td align="right">10.3</td></tr> +<tr><td>Holland</td><td> </td><td align="right">11.6</td></tr> +<tr><td>Sweden</td><td> </td><td align="right">11.9</td></tr> +<tr><td>Scotland</td><td> </td><td align="right">12.5</td></tr> +<tr><td>Bohemia</td><td> </td><td align="right">12.6</td></tr> +<tr><td>England</td><td> </td><td align="right">12.9</td></tr> +<tr><td>Canada, English</td><td> </td><td align="right">21.1</td></tr> +<tr><td>Russia (mainly Jews)</td><td> </td><td align="right">35.2</td></tr> +<tr><td>Canada, French</td><td> </td><td align="right">38.5</td></tr> +<tr><td>Finland</td><td> </td><td align="right">38.6</td></tr> +<tr><td>Austria (largely Slavs)</td><td> </td><td align="right">44.6</td></tr> +<tr><td>Portugal</td><td> </td><td align="right">51.6</td></tr> +<tr><td>Italy</td><td> </td><td align="right">53.0</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hungary (mainly Slavs)</td><td> </td><td align="right">53.1</td></tr> +<tr><td>Greece</td><td> </td><td align="right">57.8</td></tr> +<tr><td>Austria, Poland</td><td> </td><td align="right">61.6</td></tr></table> + +<p>The right to vote is not “inalienable,” neither is the right to life or +liberty. Governments give them, refuse them, and take them away. In +America this means the state governments. The federal government only +declares that the states must follow the “due process of law,” and not +discriminate on account of race, religion, or servitude. In allowing the +right to vote they may and do discriminate on other grounds, such as +morals, illiteracy, intelligence, property, and sex. This may result in +race or immigrant discrimination, and does so in the case of illiteracy +and intelligence. After the Irish immigration of the forties, +Connecticut in 1855 and Massachusetts in 1857 refused thenceforth to +enfranchise those who could not read the Constitution. Since 1889 six +other Northern and Western <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>states—Wyoming, Maine, California, +Washington, Delaware, and New Hampshire, in the order named—have +erected barriers against those who cannot read or write the English +language or the Constitution.<small><a name="f115.1" id="f115.1" href="#f115">[115]</a></small> Six Southern states have done the +same, but one of them, Mississippi, has added another permanent +barrier,—intelligence. This is supposed to be measured by ability to +“understand” the Constitution as read by a white man. Southern states +have also added vagrancy, poll tax, and property clauses even more +exclusive than reading and writing.<small><a name="f116.1" id="f116.1" href="#f116">[116]</a></small> The federal courts have refused +to interfere because these restrictions in their legal form bear alike +on white and black. If in practice they bear unequally, that is a matter +for the state courts.<small><a name="f117.1" id="f117.1" href="#f117">[117]</a></small></p> + +<p>To take away the suffrage from many of those who enjoy it is peacefully +impossible under our system. But voters who hold fast to the privilege +for themselves may be induced to deny it to the next generation. It was +in this way usually that the foregoing restrictions were introduced. +Massachusetts set the example by retaining all who could vote when the +test was adopted, and making the exclusion apply only to those who came +after. The Southern states<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> did the same by “grandfather” and +“understanding” clauses. By either method, in course of time, the +favored voters disappear by death or removal, and the restrictions apply +in full to the succeeding generation.<small><a name="f118.1" id="f118.1" href="#f118">[118]</a></small></p> + +<p>The effect of the educational test on the suffrage of the foreign-born +is not as great as might be supposed. Naturalization itself is almost an +educational test. Only 6.3 per cent of the naturalized foreigners are +illiterate, but 28 per cent of those who remain aliens are unable to +read. In Boston only 2 per cent are excluded from voting through +inability to read English, although the corresponding aliens are 22 per +cent. Probably the educational qualification in Massachusetts affects +these proportions by lessening the inducement to naturalize, but in +Chicago and New York, where that qualification is not required, scarcely +more than 5 per cent of those who get naturalized would be unable to +vote under such a law, compared with less than 1 per cent of the native +voters.<small><a name="f119.1" id="f119.1" href="#f119">[119]</a></small> In the country at large the disproportion is not so great. +Five and eight-tenths per cent of the sons of native parents would be +excluded by an educational test against 6.3 per cent of the naturalized +foreigners, and only 2 per cent of the native sons of foreigners. In the +several Southern states the test, if equally applied, will exclude 6 to +20 per cent of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> white voters and 35 to 60 per cent of the colored +voters.<small><a name="f120.1" id="f120.1" href="#f120">[120]</a></small> In a Southern city like Memphis it would exclude 1 per cent +of the white and 38 per cent of the colored.</p> + +<p>Tested by the standards of democracy, the ability to read and write the +English language is a proper qualification. It is perhaps the maximum +that can be required, for to test the ability to understand what is read +and written is to open the door to partisanship and race discrimination. +Yet it is intelligence that makes the suffrage an instrument of +protection, and it is not a denial of rights to refuse such an +instrument to one who injures himself with it. The literacy +qualification is one that can be acquired by effort. Other tests, +especially the property qualification, are an assertion of inequality. +Yet it is not strange that with the corrupt and inefficient governments +that have accompanied universal suffrage there should have occurred a +reaction. This has not always expressed itself in the policy of +restricting the suffrage, for that can with difficulty be accomplished. +It has shown itself rather in withdrawing government as far as possible +from the control of the voters. The so-called “business theory” which +has so generally been applied to the reform of city governments has +converted the city as far as possible to the model of a private +corporation, with its general manager, the mayor. The city has been +denied its proper functions, and these have been turned over to private +parties. But this reaction seems to have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> reached its limit. It is now +understood to have been simply the legal recognition of an incipient +plutocracy establishing itself under the forms of democracy. The return +movement has begun, and the rescue of democracy is sought, as stated +above, in forms and functions of government still more democratic.</p> + +<p>The way plutocracy looks when it has passed the incipient stage may be +seen in Hawaii.<small><a name="f121.1" id="f121.1" href="#f121">[121]</a></small> It is as though we had annexed those islands in +order to watch in our own back yard the fruit of excessive immigration. +A population of 154,000 furnishes 65,000 Hawaiians, Portuguese, and +other Caucasians. The Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans have 87,000 +population and no votes. The American contingent is some 17,000 souls +and 3000 votes. The latter represent four classes or interests: the +capitalist planters owning two-thirds of the property; superintendents, +engineers, and foremen managing the plantation labor; skilled mechanics; +small employers, merchants, and farmers. In order to get plantation +labor and to keep the supply too large and diversified for concerted +wage demands the planters imported contract Chinese in place of +Hawaiians, then Japanese, then Koreans. As each race rises in standards +and independence it leaves the plantations to enter trades, +manufactures, and merchandising. It drives out the wage-earners from the +less skilled occupations, then from the more skilled, then the small +manufacturers, contractors, and merchants.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> The American middle classes +disappear, partly by emigration to California, partly by abandoning +business and relying on the values of real estate which rise through the +competition of low standards of wages and profits, and partly by +attaching themselves to the best-paid positions offered by the planters. +In proportion as they move up in the scale through the entrance of +immigrants in the lower positions, they transfer their allegiance from +democracy to plutocracy. The planters themselves are caught in a circle. +The rising values of their land absorb the high tariff on sugar and +prevent rising wages if the values are to be kept up. The Japanese, with +contract labor abolished, have shown a disposition to strike for higher +wages. This has led to advances at the expense of profits, and the +resulting “scarcity of labor” compels the planters again to ask for +contract Chinese coolies. Immigration is thus only a makeshift remedy +for the exactions of unions and the undevelopment of resources. More +immigration requires perpetually more and still more, till the resulting +plutocracy seeks to save itself by servile labor. A moderate amount of +immigrant labor, assimilated and absorbed into the body politic, +stimulates industry and progress, but an excessive and indigestible +amount leads to the search for coercive remedies and ends in the +stagnation of industry. The protective tariff was supposed to build up +free American labor, but in Hawaii, with unrestricted immigration, it +has handed us American plutocracy.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> +<h3>AMALGAMATION AND ASSIMILATION</h3> + +<p><br />A German statistician,<small><a name="f122.1" id="f122.1" href="#f122">[122]</a></small> after studying population statistics of the +United States and observing the “race suicide” of the native American +stock, concludes: “The question of restriction on immigration is not a +matter of higher or lower wages, nor a matter of more or less criminals +and idiots, but the exclusion of a large part of the immigrants might +cost the United States their place among the world powers.”</p> + +<p>Exactly the opposite opinion was expressed in 1891 by Francis A. +Walker,<small><a name="f123.1" id="f123.1" href="#f123">[123]</a></small> the leading American statistician of his time, and +superintendent of the censuses of 1870 and 1880. He said: “Foreign +immigration into this country has, from the time it first assumed large +proportions, amounted not to a reinforcement of our population, but a +replacement of native by foreign stock.... The American shrank from the +industrial competition thus thrust upon him. He was unwilling himself to +engage in the lowest kind of day labor with these new elements of +population; he was even more unwilling to bring sons and daughters into +the world to enter into that competition....<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> The more rapidly +foreigners came into the United States, the smaller was the rate of +increase, not merely among the native population separately, but +throughout the population of the country as a whole,” including the +descendants of the earlier foreign immigrants.</p> + +<p>Walker’s statements of fact, whatever we may say of his explanations, +are easily substantiated. From earliest colonial times until the census +of 1840 the people of the United States multiplied more rapidly than the +people of any other modern nation, not excepting the prolific French +Canadians. The first six censuses, beginning in 1790, show that, without +appreciable immigration, the population doubled every twenty years, and +had this rate of increase continued until the present time, the +descendants of the colonial white and negro stock in the year 1900 would +have numbered 100,000,000 instead of the combined colonial, immigrant, +and negro total of 76,000,000. Indeed, if we take the total immigration +from 1820 to 1900, exceeding 19,000,000 people, and apply a slightly +higher than the average rate of increase from births, we shall find that +in the year 1900 one-half of the white population is derived from +immigrant stock, leaving the other half, or but 33,000,000 whites, +derived from the colonial stock.<small><a name="f124.1" id="f124.1" href="#f124">[124]</a></small><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> This is scarcely more than +one-third of the number that should have been expected had the colonial +element continued to multiply from 1840 to 1900 as it had multiplied +from 1790 to 1840.</p> + +<p>An interesting corroboration of these speculations is the prediction +made in the year 1815, thirty years before the great migration of the +nineteenth century, by the mathematician and publicist, Elkanah +Watson.<small><a name="f125.1" id="f125.1" href="#f125">[125]</a></small> On the basis of the increase shown in the first three +censuses he made computations of the probable population for each census +year to 1900, and I have drawn up the following table, showing the +actual population compared with his estimates. Superintendent Walker, in +the essay above quoted, uses Watson’s figures, and points out the +remarkable fact that those predictions were within less than one per +cent of the actual population until the year 1860, although, meanwhile, +there had come nearly 5,000,000 immigrants whom Watson could not have +foreseen. Thus the population of 1860, notwithstanding access of the +millions of immigrants, was only 310,000, or one per cent less than +Watson had predicted. And the falling off since 1860 has been even +greater, for, notwithstanding the immigration of 20,000,000 persons +since 1820, the population in 1900 was 75,000,000, or 25 per cent less +than Watson’s computations.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span></p> + +<p class="center">POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table"> +<tr><td class="btr"> </td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span class="smcap">Population<br />(Census)</span></td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span class="smcap">Watson’s<br />Estimate</span></td> + <td class="btr" align="center"><span class="smcap">Watson’s<br />Error</span></td> + <td class="bt" align="center"><span class="smcap">Foreign<br />Immigration<br />for Decade</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="btr">1790</td> + <td class="btr" align="right">3,929,214</td> + <td class="btr"> </td> + <td class="btr"> </td> + <td class="bt"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">1800</td> + <td class="br" align="right">5,308,483</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="dent" align="right">50,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">1810</td> + <td class="br" align="right">7,239,881</td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="br"> </td> + <td class="dent" align="right">70,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">1820</td> + <td class="br" align="right">9,633,822</td> + <td class="br" align="right">9,625,734</td> + <td class="br" align="right">-8,088</td> + <td class="dent" align="right">114,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">1830</td> + <td class="br" align="right">12,866,020</td> + <td class="br" align="right">12,833,645</td> + <td class="br" align="right">-32,375</td> + <td class="dent" align="right">143,439</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">1840</td> + <td class="br" align="right">17,069,453</td> + <td class="br" align="right">17,116,526</td> + <td class="br" align="right">+47,073</td> + <td class="dent" align="right">599,125</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">1850</td> + <td class="br" align="right">23,191,876</td> + <td class="br" align="right">23,185,368</td> + <td class="br" align="right">-6,508</td> + <td class="dent" align="right">1,713,251</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">1860</td> + <td class="br" align="right">31,443,321</td> + <td class="br" align="right">31,753,825</td> + <td class="br" align="right">+310,503</td> + <td class="dent" align="right">2,598,214</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">1870</td> + <td class="br" align="right">38,558,371</td> + <td class="br" align="right">42,328,432</td> + <td class="br" align="right">+3,770,061</td> + <td class="dent" align="right">2,314,824</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">1880</td> + <td class="br" align="right">50,155,783</td> + <td class="br" align="right">56,450,241</td> + <td class="br" align="right">+6,294,458</td> + <td class="dent" align="right">2,812,191</td></tr> +<tr><td class="br">1890</td> + <td class="br" align="right">62,622,250</td> + <td class="br" align="right">77,266,989</td> + <td class="br" align="right">+14,644,739</td> + <td class="dent" align="right">5,246,613</td></tr> +<tr><td class="bbr">1900</td> + <td class="bbr" align="right">75,559,258</td> + <td class="bbr" align="right">100,235,985</td> + <td class="bbr" align="right">+24,676,727</td> + <td class="bb" align="right">3,687,564</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3">Total immigration 1820-1900</td> + <td> </td> + <td class="dent" align="right">19,229,224</td></tr></table> + +<p>This question of the “race suicide” of the American or colonial stock +should be regarded as the most fundamental of our social problems, or +rather as the most fundamental consequence of our social and industrial +institutions. It may be met by exhortation, as when President Roosevelt +says, “If the men of the nation are not anxious to work in many +different ways, with all their might and strength, and ready and able to +fight at need, and anxious to be fathers of families, and if the women +do not recognize that the greatest thing for any woman is to be a good +wife and mother, why that nation has cause to be alarmed about its +future.”<small><a name="f126.1" id="f126.1" href="#f126">[126]</a></small></p> + +<p>The anxiety of President Roosevelt is well grounded; but if race suicide +is not in itself an original cause, but is the result of other causes, +then exhortation will accomplish but little, while the removal or +amelioration of the other causes will of itself correct the resulting +evil. Where, then, shall we look for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> causes of race suicide, or, +more accurately speaking, for the reduced proportion of children brought +into the world? The immediate circumstances consist in postponing the +age of marriage, in limiting the number of births after marriage, and in +an increase in the proportion of unmarried people. The reasons are +almost solely moral and not physical. Those who are ambitious and +studious, who strive to reach a better position in the world for +themselves and their children, and who have not inherited wealth, will +generally postpone marriage until they have educated themselves, or +accumulated property, or secured a permanent position. They will then +not bring into the world a larger number of children than they can +provide for on the basis of the standing which they themselves have +attained; for observation shows that those who marry early have large +families, and are generally kept on a lower station in life. The real +problem, therefore, with this class of people, is the opportunities for +earning a living. In the earlier days, when the young couple could take +up vacant land, and farming was the goal of all, a large family and the +coöperation of wife and children were a help rather than a hindrance. +To-day the couple, unless the husband has a superior position, must go +together to the factory or mill, and the children are a burden until +they reach the wage-earning age. Furthermore, wage-earning is uncertain, +factories shut down, and the man with a large family is thrown upon his +friends or charity. To admonish people<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> living under these conditions +to go forth and multiply is to advise the cure of race suicide by race +deterioration.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p202.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Faculty of Tuskegee Institute</span><br />(From <i>World’s Work</i>)</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>Curiously enough, these observations apply with even greater force to +the second generation of immigrants than to the native stock, for among +the daughters of the foreign-born only 19 per cent of those aged 15 to +24 years are married, while among daughters of native parents 30 per +cent are married; and for the men of 20 to 29 only 26.8 per cent of the +native sons of foreigners are married and 38.5 per cent of the sons of +natives.<small><a name="f127.1" id="f127.1" href="#f127">[127]</a></small> These figures sustain what can be observed in many large +cities, that the races of immigrants who came to this country +twenty-five or more years ago are shrinking from competition with the +new races from Southern Europe.</p> + +<p>Boston, for example, with its large Irish immigration beginning two +generations ago, shows a similar disproportion. Of the American +daughters of foreign parents 15 to 24 years of age, only 12 per cent are +married, but of the daughters of native parents 17 per cent are married; +of the sons of foreign parents 20 to 29 years of age, only 20 per cent +are married, but of the sons of native parents 26 per cent are married. +The contrast with the immigrants themselves is striking. In Boston, 24 +per cent of the foreign-born women aged 15 to 24 are married, and 35 per +cent of the foreign-born men aged 20 to 29.<small><a name="f128.1" id="f128.1" href="#f128">[128]</a></small> In other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> words, the +early marriages of immigrant men and women are nearly twice as many as +those of the American-born sons and daughters of immigrants, and only +one-third more than those of the sons and daughters of native stock. +With such a showing as this it would seem that our “place among the +world powers” depends indeed on immigration, for the immigrants’ +children are more constrained to race suicide than the older American +stock.<small><a name="f129.1" id="f129.1" href="#f129">[129]</a></small></p> + +<p>The competition is not so severe in country districts where the native +stock prevails; but in the cities and industrial centres the skilled and +ambitious workman and workwoman discover that in order to keep +themselves above the low standards of the immigrants they must postpone +marriage. The effect is noticeable and disastrous in the case of the +Irish-Americans. Displaced by Italians and Slavs, many of the young men +have fallen into the hoodlum and criminal element. Here moral causes +produce physical causes of race destruction, for the vicious elements of +the population disappear through the diseases bequeathed to their +progeny, and are recruited only from the classes forced down from above. +On the other hand, many more Irish have risen to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> positions of +foremanship, or have lived on their wits in politics, or have entered +the priesthood. The Irish-American girls, showing independence and +ambition, have refused to marry until they could be assured of a husband +of steady habits, and they have entered clerical positions, factories, +and mills. Thus this versatile race, with distinct native ability, is +meeting in our cities the same displacement and is resorting to the same +race suicide which itself inflicted a generation or two earlier on the +native colonial stock. But the effect is more severe, for the native +stock was able to leave the scenes of competition, to go West and take +up farms or build cities, but the Irish-American has less opportunity to +make such an escape.</p> + +<p>Great numbers of Irishmen, together with others of English, Scotch, +German, and American descent, remaining in these industrial centres, +have sought to protect themselves and maintain high standards through +labor-unions and the so-called “closed shop,” by limiting the number of +apprentices, excluding immigrants, and giving their sons a preference of +admission. But even with the unions they find it necessary also to limit +the size of their families, and I am convinced from personal +observation, that, were the statistics on this point compiled from the +unions of skilled workmen, there would be found even stronger evidences +of race suicide than among other classes in the nation.</p> + +<p>To the well-to-do classes freedom from the care<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> of children is not a +necessity, but an opportunity for luxury and indulgence. These include +the very wealthy, whose round of social functions would be interrupted +by home obligations. To them, of course, immigration brings no need of +prudence—it rather helps to bring the enormous fortunes which distract +their attention from the home. But their numbers are insignificant +compared with the millions who determine the fate of the nation. More +significant are the well-to-do farmers and their wives who have +inherited the soil redeemed by their fathers, and whose desire to be +free for enjoying the fruits of civilization lead them to the position +so strongly condemned by President Roosevelt. This class of farmers, as +shown in the census map of the size of private families,<small><a name="f130.1" id="f130.1" href="#f130">[130]</a></small> may be +traced across the Eastern and Northern states, running through New +England, rural New York, Northern Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Michigan, +parts of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa. In the rich counties of +southern Michigan, settled and occupied mainly by native stock from New +York, the average size of families is less than four persons, as it is +in a large area of Central New York, whereas for the country at large it +is 4.7, and for counties in the mining sections of Michigan occupied by +immigrants it rises as high as 5.8 persons.</p> + +<p>The census figures showing the size of families do not, however, reveal +the number of children born<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> to a family, since they show only those +living together and not those who have moved away or died. This +especially affects the large-sized families, and does not reveal, for +example, a fact shown by Kuczynski from the state census of +Massachusetts that the average number of children of the foreign-born +women in that state is 4.5, while for native women it is only 2.7.<small><a name="f131.1" id="f131.1" href="#f131">[131]</a></small> +This also affects the showing for a state like West Virginia, composed +almost entirely of native Americans of colonial stock, with only 2 per +cent foreign-born and 5 per cent colored, where the average size of +families is 5.1 persons, the highest in the United States, but where in +the Blue Ridge Mountains I have come upon two couples of native white +Americans who claimed respectively eighteen and twenty-two children. +Throughout the South the reduction in size of families and the +postponement of marriage have not occurred to any great extent either +among the white or colored races, and these are states to which +immigration has contributed less than 3 per cent of their population. +Yet, if Superintendent Walker’s view is sound in all respects, the +Southern whites should shrink from competition with the negro in the +same way that the Northern white shrinks from competition with the +immigrant. He does not do so, and the reasons are probably found in the +fact that the South has been remote from the struggle of modern +competition, and that ignorance and proud contentment fail to spur<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> the +masses to that ambitious striving which rises by means of what Malthus +called the prudential restraints on population. It is quite probable +that in the South, with the spread of the factory system and universal +education, the growth in numbers through excess of births over deaths +will be retarded.</p> + +<p>On the whole it seems that immigration and the competition of inferior +races tends to dry up the older and superior races wherever the latter +have learned to aspire to an improved standard of living, and that among +well-to-do classes not competing with immigrants, but made wealthier by +their low wages, a similar effect is caused by the desire for luxury and +easy living.<small><a name="f132.1" id="f132.1" href="#f132">[132]</a></small></p> + +<p><b>Americanization.</b>—A line on the chart opposite page 63 shows the +proportions between the number of immigrants and the existing +population. From this it appears that the enormous immigration of 1906 +is relatively not as large as the smaller immigration of the years 1849 +to 1854, or the year 1882. Three hundred thousand immigrants in 1850 was +as large an addition to a population of 23,000,000 as 1,000,000 in 1906 +to a population of 85,000,000. Judged by mere numbers, the present +immigration is not greater than that witnessed by two former periods. +Judged by saturation it may be greater, for the former immigrants were +absorbed by colonial Americans, but the present immigrants enter a +solution half colonial and half immigrant. The problem of +Americanization<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> increases more than the number to be Americanized. What +is the nature of this problem, and what are the forces available for its +solution?</p> + +<p>The term amalgamation may be used for that mixture of blood which unites +races in a common stock, while assimilation is that union of their minds +and wills which enables them to think and act together. Amalgamation is +a process of centuries, but assimilation is a process of individual +training. Amalgamation is a blending of races, assimilation a blending +of civilizations. Amalgamation is beyond the organized efforts of +government, but assimilation can be promoted by social institutions and +laws. Amalgamation therefore cannot attract our practical interest, +except as its presence or absence sets limits to our efforts toward +assimilation.</p> + +<p>Our principal interest in amalgamation is its effect on the negro race. +The census statisticians discontinued after 1890 the inquiry into the +number of mulattoes, but the census of 1890 showed that mulattoes were +15 per cent of the total negro population. This was a slightly larger +proportion than that of preceding years. The mulatto element of the +negro race is almost a race of itself. Its members on the average differ +but little if at all from those of the white race in their capacity for +advancement, and it is the tragedy of race antagonism that they with +their longings should suffer the fate of the more contented and +thoughtless blacks.<small><a name="f133.1" id="f133.1" href="#f133">[133]</a></small> In their veins runs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> the blood of white +aristocracy, and it is a curious psychology of the Anglo-Saxon that +assigns to the inferior race those equally entitled to a place among the +superior. But sociology offers compensation for the injustice to +physiology. The mulatto is the natural leader, instructor, and spokesman +of the black. Prevented from withdrawing himself above the fortunes of +his fellows, he devotes himself to their elevation. This fact becomes +clear in proportion as the need of practical education becomes clear. +The effective work of the whites through missionary schools and colleges +has not been the elevation of the black, but the elevation of mulattoes +to teach the blacks. A new era for the blacks is beginning when the +mulatto sees his own future in theirs.</p> + +<p>Apart from the negro we have very little knowledge of the amalgamation +of races in America. We only know that for the most part they have +blended into a united people with harmonious ideals, and the English, +the German, the Scotch-Irish, the Dutch, and the Huguenot have become +the American.</p> + +<p>We speak of superior and inferior races, and this is well enough, but +care should be taken to distinguish between inferiority and +backwardness—between that superiority which is the original endowment +of race and that which results from the education and training which we +call civilization. While there are superior and inferior races, there +are primitive, mediæval, and modern civilizations, and there are certain +mental qualities required for and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>produced by these different grades of +civilization. A superior race may have a primitive or mediæval +civilization, and therefore its individuals may never have exhibited the +superior mental qualities with which they are actually endowed, and +which a modern civilization would have called into action. The adults +coming from such a civilization seem to be inferior in their mental +qualities, but their children, placed in the new environments of the +advanced civilization, exhibit at once the qualities of the latter. The +Chinaman comes from a mediæval civilization—he shows little of those +qualities which are the product of Western civilization, and with his +imitativeness, routine, and traditions, he has earned the reputation of +being entirely non-assimilable. But the children of Chinamen, born and +reared in this country, entirely disprove this charge, for they are as +apt in absorbing the spirit and method of American institutions as any +Caucasian.<small><a name="f134.1" id="f134.1" href="#f134">[134]</a></small> The race is superior but backward.</p> + +<p>The Teutonic races until five hundred years after Christ were primitive +in their civilization, yet they had the mental capacities which made +them, like Arminius, able to comprehend and absorb the highest Roman +civilization. They passed through the mediæval period and then came out +into the modern period of advanced civilization, yet during these two +thousand years their mental capacities, the original endowment of race, +have scarcely improved. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> civilization, not race evolution, that +has transformed the primitive warrior into the philosopher, scientist, +artisan, and business man. Could their babies have been taken from the +woods two thousand years ago and transported to the homes and schools of +modern America, they could have covered in one generation the progress +of twenty centuries. Other races, like the Scotch and the Irish, made +the transition from primitive institutions to modern industrial habits +within a single century, and Professor Brinton, our most profound +student of the American Indian, has said,<small><a name="f135.1" id="f135.1" href="#f135">[135]</a></small> “I have been in close +relations to several full-blood American Indians who had been removed +from an aboriginal environment and instructed in this manner [in +American schools and communities], and I could not perceive that they +were either in intellect or sympathies inferior to the usual type of the +American gentleman. One of them notably had a refined sense of humor as +well as uncommon acuteness of observation.”</p> + +<p>The line between superior and inferior, as distinguished from advanced +and backward, races appears to be the line between the temperate and +tropical zones. The two belts of earth between the tropics of Capricorn +and Cancer and the arctic and antarctic circles have been the areas +where man in his struggle for existence developed the qualities of mind +and will—the ingenuity, self-reliance, self-control, strenuous +exertion, and will power—which befit the modern<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> industrial +civilization. But in the tropics these qualities are less essential, for +where nature lavishes food, and winks at the neglect of clothing and +shelter, there ignorance, superstition, physical prowess, and sexual +passion have an equal chance with intelligence, foresight, thrift, and +self-control. The children of all the races of the temperate zones are +eligible to the highest American civilization, and it only needs that +they be “caught” young enough. There is perhaps no class of people more +backward than the 3,000,000 poor whites of the Appalachian Mountains, +but there is no class whose children are better equipped by heredity to +attain distinction in any field of American endeavor. This much cannot +be said for the children of the tropical zones. Amalgamation is their +door to assimilation.</p> + +<p>Before we can intelligently inquire into the agencies of Americanization +we must first agree on what we mean by the term. I can think of no +comprehensive and concise description equal to that of Abraham Lincoln: +“Government of the people, by the people, for the people.” This +description should be applied not only to the state but to other +institutions. In the home it means equality of husband and wife; in the +church it means the voice of the laity; in industry the participation of +the workmen.</p> + +<p>Unhappily it cannot be said that Lincoln’s description has ever been +attained. It is the goal which he and others whom we recognize as true +Americans have pointed out. Greater than any other obstacle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> in the road +toward that goal have been our race divisions. Government for the people +depends on government by the people, and this is difficult where the +people cannot think and act together. Such is the problem of +Americanization.</p> + +<p>In the earlier days the most powerful agency of assimilation was +frontier life. The pioneers “were left almost entirely to their own +resources in this great struggle. They developed a spirit of +self-reliance, a capacity for self-government, which are the most +prominent characteristics of the American people.”<small><a name="f136.1" id="f136.1" href="#f136">[136]</a></small> Frontier life +includes pioneer mining camps as well as pioneer farming.</p> + +<p>Next to the frontier the farms of America are the richest field of +assimilation. Here the process is sometimes thought to be slower than it +is in the cities, but any one who has seen it under both conditions +cannot doubt that if it is slower it is more real. In the cities the +children are more regularly brought under the influence of the public +schools, but more profound and lasting than the education of the schools +is the education of the street and the community. The work of the +schools in a great city like New York cannot be too highly praised, and +without such work the future of the immigrant’s child would be dark. In +fact the children of the immigrant are better provided with school +facilities than the children of the Americans. Less than 1 per cent of +their children 10 to 14 years of age are illiterate, but the proportion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> +of illiterates among children of native parents is over 4 per cent. This +is not because the foreigner is more eager to educate his child than is +the native, but because nearly three-fourths of the foreigners’ children +and only one-sixth of the natives’ children live in the larger cities, +where schools and compulsory attendance prevail. Were it not for +compulsory education, the child of the peasant immigrant would be, like +the child of the Slav in the anthracite coal fields, “the helpless +victim of the ignorance, frugality, and industrial instincts of his +parents.”<small><a name="f137.1" id="f137.1" href="#f137">[137]</a></small> As it is, they drop out of the schools at the earliest +age allowed by law, and the hostility of foreigners to factory +legislation and its corollary compulsory school legislation is more +difficult to overcome than the hostility of American employers, both of +whom might profit by the work of their children. The thoroughness with +which the great cities of the North enforce the requirements of primary +education leaves but little distinction between the children of natives +and the children of foreigners, but what difference remains is to the +advantage of the natives. In Boston in 1900 only 5 children of native +parents were illiterate, and 22 native children of foreign parents, a +ratio of one-twentieth of 1 per cent for the natives and one-tenth of 1 +per cent for the foreigners. In New York 68 of the 83,000 children of +native parents were illiterate, and 311 of the 166,000 native children +of foreign parents, a ratio insignificant in both cases, but more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> than +twice as great for the foreigners as for the natives.<small><a name="f138.1" id="f138.1" href="#f138">[138]</a></small> Taking all of +the cities of at least 50,000 population, more than one-fourth of the +foreign-born children 10 to 15 years of age are bread-winners, and only +one-tenth of the children of native parents. The influence of residence +in America is shown by the fact that of the children of foreigners born +in this country the proportion of bread-winners is reduced to +one-seventh.<small><a name="f139.1" id="f139.1" href="#f139">[139]</a></small></p> + +<p>But it is the community more than the school that gives the child his +actual working ideals and his habits and methods of life. And in a great +city, with its separation of classes, this community is the slums, with +its mingling of all races and the worst of the Americans. He sees and +knows surprisingly little of the America that his school-books describe. +The American churches, his American employers, are in other parts of the +city, and his Americanization is left to the school-teacher, the +policeman, and the politician, who generally are but one generation +before him from Europe. But on the farm he sees and knows all classes, +the best and the worst, and even where his parents strive to isolate +their community and to preserve the language and the methods of the old +country, only a generation or two are required for the surrounding +Americanism to permeate. Meanwhile healthful work, steady, industrious, +and thrifty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> habits, have made him capable of rising to the best that +his surroundings exemplify.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p216.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Slavic Home Missionaries</span><br />(From <i>The Home Missionary</i>)</p> +<p> </p> + +<p>Since the year 1900 the Immigration Bureau has not inquired as to the +religious faith of the immigrants. In that year, when the number +admitted was 361,000, one-fifth were Protestants, mainly from Great +Britain, the Scandinavian countries, Germany, and Finland. One-tenth +were Jews, 4 per cent were Greek Catholics, and 52 per cent were Roman +Catholics. With the shifting of the sources toward the east and south of +Europe the proportion of Catholic and Jewish faith has increased. During +this transition the Protestant churches of America have begun to awaken +to a serious problem confronting them. The three New England states +which have given their religion and political character to Northern and +Western states are themselves now predominantly Catholic. In all of the +Northern manufacturing and industrial states and in their great cities +the marvellous organization and discipline of the Roman Catholic Church +has carefully provided every precinct, ward, or district with chapels, +cathedrals, and priests even in advance of the inflow of population, +while the scattered forces of Protestantism overlap in some places and +overlook other places. Two consequences have followed. The Protestant +churches in much the larger part of their activities have drawn +themselves apart in an intellectual and social round of polite +entertainment for the families of the mercantile, clerical, +professional, and employing classes,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> while the Catholic churches +minister to the laboring and wage-earning classes. In a minor and +relatively insignificant part of their activities the Protestant +churches have supported missionaries, colporters, and chapels among the +immigrants, the wage-earners, and their children. Their home missionary +societies, which in the earlier days followed up their own believers on +the frontier and enabled them to establish churches in their new homes, +have in the past decade or two become foreign missionary societies +working at home. Nothing is more significant or important in the history +of American Protestantism than the zeal and patriotism with which a few +missionaries in this unaccustomed field have begun to lead the way. By +means of addresses, periodicals, books, study classes, they are +gradually awakening the churches to the needs of the foreigner at +home.<small><a name="f140.1" id="f140.1" href="#f140">[140]</a></small> Among certain nationalities, especially the Italians and +Slavs, they find an open field, for thousands of those nationalities, +though nominally Catholic, are indifferent to the church that they +associate with oppression at home. Among these nationalities already +several converts have become missionaries in turn to their own people, +and with the barrier of language and suspicion thus bridged over, the +influence of the Protestant religion is increasing. Perhaps more than +anything else is needed a federation of the Protestant denominations +similar to that recently arranged in Porto Rico. That island has been +laid out in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>districts through mutual agreement of the home missionary +societies, and each district is assigned exclusively to a single +denomination.</p> + +<p>While the Protestant churches have been withdrawing from the districts +invaded by the foreigners, the field has been entered by the “social +settlement.” This remarkable movement, eliminating religious propaganda, +is essentially religious in its zeal for social betterment. Its +principal service has been to raise up Americans who know and understand +the life and needs of the immigrants and can interpret them to others. +In the “institutional church” is also to be found a similar adaptation +of the more strictly religious organization to the social and +educational needs of the immigrants and their children.</p> + +<p>More than any other class in the community, it is the employers who +determine the progress of the foreigner and his children towards +Americanization. They control his waking hours, his conditions of +living, and his chances of advancement. In recent years a few employers +have begun to realize their responsibilities, and a great corporation +like the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company establishes its “sociological” +department with its schools, kindergartens, hospitals, recreation +centres, and model housing, on an equal footing with its engineering and +sales departments. Other employers are interesting themselves in various +degrees and ways in “welfare work,” or “industrial betterment,” and +those who profit most by this awakening interest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> are the foreign-born +and their families. This interest has not yet shown itself in a +willingness to shorten the hours of labor, and this phase of welfare +work must probably be brought about by other agencies.</p> + +<p>The influence of schools, churches, settlements, and farming communities +applies more to the children of immigrants than their parents. The +immigrants themselves are too old for Americanization, especially when +they speak a non-English language. To them the labor-union is at present +the strongest Americanizing force. The effort of organized labor to +organize the unskilled and the immigrant is the largest and most +significant fact of the labor movement. Apart from the labor question +itself, it means the enlistment of a powerful self-interest in the +Americanization of the foreign-born. For it is not too much to say that +the only effective Americanizing force for the Southeastern European is +the labor-union. The church to which he gives allegiance is the Roman +Catholic, and, however much the Catholic Church may do for the ignorant +peasant in his European home, such instruction as the priest gives is +likely to tend toward an acceptance of their subservient position on the +part of the workingmen. It is a frequently observed fact that when +immigrants join a labor-union they almost insolently warn the priest to +keep his advice to himself.</p> + +<p>Universal suffrage admits the immigrant to American politics within one +to five years after landing. But the suffrage is not looked upon to-day +as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> sufficient Americanizing force that a preceding generation +imagined. The suffrage appeals very differently to the immigrant voter +and to the voter who has come up through the American schools and +American life. The American has learned not only that this is a free +government, but that its freedom is based on constitutional principles +of an abstract nature. Freedom of the press, trial by jury, separation +of powers, independence of the judiciary, equality of opportunity, and +several other governmental and legal principles have percolated through +his subconscious self, and when he contemplates public questions these +abstract principles have more or less influence as a guide to his +ballot. But the immigrant has none of these. He comes here solely to +earn a better living. The suffrage is nothing to him but a means of +livelihood. Not that he readily sells his vote for money—rather does he +simply “vote for his job.” He votes as instructed by his employer or his +political “boss,” because it will help his employer’s business or +because his boss will get him a job, or will, in some way, favor him and +others of his nationality. There is a noticeable difference between the +immigrant and the children of the immigrant in this regard. The young +men, when they begin to vote, can be appealed to on the ground of public +spirit; their fathers can be reached only on the ground of private +interest.</p> + +<p>Now it cannot be expected that the labor-union or any other influence +will greatly change the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>immigrant in this respect. But the union does +this much: it requires every member to be a citizen, or to have declared +his intention of taking out naturalization papers. The reasons for doing +this are not political; they are sentimental and patriotic. The union +usually takes pride in showing that its members are Americans, and have +foregone allegiance to other countries. In a union like the musicians’ +the reasons for requiring citizenship are also protective, since they +serve to exclude transient musical immigrants from American audiences. +Again, the union frees its members from the dictation of employers, +bosses, and priests. Politicians, of course, strive to control the vote +of organized labor, but so disappointing has been the experience of the +unions that they have quite generally come to distrust the leader who +combines labor and politics. The immigrant who votes as a unionist has +taken the first step, in casting his ballot, towards considering the +interests of others, and this is also the first step towards giving +public spirit and abstract principles a place alongside private interest +and his own job.</p> + +<p>But there is another way, even more impressive, in which the union +asserts the preëminence of principles over immediate self-interest. When +the foreigner from Southern Europe is inducted into the union, then for +the first time does he get the idea that his job belongs to him by +virtue of a right to work, and not as the personal favor or whim of a +boss. These people are utterly obsequious before their foremen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> +or bosses, and it is notorious that nearly always they pay for the +privilege of getting and keeping a job. This bribery of bosses, as well +as the padrone system, proceed from the deep-seated conviction that +despotism is the natural social relation, and that therefore they must +make terms with the influential superior who is so fortunate as to have +favor with the powers that be.</p> + +<p>The anthracite coal operators represented such men, prior to joining the +union, as disciplined and docile workmen, but in doing so they +disregarded the fact that outside the field where they were obsequious +they were most violent, treacherous, and factional. Before the +organization of the union in the coal fields these foreigners were given +over to the most bitter and often murderous feuds among the ten or +fifteen nationalities and the two or three factions within each +nationality. The Polish worshippers of a given saint would organize a +night attack on the Polish worshippers of another saint; the Italians +from one province would have a knife for the Italians of another +province, and so on. When the union was organized the antagonisms of +race, religion, and faction were eliminated. The immigrants came down to +an economic basis and turned their forces against their bosses. “We +fellows killed this country,” said a Polish striker to Father Curran, +“and now we are going to make it.” The sense of a common cause, and, +more than all else, the sense of individual rights as men, have come to +these people<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> through the organization of their labor unions, and it +could come in no other way, for the union appeals to their necessities, +while other forces appeal to their prejudices. They are even yet far +from ideal Americans, but those who have hitherto imported them and +profited by their immigration should be the last to cry out against the +chief influence that has started them on the way to true +Americanism.<small><a name="f141.1" id="f141.1" href="#f141">[141]</a></small></p> + +<p><b>Agricultural Distribution of Immigrants.</b>—The congestion and colonizing +of immigrants in the cities and their consequent poverty and the +deterioration of the second generation have brought forth various +proposals for inducing them to settle upon the farms. The commissioners +of immigration<small><a name="f142.1" id="f142.1" href="#f142">[142]</a></small> at various times have advocated an industrial museum +at Ellis Island, wherein the resources and opportunities of the several +states could be displayed before the eyes of the incoming thousands. +They and others have gone further and advocated the creation of a bureau +of immigrant distribution to help the immigrants out of the crowded +cities into the country districts. Still others have urged the +establishment of steamship lines to Southern ports and the Gulf of +Mexico, so that immigrants may be carried directly to the regions that +“need them.” Very little can be expected from projects of this +kind,<small><a name="f143.1" id="f143.1" href="#f143">[143]</a></small> for the present contingent of immigrants from Southeastern +Europe is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> too poor in worldly goods and too ignorant of American +business to warrant an experiment in the isolation and self-dependence +of farming. The farmers of the South and West welcome the settler who +has means of purchase, but they distrust the newly arrived immigrant. +Scandinavians and Germans in large numbers find their way to their +countrymen on the farms, but the newer nationalities would require the +fostering care of government or of wealthy private societies. The Jews +have, indeed, taken up the matter, and the Jewish Agricultural and +Industrial Aid Society of New York, by means of subventions from the +Baron de Hirsch fund, has distributed many families throughout the +country, partly in agriculture, but more generally in trade. The Society +for the Protection of Italian Immigrants is doing similar work. Great +railway systems and land companies in the South and West have their +agricultural and industrial agents on the lookout for eligible settlers. +All of the Southern states have established bureaus of immigration, and +they are advertising the North and Europe for desirable immigrants. But +these agencies seek mainly those immigrants who have resided in the +country for a time, and have learned the language and American +practices, and, in the case of the railroad and land companies, those +who have accumulated some property.</p> + +<p>The immigration bureaus of the Southern states and railways, the most +urgent applicants at the present time for immigrants, are strongly +opposed to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> plan of federal distribution. They want farmers who will +do their own work. From the standpoint of the immigrant himself this +position is correct. To find a place as an agriculturist he must find a +place as a farmer and not a harvest hand.<small><a name="f144.1" id="f144.1" href="#f144">[144]</a></small> Speaking for the Southern +bureaus, Professor Fleming says,<small><a name="f145.1" id="f145.1" href="#f145">[145]</a></small> “The South decidedly objects to +being made the government dumping-ground for undesirable immigrants. It +does not want the lower class foreigners who have swarmed into the +Northern cities. It wants the same sort of people who settled so much of +the West.” The state board of South Carolina officially invites +immigration of “white citizens of the United States, citizens of +Ireland, Scotland, Switzerland, and France, and all other foreigners of +Saxon origin.”</p> + +<p>As for those without money who must depend on their daily labor for +wages, they must go where employment is most regular and the best wages +are paid. This is not on the farms, with a few months’ work in summer +and no homes in winter. It is unmistakably in the great cities and +industrial centres. The commissioner of immigration at Ellis Island, +speaking of the cordon established by his bureau along the Canadian +frontier from Halifax to Winnipeg in order to catch those who tried to +escape inspection at New York, said, “All those immigrants who had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> New +York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Cleveland, or Cincinnati in mind as a +destination when they left Europe and came to Quebec, went all the way +around that wall to its western end at Winnipeg, and then took trains +and came back to the very places they had in mind when they left Europe; +and if you were to land all the ships that now come to New York at +Galveston, New Orleans, or Charleston, every one of the immigrants would +come to the place he had in mind when he decided to emigrate.”<small><a name="f146.1" id="f146.1" href="#f146">[146]</a></small></p> + +<p>Professor Wilcox contends that the immigrants already distribute +themselves according to their economic advantage as completely as do the +natives. They seem to congest in the cities because the cities are +necessarily their places of first arrival. “Our foreign-born arrive, in +at least nine-tenths of the cases, at some city. Our native citizens +arrive by birth, in at least three-fourths of the cases, in the country. +The foreign-born arrive mainly at seaport cities, and disperse gradually +from those cities to and through other interior cities, ultimately +reaching in many cases the small towns or open country. It is in no +sense surprising, or an evidence of imperfect distribution, that the +foreign-born should be massed in the cities when nine-tenths of them +arrive there, and the native population massed in the country districts +when three-fourths of them arrive there.”<small><a name="f147.1" id="f147.1" href="#f147">[147]</a></small> Artificial distribution +would not relieve<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> the pressure as long as the character and amount of +immigration continue—it can only be relieved by creating greater +economic inducements in the country. Natives and foreigners both crowd +to the cities because wages and profits are higher than they are in the +country.</p> + +<p>Even supposing the congestion in the cities could be relieved by making +the inducements in the country greater, the relief could not continue, +for it would only invite more immigration. Emigration has not relieved +the pressure of population in Europe. In no period of their history, +with the exception of Ireland, have the populations of Europe increased +at a greater rate than during the last half century of migration to +America. It is not emigration but improved standards of living that +lessens the pressure of numbers, and France with the widest diffusion of +property has little emigration and no increase in population. With the +redundant millions of Europe, increasing thousands would migrate if they +got word from their friends that the American government is finding jobs +for them. Just as we have already seen that the tide of immigration +rises with a period of prosperity in America, so would it rise with +agricultural distribution of immigrants. Both are simply more openings +for employment, and the knowledge of such opportunities is promptly +carried to the waiting multitudes abroad.</p> + +<p>Consider also the political jeopardy of an administration at Washington +conducting a bureau for the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> distribution of immigrants. If it refused +to direct immigrants to one section of the country because it found that +the wages were low, it would arouse the hostility of employers. If it +directed them to another section, where the wages offered were high +because the employers were preparing for a lockout, or the unions were +on strike, it would lose the votes of workingmen. The administration +would soon learn that safely to conduct such a bureau it must not +conduct it at all.</p> + +<p>Far better is it that the federal government should leave the +distribution of immigrants to private employment agencies. It might then +license all such agencies that conduct an interstate business. With the +power to take away the license on proof of fraud and misrepresentation, +and with the prosecution of agencies and employers that deceive and +enslave the immigrant, the government would accomplish all that it could +directly do for better distribution. Unquestionably the employment +agencies, with their <i>padroni</i>, their bankers, and their false promises, +are the source of miserable abuse to thousands of immigrants.<small><a name="f148.1" id="f148.1" href="#f148">[148]</a></small> They +require interstate as well as state regulation. By weeding out the +dishonest agencies the field would be occupied by the honest ones, and +the immigrant could trust himself to their assistance. But such +regulation would not be merely for the sake of the immigrant. It would, +as it should, aid the American as well.