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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wild Bees, Wasps and Ants, by Edward Saunders
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Wild Bees, Wasps and Ants
+       and Other Stinging Insects
+
+Author: Edward Saunders
+
+Illustrator: Constance A. Saunders
+
+Release Date: October 18, 2010 [EBook #33874]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILD BEES, WASPS AND ANTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Keith Edkins and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+WILD BEES, WASPS AND ANTS
+
+[Illustration: PLATE A.
+
+1. _Formica sanguinea, male._ 2. _Formica sanguinea, female._ 3. _Formica
+sanguinea, worker._ 4. _Mutilla europæa, male._ 5. _Mutilla Europæa,
+female._ 6. _Cerceris arenaria, female._ 7. _Ammophila sabulosa, female._
+8. _Crabro cribrarius, male._ 9. _Odynerus spinipes, male._
+
+[_front._
+
+WILD BEES, WASPS
+AND ANTS
+
+And Other Stinging Insects
+
+By
+
+EDWARD SAUNDERS
+
+F.R.S., F.L.S., etc
+
+With numerous Illustrations in the text, and
+Four Coloured Plates by
+CONSTANCE A. SAUNDERS
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+LONDON
+GEORGE ROUTLEDGE & SONS, LIMITED
+NEW YORK: E. P. DUTTON & CO.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+{v}
+
+PREFACE
+
+The object of this little book is to give in as simple a form as possible a
+short account of some of the British Wild Bees, Wasps, Ants, etc.,
+scientifically known as the _Hymenoptera Aculeata_. Of these the
+non-scientific public rarely recognizes more than the Hive Bee, the Humble
+Bee, the Wasp, and the Hornet, whereas there are about 400 different kinds
+to be found in this country, and they can be recognized by any one who is
+disposed to make a special study of the group.
+
+The author has not hesitated to make free use of the experiences of others
+in regard to the habits of the insects he describes, and he has not thought
+it necessary in each case to make separate acknowledgment of this. He takes
+this opportunity of thanking Mr. H. Donisthorpe and Mr. F. W. L. Sladen for
+assistance in the chapters on Ants and their Lodgers, and Humble Bees,
+respectively. {vi}
+
+These pages are written only for the non-scientific, as the scientific
+entomologist will be already familiar with the elementary facts recorded;
+but it is hoped that they may be of interest to lovers of Nature who wish
+to know a little about the insects they see round them and how they spend
+their lives. Of this knowledge very little exists, as the scraps which have
+been here brought together evidence. There is an immense field open for
+research and observation, and the writer of this little book will be very
+glad if the following pages should encourage any one to take up the subject
+and add to our present scanty stock of information.
+
+  EDWARD SAUNDERS.
+
+ST. ANN'S, WOKING.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+{vii}
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                                             PAGE
+
+  THE SUBJECT IN GENERAL,                                       1
+
+  THE SOLITARY GROUPS,                                          6
+
+      THE SOLITARY BEES,                                        9
+
+      THE CUCKOO BEES,                                         14
+
+      THE FOSSORS, OR DIGGERS,                                 18
+
+      THE SOLITARY WASPS,                                      24
+
+  THE SOCIAL GROUPS,                                           28
+
+      THE ANTS,                                                31
+
+      THE SOCIAL WASPS,                                        35
+
+      THE HUMBLE BEES,                                         39
+
+  THE BEES WITH BIFID TONGUES,                                 44
+
+  THE BEES WITH POINTED TONGUES,                               48
+
+  LEAF-CUTTING BEES,                                           52
+
+  _Osmia_ AND ITS HABITS,                                      55
+
+  A COLONY OF _Anthophora_,                                    61
+
+  BEES AND POLLEN-COLLECTING,                                  65
+
+  ON BEES' TONGUES, AND HOW THEY SUCK HONEY,                   72
+
+  A DREADFUL PARASITE,                                         77
+
+  {viii}
+  AMONGST THE BEES AT WORK,                                    81
+
+  ANTS, THEIR GUESTS, AND THEIR LODGERS,                       88
+
+  HOW CAN AN "ACULEATE" BE RECOGNIZED?,                        92
+
+  MALES AND FEMALES,                                           95
+
+  THE VAGARIES OF COLOUR AND STRUCTURE IN THE SEXES,          100
+
+  THE DISTRIBUTION, RARITY, OR ABUNDANCE OF VARIOUS SPECIES,  105
+
+  ON BEES' WINGS,                                             110
+
+  ON BREEDING ACULEATES, ETC.,                                113
+
+  ON COLOUR,                                                  119
+
+  THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS FROM THE EGG,                    124
+
+  ON STRUCTURE,                                               132
+
+  INDEX,                                                      141
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{ix}
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
+
+                                                             PAGE
+
+  Fig. 1. _Bombus_, larva and nymph: after Packard             11
+
+   "   2. _Ammophila_                                          22
+
+   "  3-4. Spines on the tarsi of female _Ammophila_           23
+
+   "   5. Tubular entrance to hole of wasp                     25
+
+   "   6. Basal segments of ants                               33
+
+   "   7. Rose-leaf partially eaten by bees                    52
+
+   "   8. Tufted hairs of hind leg of _Andrena_                67
+
+   "   9. Corbicula of humble bee                              67
+
+   "  10-12. Cleaning apparatus of bees                        69
+
+   "  13-18. Hairs of bees, magnified                          71
+
+   "  19. Tongues of bees, magnified                           73
+
+   "  20. Diagram of tongue of bee                             75
+
+   "  21. _Stylops_                                            77
+
+   "  22. _Stylops_ larva in abdominal cavity of bee           78
+
+   "  23. Antennæ of "Keyhole" wasps                          101
+
+   "  24. Legs of male "Keyhole" wasps                        101
+
+   "  25. Tibia of male _Crabro cribrarius_                   103
+
+   "  26. Antennæ of male _Crabro cribrarius_                 103
+
+   "  27. Head of male and female _Crabro clypeatus_          103
+
+   "  28. Parts of the insect                                 133
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{xi}
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE COLOURED PLATES
+
+PLATE A
+
+    Figs. 1, 2, 3. _Formica sanguinea Latr._: male, female, and worker. The
+    host of _Lomechusa_ (p. 89), also a slave-making species; makes
+    irregular nests of dead leaves, etc., generally against a sloping bank.
+
+    Figs. 4, 5. _Mutilla europæa Linn._: male and female. One of the few
+    British species of Aculeates where the female is wingless; found in
+    sandy places running in the sun.
+
+    Fig. 6. _Cerceris arenaria L._: female; burrows in the sand, and
+    provisions its nest with beetles (p. 20).
+
+    Fig. 7. _Ammophila sabulosa L._: female; burrows in the sand,
+    provisions its nest with caterpillars, peculiar for its very elongated
+    waist (p. 22).
+
+    Fig. 8. _Crabro cribrarius L._: male; peculiar for its paddle-like
+    tibiæ and flattened antennæ (p. 103).
+
+    Fig. 9. _Odynerus spinipes L._: male; peculiar for the form of its
+    middle femora, which are cut out almost in two semicircles (p. 101);
+    female makes a tubular entrance to her nest (p. 25).
+
+PLATE B
+
+    Fig. 10.--_Colletes succinctus L._: female; lines its cells with a
+    gluey material (p. 44); colonizes in sandy banks; host of _Epeolus
+    rufipes_ (fig. 19).
+
+    {xii} Fig. 11. _Sphecodes subquadratus Smith_: female; cuckoo of a
+    species of _Halictus_; female hibernates like its host (p. 17).
+
+    Fig. 12. _Halictus lencozonius Schr._: burrows in the ground; the host
+    of _Sphecodes pilifrons Thoms_ (p. 17).
+
+    Fig. 13. _Vespa crabro L._: female (the Hornet), nests in hollow trees;
+    host of the rare beetle _Velleius dilatatus_ (p. 38).
+
+    Fig. 14. _Vespa vulgaris L._: female: one of our commonest wasps; nests
+    usually in the ground (p. 35); host of a peculiar beetle (_Metoecus
+    paradoxus_) (p. 38)
+
+    Figs. 15, 16. _Andrena fulva Schr._: male and female; the bee which
+    burrows in lawns, etc. (p. 9); host of _Nomada ruficornis var. signata_
+    (p. 15).