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>This suggests to us the true nature of the problem of city congestion +and the nature of its solution. It is not to be found in special efforts +on behalf of the immigrant, but in efforts to better the condition of +both Americans and immigrants. The congestion of cities is owing to +discriminations in favor of cities. If the government gives aid to +agriculture as it does to manufactures, if it provides better +communication, equalizes taxes, reduces freight rates to the level +enjoyed by cities, then agriculture and the small towns will be more +attractive. Americans will not crowd to the cities, and the more +provident of the immigrants will find their way to the country. The +proposition of federal distribution of immigrants is merely a clever +illusion kept up to lead Congress astray from the restriction of +immigration.</p> + +<p><b>Higher Standards of Immigration.</b>—As for the inferior, defective, and +undesirable classes of immigrants, there is no protection except +stringent selection. The Commissioner of Immigration at New York +estimates that 200,000 of the million immigrants in 1903 were an injury +instead of a benefit to the industries of the country,<small><a name="f149.1" id="f149.1" href="#f149">[149]</a></small> and he +advocates a physical examination and the exclusion of those who fall +below a certain physical standard. During the past ten years the +educational, or rather, illiteracy test, has come to the front, and the +advantages of this test are its simplicity and its specific application +to those races whose standards are lowest.</p> + +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/illo_p230.jpg" alt="" /></div> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Aliens awaiting Admission at Ellis Island</span></p> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>Much discussion has been carried on respecting this test, and there has +been considerable misunderstanding and misrepresentation as to its +probable effects. The principal mistake has been the assumption that it +is designed to take the place of other tests of admission, and that +therefore it would permit, for example, the most dangerous +criminals—those who are intelligent—to enter this country. If we +examine existing laws, and seek to understand the real nature of +immigration restriction, we can see the character of this mistake. All +of our legislation governing immigration should be described as +<i>improvement</i> of immigration rather than <i>restriction</i> of immigration. +The object has always been to raise the average character of those +admitted by excluding those who fall below certain standards. And higher +standards have been added from time to time as rapidly as the lawmakers +perceived the need of bettering the quality of our future citizenship. +Although in 1862 Congress had enacted a law prohibiting the shipment of +Chinese coolies in American vessels,<small><a name="f150.1" id="f150.1" href="#f150">[150]</a></small> it was not until 1875 that the +lawmakers first awoke to the evil of unrestricted immigration. In that +year a law was enacted to exclude convicts and prostitutes. This law +made an exception in favor of those who had been convicted of political +offences. Next, in 1882, Congress added lunatics, idiots, paupers, and +Chinese. In 1885 laborers under contract were for the first time to be +excluded, but an exception was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> made in order to admit actors, artists, +lecturers, singers, domestics, and skilled workmen for new industries. +In 1891 the list of ineligibles was again extended so as to shut out not +only convicts but persons convicted of crime, also “assisted” +immigrants, polygamists, and persons with loathsome or dangerous +contagious diseases. In 1903 the law added epileptics, persons who have +had two or more attacks of insanity, professional beggars, and +anarchists. Notwithstanding these successive additions of excluded +classes, the number of immigrants has continually increased until it is +greater to-day than in any preceding period, and while the standards +have been raised in one direction, the average quality has been lowered +in other directions. The educational and physical tests, while not +needed for the races from Northwestern Europe, are now advocated as +additions to the existing tests on account of the flood of races from +Southeastern Europe.</p> + +<p>The question of “poor physique” has come seriously to the front in +recent reports of immigration officials. The decline in the average of +physical make-up to which they call attention accompanies the increase +in numbers of Southern and Eastern Europeans. While the commissioner at +Ellis Island estimates that 200,000 immigrants are below the physical +standards that should be required to entitle them to admission, the +number certified by the surgeons is much less than this. Yet nine-tenths +of even that smaller number are admitted, since the law<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> excludes them +only if other grounds of exclusion appear. That the physical test is +practicable is shown by the following description of the qualities taken +into account by the medical examiners at the immigrant stations; +qualities which would be made even more definite if they were authorized +to be acted upon:<small><a name="f151.1" id="f151.1" href="#f151">[151]</a></small>—</p> + +<p>“A certificate of this nature implies that the alien concerned is +afflicted with a body not only but illy adapted to the work necessary to +earn his bread, but also but poorly able to withstand the onslaught of +disease. It means that he is undersized, poorly developed, with feeble +heart action, arteries below the standard size; that he is physically +degenerate, and as such not only unlikely to become a desirable citizen, +but also very likely to transmit his undesirable qualities to his +offspring should he, unfortunately for the country in which he is +domiciled, have any.</p> + +<p>“Of all causes for rejection, outside of those for dangerous, +contagious, or loathsome diseases, or for mental disease, that of ‘poor +physique’ should receive the most weight, for in admitting such aliens +not only do we increase the number of public charges by their inability +to gain their bread through their physical inaptitude and their low +resistance to disease, but we admit likewise progenitors to this country +whose offspring will reproduce, often in an exaggerated degree, the +physical degeneracy of their parents.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>The history of the illiteracy test in Congress is a curious comment on +lobbying. First introduced in 1895, it passed the House by a vote of 195 +to 26, and the Senate in another form by a vote of 52 to 10. Referred to +a conference committee, an identical bill again passed both Houses by +reduced majorities. But irrelevant amendments had been tacked on and the +President vetoed it. The House passed it over his veto by 193 to 37, but +it was too late in the session to reach a vote in the Senate. Introduced +again in 1898, it passed the Senate by 45 to 28, but pressure of the +Spanish War prevented a vote in the House. The bill came up in +subsequent Congresses but did not reach a vote.<small><a name="f152.1" id="f152.1" href="#f152">[152]</a></small> The lobby is +directed by the steamship companies, supported by railway companies, the +Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association, and other great employers of +labor. By misrepresentation, these interested agencies have been able at +times to arouse the fears of the older races of immigrants not affected +by the measure. Their fears were groundless, for the illiteracy test is +not a test of the English language, but a test of any language, and it +applies only to those who are 15 years of age and over, but does not +apply to wife, children, parents, or grandparents of those who are +admitted. With these reasonable limitations it would exclude only 1 in +200 of the Scandinavians, 1 in 100 of the English, Scotch, and Finns, 2 +or 3 in 100 of the Germans, Irish, Welsh, and French; but it would +exclude one-half of the South Italians,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> one-seventh of the North +Italians, one-third to two-fifths of the several Slav races, one-seventh +of the Russian Jews, altogether one-fifth or one-fourth of the total +immigration.<small><a name="f153.1" id="f153.1" href="#f153">[153]</a></small> But these proportions would not long continue. +Elementary education is making progress in Eastern and Southern Europe, +and a test of this kind would stimulate it still more among the +peasants. Restrictive at first, it is only selective; it would not +permanently reduce the number of immigrants, but would raise their level +of intelligence and their ability to take care of themselves.</p> + +<p>The foregoing principles do not apply to Chinese immigration. There the +law is strictly one of exclusion and not selection. This distinction is +often overlooked in the discussion of the subject. Respecting European, +Japanese, and Korean immigration, the law <i>admits</i> all except certain +classes definitely described, such as paupers, criminals, and so on. +Respecting Chinese immigration the law <i>excludes</i> all except certain +classes described, such as teachers, merchants, travellers, and +students. In the case of European immigration the burden of proof is +upon the immigration authorities to show that the immigrant should be +excluded. In the case of the Chinese, the burden of proof is on the +immigrant to show that he should be admitted. In the administration of +the law the difference is fundamental. If the Chinese law is liberalized +so as to admit doctors, lawyers, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> other professional classes, +against whom there is no objection, it can be done in one of two ways. +It can name and specify the additional classes to be admitted. To this +there is little objection, for it retains the existing spirit of the +law. Or it can be reversed, and can admit all classes of Chinese except +coolies, laborers, and the classes now excluded by other laws. If this +were done, the enforcement of the law would break down, for the burden +of proof would be lifted from the immigrant and placed on the examining +board. The law is with great difficulty enforced as it is, but the +evasions bear no comparison in number with those practised under the +other law. European immigration is encouraged, provided it passes a +minimum standard. Chinese immigration is prohibited unless it exceeds a +maximum standard. One is selection, the other is exclusion. One should +be amended by describing new classes <i>not</i> to be admitted, the other by +describing classes which <i>may</i> be admitted.</p> + +<p>This difference between the two laws may be seen in the effects of the +restrictions which have from time to time been added to the immigration +laws. Each additional ground of restriction or selection has not +decreased the total amount of immigration, nor has it increased the +proportion of those debarred from admission. In 1898, 3200 aliens were +sent back, and this was 1.4 per cent of those who arrived. In 1901, 3900 +were sent back, but this was only three-fourths of 1 per cent of those +arriving. In 1906, 13,000 sent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> back were 1.2 per cent of the arrivals. +Intending immigrants as well as steamship companies learn the standards +of exclusion and the methods of evasion, so that the proportion who take +their chances and fail in the attempt is very small. Nevertheless, this +deportation of immigrants, though averaging less than 1 per cent, is a +hardship that should be avoided. It has often been proposed that this +should be done through examination abroad by American consuls or by +agents of the Immigration Bureau. Attractive and humane as this proposal +appears, the foreign examination could not be made final. It would +remove the examiners from effective control, and would require a large +additional force as well as the existing establishment to deport those +who might evade the foreign inspection. It does not strike at the root +of the evil, which is the business energy of the steamship companies in +soliciting immigration, and their business caution in requiring doubtful +immigrants to give bonds in advance to cover the cost of carrying them +back.<small><a name="f154.1" id="f154.1" href="#f154">[154]</a></small> It is not the exclusion law that causes hardship, but the +steamship companies that connive at evasions of the law. The law of 1903 +for the first time adopted the correct principle to meet this evasion, +but with a limited application. Since 1898, the Bureau had debarred +increasing numbers on account of loathsome and contagious diseases. But +these had already done the injury which their deportation was designed +to prevent. In the crowded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> steerage the entire shipload was exposed to +this contagion. Congress then enacted the law of 1903, not only +requiring the steamship companies to carry them back, as before, but +requiring the companies to pay a fine of $100 for every alien debarred +on that account. In 1906, the companies paid fines of $24,300 on 243 +such deportations. The principle should be extended to all classes +excluded by law, and the fine should be raised to $500. Then every agent +of the steamship companies in the remotest hamlets of Europe would be an +immigration inspector. Their surgeons and officials already know the law +and its standards of administration as thoroughly as the immigration +officials. It only needs an adequate motive to make them cooperators +with the Bureau instead of evaders of the law. Already the law of 1903 +has partly had that effect. One steamship company has arranged with the +Bureau to locate medical officers at its foreign ports of embarkation. +However, the penalty is not yet heavy enough, and the +Commissioner-General recommends its increase to $500. By extending the +law to all grounds of deportation in addition to contagious diseases, +the true source of hardship to debarred aliens will be dried up.<small><a name="f155.1" id="f155.1" href="#f155">[155]</a></small></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> + +<p class="index"> +<strong>A</strong><br /> +<br /> +Advertising, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Age Composition of Immigrants, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Agriculture, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Alien Contract Labor Law, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br /> +<br /> +American Federation of Labor, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Americanization, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Armenians, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Asiatic Immigration, <a href="#Page_101">101-104</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Assimilation, <a href="#Page_17">17-21</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Atlanta University, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Australia, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="austria" id="austria"></a> +Austria-Hungary, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79-87</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>B</strong><br /> +<br /><a name="births" id="births"></a> +Births, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bohemians, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Boston, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brinton, Daniel G., <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Burlingame Treaty, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Butcher Workmen, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>C</strong><br /> +<br /> +California, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Canada, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>. (See <a href="#french">“French Canadians.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Carib, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Castes, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Charity, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Charity Organization Society of New York, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chicago, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Child Labor, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="chinese" id="chinese"></a> +Chinese, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>. (See <a href="#coolies">“Coolies.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Chinese Exclusion, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cities, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Civil War, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Classes in America, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Closed Shop, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Colored Farmers’ Alliance, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Competition, Race, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Contract Labor, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>. (See <a href="#coolies">“Coolies,”</a> <a href="#peonage">“Peonage.”</a>)<br /> +<br /><a name="coolies" id="coolies"></a> +Coolies, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>. (See <a href="#chinese">“Chinese,”</a> <a href="#japanese">“Japanese.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Coöperation, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cost of Living, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>. (See also <a href="#standard">“Standard of Living.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Crime, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168-175</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Croatians, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Curran, Father, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>D</strong><br /> +<br /><a name="death" id="death"></a> +Death-rate, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>. (See <a href="#infant">“Infant Mortality.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Distribution of Immigrants, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224-230</a>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span><br /> +Drunkenness, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dutch, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dutch East India Company, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>E</strong><br /> +<br /><a name="education" id="education"></a> +Education, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>. (See <a href="#illiteracy">“Illiteracy.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Educational Tests, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>. (See <a href="#negro">“Negro.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Eminence of Races in America, <a href="#Page_23">23-27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Employment Agencies, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.<br /> +<br /> +English Race, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Erie Canal, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>F</strong><br /> +<br /> +Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Filipinos, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Finns, <a href="#Page_95">95-97</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fleming, Professor W. L., <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /> +<br /> +French, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="french" id="french"></a> +French Canadians, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>G</strong><br /> +<br /> +Galicia, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>. (See also <a href="#austria">“Austria-Hungary.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Germans, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67-68</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Greeks, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>H</strong><br /> +<br /> +Hampton Institute, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hawaii, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Heredity, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hoffman, Fred L., <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Huguenots, <a href="#Page_24">24-25</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>I</strong><br /> +<br /><a name="illiteracy" id="illiteracy"></a> +Illiteracy, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Immigration, <a href="#Page_22">22-38</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63-106</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Immigration Bureaus, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="incentives" id="incentives"></a> +Incentives to Immigration, <a href="#Page_27">27-31</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63-68</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84-87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> +<br /> +India, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Indigenous Races, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Industrial Capacity of Races, <a href="#Page_127">127-134</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Industrial Education, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>. (See <a href="#negro">“Negro.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Industrial Prosperity and Depression, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="infant" id="infant"></a> +Infant Mortality, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>. (See <a href="#death">“Death-rate.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Initiative and Referendum, <a href="#Page_185">185-187</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="irish" id="irish"></a> +Irish, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Italians, <a href="#Page_70">70-79</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>J</strong><br /> +<br /><a name="japanese" id="japanese"></a> +Japanese, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Jefferson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Jenks, J. W., <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Jews, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87-95</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>K</strong><br /> +<br /> +Kelsey, Carl, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Knights of Labor, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Knownothings, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Koreans, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kuczynski, R. R., <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>L</strong><br /> +<br /><a name="labor" id="labor"></a> +Labor, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134-159</a>. (See <a href="#earners">“Wage Earners,”</a> <a href="#unions">“Trade Unions.”</a>)<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span><br /> +Labor, Department of, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Landlordism, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Languages, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Law, John, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Leadership, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Legislation, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lincoln, Abraham, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lodge, Henry Cabot, <a href="#Page_22">22-25</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Longshoremen, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>M</strong><br /> +<br /> +Machinery, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Magyars, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Malay Races, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mallock, W. H., <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Marriage, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mexicans, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Military Duties, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Miners, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mob Violence, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Molly Maguires, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Morality, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>. (See <a href="#prostitution">“Prostitution.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Münsterberg, Hugo, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>N</strong><br /> +<br /> +Naturalization, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="negro" id="negro"></a> +Negro, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39-62</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.<br /> +<br /> +New York, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="norwegians" id="norwegians"></a> +Norwegians, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>. (See <a href="#scandinavians">“Scandinavians.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>P</strong><br /> +<br /> +Padroni, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.<br /> +<br /> +“Pale of Settlement,” <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Penn, William, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="peonage" id="peonage"></a> +Peonage, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Philippine Commission, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Philippine Islands, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Poles, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Political Boss, The, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Political Exiles, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="population" id="population"></a> +Population, <a href="#Page_53">53-58</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>. (See <a href="#births">“Births”</a> and <a href="#death">“Death-rates.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Porto Rico, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Portuguese, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Poverty and Pauperism, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175-178</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Primaries, Direct, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Profits, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Prohibition, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Proportional Representation, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="prostitution" id="prostitution"></a> +Prostitution, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Protective Tariff, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>Q</strong><br /> +<br /> +Quakers, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>R</strong><br /> +<br /> +Race Problem, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>. (See <a href="#negro">“Negro.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Races, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12-17</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104-106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>. (See individual name of race.)<br /> +<br /> +Race Suicide, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Railroads, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Reconstruction, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Religion, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217-219</a>. (See <a href="#incentives">“Incentives to Immigration.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Restriction of Immigration, <a href="#Page_116">116 n.</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ripley, W. Z., <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Roosevelt, Theodore, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rosenberg, Edward, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Roumanians, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Russia, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ruthenians, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>S</strong><br /> +<br /><a name="scandinavians" id="scandinavians"></a> +Scandinavians, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>. (See <a href="#norwegians">“Norwegians.”</a>)<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span><br /> +Scotch Irish, <a href="#Page_23">23-24</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31-38</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>. (See <a href="#irish">“Irish.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Self-government, <a href="#Page_2">2-4</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Seymour, Governor Horatio, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Shaler, Professor N. S., <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Slavs, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Slovaks, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Social Settlements, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Socialism, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Spaniards, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="standard" id="standard"></a> +Standard of Living, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Statistics, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160-178</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>. (See <a href="#population">“Population,”</a> <a href="#births">“Births,”</a> <a href="#death">“Death-rate.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Steamship Lines, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stone, A. H., <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Strikes, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Suffrage, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>. (See also <a href="#education">“Educational Tests.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Sweatshops, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Swedes, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Syrians, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>T</strong><br /> +<br /> +Taft, Governor, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Taxation, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Temporary Immigration, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Test Act, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> +<br /><a name="unions" id="unions"></a> +Trade Unions, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>. (See <a href="#labor">“Labor”</a> and <a href="#earners">“Wage Earners.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Triple Alliance, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tuskegee Institute, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>U</strong><br /> +<br /> +United Garment Workers of America, <a href="#Page_115">115 n.</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> +<br /> +United Hebrew Charities of New York, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.<br /> +<br /> +United Mine Workers of America, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<strong>W</strong><br /> +<br /><a name="earners" id="earners"></a> +Wage Earners, <a href="#Page_111">111-118</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.(See <a href="#labor">“Labor.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Wages, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>. (See <a href="#labor">“Labor.”</a>)<br /> +<br /> +Wage System, The, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Walker, Francis A., <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Watson, Elkanah, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wealth Production and Immigration, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Welfare Work, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wilcox, Professor, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><b>Footnotes:</b></p> + +<p><a name="f1" id="f1" href="#f1.1">[1]</a> Bluntschli, “Theory of the State,” pp. 108-181.</p> + +<p><a name="f2" id="f2" href="#f2.1">[2]</a> <i>Atlantic Monthly</i>, May, 1903, p. 649.</p> + +<p><a name="f3" id="f3" href="#f3.1">[3]</a> Shaler, p. 651.</p> + +<p><a name="f4" id="f4" href="#f4.1">[4]</a> Ripley, “The Races of Europe.”</p> + +<p><a name="f5" id="f5" href="#f5.1">[5]</a> Ripley, Chs. XVII and XVIII.</p> + +<p><a name="f6" id="f6" href="#f6.1">[6]</a> See the interesting series of articles by H. N. Casson, <i>Munsey’s</i>, 1906.</p> + +<p><a name="f7" id="f7" href="#f7.1">[7]</a> Lodge, p. 138.</p> + +<p><a name="f8" id="f8" href="#f8.1">[8]</a> “History and Topography of New York,” Address at Cornell University, June 30, 1870.</p> + +<p><a name="f9" id="f9" href="#f9.1">[9]</a> These figures are probably exaggerated, but authorities agree upon +the magnitude of the migration. Fiske, “Old Virginia,” Vol. II, p. 594.</p> + +<p><a name="f10" id="f10" href="#f10.1">[10]</a> Hanna, “The Scotch-Irish,” Vol. II, p. 2.</p> + +<p><a name="f11" id="f11" href="#f11.1">[11]</a> Tillinghast, “The Negro in Africa and America.”</p> + +<p><a name="f12" id="f12" href="#f12.1">[12]</a> Burgess, pp. 45, 225; Fleming, pp. 380, 433.</p> + +<p><a name="f13" id="f13" href="#f13.1">[13]</a> Burgess, p. 207.</p> + +<p><a name="f14" id="f14" href="#f14.1">[14]</a> See Ch. VIII, “Politics.”</p> + +<p><a name="f15" id="f15" href="#f15.1">[15]</a> Commission of Education <i>Report</i>, 1900-1901, Vol. I, p. ci.</p> + +<p><a name="f16" id="f16" href="#f16.1">[16]</a> Hugh M. Browne, A.M.E., <i>Zion Church Quarterly</i>, April, 1894, quoted by Tillinghast, p. 186.</p> + +<p><a name="f17" id="f17" href="#f17.1">[17]</a> Fannie B. Williams, <i>Charities</i>, October 7, 1905, p. 43.</p> + +<p><a name="f18" id="f18" href="#f18.1">[18]</a> <i>Atlanta University Publications</i>, No. 7, p. 188.</p> + +<p><a name="f19" id="f19" href="#f19.1">[19]</a> Bureau of Labor, <i>Bulletin</i>, No. 35.</p> + +<p><a name="f20" id="f20" href="#f20.1">[20]</a> <i>Atlanta University Publications</i>, Nos. 3 and 8.</p> + +<p><a name="f21" id="f21" href="#f21.1">[21]</a> <i>Atlanta University Publications</i>, No. 3, pp. 153-178.</p> + +<p><a name="f22" id="f22" href="#f22.1">[22]</a> Twelfth Census, <i>Supplementary Analysis</i>, p. 203.</p> + +<p><a name="f23" id="f23" href="#f23.1">[23]</a> Willcox, “Census Statistics of the Negro,” <i>Yale Review</i>, 13:279 (1904).</p> + +<p><a name="f24" id="f24" href="#f24.1">[24]</a> “The Negro Farmer,” p. 90.</p> + +<p><a name="f25" id="f25" href="#f25.1">[25]</a> Pp. 9, 10.</p> + +<p><a name="f26" id="f26" href="#f26.1">[26]</a> Dabney, Commissioner of Education, <i>Report</i>, 1902, Vol. I, p. 797.</p> + +<p><a name="f27" id="f27" href="#f27.1">[27]</a> Twelfth Census, <i>Supplementary Analysis</i>, pp. 305, 307.</p> + +<p><a name="f28" id="f28" href="#f28.1">[28]</a> <i>Supplementary Analysis</i>, p. 204.</p> + +<p><a name="f29" id="f29" href="#f29.1">[29]</a> Pp. 16, 17; Wood, “American in Process,” p. 218.</p> + +<p><a name="f30" id="f30" href="#f30.1">[30]</a> Twelfth Census, Vol. III, p. lxix.</p> + +<p><a name="f31" id="f31" href="#f31.1">[31]</a> <i>Atlanta University Publications</i>, No. 1, p. 24.</p> + +<p><a name="f32" id="f32" href="#f32.1">[32]</a> <i>Atlanta University Publications</i>, No. 2, p. 9.</p> + +<p><a name="f33" id="f33" href="#f33.1">[33]</a>v Twelfth Census, Vol. III, p. lxxxii.</p> + +<p><a name="f34" id="f34" href="#f34.1">[34]</a> P. clxxvi.</p> + +<p><a name="f35" id="f35" href="#f35.1">[35]</a> P. ccxviii.</p> + +<p><a name="f36" id="f36" href="#f36.1">[36]</a> Pp. cxix, cxxiii, cxxvii.</p> + +<p><a name="f37" id="f37" href="#f37.1">[37]</a> Hoffman, p. 70.</p> + +<p><a name="f38" id="f38" href="#f38.1">[38]</a> Twelfth Census, <i>Supplementary Analysis</i>, pp. 496, 497.</p> + +<p><a name="f39" id="f39" href="#f39.1">[39]</a> <i>Atlanta University Publications</i>, No. 1, p. 26.</p> + +<p><a name="f40" id="f40" href="#f40.1">[40]</a> Figures for 1883.</p> + +<p><a name="f41" id="f41" href="#f41.1">[41]</a> Less than one-tenth of one per cent.</p> + +<p><a name="f42" id="f42" href="#f42.1">[42]</a> This is the number according to race; the table gives the number according to last place of residence.</p> + +<p><a name="f43" id="f43" href="#f43.1">[43]</a> <i>Review of Reviews</i>, 33:491 (1906).</p> + +<p><a name="f44" id="f44" href="#f44.1">[44]</a> Statistics mainly from King and Okey, “Italy To-day.”</p> + +<p><a name="f45" id="f45" href="#f45.1">[45]</a> <i>Review of Reviews</i>, 33:491 (1906).</p> + +<p><a name="f46" id="f46" href="#f46.1">[46]</a> Twelfth Census, <i>Supplementary Analysis</i>, p. 27.</p> + +<p><a name="f47" id="f47" href="#f47.1">[47]</a> <i>Review of Reviews</i>, 33:491 (1906).</p> + +<p><a name="f48" id="f48" href="#f48.1">[48]</a> King and Okey, pp. 316-318.</p> + +<p><a name="f49" id="f49" href="#f49.1">[49]</a> Balch, <i>Charities</i>, May, 1906, p. 179.</p> + +<p><a name="f50" id="f50" href="#f50.1">[50]</a> Marshall, “Principles of Economics,” p. 248.</p> + +<p><a name="f51" id="f51" href="#f51.1">[51]</a> “Jewish Encyclopedia,” 2:532.</p> + +<p><a name="f52" id="f52" href="#f52.1">[52]</a> Balch, <i>Charities</i>, May, 1906, p. 180.</p> + +<p><a name="f53" id="f53" href="#f53.1">[53]</a> P. 380.</p> + +<p><a name="f54" id="f54" href="#f54.1">[54]</a> “Industrial Commission,” 15:442.</p> + +<p><a name="f55" id="f55" href="#f55.1">[55]</a> Commissioner-General, 1906, p. 85.</p> + +<p><a name="f56" id="f56" href="#f56.1">[56]</a> Coman, “History of Contract Labor,” etc., p. 47.</p> + +<p><a name="f57" id="f57" href="#f57.1">[57]</a> Reports on Hawaii; Commissioner-General of Immigration. See Index.</p> + +<p><a name="f58" id="f58" href="#f58.1">[58]</a> Report of the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration, 1903. Cd. 1741.</p> + +<p><a name="f59" id="f59" href="#f59.1">[59]</a> Semple, “American History,” etc., p. 332.</p> + +<p><a name="f60" id="f60" href="#f60.1">[60]</a> Rowe, Chapter V.</p> + +<p><a name="f61" id="f61" href="#f61.1">[61]</a> Census of the Philippine Islands.</p> + +<p><a name="f62" id="f62" href="#f62.1">[62]</a> Lalor’s “Cyclopedia of Political Economy, Political Science, and +United States History,” article on “Chinese Immigration.”</p> + +<p><a name="f63" id="f63" href="#f63.1">[63]</a> Industrial Commission, 19:679.</p> + +<p><a name="f64" id="f64" href="#f64.1">[64]</a> Computed from Table VIII, p. 28 <i>et seq.</i>, Report of +Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1906. “Commercial” includes agents, +bankers, hotel-keepers, manufacturers, merchants, and dealers, and other +miscellaneous. “Unskilled” includes draymen, hackmen, and teamsters, +farm laborers, farmers, fishermen, laborers, and servants.</p> + +<p><a name="f65" id="f65" href="#f65.1">[65]</a> Two hundred and eighty-five thousand four hundred and sixty +immigrants set down as “no occupation,” including mainly women and children, are omitted from this computation.</p> + +<p><a name="f66" id="f66" href="#f66.1">[66]</a> Less than one-tenth of one per cent.</p> + +<p><a name="f67" id="f67" href="#f67.1">[67]</a> Industrial Commission, Vol. XV, see index, “Prepaid Tickets,” p. 818.</p> + +<p><a name="f68" id="f68" href="#f68.1">[68]</a> United States Revised Statutes, 1901, Section 1999, Act of July 28, 1868.</p> + +<p><a name="f69" id="f69" href="#f69.1">[69]</a> Fleming, pp. 692, 693.</p> + +<p><a name="f70" id="f70" href="#f70.1">[70]</a> “If I were asked what one factor makes most for the amicable +relations between the races in the Delta, I should say, without +hesitation, the absence of a white laboring class, particularly of field +laborers.”—Stone, “The Negro in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta,” p. 241. +“There is comparatively little crime in the Black Belt and in the White +Belt. It is in the counties where the races meet on something like +numerical equality and in economic competition that the maximum of crime +is charged against negroes.”—<i>Atlanta University Publications</i>, No. 9, p. 48.</p> + +<p><a name="f71" id="f71" href="#f71.1">[71]</a> In 1905, after losing a strike in New York, the General Executive +Board of the United Garment Workers of America, consisting with one +exception of Russian Jews, adopted the following resolutions:—</p> + +<p>Resolved, That the unprecedented movement of the very poor in America +from Europe in the last three years has resulted in wholly changing the +previous social, political, and economic aspects of the immigration +question. The enormous accessions to the ranks of our competing +wage-workers, being to a great extent unemployed, or only partly +employed at uncertain wages, are lowering the standard of living among +the masses of the working people of this country, without giving promise +to uplift the great body of immigrants themselves. The overstocking of +the labor market has become a menace to many trade-unions, especially +those of the lesser skilled workers. Little or no benefit can possibly +accrue to an increasing proportion of the great numbers yet coming; they +are unfitted to battle intelligently for their rights in this republic, +to whose present burdens they but add others still greater. The fate of +the majority of the foreign wage-workers now here has served to +demonstrate on the largest possible scale that immigration is no +solution of the world-wide problem of poverty.</p> + +<p>Resolved, That we call on American trade unionists to oppose +emphatically the proposed scheme of government distribution of +immigrants, since it would be an obvious means of directly and cheaply +furnishing strike breakers to the combined capitalists now seeking +destruction of the trade-unions.</p> + +<p>Resolved, That we condemn all forms of assisted immigration, through +charitable agencies or otherwise.</p> + +<p>Resolved, That we warn the poor of the earth against coming to America +with false hopes; it is our duty to inform them that the economic +situation in this country is changing with the same rapidity as the +methods of industry and commerce.</p> + +<p>Resolved, That with respect to immigration we call on the government of +the United States for a righteous relief of the wage-workers now in +America. We desire that Congress should either (1) suspend immigration +totally for a term of years; or (2) put into force such an illiteracy +test as will exclude the ignorant, and also impose such a head tax as +will compel immigrants to pay their full footing here and be sufficient +to send back all those who within a stated period should become public +dependants.</p> + +<p><a name="f72" id="f72" href="#f72.1">[72]</a> Smith, “Emigration and Immigration,” pp. 238-263.</p> + +<p><a name="f73" id="f73" href="#f73.1">[73]</a> Act of March 3, 1903, Sec. 2.</p> + +<p><a name="f74" id="f74" href="#f74.1">[74]</a> New York Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1898, p. 1155.</p> + +<p><a name="f75" id="f75" href="#f75.1">[75]</a> Twelfth Census, “Occupations,” p. clxxxvii.</p> + +<p><a name="f76" id="f76" href="#f76.1">[76]</a> Report on Hawaii, <i>Bulletin</i> No. 47, pp. <ins class="correction" title="original: 780 783">780-783</ins>.</p> + +<p><a name="f77" id="f77" href="#f77.1">[77]</a> Report on Hawaii, <i>Bulletin</i> No. 66, pp. 441-447.</p> + +<p><a name="f78" id="f78" href="#f78.1">[78]</a> Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society, <i>Annual Reports</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="f79" id="f79" href="#f79.1">[79]</a> Clyatt <i>v.</i> U.S., 97 U.S., 207 (1903); Peonage Cases, 123 Fed. 671.</p> + +<p><a name="f80" id="f80" href="#f80.1">[80]</a> New York <i>Herald</i>, June 24, 1903.</p> + +<p><a name="f81" id="f81" href="#f81.1">[81]</a> <i>The Nation</i>, 83:379 (1906); Durand, Herbert, “Peonage in America,” <i>Cosmopolitan</i>, 39:423 (1905).</p> + +<p><a name="f82" id="f82" href="#f82.1">[82]</a> Rosenberg, <i>American Federationist</i>, October, 1903, p. 1026.</p> + +<p><a name="f83" id="f83" href="#f83.1">[83]</a> Jenks, “Certain Economic Questions,” etc., p. 157.</p> + +<p><a name="f84" id="f84" href="#f84.1">[84]</a> Coman, and “Reports on Hawaii.”</p> + +<p><a name="f85" id="f85" href="#f85.1">[85]</a> Jenks, pp. 47, 54, 55, 158.</p> + +<p><a name="f86" id="f86" href="#f86.1">[86]</a> United States Philippine Commission, 1902, Part I, p. 22.</p> + +<p><a name="f87" id="f87" href="#f87.1">[87]</a> Rosenberg, p. 1021.</p> + +<p><a name="f88" id="f88" href="#f88.1">[88]</a> Philippine Commission, 1902, index, “The Labor Situation.”</p> + +<p><a name="f89" id="f89" href="#f89.1">[89]</a> “The Italian Cotton Grower,” p. 45.</p> + +<p><a name="f90" id="f90" href="#f90.1">[90]</a> Where two years are given, the first is for Immigration and the second for Imports.</p> + +<p><a name="f91" id="f91" href="#f91.1">[91]</a> Twelfth Census, Vol. I, p. clxxvi.</p> + +<p><a name="f92" id="f92" href="#f92.1">[92]</a> See <i>Federation</i>, June 1902, p. 40.</p> + +<p><a name="f93" id="f93" href="#f93.1">[93]</a> Twelfth Census, Vol. I, pp. 878-881.</p> + +<p><a name="f94" id="f94" href="#f94.1">[94]</a> New York <i>Sun</i>, Nov. 29, 1903.</p> + +<p><a name="f95" id="f95" href="#f95.1">[95]</a> Semple, 312.</p> + +<p><a name="f96" id="f96" href="#f96.1">[96]</a> Prisoners having one parent foreign are apportioned in the ratio of native and foreign parentage.</p> + +<p><a name="f97" id="f97" href="#f97.1">[97]</a> Includes native-born, parentage unknown.</p> + +<p><a name="f98" id="f98" href="#f98.1">[98]</a> Offenders having one parent foreign are apportioned in the ratio of native and foreign parentage.</p> + +<p><a name="f99" id="f99" href="#f99.1">[99]</a> Kate Holladay Claghorn, “The Tenement House Problem,” Vol. II, p. 79.</p> + +<p><a name="f100" id="f100" href="#f100.1">[100]</a> John B. McMaster, “The Riotous Career of the Knownothings,” <i>Forum</i>, July, 1894, p. 524.</p> + +<p><a name="f101" id="f101" href="#f101.1">[101]</a> Cutler, “Lynch Law”; Bishop, “Lynching,” <i>International Quarterly</i>, September, 1903.</p> + +<p><a name="f102" id="f102" href="#f102.1">[102]</a> Bureau of the Census, Special Reports, “Paupers in Almshouses, +1904,” “Benevolent Institutions, 1904,” “Insane and Feeble-minded in Hospitals and Institutions, 1904.”</p> + +<p><a name="f103" id="f103" href="#f103.1">[103]</a> Münsterberg, “American Traits,” p. 225 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="f104" id="f104" href="#f104.1">[104]</a> Eaton, “The Civil Service in Great Britain,” p. 160 ff.</p> + +<p><a name="f105" id="f105" href="#f105.1">[105]</a> Muirhead, “The Land of Contrasts,” p. 274.</p> + +<p><a name="f106" id="f106" href="#f106.1">[106]</a> See description of the Belgium system by the author, <i>Review of +Reviews</i>, May, 1900; also, “Representation of Interests,” <i>Independent</i>, June, 1900; “Proportional Representation.”</p> + +<p><a name="f107" id="f107" href="#f107.1">[107]</a> Commons, “Proportional Representation,” Appendix. Publications of +the Federation for Majority Rule, Washington, D.C.</p> + +<p><a name="f108" id="f108" href="#f108.1">[108]</a> Hunt, Gaillard, “Federal Control of Naturalization,” <i>World’s Work</i>, 11:7095 (1906).</p> + +<p><a name="f109" id="f109" href="#f109.1">[109]</a> “Report to the President on Naturalization.”</p> + +<p><a name="f110" id="f110" href="#f110.1">[110]</a> “Naturalization Laws and Regulations of October, 1906,” published +by the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization.</p> + +<p><a name="f111" id="f111" href="#f111.1">[111]</a> Twelfth Census, Vol. I, p. 929.</p> + +<p><a name="f112" id="f112" href="#f112.1">[112]</a> Twelfth Census, “Abstract,” p. 18.</p> + +<p><a name="f113" id="f113" href="#f113.1">[113]</a> Twelfth Census, “Abstract,” p. 19.</p> + +<p><a name="f114" id="f114" href="#f114.1">[114]</a> Twelfth Census, Vol. I, p. ccxvii.</p> + +<p><a name="f115" id="f115" href="#f115.1">[115]</a> Phillips, J. B., “Educational Qualifications of Voters,” +<i>University of Colorado Studies</i>, Vol. III, No. 2 (1906).</p> + +<p><a name="f116" id="f116" href="#f116.1">[116]</a> Caffey, Francis G., “Suffrage Limitations at the South,” +<i>Political Science Quarterly</i>, 20:53 (1905). Report on Political Reform, Union League Club, New York, 1903.</p> + +<p><a name="f117" id="f117" href="#f117.1">[117]</a> Williams <i>v.</i> Mississippi, 170 U.S., 213; Giles <i>v.</i> Harris, 189 +U.S., 475; Giles <i>v.</i> Teasley, 193 U.S., 146.</p> + +<p><a name="f118" id="f118" href="#f118.1">[118]</a> This does not apply to the “understanding” clause in Mississippi, which is permanent.</p> + +<p><a name="f119" id="f119" href="#f119.1">[119]</a> Twelfth Census, Vol. I, pp. ccxiii, ccxv.</p> + +<p><a name="f120" id="f120" href="#f120.1">[120]</a> Twelfth Census, Vol. I, pp. cciv, ccv.</p> + +<p><a name="f121" id="f121" href="#f121.1">[121]</a> See “Reports on Hawaii.”</p> + +<p><a name="f122" id="f122" href="#f122.1">[122]</a> Kuczynski, “Einwanderungspolitik,” p. 35.</p> + +<p><a name="f123" id="f123" href="#f123.1">[123]</a> <i>Forum</i>, 11:634-743 (1891). Reprinted in “Discussions,” etc., pp. 417-426.</p> + +<p><a name="f124" id="f124" href="#f124.1">[124]</a> Professor Smith, for the year 1888, estimated the colonial element +at 29,000,000 and the immigrant element at 26,000,000, applying to the +immigrants the average rate of increase from births. “Emigration and Immigration,” pp. 60-61.</p> + +<p><a name="f125" id="f125" href="#f125.1">[125]</a> Watson, p. 522.</p> + +<p><a name="f126" id="f126" href="#f126.1">[126]</a> Van Vorst, “The Woman Who Toils,” p. viii.</p> + +<p><a name="f127" id="f127" href="#f127.1">[127]</a> Computed from the Twelfth Census, Vol. II, p. lxxxvii, ff.</p> + +<p><a name="f128" id="f128" href="#f128.1">[128]</a> Computed from the Twelfth Census, Vol. II, p. 312.</p> + +<p><a name="f129" id="f129" href="#f129.1">[129]</a> Kuczynski concludes from his study of Massachusetts statistics +that “the native population cannot hold its own. It seems to be dying +out.” Could he have separated the two elements of the native population, +he would have found that the immigrant element is dying out faster than +the older native element. “The Fecundity of the Native and Foreign Born +Population in Massachusetts,” p. 186.</p> + +<p><a name="f130" id="f130" href="#f130.1">[130]</a> Twelfth Census, “Statistical Atlas,” plate 98.</p> + +<p><a name="f131" id="f131" href="#f131.1">[131]</a> “Fecundity,” etc., p. 157.</p> + +<p><a name="f132" id="f132" href="#f132.1">[132]</a> Ross, “Causes of Race Superiority.”</p> + +<p><a name="f133" id="f133" href="#f133.1">[133]</a> See Du Bois, “The <ins class="correction" title="original: Soul">Souls</ins> of Black Folk.”</p> + +<p><a name="f134" id="f134" href="#f134.1">[134]</a> Report on Hawaii, <i>Bulletin</i> No. 47, p. 715.</p> + +<p><a name="f135" id="f135" href="#f135.1">[135]</a> “Religions of Primitive People,” p. 15.</p> + +<p><a name="f136" id="f136" href="#f136.1">[136]</a> Smith, “Assimilation of Nationalities,” p. 440.</p> + +<p><a name="f137" id="f137" href="#f137.1">[137]</a> Lovejoy, “The Slav Child,” <i>Charities</i>, July, 1905, p. 884.</p> + +<p><a name="f138" id="f138" href="#f138.1">[138]</a> Twelfth Census, <i>Supplementary Analysis</i>, p. 374.</p> + +<p><a name="f139" id="f139" href="#f139.1">[139]</a> “Child Labor in the United States,” p. 15, Bureau of the Census.</p> + +<p><a name="f140" id="f140" href="#f140.1">[140]</a> Grose, “Aliens or Americans?”</p> + +<p><a name="f141" id="f141" href="#f141.1">[141]</a> See also Stewart and Huebner.</p> + +<p><a name="f142" id="f142" href="#f142.1">[142]</a> Report, 1903, p. 60; 1904, p. 44; 1905, p. 58; 1906, p. 64.</p> + +<p><a name="f143" id="f143" href="#f143.1">[143]</a> Industrial Commission, 15:492-646; 19:971-977.</p> + +<p><a name="f144" id="f144" href="#f144.1">[144]</a> Tosti, Gustavo, “The Agricultural Possibilities of Italian Immigration,” <i>Charities</i>, May 5, 1904, p. 472.</p> + +<p><a name="f145" id="f145" href="#f145.1">[145]</a> “Immigration to the Southern States,” <i>Political Science Quarterly</i>, 20:276 (1905).</p> + +<p><a name="f146" id="f146" href="#f146.1">[146]</a> “Facts about Immigration,” p. 11.</p> + +<p><a name="f147" id="f147" href="#f147.1">[147]</a> <i>Ibid.</i>, p. 119.</p> + +<p><a name="f148" id="f148" href="#f148.1">[148]</a> Kellor, “Out of Work,” pp. 17, 50-53, 70; <i>Charities</i>, Feb. 6, 1904, p. 151.</p> + +<p><a name="f149" id="f149" href="#f149.1">[149]</a> Commissioner-General, 1903, p. 70.</p> + +<p><a name="f150" id="f150" href="#f150.1">[150]</a> Chapter 27, Laws of 1862.</p> + +<p><a name="f151" id="f151" href="#f151.1">[151]</a> Commissioner-General, 1906, p. 62.</p> + +<p><a name="f152" id="f152" href="#f152.1">[152]</a> For details of the several measures, see Hall, “Immigration.”</p> + +<p><a name="f153" id="f153" href="#f153.1">[153]</a> “Industrial Commission,” 19:1001-1003. Hall, “Immigration.”</p> + +<p><a name="f154" id="f154" href="#f154.1">[154]</a> Commissioner-General, 1904, p. 41.</p> + +<p><a name="f155" id="f155" href="#f155.1">[155]</a> The National Immigration Conference, December 8, 1905, adopted the +following resolution: “That the penalty of $100, now imposed on the +steamship companies for bringing diseased persons to the United States, +be also imposed for bringing in any person excluded by law.” <i>National +Civic Federation Review</i>, January, 1906, p. 19.</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<div class="adverts"> +<p class="center"><big>POVERTY</big></p> +<p class="center">By ROBERT HUNTER</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table"> +<tr><td>Paper</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td>12mo</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td>25 cents net</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cloth</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td>12mo</td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td>$1.50 net</td></tr></table> + +<p>“A book that should be read by every one who has the promotion of social +betterment at heart.”</p> + +<p class="right">—<i>Milwaukee Sentinel.</i></p> + +<p><br />“A most interesting, a most startling, and a most instructive book.”</p> + +<p class="right">—<i>Los Angeles Times.</i></p> + +<p><br />“His book is largely a result of personal experience, and the aid of +such works as his observation has led him to believe are approximately +accurate and worthy of credence. ‘Poverty’ seeks to define its subject +estimate its extent, describe some of its effects, and point out the +necessary remedial action, as seen by a settlement worker. The result is +a collection of data of considerable value.”</p> + +<p class="right">—<i>New York Daily People.</i></p> + +<p><br />“This is in many ways a noteworthy book. The author has long lived face +to face with the almost incredible conditions which he here portrays. He +has extended his work and observations from the crowded tenement +districts of the great cities to the smaller industrial towns, and what +he finds reveals conditions in this country—even in times of industrial +prosperity—very similar to those found in England by Booth and other +investigators; namely, that a percentage of poverty exists in the +smaller industrial centres not far below that of the great industrial +places, and that this percentage is extraordinarily high.”</p> + +<p class="right">—<i>Springfield Republican.</i></p> + +<p><br />“The book is written with earnestness, but without exaggeration. Every +one familiar with the facts knows that conditions are even more cruel +and brutal than as here described. And yet, no one of the great +industrial nations is so backward as our own in devising and employing +the legislative and other necessary remedies. Mr. Hunter’s presentation +of the situation is of the greatest value, and deserves the widest +consideration.”</p> + +<p class="right">—<i>The Congregationalist.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><br />THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br />64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York</p></div> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 50%;" /> +<p><b>Transcriber’s Notes:</b></p> + +<p>Images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to a nearby paragraph break.</p> + +<p>The text in the list of illustrations is presented as in the original, but the links +navigate to the page number closest to the illustration’s loaction in this document.</p> + +<p>Other than the corrections noted by hover information, inconsistencies in +spelling and hyphenation have been retained from the original.</p> + + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Races and Immigrants in America, by +John R. Commons + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA *** + +***** This file should be named 34028-h.htm or 34028-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/0/2/34028/ + +Produced by Brian Foley and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> + + diff --git a/34028-h/images/frontis.jpg b/34028-h/images/frontis.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..88f2ec3 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/frontis.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p024.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p024.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b7fe3ac --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p024.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p036.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p036.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a7be4f6 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p036.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p050.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p050.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8b75634 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p050.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p064.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p064.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..64a39a0 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p064.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p064tmb.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p064tmb.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2eb7d6e --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p064tmb.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p078.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p078.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..033142f --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p078.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p090.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p090.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b6a6c9a --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p090.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p096.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p096.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3f74d20 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p096.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p120.png b/34028-h/images/illo_p120.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6b528a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p120.png diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p121.png b/34028-h/images/illo_p121.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2383e8e --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p121.png diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p122.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p122.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4a5abb8 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p122.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p142.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p142.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d3591be --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p142.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p154.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p154.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ab1cc13 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p154.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p162_bot.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p162_bot.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2e71c5d --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p162_bot.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p162_top.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p162_top.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d4cc25c --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p162_top.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p163.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p163.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..bed2aab --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p163.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p163tmb.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p163tmb.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fa0f60d --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p163tmb.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p168.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p168.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2b8c601 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p168.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p186.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p186.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4c4b84a --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p186.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p202.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p202.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9424d3f --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p202.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p216.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p216.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c6efe7a --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p216.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/illo_p230.jpg b/34028-h/images/illo_p230.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8064c09 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/illo_p230.jpg diff --git a/34028-h/images/printer.png b/34028-h/images/printer.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0309edb --- /dev/null +++ b/34028-h/images/printer.png diff --git a/34028.txt b/34028.