+
+    Fig. 17. _Panurgus ursinus Gmel._: Female; legs loaded with pollen,
+    burrows in hard sandy paths, etc. (p. 49). Males sleep curled up
+    amongst the rays of yellow composite flowers.
+
+    Fig. 18. _Nomada ruficornis L. var. signata_: cuckoo of _Andrena fulva_
+    (figs. 15 and 16).
+
+    Fig. 19. _Epeolus rufipes Thoms_: female; cuckoo of _Colletes
+    succinctus_ (fig. 10).
+
+PLATE C
+
+    Fig. 20.--_Megachile maritima Kirby_: female; burrows in the ground,
+    makes its cells of pieces of leaves, which it cuts out with its
+    mandibles; host of _Coelioxys conoidea_.
+
+    Figs. 21, 22. _Coelioxys conoidea Illig_: male and female; cuckoo of
+    _Megachile maritima_.
+
+    Fig. 23. Burrows of _Megachile Willughbiella Kirby_, in a piece of
+    rotten willow; each burrow originally contained six cells, but two of
+    the left-hand series have been lost.
+
+{xiii}
+
+PLATE D
+
+    Figs. 24 and 25. _Anthophora pilipes F._: male and female. A spring
+    bee, the male of which may often be seen in gardens, darting from
+    flower to flower (p. 81); while the female collects pollen; it forms
+    large colonies (p. 62).
+
+    Fig. 26. _Melecta armata Pz._: cuckoo of _Anthophora pilipes_.
+
+    Fig. 27. _Anthidium manicatum L._: invests its cells with the down off
+    the stems of labiate plants, which it strips off with its mandibles (p.
+    50).
+
+    Fig. 28. _Osmia bicolor Schr._: female; nests in snail-shells, which it
+    sometimes covers up with small pieces of grass-stems till a little
+    mound is formed, resembling a diminutive ants' nest (p. 59).
+
+    Fig. 29. _Bombus terrestris L._: female. One of the commonest of our
+    Humble Bees; it nests in the ground. It is the host of _Psithyrus
+    vestalis_, which resembles it very closely in colour; it is this
+    species that was exhibited by Mr. Sladen at the Maidstone Agricultural
+    Hall (p. 41).
+
+    Fig. 30. _Bombus lapidarius L._: another common Humble Bee, also an
+    underground builder; it is the host of _Psithyrus rupestris_.
+
+    Fig. 31. _Psithyrus rupestris F._: female; the cuckoo of _Bombus
+    lapidarius_, which it closely resembles except for the nearly black
+    colour of the wings.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+{1}
+
+THE SUBJECT IN GENERAL
+
+I think I ought here to say why I propose to limit myself to an account of
+a certain portion only of the Hymenoptera. The reason for this, in the
+first place, is that the section which I have selected is the only one of
+which I have any special knowledge; it consists of the bees, wasps, ants
+and sandwasps, four groups which make up the stinging section of the
+order--or perhaps more accurately, which have poison bags connected with
+their egg-laying apparatus or _ovipositor_. Another reason for their
+selection lies in their nesting habits; these enable one to get a further
+insight into their economy and ways than can be obtained from those of
+almost any other group or order--at any rate they make them comparatively
+easy to study; one can, so to say, find these little creatures at home,
+whereas in most orders there seems to be no definite home to which the {2}
+individuals may be traced; a great advantage also in selecting the stinging
+groups for study is that they are creatures of the spring and summer, and
+of the sunshine, so that the weather which tempts them out to their duties
+is of the kind most agreeable to those who wish to investigate their
+habits.
+
+The habits of the hive bee have not been touched on, as so many excellent
+treatises have been written on them that any observations here would be
+superfluous.
+
+Although these groups are distinguished by their stinging habits, it is
+only the female that possesses a sting--the male is a most harmless
+creature and quite incapable of injuring any one. A male wasp or even a
+male hornet may be handled with absolute impunity, only it is wise to be
+certain as to the sex of the individual before presuming to play with it
+too much! A word here may perhaps be said about stinging. People often talk
+about a gnat stinging or a stinging fly; it may be difficult to define
+exactly what "to sting" means, but the writer has always considered that a
+sting is inflicted by the tail end of the creature or a {3} bite by the
+mouth. A fly or gnat no doubt inserts its proboscis into one's flesh just
+as a wasp does its sting; but the actions of such opposite parts of the
+body surely demand distinct names. As we have been alluding to flies it may
+not be inappropriate to say here that all the creatures we are going to
+consider have four membranous wings except the worker ants and a very few
+forms which are comparatively seldom met with. By this character they may
+at once be known from flies, which have only two membranous wings. The
+large brown "drone flies", so often seen on the windows of our rooms,
+especially in autumn, and which most people mistake for hive bees, to which
+they certainly bear a considerable general resemblance, may be detected at
+once by wanting the two hind wings of the bee.
+
+The "aculeate", or stinging, Hymenoptera, are divided into sections and
+families according to their structure; but the groups which stand out most
+clearly in regard to their habits are the solitary and social species, the
+predaceous and non-predaceous and the inquilines or cuckoos. {4}
+
+The vast majority of the aculeate Hymenoptera are what are called
+"solitary", i.e. one male and one female alone are interested in the
+production of the nest; but there are also three "social" groups--the ants,
+the true wasps, and the humble and hive bees.
+
+These are called social because they form communities and all work together
+towards the maintenance of the nest. In the social species there are two
+forms of the females--the queens and the workers; these latter have the
+ovaries imperfectly developed, and in the humble bees and wasps they only
+differ outwardly from the fully developed females or queens by being
+smaller. In the ants, however, the workers are wingless, and of a very
+different form from that of the queen. The rôle of these workers seems to
+be to do the general work of the nest; they have been known to lay fertile
+eggs, but the resulting offspring has always been male.
+
+Between these conditions of solitary and social we know of no actually
+intermediate stages. We do not seem to see any attempts on the part of
+solitary bees to become social or vice versâ. The only condition known
+which {5} could possibly be considered as intermediate is shown in certain
+species where a number of individuals make their nests close to each other
+in some particular bank, forming a colony. These colonies are sometimes
+very extensive, and the burrows of the individual bees very close together;
+it has also been shown that the burrows sometimes unite--at the same time
+there seems to be no positive evidence that there is any work done in the
+colony which could be considered as done for the common good.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{6}
+
+THE SOLITARY GROUPS
+
+All the solitary kinds appear to feed themselves on vegetable juices,
+honey, etc., but there is a well-marked division between those who
+provision the cells of their offspring with insects, either fully developed
+or in the larval stages, and those who provision them with the pollen of
+flowers, honey, etc. The theory is that originally all fed their cells with
+insects, but that by degrees the more progressive found that the food which
+suited themselves would equally nourish their offspring, and accordingly
+provided them with vegetable nourishment. We find no intermediate stages. A
+certain class still goes on feeding on the old principle. The members of
+this class are known as "_fossors_" or diggers, while those which feed on
+the new principle are called "_Anthophila_" or flower-lovers. These are not
+very happy names, as many of the _Anthophila_ dig out holes for their nests
+just {7} in the same way as the _fossors_ do, and many of the _fossors_ are
+found in flowers, apparently enjoying them just as much as a truly
+anthophilous species would, although no doubt often with the ulterior
+object of capturing some insect for their young! Still these names are
+known as representing these two sections all over the world, and therefore
+it is better to keep to them even if they are not as descriptive as one
+would like them to be.
+
+The _fossors_, or "diggers", have all comparatively short and bifid
+tongues, and have, as a rule, little in the way of hairy covering, and what
+hairs they have are simple and only in very rare instances branched or
+feather-like. The hind legs of the females are not modified in any way so
+as to enable them to collect pollen, their legs are usually long and
+slender, and they are admirably adapted to their life habits of hunting
+spiders, insects, etc., for their young.
+
+On the other hand, the _Anthophila_ or "flower-lovers", are specially
+adapted for pollen collecting. Their tongues vary from a short form like
+that of some _fossors_ to the long tongues of the humble bees. Their hairs
+are always plumose {8} or branched on some part of the body and the hind
+legs of the females in most species are provided on the tibia or shin with
+a special brush on which pollen may be collected. In some of the
+long-tongued bees, however, this brush occurs on the underside of the body
+instead of on the tibia. The pollen-collecting arrangements of the
+different genera of the _Anthophila_ and the corresponding organs for
+cleaning off the pollen again are amongst the most interesting instances of
+modification and adaptation: some of the more striking of these will be
+mentioned later on. (See pp. 65 _sqq._)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{9}
+
+THE SOLITARY BEES
+
+The life-history of an ordinary pair of solitary bees is, roughly, as
+follows: I will take for an example one of the spring species of _Andrena_.
+Many people know the little red bee, which for some apparently
+unaccountable reason suddenly appears in myriads on their lawn or gravel
+path, throwing up little mounds of finely powdered earth--in this respect
+being quite different from worm casts, which are formed of wet mould and
+the particles of which cling together--sometimes causing considerable alarm
+as to the possible effect on the lawn. These have hatched out from burrows
+made by their parents in the previous year, the mouths of which have been
+filled up with earth and therefore are quite invisible till the newly
+fledged bees gnaw their way out. They, in their turn, are now making fresh
+burrows for their own broods; possibly they infested some one else's lawn
+the year before or were only in comparatively small {10} numbers on the
+lawn under notice and so passed unrecognized. They may safely be left
+alone, as they never seem to breed many consecutive years in one such
+locality: probably the treatment of a lawn does not suit them, mowing and
+rolling upsetting their arrangements. We will now consider these
+arrangements. The female bee, so soon as she realizes that she is charged
+with the duty of providing for her future offspring, makes a burrow in the
+ground, and the earth thrown up from the tunnel forms the little heap which
+is so observable; this burrow varies in depth from 6 to 12 inches and has
+short lateral branches; each of these she shapes, more or less, into the
+form of a cell, provisions it with a small mass of pollen mixed with honey
+for the maintenance of the larva when hatched, and lays her egg; she then
+seals up that cell and proceeds to the next, and in this way fills the
+burrow up until pretty near the surface. The bee caterpillar when hatched
+is a white grub-like creature which, after devouring the food provided for
+it, becomes more or less torpid; it then makes its final change of skin,
+after how long a period is probably uncertain, and appears in the nymph
+stage. {11} [Illustration: FIG. 1. Bombus, larva and nymph: after Packard.]
+This stage corresponds to the chrysalis of a moth or butterfly, the
+creature being shortened up and rather more like the perfect insect
+compacted into the smallest form possible. People are often misled into the
+idea that the caterpillar forms the chrysalis over its former self, whereas
+the chrysalis has been all the time forming inside the caterpillar and only
+shows itself when the final skin is shed; of course some caterpillars spin
+a cocoon over themselves before they change their skin, but then the true
+chrysalis is found inside the cocoon. A curious fact connected with the
+change from the nymph to the perfect insect is that this takes place
+sometimes as early as August in the year preceding their appearance; so
+that cells dug up in August may contain fully fledged insects which are not
+due to appear till April or May of the following year. It is wonderful also
+how long life can be {12} sustained by these creatures in the "full-fed
+larva" condition. Some years ago I collected a number of pierced bramble
+stems in order to breed out some of the small "sandwasps" which nest in
+them. On opening them in May, when the perfect insects are generally ready
+to appear, I found that several of the larvæ had rather shrunk up and had
+not changed into nymphs. These I left in the stems, covering them up again,
+and they appeared as perfect insects in the May of the following year.
+
+The account given of the nesting habits of the above _Andrena_ of our
+lawns, etc., is more or less true of nearly all the solitary bees. Their
+methods vary, some burrow in the ground, some in old wood, some in snail
+shells, some in bramble stems or straws or the hollow stems of various
+plants, some in holes or crevices in walls, etc., and their methods of
+building their cells vary exceedingly: all of these are of great interest
+and some display an ingenuity which is quite surprising. Of these special
+nesting habits some of the most striking will be mentioned later on.
+
+Before leaving these general remarks on the {13} solitary bees the habits
+of two genera must be specially noticed, as they differ in an essential
+point from those of the others. These are known to entomologists under the
+names of _Halictus_ and _Sphecodes_.
+
+In most species of these the males and females of the new brood are not
+hatched out till after midsummer, and no work is done for the provisioning
+of new burrows that autumn; but the female, after having undertaken the
+duties of maternity, hibernates, i.e. goes back into a burrow and lives
+there till the next spring, the males dying off before the winter. In the
+spring the [female] wakes up and does the necessary work for the future
+brood just as any ordinary spring bee would--but there are no attendant
+males--the duties of that sex having been performed in the autumn. The
+larvæ contained in these burrows hatch out after midsummer and therefore
+never spend a winter in the ground. In this respect they resemble the
+social bees and wasps, about which more hereafter; in the meanwhile a few
+words must be said about the cuckoos or inquilines, which are perhaps the
+most interesting creatures of all.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{14}
+
+THE CUCKOO BEES
+
+These cuckoos live at the expense of their hosts. The mother of the
+industrial brood makes her cell and provisions it, and lays her egg. The
+cuckoo bee manages to enter also and lay her egg in the same cell, the
+usual result being that the cuckoo devours most of the food instead of the
+rightful offspring, which gradually gets starved and dies, the cuckoo
+appearing in its place; but there have been cases, how frequent they are is
+difficult to say, in which both offsprings have emerged.
+
+The whole problem of the relationships between host and cuckoo is most
+interesting. In some cases the cuckoos are so like their hosts that it is
+difficult to tell one from the other, in others they are so unlike that it
+is difficult to trace any resemblance between them. There are a great
+number of different kinds of cuckoos, and most of them select a special
+host to associate {15} with, and are never found except with that species.
+There are, however, cases of cuckoos which visit the nests of more than one
+host, and cases of hosts which are visited by several kinds of cuckoos. In
+the short-tongued bees, with the exception of _Halictus_ and _Sphecodes_,
+the cuckoos are quite unlike their hosts both in form and colour. In the
+_Andrenas_ (the lawn bee being one of them) the hosts are clothed with
+reddish, or brown and black, hairs, and are of a more or less stout build
+(pl. B, 15, 16). The cuckoos are elegant in shape, almost devoid of hairs,
+and most of them are striped with yellow or brown across the body so that
+they present a wasp-like appearance (pl. B, 18). Species more unlike one
+another than host and cuckoo one could hardly imagine; still this stranger
+seems to get access to the nest of its host without opposition. In a colony
+of _Andrena_ one may see the cuckoos (which rejoice in the name of _Nomada_
+or wanderers) flying about among the females of the industrious bee, and no
+alarm or concern appears to be felt by the latter. As we go up in the scale
+of bees, i.e. towards the more specialized, and arrive at those with longer
+tongues, the {16} cuckoos are found as a rule to resemble their hosts more
+closely, both in colour and structure, and when we reach the social genus
+_Bombus_ (i.e. the humble bees) we find the cuckoos so like their hosts
+(pl. D, 30, 31) that even entomologists of experience mistake one for the
+other. _Apis_ (the hive bee) has no cuckoo. It seems to be theoretically
+probable that both cuckoo and host once originated from common parents;
+this is suggested by the similarity of structure of certain parts of both
+host and cuckoo, even in cases where they are otherwise most dissimilar.