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1ff7de2 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7245 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Races and Immigrants in America, by John R. Commons + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Races and Immigrants in America + +Author: John R. Commons + +Release Date: October 4, 2010 [EBook #34028] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA *** + + + + +Produced by Brian Foley and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + +RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA + + + + +[Illustration: ELLIS ISLAND, IMMIGRATION STATION] + + + + + RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA + + + BY JOHN R. COMMONS + + PROFESSOR OF POLITICAL ECONOMY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN + + + New York + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD. + 1907 + + _All rights reserved_ + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1907, + BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. + + Set up and electrotyped. Published May, 1907. + + + Norwood Press + J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. + Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + REFERENCES vii + + CHAPTER + + I. RACE AND DEMOCRACY 1 + + II. COLONIAL RACE ELEMENTS 22 + + III. THE NEGRO 39 + + IV. NINETEENTH CENTURY ADDITIONS 63 + + V. INDUSTRY 107 + + VI. LABOR 135 + + VII. CITY LIFE, CRIME, AND POVERTY 160 + + VIII. POLITICS 179 + + IX. AMALGAMATION AND ASSIMILATION 198 + + INDEX 239 + + + + +ILLUSTRATIONS + + + ELLIS ISLAND, IMMIGRANT STATION _Frontispiece_ + + PAGE + + "RETURN OF THE MAYFLOWER." Painting By Boughton, 1834 _opposite_ 24 + + ANGLO-SAXON MOUNTAINEERS, BEREA COLLEGE, KENTUCKY _opposite_ 36 + + COUNTIES HAVING A LARGER PROPORTION OF NEGROES IN 1900 + THAN IN 1880 _opposite_ 50 + + MOVEMENT OF IMMIGRANTS, IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE PER + CAPITA AND IMMIGRANTS PER 10,000 POPULATION _between_ 63-64 + + ALIENS AWAITING ADMISSION AT ELLIS ISLAND _opposite_ 78 + + NORWEGIAN, ITALIAN, AND ARABIC TYPES " 90 + + SLAV, JEWISH, POLACK, AND LITHUANIAN TYPES " 96 + + INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS OF IMMIGRANTS--1906 _between_ 108-109 + + AMERICAN SCHOOL BOYS _opposite_ 122 + + FILIPINO GOVERNORS " 142 + + GOVERNOR JOHNSON OF MINNESOTA.--SWEDE " 154 + + DR. ORONHYATEKHA, MOHAWK INDIAN. LATE CHIEF OF + ORDER OF FORESTERS " 168 + + CHINESE STUDENTS, HONOLULU " 186 + + FACULTY OF TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE " 202 + + SLAVIC HOME MISSIONARIES " 216 + + ALIENS AWAITING ADMISSION AT ELLIS ISLAND " 230 + + + + +REFERENCES CITED IN FOOTNOTES + + +"AMERICA'S RACE PROBLEMS." A series of discussions on indigenous race +elements and the negro. _American Academy of Political and Social +Science_, Vol. XVIII, No. 1 (1901). + +ATLANTA UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS:-- + + No. 1. "Mortality among Negroes in Cities" (1896). + No. 2. "Social and Physical Condition of Negroes in Cities" (1897). + No. 3. "Some Efforts of Negroes for Social Betterment" (1898). + No. 6. "The Negro Common School" (1901). + No. 7. "The Negro Artisan" (1902). + No. 8. "The Negro Church" (1903). + No. 9. "Notes on Negro Crime" (1904). + No. 10. "A Select Bibliography of the Negro American" (1905). + +BALCH, EMILY GREENE, "Slav Emigration at its Source," _Charities_, 1906. +"Introductory," Jan. 6; "Bohemians," Feb. 3; "Slovaks," March 3, April +7; "Galicia, Austrian Poles, Ruthenians," May 5. + +BLUNTSCHLI, J. K., _The Theory of the State_. New York, 1885. + +BRANDENBURG, BROUGHTON, _Imported Americans_ (1904). Description of trip +by author and wife through southern Italy and Sicily and return by +steerage with immigrants. + +BRINTON, DANIEL G., _Religions of Primitive Peoples_. New York, 1897. + +BUREAU OF LABOR, Seventh Special Report, _The Slums of Baltimore, +Chicago, New York, and Philadelphia_ (1894). Ninth Special Report, _The +Italians in Chicago_ (1897). + +BURGESS, JOHN W., _Reconstruction and the Constitution_, 1866-1876. New +York, 1903. + +BUSHEE, FREDERICK A., "Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston," +_American Economic Association_, 3d Series, Vol. IV, pp. 305-470 (1903). + +CASSON, HERBERT N., _Munsey's Magazine_, "The Jews in America," 34:381; +"The Sons of Old Scotland in America," 34:599; "The Germans in America," +34:694; "The Scandinavians in America," 35:613; "The Welsh in America," +35:749; "The Italians in America," 35:122; "The Dutch in America," +35:238; "The Spanish in America," 35:294. + +COMAN, KATHERINE, "The History of Contract Labor in the Hawaiian +Islands," _American Economic Association_, 3d Series, Vol. IV, No. 3 +(1903). "The Negro as Peasant Farmer," _American Statistical +Association_, June, 1904, pp. 39-54. + +COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, _Annual Reports_, Washington. + +COMMISSIONER-GENERAL OF IMMIGRATION, _Annual Reports_, Washington. + +COMMONS, J. R., _Proportional Representation_. New York, 1907. + +CUTLER, JAMES E., _Lynch Law. An Investigation into the History of +Lynching in the United States_. New York, 1905. + +DE FOREST AND VEILLIER, _The Tenement House Problem_, 2 vols. New York, +1903. + +DU BOIS, W. E. B., _The Philadelphia Negro_. Philadelphia, 1899; _The +Soul of Black Folk._ New York, 1903; "Negroes," Twelfth Census, +_Supplementary Analysis_, pp. 185-275; "The Negro Farmer," pp. 511-579. + +EATON, DORMAN B., _The Civil Service in Great Britain_. New York, 1880. + + +EMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES, Special Consular Reports, Vol. XXX. +Department of Commerce and Labor, 1904. + +_Facts about Immigration._ Reports of Conferences of the Immigration +Department of the National Civic Federation, Sept. 14 and Dec. 12, 1906. +New York, 1907. + +_Federation._ Quarterly Journal of Federation of Churches and Christian +Organizations, New York. Especially June, July, December, 1902, March, +June, October, 1903. Also annual reports and sociological canvasses of +the Federation. + +FISKE, JOHN, _Old Virginia and her Neighbors_, 2 vols. New York, 1897. + +FLEMING, WALTER L., _Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama_. New York, +1897. + +FRANKLIN, F. J., _The Legislative History of Naturalization in the +United States_. Chicago, 1906. + +GROSE, HOWARD B., _Aliens or Americans?_ Forward Mission Study Courses. +New York, 1906. + +HALL, PRESCOTT F., _Immigration and its Effect upon the United States_. +New York, 1906. + +HAMPTON NEGRO CONFERENCE, Annual, 1897-1901. + +HANNA, CHARLES A., _The Scotch-Irish_, 2 vols. New York, 1902. + +HAWAII, REPORTS ON, United States Bureau of Labor, 1st Report, Sen. Doc. +169, 57th Congress, 1st Sess., 13:4231; 2d Report, _Bulletin_ No. 47 +(1903); 3d Report, _Bulletin_ No. 66 (1906). + +HOFFMAN, FREDERICK L., "Race Traits and Tendencies of the American +Negro," _Publications of the American Economic Association_, Vol. XI, +Nos. 1, 2, 3 (1896). + +HUEBNER, GROVER G., "The Americanization of the Immigrant," _American +Academy of Political and Social Science_, May, 1906, p. 191. + +_Hull House Maps and Papers, A Presentation of Nationalities and Wages +in a Congested District of Chicago_, by residents of Hull House. New +York, 1895. + +HUNTER, ROBERT, _Poverty_. New York, 1904. Chapter VI, "The Immigrant." + +_Immigration Laws and Regulations and Chinese Exclusion Laws_, Bureau of +Immigration and Naturalization, Washington. + +IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION LEAGUE, Prescott F. Hall, Secretary, Boston, +Mass. Leaflets. + +INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION, Vol. XV, _Immigration and Education_; Vol. XIX, +_Miscellaneous_ (1901). + +JACKSON, HELEN HUNT, _A Century of Dishonor_. New York, 1881. + +JAPANESE AND KOREAN EXCLUSION LEAGUE, San Francisco. Leaflets. + +JENKS, J. W., _Certain Economic Questions in the English and Dutch +Colonies in the Orient_. War Department, Bureau of Insular Affairs, +1902, Doc. No. 168. + +JEWISH AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL AID SOCIETY, _Annual Reports_. New +York. + +KELLOR, FRANCES A., _Out of Work_. New York, 1904. + +KELSEY, CARL, _The Negro Farmer_. Chicago, 1903. Also _Annals of the +American Academy of Political and Social Science_, January, 1903. + +KING AND OKEY, _Italy To-day_. London, 1901. + +KUCZYNSKI, R., "The Fecundity of the Native and Foreign Born Population +in Massachusetts," _Quarterly Journal of Economics_, November, 1901, +February, 1902. "Die Einwanderungspolitik und die Bevoelkerungsfrage der +Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika," _Volkswirthschaftliche Zeitfragen_. +Berlin, 1903. + +LAZARE, BERNARD, _Antisemitism, Its History and Causes_. New York, 1903. + +LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, _Select List of References on the Negro Question +(1903). List of Works relating to the Germans in the United States +(1904). Select List of References on Chinese Immigration (1904). +Fourteenth Amendment_. List of Discussions of Fourteenth and Fifteenth +Amendments with Special Reference to Negro Suffrage (1906). _List of +References on Naturalization (1907)._ + +LODGE, HENRY CABOT, _Historical and Political Essays_. Boston, 1892. + +LORD, TRENOR, AND BARROWS, _The Italian in America_. New York, 1905. +Especially Italians in American agriculture. + +MALLOCK, W. H., _Aristocracy and Evolution_. New York, 1898. + +MARSHALL, ALFRED, _Principles of Economics_. New York, 1891. + +MERRIAM, G. S., _The Negro and the Nation_. New York, 1906. + +MUIRHEAD, JAMES F., _The Land of Contrasts_. London and New York, 1900. + +MUeNSTERBERG, HUGO, _American Traits_. New York, 1902. + +NATURALIZATION, REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE COMMISSION ON. Submitted +Nov. 8, 1905, 59th Cong., 1st Sess., H. R. Doc. 46. + +NEGRO. Series of Articles on the Reconstruction Period, _Atlantic +Monthly_. "The Reconstruction of the Southern States," Woodrow Wilson, +87:1; "The Conditions of the Reconstruction Problem," Hilary A. Herbert, +87:145; "The Freedman's Bureau," W. E. B. Du Bois, 87:354; +"Reconstruction in South Carolina," Daniel H. Chamberlain, 87:473; "The +Ku-Klux Movement," William G. Brown, 87:634; "Washington during +Reconstruction," S. W. McCall, 87:817; "Reconstruction and +Disfranchisement," Editors, 88:31; "New Orleans and Reconstruction," +Albert Phelps, 88:121; "The Southern People during Reconstruction," +Thomas Nelson Page, 88:289; "The Undoing of Reconstruction," William A. +Dunning, 88:437. + +United States Bureau of Labor, _Bulletin_ No. 22, "The Negro in the +Black Belt"; No. 32, "The Negroes of Sandy Spring, Maryland"; No. 35, +"The Negro Landholder of Georgia"; No. 37, "The Negroes of Litwalton, +Virginia"; No. 38, "Negroes of Cinclare Central Factory and Calumet +Plantation, Louisiana"; No. 48, "The Negroes of Xenia, Ohio." + +"NEGROES, SOCIAL INTERESTS OF, IN NORTHERN CITIES." _Charities_, special +number, Oct. 7, 1905. + +RIPLEY, W. Z., _The Races of Europe_. New York, 1899. + +ROOSEVELT, THEODORE, _The Winning of the West_, 4 vols. New York, +1889-1894. + +ROSENBERG, EDWARD, "Chinese Workers in China," "Filipinos as Workmen," +"Labor Conditions in Hawaii," _American Federationist_, August, October, +December, 1905. + +ROSS, EDWARD A., "The Causes of Race Superiority," _Annals of the +American Academy of Political and Social Science_, July, 1901, pp. +67-89. The notable address in which the term "race suicide" was coined. + +ROWE, LEO S., _The United States and Porto Rico_. New York, 1904. + +SEMPLE, ELLEN CHURCHILL, _American History and its Geographic +Conditions_. New York, 1903. "The Anglo-Saxons of the Kentucky +Mountains: A Study in Anthropogeography," _Geographical Journal_, 17:588 +(1901). + +SLAV IN AMERICA, THE, _Charities_, December, 1904. Descriptive articles +by representatives of the several Slav nationalities. + +SMITH, R. M., _Emigration and Immigration_. New York, 1890. +"Assimilation of Nationalities in the United States," _Political Science +Quarterly_, Vol. IX, pp. 426-444, 650-670 (1894). + +STEWART, ETHELBERT, "Influence of Trade Unions on Immigrants," Bureau of +Labor, _Bulletin_ No. 56. + +STONE, A. H., "The Negro in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta," _American +Economic Association_, 3d Series, Vol. III, pp. 235-278 (1901). "The +Mulatto Factor in the Race Problem," _Atlantic Monthly_, May, 1903. "A +Plantation Experiment," _Quarterly Journal Economics_, 19:270 (1905). +"The Italian Cotton Grower: The Negro's Problem," _South Atlantic +Quarterly_, 4:45 (1905). + +SUFFRAGE, SUPPRESSION OF THE. Report of the Committee on Political +Reform of the Union League Club. New York, 1903. + +THOMAS, W. H., _The American Negro_, 1901. + +TILLINGHAST, JOSEPH A., "The Negro in Africa and America," _American +Economic Association_, 3d Series, Vol. III, No. 2 (1902). + +VAN VORST, MRS. JOHN AND MARIE, _The Woman who Toils_. New York, 1903. +Contains introduction by President Roosevelt. + +WALKER, FRANCIS A., _Discussions in Economics and Statistics_, 2 vols., +1897. + +WARD, ROBERT DE C., "Sane Methods of Regulating Immigration," _Review of +Reviews_, March, 1906. + +WARNE, FRANK JULIAN, _The Slav Invasion and the Mine Workers_, 1904. + +WASHINGTON, BOOKER T., _The Future of the American Negro_, 1900. _Up +from Slavery_, 1901. + +WATSON, ELKANAH, _Men and Times of the Revolution_. Edited by his son, +Winslow C. Watson, 2d edition. New York, 1861. + +WELFARE WORK, CONFERENCE ON, National Civic Federation. New York, 1904. + +WHELPLEY, JAMES D., _The Problem of the Immigrant_, 1905. Emigration +laws of European countries and immigration laws of British Colonies and +the United States. + +WOODS, R. A., _The City Wilderness_, 1898. _Americans in Process_, 1902. + + + + + +RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA + + + + +CHAPTER I + +RACE AND DEMOCRACY + + +"All men are created equal." So wrote Thomas Jefferson, and so agreed +with him the delegates from the American colonies. But we must not press +them too closely nor insist on the literal interpretation of their +words. They were not publishing a scientific treatise on human nature +nor describing the physical, intellectual, and moral qualities of +different races and different individuals, but they were bent upon a +practical object in politics. They desired to sustain before the world +the cause of independence by such appeals as they thought would have +effect; and certainly the appeal to the sense of equal rights before God +and the law is the most powerful that can be addressed to the masses of +any people. This is the very essence of American democracy, that one man +should have just as large opportunity as any other to make the most of +himself, to come forward and achieve high standing in any calling to +which he is inclined. To do this the bars of privilege have one by one +been thrown down, the suffrage has been extended to every man, and +public office has been opened to any one who can persuade his +fellow-voters or their representatives to select him. + +But there is another side to the successful operations of democracy. It +is not enough that equal opportunity to participate in making and +enforcing the laws should be vouchsafed to all--it is equally important +that all should be capable of such participation. The individuals, or +the classes, or the races, who through any mental or moral defect are +unable to assert themselves beside other individuals, classes, or races, +and to enforce their right to an equal voice in determining the laws and +conditions which govern all, are just as much deprived of the privilege +as though they were excluded by the constitution. In the case of +individuals, when they sink below the level of joint participation, we +recognize them as belonging to a defective or criminal or pauper class, +and we provide for them, not on the basis of their rights, but on the +basis of charity or punishment. Such classes are exceptions in point of +numbers, and we do not feel that their non-participation is a flaw in +the operations of democratic government. But when a social class or an +entire race is unable to command that share in conducting government to +which the laws entitle it, we recognize at once that democracy as a +practical institution has in so far broken down, and that, under the +forms of democracy, there has developed a class oligarchy or a race +oligarchy. + +Two things, therefore, are necessary for a democratic government such as +that which the American people have set before themselves: equal +opportunities before the law, and equal ability of classes and races to +use those opportunities. If the first is lacking, we have legal +oligarchy; if the second is lacking, we have actual oligarchy disguised +as democracy. + +Now it must be observed that, compared with the first two centuries of +our nation's history, the present generation is somewhat shifting its +ground regarding democracy. While it can never rightly be charged that +our fathers overlooked the inequalities of races and individuals, yet +more than the present generation did they regard with hopefulness the +educational value of democracy. "True enough," they said, "the black man +is not equal to the white man, but once free him from his legal bonds, +open up the schools, the professions, the businesses, and the offices to +those of his number who are most aspiring, and you will find that, as a +race, he will advance favorably in comparison with his white +fellow-citizens." + +It is now nearly forty years since these opportunities and educational +advantages were given to the negro, not only on equal terms, but +actually on terms of preference over the whites, and the fearful +collapse of the experiment is recognized even by its partisans as +something that was inevitable in the nature of the race at that stage +of its development. We shall have reason in the following pages to enter +more fully into this discussion, because the race question in America +has found its most intense expression in the relations between the white +and the negro races, and has there shown itself to be the most +fundamental of all American social and political problems. For it was +this race question that precipitated the Civil War, with the ominous +problems that have followed upon that catastrophe; and it is this same +race problem that now diverts attention from the treatment of those +pressing economic problems of taxation, corporations, trusts, and labor +organizations which themselves originated in the Civil War. The race +problem in the South is only one extreme of the same problem in the +great cities of the North, where popular government, as our forefathers +conceived it, has been displaced by one-man power, and where a profound +distrust of democracy is taking hold upon the educated and +property-holding classes who fashion public opinion. + +This changing attitude toward the educational value of self-government +has induced a more serious study of the nature of democratic +institutions and of the classes and races which are called upon to share +in them. As a people whose earlier hopes have been shocked by the hard +blows of experience, we are beginning to pause and take invoice of the +heterogeneous stocks of humanity that we have admitted to the management +of our great political enterprise. We are trying to look beneath the +surface and to inquire whether there are not factors of heredity and +race more fundamental than those of education and environment. We find +that our democratic theories and forms of government were fashioned by +but one of the many races and peoples which have come within their +practical operation, and that that race, the so-called Anglo-Saxon, +developed them out of its own insular experience unhampered by inroads +of alien stock. When once thus established in England and further +developed in America we find that other races and peoples, accustomed to +despotism and even savagery, and wholly unused to self-government, have +been thrust into the delicate fabric. Like a practical people as we +pride ourselves, we have begun actually to despotize our institutions in +order to control these dissident elements, though still optimistically +holding that we retain the original democracy. The earlier problem was +mainly a political one--how to unite into one self-governing nation a +scattered population with the wide diversity of natural resources, +climates, and interests that mark a country soon to stretch from ocean +to ocean and from the arctics to the subtropics. The problem now is a +social one,--how to unite into one people a congeries of races even more +diverse than the resources and climates from which they draw their +subsistence. That motto, "_E pluribus unum_," which in the past has +guided those who through constitutional debate and civil war worked out +our form of government, must now again be the motto of those who would +work out the more fundamental problem of divergent races. Here is +something deeper than the form of government--it is the essence of +government--for it is that union of the hearts and lives and abilities +of the people which makes government what it really is. + +The conditions necessary for democratic government are not merely the +constitutions and laws which guarantee equality, liberty, and the +pursuit of happiness, for these after all are but paper documents. They +are not merely freedom from foreign power, for the Australian colonies +enjoy the most democratic of all governments, largely because they are +owned by another country which has protected them from foreign and civil +wars. Neither are wealth and prosperity necessary for democracy, for +these may tend to luxury, inequality, and envy. World power, however +glorious and enticing, is not helpful to democracy, for it inclines to +militarism and centralization, as did Rome in the hands of an emperor, +or Venice in the hands of an oligarchy. The true foundations of +democracy are in the character of the people themselves, that is, of the +individuals who constitute the democracy. These are: first, +intelligence--the power to weigh evidence and draw sound conclusions, +based on adequate information; second, manliness, that which the Romans +called virility, and which at bottom is dignified self-respect, +self-control, and that self-assertion and jealousy of encroachment +which marks those who, knowing their rights, dare maintain them; third, +and equally important, the capacity for cooperation, that willingness +and ability to organize, to trust their leaders, to work together for a +common interest and toward a common destiny, a capacity which we +variously designate as patriotism, public spirit, or self-government. +These are the basic qualities which underlie democracy,--intelligence, +manliness, cooperation. If they are lacking, democracy is futile. Here +is the problem of races, the fundamental division of mankind. Race +differences are established in the very blood and physical constitution. +They are most difficult to eradicate, and they yield only to the slow +processes of the centuries. Races may change their religions, their +forms of government, their modes of industry, and their languages, but +underneath all these changes they may continue the physical, mental, and +moral capacities and incapacities which determine the real character of +their religion, government, industry, and literature. Race and heredity +furnish the raw material, education and environment furnish the tools, +with which and by which social institutions are fashioned; and in a +democracy race and heredity are the more decisive, because the very +education and environment which fashion the oncoming generations are +themselves controlled through universal suffrage by the races whom it is +hoped to educate and elevate. + +=Social Classes.=--Closely connected with race division in its effect upon +democracy are the divisions between social classes. In America we are +wont to congratulate ourselves on the absence of classes with their +accompanying hatred and envy. Whether we shall continue thus to commend +ourselves depends partly on what we mean by social classes. If we +compare our situation with an extreme case, that of India,[1] where +social classes have been hardened into rigid castes, we can see the +connection between races and classes. For it is generally held that the +castes of India originated in the conquests by an Aryan race of an +indigenous dark or colored race. And while the clear-cut race +distinctions have been blended through many centuries of amalgamation, +yet it is most apparent that a gradation in the color of the skin +follows the gradation in social position, from the light-colored, +high-caste Brahman to the dark-colored, low-caste Sudra, or outcast +pariah. Race divisions have been forgotten, but in their place religion +has sanctified a division even more rigid than that of race, for it is +sacrilege and defiance of the gods when a man of low caste ventures into +the occupation and calling of the high caste. India's condition now is +what might be conceived for our Southern states a thousand years from +now, when the black man who had not advanced to the lighter shades of +mulatto should be excluded from all professions and skilled trades and +from all public offices, and should be restricted to the coarsest kind +of service as a day laborer or as a field hand on the agricultural +plantations. Confined to this limited occupation, with no incentive to +economize because of no prospect to rise above his station, and with his +numbers increasing, competition would reduce his wages to the lowest +limit consistent with the continuance of his kind. Such a development is +plainly going on at the present day, and we may feel reasonably certain +that we can see in our own South the very historical steps by which in +the forgotten centuries India proceeded to her rigid system of castes. + +There is lacking but one essential to the Indian system; namely, a +religion which ascribes to God himself the inequalities contrived by +man. For the Indian derives the sacred Brahman from the mouth of God, to +be His spokesman on earth, while the poor Sudra comes from the feet of +God, to be forever the servant of all the castes above him. But the +Christian religion has set forth a different theory, which ascribes to +God entire impartiality toward races and individuals. He has "made of +one blood all nations." It is out of this doctrine that the so-called +"self-evident" assertion in the Declaration of Independence originated, +and it is this doctrine which throughout the history of European +civilization has contributed to smoothen out the harsh lines of caste +into the less definite lines of social classes. For it must be +remembered that Europe, like India, is built upon conquest, and the +earlier populations were reduced to the condition of slaves and serfs to +the conquering races. True, there was not the extreme opposition of +white and colored races which distinguished the conquests of India, and +this is also one of the reasons why slavery and serfdom gradually gave +way and races coalesced. Nevertheless, the peasantry of Europe to-day is +in large part the product of serfdom and of that race-subjection which +produced serfdom. Herein we may find the source of that arrogance on the +one hand and subserviency on the other, which so closely relate class +divisions to race divisions. The European peasant, says Professor +Shaler,[2] "knows himself to be by birthright a member of an inferior +class, from which there is practically no chance of escaping.... It is +characteristic of peasants that they have accepted this inferior lot. +For generations they have regarded themselves as separated from their +fellow-citizens of higher estate. They have no large sense of citizenly +motives; they feel no sense of responsibility for any part of the public +life save that which lies within their own narrow round of action." + +How different from the qualities of the typical American citizen whose +forefathers have erected our edifice of representative democracy! It was +not the peasant class of Europe that sought these shores in order to +found a free government. It was the middle class, the merchants and +yeomen, those who in religion and politics were literally "protestants," +and who possessed the intelligence, manliness, and public spirit which +urged them to assert for themselves those inalienable rights which the +church or the state of their time had arrogated to itself. With such a +social class democracy is the only acceptable form of government. They +demand and secure equal opportunities because they are able to rise to +those opportunities. By their own inherent nature they look forward to +and aspire to the highest positions. + +But the peasants of Europe, especially of Southern and Eastern Europe, +have been reduced to the qualities similar to those of an inferior race +that favor despotism and oligarchy rather than democracy. Their only +avenues of escape from their subordinate positions have been through the +army and the church, and these two institutions have drawn from the +peasants their ablest and brightest intellects into a life which +deprived them of offspring. "Among the prosperous folk there have been +ever many classes of occupations tempting the abler youths, while among +the laborers the church has afforded the easiest way to rise, and that +which is most tempting to the intelligent. The result has been, that +while the priesthood and monastic orders have systematically debilitated +all the populations of Catholic Europe, their influence has been most +efficient in destroying talent in the peasant class."[3] + +Thus it is that the peasants of Catholic Europe, who constitute the bulk +of our immigration of the past thirty years, have become almost a +distinct race, drained of those superior qualities which are the +foundation of democratic institutions. If in America our boasted freedom +from the evils of social classes fails to be vindicated in the future, +the reasons will be found in the immigration of races and classes +incompetent to share in our democratic opportunities. Already in the +case of the negro this division has hardened and seems destined to +become more rigid. Therein we must admit at least one exception to our +claim of immunity from social classes. Whether with our public schools, +our stirring politics, our ubiquitous newspapers, our common language, +and our network of transportation, the children of the European +immigrant shall be able to rise to the opportunities unreached by his +parents is the largest and deepest problem now pressing upon us. It +behooves us as a people to enter into the practical study of this +problem, for upon its outcome depends the fate of government of the +people, for the people, and by the people. + +=Races in the United States.=--We use the term "race" in a rather loose +and elastic sense; and indeed we are not culpable in so doing, for the +ethnographers are not agreed upon it. Races have been classified on the +basis of color, on the basis of language, on the basis of supposed +origin, and in these latter days on the basis of the shape of the skull. +For our purpose we need consider only those large and apparent divisions +which have a direct bearing on the problem of assimilation, referring +those who seek the more subtle problems to other books.[4] + +Mankind in general has been divided into three and again into five great +racial stocks, and one of these stocks, the Aryan or Indo-Germanic, is +represented among us by ten or more subdivisions which we also term +races. It need not cause confusion if we use the term "race" not only to +designate these grand divisions which are so far removed by nature one +from another as to render successful amalgamation an open question, but +also to designate those peoples or nationalities which we recognize as +distinct yet related within one of the large divisions. Within the area +controlled by the United States are now to be found representatives of +each of the grand divisions, or primary racial groups, and it would be a +fascinating study to turn from the more practical topics before us and +follow the races of man in their dispersion over the globe and their +final gathering together again under the republic of America. First is +the Aryan, or Indo-Germanic race, which, wherever it originated, sent +its Sanskrit conquerors to the South to plant themselves upon a black +race related to the Africans and the Australians. Its Western branch, +many thousand miles away, made the conquest and settlement of Europe. +Here it sent out many smaller branches, among them the Greeks and +Latins, whose situation on the Mediterranean helped in great measure to +develop brilliant and conquering civilizations, and who, after twenty +centuries of decay and subjection, have within the past twenty years +begun again their westward movement, this time to North and South +America. North of Greece the Aryans became the manifold Slavs, that most +prolific of races. One branch of the Slavs has spread the power of +Russia east and west, and is now crushing the alien Hebrew, Finn, +Lithuanian, and German, and even its fellow-Slav, the Pole, who, to +escape their oppressors, are moving to America. The Russian himself, +with his vast expanse of fertile prairie and steppe, does not migrate +across the water, but drives away those whom he can not or will not +assimilate. From Austria-Hungary, with its medley of races, come other +branches of the Slavs, the Bohemians, Moravians, Slovaks, Slovenians, +Croatians, Roumanians, Poles, and Ruthenians, some of them mistakenly +called Huns, but really oppressed by the true Hun, the Magyar, and by +the German. To the west of the Slavs we find the Teutonic branches of +the Aryans, the Germans, the Scandinavians, and, above all, the English +and Scotch-Irish with their descent from the Angles, Saxons, and Franks, +who have given to America our largest accessions in numbers, besides our +language, our institutions, and forms of government. Then other branches +of the Aryans known as Celtic, including the Irish, Scotch, and Welsh, +formerly driven into the hills and islands by the Teutons, have in these +latter days vied with the English and Germans in adding to our +population. The French, a mixture of Teuton and Celt, a nationality +noted above all others for its stationary population and dislike of +migration, are nevertheless contributing to our numbers by the +circuitous route of Canada, and are sending to us a class of people more +different from the present-day Frenchman in his native home than the +Italian or Portuguese is different from the Frenchman. + +In the fertile valleys of Mesopotamia and the Tigris the Semitic race +had separated from its cousins, the Aryans, and one remarkable branch of +this race, the Hebrews, settling on a diminutive tract of land on the +eastern shore of the Mediterranean and finally driven forth as wanderers +to live upon their wits, exploited by and exploiting in turn every race +of Europe, have ultimately been driven forth to America by the thousands +from Russia and Austria where nearly one-half of their present number is +found. + +Another race, the Mongolian, multiplying on the plains of Asia, sent a +conquering branch to the west, scattering the Slavs and Teutons and +making for itself a permanent wedge in the middle of Europe, whence, +under the name of Magyar, the true Hungarian, the Mongolians come to +America. Going in another direction from this Asiatic home the Mongolian +race has made the circuit of the globe, and the Chinese, Japanese, and +Koreans meet in America their unrecognized cousins of many thousand +years ago. + +Last of the immigrants to be mentioned, but among the earliest in point +of time, is the black race from the slave coast of Africa. This was not +a free and voluntary migration of a people seeking new fields to escape +oppression, but a forced migration designed to relieve the white race of +toil. All of the other races mentioned, the Aryan, the Semitic, the +Mongolian, had in early times met one another and even perhaps had +sprung from the same stock, so that when in America they come together +there is presumably a renewal of former ties. But as far back as we can +trace the history of races in the records of archaeology or philology, we +find no traces of affiliation with the black race. The separation by +continents, by climate, by color, and by institutions is the most +diametrical that mankind exhibits anywhere. It is even greater than that +between the Aryan and the native American, improperly called the Indian, +whose presence on the soil which we have seized from him has furnished +us with a peculiar variation in our multiform race problem. For the +Indian tribes, although within our acquired territory, have been treated +as foreign nations, and their reservations have been saved to them under +the forms of treaties. Only recently has there sprung up a policy of +admitting them to citizenship, and therefore the Indian, superior in +some respects to the negro, has not interfered with our experiment in +democracy. + +Last in point of time we have taken into our fold the Malay race, with +some seven million representatives in the Hawaiian and Philippine +Islands. Like the Indian and the negro, this race never in historic +times prior to the discovery of the new world came into close contact +with the white races. With its addition we have completed the round of +all the grand divisions of the human family, and have brought together +for a common experiment in self-government the white, yellow, black, +red, and brown races of the earth. + +=Amalgamation and Assimilation.=--Scarcely another nation in ancient or +modern history can show within compact borders so varied an aggregation. +It is frequently maintained that a nation composed of a mixed stock is +superior in mind and body to one of single and homogeneous stock. But it +must be remembered that amalgamation requires centuries. The English +race is probably as good an example of a mixed race as can be found in +modern history, yet this race, though a mixture of the closely related +primitive Celt, the conquering Teuton, and the Latinized Scandinavian, +did not reach a common language and homogeneity until three hundred +years after the last admixture. We know from modern researches that all +of the races of Europe are mixed in their origin, but we also know that +so much of that mixture as resulted in amalgamation occurred at a time +so remote that it has been ascribed to the Stone Age.[5] The later +inroads have either been but temporary and have left but slight +impression, or they have resulted in a division of territory. Thus the +conquest of Britain by the Teutons and the Normans has not produced +amalgamation so much as it has caused a segregation of the Celts in +Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, and of the Teutons, with their later but +slight infusion of Normans, in England. On the continent of Europe this +segregation has been even more strongly marked. The present +stratification of races and nationalities has followed the upheavals and +inroads of a thousand years introduced by the decline and fall of the +Roman Empire. Two developments have taken place. A conquering race has +reduced a native population in part to subjection and has imposed upon +the natives its laws, customs, and language. In course of time the +subject race becomes a lower social class and slowly assimilates with +the upper classes, producing a homogeneous nationality with a new +evolution of laws, customs, and language. This is the history of four +great nations of Europe,--the French, the German, the English, the +Italian. The other development has been the segregation of a portion of +the conquered race, who having fled their conquerors avoid actual +subjection by escaping to the mountains and islands. Here they preserve +their original purity of stock and language. This is the history of +Austria-Hungary, whose earlier population of Slavs has been scattered +right and left by German and Hun and who now constitute separate +branches and dialects of the unassimilated races. That Austria-Hungary +with its dozen languages should be able to hold together as a "dual +empire" for many years is one of the marvels of history, and is +frequently ascribed to that which is the essence of autocracy, the +personal hold of the emperor. + +The little bundle of republics known as Switzerland is a federation of +French, Germans, and Italians, who retain their languages and have +developed what out of such a conflict of races has elsewhere never been +developed, a high grade of democratic government. Here in historic times +there has been no amalgamation of races or assimilation of languages, +but there has been the distinct advantage of a secluded freedom from +surrounding feudal lords, which naturally led to a loose federation of +independent cantons. It is Switzerland's mountains and not her mixed +races that have promoted her democracy. At the other end of the world +the highest development of democracy is in the colonies of Australasia, +where a homogeneous race, protected from foreign foes, and prohibiting +the immigration of alien races and inferior classes, has worked out +self-government in politics and industry. In the Roman Empire we see the +opposite extreme. At first a limited republic, the extension of +conquests, and the incorporation of alien races led to that +centralization of power in the hands of one man which transformed the +republic into the empire. The British Empire, which to-day covers all +races of the earth, is growingly democratic as regards Englishmen, but +despotic as regards subject races. Taking the empire as a whole, neither +amalgamation nor self-government is within the possibilities of its +constitutional growth. + +In America, on the other hand, we have attempted to unite all races in +one commonwealth and one elective government. We have, indeed, a most +notable advantage compared with other countries where race divisions +have undermined democracy. A single language became dominant from the +time of the earliest permanent settlement, and all subsequent races and +languages must adopt the established medium. This is essential, for it +is not physical amalgamation that unites mankind; it is mental +community. To be great a nation need not be of one blood, it must be of +one mind. Racial inequality and inferiority are fundamental only to the +extent that they prevent mental and moral assimilation. If we think +together, we can act together, and the organ of common thought and +action is common language. Through the prism of this noble instrument of +the human mind all other instruments focus their powers of assimilation +upon the new generations as they come forth from the disunited +immigrants. The public schools, the newspapers, the books, the political +parties, the trade unions, the religious propagandists with their +manifold agencies of universal education, the railroads with their +inducements to our unparalleled mobility of population, are all +dependent upon our common language for their high efficiency. Herein are +we fortunate in our plans for the Americanization of all races within +our borders. We are not content to let the fate of our institutions wait +upon the slow and doubtful processes of blood amalgamation, but are +eager to direct our energies toward the more rapid movements of mental +assimilation. Race and heredity may be beyond our organized control; but +the instrument of a common language is at hand for conscious improvement +through education and social environment. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +COLONIAL RACE ELEMENTS + + +Doubtless the most fascinating topic in the study of races is that of +the great men whom each race has produced. The personal interest +surrounding those who have gained eminence carries us back over each +step of their careers to their childhood, their parents, and their +ancestry.[6] Pride of race adds its zest, and each race has its +eulogists who claim every great man whose family tree reveals even a +single ancestor, male or female, near or remote, of the eulogized race. +Here is a "conflict of jurisdiction," and the student who is without +race prejudice begins to look for causes other than race origin to which +should be ascribed the emergence of greatness. + +Mr. Henry Cabot Lodge[7] attempted, some years ago, to assign to the +different races in America the 14,243 men eminent enough to find a place +in "Appleton's Encyclopedia of American Biography." He prepared a +statistical summary as follows:-- + + EMINENT AMERICANS + + English 10,376 + Scotch-Irish 1,439 + German 659 + Huguenot 589 + Scotch 436 + Dutch 336 + Welsh 159 + Irish 109 + French 85 + Scandinavian 31 + Spanish 7 + Italian 7 + Swiss 5 + Greek 3 + Russian 1 + Polish 1 + ------ + Total 14,243 + +When we inquire into the methods necessarily adopted in preparing a +statistical table of this kind we discover serious limitations. Mr. +Lodge was confined to the paternal line alone, but if, as some +biologists assert, the female is the conservative element which holds to +the type, and the male is the variable element which departs from the +type, then the specific contribution of the race factor would be found +in the maternal line. However, let this dubious point pass. We find that +in American life two hundred years of intermingling has in many if not +in most cases of greatness broken into the continuity of race. True, the +New England and Virginia stock has remained during most of this time of +purely English origin, but the very fact that in Mr. Lodge's tables +Massachusetts has produced 2686 notables, while Virginia, of the same +blood, has produced only 1038, must lead to the suspicion that factors +other than race extraction are the mainspring of greatness. + +It must be remembered that ability is not identical with eminence. +Ability is the product of ancestry and training. Eminence is an accident +of social conditions. The English race was the main contributor to +population during the seventeenth century, and English conquest +determined the form of government, the language, and the opportunities +for individual advancement. During the succeeding century the +Scotch-Irish and the Germans migrated in nearly equal numbers, and their +combined migration was perhaps as great as that of the English in the +seventeenth century. But they were compelled to move to the interior, to +become frontiersmen, to earn their living directly from the soil, and to +leave to their English-sprung predecessors the more prominent +occupations of politics, literature, law, commerce, and the army. The +Germans, who, according to Lodge, "produced fewer men of ability than +any other race in the United States," were further handicapped by their +language and isolation, which continue to this day in the counties of +Pennsylvania where they originally settled. On the other hand, the +Huguenots and the Dutch came in the first century of colonization. They +rapidly merged with the English, lost their language, and hence +contributed their full share of eminence. Finally, the Irish, +Scandinavian and other races, inconspicuous in the galaxy of +notables, did not migrate in numbers until the middle of the nineteenth +century, and, in addition to the restraints of language and poverty, +they found the roads to prominence preoccupied. + + +[Illustration: "RETURN OF THE MAYFLOWER" Painting by Boughton, 1834] + + +Besides the accident of precedence in time, a second factor distinct +from race itself has contributed to the eminence of one race over +another. The Huguenots and the French, according to Lodge's statistics, +show a percentage of ability in proportion to their total immigration +much higher than that of any other race. But the Huguenots were a select +class of people, manufacturers and merchants, perhaps the most +intelligent and enterprising of Frenchmen in the seventeenth century. +Furthermore the direct migration from France to this country has never +included many peasants and wage-earners, but has been limited to the +adventurous and educated. Had the French-Canadians who represent the +peasantry of France been included in these comparisons, the proportion +of French eminence would have been materially reduced. + +The same is true of the English. Although sprung from one race, those +who came to America represented at least two grades of society as widely +apart as two races. The Pilgrims and Puritans of New England were the +yeomen, the merchants, the manufacturers, skilled in industry, often +independent in resources, and well trained in the intellectual +controversies of religion and politics. The Southern planters also +sprang from a class of similar standing, though not so strongly addicted +to intellectual pursuits. Beneath both these classes were the indentured +servants, a few of whom were men of ability forced to pay their passage +by service. But the majority of them were brought to this country +through the advertisements of shipowners and landholders or even +forcibly captured on the streets of cities or transported for crimes and +pauperism. Though all of these classes were of the same race, they were +about as widely divergent as races themselves in point of native ability +and preparatory training. + +The third and most important cause of eminence, apart from ancestry, is +the industrial and legal environment. An agricultural community produces +very few eminent men compared with the number produced where +manufactures and commerce vie with agriculture to attract the youth. A +state of widely diversified industrial interests is likely to create +widely diversified intellectual and moral interests. Complicated +problems of industry and politics stimulate the mind and reflect their +influence in literature, art, education, science, and the learned +professions. Most of all, equal opportunity for all classes and large +prizes for the ambitious and industrious serve to stimulate individuals +of native ability to their highest endeavor. It was the deadening +effects of slavery, creating inequalities among the whites themselves, +that smothered the genius of the Southerner whether Englishman, +Huguenot, or Scotch-Irish, and it was the free institutions of the +North that invited their genius to unfold and blossom. + +These considerations lead us to look with distrust on the claims of +those who find in race ancestry or in race intermixture the reasons for +such eminence as Americans have attained. While the race factor is +decisive when it marks off inferior and primitive races, yet, in +considering those Europeans races which have joined in our civilization, +the important questions are: From what social classes is immigration +drawn? and, Do our social institutions offer free opportunity and high +incentive to the youth of ability? In so far as we get a choice +selection of immigrants, and in so far as we afford them free scope for +their native gifts, so far do they render to our country the services of +genius, talent, and industry. + +=Incentives to Immigration.=--It is the distinctive fact regarding +colonial migration that it was Teutonic in blood and Protestant in +religion. The English, Dutch, Swedes, Germans, and even the +Scotch-Irish, who constituted practically the entire migration, were +less than two thousand years ago one Germanic race in the forests +surrounding the North Sea. The Protestant Reformation, sixteen centuries +later, began among those peoples and found in them its sturdiest +supporters. The doctrines of the Reformation, adapted as they were to +the strong individualism of the Germanic races, prepared the hearts of +men for the doctrines of political liberty and constitutional government +of the succeeding century. The Reformation banished the idea that men +must seek salvation through the intercession of priests and popes, who, +however sacred, are only fellow-men, and set up the idea that each soul +has direct access to God. With the Bible as a guide and his own +conscience as a judge, each man was accountable only to one divine +sovereign. + +From the standpoint of the age this doctrine was too radical. It tended +to break up existing society into sects and factions, and to precipitate +those civil and religious wars which ended in a Catholic or aristocratic +reaction. When this reaction came, the numerous Protestant sects of the +extremer types found themselves the objects of persecution, and nothing +remained but to seek a new land where the heavy hand of repression could +not reach them. Thus America became the home of numberless religious +sects and denominations of these several races. From England came +Congregationalists (the "Pilgrims"), Puritans, Quakers, Baptists; from +Scotland and Ireland came Presbyterians; from Germany came Quakers, +Dunkards, Pietists, Ridge Hermits, Salzburgers, and Moravians. + +It is not to be inferred that religious persecution alone in the early +colonial period caused emigration. In point of numbers commercial +enterprise was probably equally influential. In Holland all religious +sects were welcomed with a liberality far in advance of any other +nation, and at the same time the Dutch people were the most advanced in +the modern pursuits of trade and commerce. The Dutch settlement of New +Amsterdam was therefore a business enterprise, and neither before nor +after the conquest by the British was there any religious obstacle to +the reception of other races and religions. In this respect New York +differed widely from New England, where religious exclusiveness +preserved the English race as a peculiar people until the middle of the +nineteenth century. So diverse were the races in New York, and so +liberal were the opportunities open to all, that Governor Horatio +Seymour was able to say that nine men prominent in its early history +represented the same number of nationalities. Schuyler was of Dutch +descent, Herkimer of German, Jay of French, Livingston of Scotch, +Clinton of Irish, Morris of Welsh, Hoffman of Swedish, while Hamilton +was a West India Englishman and Baron Steuben a Prussian.[8] + +Another colony to which all races and religions were welcomed was +Pennsylvania. William Penn established this colony both as a refuge for +the persecuted Quakers of England and as a real estate venture. He was +the first American to advertise his dominions widely throughout Europe, +offering to sell one hundred acres of land at two English pounds and a +low rental. His advertisements combined humanity and business, for they +called attention to popular government and universal suffrage; equal +rights to all regardless of race or religious belief; trial by jury; +murder and treason the only capital crimes, and reformation, not +retaliation, the object of punishment for other offences. Thus +Pennsylvania, although settled a half century later than the Southern +and Northern colonies, soon exceeded them in population. Penn sent his +agents to Germany and persuaded large numbers of German Quakers and +Pietists to cast their lot in his plantation, so that in twenty years +the Germans numbered nearly one-half the population. Again, in the +beginning of the eighteenth century, when Louis XIV overran the +Palatinate and thousands of Germans fled to England, the English +government encouraged their migration to America. In one year four +thousand of them, the largest single emigration of the colonial period, +embarked for New York, but their treatment was so illiberal that they +moved to Pennsylvania, and thenceforth the German migration sought the +latter colony. These people settled at Germantown, near Philadelphia, +and occupied the counties of Bucks and Montgomery, where they continue +to this day with their peculiar language, the "Pennsylvania Dutch." Not +only William Penn himself, but other landowners in Pennsylvania and also +the shipowners advertised the country in Germany, and thousands of the +poorer sort of Germans were induced to indenture themselves to the +settlers to whom they were auctioned off by the ship captains in payment +for transportation. Probably one-half of all the immigrants of the +colonial period came under this system of postpaid transportation, just +as at the present time nearly two-thirds come on prepaid tickets. It was +in Pennsylvania that the largest portion of the Scotch-Irish settled, +and before the time of the Revolution that colony had become the most +populous and most diversified of all the colonies. It was the only +colony, except Maryland, that tolerated Roman Catholics, and with all +phases of the Christian religion and all branches of the Teutonic and +Celtic races, Pennsylvania set the original type to which all of America +has conformed, that of race intermixture on the basis of religious and +political equality. + +=The Scotch-Irish.=--It has long been recognized that among the most +virile and aggressive people who came to America in colonial times, and +who have contributed a peculiar share to the American character, are the +Scotch-Irish. Their descendants boast of their ancestry and cite long +lists of notables as their coderivatives. Yet until recent years it has +been the misfortune of the Scotch-Irish to have escaped historical +investigation; for American history has been written chiefly in New +England, whose colonial Puritans forbade them in their midst. In fact, +from the earliest settlement, the Scotch-Irish have been pioneers and +men of action. They have contributed to America few writers and artists, +but many generals, politicians, and captains of industry. In literature +they claim two eminent names, Irving and Poe; but in the army, navy, +politics, and business they claim John Paul Jones, Perry, Andrew +Jackson, Winfield Scott, Zachary Taylor, Ulysses S. Grant, Stonewall +Jackson, George B. McClellan, Alexander Hamilton, John C. Calhoun, James +G. Blaine, Jefferson Davis, Thomas Benton, Hendricks, John G. Carlisle, +Mark Hanna, William McKinley, Matthew S. Quay, Andrew Carnegie, John D. +Rockefeller, Horace Greeley, Henry Watterson, and hundreds alike famous +in the more strenuous movements of American life. + +A paradoxical fact regarding the Scotch-Irish is that they are very +little Scotch and much less Irish. That is to say, they do not belong +mainly to the so-called Celtic race, but they are the most composite of +all the people of the British Isles. They are called Scots because they +lived in Scotia, and they are called Irish because they moved to +Ireland. Geography and not ethnology has given them their name. They are +a mixed race through whose veins run the Celtic blood of the primitive +Scot and Pict, the primitive Briton, the primitive Irish, but with a +larger admixture of the later Norwegian, Dane, Saxon, and Angle. How +this amalgamation came about we may learn from the geography of +Scotland. + +The Highlands of Scotland begin at the Grampian Hills and the Lowlands +extend south from this line to the British border, and include the +cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh. The Scotch-Irish came from that +southwestern part of the Lowlands which bulges out toward Ireland north +of the Solway Firth. Over these Lowland counties, bounded by water and +hills on three sides, successive waves of conquest and migration +followed. First the primitive Caledonian or Pict was driven to the +Highlands, which to this day is the Celtic portion of Scotland. The +Briton from the south, pressed on by Roman and then by Teuton, occupied +the country. Then Irish tribes crossed over and gained a permanent hold. +Then the Norwegian sailors came around from the north, and to this day +there are pure Scandinavian types on the adjacent islands. Then the +Saxons and Angles, driven by the Danes and Normans, gained a foothold +from the east, and lastly the Danes themselves added their contingent. +Here in this Lowland pocket of territory, no larger than a good-sized +American county, was compounded for five hundred years this remarkable +amalgam of races. + +A thousand years later, after they had become a united people and had +shown their metal in the trying times of the Reformation, they furnished +the emigrants who displaced the Irish in the north of Ireland. James I, +whom Scotland gave to England, determined to transform Catholic Ireland +into Protestant England, and thereupon confiscated the lands of the +native chiefs in Ulster and bestowed them upon Scottish and English +lords on condition that they settle the territory with tenants from +Scotland and England. This was the "great settlement" of 1610, and from +that time to the present Ulster has been the Protestant stronghold of +Ireland. In 1901 the population of Ulster was 44 per cent Catholic, 23 +per cent Episcopalian, and 27 per cent Presbyterian, an ecclesiastical +division corresponding almost exactly to the racial division of Irish, +English, and Scotch. During the whole of the seventeenth century--the +first century of this occupation--the Catholics and Episcopalians were +in a much smaller proportion than these figures show for the present +time, and the relative increase in Irish and Episcopalians during the +eighteenth century was closely connected with the migration of the +Scotch to America. + +For one hundred years the Scotch multiplied in Ulster and had no +dealings with the remnants of the Irish, whom they crowded into the +barren hills and whom they treated like savages. They retained their +purity of race, and although when they came to America they called +themselves Irish and were known as Irish wherever they settled, yet they +had no Irish blood except that which entered into their composition +through the Irish migration to Scotia fifteen hundred years before. + +Yet, though they despised the Irish, they could not escape the unhappy +fate of Ireland. The first blow came in 1698, nearly one hundred years +after their settlement. English manufacturers complained of Irish +competition, and the Irish Parliament, a tool of the British crown, +passed an act totally forbidding the exportation of Irish woollens, and +another act forbidding the exportation of Irish wool to any country +save England. Their slowly growing linen industry was likewise +discriminated against in later years. Presbyterian Ulster had been the +industrial centre of Ireland, and these acts nearly destroyed her +industry. Next Queen Anne's Parliament adopted penal laws directed +against Roman Catholics and Presbyterians, and the Test Act, which +compelled public officials to take the communion of the Established +Church, deprived the entire Scotch population of self-government. +Nevertheless they were compelled to pay tithes to support the +Established Church to which they were opposed. Lastly, the hundred-year +leases of the tenants began to run out, and the landlords offered +renewals to the highest bidders on short leases. Here the +poverty-stricken Irish gained an unhappy revenge on the Scotch who had +displaced them of their ancestral lands, for their low standard of +living enabled them to offer rack-rents far above what the Scotch could +afford. No longer did religion, race pride, or gratitude have a part in +holding Ulster to Protestant supremacy. The greed of absentee landlords +began to have full sway, and in the resulting struggle for livelihood, +hopeless poverty was fitter to survive than ambitious thrift. + +The Scotch tenants, their hearts bitter against England and aristocracy, +now sought a country where they might have free land and +self-government. In 1718 it is stated that 4200 of them left for +America. After the famine of 1740 there were 12,000 who left annually. +Altogether, in the half century just preceding the American Revolution, +200,000[9] persons, or one-third of the Protestant population of Ulster, +are said to have emigrated, and the majority came to America. This was +by far the largest contribution of any race to the population of America +during the eighteenth century, and the injustice they suffered at the +hands of England made them among the most determined and effective +recruits to the armies that won our independence. + +Before the Scotch-Irish moved to America the Atlantic coast line had +been well occupied. Consequently, in order to obtain land for +themselves, they were forced to go to the interior and to become +frontiersmen. They found in Massachusetts a state church to which they +must conform in order to be admitted to citizenship. But what they had +left Ireland to escape they would not consent in a new country to do. +The Puritans were willing that they should occupy the frontier as a +buffer against the Indians, and so they took up lands in New Hampshire, +Vermont, Western Massachusetts, and Maine. Only a few congregations, +however, settled in New England--the bulk of the immigrants entered by +way of Philadelphia and Baltimore and went to the interior of +Pennsylvania surrounding and south of Harrisburg. They spread through +the Shenandoah valley and in the foothill regions of Virginia and +North and South Carolina. Gradually, they pushed farther west, across +the mountains into Western Pennsylvania about Pittsburg, and into Ohio, +Kentucky, and Tennessee. In all of these regions they fought the +Indians, protected the older inhabitants from inroads, and developed +those pioneer qualities which for one hundred years have characterized +the "winning of the West." + + +[Illustration: ANGLO-SAXON MOUNTAINEERS, BEREA COLLEGE, KENTUCKY] + + +The Scotch-Irish occupied a peculiar place in the new world. More than +any other race they served as the amalgam to produce, out of divergent +races, a new race, the American. The Puritans of New England, the +Quakers of Pennsylvania, the Cavaliers of Virginia, were as radically +different as peoples of different races, and they were separated from +each other in their own exclusive communities. The Germans were +localized in Pennsylvania and Maryland, the Dutch in New York, but the +Scotch-Irish "alone of the various races in America were present in +sufficient numbers in all of the colonies to make their influence count; +and they alone of all the races had one uniform religion; had +experienced together the persecutions by state and church which had +deprived them at home of their civil and religious liberties; and were +the common heirs to those principles of freedom and democracy which had +been developed in Scotland as nowhere else. At the time of the American +Revolution there were ... in all above five hundred settlements +scattered over practically all the American colonies."