+_Andrena_ and _Nomada_, for instance, which are very unlike, as stated
+above, agree in both having very feeble stings and in possessing three
+conspicuous spines on the upper and posterior edge of the orbit of the
+larva. Also, although _Andrena_ the host has a short tongue, and _Nomada_,
+its cuckoo, a long one, the appendages (_labial palpi_) of the latter's
+tongue are framed on the same plan as those of the tongue of _Andrena_, and
+are quite unlike those of the other long-tongued bees. On the other hand,
+the cuckoos of the social species resemble them so closely in structure as
+well as {17} appearance that it is more necessary to search for points of
+difference than of similarity. There is only one case known of a cuckoo
+wasp, and that resembles its host even more closely than do the cuckoos of
+the humble bees. All these points certainly suggest the probability that
+the social bees and wasps and their cuckoos adopted different habits at a
+much more recent date than the solitary species, and therefore have not had
+so much time to become differentiated in structure. The only short-tongued
+bees which have cuckoos of similar structure are the species of _Halictus_
+(pl. B, 12); their cuckoos, _Sphecodes_ (pl. B, 11), are closely allied to
+them, but then _Halictus_ and _Sphecodes_ are most peculiar genera;
+although short-tongued, their females spend the winter in the earth, as do
+the social bees and wasps (see p. 13), and they colonize largely, which may
+prove to be a step towards socialism.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{18}
+
+THE FOSSORS OR DIGGERS
+
+In many respects the insects of this section adopt the same methods as the
+solitary bees so far as the construction of their nests is concerned, but
+the food brought home for their offspring is animal instead of vegetable.
+In order to supply their larvæ with "fresh meat" these little creatures,
+when they have captured a suitable prey, sting it in such a way that it
+becomes paralyzed, but does not die; after provisioning a cell with the
+necessary number of these paralytics, the mother lays her egg on one of
+them or amongst them, and closes up the cell. In consequence of this
+wonderful maternal instinct, foresight, or whatever the faculty may be, the
+larva when hatched finds fresh food ready for consumption. The various
+species provision their nests with different kinds of foods, and some
+appear to be most fastidious in their selection, and are said never to err
+in choosing {19} species of some particular family, thereby displaying a
+discernment worthy of any advanced entomologist. Some provision their cells
+with beetles, some with grasshoppers, others with spiders, caterpillars,
+plant lice, etc.
+
+The strength possessed by the female fossor must be proportionately
+enormous, as she can bring back to her burrow, after paralyzing them,
+insects many times her own size. It is a most interesting sight to see the
+excitement and flurry of the captor as it tries to drag along some huge
+prey to its nest. I remember seeing one dragging along a good-sized
+caterpillar, of a noctuid moth, over rather rough ground: the poor creature
+had a difficult job; it had to go backwards itself, and pull the body of
+the caterpillar, after it--its behaviour was very much like that of an ant
+which has a large burden; at times it would loose its hold of it and try it
+from some other quarter; however, by degrees, by pulling and tugging, the
+prey was safely brought home, but the force expended must have been very
+great. Many species, however, hunt insects of much smaller size than
+themselves, and it is those which take a fancy to grasshoppers and {20}
+caterpillars which seem to be the most doughty in deeds of force. One, a
+very rare kind in this country, sets its affection especially on the honey
+bee as a prey; the two insects are about equal in size, but the hive bee
+must be a dangerous foe to attack, and one would have thought as likely to
+sting its captor as its captor would be to sting it; also one would imagine
+that a hive bee, unless thoroughly paralyzed, would be a dangerous subject
+for a juvenile larva to commence making a meal upon! but whether the
+venture ever turns out unsatisfactorily there are no data to show, so far
+as I am aware. The larvæ must vary very much in their tastes; one can
+imagine that a nice juicy caterpillar, or even a good fat grasshopper, may
+be appetizing and easily assimilated, but one can equally fancy that the
+larvæ, who wake up to find their food consisting of small hard beetles, may
+feel more or less resentment against their parents' ideas of dainties for
+the young! Still they seem to thrive on it, and come out eventually as
+exact likenesses of their parents. A large number of the fossors inhabit
+dry sandy wastes, such as the dunes along the sea coast at Deal, Lowestoft,
+{21} etc.; many of these, when they leave their burrows, throw up some sand
+over the hole so as completely to cover it; how these insects find the spot
+again after a lengthy chase after spiders or other prey is a marvel; and
+yet those who have observed carefully say that they come home from long
+distances with unerring precision. No sense of which we have any knowledge,
+however accentuated, seems to explain this. To be able to arrive back at a
+home in an extensive arid sandy plain, where no outward sign indicates its
+whereabouts, must surely require perception of a different nature from any
+of those with which we are endowed. Some fossors are subject to the
+depredations of cuckoos, just as the solitary bees are, but their cuckoos
+are rarely of aculeate origin. The only ones which I have had any
+opportunity of studying are the species which nest in bramble stems. The
+cuckoos which associate with them are some of the smaller jewel flies and
+_Ichneumons_: the habits of both these differ from those of the aculeate
+cuckoos, the jewel flies devouring the larva of the aculeate and the
+_Ichneumon_ laying its eggs in it. The fossors {22} [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+vary exceedingly in size, shape and colour. Our largest species are about
+an inch long and our smallest about the eighth of an inch, nearly all
+having the body where it joins the thorax constricted into a very narrow
+waist; this is sometimes of considerable length. In one genus known to
+entomologists by the name _Ammophila_ (fig. 2) or "lover of the sand", the
+waist is practically the longest part of the body, so that looking at one
+sideways as it flies along, one could almost be deceived into thinking that
+there were two insects, one following the other (cf. pl. A, fig. 7). In
+colour, there seem to be three dominant schemes: Black (cf. pl. B, fig.
+17); black with a red band across the body (cf. pl. A, fig. 7); and black
+banded with yellow, like a wasp (cf. pl. A, figs. 6 and 8, etc.) In some
+the yellow bands may not be complete, and appear only as spots on each side
+of the body segments, or the red band may be almost obliterated, or the
+black species may {23} [Illustration: FIG. 3.] [Illustration: FIG. 4.] be
+more or less variegated with yellow spots on the head and thorax, but as a
+general rule all our species fall into one or other of these colour
+schemes. The females of some of our sand frequenting species have beautiful
+combs on their front feet, each joint of the tarsi having one or more long
+spines on its external side (figs. 3 and 4). These are of importance to
+them in their burrowing, as they enable them to move with one kick of their
+front leg a considerable amount of the dry sand in which they make their
+nests. Although sandy commons, etc., are the resort of many fossors, others
+may be found burrowing in wood or in hard pathways or banks; in fact, like
+most other insects, some of their members may be found almost anywhere.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{24}
+
+THE SOLITARY WASPS
+
+The ordinary wasps are acquaintances of every one, but the solitary or
+keyhole wasps are not so well known, although they are far from uncommon.
+They are little narrow black insects striped across the body with yellow,
+belonging to the genus _Odynerus_ (pl. A, 9), and might hardly be
+recognized as belonging to the same family as the true or social wasps.
+Still they have considerable powers of stinging, and fold their wings
+lengthwise when at rest like their larger relatives. I dare say some people
+may have noticed that a wasp's wing sometimes assumes a narrow straight
+form, quite unlike what it is when expanded. This is due to the wasp being
+able to fold its wing lengthwise like a fan. The wasp tribe are, so far as
+I know, the only stinging Hymenoptera which have this power.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+They make their nests of mud, etc., in crevices of walls, in banks, in
+plant stems, and often {25} in most inconvenient places, such as keyholes,
+etc. Some of the solitary wasps have a very curious habit of making a
+tubular entrance to their hole. These may sometimes be seen projecting from
+sandy banks. The tube is composed of a series of little pellets of mud,
+which the wasp by degrees, with the help of its mouth secretions, sticks
+together till a sort of openwork curved tube of sometimes an inch long is
+formed (fig. 5). This curve is directed downwards, so that the wasp has to
+creep up it before reaching the actual orifice of the nest. It looks as if
+the first shower of rain would wash the whole structure away, and I have
+very little doubt that it often does so. The object of these tubes is
+difficult to appreciate. There is a bee on the continent which makes
+straight chimneys above its holes, so as to raise the entrance above the
+surrounding herbage; possibly these solitary wasps once required {26} their
+tubes also for some such purpose, and have continued on truly conservative
+lines to build them long after all usefulness has passed away from the
+habit; anyhow they are very interesting and beautiful structures. I have
+found the tubes of one of our rarer species projecting perpendicularly out
+of the level sand, but even then the tubes were curved over at the end, so
+that the wasp had to go up and down again before entering its actual hole.
+The Rev. F. D. Morice in 1906 found the tubes of the same species in
+numbers projecting from the walls of an old stuccoed cottage situated close
+to the locality where I found mine, so it is evident that more than one
+situation suits its requirements. The solitary wasps provision their cells
+with caterpillars, stinging them in the same way as the fossors do. One
+very peculiar genus, of one species only in this country, has its body much
+narrowed at the waist by reason of the constricted form of the basal
+segment; it makes a little round nest of clay which it suspends from a twig
+of heather or other plant. This species is rarely met with except on the
+heathery commons of Surrey, Hants, Dorset, etc. The {27} solitary wasps are
+subject to the attacks of cuckoos belonging to the jewel fly or _Chrysis_
+tribe; these behave differently from those belonging to the aculeate
+groups, as their larvæ do not eat the food laid up for the wasp, but wait
+till the wasp larva has finished feeding up, and then devour it. Unlike as
+these cuckoos are to their hosts in their brilliant metallic coloration,
+etc., they have structural characters curiously like theirs, so that even
+here a common parentage in bygone generations may be reasonably suspected.
+At present, however, they are placed, except by a few systematists, in
+quite distinct families of the Hymenoptera.
+
+In general form these solitary wasps resemble the fossors more than the
+bees; they have mostly short tongues (I think all our British ones have),
+and their hairs are simple or more or less spirally twisted.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{28}
+
+THE SOCIAL GROUPS
+
+The social bees are certainly the most highly specialized of the
+_Anthophila_, and the social wasps of the _Diploptera_ or insects with
+folded wings. The ants occupy a less definite position: they would seem to
+be the outcome of specialization among the fossors, only they feed their
+young with vegetable juices and not with animal as the latter do. They are
+always kept as a separate tribe under the name _Heterogyna_, but for our
+purposes the better known word "ant" will suffice.
+
+The hive bee and the social wasps are the only British Hymenoptera which
+adopt the hexagonal cell-formation in their nests, the bee fashioning its
+cells in wax, the wasps and hornet in masticated wood or paper. The
+formation of ants' nests is far less regular, being composed of irregular
+passages, called galleries, and open spaces, no doubt built on a plan, but
+probably {29} in respect of plan no two nests are exactly alike. The humble
+bees again differ from either in their nesting habits: the female in the
+spring seeks out a mouse's nest or other suitable foundation of moss, etc.,
+in or on the surface of the ground, according to the species. This she
+lines with wax, deposits a heap of pollen, and lays her eggs in it. She
+also makes waxen cells for honey, but these are not hexagonal and
+symmetrical as are those of the hive bee, but are more like little pots,
+and are known as "honey pots".
+
+It must be borne in mind that the economic arrangements of the wasps and
+humble bees only last for a single season, whereas those of the ant and
+hive bee exist for many years. In consequence of this the swarming habits
+belong exclusively to the ants and hive bee. That of the hive bee is well
+known to all, and most people must have observed the swarms of male and
+female ants which fill the air on some sultry summer or autumn evening.
+Thousands of these must perish, but a certain number of the females accept
+the responsibility of starting a fresh nest, and so the ant population is
+kept up. {30} It will be seen from these remarks that the three social
+groups are very distinct in their methods of nest making, and have really
+very little in common except the social habit. The humble bees have their
+cuckoos; one species of wasp has a cuckoo, and there is a possible case of
+a cuckoo amongst the continental ants, but this has not yet been observed
+in this country. The ants harbour so many species of insects in their nests
+besides their own family that it is difficult to form an idea as to whether
+the case in question is at all analogous to that of host and cuckoo in the
+other aculeates or not.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{31}
+
+THE ANTS
+
+These little creatures are probably the most intelligent of all the
+insects--and yet at times they seem to wander about almost aimlessly. A
+worker may be found with an insect or something which it is eagerly
+dragging along and drops probably from fear. It appears anxious to regain
+its hold of it, but goes about in all sorts of wrong directions before it
+again finds it, it may be to make sure its enemy is clear away before it
+resumes operations, but the effect to the ordinary onlooker is one of sheer
+incapacity--at the same time the wonderful habits of the tribe, the way in
+which they keep plant lice for their larvæ, their methods of carrying each
+other, their nest-building, and the slave-making instincts of some of the
+species, show an intelligence surpassed by no other family of insects.
+Their nests are formed in very various ways: the same species even will
+sometimes nest under a stone and sometimes make ant hills; some {32} of the
+large species make their nests of huge heaps of fir needles, and number 400
+to 500 thousand in one nest--others live in quite small communities,
+nesting in bramble stems, old rotten wood, moss, etc. One little species,
+rare with us, lives in the walls of other ants' nests, just as mice live in
+the walls of our houses; another quite small species lives apparently on
+friendly terms with the common large red or horse ant, and may be found
+running about amongst them, on and in their nests, but, so far as I know,
+nothing is known as to how its young are reared. There is a curious
+division in the family between the ants that have true stings and those
+which have not. The large ants of our fir woods can bite and are able to
+eject poison through the apical opening of the body into the wound they
+create, but these as well as the larger and smaller black ants and some
+others have the sting undeveloped, whereas some of our small species have a
+sting which they can use with considerable effect; this difference in habit
+is accompanied by a difference in the structure in the basal segments of
+the body. In the stingless species the basal segment is reduced {33}
+[Illustration: FIG. 6] to a flat upright transverse scale (fig. 6, 1); in
+the stinging ants two segments at the base are reduced to nodes (fig. 6,
+3). There is an exception in the case of one little rare genus, _Ponera_,
+which has only the basal abdominal segment reduced to a scale although a
+much thicker scale than in the others (fig. 6, 2), and yet which has a
+distinct sting. These arrangements give the body very free movement so that
+the tail can be bent forward till it reaches the head. Another curious
+distinction between the stingers and non-stingers is that the larvæ of the
+former spin cocoons and those of the latter do not; the larvæ of _Formica
+fusca_ occasionally do not do so, but they are an exception to the rule.
+Cocoon spinning seems to involve the larvæ in some difficulties, as without
+the help of the worker ants they are often unable to extract themselves
+from their prison. This is a condition which does not, I believe, exist in
+other groups. In the stingless ants there is a curious difference in habit
+between the {34} species of the genus _Formica_, where, according to Forel,
+the workers do not follow in line over unknown ground, and frequently carry
+one another, the one carried being rolled up under the head of the other,
+and the species of _Lasius_, where the workers follow one another in line,
+but never carry each other. Among the stinging ants another method of
+carrying occurs in certain genera. The porter seizes the one she wishes to
+carry by the external edge of one of her mandibles and then throws her over
+her back, so that she lies along the back of her porter with her ventral
+aspect uppermost and her legs and antennæ folded as in the nymph state.
+Neither of these methods sounds very comfortable, but then probably an
+ant's idea of comfort and our own may be very different.
+
+Lord Avebury, in his _Ants, Bees and Wasps_, tells us that he has known a
+male of _Myrmica ruginodis_ live for nine months, although no doubt, as he
+says, they generally die almost immediately, and he has known queen ants to
+live for seven years, and workers, which he had in his nest, for six years.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{35}
+
+THE SOCIAL WASPS
+
+Of these we have only seven different kinds, and with the exception of the
+hornet they are all very much alike. One often hears people say that they
+have seen such a large wasp that they think it must have been a hornet, but
+no one who has ever seen a hornet could mistake a wasp for one. A hornet is
+_red-brown_ with yellow markings (pl. B, 13), a wasp is _black_ and yellow,
+and altogether a less formidable-looking creature (pl. B, 14). Even a queen
+wasp is not so large as a small worker hornet. The hornet nests in hollow
+trees, our three commoner wasps nest, as a rule, in the ground, but
+occasionally in outhouses, under roofs, etc. One of the others as a rule
+makes its nest in shrubs, but occasionally in the ground, another always
+nests in a bush or shrub, preferring a gooseberry or currant bush, and the
+only remaining one is a cuckoo of one of the ground species. The
+gooseberry-bush {36} wasp is not a common species in the south, but in the
+midlands and north it is abundant. Wasps will eat most things, but are
+especially fond of syrups and sweets. One species, _Vespa sylvestris_,
+which seldom enters our houses, is very partial to the flowers of
+_Scrophularia_ (Figwort). One rarely finds a plant of this in full blossom
+without finding its attendant wasps. I have seen other species of wasps
+also visiting it, but _sylvestris_ is practically sure to be there. The
+diet which wasps provide for their larvæ is probably a mixed one, but
+consists largely of insects. Dr. Ormerod says that a microscopic
+examination of the contents of a larval stomach shows "the mass to consist
+of scales, hairs and other fragments of insects, hairs of vegetables and
+other substances less easy of recognition."