[10] Trained as +they were in the representative democracy of the Scottish kirk, thrown +on their own resources in the wilderness, mingling with the pioneers of +many other races, they took the lead in developing that Western type +which in politics and industry became ultimately the American type; yet +they retained their original character, and the American to-day is more +at home in Glasgow than in London. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE NEGRO + + +Although the negro races of Africa extend across the continent and from +the Sudan to Cape Colony, yet the races which yielded the largest supply +of slaves for America were confined to a narrow stretch of the Atlantic +coast near the equator. For nearly two thousand miles from Cape Verde +the coast of Africa runs southeast and easterly, and then for another +thousand miles it runs to the south, forming the Gulf of Guinea, and +from a belt of land along this coast practically all the negro +immigrants to America have come. Here several large rivers, the Senegal, +the Gambia, the Niger, and the Congo--furnished harbors for slave ships +and routes for slave traders from the interior. Two circumstances, the +climate and the luxuriant vegetation, render this region hostile to +continuous exertion. The torrid heat and the excessive humidity weaken +the will and exterminate those who are too strenuous; but this same heat +and humidity, with the fertile soil, produce unparalleled crops of +bananas, yams, and grains. Thus nature conspires to produce a race +indolent, improvident, and contented. Seventy-five per cent of the +deaths are said to be executions for supposed witchcraft, which has +killed more men and women than the slave trade. Formerly cannibalism +prevailed, but it has now been largely stamped out by European +governments. The native governments are tribal, and the chiefs sustain +themselves by their physical prowess and the help of priests and +medicine men. Property is mainly in women and slaves, and inheritance is +through the female, except among the nobility of Dahomey, where +primogeniture rules. Written laws and records are unknown. The people +are unstable, indifferent to suffering, and "easily aroused to ferocity +by the sight of blood or under great fear." They exhibit aversion to +silence and solitude, love of rhythm, excitability, and lack of reserve. +All travellers speak of their impulsiveness, strong sexual passion, and +lack of will power.[11] + +Such, in brief, were the land and the people that furnished one-sixth of +our total population and two-fifths of our Southern population. In +shifting such a people from the torrid climate of equatorial Africa to +the temperate regions of America, and from an environment of savagery to +one of civilization, changes more momentous than those of any other +migration have occurred. First, it was only the strongest physical +specimens who survived the horrible tests of the slave catcher and the +slave ship. Slavery, too, as a system, could use to best advantage those +who were docile and hardy, and not those who were independent and +feeble. Just as in the many thousand years of man's domestication of +animals, the breechy cow and the balky horse have been almost eliminated +by artificial selection, so slavery tended to transform the savage by +eliminating those who were self-willed, ambitious, and possessed of +individual initiative. Other races of immigrants, by contact with our +institutions, have been civilized--the negro has been only domesticated. +Democratic civilization offers an outlet for those who are morally and +intellectually vigorous enough to break away from the stolid mass of +their fellows; domestication dreads and suppresses them as dangerous +rebels. The very qualities of intelligence and manliness which are +essential for citizenship in a democracy were systematically expunged +from the negro race through two hundred years of slavery. And then, by +the cataclysm of a war in which it took no part, this race, after many +thousand years of savagery and two centuries of slavery, was suddenly +let loose into the liberty of citizenship and the electoral suffrage. +The world never before had seen such a triumph of dogmatism and +partizanship. It was dogmatism, because a theory of abstract equality +and inalienable rights of man took the place of education and the slow +evolution of moral character. It was partisanship, because a political +party, taking advantage of its triumph in civil war, sought to +perpetuate itself through the votes of its helpless beneficiaries. No +wonder that this fateful alliance of doctrinaires and partizans brought +fateful results, and that, after a generation of anarchy and race +hatred, the more fundamental task of education has only just begun. + +True, there was a secondary object in view in granting the freedmen +suffrage. The thirteenth amendment, adopted in 1865, legalized and +extended the proclamation of emancipation, which had been a war measure. +But this was followed by servile and penal laws in all the Southern +states that looked like peonage in place of slavery.[12] Congress then +submitted the fourteenth amendment, which was adopted in 1867, creating +a new grade of citizenship--citizenship of the nation--and prohibiting +any state from depriving "any person of life, liberty, or property +without the due process of law" and from denying to any person "the +equal protection of the laws." But this was not enough. The next step +was the fifteenth amendment adopted in 1869, prohibiting any state from +denying the suffrage to citizens of the United States "on account of +race, color, or previous condition of servitude." Thus equality before +the law was to be protected by equality in making the law. This object +was a worthy one, and it added the appearance of logical necessity to +the theories of doctrinaires and the schemes of partisans. But it failed +because based on a wrong theory of the ballot. Suffrage means +self-government. Self-government means intelligence, self-control, and +capacity for cooperation. If these are lacking, the ballot only makes +way for the "boss," the corruptionist, or the oligarchy. The suffrage +must be earned, not merely conferred, if it is to be an instrument of +self-protection. + +But it is the peculiar fate of race problems that they carry contestants +to bitter extremes and afford no field for constructive compromise. +Could the nation have adopted Lincoln's project of a hundred years, or +even thirty years, of gradual emancipation, it might have avoided both +the evils of war and the fallacies of self-government. But the spirit of +race aggrandisement that precipitated the one rendered the other +inevitable. With the negro suddenly made free by conquest, each fatal +step in reconstruction was forced by the one that preceded. The North, +the South, and the negro were placed in an impossible situation, and a +nation which dreaded negro suffrage in 1868[13] adopted it in 1869. + +For eight years the government of the Southern states was in the hands +of the negroes. The result of turning the states over to ignorant and +untried voters was an enormous increase of debt without corresponding +public improvements or public enterprises. Even the negro governments +themselves began to repudiate these debts and they were almost wholly +repudiated by the whites after returning to power. + +It is not necessary to dwell upon the methods by which the white voters +regained and kept control of the states. Admittedly it was through +intimidation, murder, ballot-box "stuffing," and false counting. The +negro vote has almost disappeared, and in more recent years that which +was accomplished through violence is perpetuated through law. +Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, and +Virginia have adopted so-called "educational" tests with such adroit +exceptions that white illiterates may vote, but negroes, whether +literate or illiterate, may be excluded from voting. As stated by a +prominent white Virginian, "the negro can vote if he has $300, or if he +is a veteran of the Federal or Confederate armies, or if he is a +profound constitutional lawyer." The fifteenth amendment, by decisions +of the United States Supreme Court, has been rendered inoperative, and +the fourteenth amendment, without helping the negro, for whom it was +designed,[14] has raised up government by private corporations which +never had been thought of as needing an amendment. With these decisions +it may be taken for granted that the negro will not again in the near +future enjoy the privilege of a free ballot. + +This is a situation in which the North is as deeply interested as the +South. The South, during the period of slavery, through the privilege of +counting three-fifths of the slaves, enjoyed a predominance in Congress +and in presidential elections beyond its proportion of white voters. The +South now enjoys a greater privilege because it counts all the negroes. +The fourteenth amendment expressly provides for a situation like this. +It says:-- + +"When the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for +president and vice-president of the United States, representatives in +Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a state, or the members +of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of +such state, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United +States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or +other crime, the basis of representation shall be reduced in the +proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the +whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such state." + +Whether it will be possible under our form of government to carry out +this provision of the fourteenth amendment may be doubted, but that it +is fast becoming a question of live interest is certain. The educational +test is a rational test, but it is rational only when the state makes an +honest and diligent effort to equip every man to pass the test. The +former slave states spend $2.21 per child for educating the negroes, and +$4.92 per child for educating the whites.[15] The great lesson already +learned is that we must "begin over again" the preparation of the negro +for citizenship. This time the work will begin at the bottom by +educating the negro for the ballot, instead of beginning at the top by +giving him the ballot before he knows what it should do for him. What +shall be the nature of this education? + +=Education and Self-help.=--We have argued that democracy must be based +upon intelligence, manliness, and cooperation. How can these qualities +be produced in a race just emerged from slavery? + +Intelligence is more than books and letters--it is knowledge of the +forces of nature and ingenuity enough to use them for human service. The +negro is generally acknowledged to be lacking in "the mechanical idea." +In Africa he hardly knows the simplest mechanical principles. In America +the brightest of the negroes were trained during slavery by their +masters in the handicrafts, such as carpentry, shoemaking, spinning, +weaving, blacksmithing, tailoring, and so on. A plantation became a +self-supporting unit under the oversight and discipline of the whites. +But the work of the negro artisans was careless and inefficient. The +negro blacksmith fastened shoes to the plantation mule, but the horses +were taken to the white blacksmith in town. Since emancipation the young +generation has not learned the mechanical trades to the same extent as +the slave generations. Moreover, as machinery supplants tools and +factories supplant handicrafts, the negro is left still farther behind. +"White men," says a negro speaker,[16] "are bringing science and art +into menial occupations and lifting them beyond our reach. In my boyhood +the walls and ceilings were whitewashed each spring by colored men; now +this is done by a white man managing a steam carpet-cleaning works. +Then the laundry work was done by negroes; now they are with difficulty +able to manage the new labor-saving machinery." Even in the +non-mechanical occupations the negro is losing where he once had a +monopoly. In Chicago "there is now scarcely a negro barber in the +business district. Nearly all the janitor work in the large buildings +has been taken away from them by the Swedes. White men and women as +waiters have supplanted colored men in nearly all the first-class hotels +and restaurants. Practically all of the shoe polishing is now done by +Greeks."[17] + +Individual negroes have made great progress, but what we need to know is +whether the masses of the negroes have advanced. The investigators of +Atlanta University, in summarizing the reports of three hundred and +forty-four employers of negroes, conclude: "There are a large number of +negro mechanics all over the land, but especially in the South. Some of +these are progressive, efficient workmen. More are careless, slovenly, +and ill-trained. There are signs of lethargy among these artisans, and +work is slipping from them in some places; in others they are awakening +and seizing the opportunities of the new industrial South."[18] + +The prejudice of white workmen has undoubtedly played a part in +excluding the negro from mechanical trades, but the testimony of large +employers, who have no race prejudice where profits can be made, also +shows that low-priced negro labor often costs more than high-priced +white labor. The iron and steel mills of Alabama have no advantage in +labor cost over mills of Pennsylvania and Ohio. + +The foundation of intelligence for the modern workingman is his +understanding of mechanics. Not until he learns through manual and +technical training to handle the forces of nature can the workingman +rise to positions of responsibility and independence. This is as +important in agricultural labor, to which the negro is largely +restricted, as in manufactures. Intelligence in mechanics leads to +intelligence in economics and politics, and the higher wages of +mechanical intelligence furnish the resources by which the workman can +demand and secure his political and economic rights. + +The second requisite of democracy is independence and manliness. These +are moral qualities based on will power and steadfastness in pursuit of +a worthy object. But these qualities are not produced merely by +exhortation and religious revivals. They have a more prosaic and secular +foundation. History shows that no class or nation has risen to +independence without first accumulating property. However much we +disparage the qualities of greed and selfishness which the rush for +wealth has made obnoxious, we must acknowledge that the solid basis of +the virtues is thrift. The improvidence of the negro is notorious. His +neglect of his horse, his mule, his machinery, his eagerness to spend +his earnings on finery, his reckless purchase of watermelons, chickens, +and garden stuff, when he might easily grow them on his own patch of +ground,--these and many other incidents of improvidence explain the +constant dependence of the negro upon his employer and his creditor. +There are, of course, notable exceptions where negroes have accumulated +property through diligent attention and careful oversight.[19] These are +all the more notable when it is remembered that the education of the +negro has directed his energies to the honors of the learned professions +rather than to the commonplace virtues of ownership, and that one great +practical experiment in thrift--the Freedman's Bank--went down through +dishonesty and incapacity. With the more recent development of the +remarkable institutions of Hampton and Tuskegee and their emphasis on +manual training and property accumulation, it is to be expected that +these basic qualities of intelligence and independence will receive +practical and direct encouragement. + +Cooperation is the third and capital equipment for attaining the rights +of citizenship. There are two forms of cooperation--a lower and a +higher. The lower is that of the chief or the boss who marshals his +ignorant followers through fear or spoils. The higher is that of +self-government where those who join together do so through their own +intelligence and mutual confidence. In the lower form there are +personal jealousies and factional contests which prevent united action +under elected leaders. Negro bosses and foremen are more despotic than +white bosses. The Colored Farmers' Alliance depended upon a white man +for leadership. The white "carpet-baggers" organized the negro vote in +the reconstruction period. The negro was in this low stage of +cooperation because he was jealous or distrustful of his fellow-negro +and could rally together only under the banner of a leader whom he could +not depose. With the growth of intelligence and moral character there +comes a deepening sense of the need of organization as well as leaders +of their own race whom they can trust. The most hopeful indication of +progress for the negroes is the large number of voluntary religious, +beneficial, and insurance societies whose membership is limited to those +of their own color.[20] + +Liberty has always come through organization. The free cities of Europe +were simply the guilds of peasants and merchants who organized to +protect themselves against the feudal lords and bishops. Latterly they +gained a voice in parliaments as the "third estate" and established our +modern representative democracy. The modern trade unions have become a +power far in excess of their numbers through the capacity of the workman +to organize. With the modest beginnings of self-organization among +negroes the way is opening for their more effective participation in +the higher opportunities of our civilization. + + +[Illustration: COUNTIES HAVING A LARGER PROPORTION OF NEGROES IN 1900 +THAN IN 1880] + + +The negro trade unionist has not as yet shown the organizing capacity of +other races. Only among the mine workers, the longshoremen, and +bricklayers are they to be found in considerable numbers, although the +carpenters have negro organizers. But in most of these cases the negro +is being organized by the white man not so much for his own protection +as for the protection of the white workman. If the negro is brought to +the position of refusing to work for lower wages than the white man he +has taken the most difficult step in organization; for the labor union +requires, more than any other economic or business association in modern +life, reliance upon the steadfastness of one's fellows. Unfortunately, +when the negro demands the same wages as white men, his industrial +inferiority leads the employer to take white men in his place, and here +again we see how fundamental is manual and technical intelligence as a +basis for other progress.[21] + +It must not be inferred because we have emphasized these qualities of +intelligence--manliness and cooperation as preparatory to political +rights--that the negro race should be deprived of the suffrage until +such time as its members acquire these qualities. Many individuals have +already acquired them. To exclude such individuals from the suffrage is +to shut the door of hope to all. An honest educational test honestly +enforced on both whites and blacks is the simplest rough-and-ready +method for measuring the progress of individuals in these qualities of +citizenship. There is no problem before the American people more vital +to democratic institutions than that of keeping the suffrage open to the +negro and at the same time preparing the negro to profit by the +suffrage. + +Neither should the negro be excluded from the higher education. +Leadership is just as necessary in a democracy as in a tribe. +Self-government is not suppression of leaders but cooperation with them. +The true leader is one who knows his followers because he has suffered +with them, but who can point the way out and inspire them with +confidence. He feels what they feel, but can state what they cannot +express. He is their spokesman, defender, and organizer. Not a social +class nor a struggling race can reach equality with other classes and +races until its leaders can meet theirs on equal terms. It cannot depend +on others, but must raise up leaders from its own ranks. This is the +problem of higher education--not that scholastic education that ends in +itself, but that broad education that equips for higher usefulness. If +those individuals who are competent to become lawyers, physicians, +teachers, preachers, organizers, guides, innovators, experimenters, are +prevented from getting the right education, then there is little hope +for progress among the race as a whole, in the intelligence, manliness, +and cooperation needed for self-government. + +=Growth of Negro Population.=--After the census of 1880 it was confidently +asserted that the negro population was increasing more rapidly than the +white population. But these assertions, since the census of 1890, have +disappeared. It then became apparent that the supposed increase from +1870 to 1880 was based on a defective count in 1870, the first census +after emancipation. In reality the negro element, including mulattoes, +during the one hundred and ten years of census taking, has steadily +declined in proportion to the white element. Although negroes in +absolute numbers have increased from 757,000 in 1790 to 4,442,000 in +1860, and 8,834,000 in 1900, yet in 1790 they were one-fifth of the +total population; in 1860 they were one-seventh and in 1900 only +one-ninth. + +It is naturally suggested that this relative decrease in negro +population has been owing to the large immigration of whites, but the +inference is unwarranted. In the Southern states the foreign element has +increased less rapidly than the native white element, yet it is in the +Southern states that the negro is most clearly falling behind. In the +twenty years from 1880 to 1900 the whites in eighteen Southern states +without the aid of foreign immigration increased 57 per cent and the +negroes only 33 per cent.[22] In only six Southern states, West +Virginia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, have +the negroes, during the past ten years, increased more rapidly than the +whites, and in only three of these states, Alabama, Mississippi, and +Arkansas, was the relative increase significant. In but two states, +South Carolina and Mississippi, does the negro element predominate, and +in another state, Louisiana, a majority were negroes in 1890, but a +majority were whites in 1900. "At the beginning of the nineteenth +century the Southern negroes were increasing much faster than the +Southern whites. At the end of it they were increasing only about +three-fifths as fast."[23] + +This redistribution of negroes is an interesting and significant fact +regarding the race and has a bearing on its future. Two movements are +taking place, first to the fertile bottom lands of the Southern states, +second to the cities, both North and South. Mr. Carl Kelsey has shown +this movement to the lowlands in an interesting way.[24] He has prepared +a geological map of Alabama, which with Mississippi has received the +largest accession of negroes, and has shown the density of negro +population according to the character of the soil. In this map it +appears that the prairie and valley regions contain a proportion of 50 +per cent to 90 per cent negroes, while the sand hill and pine levels +contain only 10 per cent to 50 per cent, and the piedmont or foothill +region less than 10 per cent. A similar segregation is found in other +Southern states, especially the alluvial districts of Mississippi and +Arkansas. In these fertile sections toward which the negroes gravitate, +the crops are enormous, and Mr. Kelsey points out a curious +misconception in the census summary, wherein the inference is drawn that +negroes are better farmers than whites because they raise larger crops. +"No wonder the negroes' crops are larger," when the whites farm the hill +country and the negroes till the delta, which "will raise twice as much +cotton per acre as the hills." Furthermore the negro, whether tenant or +owner, is under the close supervision of a white landlord or creditor, +who in self-protection keeps control of him, whereas the white farmer is +left to succeed or fail without expert guidance. + +The migration of negroes to the cities is extremely significant. In ten +Southern states the proportion of the colored population was almost +exactly the same in 1890 as it had been in 1860,--namely, 36 per +cent,--yet in sixteen cities of those states, as shown by Mr. +Hoffman,[25] the colored proportion increased from 19 per cent in 1860 +to 29 per cent in 1890. This relative increase, however, did not +continue after 1890, for, according to the census of 1900, the +proportion of negroes in those cities was still 29 per cent. During the +past decade the negroes have increased relatively faster in Northern +cities. The white population of Chicago increased threefold from 1880 to +1900, and the colored population fivefold. The white population of +Philadelphia during the same period increased 50 per cent and the +colored population 100 per cent. In the thirty-eight largest cities of +the country the negro population in ten years increased 38 per cent and +the white population, including foreign immigration, increased 33 per +cent. In thirty Northern and border cities during the past census decade +the negroes gained 167,000, and in twenty Southern cities they gained +80,000.[26] + +The Southern whites also are moving from the South, and in larger +proportions than the negroes, though the movement of both is small. In +1900, 7 per cent of the whites of Southern birth lived in the North and +West and only 4.3 per cent of the negroes of Southern birth. But the +negroes who go North go to the cities, and the whites to the country. +Three-fifths (58 per cent) of these northbound negroes moved to the +larger cities and only one-fourth (26 per cent) of the northbound +whites.[27] + +The accompanying map, derived from the census of 1900,[28] shows clearly +both of these movements of negro population. The shaded areas indicate +the counties where negroes formed a larger proportion of the population +in 1900 than they did twenty years earlier, in 1880. Here can be seen +the movement to the low and fertile lands of the South and the cities of +the North and South. There are but two areas in California and Colorado, +not included on the map, where the population of negroes has increased, +and one of these contains the city of Los Angeles. + +Were the negroes in the cities to scatter through all the sections, the +predominating numbers of the white element might have an elevating +influence, but, instead, the negroes congregate in the poorer wards, +where both poverty and vice prevail. Hoffman has shown that two-thirds +of the negroes in Chicago live in three wards, which contain all the +houses of ill-fame in that part of the city. The same is true of +Philadelphia, Boston, and Cincinnati.[29] In these sections negro +prostitution has become an established institution, catering to the +Italian and other lower grades of immigrants, and supporting in idleness +many negro men as solicitors. + +We have seen that the negro population has not kept pace with the native +white population. The reason is found in the smaller excess of births +over deaths. Statistics of births are almost entirely lacking in the +United States. Statistics of deaths are complete for only portions of +Northern states and a few Southern cities, containing, in 1900, in all, +27,500,000 whites and 1,180,000 negroes. Of this number, 20,500,000 +whites and 1,100,000 negroes lived in cities, so that the showing which +the census is able to give is mainly for cities North and South and for +rural sections only in the North.[30] It appears that for every 1000 +colored persons living in these cities the deaths in 1900 were 31.1, +while for every 1000 white persons the deaths were only 17.9. That is to +say, the colored death-rate was 73 per cent greater than the white +death-rate. + +In the rural districts there was much less difference. The colored +death-rate was 19.1 and the white death-rate 15.3, a colored excess of +25 per cent. + +=Morals and Environment.=--In explaining the excessive colored mortality +there are two classes of opinions. One explains it by social conditions, +the other by race traits. The one points to environment, the other to +moral character. The one is socialistic, the other individualistic. +These different views exist among colored people themselves, and one of +the encouraging signs is the scientific and candid interest in the +subject taken by them under the leadership of Atlanta University. A +colored physician who takes the first view states his case +forcibly:[31]-- + +"Is it any wonder that we die faster than our white brother when he gets +the first and best attention, while we are neglected on all sides? They +have the best wards and treatment at the hospital, while we must take it +second hand or not at all; they have all the homes for the poor and +friendless, we have none; they have a home for fallen women, we have +none; they have the public libraries where they can get and read books +on hygiene and other subjects pertaining to health, we have no such +privileges; they have the gymnasiums where they can go and develop +themselves physically, we have not; they have all the parks where they +and their children can go in the hot summer days and breathe the pure, +cool air, but for fear we might catch a breath of that air and live, +they put up large signs, which read thus, 'For white people only'; they +live in the best homes, while we live in humble ones; they live in the +cleanest and healthiest parts of the city, while we live in the +sickliest and filthiest parts of the city; the streets on which they +live are cleaned once and twice a day, the streets on which we live are +not cleaned once a month, and some not at all; besides, they have plenty +of money with which they can get any physician they wish, any medicine +they need, and travel for their health when necessary; all of these +blessings we are deprived of. Now, my friends, in the face of all these +disadvantages, do you not think we are doing well to stay here as long +as we do?" + +Another colored writer, less eloquent, but not less accurate, in +summarizing the statistics collected under the guidance of Atlanta +University concludes:[32]-- + +"Overcrowding in tenements and houses occupied by colored people does +not exist to any great extent, and is less than was supposed. + +"In comparison with white women, an excess of colored women support +their families, or contribute to the family support, by occupation which +takes them much of their time from home, to the neglect of their +children. + +"Environment and the sanitary condition of houses are not chiefly +responsible for the excessive mortality among colored people. + +"Ignorance and disregard of the laws of health are responsible for a +large proportion of this excessive mortality." + +It is pointed out by these colored students and by many others that the +excessive mortality of colored people is owing to pulmonary consumption, +scrofula, and syphilis, all of which are constitutional; and to infant +mortality due also to constitutional and congenital disease. The census +of 1900 reports for a portion of the Northern states that for every 1000 +white children under five years of age there were 49.7 deaths in one +year, and for every 1000 colored children under five years there were +118.5 deaths, an excess of negro infant mortality of 137 per cent.[33] +The census also reports that negro deaths in cities owing to consumption +are proportionately 2.8 times as many as white deaths,[34] deaths owing +to pneumonia are 89 per cent greater,[35] while deaths owing to +contagious causes, such as measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria,[36] are +but slightly greater or actually less than the white deaths in +proportion to population. In the city of Charleston, where mortality +statistics of negroes were compiled before the war, it has been shown +that from 1822 to 1848 the colored death-rate from consumption was a +trifle less than the white, but since 1865 the white mortality from that +cause has decreased 38 per cent, while the negro mortality has increased +70 per cent.[37] The death-rates from consumption in Charleston in 1900 +were 189.8 for 100,000 whites and 647.7 for 100,000 negroes, an excess +of 241 per cent. The lowest negro death-rate reported from consumption +in cities is 378.5 for Memphis, but in that city the white death-rate +from the same cause is 169.9, a negro excess of 123 per cent.[38] + +At a conference held at Atlanta University, Professor Harris, of Fisk +University, concluded:[39]-- + +"I have now covered the ground to which our excessive death-rate is +mainly due; namely, pulmonary diseases, especially consumption and +pneumonia, scrofula, venereal diseases, and infant mortality. If we +eliminate these diseases, our excessive death-rate will be a thing of +the past.... While I do not depreciate sanitary regulations and a +knowledge of hygienic laws, I am convinced that a _sine qua non_ of a +change for the better in the negro's physical condition is a higher +social morality.... From the health reports of all our large Southern +cities we learn that a considerable amount of our infant mortality is +due to inanition, infantile debility, and infantile marasmus. Now what +is the case in regard to these diseases? The fact is that they are not +diseases at all, but merely the names of symptoms due to enfeebled +constitutions and congenital diseases, inherited from parents suffering +from the effects of sexual immorality and debauchery.... It is true that +much of the moral laxity which exists among us to-day arose out of +slavery.... But to explain it is not to excuse it. It is no longer our +misfortune as it was before the war; it is our sin, the wages of which +is our excessive number of deaths.... The presence of tubercular and +scrofulous diseases, consumption, syphilis, and leprosy, has caused the +weaker nations of the earth to succumb before the rising tide of +Christian civilization.... The history of nations teaches us that +neither war, nor famine, nor pestilence, exterminates them so completely +as do sexual vices." + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +NINETEENTH CENTURY ADDITIONS + + +It is only since the year 1820 that the government of the United States +has kept a record of alien passengers arriving in this country. For +several years following 1820 the immigration was so slight as to be +almost negligible. It was not until 1820 that there were more than +20,000 arrivals. So accustomed have we become to large figures of +immigration that nothing less than 100,000 seems worth noting, and this +figure was not reached until 1842. Since then there have been only four +years of less than 100,000, and two of these were years of the Civil +War. + +A striking fact which first attracts the attention of one who examines +the statistics since 1840 is the close sympathy between immigration and +the industrial prosperity and depression of this country. Indeed, so +close is the connection that many who comment on the matter have held +that immigration during the past century has been strictly an industrial +or economic phenomenon, depending on the opportunities in this country, +and that the religious and political causes which stimulated earlier +immigration no longer hold good. + +A curved line on the accompanying chart has been drawn so as to show +the relative numbers of immigrants since 1800, and another line shows +the movement of imports of merchandise per capita of the population. The +latter, except for tariff changes, is a fair index of the cycles of +prosperity and depression. By following these two lines on the chart we +notice the coincidence is close, except for a few years prior to the +Civil War. Both movements reached high points in 1873, and fell to very +low points in 1879; then rose in 1882 and fell in 1885; then reached +another high point in 1892 and a low point in 1897; and finally, the +present period of prosperity and heavy imports brings the largest +immigration in the history of the country. + +In following the history of immigration by races we shall see to what +extent the alleged coincidence between prosperity and immigration may be +counted as a social law. Probably in the middle of the century it was +not so much the opportunities for employment in this country as it was +conditions in Europe that drove people to our shores. When we come to +inquire as to the nationalities which constituted immigration at that +period, we shall find what these causes were. In 1846 occurred the +unparalleled potato rot in Ireland, when the year's crop of what had +become the sole food staple of the peasantry of that island was entirely +lost. The peasants had been reduced to subsistence on the cheapest of +all staples through the operations of a system of landlordism scarcely +ever paralleled on a large scale as a means of exploiting tenants. +It was found that land used for potatoes would support three times the +number of people as the same land sown to wheat, and the small tenants +or the cotter peasants paid the landlord a higher rent than could be +obtained from larger cultivators. Reduced to a diet of potatoes by an +economic system imposed by an alien race, the Irish people are one of +the many examples which we find throughout our studies of a subject +people driven to emigration by the economic injustices of a dominant +race. We shall find the same at a later time in Austria-Hungary, whence +the conquered Slav peoples are fleeing from the discrimination and +impositions of the ruling Magyar. We shall find it in Russia, whence the +Jew, the Finn, and the German are escaping from the oppression of the +Slav; and we shall find it in Turkey, whence the Armenian and the Syrian +flee from the exactions of the Turk. Just so was it in Ireland in the +latter half of the decade, 1840 to 1850, and the contention of the +apologist for England that the famine which drove the Irish across the +seas was an act of God, is but a weak effort to charge to a higher power +the sufferings of a heartless system devised to convert the utmost life +and energy of a subject race into gold for their exploiters. Much more +nearly true of the part played by the Divine hand in this catastrophe is +the report of the Society of Friends in Ireland, saying that the +mysterious dispensation with which their country had been visited was +"a means permitted by an All-wise Providence to exhibit more strikingly +the unsound state of its social condition." + + +[Illustration: MOVEMENT OF IMMIGRANTS, IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE PER +CAPITA, AND IMMIGRANTS PER 10,000 POPULATION--1800 TO 1906.] + + +Thus we have an explanation of the incentives under which, even in a +period of industrial depression in this country, the unfortunate Irish +flocked hither. It is true that the population of Ireland had increased +during the century preceding the famine at a rate more rapid than that +of any other country of Europe. It was 3,000,000 in 1790, and over +8,000,000 in the year of the famine. At the present time it is only +5,000,000. The potato, above all other crops, enables the cultivator to +live from hand to mouth, and coupled with a landlord system which takes +away all above mere subsistence, this "de-moralizing esculent" aided the +apparent overpopulation. Certainly the dependence of an entire people on +a single crop was a most precarious condition. + +During the five years, 1846 to 1850, more than a million and a quarter +of Irish emigrants left the ports of the United Kingdom, and during the +ten years, 1845 to 1855, more than a million and a quarter came to the +United States. So great a number could not have found means of +transportation had it not been for the enormous contributions of +government and private societies for assistance. Here began that +exportation of paupers on a large scale against which our country has +protested and finally legislated. Even this enormous migration was not +greatly in excess of the number that actually perished from starvation +or from the diseases incident thereto. The Irish migration since that +time has never reached so high a point, although it made a second great +advance in 1882, succeeding another famine, and it has now fallen far +below that of eastern races of Europe. Altogether the total Irish +immigration of over four million since 1821 places that race second of +the contributors to our foreign-born population, and, compared with its +own numbers, it leads the world, for in sixty years it has sent to us +half as many people as it contained at the time of its greatest +population. Scarcely another country has sent more than one-fifth. + +Looking over a period of nearly three centuries, it is probably true +that the Germans have crossed the ocean in larger numbers than any other +race. We have already noted the large migration during the eighteenth +century, and the official records show that since 1820 there have +entered our ports more than 5,200,000 Germans, while Ireland was sending +4,000,000 and Great Britain 3,300,000. + +The German migration of the nineteenth century was quite distinct in +character from that of the preceding century. The colonial migration was +largely induced on religious grounds, but that of the past century was +political and economic, with at first a notable prominence of +materialism respecting religion. From the time of the Napoleonic wars to +the revolution of 1848, the governments of Germany were despotic in +character, supporting an established church, while at the same time the +marvellous growth of the universities produced a class of educated +liberals. In the revolution of 1848 these took a leading part, and +although constitutional governments were then established, yet those who +had been prominent in the popular uprisings found their position +intolerable under the reactionary governments that followed. The +political exiles sought America, bringing their liberalism in politics +and religion, and forming with their descendants in American cities an +intellectual aristocracy. They sprang from the middle classes of +Germany, and latterly, when the wars with Austria and France had +provoked the spirit of militarism, thousands of peasants looked to +emigration for escape from military service. The severe industrial +depression of 1873-79 added a powerful contributing cause. Thus there +were two periods when German migration culminated; first in 1854, on +political grounds, second in 1882, on military and economic grounds. +Since the latter date a significant decline has ensued, and the present +migration of 32,000 from Germany is mainly the remnants of families +seeking here their relatives. A larger number of German immigrants, +55,000, comes from Austria-Hungary and Russia, those from the latter +country being driven from the Baltic provinces and the Volga settlements +by the "Russianizing" policy of the Slav. + +=The Changing Character of European Immigration.=--Besides the Germans +and the Irish, the races which contributed the largest numbers of +immigrants during the middle years of the nineteenth century were the +English and Scandinavian. After the decline during the depression of +1879 there was an increase of all those races in 1882, a year when +nearly 800,000 immigrants arrived. At about that time began a remarkable +change in the character of immigration destined to produce profound +consequences. + +This change was the rapid shifting of the sources of immigration from +Western to Eastern and Southern Europe. A line drawn across the +continent of Europe from northeast to southwest, separating the +Scandinavian Peninsula, the British Isles, Germany, and France from +Russia, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Turkey, separates countries not only +of distinct races but also of distinct civilizations. It separates +Protestant Europe from Catholic Europe; it separates countries of +representative institutions and popular government from absolute +monarchies; it separates lands where education is universal from lands +where illiteracy predominates; it separates manufacturing countries, +progressive agriculture, and skilled labor from primitive hand +industries, backward agriculture, and unskilled labor; it separates an +educated, thrifty peasantry from a peasantry scarcely a single +generation removed from serfdom; it separates Teutonic races from Latin, +Slav, Semitic, and Mongolian races. When the sources of American +immigration are shifted from the Western countries so nearly allied to +our own, to Eastern countries so remote in the main attributes of +Western civilization, the change is one that should challenge the +attention of every citizen. Such a change has occurred, and it needs +only a comparison of the statistics of immigration for the year 1882 +with those of 1902 and 1906 to see its extent. While the total number of +immigrants from Europe and Asiatic Turkey was approximately equal in +1882 and 1902, as shown in the accompanying table, yet in 1882 Western +Europe furnished 87 per cent of the immigrants and in 1902 only 22 per +cent, while the share of Southeastern Europe and Asiatic Turkey +increased from 13 per cent in 1882 to 78 per cent in 1902. During twenty +years the immigration of the Western races most nearly related to those +which have fashioned American institutions declined more than 75 per +cent, while the immigrants of Eastern and Southern races, untrained in +self-government, increased nearly sixfold. For the year 1906 the +proportions remain the same, although in the four years the total +immigration had increased two-thirds. + +IMMIGRATION FROM EUROPE AND ASIATIC TURKEY BY COUNTRIES, 1882, 1902, 1906 + + 1882 1902 1905 + ------------- ------------- ------------- + NUMBER PER NUMBER PER NUMBER PER + CENT CENT CENT + + Total Europe and + Asiatic Turkey 647,082 100 622,987 100 1,024,719 100 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Great Britain and + Ireland 179,423 27.7 46,036 7.4 102,241 10.0 + Belgium 1,431 .2 2,577 .4 5,099 .5 + Denmark 11,618 1.8 5,660 .9 7,741 .8 + France 6,003 .9 5,117 .8 9,386 .9 + Germany 250,630 38.7 26,304 4.2 37,564 3.7 + Netherlands 9,517 1.1 2,284 .4 4,946 .5 + Norway 29,101 4.5 17,404 2.8 21,730 2.1 + Sweden 64,607 10.0 30,894 5.0 23,310 2.3 + Switzerland 10,884 1.7 2,344 .4 3,846 .4 + + Total Western Europe 563,174 87.0 136,620 22.0 215,863 21.7 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + Italy 32,159 5.0 178,375 28.6 273,120 26.7 + Portugal 42 [41] 5,307 .9 8,517 .8 + Spain 378 [41] 975 .1 1,921 .1 + Austria-Hungary 29,150 4.5 171,989 27.6 265,138 25.9 + Russia 21,590 3.3 107,347 17.2 215,665 21.0 + Greece [40]73 [41] 8,104 1.3 19,489 1.9 + Roumania [40]77 [41] 7,196 1.2 4,476 .5 + Servia, Bulgaria, + and Montenegro [41] 851 [41] 4,666 .5 + Turkey in Europe [40]86 [41] 187 [41] 9,510 .9 + Turkey in Asia 82 [41] 6,223 1.0 6,354 .6 + + Total Southern and + Eastern Europe and + Asiatic Turkey 83,637 13.0 486,367 78.0 808,856 78.9 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + +=Italians.=--It was at this period that Italian immigration first became +noticeable. Prior to 1880 this stream had been but the merest trickle, +which now has become the greatest of all the foreign tributaries to our +population. In 1873 the Italians for the first time reached 8000 in +number, but they fell to 3000 in 1876 and so continued in moderate +proportions, but suddenly in 1880 jumped to 12,000, and in 1882 to +32,000. Falling off again with the industrial depression to 13,000 in +1885, they reached 76,000 in 1891, and then with another depression to +35,000 in 1895 they have now gone forward by leaps to the high mark of +287,000.[42] The Italians seem destined to rival the Germans and Irish +as the leading contributors to our social amalgam. Of course only a +small part are as yet women and children, but this is because the +immigration is in its early and pioneer stages. The women and children +follow rapidly when the men have saved enough money to send for them. +One-fourth of the emigration is on tickets and money furnished by +friends and relatives in the United States.[43] + +The immigrants from Italy differ from those from Austria, Russia, +Hungary, and Ireland, in that they are not driven forth by the +oppressions of a dominant race, but as a result of the economic and +political conditions of a united people. This does not indeed exclude +oppression as a cause of expatriation, but it transfers the oppression +from that of one race to that of one class upon another. By far the +larger portion of Italian immigration comes from the southern provinces +and from Sicily, where the power of the landlords is greatest. In these +provinces of large estates held by the nobility, the rents have been +forced to the highest notch, an orange garden paying as high as $160 per +year per acre, and the leases are short, so that the tenant has little +to encourage improvement.[44] In many cases the land is rented by large +capitalist farmers, who raise therefrom cattle, wheat, and olives, and +are prosperous men. But their prosperity is extracted from the miserable +wages of their laborers. The agricultural laborer gets from 8 cents to +32 cents a day through the year and 10 cents to 38 cents through the +summer. Unskilled laborers get 25 cents to 50 cents a day, and such +skilled trades as masons and carpenters get only 27 cents to $1.40 a +day. This wide range of wages corresponds generally with the South and +North, the lowest rates being in the South and the highest toward the +North. In France and England wages are two and one-half times higher +than in Italy, while in Germany they are about 30 per cent to 50 per +cent higher. + +Nor must it be supposed that the cost of living is low to correspond +with the low wages. This is largely owing to the exaggerated system of +indirect taxes. Although wheat is a staple crop, yet the peasants eat +corn in preference, because, for a given expenditure, it gives a +stronger sense of repletion. Of wheat and corn meal together the Italian +peasant eats in a year only three-fourths as much as the inmate of an +English poorhouse. Of meat the peasant in Apulia gets no more than ten +pounds a year, while the English workhouse pauper gets fifty-seven +pounds. The local taxes on flour, bread, and macaroni are as high as 10 +or 15 per cent of the value, and the state tax on imported wheat is +nearly 50 per cent of its value. The consumption of sugar has decreased +one-fourth since heavy duties were imposed to protect native beet sugar, +and it averages barely over five pounds per head. The consumption in the +United States is sixty-five pounds per head. The iniquitous salt tax +raises the price of salt from eleven pounds for two cents to one pound +for two cents, and the peasants sometimes cook their corn meal in sea +water, although this is smuggling. What the peasants lack in grain and +meat they strive to supply by vegetables, and the proportion of +vegetables, peas, and beans consumed is greater than that for any other +country of Europe. The peasants drink no beer, spirits, tea, nor coffee, +but the average annual consumption of wine is twenty gallons a head. +Food alone costs the peasants 85 per cent of their wages, whereas it +costs the German peasant 62 per cent and the American workman 41 per +cent. The poor and working classes pay over one-half the taxes, +amounting, even without wine, to 10 or 20 per cent of their wages. There +are in the south and Sardinia some 13,000 sales of land a year on +distress for non-payment of taxes, and the expropriated owners become +tenants. Several villages in Southern Italy have been almost wholly +abandoned and one village has recently announced its intention of +removing itself entire to one of the South American republics.[45] The +rich escape taxation, which is laid largely on consumption. Besides the +state tax on imports, each city and town has its _octroi_, or import +tax, on everything brought into the city. These "protective duties rob +the poor to fill the pockets of the rich landlord and manufacturer." +Since 1870 wealth has increased 17 per cent and taxes 30 per cent. Taxes +are nearly one-fifth of the nation's income, against one-twelfth in +Germany, one-sixteenth in England, and one-fifteenth in the United +States. Wages rose from 1860 to 1885, but since 1890 they have fallen. + +The army and navy are the greatest drain on the resources of the people. +They cost one-fourth more of the national income than do the armies and +navies of France and Germany. Eighty million dollars a year for military +expenditures in Italy is over 5 per cent of the income of the people, +whereas $194,000,000 for the same purpose in the United States is less +than 2 per cent of our incomes. In the Triple Alliance of Germany, +Austria, and Italy, the latter country crushes its peasants in order to +make a showing by the side of its wealthier partners. The army takes +every able-bodied peasant from industry into barracks and drills for two +years of his best vigor. But the long line of exposed coast and the +general military situation in Europe make it unlikely that Italy for +many years can shake off this incubus. + +In addition to all these economic and political causes of pressure, +there is another cause of a more profound nature, the rapid growth of +population. Strange as it may seem, the very poverty of Italy increases +the tendency to a high birth-rate, and the rate is highest in the very +districts where illiteracy and poverty are greatest. Only the great +number of deaths produced by poverty and lack of sanitation prevents the +increase of population from exceeding that of the more rapidly growing +countries of Germany, Great Britain, and Scandinavia. It is not among +those classes and nations, like the middle classes and the thrifty +people of France, that the largest number of children are born, but it +is among those ignorant and low-standard peoples to whom the future +offers no better prospect for their children than for themselves. Early +marriages and large families are both a result and a cause of poverty. +Parts of Lombardy and Venetia have a thicker population than any other +European country except Belgium, which is really not a country, but a +manufacturing centre of Europe. The density of population in Italy is in +excess of that of Germany, France, India, and even China. It is exceeded +only by the islands of Great Britain and Japan, and the states of Rhode +Island and Massachusetts.[46] Emigration is the only immediate relief +from this congestion. All other remedies which operate through raising +the intelligence and the standards of living require years for +appreciable results, but meanwhile the persistent birth-rate crowds new +competitors into the new openings and multiplies the need of economic +and political reforms before they can be put into effect. Emigration is +a relief ready at hand, but it is not a lessening of population. For +many years to come Italy will furnish a surplus population to overflow +to America.[47] Emigration is also a means of revenue for the mother +country. For it is estimated that the peasants in foreign countries send +back to their families and relatives $30,000,000 to $80,000,000 each +year, and many of them return with what to them is a fortune, and with +new ideas of industry and progress, to purchase and improve a farm and +cottage for their declining years. It is said that already there are +several small country towns in Southern Italy which have risen from +squalor to something of prosperity through the money and influence of +those who have come home. This temporary emigration is probably over +150,000 each year going abroad or to adjoining countries expecting to +return. + +Besides this temporary emigration there is an equally large permanent +emigration. This is of two kinds, almost as entirely distinct from each +other as the emigration from two separate nations. The North Italian is +an educated, skilled artisan, coming from a manufacturing section and +largely from the cities. He is Teutonic in blood and appearance. The +South Italian is an illiterate peasant from the great landed estates, +with wages less than one-third his northern compatriot. He descends with +less mixture from the ancient inhabitants of Italy. Unhappily for us, +the North Italians do not come to the United States in considerable +numbers, but they betake themselves to Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil in +about the same numbers as the South Italians come to us. It is estimated +that in those three countries there are 3,000,000 Italians in a total +population of 23,000,000, and they are mainly derived from the north of +Italy. Surrounded by the unenterprising Spanish and Portuguese, they +have shown themselves to be the industrial leaders of the country. Some +of the chief buildings, banks, flour mills, textile mills, and a +majority of the wheat farms of Argentina belong to Italians. They are +one-third of the population of Buenos Ayres and own one-half of the +commercial capital of that city. They become lawyers, engineers, members +of parliament, and an Italian by descent has been president of the +Republic of Argentina, while other Italians have been ministers of war +and education.[48] While these North Italians, with their enterprise, +intelligence, and varied capacities, go to South America, we receive +the South Italians, who are nearly the most illiterate of all immigrants +at the present time, the most subservient to superiors, the lowest in +their standards of living, and at the same time the most industrious and +thrifty of all common laborers. + + +[Illustration: ALIENS AWAITING ADMISSION AT ELLIS ISLAND] + + +=Austria-Hungary.