+
+[Illustration: PLATE B.
+
+10. _Colletes succinctus_, _female._ 11. _Sphecodes subquadratus_,
+_female._ 12. _Halictus leucozonius_, _female._ 13. _Vespa crabro_,
+_female._ 14. _Vespa vulgaris_, _female._ 15. _Andrena fulva_, _male._ 16.
+_Andrena fulva_, _female._ 17. _Panurgus banksianus_, _female._ 18. _Nomada
+ruficornis_, _var. signata_, _female._ 19. _Epeolus rufipes_, _female._
+
+[_face p. 36._ ]
+
+{37} Wasps do not store honey in their nest; the papery nature of their
+cells would make such storage impossible. I dare say some of my readers
+will have noticed wasps sitting in the sun on a wooden paling busily
+engaged apparently eating something--they are really pulling off little
+fibres of wood which they chew up into a substance fitted for the walls of
+their cells; they will also chew paper, and the experiment has been tried
+of giving them coloured papers, which resulted in stripes of colour
+appearing in their nests. The different species vary somewhat in the
+architecture of their nests; but they are built very much on the same
+general plan. The population of some underground nests is very large. The
+Rev. G. A. Crawshay estimated the number in a large nest of _Vespa
+vulgaris_, which he took on September 20, 1904, at about 12,000; of these
+he actually counted, including eggs and larvæ, 11,370, and estimated the
+rest as having left the nest and escaped, so that anyhow the computation
+cannot be far wrong. This, however, was probably a very large nest. The
+cuckoo wasp (_Vespa austriaca_), formerly known as _V. arborea_, is an
+associate of _Vespa rufa_; its habits had been suspected for a long time,
+but Mr. Robson set all doubts at rest by finding the nymphs of the cuckoo
+in the actual nest of _rufa_. It is a rare species in the south, but far
+from uncommon as one goes north, and also in Ireland, where the
+relationship of the host and cuckoo have been {38} carefully studied by
+Prof. Carpenter and Mr. Pack Beresford. _Vespa vulgaris_ has a beetle
+parasite, but this is somewhat of a rarity. This creature _Metoecus
+paradoxus_ lays its egg in the cell of the wasp, and enters the body of the
+larva, eventually entirely devouring it. The hornet also has a beetle
+associate, but this is a great rarity. It is a large black species of the
+"Devil's coach horse" or "Cock tail" tribe (_Velleius dilatatus_), but in
+what relation it stands to the hornet beyond inhabiting its nest is not
+known.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{39}
+
+THE HUMBLE BEES
+
+Of these beautiful creatures we have thirteen kinds in this country. Their
+velvety clothing and bright colours make them the favourites of most
+people. They are most industrious and may be seen on the wing from early
+morning often till quite late on summer evenings, whereas the solitary bees
+do not, as a rule, commence work till nine or ten in the morning, except in
+very hot weather, and generally retire about four or five p.m. There is an
+idea prevalent that humble bees do not sting, but this is fallacious. They
+can sting pretty severely, but I do not think they are so ready to use
+their defensive weapon as a wasp or hive bee is. The length of the tongue
+in these creatures makes them of great value to the farmer and gardener, as
+they can fertilize the red clover and probably other flowers which require
+a longer tongue to reach the nectary than is possessed by the hive bee.
+{40} In New Zealand, when first the red clover was introduced from this
+country, it was found impossible to fertilize it, and humble bees had to be
+sent out. Now they are established there its fertilization is carried on
+quite successfully. The humble bees are divided into two natural groups,
+the underground species, i.e. those that make a subterranean nest, and the
+carder bees, as they have been called, which make a nest on the surface of
+the ground. The former live in much larger communities and are far more
+aggressive and pugnacious than the latter. They also feed their young,
+according to Mr. F. W. L. Sladen, of Ripple Court, in a different way. The
+carder bees "form little pockets or pouches of wax at the side of a
+wax-covered mass of growing larvæ into which the workers drop the pellets
+of pollen direct from their hind tibiæ. The pollen storers, on the
+contrary, store the newly gathered pollen in waxen cells, made for the
+purpose, or in old cocoons, specially set apart to receive it, from which
+it is taken and given to the larvæ mixed with honey through the mouths of
+the nurse-bees as required." As the author remarks, the methods of the
+underground {41} species more resemble those of the hive bee than do those
+of the carder bees. Mr. Sladen has made many experiments in trying to
+domesticate humble bees, and succeeded so far with _Bombus terrestris_ (pl.
+D, 29, our common black and yellow banded species with a tawny tail) as to
+get it to breed in captivity, and in 1899 was able to show nests in full
+work at the Maidstone agricultural show, the bees coming in and out of the
+building to their nest. An interesting case of one of the carder bees
+(_Bombus agrorum_) is recorded by F. Smith. It invaded a wren's nest,
+heaping up its pollen, etc., amongst the eggs of the bird, till the parent
+bird was forced to desert the nest. The underground species are more
+subject to the attacks of cuckoos than the carder bees. Altogether the
+humble bees afford an excellent subject for study, as they appear to be
+amenable to treatment, and to any one who could give time and careful
+attention to them many interesting problems connected with them and not yet
+understood might have light thrown upon them. Dead humble bees are often
+found in numbers in a mutilated state, under lime trees. These {42} have
+been caught after they have filled themselves with honey, and become torpid
+in consequence, by the great tomtit and possibly other birds. The bird
+pecks a hole in the insect's thorax, enjoys the honey it has eaten and then
+drops the quivering body which falls to the ground. I once had the
+opportunity of seeing this slaughter going on, and was able to detect the
+great tomtit as the murderer.
+
+In colour the humble bees vary remarkably, the variation occurring chiefly
+in the females. This variation is not so noticeable in this country,
+although in many species even here the variability is very great, but when
+we trace a common species such as _terrestris_, which varies very little
+here, over a large area such as the Palæarctic region its liveries are so
+diverse that its females have been treated as belonging to many different
+species. In the Siberian district its yellow bands become of a pale, almost
+whitish or straw colour, and the whole appearance of the insect is altered.
+If, instead of going north, we go to the Mediterranean region we find a
+large, fine form tolerably common, with bright yellow hairs on the legs. In
+Corsica {43} again we find a quite different form; entirely black except
+for the bright red hairs on the apex of the body, and bright red tibiæ,
+clothed with red hairs. In the Canaries another coloration occurs: the
+whole insect is black with the exception of the apex of the body which is
+clothed with white hairs; but in all these the male varies comparatively
+little. In the Siberian and Canary forms it resembles the female, but in
+the others it varies very little from some varieties we find here. A rather
+similar series of varieties occurs in _Bombus hortorum_, another species
+little liable to variation here. In Italy and south-east Europe a form with
+entirely black body and black wings occurs, and in Corsica a black form
+with reddish hairs on the apical segments. The male keeps throughout very
+constant to its normal coloration. The tendency to vary towards an entirely
+black form seems to exist in nearly all the species, although in Britain
+black varieties of some are very rare.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{44}
+
+THE BEES WITH BIFID TONGUES
+
+In this country we have only two genera in which the tongue is bifid at the
+apex, and on this account they are kept together as close allies in our
+classification. They are, however, very different in general appearance.
+One of these groups is called _Colletes_, on account of its habit of lining
+its cells with a gluey material, the other, _Prosopis_, on account of the
+markings on the face. The various kinds of _Colletes_ are densely clothed
+on the head and thorax with brownish hairs, and the segments of the body
+have whitish bands composed of a dense, tight-fitting, duvet of hairs (pl.
+B, 10). There is in this country only one exception, a large insect like a
+hive bee, but rarely met with, its headquarters being the Wallasey
+Sandhills near Liverpool, and other localities in Lancashire. All the
+species tend to colonize; some building in huge colonies {45} in sandy
+cuttings, etc. They are preyed upon by a pretty little cuckoo bee called
+_Epeolus_ (pl. B, 19), which is black, ornamented with brownish red and
+whitish spots. One of our best known species, _Colletes fodiens_, can often
+be found in abundance on the heads of ragwort along the sea-coast in July.
+
+The other genus _Prosopis_ is outwardly entirely unlike _Colletes_: its
+species are nearly all very small coal-black insects, with scarcely any
+noticeable hairs, rather unusually narrow and cylindrical in form; they
+emit a peculiar, agreeably scented fluid when handled; in the males the
+face is almost always white or yellow, in the females there is generally a
+yellow spot on each side near the eye. These little creatures are
+especially fond of burrowing in bramble stems. They like those which have
+been cut off in trimming the hedges, because in them the pith is exposed
+and they can burrow their way into it without gnawing through the wood. If
+any one, going along a hedge which has been trimmed, containing a lot of
+brambles, in the autumn or winter, would examine the cut-off ends they
+would soon find some with holes in them. These {46} may be the work of
+_Prosopis_, but there are other bees and fossors which also burrow in this
+way. So the stems should be brought home and opened. Then the _Prosopis_
+cells may be known by the fine membranous pellicle which surrounds them,
+but possibly even then a little jewel-bee cuckoo may be found in possession
+of the cell, instead of the rightful owner. When these little bees emerge
+they are generally to be found on wild mignonette, bramble flowers or those
+of the wild parsley tribe. Some are very common, others of great rarity.
+The males of this genus seem to have a peculiar tendency to develop
+eccentricities in the shape of the first joint of the antennæ, or feelers,
+some having it expanded and concave, others rounded but thickened towards
+the apex; in only one British species, _P. cornuta_, does the female show
+any special peculiarity of form, but in this the face is produced on each
+side between the eyes into a distinct horn-shaped process. In the females
+there is scarcely any indication of pollen brush, and for this reason they
+used to be considered as possessors of cuckoo instincts, but there is now
+no doubt of their industrious habits; but {47} there is no other genus of
+industrious bees in this country, with the exception of _Ceratina_, with so
+little specialization for pollen collecting.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{48}
+
+THE BEES WITH POINTED TONGUES
+
+All the genera, except the two mentioned in the last chapter, belong to
+this section, which comprises a variety of very different styles of bees,
+beginning with the short spear-shape-tongued species and ascending to the
+long-tongued species, which are considered to culminate in the hive bee.
+The habits of these genera vary very greatly in some respects; special
+notice has been or will be given of _Halictus_ (pl. B, 12) and _Sphecodes_
+(B, 11), _Andrena_ (B, 15, 16), _Nomada_ (B, 18) and the other cuckoos,
+_Osmia_ (D, 28) and _Anthophora_ (D, 24, 25) and the leaf-cutting bees, but
+there are several other genera which deserve a passing notice, although
+their habits are not so peculiar as those of the specially selected ones.
+_Cilissa_, which is a very close ally of _Andrena_, is peculiar in having
+the hairs of the tongue erect and arranged almost in bottle-brush fashion.
+Its habits are much like those of {49} _Andrena_. _Dasypoda_, so called on
+account of the enormously long hairs of the pollen brushes of the legs in
+the female, is one of our most beautiful bees; it is of moderate size, a
+little more than half an inch long, with a brown haired thorax, and a black
+body with white apical bands on the segments; the hind legs are rather
+unusually long and the brush is composed of very long bright fulvous hairs,
+and when the bee returns home laden with pollen it is, as F. Smith says,
+"sufficiently singular to attract the attention of the most apathetic
+observer." It burrows in sandy places much after the fashion of _Andrena_,
+etc. The male is a different looking insect, entirely covered with
+yellowish hairs. _Panurgus_ (pl. B, 17) is a curious genus of coal-black
+bees, whose females have bright yellow pollen brushes on their hind legs;
+they visit yellow composite flowers and the males often sleep curled up
+amongst their rays; they are most active bees, and burrow generally in hard
+pathways. I was watching a large colony of one of the species near Chobham
+in the end of June--they were burrowing in a gravel path, under which the
+soil was of a black sandy nature; the path was scattered all over with
+little black {50} hillocks of sand, and seemed alive with bees. It was
+showery weather, and occasionally the hillocks were washed nearly flat and
+a lot of sand must have entered their burrows--however, as soon as the sun
+came out again they cleaned out their holes and returned to their work.
+_Panurgus_ is most businesslike in its pollen collecting; it flies in a
+rapid headlong way into a flower, and seems to do its best to bury itself,
+with a remarkable amount of action as if it was in a great hurry, and often
+bustles out of it again almost immediately and goes on to the next. Its
+methods suggest that it does more work in five minutes than any other bee
+would do in ten.
+
+Another genus, _Anthidium_ (pl. D, 27), this time one of the long-tongued
+bees, is peculiar in having the male larger than the female. Both sexes are
+black, variegated with yellow markings and spots, but the male is more
+ornate in this respect than the female and also has a peculiarly shaped
+body, which is unusually flat, curving downwards towards the apex, which is
+armed with five teeth, two bent ones on the sixth segment and three on the
+seventh. The female collects pollen on the underside of its body and
+collects the {51} down off the stems of various plants, especially those of
+the dead nettle or "labiate" tribe, with which it invests its cells. I
+cannot do better than quote the following from F. Smith: "This is the
+social bee which White in his History of Selbourne has so well described in
+the following words: 'There is a sort of wild bee frequenting the Garden
+Campion for the sake of its tomentum, which probably it turns to some
+purpose in the business of nidification. It is very pleasant to see with
+what address it strips off the pubes running from the top to the bottom of
+a branch and shaving it bare with the dexterity of a hoop shaver; when it
+has got a vast bundle, almost as large as itself, it flies away, holding it
+secure between its chin and fore legs.'"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{52}
+
+LEAF-CUTTING BEES
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+These are amongst the specially interesting of the bees in their habits.
+They are dull-brown coloured creatures rather like a stout hive bee in form
+(pl. C, 20). They all collect pollen on the underside of their body. They
+burrow either in decayed wood or in the ground, but they make their cells
+of pieces of leaves which they cut off from rose bushes or other plants;
+these cells when completed are wonderful works of art. Probably some of my
+readers may have noticed rose leaves with semicircular pieces cut out of
+them, and often with almost circular ones; this is the work of the leaf
+cutter (fig. 7).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE C.
+
+20. _Megachile maritima_, _female_. 21. _Coelioxys conoidea_, _male_. 22.
+_Coelioxys conoidea_, _female_. 23. _Nest of Megachile willughbiella._
+
+[_face p. 52._ ]
+
+{53} She alights on a leaf, holds on to the edge of the piece she wants to
+cut off with her legs, and then cuts it out by means of her jaws, or
+mandibles; as soon as it is cut free she uses her wings and so prevents
+herself from falling, and goes off with the cut off piece safely held under
+her body by her legs. I have frequently seen bees flying home with their
+leafy burden, and once or twice I have seen them cutting the pieces out.