=--Next to that from Italy the immigration from the +Austro-Hungarian Empire in recent decades has reached the largest +dimensions. While Italy sent 273,000 people in 1906, Austria-Hungary +sent 265,000 in that year and 276,000 the year before. Like the +immigration from Italy, this increase has occurred since 1880. Prior to +that date the largest number reported from Austria-Hungary was 9000 in +1874. + +While these figures compare with those of the Italians, yet, unlike the +Italians, they refer to a congeries of races and languages distinct one +from another. The significance of Austro-Hungarian immigration is +revealed only when we analyze it by races. The race map of this empire +shows at once the most complicated social mosaic of all modern nations. +Here we see, not that mixture of races and assimilation of language +which in our own country has evolved a vigorous, united people, but a +juxtaposition of hostile races and a fixity of language held together +only by the outside pressure of Russia, Germany, Italy, and Turkey. This +conflict of races has made the politics of the empire nearly +incomprehensible to foreigners, and has aggravated the economic +inequalities which drive the unprivileged masses to emigrate. + +Not only are there in Austria-Hungary five grand divisions of the human +family,--the German, the Slav, the Magyar, the Latin, and the Jew,--but +these are again subdivided. In the northern mountainous and hilly +sections are 13,000,000 Slavic peoples, the Czechs, or Bohemians, with +their closely related Moravians, and the Slavic Slovaks, Poles, and +Ruthenians (known also as Russniaks); while in the southern hills and +along the Adriatic are another 4,000,000 Slavs, the Croatians, Servians, +Dalmatians, and Slovenians. Between these divisions on the fertile +plains 8,000,000 Magyars and 10,000,000 Germans have thrust themselves +as the dominant races. To the southwest are nearly a million Italians, +and in the east 2,500,000 Latinized Slavs, the Roumanians. The Slavs are +in general the conquered peoples, with a German and Magyar nobility +owning their land, making their laws, and managing their administration. +The northern Slavs are subject to Austria and Hungary, and the +Ruthenians suffer a double subjection, for they were the serfs of their +fellow-Slavs, the Poles, whom they continue to hate, and in whose +longings for a reunited Poland they do not participate. The southern +Slavs and Roumanians are subject to Hungary. The Roumanians are a +widespread and disrupted nationality of Slavs, conquered by the Romans, +from whom they imperfectly took their language, but now distributed +partly in independent kingdoms and partly under the dominion of the +Magyars. The Croatians from the southwest mountains are among the finest +specimens of physical manhood coming to our shores. They are a vigorous +people, hating Hungary which owns them and calling themselves +"Austrians" to ward off the name "Hun," by which Americans mistakenly +designate them. The Magyars are the Asiactic conquerors who overran +Europe ten centuries ago, and being repulsed by the Teutons to the west +established themselves on the Slavs in the valley and plains of the +Danube. Boasting a republican constitution a thousand years old they +have not until the past year been compelled to share it with the people +whom they subdued. Astute politicians and dashing military leaders, they +are as careless in business as the Slavs, and the supremacy which they +maintained in politics has slipped into the hands of the Jews in +economics. In no other modern country has the Jew been so liberally +treated, and in no other country have public and private finance come +more completely under his control. Profiting by the Magyars' suppression +of the Slavs, the Jew has monopolized the business opportunities denied +to the Slovak and the Croatian, and with this leverage has quietly +elbowed out the Magyar himself. No longer is the Magyar the dominant +race, and in the past year he has contributed to America more immigrants +than any branch of his conquered Slavs. In the Austrian dominions of +former Poland the Jew likewise has become the financier, and both the +Ruthenian and the Pole, unable to rise under their burden of debt, +contribute their more enterprising peasants to America. + +By a perverse system of representative government, based on +representation of classes both in Austria and in Hungary, the great +landowners and wealthy merchants have heretofore elected three-fourths +of the parliaments, but recently in both countries the emperor has +granted universal manhood suffrage. The peasant Slavs will henceforth be +on equal footing with the German, the Magyar, and the Jew, and whether +out of the belated equality of races there will come equality of +economic opportunity remains to be seen. For the past few years the +emigration from the unfortunate dual empire has amazingly increased. + +With all of this confusing medley of races, with this diversity of Greek +and Roman Catholicism and Judaism, with this history of race oppression +and hatred, it is not surprising that the immigrants should break out +into factions and feuds wherever thrown together among us. It is the +task of America to lift them to a patriotism which hitherto in their +native land they could not know. + +The earliest migration from Austria-Hungary was that of the Bohemians, +the most highly educated and ardently patriotic of the Slavic people. +After the revolution of 1848, when the Germans suppressed their +patriotic uprising, students, professional men, and well-to-do peasants +came to America and settled in New York, St. Louis, Milwaukee, Chicago, +and in the rural districts of Texas, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and +California. Again, after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, skilled +laborers were added to the stream, and they captured a large part of the +cigar-making industry of New York and the clothing trade of Chicago. +Latterly recruits from the peasants and unskilled laborers sought the +sections where the pioneers had located, learned the same trades, or +joined the armies of common labor. In Chicago the Bohemian section is +almost a self-governing city, with its own language, industries, +schools, churches, and newspapers. After a slight decline there is again +an increasing flow of immigrants, the number in 1906 being 13,000. Those +who come bring their families, and few return. In these earlier days the +Polish and Hungarian Jews also began their migration, following the +steps of their German precursors. + +In the decade of the eighties the increase of immigration from +Austria-Hungary was first that of the Poles, now numbering 44,000, then +the Magyars, now 43,000, then the Slovaks, now 37,000. In the latter +part of the nineties the Southern Slavs--Croatians and Slovenians--suddenly +took up their burden, and 43,000 of them came in 1906. Following them +came the Ruthenians from the North, numbering 16,000 in 1906. Last of +all, the Latinized Slavs, the Roumanians, began their flight from the +Magyar, to the number of less than 400 in the year 1900, but swelling +to 11,000 in 1906. Only 300 additional came from their own proper +kingdom--Roumania. During all this period there has been also a +considerable migration of Germans, reaching 35,000 in 1906. + +In the face of this swollen migration the Hungarian government has at +last taken alarm. They see even their own people, the Magyars, escaping. +Recently the government has attempted to restrict the unrest by +prohibiting advertisements or public speeches advocating emigration, by +prohibiting the sale of tickets or solicitation by any one not holding a +government license for the purpose, by contracting with a steamship line +from their own Adriatic part of Fiume in order to reduce migration +across the German and Italian frontiers. This may account for the +decline of ten thousand immigrants from Austria-Hungary in 1906. + +Practically the entire migration of the Slavic elements at the present +time is that of peasants. In Croatia the forests have been depleted, and +thousands of immigrant wood-choppers have sought the forests of our +South and the railway construction of the West. The natural resources of +Croatia are by no means inadequate, but the discriminating taxes and +railway freight rates imposed by Hungary have prevented the development +of these resources. The needed railways are not obtainable for the +development of the mines and minerals of Croatia, and the peasants, +unable to find employment at home, are allured by the advertisements of +American steamships and the agents of American contractors. + +So it is with the Slovak peasants and mine workers of the northern +mountains and foothills. With agricultural wages only eighteen cents a +day, they find employment in the American mines, rolling-mills, +stock-yards, and railroad construction at $1.50 a day. + +In addition to race discrimination, the blight of Austria-Hungary is +landlordism. Considerable reforms, indeed, have been made in certain +sections. The free alienation of landed property was adopted in the +Austrian dominions in 1869, and in the following twelve years 42,000 new +holdings were carved out of the existing peasant proprietorships in +Bohemia. Similar transfers have occurred elsewhere, but even where this +peasant ownership has gained, the enormous prices are an obstacle to +economic independence. They compel the land-owning peasant to content +himself with five to twelve acres, the size of four-fifths of the farms +in Galicia. His eagerness to own land is his dread of the mere +wage-earner's lot, which he no longer dreads when he lands in America. +"The fear of falling from the social position of a peasant to that, +immeasurably inferior, of a day laborer, is the great spur which drives +over the seas alike the Slovak, the Pole, and the Ruthenian."[49] These +high rentals and fabulous values can exist only where wages and +standards of living are at the bare subsistence level, leaving a heavy +surplus for capitalization. They also exist as a result of most +economical and minute cultivation, so that, with this training, the +Bohemian or Polish farmer who takes up land in America soon becomes a +well-to-do citizen. + +Taxation, too, is unequal. For many years the government suffered +deficits, the military expenses increased, and worst of all, the +nobility were exempt from taxation. The latter injustice, however, was +remedied by the revolution of 1848, and yet at the present time the +great landowners pay much less than their proportionate share of the +land-tax, to say nothing of the heavy taxes on consumption and industry. + +As in other countries of low standards, the number of births is large in +proportion to the inhabitants. For every one thousand persons in +Hungary, there are forty-three births each year,[50] a number exceeded +by but one great country of Europe, Russia. Yet, with this large number +of births, because the economic conditions are so onerous and the +consequent deaths so frequent, the net increase is less than that of any +other country except France. In Austria the births and deaths are less +and the net increase greater, and they run close to those of prolific +Italy. + +In each of these countries the figures for births and deaths stand near +those of the negroes in America, and like the negroes, two-fifths of the +mortality is that of children under five years of age, whereas with +other more favored countries and races this proportion is only one-fifth +or one-fourth. It is not so much the overpopulation of Austria-Hungary +that incites emigration as it is the poverty, ignorance, inequality, and +helplessness that produce a seeming overpopulation. While these +conditions continue, emigration will continue to increase, and the +efforts of the Hungarian government to reduce it will not succeed. + +=Russia.=--The Russian Empire is at the present time the third in the rank +of contributors to American immigration. Russian immigration, like that +of Italy and Austria-Hungary, is practically limited to the past two +decades. In 1881 it first reached 10,000. In 1893 it was 42,000, and in +1906, 216,000. + +The significant fact of this immigration is that it is only 2 per cent +Russian and 98 per cent non-Russian. The Russian peasant is probably the +most oppressed of the peasants of Europe, and though his recent uprising +has aroused his intellect and disabused the former opinion of his +stupidity, yet he has been so tied to the soil by his system of +communism, his burden of taxes and debt and his subjection to landlords, +that he is as yet immune to the fever of migration. In so far as he has +moved from his native soil he has done so through the efforts of a +despotic government to Russianize Siberia and the newly conquered +regions of his own vast domain. On the other hand, the races which have +abandoned the Russian Empire have been driven forth because they refused +to submit to the policy which would by force assimilate them to the +language or religion of the dominant race. Even the promises of the +aristocracy under the fright of recent revolution have not mitigated the +persecutions, and the number taking refuge in flight has doubled in four +years. Foremost are the Jews, 125,000 in 1906, an increase from 37,000 +four years ago; next the Poles, 46,000 in 1906; next 14,000 Lithuanians, +13,000 Finns, and 10,000 Germans. The Poles and Lithuanians are Slavic +peoples long since conquered and annexed by the Russians. The Finns are +a Teutonic people with a Mongol language; the Germans are an isolated +branch of that race settled far to the east on the Volga River by +invitation of the Czar more than one hundred years ago, or on the Baltic +provinces adjoining Germany; while the Jews are the unhappy descendants +of a race whom the Russians found in territory conquered during the past +two centuries. + +=The Jews.=--Russia, at present, sends us five-sixths of the Jewish +immigration, but the other one-sixth comes from adjoining territory in +Austria-Hungary and Roumania. About six thousand temporarily sojourn in +England, and the Whitechapel district of East London is a reduced +picture of the East Side, New York. During American history Jews have +come hither from all countries of Europe. The first recorded immigration +was that of Dutch Jews, driven from Brazil by the Portuguese and +received by the Dutch government of New Amsterdam. The descendants of +these earliest immigrants continue at the present time in their own +peculiar congregation in lower New York City. Quite a large number of +Portuguese and Spanish Jews, expelled from those countries in the time +of Columbus, have contributed their descendants to America by way of +Holland. The German Jews began their migration in small numbers during +colonial times, but their greatest influx followed the Napoleonic wars +and reached its height at the middle of the century. Prior to the last +two decades so predominant were the German Jews that, to the ordinary +American, all Jews were Germans. Strangely enough, the so-called Russian +Jew is also a German, and in Russia among the masses of people the words +"German" and "Jew" also mean the same thing. Hereby hangs a tale of +interest in the history of this persecuted race. Jews are known to have +settled at the site of the present city of Frankfort in Southern Germany +as early as the third century, when that town was a trading post on the +Roman frontier. At the present time the region about Frankfort, +extending south through Alsace, contains the major part of the German +and French Jews. To this centre they flocked during the Middle Ages, and +their toleration in this region throws an interesting light on the +reasons for their persecution in other countries. + +Under the Catholic polity following the crusades the Jew had no rights, +and he could therefore gain protection only through the personal favor +of emperor, king, or feudal lord. This protection was arbitrary and +capricious, but it was always based on a pecuniary consideration. +Unwittingly the Catholic Church, by its prohibition of usury to all +believers, had thrown the business of money lending into the hands of +the Jews, and since the Jew was neither inclined toward agriculture nor +permitted to follow that vocation, his only sources of livelihood were +trade and usury. The sovereigns of Europe who protected the Jews did so +in view of the large sums which they could exact from their profits as +usurers and traders. They utilized the Jews like sponges to draw from +their subjects illicit taxes. When, therefore, the people gained power +over their sovereigns, and the spirit of nationality arose, the Jew, +without his former protector, was the object of persecution. England was +the first country where this spirit of nationality emerged and the first +to expel the Jews (1290); France followed a century later (1395); and +Spain and Portugal two centuries later (1492 and 1495). But in Germany +and other parts of the Holy Roman Empire political confusion and anarchy +prevailed, and the emperor and petty sovereigns were able to continue +their protection of the Jews. + + +[Illustration: NORWEGIAN ITALIAN ARABIC (From _The Home Missionary_)] + + +The Russian people, at that time, were confined to the interior +surrounding Moscow, but even before the crusades they had expelled the +Jews. As rapidly as they conquered territory to the south from Turkey, +or to the west from Poland, they carried forward the same hostility. +There was only one country, Poland, in the centre of Europe, where the +kings, desiring to build up their cities, invited the Jews, and hither +the persecuted race fled from the East before the Russians, and latterly +from the West, driven out by the Germans. When finally, a hundred years +ago, the remnant of the Polish Empire was divided between Russia, +Prussia, and Austria, the Jewish population in this favored area had +become the largest aggregation of that people since the destruction of +Jerusalem. To-day in certain of these provinces belonging to Russia the +Jews number as high as one-sixth of the entire population, and more than +half of that of several cities. Fifteen provinces taken from Poland and +Turkey, extending 1500 miles along the border of Germany and +Austria-Hungary and 240 miles in width, constitute to-day the "Pale of +Settlement," the region where Jews are permitted to live. Here are found +one-third of the world's 11,000,000 Jews.[51] Here they formerly engaged +in all lines of industry, including agriculture. + +Now we come to the last great national uprising, like that which began +in England six hundred years ago. The Russian serfs had been freed in +1861. But they were left without land or capital and were burdened by +high rents and enormous taxes. The Jews became their merchants, +middlemen, and usurers. Suddenly, in 1881, the peasants, oppressed and +neglected by landlord and government, turned in their helplessness upon +the intermediate cause of their misery, the Jew. The anti-Semitic riots +of that year have perhaps never been exceeded in ferocity and +indiscriminate destruction. Then began the migration to America. The +next year the Russian government took up the persecution, and the +notorious "May Orders" of 1882 were promulgated. These, at the +instigation of the Greek Church, have been followed by orders more +stringent, so that to-day, unless relieved by the terrorized promises of +the Czar, the Jew is not permitted to foreclose a mortgage or to lease +or purchase land; he cannot do business on Sundays or Christian +holidays; he cannot hold office; he cannot worship or assemble without +police permit; he must serve in the army, but cannot become an officer; +he is excluded from schools and universities; he is fined for conducting +manufactures and commerce; he is almost prohibited from the learned +professions. While all other social questions are excluded from +discussion, the anti-Semitic press is given free play, and the popular +hatred of the Jew is stirred to frenzy by "yellow" journals. Only when +this hatred breaks out in widespread riots does the news reach America, +but the persecution is constant and relentless. The government and the +army join with the peasants, for, true to the character of this +versatile race, the Jews are leaders of the revolutionary and +socialistic patriots who seek to overthrow the government and restore +the land to the people. + +Nor is this uprising confined to Russia. Galician Jews in the Austrian +possessions of former Poland, where the Slavs bitterly complain of them +as saloon-keepers and money-lenders,[52] have suffered the persecutions +of their race, and in the last ten years Roumania, a country of peasants +adjoining Hungary and Russia, has adopted laws and regulations even more +oppressive than those of her neighbor. + +Thus it is that this marvellous and paradoxical race, the parent of +philosophers, artists, reformers, martyrs, and also of the shrewdest +exploiters of the poor and ignorant, has, in two decades, come to +America in far greater numbers than in the two centuries preceding. + +It should not be inferred that the Jews are a race of pure descent. +Coming as they do from all sections and nations of Europe, they are +truly cosmopolitan, and have taken on the language, customs, and modes +of thought of the people among whom they live. More than this, in the +course of centuries, their physical characteristics have departed from +those of their Semitic cousins in the East, and they have become +assimilated in blood with their European neighbors. In Russia, +especially in the early centuries, native tribes were converted to +Judaism and mingled with their proselyters. That which makes the Jew a +peculiar people is not altogether the purity of his blood, but +persecution, devotion to his religion, and careful training of his +children. Among the Jews from Eastern Europe there are marked +intellectual and moral differences. The Hungarian Jew, who emigrated +earliest, is adventurous and speculative: the Southern Russian keeps few +of the religious observances, is the most intellectual and socialistic, +and most inclined to the life of a wage-earner; the Western Russian is +orthodox and emotional, saves money, becomes a contractor and retail +merchant; the Galician Jew is the poorest, whose conditions at home were +the harshest, and he begins American life as a pedler. That which unites +them all as a single people is their religious training and common +language. + +The Hebrew language is read and written by all the men and half of the +women, but is not spoken except by a few especially orthodox Jews on +Saturday. Hebrew is the language of business and correspondence, Yiddish +the language of conversation, just as Latin in the Middle Ages was the +official and international language, while the various peoples spoke +each its own vernacular. The Yiddish spoken by the Russian Jews in +America is scarcely a language--it is a jargon without syntax, +conjugation, or declension. Its basis is sixty per cent German of the +sixteenth century, showing the main origin of the people, and forty per +cent the language of the countries whence they come. + +That which most of all has made the Jew a cause of alarm to the peasants +of Eastern Europe is the highest mark of his virtue, namely, his rapid +increase in numbers. A high birth-rate, a low death-rate, a long life, +place the Jew as far above the average as the negro is below the +average. These two races are the two extremes of American race vitality. +Says Ripley:[53]-- + +"Suppose two groups of one hundred infants each, one Jewish, one of +average American parentage (Massachusetts), to be born on the same day. +In spite of the disparity of social conditions in favor of the latter, +the chances, determined by statistical means, are that one-half of the +Americans will die within forty-seven years; while the first half of the +Jews will not succumb to disease or accident before the expiration of +seventy-one years. The death-rate is really but little over half that of +the average American population." + +While the negro exceeds all races in the constitutional diseases of +consumption and pneumonia, the Jew excels all in immunity from these +diseases. His vitality is ascribed to his sanitary meat inspection, his +sobriety, temperance, and self-control. Of the Jew it might be said more +truly than of any other European people that the growth of population +has led to overcrowding and has induced emigration. Yet of no people is +this less true, for, were it not for the discrimination and persecution +directed against them, the Jews would be the most prosperous and least +overcrowded of the races of Europe. + +=The Finns.=--Until the year 1901 Finland was the freest and best governed +part of the Russian Empire. Wrested from Sweden in 1809, it became a +grand duchy of the Czar, guaranteed self-government, and confirmed by +coronation oath of each successor. It was the only section of the +Russian Empire with a constitutional government in which the laws, +taxes, and army were controlled by a legislature representing the +people. Here alone in all his empire was the Czar compelled to ask the +consent of parliament in order to enact laws. But these free +institutions within the past seven years were by his decree abrogated. +The Czar claimed the right to put into force such laws as he chose +without discussion or acceptance by the Finnish diet. The Russian +language took the place of Swedish and Finnish as the official medium, a +severe censorship of the press was introduced, the Lutheran religion, +devoutly adhered to, was subordinated to the "orthodox," the independent +Finnish army was abolished and Finns were distributed throughout the +armies of the empire, and a Russian governor with absolute powers was +placed over all. Thus have 2,000,000 of the sturdiest specimens of +humanity been suddenly reduced to the level of Asiatic despotism. They +had managed by industry and thrift to extort a livelihood from a sterile +soil, and had developed a school system with universal education, +culminating in one of the noblest universities of Europe. Their peasants +are healthy, intelligent, honest, and sober. In one year, 1900, their +emigration increased from 6000 to 12,000, and it continues at 14,000, +notwithstanding the repentance of the Czar and his restoration of +their stolen rights. Compared with the population of the country, the +present immigration from Finland is proportionately greater than that of +any race except the Jews; and famine, adding its horrors to the loss of +their liberties, has served to augment the army of exiles. + + +[Illustration: SLAV JEWISH POLACK LITHUANIAN (From _The Home Missionary_)] + + +Much dispute has arisen respecting the racial relations of the Finns. +Their language is like that of the Magyars, an agglutinative tongue with +tendencies towards inflections, but their physical structure allies them +more nearly to the Teutons. Their Lutheran religion also separates them +from other peoples of the Russian Empire. Their sober industriousness +and high intelligence give them a place above that of their intolerant +conquerors; and the futile attempts of the Slav to "Russify" them drove +to America many of our most desirable immigrants. + +=The French Canadians.=--When Canada was conquered by England in 1759, it +contained a French population of 65,000. Without further immigration the +number had increased in 1901 to 2,400,000, including 1,600,000 in Canada +and 800,000 emigrants and their children in the United States. Scarcely +another race has multiplied as rapidly, doubling every twenty-five +years. The contrast with the same race in France, where population is +actually declining, is most suggestive. French Canada is, as it were, a +bit of mediaeval France, picked out and preserved for the curious student +of social evolution. No French revolution broke down its old +institutions, and the English conquest changed little else than the +oath of allegiance. Language, customs, laws, and property rights +remained intact. The only state church in North America is the Roman +Catholic Church of Quebec, with its great wealth, its control of +education, and its right to levy tithes and other church dues. With a +standard of living lower than that of the Irish or Italians, and a +population increasing even more rapidly, the French from Canada for a +time seemed destined to displace other races in the textile mills of New +England. Yet they came only as sojourners, intending by the work of +every member of the family to save enough money to return to Canada, +purchase a farm, and live in relative affluence. Their migration began +at the close of the Civil War, and during periods of prosperity they +swarmed to the mill towns, while in periods of depression they returned +to their Northern homes. Gradually an increasing proportion remained in +"the States," and the number in 1900 was 395,000 born in Canada, and +436,000 children born on this side of the line. + +=The Portuguese.=--A diminutive but interesting migration of recent years +is that of the Portuguese, who come, not from Portugal, but from the +Cape Verde and Azores Islands, near equatorial Africa. These islands are +remarkably overpopulated, and the emigration, nearly 9000 souls in 1906, +is a very large proportion of the total number of inhabitants. By two +methods did they find their way to America. One was almost accidental, +for it was the wreck of a Portuguese vessel on the New England coast +that first directed their attention to that section. They have settled +mainly at New Bedford, Massachusetts, where they follow the fisheries in +the summer and enter the mills in the winter. The other method was +solicitation, which took several thousand of them to Hawaii as contract +laborers on the sugar plantations. Unlike the Oriental importations to +these islands the Portuguese insisted that their families be imported, +and then as soon as their contracts expired they left the planters to +become small farmers, and are now the backbone of the coffee industry. +They and their children are nearly half of the "Caucasian" element of +30,000. In Massachusetts they are of two distinct types, the whites from +the Azores and the blacks from the Cape Verde Islands, the latter +plainly a blend of Portuguese and Africans. Their standards of living +are similar to those of the Italians, though they are distinguished by +their cleanliness and the neatness of their homes. + +=Syrians and Armenians.=--That the recruiting area of American immigration +is extending eastward is no more clearly evident than in the recent +migration of Syrians and Armenians. These peoples belong to the +Christian races of Asiatic Turkey, whence they are escaping the +oppressions of a government which deserves the name of organized robbery +rather than government. Within the past thirty years many thousand +Syrians of Mount Lebanon have emigrated to Egypt and other +Mediterranean countries, to the dependencies of Great Britain and South +America. Six thousand of them came to the United States in 1906. They +belong mainly to the Greek Church or the Maronite branch of the Roman +Catholic Church, and it is mainly American missionary effort that has +diverted them to the United States. Unlike other immigrants, they come +principally from the towns, and are traders and pedlers. Broadly +speaking, says an agent of the Charity Organization Society of New York, +"the well-intentioned efforts of the missionaries have been abused by +their proteges.... It is these alleged proselytes who have contributed +largely to bring into relief the intrinsically servile character of the +Syrian, his ingratitude and mendacity, his prostitution of all ideals to +the huckster level.... As a rule they affiliate themselves with some +Protestant church or mission, abandoning such connections when no longer +deemed necessary or profitable."[54] + +The Armenian migration began with the monstrous Kurdish atrocities of +recent years, instigated and supported by the Turkish government. +Armenians are a primitive branch of the Christian religion, and at an +early date became separated from both the Greek and Roman churches. They +are among the shrewdest of merchants, traders, and money-lenders of the +Orient, and, like the Jews, are hated by the peasantry and persecuted by +the government. Like the Jews also, religious persecution has united +them to the number of five million in a racial type of remarkable purity +and distinctness from the surrounding races. + +=Asiatic Immigration.=--Utterly distinct from all other immigrants in the +nineteenth century are the Chinese. Coming from a civilization already +ancient when Europe was barbarian, the Chinaman complacently refuses to +assimilate with Americans, and the latter reciprocate by denying him the +right of citizenship. His residence is temporary, he comes without his +family, and he accumulates what to him is a fortune for his declining +years in China. The gold discoveries of California first attracted him, +and the largest migration was 40,000 in 1882, the year when Congress +prohibited further incoming. In 1906, 3015 Chinamen tried to get in, and +2732 were admitted, mainly as United States citizens, returning +merchants and returning laborers. One-half of the 1448 admitted as +"exempt" were believed by the immigration officials to have been coolies +in disguise.[55] Within the past ten years the Japanese have taken his +place, and 14,000 of his Mongolian cousins arrived in 1906. + +The immigration of the Japanese has taken a peculiar turn owing to the +annexation of Hawaii. While these islands were yet a kingdom in 1868 +this immigration began, and in 1886 a treaty was concluded with Japan +for the immigration of Japanese contract laborers for the benefit of +the sugar planters. Many thousand were imported under this arrangement, +and "the fear that the islands would be annexed to Japan was one of the +prime factors in the demand for annexation to the United States."[56] +With annexation in 1900 contract labor was abolished, and the Japanese, +freed from servitude, indulged in "an epidemic of strikes." The Japanese +government retained paternal oversight of its laborers migrating to +foreign lands, which is done through some thirty-four emigrant companies +chartered by the government. Since opening up Korea for settlement Japan +has granted but a limited number of passports to its citizens destined +for the mainland of America, so that almost the entire immigration comes +first to Honolulu through arrangements made between the emigrant +companies and the planters. But the planters are not able to keep them +on the island on account of the higher wages on the Pacific coast. Since +the alien contract-labor law does not apply to immigrants from Hawaii, a +_padroni_ system has sprung up for importing Japanese from that island. +As a result, the arrivals at Honolulu are equalled by the departures to +the mainland, and Hawaii becomes the American side entrance for the +Japanese.[57] This evasion has been stopped by the law of February 20, +1906. + +Hawaii also is showing another Asiatic race the opening to America. The +growing independence of the Japanese led the planters to seek Koreans, +since the Chinese exclusion law came into force with annexation. In this +effort to break down Japanese solidarity some eight thousand Koreans +have been mixed with them during the past five years, and these also +have begun the transit to California. + +Although the Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans are the familiar examples +often cited of low standards of living, yet their wages in their native +countries are higher than those of the South Italians and equal to those +of the Slavs. They earn $4 or $5 a month and spend $2 or $3 for living. +In Hawaii they get $18 to $20 a month, and on the Pacific coast $35 to +$50. + +In the past two or three years a tiny dripping of immigration has found +its way from another vast empire of Asiatic population--India. Some two +hundred are admitted each year. The populations of that land are growing +discontented as they see Indians returned from Natal, where they earned +$20 to $35 a month, while at home they get only $3 to $7 under a penal +contract system. The American consul at Calcutta reports ten sturdy +Punjab Mohammedans inquiring the way to America and telling of their +friends at work on American dairy farms. In his judgment they are +stronger and more intelligent than the Chinese coolies and are +preferable for work on the Panama Canal. The self-governing British +colonies have educational restrictions designed to prevent Asiatic +immigration, whether of British subjects or aliens;[58] other colonies +have contract labor. The unrest of India therefore turns the native eyes +towards America. + +While America has been welcoming the eastward and backward races she has +begun to lose her colonial stock and her Americanized Teutonic stock. +These pioneer elements have kept in front of the westward movement, and +now that the American frontier is gone they seek a new frontier in +Canada. The Canadian government for several years has sought to fill its +vast Western plains with Teutonic races and to discourage others. It has +expended many thousand dollars for advertising and soliciting in the +British Isles, and has maintained twenty to thirty immigration agents in +our Western states. The opportunities of British Columbia are now well +known, and the American farmers, with agricultural land rising +enormously in value, sell out to the newcomer or the acclimated +immigrant and betake themselves to double or treble the area for +cultivation under the flag of England. They push onward by rail and by +wagon, and the ingress of millions of immigrants is reflected in the +egress of thousands of Americans.[59] + +=Indigenous Races.=--It is not enough that we have opened our gates to the +millions of divergent races in Europe, Asia, and Africa; we have in +these latter days admitted to our fold new types by another +process--annexation. + +The Hawaiians are the latest of these oversea races to be brought under +our flag, although in the course of eighty years they have been brought +under our people. Nowhere else in the world has been seen such finished +effect on an aboriginal race of the paradoxes of Western +civilization--Christianity, private property, and sexual disease. With a +population of some 300,000 at the time of discovery they had dwindled by +domestic wars and imported disease to 140,000 when the missionaries came +in 1820, then to 70,000 in 1850 when private property began its hunt for +cheap labor, and now they number but 30,000. A disease eliminating the +unfit of a race protected by monogamy decimates this primitive people on +a lower stage of morals. Missionaries from the most intellectual type of +American Protestantism converted the diminishing nation to Christianity +in fifty years. A soil and climate the most favorable in the world for +sugar-cane inspired American planters and sons of missionaries to +displace the unsteady Hawaiians with industrious coolies, and finally to +overthrow the government they had undermined and then annex it to +America. Although acquiring American citizenship and sharing equally the +suffrage with Caucasians, the decreasing influence of the Hawaiians is +further diminished by the territorial form of government. + +The Spanish War added islands on opposite sides of the globe, with +races resulting from diametrically opposite effects of three centuries +of Spanish rule. From Porto Rico the aboriginal Carib had long +disappeared under the slavery of his conquerors, and his place had been +filled by the negro slave in sugar cultivation and by the Spaniard and +other Europeans in coffee cultivation. To-day the negro and mulatto are +two-fifths of the million population and the whites three-fifths.[60] In +the Philippine Islands the native races have survived under a theocratic +protectorate and even their tribal and racial subdivisions have been +preserved. Two-fifths of their population of 7,600,000 belong to the +leading tribe, the Visayans, and one-fifth to another, the Tagalogs. Six +other tribes complete the list of "civilized" or Christianized peoples, +while 10 per cent remain pagan in the mountains and forests. Four-fifths +of the population are illiterate, a proportion the same as in Porto +Rico, compared with less than half of the negroes and only one-sixteenth +of the whites in the United States.[61] + + + + +CHAPTER V + +INDUSTRY + + +In preceding chapters we have seen the conditions in their foreign homes +which spurred the emigrants to seek America. We have seen religious +persecution, race oppression, political revolution, militarism, +taxation, famine, and poverty conspiring to press upon the unprivileged +masses and to drive the more adventurous across the water. But it would +be a mistake should we stop at that point and look upon the migration of +these dissatisfied elements as only a voluntary movement to better their +condition. In fact, had it been left to the initiative of the emigrants +the flow of immigration to America could scarcely ever have reached +one-half its actual dimensions. While various motives and inducements +have always worked together, and it would be rash to assert dogmatically +the relative weight of each, yet to one who has carefully noted all the +circumstances it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that even more +important than the initiative of immigrants have been the efforts of +Americans and ship-owners to bring and attract them. Throughout our +history these efforts have been inspired by one grand, effective +motive,--that of making a profit upon the immigrants. The desire to get +cheap labor, to take in passenger fares, and to sell land have probably +brought more immigrants than the hard conditions of Europe, Asia, and +Africa have sent. Induced immigration has been as potent as voluntary +immigration. And it is to this mercenary motive that we owe our manifold +variety of races, and especially our influx of backward races. One +entire race, the negro, came solely for the profit of ship-owners and +landowners. Working people of the colonial period were hoodwinked and +kidnapped by shippers and speculators who reimbursed themselves by +indenturing them to planters and farmers. The beginners of other races +have come through similar but less coercive inducements, initiated, +however, by the demand of those who held American property for +speculation or investment. William Penn and his lessees, John Law, the +Dutch East India Company, and many of the grantees of lands in the +colonies, sent their agents through Western Europe and the British Isles +with glowing advertisements, advanced transportation, and contracts for +indentured service by way of reimbursement. In the nineteenth century +new forms of induced migration appeared. Victims of the Irish famine +were assisted to emigrate by local and general governments and by +philanthropic societies, and both the Irish and the Germans, whose +migration began towards the middle of the century, were, in a measure, +exceptions to the general rule of induced immigration for profit. +Several Western states created immigration bureaus which advertised +their own advantages for intending immigrants, and Wisconsin, +especially, in this way settled her lands with a wide variety of races. +After the Civil War, induced migration entered upon a vigorous revival. +The system of indenturing had long since disappeared, because +legislatures and courts declined to recognize and enforce contracts for +service. Consequently a new form of importation appeared under the +direction of middlemen of the same nativity as that of the immigrant. +Chinese coolies came under contract with the Six Companies, who advanced +their expenses and looked to their own secret agents and tribunals to +enforce repayment with profit.[62] Japanese coolies, much later, came +under contract with immigration companies chartered by the Japanese +government.[63] Italians were recruited by the _padroni_, and the bulk +of the new Slav immigration from Southeastern Europe is in charge of +their own countrymen acting as drummers and middlemen. + +INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS OF IMMIGRANTS--1906[64] + + ===============+========+=========+==================+========================== + | | SEXES | AGES | OCCUPATIONS[65] + | +----+----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+----+----+---- + | TOTAL, | | | | | | TOTAL,|Professional + RACE OR PEOPLE | 100 | | |Under|14-45|Over | 100 | |Commercial + |PER CENT| M | F | 14 |years| 45 | PER | | |Skilled + | | | |years| |years| CENT | | | |Unskilled + ---------------+--------+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+----+----+---- + African (black)| 3,786|62.2|37.8| 9.1| 86.8| 4.1| 2,921| 3.0| 2.6|45.6|48.8 + Armenian | 1,895|75.1|24.9| 11.8| 84.3| 3.9| 1,390| 3.4| 5.1|38.5|53.0 + Bohemian and | | | | | | | | | | | + Moravian | 12,958|57.3|42.8| 20.7| 73.9| 5.4| 7,985| 1.3| 1.2|43.6|53.9 + Bulgarian, | | | | | | | | | | | + Servian, and | | | | | | | | | | | + Montenegrin | 11,548|96.2| 3.8| 1.9| 96.2| 1.9| 11,025| 0.1| 0.3| 3.7|95.9 + Chinese | 1,485|94.1| 5.9| 4.5| 81.5| 14.0| 1,261| 6.9|66.0| 1.5|25.6 + Croatian and | | | | | | | | | | | + Slovenian | 44,272|86.5|13.5| 3.8| 94.1| 2.1| 40,125| 0.1| 0.1| 3.7|96.1 + Cuban | 5,591|67.4|32.6| 17.2| 73.2| 9.6| 2,842|10.3|19.1|55.9|14.7 + Dalmatian, | | | | | | | | | | | + Bosnian, and | | | | | | | | | | | + Herzegovinian| 4,568|95.1| 4.9| 1.7| 96.3| 2.0| 4,373| 0.1| 0.3| 7.7|91.9 + Dutch and | | | | | | | | | | | + Flemish | 9,735|67.0|33.0| 17.6| 76.4| 6.0| 5,849| 5.2| 7.9|30.1|56.8 + East Indian | 271|93.0| 7.0| 5.5| 90.5| 4.0| 222| 9.9|52.7| 5.4|32.0 + English | 45,079|62.1|37.9| 13.5| 75.3| 11.2| 28,249|10.8|13.5|51.3|24.4 + Finnish | 14,136|67.4|32.6| 7.1| 90.8| 2.1| 11,959| 0.4| 0.3| 7.2|92.1 + French | 10,379|57.1|42.9| 8.6| 81.7| 9.7| 6,823|16.5|12.9|31.3|39.3 + German | 86,813|59.2|40.8| 15.1| 78.6| 6.3| 55,095| 4.3| 6.7|29.7|59.3 + Greek | 23,127|96.3| 3.7| 3.1| 95.9| 1.0| 21,615| 0.5| 2.6| 9.4|87.5 + Hebrew | 153,748|52.1|47.9| 28.3| 66.3| 5.4| 76,605| 1.4| 5.6|66.7|26.3 + Irish | 40,959|50.9|49.1| 4.6| 90.9| 4.5| 35,387| 1.7| 2.9|15.1|80.3 + Italian (North)| 46,286|78.9|21.1| 8.6| 87.9| 3.5| 36,980| 1.4| 2.3|19.4|76.9 + Italian (South)| 240,528|79.4|20.6| 11.1| 84.3| 4.6|190,105| 0.4| 1.3|16.0|82.3 + Japanese | 14,243|89.6|10.4| 1.0| 97.1| 1.9| 11,797| 2.2|10.3| 2.8|84.7 + Korean | 127|81.1|18.9| 16.5| 81.1| 2.4| 80| 6.3|15.0| 2.5|76.2 + Lithuanian | 14,257|66.1|33.9| 8.9| 89.5| 1.6| 11,568| 0.2| 0.2| 9.2|90.4 + Magyar | 44,261|71.8|28.2| 9.0| 87.5| 3.5| 34,559| 0.6| 0.5| 9.3|89.6 + Mexican | 141|66.0|34.0| 14.9| 74.5| 10.6| 65|23.1|35.4|24.6|16.9 + Pacific | | | | | | | | | | | + Islander | 13|76.9|23.1| 7.7| 76.9| 15.4| 9|33.3| 0.0|66.7| 0.0 + Polish | 95,835|69.3|30.7| 9.3| 88.5| 2.2| 77,437| 0.2| 0.2| 7.7|91.9 + Portuguese | 8,729|58.4|41.6| 20.9| 70.7| 8.4| 5,815| 0.5| 1.1| 4.8|93.6 + Roumanian | 11,425|92.5| 7.5| 2.0| 94.0| 4.0| 10,759| 0.2| 0.2| 2.5|97.1 + Russian | 5,814|81.7|18.3| 10.0| 86.8| 3.2| 4,591| 3.2| 2.4|10.8|83.6 + Ruthenian | 16,257|75.7|24.3| 3.6| 93.9| 2.5| 14,899| 0.1|[66]| 2.7|97.2 + Scandinavian | 58,141|62.1|37.9| 9.1| 86.4| 4.5| 47,352| 1.8| 1.6|23.5|73.1 + Scotch | 16,463|66.1|33.9| 12.9| 78.8| 8.3| 11,207| 5.7| 9.9|62.8|21.6 + Slovak | 38,221|69.6|30.4| 8.9| 88.4| 2.7| 29,817|[66]| 0.1| 4.9|95.0 + Spanish | 5,332|83.6|16.4| 7.1| 84.6| 8.3| 4,211| 5.7|19.2|44.4|30.7 + Spanish | | | | | | | | | | | + American | 1,585|69.7|30.3| 17.0| 74.4| 8.6| 790|23.7|37.1|21.1|18.1 + Syrian | 5,824|70.4|29.6| 15.2| 80.9| 3.9| 4,023| 1.1|11.1|19.9|67.9 + Turkish | 2,033|95.7| 4.3| 1.9| 96.0| 2.1| 1,914| 1.5| 4.4| 8.3|85.8 + Welsh | 2,367| 7.1|29.9| 12.5| 78.2| 9.3| 1,639| 4.9| 6.7|62.4|26.0 + West Indian | | | | | | | | | | | + (except | | | | | | | | | | | + Cuban) | 1,476|58.9|41.1| 14.8| 76.1| 9.1| 900| 7.6|15.0|49.4|28.0 + Other Peoples | 1,027|94.5| 5.5| 2.6| 96.0| 1.4| 932| 1.2| 4.1|18.0|76.7 + ---------+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+----+----+---- + Total 1,100,735|69.5|30.5| 12.4| 83.0| 4.6|815,275| 1.8| 3.1|21.7|73.4 + ===============+========+====+====+=====+=====+=====+=======+====+====+====+==== + +These labor speculators have perfected a system of inducements and +through billing as effective as that by which horse and cattle buyers in +Kentucky or Iowa collect and forward their living freight to the markets +of Europe. A Croatian of the earlier immigration, for example, sets up a +saloon in South Chicago and becomes an employment bureau for his +"greener" countrymen, and also ticket agent on commission for the +steamship companies. His confederates are stationed along the entire +route at connecting points, from the villages of Croatia to the saloon +in Chicago. In Croatia they go among the laborers and picture to them +the high wages and abundant work in America. They induce them to sell +their little belongings and they furnish them with through tickets. They +collect them in companies, give them a countersign, and send them on to +their fellow-agent at Fiume, thence to Genoa or other port whence the +American steerage vessel sails. In New York they are met by other +confederates, whom they identify by their countersign, and again they +are safely transferred and shipped to their destination. Here they are +met by their enterprising countryman, lodged and fed, and within a day +or two handed over to the foreman in a great steel plant, or to the +"boss" of a construction gang on a railway, or to a contractor on a +large public improvement. After they have earned and saved a little +money they send for their friends, to whom the "boss" has promised jobs. +Again their lodging-house countryman sells them the steamship ticket and +arranges for the safe delivery of those for whom they have sent. In this +way immigration is stimulated, and new races are induced to begin their +American colonization. Eventually the pioneers send for their families, +and it is estimated that nearly two-thirds of the immigrants in recent +years have come on prepaid tickets or on money sent to them from +America.[67] + +The significance of this new and highly perfected form of inducement +will appear when we look back for a moment upon the legislation +governing immigration. + +=Immigration Legislation.=--At the close of the Civil War, with a vast +territory newly opened to the West by the railroads, Congress enacted a +law throwing wide open our doors to the immigrants of all lands. It gave +new guaranties for the protection of naturalized citizens in renouncing +allegiance to their native countries, declaring that "expatriation is a +natural and inherent right of all people, indispensable to the enjoyment +of the rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."[68] + +In the same year, 1868, the famous Burlingame treaty was negotiated with +China, by which Americans in China and Chinese in America should enjoy +all the privileges, immunities, and exemptions enjoyed by citizens of +the most favored nation. These steps favorable to immigration were in +line with the long-continued policy of the country from the earliest +colonial times. + +But a new force had come into American politics--the wage-earner. From +this time forth the old policies were violently challenged. High wages +were to be pitted against high profits. The cheap labor which was +eagerly sought by the corporations and large property owners was just as +eagerly fought by the unpropertied wage-earners. Of course neither party +conceded that it was selfishly seeking its own interest. Those who +expected profits contended that cheap foreign labor was necessary for +the development of the country; that American natural resources were +unbounded, but American workmen could not be found for the rough work +needed to turn these resources into wealth; that America should be in +the future, as it had been in the past, a haven for the oppressed of all +lands; and that in no better way could the principles of American +democracy be spread to all peoples of the earth than by welcoming them +and teaching them in our midst. + +The wage-earners have not been so fortunate in their protestations of +disinterestedness. They were compelled to admit that though they +themselves had been immigrants or the children of immigrants, they were +now denying to others what had been a blessing to them. Yet they were +able to set forward one supreme argument which our race problems are +every day more and more showing to be sound. The future of American +democracy is the future of the American wage-earner. To have an +enlightened and patriotic citizenship we must protect the wages and +standard of living of those who constitute the bulk of the citizens. +This argument had been offered by employers themselves when they were +seeking a protective tariff against the importation of "pauper-made" +goods. What wonder that the wage-earner should use the same argument to +keep out the pauper himself, and especially that he should begin by +applying the argument to those races which showed themselves unable +rapidly to assimilate, and thereby make a stand for high wages and high +standards of living. Certain it is that had the white wage-earners +possessed the suffrage and political influence during colonial times, +the negro would not have been admitted in large numbers, and we should +have been spared that race problem which of all is the largest and most +nearly insoluble. + +For it must be observed in general that race antagonism occurs on the +same competitive level. What appear often to be religious, political, +and social animosities are economic at bottom, and the substance of the +economic struggle is the advantage which third parties get when +competitors hold each other down. The Southern planter was not hostile +to the negro slave--he was his friend and protector. His nurse was the +negro "mammy," his playmates were her children, and the mulatto throws +light on his views of equality. It was the poor white who hated the +negro and fled from his presence to the hills and the frontier, or sank +below his level, despised by white and black. In times of freedom and +reconstruction it is not the great landowner or employer that leads in +the exhibition of race hostility, but the small farmer or +wage-earner.[69] The one derives a profit from the presence of the +negro--the other loses his job or his farm. With the progress of white +democracy in place of the old aristocracy, as seen in South Carolina, +hostility to the negro may be expected to increase. With the elimination +of the white laborer, as seen in the black counties, the relations of +negro and planter are harmonious.[70] + +So it is in the North. The negro or immigrant strike breaker is +befriended by the employer, but hated by the employee. The Chinaman or +Japanese in Hawaii or California is praised and sought after by the +employer and householder, but dreaded by the wage-earner and domestic. +Investors and landowners see their properties rise in value by the +competition of races, but the competitors see their wages and jobs +diminish. The increase of wealth intensifies the difference and raises +up professional classes to the standpoint of the capitalists. With both +of them the privilege of leisure depends on the presence of servants, +but the wage-earners do their own work. As the immigrant rises in the +scale, the small farmer, contractor, or merchant feels his competition +and begins to join in measures of race protection. + +This hostility is not primarily racial in character. It is the +competitive struggle for standards of living. It appears to be racial +because for the most part races have different standards. But where +different races agree on their standards the racial struggle ceases, and +the negro, Italian, Slav, and American join together in the class +struggle of a trade-union. On the other hand, if the same race has +different standards, the economic struggle breaks down even the +strongest affinities of race. The Russian Jew in the sweat-shop turns +against the immigrant Jew, fleeing from the very persecution that he +himself has escaped, and taking his place in the employment of the +capitalist German Jew.[71] It is an easy and patriotic matter for the +lawyer, minister, professor, employer, or investor, placed above the +arena of competition, to proclaim the equal right of all races to +American opportunities; to avow his own willingness to give way should +even a better Chinaman, Hindu, or Turk come in to take his place; and to +rebuke the racial hatred of those who resist this displacement. His +patriotism and world-wide brotherhood cost him and his family nothing, +and indeed they add to his profits and leisure. Could he realize his +industrial position, and picture in imagination that of his +fellow-citizens, their attitude would not appear less disinterested than +his own. The immigrant comes as a wage-earner, and the American +wage-earner bears the initial cost of his Americanization. Before he +acquired the suffrage his protest was unheard--after he gained political +power he began to protect himself. + +The first outbreak of the new-found strength of the American wage-earner +was directed against a race superior even to the negro immigrants in +industry, frugality, intelligence, and civilization--the Chinese. And +this outbreak was so powerful that, in spite of all appeals to the +traditions and liberties of America, the national government felt driven +to repudiate the treaty so recently signed with the highest +manifestations of faith, good-will, and international comity. + +Very early in the settlement of California the Chinaman had encountered +hostile legislation. The state election had been carried by the +Knownothings as early as 1854. Discriminating taxes, ordinances, and +laws were adopted, and even immigration was regulated by the state +legislature. But the state and federal courts declared such legislation +invalid as violating treaties or interfering with international +relations. Then the wage-earning element of California joined as one man +in demanding action by the federal government, and eventually, by the +treaty of 1880 and the law of 1888, Chinese laborers were excluded.[72] +Thus did the Caucasian wage-earner score his first and signal victory +in reversing what his opponents proclaimed were "principles coeval with +the foundation of our government." + +The next step was the Alien Contract Labor law of 1885 and 1888, placed +on the statute books through the efforts of the Knights of Labor and the +trades-unions. As early as 1875 Congress had prohibited the immigration +of paupers, criminal, and immoral persons, but the law of 1885 went to +the other extreme and was designed to exclude industrial classes. The +law is directed against prepayment of transportation, assistance, or +encouragement of foreigners to immigrate _under contract_ to perform +labor in the United States, and provides for the prosecution of the +importer and deportation of the contract immigrant. This law has been +enforced against skilled labor, which comes mainly from northwestern +Europe, but, owing to the new system of _padroni_ and middlemen above +described, it cannot be enforced against the unskilled laborers of +Southern and Eastern Europe, since it cannot be shown that they have +come under contract to perform labor. By the amendment and revised law +adopted in 1903, after considerable discussion, and an effort on the +part of the labor unions to strengthen the law, it was extended so as to +exclude not only those coming under contract but also those coming under +_offers_ and _promises_ of employment.[73] + +From what precedes we see that there are two exactly opposite points of +view from which the subject of immigration is approached. One is the +production of wealth; the other is the distribution of wealth. He who +takes the standpoint of production sees the enormous undeveloped +resources of this country--the mines to be exploited, railroads and +highways to be built and rebuilt, farms to be opened up or to be more +intensively cultivated, manufactures to be multiplied, and the markets +of the world to be conquered by our exports, while there are not enough +workmen, or not enough willing to do the hard and disagreeable work at +the bottom. + +He who takes the standpoint of distribution sees the huge fortunes, the +low wages, the small share of the product going to labor, the +sweat-shop, the slums, all on account of the excessive competition of +wage-earner against wage-earner. + +Consider first the bearing of immigration on the production of wealth. + + +[Illustration: AGE GROUPS, FOREIGN AND NATIVE-BORN] + + +=Immigration and Wealth Production.=--Over four-fifths of the immigrants +are in the prime of life--the ages between fourteen and forty-five. In +the year 1906 only 12 out of every 100 were under fourteen years of age, +and only 4.5 out of every 100 over forty-five years of age. The census +of 1900 offers some interesting comparisons between the native-born and +the foreign-born in this matter of age distribution. It shows quite +plainly that a large proportion of the native-born population is below +the age of industrial production, fully 39 per cent, or two-fifths, +being under fifteen years of age, while only 5 per cent of the +foreign-born are of corresponding ages. On the other hand, the ages +fifteen to forty-four include 46 per cent of the native and 58 per cent +of the foreign-born. This is shown in the diagram based on five-year age +periods. The native born are seen to group themselves in a symmetrical +pyramid, with the children under five as the wide foundation, gradually +tapering to the ages of eighty and eighty-four, but for the foreign-born +they show a double pyramid, tapering in both directions from the ages of +thirty-five to thirty-nine, which include the largest five-year group. +Thus, immigration brings to us a population of working ages unhampered +by unproductive mouths to be fed, and, if we consider alone that which +produces the wealth of this country and not that which consumes it, the +immigrants add more to the country than does the same number of native +of equal ability. Their home countries have borne the expense of rearing +them up to the industrial period of their lives, and then America, +without that heavy expense, reaps whatever profits there are on the +investment. + + +[Illustration: PROPORTION OF SEXES. NATIVE AND FOREIGN-BORN WHITES, +1900, AND IMMIGRANTS 1906] + + +In another respect does immigration add to our industrial population +more than would be done by an equal increase in native population, +namely, by the large excess of men over women. In 1906, over two-thirds +of the immigrants were males and less than one-third were females. This +is shown on the accompanying diagram, as well as the fact based on the +census statistics that among the foreign-born the men predominate over +the women in the ratio of 540 to 460, while among the native-born +population the sexes are about equal, being in the proportion of 507 +males to 493 females. + +This small proportion of women and children shows, of course, that it is +the workers, not the families, who seek America. Yet the proportions +widely vary for different nationalities. Among the Jews 48 per cent are +females and 28 per cent children. This persecuted race moves in a body, +expecting to make America its home. At the other extreme the Greeks send +only 4 per cent females and 3 per cent children, the Croatians 13 per +cent females and 4 per cent children, the South Italians 21 per cent +females and 11 per cent children. These are races whose immigration has +only recently begun, and naturally enough the women and children, except +in the case of the Jews, do not accompany the workmen. A race of longer +migration, like the Germans, has 41 per cent females and 15 per cent +children. The Irish have a peculiar position. Alone of all the races do +the women equal the men, but only 5 per cent are children. Irish girls +seeking domestic service explain this preponderance of women. +Significant and interesting facts regarding other races may be seen by +studying the table entitled "Industrial Relations of Immigrants." + + +[Illustration: SWEDEN GREECE GERMANY RUSSIA CHINA SCOTLAND AUSTRIA +AUSTRALIA CANADA ENGLAND ITALY ROUMANIA AMERICAN SCHOOL BOYS (From +_World's Work_)] + + +Such being the proportions of industrial energy furnished by +immigration, what is the quality? Much the larger proportion of +immigrants are classed as unskilled, including laborers and servants. +Omitting those who have "no occupation," including mainly women and +children, who are 30.5 per cent of the total, only 21.7 per cent of the +remainder who are working immigrants are skilled, and 73.4 per cent are +unskilled. The proportions vary greatly among the different races. The +largest element of skilled labor is among the Jews, a city people, +two-thirds of whom are skilled workmen. Nearly the same proportion of +the Scotch and Welsh and over one-half of the English and Bohemians are +skilled mechanics. Nearly one-third of the Germans and Dutch are +skilled, and one-fourth of the Scandinavians. At the other extreme, only +3 to 5 per cent of the Ruthenians, Croatians, Roumanians, and Slovaks +are skilled, and 8 to 10 per cent of the Magyars, Lithuanians, and +Poles. One-fifth of the North Italians and one-sixth of the South +Italians are skilled. These and other proportions are shown in the +statistical table. + +The skilled labor which comes to America, especially from Northern and +Western Europe, occupies a peculiar position in our industries. In the +first place, the most capable workmen have permanent places at home, +and it is, in general, only those who cannot command situations who seek +their fortunes abroad. The exceptions to this rule are in the beginnings +of an industry like that of tin plate, when a large proportion of the +industry moved bodily to America, and the highly skilled tin workers of +Wales brought a kind of industrial ability that had not hitherto existed +in this country. As for the bulk of skilled immigrants, they do not +represent the highest skill of the countries whence they come. + +On the other hand, the European skilled workman is usually better +trained than the American, and in many branches of industry, especially +machinery and ship-building, the English and Scotch immigrants command +those superior positions where an all-round training is required. + +This peculiar situation is caused by the highly specialized character of +American industry. In no country has division of labor and machinery +been carried as far as here. By division of labor the skilled trades +have been split up into simple operations, each of which in itself +requires little or no skill, and the boy who starts in as a beginner is +kept at one operation so that he does not learn a trade. The old-time +journeyman tailor was a skilled mechanic who measured his customer, cut +the cloth and trimmings, basted, sewed, and pressed the suit. Now we +have factories which make only coats, others which make only vests, +others trousers, and there are children's knee-pants factories and even +ladies' tailor establishments where the former seamstress sees her +precious skill dissipated among a score of unskilled workers. Thus the +journeyman tailor is displaced by the factory, where the coat passes +through the hands of thirty to fifty different men and women, each of +whom can learn his peculiar operation in a month or two. The same is +true in greater or less degree in all industries. Even in the building +trades in the larger cities there are as many kinds of bricklayers as +there are kinds of walls to be built, and as many kinds of carpenters as +there are varieties of woodwork. + +So it is with machinery. The American employer does not advertise for a +"machinist"--he wants a "lathe hand" or a "drill-press hand," and the +majority of his "hands" are perhaps only automatic machine tenders. The +employer cannot afford to transfer these hands from one job to another +to enable them to "learn the trade." He must keep them at one operation, +for it is not so much skill that he wants as cheap labor and speed. +Consequently, American industry is not producing all-round mechanics, +and the employers look to Europe for their skilled artisans. In England +the trade-unions have made it their special business to see that every +apprentice learns every part of his trade, and they have prevented +employers from splitting up the trades and specializing machinery and +thereby transforming the mechanic into the "hand." Were it not for +immigration, American industries would ere now have been compelled to +give more attention to apprenticeship and the training of competent +mechanics. The need of apprenticeship and trade schools is being more +seriously felt every year, for, notwithstanding the progress of division +of labor and machinery, the all-round mechanic continues to play an +important part in the shop and factory. American trade-unions are +gaining strength, and one of their most insistent demands is the +protection of apprenticeship. The bricklayers' and carpenters' unions of +Chicago even secure from their employers instruction for apprentices in +school. Not much headway in this line, however, has yet been made, and +American industry has become abnormal, we might almost say suicidal, or +at any rate, non-self-supporting. By extreme division of labor and +marvellous application of machinery it makes possible the wholesale +employment in factories of the farm laborers of Europe and their +children, and then depends on Europe for the better-trained types of the +skilled mechanic, who, on account of the farm laborer, have not been +able to learn their trade in America. + +Not only does immigration bring to America the strongest, healthiest, +and most energetic and adventurous of the work-people of Europe and +Asia, but those who come work much harder than they did at home. +Migration tears a man away from the traditions, the routine, the social +props on which he has learned to rely, and throws him among strangers +upon his own resources. He must swim or drown. At the same time he +earns higher wages and eats more nourishing food than he had ever +thought within reach of one in his station. His ambition is fired, he is +stirred by the new tonic of feeling himself actually rising in the +world. He pictures to himself a home of his own, he economizes and saves +money to send to his friends and family, or to return to his beloved +land a person of importance. Watch a gang of Italians shovelling dirt +under an Irish boss, or a sweat-shop of Jewish tailors under a small +contractor, and you shall see such feverish production of wealth as an +American-born citizen would scarcely endure. Partly fear, partly hope, +make the fresh immigrant the hardest, if not the most intelligent, +worker in our industries. + +=Industrial Capacities of Different Races.=--But, however hard one may +work, he can only exercise the gifts with which nature has endowed him. +Whether these gifts are contributed by race or by civilization, we shall +inquire when we come to the problems of amalgamation and assimilation. +At present we are concerned with the varying industrial gifts and +capacities of the various races as they actually exist at the time when +immigration, annexation, or conquest takes place. + +The mental and moral qualities suited to make productive workers depend +upon the character of the industry. It is not conceivable that the +immigrants of the present day from Southern Europe and from Asia could +have succeeded as frontiersmen and pioneers in the settlement of the +country. In all Europe, Asia, and Africa there was but one race in the +seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that had the preliminary training +necessary to plunge into the wilderness, and in the face of the Indian +to establish homes and agriculture. This was the English and the +Scotch-Irish. The Spaniards and the French were pioneers and +adventurers, but they established only trading stations. Accustomed to a +paternal government they had not, as a people, the self-reliance and +capacity for sustained exertion required to push forward as individuals, +and to cut themselves off from the support of a government across the +ocean. They shrank from the herculean task of clearing the forests, +planting crops among the stumps, and living miles away from their +neighbors. True, the pioneers had among their number several of German, +French, and Dutch descent, but these belonged to the second and third +generations descended from the immigrants and thrown from the time of +childhood among their English-Scotch neighbors. The French trappers and +explorers are famous, and have left their names on our map. But it was +the English race that established itself in America, not because it was +first to come, not because of its armies and navies, but because of its +agriculture. Every farm newly carved out of the wilderness became a +permanent foothold, and soon again sent out a continuous colony of sons +and daughters to occupy the fertile land. Based on this self-reliant, +democratic, industrial conquest of the new world the military conquest +naturally, inevitably followed. + +But at the present day the character of industry has entirely changed. +The last quarter of the nineteenth century saw the vacant lands finally +occupied and the tribe of frontiersmen coming to an end. Population now +began to recoil upon the East and the cities. This afforded to +manufactures and to the mining industries the surplus labor-market so +necessary for the continuance of large establishments which to-day need +thousands of workmen and to-morrow hundreds. Moreover, among the +American-born workmen, as well as the English and Scotch, are not found +that docility, obedience to orders, and patient toil which employers +desire where hundreds and thousands are brought like an army under the +direction of foremen, superintendents, and managers. Employers now turn +for their labor supply to those eastern and southern sections of Europe +which have not hitherto contributed to immigration. The first to draw +upon these sources in large numbers were the anthracite coal operators +of Pennsylvania. In these fields the English, Scotch, Welsh, and Irish +miners, during and following the period of the Civil War, had effected +an organization for the control of wages, and the outrages of a secret +society known as the Molly Maguires gave occasion for the importation of +new races unaccustomed to unionism, and incapable, on account of +language, of cooperation with English-speaking miners. Once introduced +in the mining industry, these races rapidly found their way into the +unskilled parts of manufactures, into the service of railroads and large +contractors. On the construction of the Erie Canal in 1898, of 16,000 +workmen, 15,000 were unnaturalized Italians.[74] The census of 1900 +showed that while the foreign-born males were one-fourteenth of the +laborers in agriculture, they were three-fourths of the tailors, more +than one-half of the cabinet makers, nearly one-half of the miners and +quarrymen, tannery workers, marble and stonecutters, more than +two-fifths of the boot and shoe-makers and textile workers, one-third of +the coopers, iron and steel workers, wood-workers and miscellaneous +laborers, one-fourth of the carpenters, painters, and plasterers, and +one-fifth of the sawmill workers.[75] The foreign-born females numbered +nearly two-fifths of the female cotton-mill operatives and tailors, +one-third of the woollen-mill operatives, one-fourth of the tobacco and +silk-mill operatives. + +On the Pacific slope the Chinese and Japanese immigrants have filled the +place occupied by the southeast European in the East and the negro in +the South. They were the workmen who built the Pacific railroads, and +without them it is said that these railroads could not have been +constructed until several years after their actual completion. + +The immigration of the Chinese reached its highest figures prior to the +exclusion laws of 1882, and since that time has been but an +insignificant contribution. In their place have come the Japanese, a +race whose native land, in proportion to its cultivable area, is more +densely populated than any other country in the world. The Chinese and +Japanese are perhaps the most industrious of all races, while the +Chinese are the most docile. The Japanese excel in imitativeness, but +are not as reliable as the Chinese. Neither race, so far as their +immigrant representatives are concerned, possesses the originality and +ingenuity which characterize the competent American and British +mechanic. In the Hawaiian Islands, where they have enjoyed greater +opportunities than elsewhere, they are found to be capable workmen of +the skilled trades, provided they are under the direction of white +mechanics.[76] But their largest field of work in Hawaii is in the +unskilled cultivation of the great sugar plantations. Here they have +been likened to "a sort of agricultural automaton," and it becomes +possible to place them in large numbers under skilled direction, and +thus to secure the best results from their docility and industry. + +In the United States itself the plantation form of agriculture, as +distinguished from the domestic form, has always been based on a supply +of labor from backward or un-Americanized races. This fact has a bearing +on the alleged tendency of agriculture toward large farms. Ten years +ago it seemed that the great "bonanza" farms were destined to displace +the small farms, just as the trust displaces the small manufacturer. But +it is now recognized that the reverse movement is in progress, and that +the small farmer can compete successfully with the great farmer. It has +not, however, been pointed out that the question is not merely an +economic one and that it depends upon the industrial character of the +races engaged in agriculture. The thrifty, hard-working and intelligent +American or Teutonic farmer is able to economize and purchase his own +small farm and compete successfully with the large undertaking. He is +even beginning to do this in Hawaii since the compulsory labor of his +large competitors was abolished.[77] But the backward, thriftless, and +unintelligent races succeed best when employed in gangs on large +estates. The cotton and sugar fields of the South with their negro +workers have their counterpart in the plantations of Hawaii with their +Chinese and Japanese, and in the newly developed sugar-beet fields of +Nebraska, Colorado, and California, with their Russians, Bohemians, +Japanese, and Mexicans. In the domestic or small form of agriculture the +bulk of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe are not greatly +desired as wage-earners, and they do not succeed as proprietors and +tenants because they lack oversight and business ability. Where they are +located in colonies under favorable auspices the Italians have achieved +notable success, and in the course of Americanization they will +doubtless rival older nationalities. But in the immigrant stage they are +helpless, and it is the immigrants from Northwestern Europe, the Germans +and Scandinavians, whose thrift, self-reliance, and intensive +agriculture have made them from the start the model farmers of America. + +The Jewish immigrant, particularly, is unfitted for the life of a +pioneer. Remarkably individualistic in character, his field of +enterprise is society, and not the land. Of the thirty thousand families +sent out from New York by industrial and agricultural removal societies, +nine-tenths are located in industry and trade, and the bulk of the +remainder, who are placed on farms, succeed by keeping summer boarders. +Depending on boarders, they neglect agriculture and buy their +food-stuff. Their largest colony of hoped-for agriculturists, Woodbine, +New Jersey, has become a clothing factory.[78] Yet the factory system, +with its discipline and regular hours, is distasteful to the Jew's +individualism. He prefers the sweat-shop, with its going and coming. If +possible, he rises through peddling and merchandising. + +These are a few of the many illustrative facts which might be set forth +to show that the changing character of immigration is made possible by +the changing character of industry; and that races wholly incompetent +as pioneers and independent proprietors are able to find a place when +once manufactures, mines, and railroads have sprung into being, with +their captains of industry to guide and supervise their semi-intelligent +work. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +LABOR + + +We have seen that the character of the immigrants for whom a place can +be found depends upon the character of the industry. It also depends +upon the laws governing property in labor. Here the industrial problem +widens out into the social problem. + +There are four variations in the treatment of labor as property in the +United States, each of which has had its peculiar effect on the +character of immigration, or has grown out of the relations between +races. They are slavery, peonage, contract labor, and free labor. Under +slavery the laborer and his children are compelled by law throughout +their lifetime to work for an owner on terms dictated and enforced by +him. Under peonage the laborer is compelled by law to pay off a debt by +means of his labor, and under contract labor he is compelled by law to +carry out a contract to work. To enforce peonage and contract labor the +offence of "running away" is made punishable by imprisonment at forced +labor, or by extension of the period of service. Under freedom the law +refuses to enforce a contract to work, making this an exception to the +sacredness of contracts, and refuses to enforce the payment of a debt +by specific service. This leaves to the contractor or creditor the +usually empty relief of suing for damages. The significance of these +varying degrees of servile, semi-servile, and free labor will be seen in +the following discussion of the social relations of the superior and +inferior races. + +In the entire circuit of the globe those races which have developed +under a tropical sun are found to be indolent and fickle. From the +standpoint of survival of the fittest, such vices are virtues, for +severe and continuous exertion under tropical conditions bring +prostration and predisposition to disease. Therefore, if such races are +to adopt that industrious life which is a second nature to races of the +temperate zones, it is only through some form of compulsion. The negro +could not possibly have found a place in American industry had he come +as a free man, and at the present time contract labor and peonage with +the crime of "running away" are recognized in varying degrees by the +laws of Southern states. These statutes have been held unconstitutional +by the Supreme Court,[79] under an act of Congress passed in 1867, but +the condition of peonage which they contemplate is considered by many +planters as essential to the continuance of the cotton industry. One of +them, in southwestern Georgia, a graduate of Columbia College, with five +years of business training in the Northern states, is quoted in an +interview as follows:[80]-- + +"We have two ways of handling our plantations. We rent small sections of +forty acres each, and with these go a plough and the mule. In addition, +I have about 450 hands who work on wages. These men are paid nine +dollars a month, in addition to a fixed rate of food, which amounts to +four pounds of meat a week, a certain percentage of vegetables, tobacco, +sugar, flour, and some other commodities. + +"These negroes live on the plantation, are given a roof over their +heads, have garden patches, and several other more or less valuable +privileges. They invariably come to me for small advances of money. + +"These advances of money and rations and clothing, although there is not +much of the latter, are frequently sufficient to put the negro in debt +to us. The minute he finds he is in debt he naturally conceives it to be +easier to go to work somewhere else and begin all over again, instead of +paying his debts. + +"Now, when a negro runs away and violates his contract, leaving us in +the lurch, not only short of his labor, but short of the advances we +have made to him in money and goods, what would happen if we depended +simply and solely on our right to sue? In the first place, with 450 +hands we would have 450 suits before the season is out, and if we won +them all we would not be able to collect forty-five cents. + +"The result is, that in Georgia and Alabama, and I believe in other +states, the law recognizes the right of the planter to reclaim the +laborer who has left in violation of his contract, whether he be +actually in debt or not. + +"Whether Judge Jones has declared this law constitutional or not, the +planters in the black belt will have to maintain their right to claim +their contract labor, or else they will have to go out of the business. +Under any other system you would find it impossible to get in your +cotton, because the negroes at the critical time would simply sit down +and refuse to work. When they are well, we compel laborers to go to the +field by force. This is the truth, and there is no use lying about it." + +This reasoning is entirely logical from the business standpoint. If +production of wealth is the standard, contracts must be fulfilled and +debts must be paid. Otherwise capital will not embark in business. But +the reasoning does not stop with the negro. Once established, the +practice spreads to other races. Instances are cited of white men held +in peonage, negroes holding other negroes, and Italians forced to work +in a phosphate mine.[81] It is an easy matter to get working men in +debt. Many thousand rural justices keeping no records of convictions, +hundreds of constables with fees depending on convictions, scores of +petty crimes with penalties not usually enforced, contractors and +planters eager for labor at the convict's rating of 35 cents a +day--neither the negro nor the poor white is safe. Immigrants avoid a +country with such a record. Not only the dread of forced labor for +themselves but the dread of competition with the low wages that the +forced labor of others implies, keep the immigrants away from the South. +The fame of peonage is spread among them before they leave their native +land. The business that rests on coerced labor damages the whole +community for its own temporary gain. The right to quit work is as +sacred for the workman as the right to enforce contracts for the +capitalist. It is just as necessary to get energetic labor as it is to +get abundant capital to embark in business. By recognizing the right of +workmen to violate contracts, the employer learns to content himself +with contracts that will not hurt when violated. He learns to appeal to +the workman's motive to industry by methods that are not coercive. +Admitting that the bulk of what is said about the negro's fickleness is +true, he nevertheless is indiscriminately maligned. The thousands that +are unreliable furnish a cloak for suppressing the hundreds that are +industrious. I have made comparisons of the pay-rolls of two gas works +in Southern cities--the one employing negro stokers at 11 cents an hour, +the other whites at 22 cents an hour, and both working 12 hours a day +seven days a week. The negroes put in as many hours between pay-days as +did the whites, and if they "laid off" after pay-day it is no more than +any class of white workmen would do after two weeks of such exhausting +work. The negro in Southern cities can scarcely hope to rise above 12 +cents an hour, and white mechanics have a way of working with negro +helpers at 10 cents an hour in order to lift their own wages to 20 cents +an hour. White wage-earners and white employers in the South speak of +the negroes' efforts to get higher wages in the same words and tones as +employers in the North speak of white wage-earners who have organized +unions and demanded more pay. A foreman condemned his "niggers" for +instability when they were leaving him at 10 cents an hour for a +railroad job at 12-1/2 cents an hour. Praising the Italians in +comparison with the negro, he could not think of paying 17-1/2 cents an +hour for pick-and-shovel work, which Italians were said to be getting in +another section of the state. The right to quit work is the right to get +higher wages. If the higher wages are paid and proper treatment +accorded, a process of natural selection ensues. The industrious and +steady workmen of all races retain the jobs. The gas company referred to +above, by a system of graded pay advancing with years of service, had +sorted out a more steady and reliable force of negroes than they could +have secured of whites at the rate of wages paid. The test is indeed a +severe one where a race has always been looked upon as servile. With +high wages regarded as "white man's wages," the process of individual +selection does not work out, and the dominant race excuses its resort +to whipping, beating, and peonage on the ground of the laziness which +its methods of remuneration have not learned to counterbalance. Even the +industrious Italians treated in this way would not be industrious--they +would leave for other states. + +The Malay races, to which the Filipinos belong, are, like the negroes, +careless, thriftless, and disinclined to continuous exertion. In order +to induce the Javanese to work, the Dutch government of Java sets aside +a certain tract of government land for coffee planting, and compels each +head of a household to set out and keep in order a certain number of +coffee trees. On private estates in Java and in other Malay and Indian +colonies, such as Burma, Ceylon, British India, where the government +does not compel the native to take a contract to work, it nevertheless +enforces contracts voluntarily made. In certain provinces of the +Philippines "the tenants are usually in debt, and the old law which +permits the creditor to imprison the debtor for non-payment of debt is +still in force.... Landowners of a district frequently come together +shortly before the crops are sold and agree among themselves how much +interest to charge the tenants on their debts. This is for the purpose +of charging the highest possible rate and at the same time retain +tenants, who then could not leave, finding the same conditions +prevailing throughout the district."[82] In densely populated countries +like Java and Southern India, where the native cannot set up for +himself, he has no alternative except to work under these contracts, and +this is also true in the more thickly populated districts of the +Philippine Islands. But the case is different in sparsely settled +countries like Burma, East Sumatra, and the greater part of the +Philippines, where wages are so high that natives are not compelled by +necessity to work continuously. "Speaking generally," says Professor +Jenks, "the unskilled Filipino laborer, while intelligent enough, is +careless and thriftless. He in most cases wishes to take two or three +days a week, on the average, to celebrate as feast days. In individual +cases, where his wages have been increased, he has been known to lessen +correspondingly the number of days per month which he would work. His +income being sufficient to satisfy his modest needs, he could see no +reason why he should toil longer than was necessary to earn his +income."[83] + +Hence in these sparsely settled countries the Dutch and English +governments have adopted, and Professor Jenks, in his report to the War +Department, has recommended a limited use of the system of contract +labor, not, however, for the native, but for imported Chinese. This +system has existed in another of our newly acquired possessions, Hawaii, +since 1852, where it applied to Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, and +German immigrants, and whence it was abolished by the act of +annexation in 1898.[84] + + +[Illustration: FILIPINO GOVERNORS (From Census of the Philippine Islands)] + + +Contract labor of this kind is quite different from the peonage and +contract labor of the non-industrial races. It is similar to the +indentured service of colonial times, in that the term of each contract +is limited to a few years, and the contract is made by way of +compensation for advanced expenses of immigration. The object is not, as +in the case of slavery and peonage, to compel a shiftless race to work, +but it is to develop the country by the introduction of an industrious +race. The Chinese, after the expiration of their contracts, often become +skilled laborers and merchants, and in the latter position their +frugality and wiliness make them dangerous neighbors for the native +Malay and Filipino races.[85] For this reason Professor Jenks recommends +that employers be placed under bonds to return each contract Chinese +coolie to China at the expiration of the period of contract, not to +exceed three years, unless the government gives special permission for +renewal of the contract. Governor Taft, in his report for the year 1902, +while advocating a limited employment of Chinese contract coolies, said, +"the truth is that, from a political standpoint, the unlimited +introduction of the Chinese into these islands would be a great mistake. +I believe the objection on the part of the Filipinos to such a course to +be entirely logical and justified. The development of the islands by +Chinamen would be at the expense of the Filipino people, and they may +very well resent such a suggestion."[86] + +Governor Taft's opinion is strongly supported by the special +commissioner of the American Federation of Labor, who, after inquiries +in the district surrounding Manila, reports as follows:-- + +"Their reluctance to work, continually harped upon by many employers, is +simply the natural reluctance of a progressive people to work for low +wages under bad treatment. When wages rise above the level of the barest +and poorest necessaries of life, and where treatment is fair, there +Filipinos are at work in any numbers required."[87] + +The situation here is similar to that of the negroes. In order to get +two hundred steady workers at high wages it is necessary to try out a +thousand or more. But the reports of the Philippine Commission show that +with the process of selection which their engineers can pursue by means +of the high wages on government work the results are satisfactory.[88] + +"Of course," continues Mr. Rosenberg in his report, "the Filipino worker +cannot successfully compete--cheap as he can live--with the Chinese +standard of living, hence the unceasing vilification of the Filipino +workers by those employers and their following, who, seeing near by the +unlimited supply of cheap Chinese labor, wish these islands to be +thrown open to such labor, not only for the purpose of reducing the +small wages of the Filipinos, but also to reduce that of the Chinese +laborers now here. As one employer stated to me, 'We want more Chinese, +to keep them here for one or two years, then ship them back and get +another lot, for the Chinese I have here now are becoming too +independent and want more pay.'" + +=Free Labor.=--The free laborer is not compelled by law to work. Then why +should he work? Why does he work? The answer is found within himself. He +wants something that he cannot get without working. Though this may seem +a trifling question and a self-evident answer, the question and answer +are the foundation of all questions of free institutions. For the +non-working races and classes or the spasmodic and unreliable workers +are the savages, paupers, criminals, idiots, lunatics, drunkards, and +the great tribe of exploiters, "grafters," despots, and "leisure +classes," who live on the work of others. Nearly every question of +social pathology may be resolved to this, Why does he not work? And +nearly every social ill would be cured if the non-workers could be +brought voluntarily to work. + +There are just two grand motives which induce the freeman to +work--necessity and ambition. Necessity is the desire for quantity, +quality, and variety of things to be used. The term is elastic. It is +psychological, not material. It includes, of course, the wants of mere +animal existence--food, clothing, shelter. But this is a small part. The +cost of the mere quantity needed to support life is less than the added +cost needed to secure the quality and variety that satisfy the taste and +habits. A pig enjoys raw corn, but a man requires corn cake at five +times the cost. Tastes and habits depend on one's childhood, one's +training, one's associations, and kind of work. The necessities of a +Chinese coolie, Italian immigrant, or negro plantation hand are less, +and cost less, than those of a skilled mechanic or a college graduate, +because his associations have been different, and his present work is +different. But necessity goes farther. It includes the wants of the +family considered as a unit, and not merely the wants of the single man +or woman, else the race would not continue to increase. Furthermore, +social obligations impose added necessity. Compulsory education of +children compels parents to support their children instead of living on +their wages. Laws regulating sanitation and tenements compel the tenant +to pay more rent. The necessities of a farm-hand on the estates of Italy +are less than those of the same hand in the cities of America. + +Ambition is the desire for an improved position for one's self and +family--for better quality and greater variety of material things. It +demands a style of clothing and living suitable to the improved position +aspired to. It demands an education for one's children superior to the +minimum set by compulsory schooling. It demands thrift and economy for +the sake of independence or the ability to hold on until one's demands +are conceded. Ambition looks to the future--necessity is based on the +past. The negro or the Malay works three days and loafs three because +three days' wages procure his necessities. The Chinaman, or Italian, or +Jewish immigrant works six days and saves the wages of three because the +future is vivid to his imagination. With similar necessities one is +ambitious, the other is content. + +The scope and possibility of evoking ambition depend upon the +institution of private property. Property in human beings suppresses it, +unless occasionally a slave is permitted to purchase his freedom. The +wage system evokes ambition if the way is open for promotion or for +escape by becoming an owner. Tenancy is on a still higher level, but +most of all, for the masses of men, the ownership of his own small +property is the keenest spur to ambition, for it rewards the worker with +all of his product. This motive is the surest test of an individual's or +a race's future. Compare the negro and the Italian cotton grower as +tenants in the new vocation opening up to the latter. "It is always +difficult," says the observant planter, Mr. Stone,[89] "to get a negro +to plant and properly cultivate the outer edges of his field--the +extreme ends of his rows, his ditch banks, etc. The Italian is so +jealous of the use of every foot for which he pays rent that he will +cultivate with a hoe places too small to be worked with a plough, and +derive a revenue from spots to which a negro would not give a moment's +thought. I have seen them cultivate right down to the water's edge the +banks of bayous that had never been touched by the plough. I have seen +them walk through their fields and search out every skipped place in +every row and carefully put in seed to secure a perfect stand. I have +seen them make more cotton per acre than the negro on the adjoining cut, +gather it from two to four weeks earlier, and then put in the extra time +earning money by picking in the negro's field." + +But ambition has its penalty. It is equivalent to an increase in the +supply of labor. As an ambitious proprietor the increase goes into his +permanent property, but the ambitious wage-earner accepts a lower rate +of pay. His fellows see the reduction and go still lower. The see-saw +continues until wages reach the level of necessities, and there is +nothing left for ambition. The Jewish sweat-shop is the tragic penalty +paid by that ambitious race. In the Illinois coal mines the wages were +reduced one-third during twelve years of Italian and Slav immigration. +The ambitious races are the industrial races. But their ambition and +their industry bring the momentous problem of destructive competition. +It might seem that this evil would correct itself--that an increase in +the products of one industry would be offset by an increase in other +industries; that therefore the increased supply in one would not be +forced upon the market at lower prices, but would be exchanged on the +same terms as before for the increased supply in others. This is indeed +the case in prosperous times. All industries advance together, and the +increasing supply of one is merely an increasing demand for others. But +for some reason, industries do not always harmoniously advance together. +And when the disproportion appears, the workers who are blindly but +ambitiously pushing ahead endeavor to overcome, by increasing the +quantity of output, what they lose by reducing the price. There is but +one immediate and practical remedy--the organization of labor to +regulate competition. The method of organization is to do in concert +through self-sacrifice what the non-industrial races do individually for +self-indulgence; namely, refuse to work. Where the one loafs the other +strikes. While the necessities of the workers set the minimum below +which wages cannot fall, and their physical endurance sets the maximum +hours beyond which they cannot work, the labor-union, by means of the +strike or the threat to strike, sets a higher minimum of wages and a +lower maximum of hours, which leaves room for ambition. Eventually the +higher wage and the shorter hours become habitual and become a higher +level of necessities. Gifted individuals may, indeed, rise above the +wage-earning class by their own efforts, but labor organization alone +can raise the class as a whole. + +The organization of workmen in labor unions has been more difficult in +this than in other free countries, owing to the competition of races. +Heretofore it has been the easiest possible matter for a manager, +apprehensive of agitators in forming a union, to introduce a new race +and a new language into his works. Indeed, almost the only device and +symptom of originality displayed by American employers in disciplining +their labor force has been that of playing one race against another. +They have, as a rule, been weak in methods of conciliation and feelings +of consideration for their employees, as well as in the means of +safeguarding life and health, but they have been strong with the weapon +"divide and conquer." The number of races they have drawn upon is often +amazing. The anthracite mine workers comprise nineteen languages and +dialects. The employees of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company belong to +thirty-two nationalities and speak twenty-seven languages. Such a medley +of races offers indeed a disheartening prospect to the union organizer. +And therefore when these races finally organize, the change in their +moral character must be looked upon as the most significant of the +social and industrial revolutions of our time. The United Mine Workers +of America, with 300,000 members, is very largely composed of recent +immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe. So with the Longshoremen, +the United Garment Workers, and the Butcher Workmen. These are or have +been among the strongest and best disciplined of American labor-unions. +The newest races of the past twenty years have been coming long enough +to have members who speak the English language and act as interpreters +and leaders, and this is essential where the speeches at a union meeting +must be translated often into four or five languages before the subject +can be voted upon. Furthermore, the recruiting area for new races has +been nearly exhausted, and the races now coming find their +fellow-countrymen already in the unions. In the anthracite coal field I +saw a dozen Slovaks just arrived from Hungary, but persuaded by their +unionized precursors not to take the places of strikers. In New York a +shipload of Italians in time of strike has been taken directly into the +union. Such a sight would have been unlikely a dozen years ago. + +The competition of races is the competition of standards of living. The +reason the Chinaman or the Italian can save three days' wages is because +wages have been previously fixed by the greater necessities of more +advanced races. But competition has no respect for superior races. The +race with lowest necessities displaces others. The cotton textile +industry of New England was originally operated by the educated sons and +daughters of American stock. The Irish displaced many of them, then the +French Canadians completed the displacement; then, when the children of +the French had begun to acquire a higher standard, contingents of +Portuguese, Greeks, Syrians, Poles, and Italians entered to prevent a +rise, and latterly the Scotch-Irish from the Appalachian Mountains came +down to the valleys of the South, and with their low wages, long hours, +and child labor, set another brake on the standard of living. Lastly, +Italians are beginning to be imported to supplement the "poor whites." +Branches of the clothing industry in New York began with English and +Scotch tailors, were then captured by Irish and Germans, then by Russian +Jews, and lastly by Italians, while in Boston the Portuguese took a +share, and in Chicago the Poles, Bohemians, and Scandinavians. Almost +every great manufacturing and mining industry has experienced a similar +substitution of races. As rapidly as a race rises in the scale of +living, and through organization begins to demand higher wages and +resist the pressure of long hours and overexertion, the employers +substitute another race and the process is repeated. Each race comes +from a country lower in the scale than that of the preceding, until +finally the ends of the earth have been ransacked in the search for low +standards of living combined with patient industriousness. Europe has +been exhausted, Asia has been drawn upon, and there remain but three +regions of the temperate zones from which a still lower standard can be +expected. These are China, Japan, and India. The Chinese have been +excluded by law, the Japanese and Koreans are coming in increasing +numbers, and the Indian coolies remain to be experimented upon. That +employers will make strenuous efforts to bring in these last remaining +races in the progressive decline of standards, to repeal the Chinese +prohibitive laws and to prevent additions to these laws, naturally +follows from the progress toward higher standards and labor +organization already made by the Italian and the Slav. + +The trade-union is often represented as an imported and un-American +institution. It is true that in some unions the main strength is in the +English workmen. But the majority of unionists are immigrants and +children of immigrants from countries that know little of unionism. +Ireland and Italy have nothing to compare with the trade-union movement +of England, but the Irish are the most effective organizers of the +American unions, and the Italians are becoming the most ardent +unionists. Most remarkable of all, the individualistic Jew from Russia, +contrary to his race instinct, is joining the unions. The American +unions, in fact, grow out of American conditions, and are an American +product. Although wages are two or three times as high as in his +European home, the immigrant is driven by competition and the pressure +of employers into a physical exertion which compels him to raise his +standard of living in order to have strength to keep at work. He finds +also that the law forbids his children to work, and compels him to send +them to school to maintain a higher standard and to support his children +he must earn more wages. This he can do in no other way than by +organizing a union. The movement is of course aided by English-speaking +outsiders or "agitators," especially by the Irish, but it finds a prompt +response in the necessities of the recruits. Labor organization is +essentially the outcome of American freedom, both as a corrective to the +evils of free competition and as an exercise of the privilege of free +association. + +When once moved by the spirit of unionism, the immigrants from +low-standard countries are the most dangerous and determined of +unionists. They have no obligations, little property, and but meagre +necessities that compel them to yield. The bituminous coal miners were +on strike four months in 1897 and the anthracite mine workers five +months in 1902. Unionism comes to them as a discovery and a revelation. +Suddenly to find that men of other races whom they have hated are really +brothers, and that their enmity has been encouraged for the profit of a +common oppressor, is the most profound awakening of which they are +capable. Their resentment toward employers who have kept them apart, +their devotion to their new-found brothers, are terrible and pathetic. +With their emotional temperament, unionism becomes not merely a fight +for wages but a religious crusade. It is in the nature of retribution +that, after bringing to this country all the industrial races of Europe +and Asia in the effort to break down labor organizations, these races +should so soon have wiped out race antagonism and, joining together in +the most powerful of labor-unions, have wrenched from their employers +the greatest advances in wages. + +There is but one thing that stands in the way of complete unionization +in many of the industries; namely, a flood of immigration too great +for assimilation. With nearly a million immigrants a year the pressure +upon unions seems almost resistless. A few of the unions which control +the trade, like the mine workers and longshoremen, with high initiation +fees and severe terms of admission, are able to protect themselves by +virtue of strength already gained. But in the coast states and on +miscellaneous labor this strategic advantage does not exist, and the +standards are set by the newest immigrants. + + +[Illustration: GOVERNOR JOHNSON OF MINNESOTA.--SWEDE (From _The World +To-Day_)] + + +=Profits and Wages.=--We have now stated at some length in this and the +preceding chapter the two standpoints from which the immigration of +industrial races is viewed. One standpoint is that of the production of +wealth, the other the distribution of wealth. One is the development of +our natural resources, the other is the elevation of our working +population. If we inquire somewhat more critically and take into account +all of the circumstances, we shall find that the motives animating this +difference of policy are not really the above distinction between +production and distribution, but the distinction between two opposing +interests in distribution; namely, profits and wages. Unfortunately it +is too readily assumed that whatever increases profits does so by +increasing production. As a matter of fact it is only secondarily the +production of wealth and development of resources that is sought by one +of the interests concerned--it is primarily increase of profits at the +expense of wages. Cheap labor, it is asserted, is needed to develop the +less productive resources of the country--what the economists call the +margin of production. It is needed to develop the less productive +industries, like sugar beet, and the less productive branches of other +industries, like the construction of railways in undeveloped regions or +the reconstruction of railways in older regions, or the extension of a +coal mine into the narrow veins, and so on. Without cheap labor these +marginal resources, it is asserted, could not profitably be exploited, +and would therefore not be developed. + +This argument, within limits, is undoubtedly true, but it overlooks the +part played by machinery and inventions where wages are high. The +cigar-making machine cannot extensively be introduced on the Pacific +coast because Chinese cheap labor makes the same cigars at less cost +than the machines. High wages stimulate the invention and use of +machinery and scientific processes, and it is machinery and science, +more than mere hand labor, on which reliance must be placed to develop +the natural resources of a country. + +But machinery and science cannot be as quickly introduced as cheap +immigrant labor. Machinery requires accumulation of capital in advance +of production, but labor requires only the payment of daily wages in the +course of production. Consequently in the haste to get profits the +immigrant is more desired than machinery. But excessive profits secured +in this way bring reaction and a period of business depression which +check the production of wealth even more than the period of prosperity +has stimulated production. Consider the extreme vacillations of +prosperity and depression which characterize American industry. In a +period of prosperity the prices of commodities rise rapidly, but the +wages of labor, especially unorganized labor, follow slowly, and do not +rise proportionately as high as prices. This means an enormous increase +in profits and production of commodities. But commodities are produced +to be sold, and if the market falls off, then production comes to a +standstill with what is known as "overproduction." Now, wage-earners are +the mass of consumers. If their wages do not rise in proportion to +prices and profits, they cannot purchase as large a proportion of the +country's products as they did before the period of prosperity began. +"Overproduction" is mainly the "underconsumption" of wage-earners. +Immigration intensifies this fatal cycle of "booms" and "depressions." A +natural increase in population by excess of births over deaths, +continues at practically the same rate year after year, in good times +and bad times, but an artificial increase through immigration falls off +in hard times and becomes excessive in good times. Thus, in 1879, at the +lowest point of depression, the number of immigrants was 177,826, but +three years later, in the "boom" culminating in 1882, it rose to +788,992. In nine years following the depression of 1897 the number +increased from 230,000 to 1,100,000. + +Even this does not tell the story complete, for the effects of free +immigration are intensified by the opposite policy of a protective +tariff on imports. While labor is admitted practically free, the +products of labor are taxed to prevent free ingress. The following table +shows the extreme points in the rise and fall of immigration and +imports:-- + +CULMINATING POINTS OF IMMIGRATION AND IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE + + =================+=========================+======================= + | IMMIGRATION | IMPORTS + YEAR ENDING +----------+----------+--------------+------------ + JUNE 30 |Prosperity|Depression| Prosperity | Depression + -----------------+----------+----------+--------------+------------ + 1873 | 459,803 | | $642,000,000| + 1879 and 1878[90]| | 177,826 | |$437,000,000 + 1882 | 788,992 | | 725,000,000| + 1886 and 1885[90]| | 334,203 | | 578,000,000 + 1893 | 439,307 | | 866,000,000| + 1897 and 1898[90]| | 230,832 | | 616,000,000 + 1906 |1,100,735 | | 1,226,000,000| + -----------------+----------+----------+--------------+------------ + +By comparing the two sets of columns it will be seen that, owing to the +protective tariff, the imports of merchandise vary but slightly in +periods of prosperity and depression compared with the variation in +number of immigrants. Thus in the recent period of prosperity, the +imports increased twofold above the lowest point of the preceding +depression, while the number of immigrants increased nearly fivefold. + +The swell of immigration in the above-mentioned periods of prosperity +increases the supply of labor, but the protective tariff prevents a +similar increase in the supply of products. Thus immigration and the +tariff together prevent wages from rising with the rise in prices of +commodities and cost of living. This permits profits to increase more +than wages, to be followed by overproduction and stoppage of business. + +Furthermore, when once the flow of immigrants is stimulated it continues +for some time after the pinnacle of prosperity has been reached. In 1903 +the boom met a check at the beginning of the year, but the number of +immigrants continued to increase during the summer and fall at the rate +of 20,000 per month in excess of the number during the high period of +prosperity in 1902. This makes it possible for great corporations to +continue their investments by means of cheap labor beyond the probable +demands of the country, with the result of overproduction, loss of +profits, inability to pay fixed charges, and consequent panics. Thus it +is that immigration, instead of increasing the production of wealth by a +steady, healthful growth, joins with other causes to stimulate the +feverish overproduction, with its inevitable collapse, that has +characterized the industry of America more than that of any other +country. It helps to create fortunes during a period of speculation, and +intensifies the reaction during a period of stagnation. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +CITY LIFE, CRIME, AND POVERTY + + +Statistics are considered by many people as dry and uninteresting, and +the fact that a book is statistical is a warning that it should not be +read, or that the statistical paragraphs should be passed over for the +narrative and historical parts. This is a dilettante and lazy attitude +to take, and especially so in the study of social subjects, for in these +subjects it is only statistics that tell us the true proportions and +relative importance of our facts. The study of statistics leads us to a +study of social causes and forces, and when we see that in the year 1790 +three per cent of our population lived in cities, and in the year 1900 +thirty-three per cent lived in cities of 8000 population and over, we +are aroused to the importance of making a serious inquiry into the +reasons for this growth of cities and the effects of city life on the +future of democracy and the welfare of the nation. More impressive to +the student of race problems becomes the inquiry when we realize that +while one-fifth of our entire population lives in the thirty-eight +cities of over 100,000 population, two-fifths of our foreign-born +population, one-third of our native offspring of foreign parents, and +only one-tenth of our people of native parentage live in such cities. +That is to say, the proportion of the foreign-born in great cities is +four times as great, and the proportion of the children of foreign +parents is three and one-third times as great as that of the colonial +and older native stock. These proportions appear in the accompanying +table and the upper diagram on page 162. + +POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES AND LARGE CITIES: 1900 + + =======================+===================+=========================== + | | IN 38 CITIES OF 100,000 + | IN UNITED STATES | POPULATION AND OVER + +-----------+-------+------------+-------------- + TOTAL FOR UNITED STATES| | | | Per cent of + | | Per | | total of + | Number | cent | Number | corresponding + | | | | class + -----------------------+-----------+-------+------------+-------------- + Population |75,994,575 | 100.0 | 14,208,347 | 18.7 + Native white, native | | | | + parents |40,958,216 | 53.9 | 4,245,817 | 10.3 + Native white, foreign | | | | + parents |15,637,063 | 20.6 | 5,280,186 | 33.2 + Foreign white |10,213,817 | 13.4 | 3,972,324 | 39.7 + Negroes | 8,833,994 | 11.6 | 668,324 | 7.6 + Indian and Mongolians | 351,385 | .5 | 32,696 | 9.3 + -----------------------+-----------+-------+------------+-------------- + +If we present the matter in another form in order to show the full +extent of foreign influence in our great cities, we have another +diagram, which shows that 59 per cent of the population outside, and +only 30 per cent of the population within these cities is of native +parentage, while 27 per cent of the population outside, and 65 per cent +of the population within these cities is of foreign parentage. The +census enumeration carries us back only to the parents, but if we had +knowledge of the grandparents we should probably find that the +immigrant element of the nineteenth century contributed a goodly portion +of those set down as of native parentage. + + +[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION: 1900] + +[Illustration: PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION IN CITIES: 1900] + +[Illustration: CONSTITUENTS OF THE POPULATION OF CITIES OF MORE THAN +100,000 INHABITANTS: 1900] + + +Still more significant becomes the comparison when we take each of these +cities separately, as is done in the chart reproduced on page 163 from +the Statistical Atlas of the Twelfth Census. + +Here it appears that the extreme is reached in the textile manufacturing +city of Fall River, where but 14 per cent of the population is of native +extraction, while in the two greatest cities, New York and Chicago, the +proportion is 21 per cent, and the only large cities with a predominance +of the native element are St. Joseph, Columbus, Indianapolis, and Kansas +City, with Denver equally divided. As already stated, grandparents would +still further diminish the proportion of native element. + +If we carry our comparison down to the 160 cities of 25,000 population, +we shall find that in such cities is one-half of the foreign-born +population,[91] and we shall also see marked differences among the +races. At one extreme, three-fourths of those born in Russia, mainly +Jews, live in these principal cities, and at the other extreme, +one-fifth of the Norwegians. + +The other Scandinavian countries and the Welsh and Swiss have about +one-third, while the English and Scotch are two-fifths, Germany, +Austria, Bohemia, and Poland, one-half to three-fifths, Ireland and +Italy nearly two-thirds. + +Individual cities suggest striking comparisons. In New York, +computations based on the census show 785,035 persons of German +descent, a number nearly equal to the population of Hamburg, and larger +than the native element in New York (737,477). New York has twice as +many Irish (710,510) as Dublin, two and one-half times as many Jews as +Warsaw, half as many Italians as Naples, and 50,000 to 150,000 first and +second generations from Scotland, Hungary, Poland, Austria, and +England.[92] Chicago has nearly as many Germans as Dresden, one-third as +many Bohemians as Prague, one-half as many Irish as Belfast, one-half as +many Scandinavians as Stockholm.[93] + +The variety of races, too, is astonishing. New York excels Babel. A +newspaper writer finds in that city sixty-six languages spoken, +forty-nine newspapers published in foreign languages, and one school at +Mulberry Bend with children of twenty-nine nationalities. Several of the +smaller groups live in colonies, like the Syrians, Greeks, and Chinese. +But the colonies of the larger groups are reservoirs perpetually filling +and flowing.[94] + +The influx of population to our cities, the most characteristic and +significant movement of the present generation, has additional +significance when we classify it according to the motives of those who +seek the cities, whether industrial or parasitic. The transformation +from agriculture to manufactures and transportation has designated city +occupations as the opportunities for quick and speculative accumulation +of wealth, and in the cities the energetic, ambitious, and educated +classes congregate. From the farms of the American stock the sons leave +a humdrum existence for the uncertain but magnificent rewards of +industrialism. These become the business men, the heads of great +enterprises, and the millionaires whose example hypnotizes the +imagination of the farm lads throughout the land. Many of them find +their level in clerical and professional occupations, but they escape +the manual toil which to them is the token of subordination. These +manual portions are the peculiar province of the foreign immigrant, and +foreign immigration is mainly a movement from the farms of Europe to the +cities of America. The high wages of the industries and occupations +which radiate from American cities are to them the magnet which +fortune-seeking is to the American-born. The cities, too, furnish that +choice of employers and that easy reliance on charitable and friendly +assistance which is so necessary to the indigent laborer looking for +work. Thus it is that those races of immigrants the least self-reliant +or forehanded, like the Irish and the Italians, seek the cities in +greater proportions than those sturdy races like the Scandinavians, +English, Scotch, and Germans. The Jew, also, coming from the cities of +Europe, seeks American cities by the very reason of his racial distaste +for agriculture, and he finds there in his coreligionists the necessary +assistance for a beginning in American livelihood. + +At this point we gradually pass over from the industrial motives of city +influx to the parasitic motives. The United Hebrew Charities of New York +have asserted that one-fourth of the Jews of that city are applicants +for charity, and the other charitable societies make similar estimates +for the population at large. These estimates must certainly be +exaggerated, and a careful analysis of their methods of keeping +statistics will surely moderate such startling statements, but we must +accept them as the judgment of those who have the best means of knowing +the conditions of poverty and pauperism in the metropolis. However +exaggerated, they indicate an alarming extent of abject penury brought +on by immigration, for it is mainly the immigrant and the children of +the immigrant who swell the ranks of this indigent element in our great +cities. + +Those who are poverty-stricken are not necessarily parasitic, but they +occupy that intermediate stage between the industrial and the parasitic +classes from which either of these classes may be recruited. If through +continued poverty they become truly parasitic, then they pass over to +the ranks of the criminal, the pauper, the vicious, the indolent, and +the vagrant, who, like the industrial class, seek the cities. + +The dangerous effects of city life on immigrants and the children of +immigrants cannot be too strongly emphasized. This country can absorb +millions of all races from Europe and can raise them and their +descendants to relatively high standards of American citizenship in so +far as it can find places for them on the farms. "The land has been our +great solvent."[95] But the cities of this country not only do not raise +the immigrants to the same degree of independence, but are themselves +dragged down by the parasitic and dependent conditions which they foster +among the immigrant element. + + +[Illustration: DR. ORONHYATEKHA MOHAWK INDIAN, LATE CHIEF OF ORDER OF +FORESTERS] + + +=Crime.=--This fact is substantiated by a study of criminal and pauper +statistics. Great caution is needed in this line of inquiry, especially +since the eleventh census in 1890 promulgated most erroneous inferences +from the statistics compiled under its direction. It was contended by +the census authorities that for each million of the foreign-born +population there were 1768 prisoners, while for each million of the +native-born there were only 898 prisoners, thus showing a tendency to +criminality of the foreign-born twice as great as that of the white +native-born. This inference was possible through oversight of the +important fact that prisoners are recruited mainly from adults, and that +the proportion of foreign-born adults to the foreign-born population is +much greater than that of the native-born adults to the native +population. If comparison be made of the number of male prisoners with +the number of males of voting age, the proportions are materially +different and more accurate, as follows:-- + +NUMBER OF MALE PRISONERS PER MILLION OF VOTING POPULATION, 1890 (OMITTING +"UNKNOWN")[96] + + Native white, native parents 3,395 + Native white, foreign parents 5,886 + Native white, total 3,482[97] + Foreign white 3,270 + Negro 13,219 + +Here the foreign-born show actually a lower rate of criminality (3270) +than the total native-born (3482). This inference harmonizes with our +general observations of the immigrants, namely, that they belong to the +industrial classes, and that our immigration laws are designed to +exclude criminals. + +But this analysis brings out a fact far more significant than any yet +adverted to; namely, that the native-born children of immigrants show a +proportion of criminality (5886 per million) much greater than that of +the foreign-born themselves (3270 per million), and 70 per cent greater +than that of the children of native parents. + +This significant fact is further brought out, and with it the obverse of +the census mistake above referred to, when we examine the census +inferences respecting juvenile criminals. The census calculations show +that there are 250 juvenile offenders for every million of the +native-born population, and only 159 such offenders for every million of +the foreign-born population; but if we remember that the proportion of +foreign-born children is small, and then proceed to compare the number +of boys who are offenders with the number of boys 10 to 19 years of age +rather than with the number of persons of all ages, we shall have the +following results, confining our attention to the North Atlantic states, +where juvenile reformatories are more liberally provided than in other +sections:-- + +MALE JUVENILE OFFENDERS PER MILLION OF MALE POPULATION TEN TO NINETEEN +YEARS OF AGE, NORTH ATLANTIC STATES, 1890 (OMITTING "UNKNOWN")[98] + + Native white, native parents 1,744 + Native white, foreign parents 3,923 + Foreign white 3,316 + Colored 17,915 + +This table throws a different light on the situation, for it shows that +the tendency towards crime among juveniles, instead of being less for +the foreign-born than for the native-born, is nearly twice as great as +that of the children of American parentage, and that the tendency among +native children of foreign parentage (3923 per million) is more than +twice as great as that among children of American parents (1744 per +million). + +This amazing criminality of the children of immigrants is almost wholly +a product of city life, and it follows directly upon the incapacity of +immigrant parents to control their children under city conditions. The +boys, especially, at an early age lose respect for their parents, who +cannot talk the language of the community, and who are ignorant and +helpless in the whirl of the struggle for existence, and are shut up +during the daytime in shops and factories. On the streets and alleys, in +their gangs and in the schools, the children evade parental discipline, +and for them the home is practically non-existent. Says a well-informed +student of race problems in New York,[99] "Example after example might +be given of tenement-house families in which the parents--industrious +peasant laborers--have found themselves disgraced by idle and vicious +grown sons and daughters. Cases taken from the records of charitable +societies almost at random show these facts again and again." Even the +Russian Jew, more devoted and self-sacrificing in the training of his +children than any other race of immigrants, sees them soon earning more +money than their parents and breaking away from the discipline of +centuries. + +Far different is it with those foreigners who settle in country +districts where their children are under their constant oversight, and +while the youngsters are learning the ways of America they are also held +by their parents to industrious habits. Children of such immigrants +become substantial citizens, while children of the same race brought up +in the cities become a recruiting constituency for hoodlums, vagabonds, +and criminals. + +The reader must have observed in the preceding statistical estimates +the startling preeminence of the negro in the ranks of criminals. His +proportion of prisoners for adult males (13,219 per million) seems to be +four times as great as that of the native stock, and more than twice as +great as that of foreign parentage, while for boys his portion in the +North Atlantic states (17,915 per million) is ten times as great as that +of the corresponding native stock, and four times as great as that of +foreign parentage. + +The negro perhaps suffers by way of discrimination in the number of +arrests and convictions compared with the whites, yet it is significant +that in proportion to total numbers the negro prisoners in the Northern +states are nearly twice as many as in the Southern states. Here, again, +city life works its degenerating effects, for the Northern negroes are +congregated mainly in towns and cities, while the Southern negroes +remain in the country. + +Did space permit, it would prove an interesting quest to follow the +several races through the various classes of crime, noticing the +relative seriousness of their offences, and paying attention to the +female offenders. Only one class of offences can here be noted in +detail; namely, that of public intoxication. Although classed as a +crime, this offence borders on pauperism and the mental diseases, and +its extreme prevalence indicates that the race in question is not +overcoming the degenerating effects of competition and city life. +Statistics from Massachusetts seem to show that drunkenness prevails to +the greatest extent in the order of preeminence among the Irish, Welsh, +English, and Scotch, and least among the Portuguese, Italians, Germans, +Poles, and Jews. The Italians owe their prominence in the lists of +prisoners to their crimes of violence, and very slightly to +intoxication, though the latter is increasing among them. In the +Southern states the ravages of drink among the negroes have been so +severe and accompanied with such outbreaks of violence that the policy +of prohibition of the liquor traffic has been carried farther than in +any other section of the country. Probably three-fourths of the Southern +negroes live in prohibition counties, and were it not for the paternal +restrictions imposed by such laws, the downward course of the negro race +would doubtless have outrun considerably the speed it has actually +attained. + +Besides the crimes which spring from racial tendencies, there is a +peculiar class of crimes springing largely from race prejudice and +hatred. These are lynchings and mob violence. The United States presents +the paradox of a nation where respect for law and constitutional forms +has won most signal triumphs, yet where concerted violations of law have +been most widespread. By a queer inversion of thought, a crime committed +jointly by many is not a crime, but a vindication of justice, just as a +crime committed by authority of a nation is not a crime, but a virtue. +Such crimes have not been continuous, but have arisen at times out of +acute racial antagonisms. The Knownothing agitation of 1850 to 1855, +which prevailed among religious and patriotic Americans, was directed +against the newly arrived flood of immigrants from Europe and Asia, and +was marked by a state of lawlessness and mob rule such as had never +before existed, especially in the cities of Boston, New York, Pittsburg, +Cincinnati, Louisville, and Baltimore.[100] These subsided or changed +their object under the oncoming slavery crisis, and the Civil War itself +was a grand resort to violence by the South on a question of race +domination. Beginning again with the Kuklux and White-cap uprisings in +the seventies, mob rule drove the negroes back to a condition of +subordination, but the lawless spirit then engendered has continued to +show itself in the annual lynching of fifty to one hundred and fifty +negroes suspected or convicted of the more heinous crimes.[101] Nor has +this crime of the mob been restricted to the South, but it has spread to +the North, and has become almost the accepted code of procedure +throughout the land wherever negroes are heinously accused. In the +Northern instances this vengeance of the mob is sometimes wreaked on the +entire race, for in the North the negro is more assertive, and defends +his accused brother. But in the South the mob usually, though not +always, stops with vengeance on the individual guilty, or supposedly +guilty, since the race in general is already cowed. + +Other races suffer at the hands of mobs, such as the Chinese in Wyoming +and California at the hands of American mine workers, Italians in +Louisiana and California at the hands of citizens and laborers, Slovaks +and Poles in Latimer, Pennsylvania, at the hands of a mob militia. With +the rise of organized labor these race riots and militia shootings +increased in number, often growing out of the efforts of older races of +workmen to drive newer and backward races from their jobs, or the +efforts of employers to destroy newly formed unions of these immigrant +races. Many strikes are accompanied by an incipient race war where +employers are endeavoring to make substitution, one race for another, of +Irish, Germans, native whites, Italians, negroes, Poles, and so on. Even +the long series of crimes against the Indians, to which the term "A +Century of Dishonor" seems to have attached itself without protest, must +be looked upon as the mob spirit of a superior race bent on despoiling a +despised and inferior race. That the frenzied spirit of the mob, whether +in strikes, panicky militia, Indian slaughter, or civil war, should so +often have blackened the face of a nation sincerely dedicated to law and +order is one of the penalties paid for experimenting on a problem of +political and economic equality with material marked by extreme racial +inequality. + +=Poverty and Pauperism.=--Prior to year 1875 the laws of the United States +imposed no prohibition upon the immigration of paupers from foreign +countries, and not until the federal government took from the states +the administration of the law in 1891 did the prohibitions of the +existing law become reasonably effective. Since that year there have +been annually debarred, as likely to become public charges, 431 to 7898 +arrivals, the latter number being debarred in the year 1905. In addition +to those debarred at landing, there have been annually returned within +one to three years after landing, 177 to 845 immigrants, many of whom +had meantime become public charges. From these statements it will be +seen that, prior to 1891, it was possible and quite probable that many +thousand paupers and prospective paupers were admitted by the +immigration authorities, and consequently the proportion of paupers +among the foreign-born should appear larger than it would in later +years. In the earlier years systematic arrangements were in force in +foreign countries, especially Great Britain, to assist in the +deportation of paupers to the United States, and therefore it is not +surprising that, apart from race characteristics, there should have come +to this country larger numbers of Irish paupers than those from any +other nationality. Since these exportations have been stopped, it is not +so much the actual pauper as the prospective pauper who gets admission. +96 per cent of the paupers in almshouses have been in this country ten +years or more, showing that the exclusion laws are still defective, in +that large numbers of poor physique are admitted. Taking the census +reports for 1904, and confining our attention to the North Atlantic +states, where children are generally provided for in separate +establishments, we are able to compute the following as the relative +extent of pauperism among males:-- + +MALE PAUPERS IN ALMSHOUSES PER MILLION VOTING POPULATION, NORTH ATLANTIC +STATES, 1904. + + Native white, native parents 2,360 + Native white, foreign parents 2,252 + Foreign white 5,119 + Colored 4,056 + +Here we see the counterpart of the estimates on crime, for the natives +of foreign parentage show a smaller proportion of paupers than the +natives of native parentage, while the foreign-born themselves show more +than double the relative amount of pauperism of the native element, and +the colored paupers are nearly twice the native stock. + +The census bureau also furnishes computations showing the contributions +of the different races and nationalities to the insane asylums and +benevolent institutions.[102] In general it appears that the +foreign-born and the negroes exceed the native classes in their burden +on the public. A report of the Department of Labor of great value and +significance, incidentally bearing on this subject, shows for the +Italians in Chicago their industrial and social conditions. According to +this report the average earnings of Italians in that city in 1896 while +at work were $6.41 per week for men and $2.11 per week for women, and +the average time unemployed by the wage-earning element was over seven +months. In another report of the Department of Labor it appears that the +slum population of the cities of Baltimore, Chicago, New York, and +Philadelphia in 1893 was unemployed three months each year. With wages +one dollar a day, and employment only five months during the year, it is +marvellous that the Italians of Chicago, during the late period of +depression, were not thrown in great numbers upon public relief. Yet, +with the strict administration of the exclusion laws leading to the +deportation of over 2000 Italians a year as liable to become public +charges, it is likely that the immigrants of that race, although low in +physique, poverty, and standards of living, are fairly well screened of +actual paupers. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +POLITICS + + +American democracy was ushered in on a theory of equality. And no word +has been more strangely used and abused. There is the monarchical idea +of equality, and Mr. Mallock begs the question when he gives the title +"Aristocracy and Evolution" to a book on the necessary part played by +great men. Doubtless, in Greek, aristocracy means "government by the +best," but in history it means government by the privilege of birth and +landed property. Democracy may be in philology "government by the mob," +but in politics and industry it has been opportunity for great men +without blood or property. Mr. Muensterberg, too, sees the breakdown of +American democracy and the reaction towards aristocracy in the +prominence of civil-service reform, the preeminence conceded to business +ability, the deference to wealth, and the conquest of the +Philippines.[103] But civil-service reform is only a device for opening +the door to merit that has been shut by privilege. In England it was the +means by which the mercantile classes broke into the offices preempted +by the younger sons of aristocracy.[104] In America it is an awkward +means of admitting ability wherever found to positions seized upon by +political usurpers. It appealed to the American democracy only when its +advocates learned to call it, not "civil-service reform," but "the merit +system." As for the astonishing power of mere wealth in American affairs +the testimony of another English observer is based on wider observation +when he says, "Even the tyranny of trusts is not to be compared with the +tyranny of landlordism; for the one is felt to be merely an unhappy and +(it is hoped) temporary aberration of well-meant social machinery, while +the other seems bred in the very bone of the national existence."[105] + +A feeling of disappointment holds true of the conquest and treatment of +the Philippines. That a war waged out of sympathy for an oppressed +island nearby should have shaken down an unnoticed archipelago across +the ocean was taken in childlike glee as the unexpected reward of +virtue. But serious thinking has followed on seeing that these islands +have added another race problem to the many that have thwarted +democracy. Only a plutocracy sprung from race divisions at home could +profit by race-subjection abroad, and the only alternative to +race-subjection is equal representation in Congress. But to admit +another race to partnership without the hope of assimilation is to +reject experience. Independence or cession to Japan is the +self-preservation of American democracy. + +Another idea of equality is the socialist idea. Infatuated by an +"economic interpretation of history," they overlook the racial +interpretation. Permitting and encouraging plutocracy, they hope to see +the dispossessed masses take possession when conditions become +intolerable. But the "masses" would not be equal to the task. Privileged +wealth knows too well how to buy up or promote their leaders, how to +weaken them by internal dissensions, how to set race against race. Most +of all, the inexperienced despotism of the masses is worse than the +smooth despotism of wealth. The government of the South by the negro, +the government of San Francisco by "labor," fell into the hands of the +"carpet-bagger" and the "boss." Once in power, internal strife and +jealousy, struggle for office, or racial antagonism disrupt the rulers, +and a reaction throws them back more helpless than before. Men are not +equal, neither are races or classes equal. True equality comes through +equal opportunity. If individuals go forward, their race or class is +elevated. They become spokesmen, defenders, examples. No race or class +can rise without its own leaders. If they get admitted on equal terms +with other leaders, whether it be in the councils of the church, the +law-making bodies of the city, state, and nation, or the wage +conferences of employers, they then can command the hearing which their +abilities justify. They secure for their followers the equal +opportunity to which they are entitled. + +This is exactly the political problem that grows out of the presence of +races and immigrants. With these admitted to the suffrage on the basis +of mere manhood inspired by a generosity unknown to the people of any +other land, the machinery of representative government inherited from +England does not, for some reason, permit the free choice of leaders. +The difficulties may be seen in cities where the system first broke +down. A variety of races and nationalities living in the same ward are +asked to elect aldermen and other officers by majority vote. No one +nationality has a majority, but each sets up its list of candidates. The +nationality with a mere plurality elects all of its candidates, and the +other nationalities--a majority of the voters--are unrepresented. This +is an extreme case, and has not often been allowed to happen. But the +only means of preventing it is the "ward boss." The boss emerges from +the situation as inevitably as the survival of the fittest. And the +fittest is the Irishman. The Irishman has above all races the mixture of +ingenuity, firmness, human sympathy, comradeship, and daring that makes +him the amalgamator of races. He conciliates them all by nominating a +ticket on which the offices are shrewdly distributed; and out of the +Babel his "slate" gets the majority. + +The boss's problem is not an easy one. His ward may contain business men +on the hill and negroes along the canal. To nominate a business man +would lose the negro vote--to nominate a negro would lose the business +vote. He selects a nondescript somewhere between, and discards him for +another at the next election. The representative becomes a tool in the +hands of the boss. The boss sells his power to corporations, franchise +speculators, and law-evaders. Representative democracy becomes +bossocracy in the service of plutocracy. The ward system worked well +when the suffrage was limited. Then the business men elected their +business man unimpeded. But a system devised for restricted suffrage +breaks down under universal suffrage. Could the ward lines be abolished, +could the business men come together regardless of residence and elect +their choice without the need of a majority vote, could the negroes and +other races and classes do the same, then each would be truly +represented by their natural leaders. So it is, not only in cities, but +in county, state, and nation. Universal suffrage, clannish races, social +classes, diversified interests, seem to explain and justify the presence +of the party "machine" and its boss. Otherwise races, classes, and +interests are in helpless conflict and anarchy. But the true explanation +is an obsolete ward and district system of plurality representation +adopted when but one race, class, or interest had the suffrage. Forms of +government are the essence of government, notwithstanding the poet. An +aristocratic form with a democratic suffrage is a plutocratic +government. Belgium and Switzerland have shown that a democratic form +is possible and practicable. Proportional representation instead of +district representation is the corollary of universal suffrage which +those countries have worked out as a model for others.[106] The model is +peculiarly adapted to a country of manifold nationalities, interests, +and classes. Races and immigrants in America have not disproved +democracy--they have proved the need of more democracy. + +This is seen also in the distinction between men and measures. It often +has been noted that in American elections the voters are more interested +in voting for candidates than they are in voting on issues. The +candidate arouses a personal and concrete interest--the issue is +abstract and complicated. The candidate calls out a full vote--the issue +is decided by a partial vote. + +This difference is partly the result of organization. The candidate has +a political party, campaign funds, and personal workers to bring out the +vote. The issue has only its merits and demerits. Equally important +under American conditions is the race or nationality of the candidate. +This feature is often concealed by the ingenuity of political managers +in nominating a ticket on which the several nationalities are +"recognized." But with the recent progress of the movement to abolish +party conventions and to nominate candidates directly at the primaries +the racial prejudices of the voters show themselves. The nationalities +line up for their own nationality, and the political and economic issues +are thrown in the background. It is different when they vote on the +issues directly. The vital questions of politics, industry, +corporations, and monopoly which menace the country, unless rightly +answered, cut across the lines of nationality. The German farmer, +manufacturer, wage-earner, merchant, capitalist, and monopolist may all +unite to elect a popular German to office, but they do not unite to give +a corporation a monopoly. The same is true of other nationalities. +Wherever the referendum has been fairly tested, in Chicago, Detroit, +Oregon, and elsewhere, the sound judgment of all races has prevailed +over bias, prejudice, or racial jealousy. There none can claim +preeminence, for all have shown their share of patriotism, intelligence, +and regard for equal rights. By an automatic self-disfranchisement the +ignorant, the corrupt, and the indifferent of all races eliminate +themselves by failing to vote. Instead of being dismissed on the ground +that voters care mainly for men and less for measures, the referendum +should be adopted on the ground that it permits those interested in +measures to decide the question. Those who are not interested enough to +vote do thereby proclaim that they are satisfied whichever side wins. +The initiative and referendum are, above all other forms of government, +the specific remedy for the ills of universal suffrage and conflicting +nationalities. Race antagonism springs from personalities, race +coalescence from community of interest. A vote for candidates +intensifies antagonism--a vote on measures promotes community. + +There are, indeed, some kinds of measures which stir up race antagonism. +But the keenest of these have happily been eliminated. More intense than +any other source of discord is religious belief. Religious differences +in America are not so much theological as racial in character. The +Judaism of the Jew, the Protestantism of the British and colonial +American, the Lutheranism of the German, the Roman Catholicism of the +Irish, Italian, and Slav, the Greek Catholicism of other Slavs, all +testify to the history and psychology of races. Far-sighted indeed were +our fathers who separated Church and State. Were the people taxed to +support religion, every election would be a contest of races. All other +questions would be subordinate, and democracy impossible. But with +religion relegated to private judgment, each race is free to cultivate +at will that one of its own peculiarities most fanatically adhered to, +but most repellent to other races, while uniting with the others on what +is most essential to democracy. Religious freedom is more than a private +right--it is an American necessity. + + +[Illustration: CHINESE STUDENTS, HONOLULU (From _The Independent_)] + + +Another class of measures running partly along race lines are sumptuary +laws, especially those regulating saloons and Sunday observance. In +the Southern states saloon prohibition is largely a race +discrimination and a race protection. In the North it often is American +puritanism of the country against European liberalism of the cities. +Here the referendum shows itself as the conciliator of nationalities. +Upon no other issue has the popular vote been so generally resorted to. +This issue comes close to the habits and passions of the masses. It +takes precedence of all others except religion, but cannot be evaded +like religion. If legislative bodies and executive officials decide the +question, then the German or the Irishman adds to his zeal for the +election of a conationalist his thirst for the election of a candidate +with habits like his own. But when left to a popular vote, the saloon +question is separated from the choice of candidates, and other issues +come forward. A majority vote, too, pacifies the minority of all races, +where the act of a legislative body leaves the suspicion of unfair +advantage taken by unrepresentative politicians. By the exigencies of +the situation the referendum has been invoked to take both the saloon +problem and its share of the race problem "out of politics." The lesson +is applicable wherever race or nationality conflicts with democracy. +With questions of religious belief eliminated by the constitution, and +questions of personal habits eliminated by the referendum, other +questions of race antagonism will be eliminated by the initiative and +the referendum.[107] + +=Suffrage.=--The climax of liberality in donating the suffrage to all +races and conditions was reached with the fifteenth amendment in 1869. +At that time not only had the negro been enfranchised; but nearly a +score of Western and Southern states and territories had enfranchised +the alien. So liberal were these states in welcoming the immigrant that +they allowed him to vote as soon as he declared his intention to take +out naturalization papers. This declaration, under the federal law, is +made at least two years before the papers are granted, and it may be +made as soon as the immigrant has landed. Thus in some of those states +he could vote as soon as he acquired a legal residence, that is, four or +four and one-half years before he acquired citizenship. Several of these +states have recently changed these laws, but there remain nine that +continue to accept the alien as a voter. + +In the Eastern states such generosity was not granted by law but was +practised by fraud. Naturalization papers are issued by federal courts +and by state courts of record. The law gives the judge much discretion, +for he is required to refuse the certificate if he is not satisfied that +the alien is of good moral character, attached to the Constitution, and +well disposed. But so careless or crowded are the judges that seldom +have they examined the applicants. Indeed the political managers have +had the option of judges and could take their immigrants to the court +that would shut its eyes. Many thousands of fraudulent papers have been +secured in this way, beginning at the very time when the naturalization +law was enacted in 1802, but increasing enormously during the past forty +years.[108] + +Finally, in 1906, Congress enacted a law giving to the Bureau of +Immigration control over naturalization. The object is to bring all of +the courts under a uniform practice, to provide complete records and +means of identification, to establish publicity, to enable the +government to appear in court and resist fraudulent naturalization, and +to impose severe penalties.[109] The law also adds something to the +qualifications required of the alien. He must not be an anarchist or a +polygamist, nor a believer of such doctrines; he must be able to speak +the English language, and must intend to reside permanently in the +United States.[110] The language restriction affects but few, since in +1900 only 3.3 per cent of the naturalized foreign-born males of voting +age could not speak English.[111] The intention of permanent residence, +as well as the entire measure, is designed to remove the abuse of +foreigners' acquiring citizenship in order to return to their native +land and defy their rightful government. On the administrative side this +law is of great significance. It marks a serious beginning on the part +of the federal government of protecting the citizenship that a +generation before it had so liberally bestowed. + +There are certain races which by law are prohibited from naturalization. +For nearly seventy years the law on the subject enacted in 1802 admitted +to citizenship only free white persons. This was amended in 1870 to +admit "aliens of African nationality and persons of African descent." +But other colored races were not admitted, so that the Chinese, +Japanese, or Malay immigrant has never been eligible to citizenship. His +children, however, born in this country are citizens, and cannot be +excluded from voting on account of race or color. Indians living in +tribes are foreigners, but if they recognize allegiance by paying taxes +or dividing up their land in severalty they are citizens and voters. + +Of the immigrant races eligible to citizenship their importance as +possible voters is greater than their importance in the population. This +is because men and boys come in greater numbers than women and children. +Ten million foreign-born population furnishes 5,000,000 males of voting +age, but 66,000,000 native population furnishes only 16,000,000 males of +voting age. In other words, one-half of the foreign-born, and only +one-fourth of the native-born, are potential voters. But not all of the +potential voters are actual voters. With a grand total in the year 1900 +of 21,000,000 of the proper sex and age, only 15,000,000 went to the +polls. The ratio is five out of seven. Two million negroes were +excluded, and 1,400,000 foreign-born had not yet naturalized. This +leaves 2,600,000 natives and foreign-born who might have voted but did +not. The foreigner who takes out his citizenship papers does it mainly +to vote. Two-thirds of them had done so or declared their intention in +1900.[112] Probably the proportion of native whites who did not vote was +15 per cent of their total number, and the proportion of foreign-born +who did not, or could not, was over 40 per cent. + +But this proportion differs greatly among the several races. It is not +so much a difference in willingness as a difference in opportunity. Five +years are required for naturalization, and while 40 per cent of those +who have been here six to nine years have not declared their intention +nor taken out their papers, only 7 per cent of those who have been here +twenty years retain their allegiance to foreign governments.[113] This +increases relatively the political weight of the Teutonic and Celtic +races which are oldest in point of immigration, and reduces relatively +the weight of the Italian, Slav, and Jewish races. The figures below +make this quite plain. The table shows the proportion of foreign-born +who remain aliens, in the sense that they have neither taken out +citizenship papers nor declared their intention of doing so. Only 7 to +13 per cent of the foreigners from Northwestern Europe are aliens, +compared with 35 to 60 per cent of those from Eastern and Southern +Europe. In course of time these differences will diminish, and the +Italian and Slav will approach the Irishman and German in their share of +American suffrage:-- + +PER CENT OF ALIENS AMONG FOREIGN-BORN MALES OF VOTING AGE[114] + + Wales 7.1 + Germany 8.3 + Norway 9.7 + Ireland 10.1 + Denmark 10.3 + Holland 11.6 + Sweden 11.9 + Scotland 12.5 + Bohemia 12.6 + England 12.9 + Canada, English 21.1 + Russia (mainly Jews) 35.2 + Canada, French 38.5 + Finland 38.6 + Austria (largely Slavs) 44.6 + Portugal 51.6 + Italy 53.0 + Hungary (mainly Slavs) 53.1 + Greece 57.8 + Austria, Poland 61.6 + +The right to vote is not "inalienable," neither is the right to life or +liberty. Governments give them, refuse them, and take them away. In +America this means the state governments. The federal government only +declares that the states must follow the "due process of law," and not +discriminate on account of race, religion, or servitude. In allowing the +right to vote they may and do discriminate on other grounds, such as +morals, illiteracy, intelligence, property, and sex. This may result in +race or immigrant discrimination, and does so in the case of illiteracy +and intelligence. After the Irish immigration of the forties, +Connecticut in 1855 and Massachusetts in 1857 refused thenceforth to +enfranchise those who could not read the Constitution. Since 1889 six +other Northern and Western states--Wyoming, Maine, California, +Washington, Delaware, and New Hampshire, in the order named--have +erected barriers against those who cannot read or write the English +language or the Constitution.[115] Six Southern states have done the +same, but one of them, Mississippi, has added another permanent +barrier,--intelligence. This is supposed to be measured by ability to +"understand" the Constitution as read by a white man. Southern states +have also added vagrancy, poll tax, and property clauses even more +exclusive than reading and writing.[116] The federal courts have refused +to interfere because these restrictions in their legal form bear alike +on white and black. If in practice they bear unequally, that is a matter +for the state courts.[117] + +To take away the suffrage from many of those who enjoy it is peacefully +impossible under our system. But voters who hold fast to the privilege +for themselves may be induced to deny it to the next generation. It was +in this way usually that the foregoing restrictions were introduced. +Massachusetts set the example by retaining all who could vote when the +test was adopted, and making the exclusion apply only to those who came +after. The Southern states did the same by "grandfather" and +"understanding" clauses. By either method, in course of time, the +favored voters disappear by death or removal, and the restrictions apply +in full to the succeeding generation.[118] + +The effect of the educational test on the suffrage of the foreign-born +is not as great as might be supposed. Naturalization itself is almost an +educational test. Only 6.3 per cent of the naturalized foreigners are +illiterate, but 28 per cent of those who remain aliens are unable to +read. In Boston only 2 per cent are excluded from voting through +inability to read English, although the corresponding aliens are 22 per +cent. Probably the educational qualification in Massachusetts affects +these proportions by lessening the inducement to naturalize, but in +Chicago and New York, where that qualification is not required, scarcely +more than 5 per cent of those who get naturalized would be unable to +vote under such a law, compared with less than 1 per cent of the native +voters.[119] In the country at large the disproportion is not so great. +Five and eight-tenths per cent of the sons of native parents would be +excluded by an educational test against 6.3 per cent of the naturalized +foreigners, and only 2 per cent of the native sons of foreigners. In the +several Southern states the test, if equally applied, will exclude 6 to +20 per cent of the white voters and 35 to 60 per cent of the colored +voters.[120] In a Southern city like Memphis it would exclude 1 per cent +of the white and 38 per cent of the colored. + +Tested by the standards of democracy, the ability to read and write the +English language is a proper qualification. It is perhaps the maximum +that can be required, for to test the ability to understand what is read +and written is to open the door to partisanship and race discrimination. +Yet it is intelligence that makes the suffrage an instrument of +protection, and it is not a denial of rights to refuse such an +instrument to one who injures himself with it. The literacy +qualification is one that can be acquired by effort. Other tests, +especially the property qualification, are an assertion of inequality. +Yet it is not strange that with the corrupt and inefficient governments +that have accompanied universal suffrage there should have occurred a +reaction. This has not always expressed itself in the policy of +restricting the suffrage, for that can with difficulty be accomplished. +It has shown itself rather in withdrawing government as far as possible +from the control of the voters. The so-called "business theory" which +has so generally been applied to the reform of city governments has +converted the city as far as possible to the model of a private +corporation, with its general manager, the mayor. The city has been +denied its proper functions, and these have been turned over to private +parties. But this reaction seems to have reached its limit. It is now +understood to have been simply the legal recognition of an incipient +plutocracy establishing itself under the forms of democracy. The return +movement has begun, and the rescue of democracy is sought, as stated +above, in forms and functions of government still more democratic. + +The way plutocracy looks when it has passed the incipient stage may be +seen in Hawaii.[121] It is as though we had annexed those islands in +order to watch in our own back yard the fruit of excessive immigration. +A population of 154,000 furnishes 65,000 Hawaiians, Portuguese, and +other Caucasians. The Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans have 87,000 +population and no votes. The American contingent is some 17,000 souls +and 3000 votes. The latter represent four classes or interests: the +capitalist planters owning two-thirds of the property; superintendents, +engineers, and foremen managing the plantation labor; skilled mechanics; +small employers, merchants, and farmers. In order to get plantation +labor and to keep the supply too large and diversified for concerted +wage demands the planters imported contract Chinese in place of +Hawaiians, then Japanese, then Koreans. As each race rises in standards +and independence it leaves the plantations to enter trades, +manufactures, and merchandising. It drives out the wage-earners from the +less skilled occupations, then from the more skilled, then the small +manufacturers, contractors, and merchants. The American middle classes +disappear, partly by emigration to California, partly by abandoning +business and relying on the values of real estate which rise through the +competition of low standards of wages and profits, and partly by +attaching themselves to the best-paid positions offered by the planters. +In proportion as they move up in the scale through the entrance of +immigrants in the lower positions, they transfer their allegiance from +democracy to plutocracy. The planters themselves are caught in a circle. +The rising values of their land absorb the high tariff on sugar and +prevent rising wages if the values are to be kept up. The Japanese, with +contract labor abolished, have shown a disposition to strike for higher +wages. This has led to advances at the expense of profits, and the +resulting "scarcity of labor" compels the planters again to ask for +contract Chinese coolies. Immigration is thus only a makeshift remedy +for the exactions of unions and the undevelopment of resources. More +immigration requires perpetually more and still more, till the resulting +plutocracy seeks to save itself by servile labor. A moderate amount of +immigrant labor, assimilated and absorbed into the body politic, +stimulates industry and progress, but an excessive and indigestible +amount leads to the search for coercive remedies and ends in the +stagnation of industry. The protective tariff was supposed to build up +free American labor, but in Hawaii, with unrestricted immigration, it +has handed us American plutocracy. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +AMALGAMATION AND ASSIMILATION + + +A German statistician,[122] after studying population statistics of the +United States and observing the "race suicide" of the native American +stock, concludes: "The question of restriction on immigration is not a +matter of higher or lower wages, nor a matter of more or less criminals +and idiots, but the exclusion of a large part of the immigrants might +cost the United States their place among the world powers." + +Exactly the opposite opinion was expressed in 1891 by Francis A. +Walker,[123] the leading American statistician of his time, and +superintendent of the censuses of 1870 and 1880. He said: "Foreign +immigration into this country has, from the time it first assumed large +proportions, amounted not to a reinforcement of our population, but a +replacement of native by foreign stock.... The American shrank from the +industrial competition thus thrust upon him. He was unwilling himself to +engage in the lowest kind of day labor with these new elements of +population; he was even more unwilling to bring sons and daughters into +the world to enter into that competition.... The more rapidly +foreigners came into the United States, the smaller was the rate of +increase, not merely among the native population separately, but +throughout the population of the country as a whole," including the +descendants of the earlier foreign immigrants. + +Walker's statements of fact, whatever we may say of his explanations, +are easily substantiated. From earliest colonial times until the census +of 1840 the people of the United States multiplied more rapidly than the +people of any other modern nation, not excepting the prolific French +Canadians. The first six censuses, beginning in 1790, show that, without +appreciable immigration, the population doubled every twenty years, and +had this rate of increase continued until the present time, the +descendants of the colonial white and negro stock in the year 1900 would +have numbered 100,000,000 instead of the combined colonial, immigrant, +and negro total of 76,000,000. Indeed, if we take the total immigration +from 1820 to 1900, exceeding 19,000,000 people, and apply a slightly +higher than the average rate of increase from births, we shall find that +in the year 1900 one-half of the white population is derived from +immigrant stock, leaving the other half, or but 33,000,000 whites, +derived from the colonial stock.[124] This is scarcely more than +one-third of the number that should have been expected had the colonial +element continued to multiply from 1840 to 1900 as it had multiplied +from 1790 to 1840. + +An interesting corroboration of these speculations is the prediction +made in the year 1815, thirty years before the great migration of the +nineteenth century, by the mathematician and publicist, Elkanah +Watson.[125] On the basis of the increase shown in the first three +censuses he made computations of the probable population for each census +year to 1900, and I have drawn up the following table, showing the +actual population compared with his estimates. Superintendent Walker, in +the essay above quoted, uses Watson's figures, and points out the +remarkable fact that those predictions were within less than one per +cent of the actual population until the year 1860, although, meanwhile, +there had come nearly 5,000,000 immigrants whom Watson could not have +foreseen. Thus the population of 1860, notwithstanding access of the +millions of immigrants, was only 310,000, or one per cent less than +Watson had predicted. And the falling off since 1860 has been even +greater, for, notwithstanding the immigration of 20,000,000 persons +since 1820, the population in 1900 was 75,000,000, or 25 per cent less +than Watson's computations. + +POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION + + ------+------------+---------------+-------------+----------- + | POPULATION | WATSON'S | WATSON'S | FOREIGN + | (CENSUS) | ESTIMATE | ERROR |IMMIGRATION + | | | |FOR DECADE + ------+------------+---------------+-------------+----------- + 1790 | 3,929,214 | | | + 1800 | 5,308,483 | | | 50,000 + 1810 | 7,239,881 | | | 70,000 + 1820 | 9,633,822 | 9,625,734 | -8,088 | 114,000 + 1830 | 12,866,020 | 12,833,645 | -32,375 | 143,439 + 1840 | 17,069,453 | 17,116,526 | +47,073 | 599,125 + 1850 | 23,191,876 | 23,185,368 | -6,508 | 1,713,251 + 1860 | 31,443,321 | 31,753,825 | +310,503 | 2,598,214 + 1870 | 38,558,371 | 42,328,432 | +3,770,061 | 2,314,824 + 1880 | 50,155,783 | 56,450,241 | +6,294,458 | 2,812,191 + 1890 | 62,622,250 | 77,266,989 | +14,644,739 | 5,246,613 + 1900 | 75,559,258 | 100,235,985 | +24,676,727 | 3,687,564 + ------+------------+---------------+-------------+----------- + Total immigration 1820-1900 19,229,224 + ------------------------------------------------------------- + +This question of the "race suicide" of the American or colonial stock +should be regarded as the most fundamental of our social problems, or +rather as the most fundamental consequence of our social and industrial +institutions. It may be met by exhortation, as when President Roosevelt +says, "If the men of the nation are not anxious to work in many +different ways, with all their might and strength, and ready and able to +fight at need, and anxious to be fathers of families, and if the women +do not recognize that the greatest thing for any woman is to be a good +wife and mother, why that nation has cause to be alarmed about its +future."[126] + +The anxiety of President Roosevelt is well grounded; but if race suicide +is not in itself an original cause, but is the result of other causes, +then exhortation will accomplish but little, while the removal or +amelioration of the other causes will of itself correct the resulting +evil. Where, then, shall we look for the causes of race suicide, or, +more accurately speaking, for the reduced proportion of children brought +into the world? The immediate circumstances consist in postponing the +age of marriage, in limiting the number of births after marriage, and in +an increase in the proportion of unmarried people. The reasons are +almost solely moral and not physical. Those who are ambitious and +studious, who strive to reach a better position in the world for +themselves and their children, and who have not inherited wealth, will +generally postpone marriage until they have educated themselves, or +accumulated property, or secured a permanent position. They will then +not bring into the world a larger number of children than they can +provide for on the basis of the standing which they themselves have +attained; for observation shows that those who marry early have large +families, and are generally kept on a lower station in life. The real +problem, therefore, with this class of people, is the opportunities for +earning a living. In the earlier days, when the young couple could take +up vacant land, and farming was the goal of all, a large family and the +cooperation of wife and children were a help rather than a hindrance. +To-day the couple, unless the husband has a superior position, must go +together to the factory or mill, and the children are a burden until +they reach the wage-earning age. Furthermore, wage-earning is uncertain, +factories shut down, and the man with a large family is thrown upon his +friends or charity. To admonish people living under these conditions +to go forth and multiply is to advise the cure of race suicide by race +deterioration. + + +[Illustration: FACULTY OF TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE (From _World's Work_)] + + +Curiously enough, these observations apply with even greater force to +the second generation of immigrants than to the native stock, for among +the daughters of the foreign-born only 19 per cent of those aged 15 to +24 years are married, while among daughters of native parents 30 per +cent are married; and for the men of 20 to 29 only 26.8 per cent of the +native sons of foreigners are married and 38.5 per cent of the sons of +natives.[127] These figures sustain what can be observed in many large +cities, that the races of immigrants who came to this country +twenty-five or more years ago are shrinking from competition with the +new races from Southern Europe. + +Boston, for example, with its large Irish immigration beginning two +generations ago, shows a similar disproportion. Of the American +daughters of foreign parents 15 to 24 years of age, only 12 per cent are +married, but of the daughters of native parents 17 per cent are married; +of the sons of foreign parents 20 to 29 years of age, only 20 per cent +are married, but of the sons of native parents 26 per cent are married. +The contrast with the immigrants themselves is striking. In Boston, 24 +per cent of the foreign-born women aged 15 to 24 are married, and 35 per +cent of the foreign-born men aged 20 to 29.[128] In other words, the +early marriages of immigrant men and women are nearly twice as many as +those of the American-born sons and daughters of immigrants, and only +one-third more than those of the sons and daughters of native stock. +With such a showing as this it would seem that our "place among the +world powers" depends indeed on immigration, for the immigrants' +children are more constrained to race suicide than the older American +stock.[129] + +The competition is not so severe in country districts where the native +stock prevails; but in the cities and industrial centres the skilled and +ambitious workman and workwoman discover that in order to keep +themselves above the low standards of the immigrants they must postpone +marriage. The effect is noticeable and disastrous in the case of the +Irish-Americans. Displaced by Italians and Slavs, many of the young men +have fallen into the hoodlum and criminal element. Here moral causes +produce physical causes of race destruction, for the vicious elements of +the population disappear through the diseases bequeathed to their +progeny, and are recruited only from the classes forced down from above. +On the other hand, many more Irish have risen to positions of +foremanship, or have lived on their wits in politics, or have entered +the priesthood. The Irish-American girls, showing independence and +ambition, have refused to marry until they could be assured of a husband +of steady habits, and they have entered clerical positions, factories, +and mills. Thus this versatile race, with distinct native ability, is +meeting in our cities the same displacement and is resorting to the same +race suicide which itself inflicted a generation or two earlier on the +native colonial stock. But the effect is more severe, for the native +stock was able to leave the scenes of competition, to go West and take +up farms or build cities, but the Irish-American has less opportunity to +make such an escape. + +Great numbers of Irishmen, together with others of English, Scotch, +German, and American descent, remaining in these industrial centres, +have sought to protect themselves and maintain high standards through +labor-unions and the so-called "closed shop," by limiting the number of +apprentices, excluding immigrants, and giving their sons a preference of +admission. But even with the unions they find it necessary also to limit +the size of their families, and I am convinced from personal +observation, that, were the statistics on this point compiled from the +unions of skilled workmen, there would be found even stronger evidences +of race suicide than among other classes in the nation. + +To the well-to-do classes freedom from the care of children is not a +necessity, but an opportunity for luxury and indulgence. These include +the very wealthy, whose round of social functions would be interrupted +by home obligations. To them, of course, immigration brings no need of +prudence--it rather helps to bring the enormous fortunes which distract +their attention from the home. But their numbers are insignificant +compared with the millions who determine the fate of the nation. More +significant are the well-to-do farmers and their wives who have +inherited the soil redeemed by their fathers, and whose desire to be +free for enjoying the fruits of civilization lead them to the position +so strongly condemned by President Roosevelt. This class of farmers, as +shown in the census map of the size of private families,[130] may be +traced across the Eastern and Northern states, running through New +England, rural New York, Northern Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Michigan, +parts of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa. In the rich counties of +southern Michigan, settled and occupied mainly by native stock from New +York, the average size of families is less than four persons, as it is +in a large area of Central New York, whereas for the country at large it +is 4.7, and for counties in the mining sections of Michigan occupied by +immigrants it rises as high as 5.8 persons. + +The census figures showing the size of families do not, however, reveal +the number of children born to a family, since they show only those +living together and not those who have moved away or died. This +especially affects the large-sized families, and does not reveal, for +example, a fact shown by Kuczynski from the state census of +Massachusetts that the average number of children of the foreign-born +women in that state is 4.5, while for native women it is only 2.7.[131] +This also affects the showing for a state like West Virginia, composed +almost entirely of native Americans of colonial stock, with only 2 per +cent foreign-born and 5 per cent colored, where the average size of +families is 5.1 persons, the highest in the United States, but where in +the Blue Ridge Mountains I have come upon two couples of native white +Americans who claimed respectively eighteen and twenty-two children. +Throughout the South the reduction in size of families and the +postponement of marriage have not occurred to any great extent either +among the white or colored races, and these are states to which +immigration has contributed less than 3 per cent of their population. +Yet, if Superintendent Walker's view is sound in all respects, the +Southern whites should shrink from competition with the negro in the +same way that the Northern white shrinks from competition with the +immigrant. He does not do so, and the reasons are probably found in the +fact that the South has been remote from the struggle of modern +competition, and that ignorance and proud contentment fail to spur the +masses to that ambitious striving which rises by means of what Malthus +called the prudential restraints on population. It is quite probable +that in the South, with the spread of the factory system and universal +education, the growth in numbers through excess of births over deaths +will be retarded. + +On the whole it seems that immigration and the competition of inferior +races tends to dry up the older and superior races wherever the latter +have learned to aspire to an improved standard of living, and that among +well-to-do classes not competing with immigrants, but made wealthier by +their low wages, a similar effect is caused by the desire for luxury and +easy living.[132] + +=Americanization.=--A line on the chart opposite page 63 shows the +proportions between the number of immigrants and the existing +population. From this it appears that the enormous immigration of 1906 +is relatively not as large as the smaller immigration of the years 1849 +to 1854, or the year 1882. Three hundred thousand immigrants in 1850 was +as large an addition to a population of 23,000,000 as 1,000,000 in 1906 +to a population of 85,000,000. Judged by mere numbers, the present +immigration is not greater than that witnessed by two former periods. +Judged by saturation it may be greater, for the former immigrants were +absorbed by colonial Americans, but the present immigrants enter a +solution half colonial and half immigrant. The problem of +Americanization increases more than the number to be Americanized. What +is the nature of this problem, and what are the forces available for its +solution? + +The term amalgamation may be used for that mixture of blood which unites +races in a common stock, while assimilation is that union of their minds +and wills which enables them to think and act together. Amalgamation is +a process of centuries, but assimilation is a process of individual +training. Amalgamation is a blending of races, assimilation a blending +of civilizations. Amalgamation is beyond the organized efforts of +government, but assimilation can be promoted by social institutions and +laws. Amalgamation therefore cannot attract our practical interest, +except as its presence or absence sets limits to our efforts toward +assimilation. + +Our principal interest in amalgamation is its effect on the negro race. +The census statisticians discontinued after 1890 the inquiry into the +number of mulattoes, but the census of 1890 showed that mulattoes were +15 per cent of the total negro population. This was a slightly larger +proportion than that of preceding years. The mulatto element of the +negro race is almost a race of itself. Its members on the average differ +but little if at all from those of the white race in their capacity for +advancement, and it is the tragedy of race antagonism that they with +their longings should suffer the fate of the more contented and +thoughtless blacks.[133] In their veins runs the blood of white +aristocracy, and it is a curious psychology of the Anglo-Saxon that +assigns to the inferior race those equally entitled to a place among the +superior. But sociology offers compensation for the injustice to +physiology. The mulatto is the natural leader, instructor, and spokesman +of the black. Prevented from withdrawing himself above the fortunes of +his fellows, he devotes himself to their elevation. This fact becomes +clear in proportion as the need of practical education becomes clear. +The effective work of the whites through missionary schools and colleges +has not been the elevation of the black, but the elevation of mulattoes +to teach the blacks. A new era for the blacks is beginning when the +mulatto sees his own future in theirs. + +Apart from the negro we have very little knowledge of the amalgamation +of races in America. We only know that for the most part they have +blended into a united people with harmonious ideals, and the English, +the German, the Scotch-Irish, the Dutch, and the Huguenot have become +the American. + +We speak of superior and inferior races, and this is well enough, but +care should be taken to distinguish between inferiority and +backwardness--between that superiority which is the original endowment +of race and that which results from the education and training which we +call civilization. While there are superior and inferior races, there +are primitive, mediaeval, and modern civilizations, and there are certain +mental qualities required for and produced by these different grades of +civilization. A superior race may have a primitive or mediaeval +civilization, and therefore its individuals may never have exhibited the +superior mental qualities with which they are actually endowed, and +which a modern civilization would have called into action. The adults +coming from such a civilization seem to be inferior in their mental +qualities, but their children, placed in the new environments of the +advanced civilization, exhibit at once the qualities of the latter. The +Chinaman comes from a mediaeval civilization--he shows little of those +qualities which are the product of Western civilization, and with his +imitativeness, routine, and traditions, he has earned the reputation of +being entirely non-assimilable. But the children of Chinamen, born and +reared in this country, entirely disprove this charge, for they are as +apt in absorbing the spirit and method of American institutions as any +Caucasian.[134] The race is superior but backward. + +The Teutonic races until five hundred years after Christ were primitive +in their civilization, yet they had the mental capacities which made +them, like Arminius, able to comprehend and absorb the highest Roman +civilization. They passed through the mediaeval period and then came out +into the modern period of advanced civilization, yet during these two +thousand years their mental capacities, the original endowment of race, +have scarcely improved. It is civilization, not race evolution, that +has transformed the primitive warrior into the philosopher, scientist, +artisan, and business man. Could their babies have been taken from the +woods two thousand years ago and transported to the homes and schools of +modern America, they could have covered in one generation the progress +of twenty centuries. Other races, like the Scotch and the Irish, made +the transition from primitive institutions to modern industrial habits +within a single century, and Professor Brinton, our most profound +student of the American Indian, has said,[135] "I have been in close +relations to several full-blood American Indians who had been removed +from an aboriginal environment and instructed in this manner [in +American schools and communities], and I could not perceive that they +were either in intellect or sympathies inferior to the usual type of the +American gentleman. One of them notably had a refined sense of humor as +well as uncommon acuteness of observation." + +The line between superior and inferior, as distinguished from advanced +and backward, races appears to be the line between the temperate and +tropical zones. The two belts of earth between the tropics of Capricorn +and Cancer and the arctic and antarctic circles have been the areas +where man in his struggle for existence developed the qualities of mind +and will--the ingenuity, self-reliance, self-control, strenuous +exertion, and will power--which befit the modern industrial +civilization. But in the tropics these qualities are less essential, for +where nature lavishes food, and winks at the neglect of clothing and +shelter, there ignorance, superstition, physical prowess, and sexual +passion have an equal chance with intelligence, foresight, thrift, and +self-control. The children of all the races of the temperate zones are +eligible to the highest American civilization, and it only needs that +they be "caught" young enough. There is perhaps no class of people more +backward than the 3,000,000 poor whites of the Appalachian Mountains, +but there is no class whose children are better equipped by heredity to +attain distinction in any field of American endeavor. This much cannot +be said for the children of the tropical zones. Amalgamation is their +door to assimilation. + +Before we can intelligently inquire into the agencies of Americanization +we must first agree on what we mean by the term. I can think of no +comprehensive and concise description equal to that of Abraham Lincoln: +"Government of the people, by the people, for the people." This +description should be applied not only to the state but to other +institutions. In the home it means equality of husband and wife; in the +church it means the voice of the laity; in industry the participation of +the workmen. + +Unhappily it cannot be said that Lincoln's description has ever been +attained. It is the goal which he and others whom we recognize as true +Americans have pointed out. Greater than any other obstacle in the road +toward that goal have been our race divisions. Government for the people +depends on government by the people, and this is difficult where the +people cannot think and act together. Such is the problem of +Americanization. + +In the earlier days the most powerful agency of assimilation was +frontier life. The pioneers "were left almost entirely to their own +resources in this great struggle. They developed a spirit of +self-reliance, a capacity for self-government, which are the most +prominent characteristics of the American people."[136] Frontier life +includes pioneer mining camps as well as pioneer farming. + +Next to the frontier the farms of America are the richest field of +assimilation. Here the process is sometimes thought to be slower than it +is in the cities, but any one who has seen it under both conditions +cannot doubt that if it is slower it is more real. In the cities the +children are more regularly brought under the influence of the public +schools, but more profound and lasting than the education of the schools +is the education of the street and the community. The work of the +schools in a great city like New York cannot be too highly praised, and +without such work the future of the immigrant's child would be dark. In +fact the children of the immigrant are better provided with school +facilities than the children of the Americans. Less than 1 per cent of +their children 10 to 14 years of age are illiterate, but the proportion +of illiterates among children of native parents is over 4 per cent. This +is not because the foreigner is more eager to educate his child than is +the native, but because nearly three-fourths of the foreigners' children +and only one-sixth of the natives' children live in the larger cities, +where schools and compulsory attendance prevail. Were it not for +compulsory education, the child of the peasant immigrant would be, like +the child of the Slav in the anthracite coal fields, "the helpless +victim of the ignorance, frugality, and industrial instincts of his +parents."[137] As it is, they drop out of the schools at the earliest +age allowed by law, and the hostility of foreigners to factory +legislation and its corollary compulsory school legislation is more +difficult to overcome than the hostility of American employers, both of +whom might profit by the work of their children. The thoroughness with +which the great cities of the North enforce the requirements of primary +education leaves but little distinction between the children of natives +and the children of foreigners, but what difference remains is to the +advantage of the natives. In Boston in 1900 only 5 children of native +parents were illiterate, and 22 native children of foreign parents, a +ratio of one-twentieth of 1 per cent for the natives and one-tenth of 1 +per cent for the foreigners. In New York 68 of the 83,000 children of +native parents were illiterate, and 311 of the 166,000 native children +of foreign parents, a ratio insignificant in both cases, but more than +twice as great for the foreigners as for the natives.[138] Taking all of +the cities of at least 50,000 population, more than one-fourth of the +foreign-born children 10 to 15 years of age are bread-winners, and only +one-tenth of the children of native parents. The influence of residence +in America is shown by the fact that of the children of foreigners born +in this country the proportion of bread-winners is reduced to +one-seventh.[139] + +But it is the community more than the school that gives the child his +actual working ideals and his habits and methods of life. And in a great +city, with its separation of classes, this community is the slums, with +its mingling of all races and the worst of the Americans. He sees and +knows surprisingly little of the America that his school-books describe. +The American churches, his American employers, are in other parts of the +city, and his Americanization is left to the school-teacher, the +policeman, and the politician, who generally are but one generation +before him from Europe. But on the farm he sees and knows all classes, +the best and the worst, and even where his parents strive to isolate +their community and to preserve the language and the methods of the old +country, only a generation or two are required for the surrounding +Americanism to permeate. Meanwhile healthful work, steady, industrious, +and thrifty habits, have made him capable of rising to the best that +his surroundings exemplify. + + +[Illustration: SLAVIC HOME MISSIONARIES (From _The Home Missionary_)] + + +Since the year 1900 the Immigration Bureau has not inquired as to the +religious faith of the immigrants. In that year, when the number +admitted was 361,000, one-fifth were Protestants, mainly from Great +Britain, the Scandinavian countries, Germany, and Finland. One-tenth +were Jews, 4 per cent were Greek Catholics, and 52 per cent were Roman +Catholics. With the shifting of the sources toward the east and south of +Europe the proportion of Catholic and Jewish faith has increased. During +this transition the Protestant churches of America have begun to awaken +to a serious problem confronting them. The three New England states +which have given their religion and political character to Northern and +Western states are themselves now predominantly Catholic. In all of the +Northern manufacturing and industrial states and in their great cities +the marvellous organization and discipline of the Roman Catholic Church +has carefully provided every precinct, ward, or district with chapels, +cathedrals, and priests even in advance of the inflow of population, +while the scattered forces of Protestantism overlap in some places and +overlook other places. Two consequences have followed. The Protestant +churches in much the larger part of their activities have drawn +themselves apart in an intellectual and social round of polite +entertainment for the families of the mercantile, clerical, +professional, and employing classes, while the Catholic churches +minister to the laboring and wage-earning classes. In a minor and +relatively insignificant part of their activities the Protestant +churches have supported missionaries, colporters, and chapels among the +immigrants, the wage-earners, and their children. Their home missionary +societies, which in the earlier days followed up their own believers on +the frontier and enabled them to establish churches in their new homes, +have in the past decade or two become foreign missionary societies +working at home. Nothing is more significant or important in the history +of American Protestantism than the zeal and patriotism with which a few +missionaries in this unaccustomed field have begun to lead the way. By +means of addresses, periodicals, books, study classes, they are +gradually awakening the churches to the needs of the foreigner at +home.[140] Among certain nationalities, especially the Italians and +Slavs, they find an open field, for thousands of those nationalities, +though nominally Catholic, are indifferent to the church that they +associate with oppression at home. Among these nationalities already +several converts have become missionaries in turn to their own people, +and with the barrier of language and suspicion thus bridged over, the +influence of the Protestant religion is increasing. Perhaps more than +anything else is needed a federation of the Protestant denominations +similar to that recently arranged in Porto Rico. That island has been +laid out in districts through mutual agreement of the home missionary +societies, and each district is assigned exclusively to a single +denomination. + +While the Protestant churches have been withdrawing from the districts +invaded by the foreigners, the field has been entered by the "social +settlement." This remarkable movement, eliminating religious propaganda, +is essentially religious in its zeal for social betterment. Its +principal service has been to raise up Americans who know and understand +the life and needs of the immigrants and can interpret them to others. +In the "institutional church" is also to be found a similar adaptation +of the more strictly religious organization to the social and +educational needs of the immigrants and their children. + +More than any other class in the community, it is the employers who +determine the progress of the foreigner and his children towards +Americanization. They control his waking hours, his conditions of +living, and his chances of advancement. In recent years a few employers +have begun to realize their responsibilities, and a great corporation +like the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company establishes its "sociological" +department with its schools, kindergartens, hospitals, recreation +centres, and model housing, on an equal footing with its engineering and +sales departments. Other employers are interesting themselves in various +degrees and ways in "welfare work," or "industrial betterment," and +those who profit most by this awakening interest are the foreign-born +and their families. This interest has not yet shown itself in a +willingness to shorten the hours of labor, and this phase of welfare +work must probably be brought about by other agencies. + +The influence of schools, churches, settlements, and farming communities +applies more to the children of immigrants than their parents. The +immigrants themselves are too old for Americanization, especially when +they speak a non-English language. To them the labor-union is at present +the strongest Americanizing force. The effort of organized labor to +organize the unskilled and the immigrant is the largest and most +significant fact of the labor movement. Apart from the labor question +itself, it means the enlistment of a powerful self-interest in the +Americanization of the foreign-born. For it is not too much to say that +the only effective Americanizing force for the Southeastern European is +the labor-union. The church to which he gives allegiance is the Roman +Catholic, and, however much the Catholic Church may do for the ignorant +peasant in his European home, such instruction as the priest gives is +likely to tend toward an acceptance of their subservient position on the +part of the workingmen. It is a frequently observed fact that when +immigrants join a labor-union they almost insolently warn the priest to +keep his advice to himself. + +Universal suffrage admits the immigrant to American politics within one +to five years after landing. But the suffrage is not looked upon to-day +as the sufficient Americanizing force that a preceding generation +imagined. The suffrage appeals very differently to the immigrant voter +and to the voter who has come up through the American schools and +American life. The American has learned not only that this is a free +government, but that its freedom is based on constitutional principles +of an abstract nature. Freedom of the press, trial by jury, separation +of powers, independence of the judiciary, equality of opportunity, and +several other governmental and legal principles have percolated through +his subconscious self, and when he contemplates public questions these +abstract principles have more or less influence as a guide to his +ballot. But the immigrant has none of these. He comes here solely to +earn a better living. The suffrage is nothing to him but a means of +livelihood. Not that he readily sells his vote for money--rather does he +simply "vote for his job." He votes as instructed by his employer or his +political "boss," because it will help his employer's business or +because his boss will get him a job, or will, in some way, favor him and +others of his nationality. There is a noticeable difference between the +immigrant and the children of the immigrant in this regard. The young +men, when they begin to vote, can be appealed to on the ground of public +spirit; their fathers can be reached only on the ground of private +interest. + +Now it cannot be expected that the labor-union or any other influence +will greatly change the immigrant in this respect. But the union does +this much: it requires every member to be a citizen, or to have declared +his intention of taking out naturalization papers. The reasons for doing +this are not political; they are sentimental and patriotic. The union +usually takes pride in showing that its members are Americans, and have +foregone allegiance to other countries. In a union like the musicians' +the reasons for requiring citizenship are also protective, since they +serve to exclude transient musical immigrants from American audiences. +Again, the union frees its members from the dictation of employers, +bosses, and priests. Politicians, of course, strive to control the vote +of organized labor, but so disappointing has been the experience of the +unions that they have quite generally come to distrust the leader who +combines labor and politics. The immigrant who votes as a unionist has +taken the first step, in casting his ballot, towards considering the +interests of others, and this is also the first step towards giving +public spirit and abstract principles a place alongside private interest +and his own job. + +But there is another way, even more impressive, in which the union +asserts the preeminence of principles over immediate self-interest. When +the foreigner from Southern Europe is inducted into the union, then for +the first time does he get the idea that his job belongs to him by +virtue of a right to work, and not as the personal favor or whim of a +boss. These people are utterly obsequious before their foremen or +bosses, and it is notorious that nearly always they pay for the +privilege of getting and keeping a job. This bribery of bosses, as well +as the padrone system, proceed from the deep-seated conviction that +despotism is the natural social relation, and that therefore they must +make terms with the influential superior who is so fortunate as to have +favor with the powers that be. + +The anthracite coal operators represented such men, prior to joining the +union, as disciplined and docile workmen, but in doing so they +disregarded the fact that outside the field where they were obsequious +they were most violent, treacherous, and factional. Before the +organization of the union in the coal fields these foreigners were given +over to the most bitter and often murderous feuds among the ten or +fifteen nationalities and the two or three factions within each +nationality. The Polish worshippers of a given saint would organize a +night attack on the Polish worshippers of another saint; the Italians +from one province would have a knife for the Italians of another +province, and so on. When the union was organized the antagonisms of +race, religion, and faction were eliminated. The immigrants came down to +an economic basis and turned their forces against their bosses. "We +fellows killed this country," said a Polish striker to Father Curran, +"and now we are going to make it." The sense of a common cause, and, +more than all else, the sense of individual rights as men, have come to +these people through the organization of their labor unions, and it +could come in no other way, for the union appeals to their necessities, +while other forces appeal to their prejudices. They are even yet far +from ideal Americans, but those who have hitherto imported them and +profited by their immigration should be the last to cry out against the +chief influence that has started them on the way to true +Americanism.[141] + +=Agricultural Distribution of Immigrants.=--The congestion and colonizing +of immigrants in the cities and their consequent poverty and the +deterioration of the second generation have brought forth various +proposals for inducing them to settle upon the farms. The commissioners +of immigration[142] at various times have advocated an industrial museum +at Ellis Island, wherein the resources and opportunities of the several +states could be displayed before the eyes of the incoming thousands. +They and others have gone further and advocated the creation of a bureau +of immigrant distribution to help the immigrants out of the crowded +cities into the country districts. Still others have urged the +establishment of steamship lines to Southern ports and the Gulf of +Mexico, so that immigrants may be carried directly to the regions that +"need them." Very little can be expected from projects of this +kind,[143] for the present contingent of immigrants from Southeastern +Europe is too poor in worldly goods and too ignorant of American +business to warrant an experiment in the isolation and self-dependence +of farming. The farmers of the South and West welcome the settler who +has means of purchase, but they distrust the newly arrived immigrant. +Scandinavians and Germans in large numbers find their way to their +countrymen on the farms, but the newer nationalities would require the +fostering care of government or of wealthy private societies. The Jews +have, indeed, taken up the matter, and the Jewish Agricultural and +Industrial Aid Society of New York, by means of subventions from the +Baron de Hirsch fund, has distributed many families throughout the +country, partly in agriculture, but more generally in trade. The Society +for the Protection of Italian Immigrants is doing similar work. Great +railway systems and land companies in the South and West have their +agricultural and industrial agents on the lookout for eligible settlers. +All of the Southern states have established bureaus of immigration, and +they are advertising the North and Europe for desirable immigrants. But +these agencies seek mainly those immigrants who have resided in the +country for a time, and have learned the language and American +practices, and, in the case of the railroad and land companies, those +who have accumulated some property. + +The immigration bureaus of the Southern states and railways, the most +urgent applicants at the present time for immigrants, are strongly +opposed to the plan of federal distribution. They want farmers who will +do their own work. From the standpoint of the immigrant himself this +position is correct. To find a place as an agriculturist he must find a +place as a farmer and not a harvest hand.[144] Speaking for the Southern +bureaus, Professor Fleming says,[145] "The South decidedly objects to +being made the government dumping-ground for undesirable immigrants. It +does not want the lower class foreigners who have swarmed into the +Northern cities. It wants the same sort of people who settled so much of +the West." The state board of South Carolina officially invites +immigration of "white citizens of the United States, citizens of +Ireland, Scotland, Switzerland, and France, and all other foreigners of +Saxon origin." + +As for those without money who must depend on their daily labor for +wages, they must go where employment is most regular and the best wages +are paid. This is not on the farms, with a few months' work in summer +and no homes in winter. It is unmistakably in the great cities and +industrial centres. The commissioner of immigration at Ellis Island, +speaking of the cordon established by his bureau along the Canadian +frontier from Halifax to Winnipeg in order to catch those who tried to +escape inspection at New York, said, "All those immigrants who had New +York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Cleveland, or Cincinnati in mind as a +destination when they left Europe and came to Quebec, went all the way +around that wall to its western end at Winnipeg, and then took trains +and came back to the very places they had in mind when they left Europe; +and if you were to land all the ships that now come to New York at +Galveston, New Orleans, or Charleston, every one of the immigrants would +come to the place he had in mind when he decided to emigrate."[146] + +Professor Wilcox contends that the immigrants already distribute +themselves according to their economic advantage as completely as do the +natives. They seem to congest in the cities because the cities are +necessarily their places of first arrival. "Our foreign-born arrive, in +at least nine-tenths of the cases, at some city. Our native citizens +arrive by birth, in at least three-fourths of the cases, in the country. +The foreign-born arrive mainly at seaport cities, and disperse gradually +from those cities to and through other interior cities, ultimately +reaching in many cases the small towns or open country. It is in no +sense surprising, or an evidence of imperfect distribution, that the +foreign-born should be massed in the cities when nine-tenths of them +arrive there, and the native population massed in the country districts +when three-fourths of them arrive there."[147] Artificial distribution +would not relieve the pressure as long as the character and amount of +immigration continue--it can only be relieved by creating greater +economic inducements in the country. Natives and foreigners both crowd +to the cities because wages and profits are higher than they are in the +country. + +Even supposing the congestion in the cities could be relieved by making +the inducements in the country greater, the relief could not continue, +for it would only invite more immigration. Emigration has not relieved +the pressure of population in Europe. In no period of their history, +with the exception of Ireland, have the populations of Europe increased +at a greater rate than during the last half century of migration to +America. It is not emigration but improved standards of living that +lessens the pressure of numbers, and France with the widest diffusion of +property has little emigration and no increase in population. With the +redundant millions of Europe, increasing thousands would migrate if they +got word from their friends that the American government is finding jobs +for them. Just as we have already seen that the tide of immigration +rises with a period of prosperity in America, so would it rise with +agricultural distribution of immigrants. Both are simply more openings +for employment, and the knowledge of such opportunities is promptly +carried to the waiting multitudes abroad. + +Consider also the political jeopardy of an administration at Washington +conducting a bureau for the distribution of immigrants. If it refused +to direct immigrants to one section of the country because it found that +the wages were low, it would arouse the hostility of employers. If it +directed them to another section, where the wages offered were high +because the employers were preparing for a lockout, or the unions were +on strike, it would lose the votes of workingmen. The administration +would soon learn that safely to conduct such a bureau it must not +conduct it at all. + +Far better is it that the federal government should leave the +distribution of immigrants to private employment agencies. It might then +license all such agencies that conduct an interstate business. With the +power to take away the license on proof of fraud and misrepresentation, +and with the prosecution of agencies and employers that deceive and +enslave the immigrant, the government would accomplish all that it could +directly do for better distribution. Unquestionably the employment +agencies, with their _padroni_, their bankers, and their false promises, +are the source of miserable abuse to thousands of immigrants.[148] They +require interstate as well as state regulation. By weeding out the +dishonest agencies the field would be occupied by the honest ones, and +the immigrant could trust himself to their assistance. But such +regulation would not be merely for the sake of the immigrant. It would, +as it should, aid the American as well. + +This suggests to us the true nature of the problem of city congestion +and the nature of its solution. It is not to be found in special efforts +on behalf of the immigrant, but in efforts to better the condition of +both Americans and immigrants. The congestion of cities is owing to +discriminations in favor of cities. If the government gives aid to +agriculture as it does to manufactures, if it provides better +communication, equalizes taxes, reduces freight rates to the level +enjoyed by cities, then agriculture and the small towns will be more +attractive. Americans will not crowd to the cities, and the more +provident of the immigrants will find their way to the country. The +proposition of federal distribution of immigrants is merely a clever +illusion kept up to lead Congress astray from the restriction of +immigration. + +=Higher Standards of Immigration.=--As for the inferior, defective, and +undesirable classes of immigrants, there is no protection except +stringent selection. The Commissioner of Immigration at New York +estimates that 200,000 of the million immigrants in 1903 were an injury +instead of a benefit to the industries of the country,[149] and he +advocates a physical examination and the exclusion of those who fall +below a certain physical standard. During the past ten years the +educational, or rather, illiteracy test, has come to the front, and the +advantages of this test are its simplicity and its specific application +to those races whose standards are lowest. + + +[Illustration: ALIENS AWAITING ADMISSION AT ELLIS ISLAND] + + +Much discussion has been carried on respecting this test, and there has +been considerable misunderstanding and misrepresentation as to its +probable effects. The principal mistake has been the assumption that it +is designed to take the place of other tests of admission, and that +therefore it would permit, for example, the most dangerous +criminals--those who are intelligent--to enter this country. If we +examine existing laws, and seek to understand the real nature of +immigration restriction, we can see the character of this mistake. All +of our legislation governing immigration should be described as +_improvement_ of immigration rather than _restriction_ of immigration. +The object has always been to raise the average character of those +admitted by excluding those who fall below certain standards. And higher +standards have been added from time to time as rapidly as the lawmakers +perceived the need of bettering the quality of our future citizenship. +Although in 1862 Congress had enacted a law prohibiting the shipment of +Chinese coolies in American vessels,[150] it was not until 1875 that the +lawmakers first awoke to the evil of unrestricted immigration. In that +year a law was enacted to exclude convicts and prostitutes. This law +made an exception in favor of those who had been convicted of political +offences. Next, in 1882, Congress added lunatics, idiots, paupers, and +Chinese. In 1885 laborers under contract were for the first time to be +excluded, but an exception was made in order to admit actors, artists, +lecturers, singers, domestics, and skilled workmen for new industries. +In 1891 the list of ineligibles was again extended so as to shut out not +only convicts but persons convicted of crime, also "assisted" +immigrants, polygamists, and persons with loathsome or dangerous +contagious diseases. In 1903 the law added epileptics, persons who have +had two or more attacks of insanity, professional beggars, and +anarchists. Notwithstanding these successive additions of excluded +classes, the number of immigrants has continually increased until it is +greater to-day than in any preceding period, and while the standards +have been raised in one direction, the average quality has been lowered +in other directions. The educational and physical tests, while not +needed for the races from Northwestern Europe, are now advocated as +additions to the existing tests on account of the flood of races from +Southeastern Europe. + +The question of "poor physique" has come seriously to the front in +recent reports of immigration officials. The decline in the average of +physical make-up to which they call attention accompanies the increase +in numbers of Southern and Eastern Europeans. While the commissioner at +Ellis Island estimates that 200,000 immigrants are below the physical +standards that should be required to entitle them to admission, the +number certified by the surgeons is much less than this. Yet nine-tenths +of even that smaller number are admitted, since the law excludes them +only if other grounds of exclusion appear. That the physical test is +practicable is shown by the following description of the qualities taken +into account by the medical examiners at the immigrant stations; +qualities which would be made even more definite if they were authorized +to be acted upon:[151]-- + +"A certificate of this nature implies that the alien concerned is +afflicted with a body not only but illy adapted to the work necessary to +earn his bread, but also but poorly able to withstand the onslaught of +disease. It means that he is undersized, poorly developed, with feeble +heart action, arteries below the standard size; that he is physically +degenerate, and as such not only unlikely to become a desirable citizen, +but also very likely to transmit his undesirable qualities to his +offspring should he, unfortunately for the country in which he is +domiciled, have any. + +"Of all causes for rejection, outside of those for dangerous, +contagious, or loathsome diseases, or for mental disease, that of 'poor +physique' should receive the most weight, for in admitting such aliens +not only do we increase the number of public charges by their inability +to gain their bread through their physical inaptitude and their low +resistance to disease, but we admit likewise progenitors to this country +whose offspring will reproduce, often in an exaggerated degree, the +physical degeneracy of their parents." + +The history of the illiteracy test in Congress is a curious comment on +lobbying. First introduced in 1895, it passed the House by a vote of 195 +to 26, and the Senate in another form by a vote of 52 to 10. Referred to +a conference committee, an identical bill again passed both Houses by +reduced majorities. But irrelevant amendments had been tacked on and the +President vetoed it. The House passed it over his veto by 193 to 37, but +it was too late in the session to reach a vote in the Senate. Introduced +again in 1898, it passed the Senate by 45 to 28, but pressure of the +Spanish War prevented a vote in the House. The bill came up in +subsequent Congresses but did not reach a vote.[152] The lobby is +directed by the steamship companies, supported by railway companies, the +Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, and other great employers of +labor. By misrepresentation, these interested agencies have been able at +times to arouse the fears of the older races of immigrants not affected +by the measure. Their fears were groundless, for the illiteracy test is +not a test of the English language, but a test of any language, and it +applies only to those who are 15 years of age and over, but does not +apply to wife, children, parents, or grandparents of those who are +admitted. With these reasonable limitations it would exclude only 1 in +200 of the Scandinavians, 1 in 100 of the English, Scotch, and Finns, 2 +or 3 in 100 of the Germans, Irish, Welsh, and French; but it would +exclude one-half of the South Italians, one-seventh of the North +Italians, one-third to two-fifths of the several Slav races, one-seventh +of the Russian Jews, altogether one-fifth or one-fourth of the total +immigration.[153] But these proportions would not long continue. +Elementary education is making progress in Eastern and Southern Europe, +and a test of this kind would stimulate it still more among the +peasants. Restrictive at first, it is only selective; it would not +permanently reduce the number of immigrants, but would raise their level +of intelligence and their ability to take care of themselves. + +The foregoing principles do not apply to Chinese immigration. There the +law is strictly one of exclusion and not selection. This distinction is +often overlooked in the discussion of the subject. Respecting European, +Japanese, and Korean immigration, the law _admits_ all except certain +classes definitely described, such as paupers, criminals, and so on. +Respecting Chinese immigration the law _excludes_ all except certain +classes described, such as teachers, merchants, travellers, and +students. In the case of European immigration the burden of proof is +upon the immigration authorities to show that the immigrant should be +excluded. In the case of the Chinese, the burden of proof is on the +immigrant to show that he should be admitted. In the administration of +the law the difference is fundamental. If the Chinese law is liberalized +so as to admit doctors, lawyers, and other professional classes, +against whom there is no objection, it can be done in one of two ways. +It can name and specify the additional classes to be admitted. To this +there is little objection, for it retains the existing spirit of the +law. Or it can be reversed, and can admit all classes of Chinese except +coolies, laborers, and the classes now excluded by other laws. If this +were done, the enforcement of the law would break down, for the burden +of proof would be lifted from the immigrant and placed on the examining +board. The law is with great difficulty enforced as it is, but the +evasions bear no comparison in number with those practised under the +other law. European immigration is encouraged, provided it passes a +minimum standard. Chinese immigration is prohibited unless it exceeds a +maximum standard. One is selection, the other is exclusion. One should +be amended by describing new classes _not_ to be admitted, the other by +describing classes which _may_ be admitted. + +This difference between the two laws may be seen in the effects of the +restrictions which have from time to time been added to the immigration +laws. Each additional ground of restriction or selection has not +decreased the total amount of immigration, nor has it increased the +proportion of those debarred from admission. In 1898, 3200 aliens were +sent back, and this was 1.4 per cent of those who arrived. In 1901, 3900 +were sent back, but this was only three-fourths of 1 per cent of those +arriving. In 1906, 13,000 sent back were 1.2 per cent of the arrivals. +Intending immigrants as well as steamship companies learn the standards +of exclusion and the methods of evasion, so that the proportion who take +their chances and fail in the attempt is very small. Nevertheless, this +deportation of immigrants, though averaging less than 1 per cent, is a +hardship that should be avoided. It has often been proposed that this +should be done through examination abroad by American consuls or by +agents of the Immigration Bureau. Attractive and humane as this proposal +appears, the foreign examination could not be made final. It would +remove the examiners from effective control, and would require a large +additional force as well as the existing establishment to deport those +who might evade the foreign inspection. It does not strike at the root +of the evil, which is the business energy of the steamship companies in +soliciting immigration, and their business caution in requiring doubtful +immigrants to give bonds in advance to cover the cost of carrying them +back.[154] It is not the exclusion law that causes hardship, but the +steamship companies that connive at evasions of the law. The law of 1903 +for the first time adopted the correct principle to meet this evasion, +but with a limited application. Since 1898, the Bureau had debarred +increasing numbers on account of loathsome and contagious diseases. But +these had already done the injury which their deportation was designed +to prevent. In the crowded steerage the entire shipload was exposed to +this contagion. Congress then enacted the law of 1903, not only +requiring the steamship companies to carry them back, as before, but +requiring the companies to pay a fine of $100 for every alien debarred +on that account. In 1906, the companies paid fines of $24,300 on 243 +such deportations. The principle should be extended to all classes +excluded by law, and the fine should be raised to $500. Then every agent +of the steamship companies in the remotest hamlets of Europe would be an +immigration inspector. Their surgeons and officials already know the law +and its standards of administration as thoroughly as the immigration +officials. It only needs an adequate motive to make them cooperators +with the Bureau instead of evaders of the law. Already the law of 1903 +has partly had that effect. One steamship company has arranged with the +Bureau to locate medical officers at its foreign ports of embarkation. +However, the penalty is not yet heavy enough, and the Commissioner-General +recommends its increase to $500. By extending the law to all grounds of +deportation in addition to contagious diseases, the true source of +hardship to debarred aliens will be dried up.[155] + + + + +INDEX + + + A + + Advertising, 26, 29, 84, 85, 104, 108, 109. + + Age Composition of Immigrants, 119. + + Agriculture, 130, 131, 132, 133. + + Alien Contract Labor Law, 118. + + American Federation of Labor, 144. + + Americanization, 208. + + Armenians, 65, 99. + + Asiatic Immigration, 101-104. + + Assimilation, 17-21, 113, 198. + + Atlanta University, 58, 59, 61. + + Australia, 6, 19. + + Austria-Hungary, 18, 65, 79-87. + + + B + + Births, 57, 86, 94. + + Bohemians, 80, 82, 132. + + Boston, 203, 215. + + Brinton, Daniel G., 212. + + Burlingame Treaty, 111. + + Butcher Workmen, 150. + + + C + + California, 101, 103, 117. + + Canada, 104. (See "French Canadians.") + + Carib, 106. + + Castes, 8. + + Charity, 108. + + Charity Organization Society of New York, 100. + + Chicago, 47, 110, 165, 178. + + Child Labor, 152. + + Chinese, 101, 109, 111, 114, 117, 130, 131, 132, 143, 144, 146, 156, + 231. (See "Coolies.") + + Chinese Exclusion, 117, 152, 235. + + Cities, 54, 55, 164, 165, 166, 215. + + Civil War, 3, 63, 64, 98, 111, 129, 175. + + Classes in America, 8, 12. + + Closed Shop, 205. + + Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, 150, 219. + + Colored Farmers' Alliance, 50. + + Competition, Race, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 148, 149, 151, 204, 208. + + Contract Labor, 99, 102, 104, 108, 109, 110, 118, 135, 138, 141, 142, + 143, 231. (See "Coolies," "Peonage.") + + Coolies, 109, 152. (See "Chinese," "Japanese.") + + Cooperation, 49, 50. + + Cost of Living, 73. (See also "Standard of Living.") + + Crime, 26, 168-175. + + Croatians, 80, 81, 83, 84, 109, 122, 123. + + Curran, Father, 223. + + + D + + Death-rate, 58, 60, 61, 86, 95. (See "Infant Mortality.") + + Distribution of Immigrants, 130, 224-230. + + Drunkenness, 172. + + Dutch, 24, 88, 89, 123. + + Dutch East India Company, 108. + + + E + + Education, 45, 46, 52, 146, 214. (See "Illiteracy.") + + Educational Tests, 44, 45, 52, 194, 231, 232, 234. (See "Negro.") + + Eminence of Races in America, 23-27, 31, 32. + + Employment Agencies, 229. + + English Race, 17, 23, 25, 128. + + Erie Canal, 130. + + + F + + Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, 42, 44, 188. + + Filipinos, 140, 142, 143, 144. + + Finns, 95-97. + + Fleming, Professor W. L., 226. + + Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, 42, 44, 45. + + French, 25, 128. + + French Canadians, 25, 97, 151, 199. + + + G + + Galicia, 93. (See also "Austria-Hungary.") + + Germans, 24, 30, 65, 67-68, 84, 122, 132, 152. + + Greeks, 47, 122. + + + H + + Hampton Institute, 49. + + Hawaii, 99, 101, 102, 103, 105, 131, 132, 142, 196. + + Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, 234. + + Heredity, 5. + + Hoffman, Fred L., 55, 57. + + Huguenots, 24-25. + + + I + + Illiteracy, 76, 79, 194. + + Immigration, 22-38, 63-106. + + Immigration Bureaus, 225, 237. + + Incentives to Immigration, 27-31, 63-68, 72, 76, 77, 80, 84-87, 88, 95, + 96, 99, 100, 101, 107, 108. + + India, 9, 10, 103, 141, 142. + + Indigenous Races, 104. + + Industrial Capacity of Races, 127-134. + + Industrial Education, 46, 47, 48. (See "Negro.") + + Industrial Prosperity and Depression, 63, 68, 72, 157. + + Infant Mortality, 60, 62, 87. (See "Death-rate.") + + Initiative and Referendum, 185-187. + + Irish, 24, 34, 65, 66, 67, 122, 151, 153, 204, 205. + + Italians, 70-79, 109, 122, 123, 127, 130, 132, 140, 141, 147, 151, 153. + + + J + + Japanese, 101, 102, 109, 114, 130, 131, 132. + + Jefferson, Thomas, 1. + + Jenks, J. W., 142. + + Jews, 65, 81, 83, 87-95, 115, 122, 123, 127, 132, 133, 152, 153, 164. + + + K + + Kelsey, Carl, 54, 55. + + Knights of Labor, 118. + + Knownothings, 117, 173. + + Koreans, 103. + + Kuczynski, R. R., 198, 207. + + + L + + Labor, 124, 125, 126, 131, 134-159. (See "Wage Earners," "Trade Unions.") + + Labor, Department of, 177, 178. + + Landlordism, 64, 66, 72, 85, 87, 180. + + Languages, 20, 94, 97. + + Law, John, 108. + + Leadership, 52. + + Legislation, 111, 117, 118, 136, 231, 234, 236. + + Lincoln, Abraham, 43, 213. + + Lodge, Henry Cabot, 22-25. + + Longshoremen, 150. + + + M + + Machinery, 125, 156. + + Magyars, 81, 82, 83, 84, 123. + + Malay Races, 140, 142. + + Mallock, W. H., 179. + + Marriage, 203. + + Mexicans, 132. + + Military Duties, 75. + + Miners, 129, 130, 150, 154. + + Mob Violence, 173, 174, 175. + + Molly Maguires, 129. + + Morality, 61, 62, 204. (See "Prostitution.") + + Muensterberg, Hugo, 179. + + + N + + Naturalization, 111, 188, 189, 190, 194. + + Negro, 3, 12, 16, 39-62, 106, 108, 112, 113, 114, 136, 137, 139, 140, + 147, 172, 209. + + New York, 164, 214, 215. + + Norwegians, 164. (See "Scandinavians.") + + + P + + Padroni, 102, 103, 109, 118, 229. + + "Pale of Settlement," 91. + + Penn, William, 29, 108. + + Pennsylvania, 29, 30, 31. + + Peonage, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141. + + Philippine Commission, 144. + + Philippine Islands, 106, 141, 179, 180. + + Poles, 83, 123, 152. + + Political Boss, The, 182. + + Political Exiles, 68. + + Population, 53-58, 76, 157, 160. (See "Births" and "Death-rates.") + + Porto Rico, 106, 218. + + Portuguese, 98, 152. + + Poverty and Pauperism, 26, 66, 76, 167, 175-178. + + Primaries, Direct, 185. + + Profits, 108, 155. + + Prohibition, 173. + + Proportional Representation, 184. + + Prostitution, 57. + + Protective Tariff, 158. + + + Q + + Quakers, 28, 29. + + + R + + Race Problem, 4, 8, 40, 42, 43, 44, 113. (See "Negro.") + + Races, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12-17, 87, 88, 104-106, 108, 211. (See individual + name of race.) + + Race Suicide, 198, 200. + + Railroads, 130, 156, 225. + + Reconstruction, 43, 50. + + Religion, 28, 186, 217-219. (See "Incentives to Immigration.") + + Restriction of Immigration, 116 n., 117, 118, 175, 230, 231. + + Ripley, W. Z., 95. + + Roosevelt, Theodore, 201, 206. + + Rosenberg, Edward, 144. + + Roumanians, 83, 84, 123. + + Russia, 87, 92, 93, 132. + + Ruthenians, 80, 83, 123. + + + S + + Scandinavians, 24, 132, 152. (See "Norwegians.") + + Scotch Irish, 23-24, 31-38, 128, 151. (See "Irish.") + + Self-government, 2-4, 42, 43, 49, 53. + + Seymour, Governor Horatio, 29. + + Shaler, Professor N. S., 10. + + Slavs, 14, 65, 80, 82, 83, 152. + + Slovaks, 81, 83, 151. + + Social Settlements, 219. + + Socialism, 181. + + Spaniards, 128. + + Standard of Living, 112, 115, 151, 153, 208. + + Statistics, 119, 130, 158, 160-178, 198. (See "Population," "Births," + "Death-rate.") + + Steamship Lines, 84, 85, 107, 110, 237, 238. + + Stone, A. H., 147. + + Strikes, 102, 149. + + Suffrage, 2, 42, 43, 44, 51, 52, 117, 182, 183, 188, 220. (See also + "Educational Tests.") + + Sweatshops, 115, 133, 148. + + Swedes, 47. + + Syrians, 99, 151. + + + T + + Taft, Governor, 143. + + Taxation, 74, 75, 84, 86. + + Temporary Immigration, 77, 98, 101. + + Test Act, 35. + + Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, 42. + + Trade Unions, 50, 51, 115, 129, 149, 150, 152, 154, 205, 220, 221, 222, + 223, 224. (See "Labor" and "Wage Earners.") + + Triple Alliance, 75. + + Tuskegee Institute, 49. + + + U + + United Garment Workers of America, 115 n., 150. + + United Hebrew Charities of New York, 167. + + United Mine Workers of America, 150. + + + W + + Wage Earners, 111-118, 157.(See "Labor.") + + Wages, 112, 113, 129, 140, 148, 152, 153, 155, 157, 159. (See "Labor.") + + Wage System, The, 147. + + Walker, Francis A., 198, 200, 207. + + Watson, Elkanah, 200. + + Wealth Production and Immigration, 119, 159. + + Welfare Work, 219. + + Wilcox, Professor, 227. + + + + +Footnotes: + +[1] Bluntschli, "Theory of the State," pp. 108-181. + +[2] _Atlantic Monthly_, May, 1903, p. 649. + +[3] Shaler, p. 651. + +[4] Ripley, "The Races of Europe." + +[5] Ripley, Chs. XVII and XVIII. + +[6] See the interesting series of articles by H. N. Casson, _Munsey's_, +1906. + +[7] Lodge, p. 138. + +[8] "History and Topography of New York," Address at Cornell University, +June 30, 1870. + +[9] These figures are probably exaggerated, but authorities agree upon +the magnitude of the migration. Fiske, "Old Virginia," Vol. II, p. 594. + +[10] Hanna, "The Scotch-Irish," Vol. II, p. 2. + +[11] Tillinghast, "The Negro in Africa and America." + +[12] Burgess, pp. 45, 225; Fleming, pp. 380, 433. + +[13] Burgess, p. 207. + +[14] See Ch. VIII, "Politics." + +[15] Commission of Education _Report_, 1900-1901, Vol. I, p. ci. + +[16] Hugh M. Browne, A.M.E., _Zion Church Quarterly_, April, 1894, +quoted by Tillinghast, p. 186. + +[17] Fannie B. Williams, _Charities_, October 7, 1905, p. 43. + +[18] _Atlanta University Publications_, No. 7, p. 188. + +[19] Bureau of Labor, _Bulletin_, No. 35. + +[20] _Atlanta University Publications_, Nos. 3 and 8. + +[21] _Atlanta University Publications_, No. 3, pp. 153-178. + +[22] Twelfth Census, _Supplementary Analysis_, p. 203. + +[23] Willcox, "Census Statistics of the Negro," _Yale Review_, 13:279 +(1904). + +[24] "The Negro Farmer," p. 90. + +[25] Pp. 9, 10. + +[26] Dabney, Commissioner of Education, _Report_, 1902, Vol. I, p. 797. + +[27] Twelfth Census, _Supplementary Analysis_, pp. 305, 307. + +[28] _Supplementary Analysis_, p. 204. + +[29] Pp. 16, 17; Wood, "American in Process," p. 218. + +[30] Twelfth Census, Vol. III, p. lxix. + +[31] _Atlanta University Publications_, No. 1, p. 24. + +[32] _Atlanta University Publications_, No. 2, p. 9. + +[33] Twelfth Census, Vol. III, p. lxxxii. + +[34] P. clxxvi. + +[35] P. ccxviii. + +[36] Pp. cxix, cxxiii, cxxvii. + +[37] Hoffman, p. 70. + +[38] Twelfth Census, _Supplementary Analysis_, pp. 496, 497. + +[39] _Atlanta University Publications_, No. 1, p. 26. + +[40] Figures for 1883. + +[41] Less than one-tenth of one per cent. + +[42] This is the number according to race; the table gives the number +according to last place of residence. + +[43] _Review of Reviews_, 33:491 (1906). + +[44] Statistics mainly from King and Okey, "Italy To-day." + +[45] _Review of Reviews_, 33:491 (1906). + +[46] Twelfth Census, _Supplementary Analysis_, p. 27. + +[47] _Review of Reviews_, 33:491 (1906). + +[48] King and Okey, pp. 316-318. + +[49] Balch, _Charities_, May, 1906, p. 179. + +[50] Marshall, "Principles of Economics," p. 248. + +[51] "Jewish Encyclopedia," 2:532. + +[52] Balch, _Charities_, May, 1906, p. 180. + +[53] P. 380. + +[54] "Industrial Commission," 15:442. + +[55] Commissioner-General, 1906, p. 85. + +[56] Coman, "History of Contract Labor," etc., p. 47. + +[57] Reports on Hawaii; Commissioner-General of Immigration. See Index. + +[58] Report of the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration, 1903. Cd. +1741. + +[59] Semple, "American History," etc., p. 332. + +[60] Rowe, Chapter V. + +[61] Census of the Philippine Islands. + +[62] Lalor's "Cyclopedia of Political Economy, Political Science, and +United States History," article on "Chinese Immigration." + +[63] Industrial Commission, 19:679. + +[64] Computed from Table VIII, p. 28 _et seq._, Report of +Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1906. "Commercial" includes agents, +bankers, hotel-keepers, manufacturers, merchants, and dealers, and other +miscellaneous. "Unskilled" includes draymen, hackmen, and teamsters, +farm laborers, farmers, fishermen, laborers, and servants. + +[65] Two hundred and eighty-five thousand four hundred and sixty +immigrants set down as "no occupation," including mainly women and +children, are omitted from this computation. + +[66] Less than one-tenth of one per cent. + +[67] Industrial Commission, Vol. XV, see index, "Prepaid Tickets," p. +818. + +[68] United States Revised Statutes, 1901, Section 1999, Act of July 28, +1868. + +[69] Fleming, pp. 692, 693. + +[70] "If I were asked what one factor makes most for the amicable +relations between the races in the Delta, I should say, without +hesitation, the absence of a white laboring class, particularly of field +laborers."--Stone, "The Negro in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta," p. 241. +"There is comparatively little crime in the Black Belt and in the White +Belt. It is in the counties where the races meet on something like +numerical equality and in economic competition that the maximum of crime +is charged against negroes."--_Atlanta University Publications_, No. 9, +p. 48. + +[71] In 1905, after losing a strike in New York, the General Executive +Board of the United Garment Workers of America, consisting with one +exception of Russian Jews, adopted the following resolutions:-- + +Resolved, That the unprecedented movement of the very poor in America +from Europe in the last three years has resulted in wholly changing the +previous social, political, and economic aspects of the immigration +question. The enormous accessions to the ranks of our competing +wage-workers, being to a great extent unemployed, or only partly +employed at uncertain wages, are lowering the standard of living among +the masses of the working people of this country, without giving promise +to uplift the great body of immigrants themselves. The overstocking of +the labor market has become a menace to many trade-unions, especially +those of the lesser skilled workers. Little or no benefit can possibly +accrue to an increasing proportion of the great numbers yet coming; they +are unfitted to battle intelligently for their rights in this republic, +to whose present burdens they but add others still greater. The fate of +the majority of the foreign wage-workers now here has served to +demonstrate on the largest possible scale that immigration is no +solution of the world-wide problem of poverty. + +Resolved, That we call on American trade unionists to oppose +emphatically the proposed scheme of government distribution of +immigrants, since it would be an obvious means of directly and cheaply +furnishing strike breakers to the combined capitalists now seeking +destruction of the trade-unions. + +Resolved, That we condemn all forms of assisted immigration, through +charitable agencies or otherwise. + +Resolved, That we warn the poor of the earth against coming to America +with false hopes; it is our duty to inform them that the economic +situation in this country is changing with the same rapidity as the +methods of industry and commerce. + +Resolved, That with respect to immigration we call on the government of +the United States for a righteous relief of the wage-workers now in +America. We desire that Congress should either (1) suspend immigration +totally for a term of years; or (2) put into force such an illiteracy +test as will exclude the ignorant, and also impose such a head tax as +will compel immigrants to pay their full footing here and be sufficient +to send back all those who within a stated period should become public +dependants. + +[72] Smith, "Emigration and Immigration," pp. 238-263. + +[73] Act of March 3, 1903, Sec. 2. + +[74] New York Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1898, p. 1155. + +[75] Twelfth Census, "Occupations," p. clxxxvii. + +[76] Report on Hawaii, _Bulletin_ No. 47, pp. 780-783. + +[77] Report on Hawaii, _Bulletin_ No. 66, pp. 441-447. + +[78] Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society, _Annual Reports_. + +[79] Clyatt _v._ U.S., 97 U.S., 207 (1903); Peonage Cases, 123 Fed. 671. + +[80] New York _Herald_, June 24, 1903. + +[81] _The Nation_, 83:379 (1906); Durand, Herbert, "Peonage in America," +_Cosmopolitan_, 39:423 (1905). + +[82] Rosenberg, _American Federationist_, October, 1903, p. 1026. + +[83] Jenks, "Certain Economic Questions," etc., p. 157. + +[84] Coman, and "Reports on Hawaii." + +[85] Jenks, pp. 47, 54, 55, 158. + +[86] United States Philippine Commission, 1902, Part I, p. 22. + +[87] Rosenberg, p. 1021. + +[88] Philippine Commission, 1902, index, "The Labor Situation." + +[89] "The Italian Cotton Grower," p. 45. + +[90] Where two years are given, the first is for Immigration and the +second for Imports. + +[91] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, p. clxxvi. + +[92] See _Federation_, June 1902, p. 40. + +[93] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, pp. 878-881. + +[94] New York _Sun_, Nov. 29, 1903. + +[95] Semple, 312. + +[96] Prisoners having one parent foreign are apportioned in the ratio of +native and foreign parentage. + +[97] Includes native-born, parentage unknown. + +[98] Offenders having one parent foreign are apportioned in the ratio of +native and foreign parentage. + +[99] Kate Holladay Claghorn, "The Tenement House Problem," Vol. II, p. +79. + +[100] John B. McMaster, "The Riotous Career of the Knownothings," +_Forum_, July, 1894, p. 524. + +[101] Cutler, "Lynch Law"; Bishop, "Lynching," _International +Quarterly_, September, 1903. + +[102] Bureau of the Census, Special Reports, "Paupers in Almshouses, +1904," "Benevolent Institutions, 1904," "Insane and Feeble-minded in +Hospitals and Institutions, 1904." + +[103] Muensterberg, "American Traits," p. 225 ff. + +[104] Eaton, "The Civil Service in Great Britain," p. 160 ff. + +[105] Muirhead, "The Land of Contrasts," p. 274. + +[106] See description of the Belgium system by the author, _Review of +Reviews_, May, 1900; also, "Representation of Interests," _Independent_, +June, 1900; "Proportional Representation." + +[107] Commons, "Proportional Representation," Appendix. Publications of +the Federation for Majority Rule, Washington, D.C. + +[108] Hunt, Gaillard, "Federal Control of Naturalization," _World's +Work_, 11:7095 (1906). + +[109] "Report to the President on Naturalization." + +[110] "Naturalization Laws and Regulations of October, 1906," published +by the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization. + +[111] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, p. 929. + +[112] Twelfth Census, "Abstract," p. 18. + +[113] Twelfth Census, "Abstract," p. 19. + +[114] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, p. ccxvii. + +[115] Phillips, J. B., "Educational Qualifications of Voters," +_University of Colorado Studies_, Vol. III, No. 2 (1906). + +[116] Caffey, Francis G., "Suffrage Limitations at the South," +_Political Science Quarterly_, 20:53 (1905). Report on Political Reform, +Union League Club, New York, 1903. + +[117] Williams _v._ Mississippi, 170 U.S., 213; Giles _v._ Harris, 189 +U.S., 475; Giles _v._ Teasley, 193 U.S., 146. + +[118] This does not apply to the "understanding" clause in Mississippi, +which is permanent. + +[119] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, pp. ccxiii, ccxv. + +[120] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, pp. cciv, ccv. + +[121] See "Reports on Hawaii." + +[122] Kuczynski, "Einwanderungspolitik," p. 35. + +[123] _Forum_, 11:634-743 (1891). Reprinted in "Discussions," etc., pp. +417-426. + +[124] Professor Smith, for the year 1888, estimated the colonial element +at 29,000,000 and the immigrant element at 26,000,000, applying to the +immigrants the average rate of increase from births. "Emigration and +Immigration," pp. 60-61. + +[125] Watson, p. 522. + +[126] Van Vorst, "The Woman Who Toils," p. viii. + +[127] Computed from the Twelfth Census, Vol. II, p. lxxxvii, ff. + +[128] Computed from the Twelfth Census, Vol. II, p. 312. + +[129] Kuczynski concludes from his study of Massachusetts statistics +that "the native population cannot hold its own. It seems to be dying +out." Could he have separated the two elements of the native population, +he would have found that the immigrant element is dying out faster than +the older native element. "The Fecundity of the Native and Foreign Born +Population in Massachusetts," p. 186. + +[130] Twelfth Census, "Statistical Atlas," plate 98. + +[131] "Fecundity," etc., p. 157. + +[132] Ross, "Causes of Race Superiority." + +[133] See Du Bois, "The Souls of Black Folk." + +[134] Report on Hawaii, _Bulletin_ No. 47, p. 715. + +[135] "Religions of Primitive People," p. 15. + +[136] Smith, "Assimilation of Nationalities," p. 440. + +[137] Lovejoy, "The Slav Child," _Charities_, July, 1905, p. 884. + +[138] Twelfth Census, _Supplementary Analysis_, p. 374. + +[139] "Child Labor in the United States," p. 15, Bureau of the Census. + +[140] Grose, "Aliens or Americans?" + +[141] See also Stewart and Huebner. + +[142] Report, 1903, p. 60; 1904, p. 44; 1905, p. 58; 1906, p. 64. + +[143] Industrial Commission, 15:492-646; 19:971-977. + +[144] Tosti, Gustavo, "The Agricultural Possibilities of Italian +Immigration," _Charities_, May 5, 1904, p. 472. + +[145] "Immigration to the Southern States," _Political Science +Quarterly_, 20:276 (1905). + +[146] "Facts about Immigration," p. 11. + +[147] _Ibid._, p. 119. + +[148] Kellor, "Out of Work," pp. 17, 50-53, 70; _Charities_, Feb. 6, +1904, p. 151. + +[149] Commissioner-General, 1903, p. 70. + +[150] Chapter 27, Laws of 1862. + +[151] Commissioner-General, 1906, p. 62. + +[152] For details of the several measures, see Hall, "Immigration." + +[153] "Industrial Commission," 19:1001-1003. Hall, "Immigration." + +[154] Commissioner-General, 1904, p. 41. + +[155] The National Immigration Conference, December 8, 1905, adopted the +following resolution: "That the penalty of $100, now imposed on the +steamship companies for bringing diseased persons to the United States, +be also imposed for bringing in any person excluded by law." _National +Civic Federation Review_, January, 1906, p. 19. + + + + +POVERTY + +By ROBERT HUNTER + + Paper 12mo 25 cents net + Cloth 12mo $1.50 net + +"A book that should be read by every one who has the promotion of social +betterment at heart."--_Milwaukee Sentinel._ + +"A most interesting, a most startling, and a most instructive book."--_Los +Angeles Times._ + +"His book is largely a result of personal experience, and the aid of +such works as his observation has led him to believe are approximately +accurate and worthy of credence. 'Poverty' seeks to define its subject +estimate its extent, describe some of its effects, and point out the +necessary remedial action, as seen by a settlement worker. The result is +a collection of data of considerable value."--_New York Daily People._ + +"This is in many ways a noteworthy book. The author has long lived face +to face with the almost incredible conditions which he here portrays. He +has extended his work and observations from the crowded tenement +districts of the great cities to the smaller industrial towns, and what +he finds reveals conditions in this country--even in times of industrial +prosperity--very similar to those found in England by Booth and other +investigators; namely, that a percentage of poverty exists in the +smaller industrial centres not far below that of the great industrial +places, and that this percentage is extraordinarily high."--_Springfield +Republican._ + +"The book is written with earnestness, but without exaggeration. Every +one familiar with the facts knows that conditions are even more cruel +and brutal than as here described. And yet, no one of the great +industrial nations is so backward as our own in devising and employing +the legislative and other necessary remedies. Mr. Hunter's presentation +of the situation is of the greatest value, and deserves the widest +consideration."--_The Congregationalist._ + + + THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + 64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + +Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. + +Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=. + +The following misprints have been corrected: + "conquerers" corrected to "conquerors" (page 97) + "Amercianized" corrected to "Americanized" (page 104) + "anequal" corrected to "an equal" (page 121) + "780 783" corrected to "780-783" (footnote 76) + "Soul" corrected to "Souls" (footnote 133) + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Races and Immigrants in America, by +John R. Commons + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA *** + +***** This file should be named 34028.txt or 34028.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/0/2/34028/ + +Produced by Brian Foley and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/34028.zip b/34028.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d2ebee8 --- /dev/null +++ b/34028.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..49b92e5 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #34028 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/34028) |