+They cut round the piece they select with great rapidity--the marvel is
+that they can arrange so exactly as not to fall when the last attachment is
+removed. The pieces they cut have to be of several shapes in order to build
+up the cell they require; some are more or less lozenge shaped, some almost
+circular; the cells they make are somewhat thimble-shaped. The
+lozenge-shaped pieces are used to build up the sides and lower end of the
+cell, and the circular pieces to close it in with at the top; it is all
+cemented together with a gluey substance excreted by the bee. The burrows
+of the leaf-cutters are made, as stated above, either in the ground or in
+rotten wood. I have never had a subterranean nest to examine, but have had
+several nests in rotten wood under my notice, one of which is now before me
+(pl. C, 23). It is in a piece of very {54} soft willow, almost in a
+touchwood condition. So that by carefully cutting away the wood I have been
+able to expose the whole series of cells. Two distinct burrows run almost
+parallel to each other; both of them are slightly curved and each has
+contained six cells; these are about half an inch long, and they fit one
+over another in the tube as closely as possible so as to look like two long
+thick green worms. Each cell is composed of many pieces of leaf, and the
+final plug which closes the cell is often made of several rounds of leaf
+one over the other. The amount of labour taken by the mother bee to make
+these cells must be enormous. The cells are provisioned like those of any
+other solitary bee with pollen, etc., and the egg is laid upon it. Most of
+the leaf-cutters have their attendant cuckoos, which are rather smaller
+than themselves, of a deep black with white bands on the sides of the body.
+The female has a very pointed tail, and the male's body ends in a series of
+spine-like projections (pl. C, 21, 22).
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{55}
+
+OSMIA AND ITS HABITS
+
+I have tried as much as possible to avoid scientific names, but the
+misfortune is that there are hardly any popular names in use which can be
+attached for certain to any particular species, and unless this can be done
+it is of no use using vague names like the "Carpenter Bee", the "Mason
+Bee", etc. There are many carpenter bees and many mason bees, and though
+their habits may be alike in this one particular they differ among
+themselves in the way they use their tools, and it is necessary to know
+which one we are talking about. It is a common thing to hear people
+inveighing against Latin names, etc., but they forget that there are no
+English ones in use, and what is more important, that Greek and Latin names
+are common property to all nations, so that we can all know what we are
+talking about, whereas if we call an insect by an English name and the
+Russians {56} call it by a Russian name, the difficulty of coming to a
+mutual understanding is very great. This is only an aside to justify the
+use of classical names. I quite feel that for popular use in this country a
+good series of English names might be useful, but we have not got one, and
+it would require a great deal of care and thought to frame a nomenclature
+which would really be useable by the persons who require it.
+
+I have made these remarks here because _Osmia_ is a genus whose members
+vary very much in their habits, and some species of which, like sensible
+beings, adapt their habits to their surroundings, so that no name such as
+carpenter bee, etc., would apply to all the species, or, as a rule, even to
+one. _Osmia rufa_ especially adopts several methods of nesting. This little
+bee is clothed more or less all over with yellowish hairs; it is compact in
+shape like all the other species of _Osmia_, and like them collects its
+pollen on the underside of the body. It may sometimes be seen flying up and
+down the walls of a house looking for a crevice to build in, but it is not
+the least particular as to where to form its cells. In one memorable case
+the female selected a flute {57} which had been left in a garden-arbour.
+The bee constructed fourteen cells in the tube of the instrument,
+commencing its first cell a quarter of an inch below the mouthhole. The
+flute is preserved in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. At
+other times this species burrows in the ground, at others it makes its
+cells in crevices of old walls; it has been known to build in a lock, and
+is said sometimes to inhabit snail shells. Other species of _Osmia_ almost
+always burrow in banks, but in no case does a habit seem to be uniformly
+adopted by a species. One well known and rare species, _Osmia leucomelana_,
+is a regular bramble-stick species, tunnelling down the pith in the centre
+of the stalks, but I once found it to my surprise in fair numbers nesting
+in a sandy bank. Other species again, as a rule, select snail shells to
+build in; they find an old disused shell lying about in some sheltered
+place and adapt it to their purposes, commencing their cells singly in the
+narrow whorls of the shell and side by side as they approach its mouth,
+i.e. if the shell be a wide-mouthed one like the common garden snail
+(_Helix aspersa_). F. Smith, who gives a very interesting account of these
+{58} creatures in his _Catalogue of British Hymenoptera in the British
+Museum_, mentions a case where the bee finding the larger whorls of the
+shell too wide constructed two cells across the whorl. Another very
+interesting case given by Smith is of a nest of many cells of the rare
+_Osmia inermis_ (which in his days was known as _Osmia parietina_). A slab
+of stone, 10 inches by 6, was brought to him with 230 cocoons of this
+_Osmia_ attached to its under side; when found in the month of November,
+1849, about a third of them were empty; in March of the following year a
+few males made their appearance and shortly afterwards a few females, and
+they continued to come out at intervals till the end of June, at which time
+he had 35 cocoons still unopened; in 1851 some more emerged, and he opened
+one or two of the closed ones and found that they still contained living
+larvæ; he closed them up again, and in April, 1852, examined them and found
+the larvæ still alive; at the end of May they changed to pupæ and appeared
+as perfect insects, the result being that some of the specimens were at
+least three years before reaching maturity. {59}
+
+There is a nest of yet another style adopted by one of our species (_Osmia
+xanthomelana_). This is formed of a series of pitcher-shaped cells made of
+mud, constructed at the roots of grass. The species which makes it is rare
+and seems to have its headquarters on the coasts of Wales, although it has
+occurred in the Isle of Wight and elsewhere. This species also is not
+constant in its habits, as it has been known to make its cells underground.
+A very curious habit was noticed some years ago by Mr. Vincent R. Perkins
+in another species of this genus (_Osmia bicolor_; pl. D, 28); the species
+nests in the ground or in snail shells, but, in the case under his
+observation, Mr. Perkins found that the little bees covered up all the
+snail shells in which they had built their cells with short pieces of
+"bents" so as to make a little hillock over each about two or three inches
+in height, somewhat resembling a miniature nest of _Formica rufa_, the
+large horse ant, each mound containing hundreds of pieces. This is the only
+record I know of this habit, which must entail a large amount of labour for
+the bee.
+
+These varying habits in the same species {60} show pretty clearly that
+these little creatures are not driven by any blind instinct in the adoption
+of their methods of nest building: they appear to have a distinct power of
+choice and adaptation according to their environment, unless of course it
+can be shown that the offspring of, say, a snail shell inhabitant follows
+its parents' habits, and that that of a ground borer does the same--but
+even that would not explain the case given by F. Smith, and quoted above,
+where an _Osmia_ had filled up the whorls of a shell and then, finding the
+final whorl too large, placed two cells horizontally to fill it: that seems
+to indicate distinct design on the part of the bee and would be hard to
+explain as due to instinct. Unfortunately, with the exception of a very
+few, the species of _Osmia_ are rare in this country, so that few
+opportunities are available for studying their habits, which are certainly
+amongst the most interesting of any genus.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE D.
+
+24. _Anthophora pilipes, male._ 25. _Anthophora pilipes, female._ 26.
+_Melecta armata, female._ 27. _Anthidium manicatum, female._ 28. _Osmia
+bicolor, female._ 29. _Bombus terrestris, female._ 30. _Bombus lapidarius.
+female._ 31. _Psithyrus rupestris, female._
+
+[_face p. 61._ ]
+
+{61}
+
+A COLONY OF ANTHOPHORA
+
+_Anthophora pilipes_ (pl. D, 24, 25), one of our early spring bees, often
+forms enormous colonies. I have sometimes seen sandpits in which the sides
+were riddled all over with holes of this species, and where the insects
+were in such numbers that a distinct hum was audible from the vibration of
+their wings. In such colonies one is sure to detect some of their cuckoo
+associates, _Melecta armata_ (pl. D, 26). They are deep black bees, much of
+the same size as their hosts but with more pointed tails and with a small
+spot of snow-white hairs on the side of each segment of the body; like
+other cuckoos they sail about in a more demure way than their hosts, but a
+more lively scene than a large colony of _Anthophora_ can hardly be found.
+The _Anthophora_ provisions its cells with honey and pollen, and its egg in
+consequence floats on the top--the {62} number of cells varies from five or
+six up to ten or eleven.
+
+_Anthophora pilipes_ has a very close relative in _Anthophora retusa_,
+which also forms large colonies, but it is as a rule less common. These two
+species are exceedingly alike, in fact it requires some skill on the part
+of the observer to differentiate their females. They are both black and
+clothed with black hairs, and both have yellow pollen-brushes, but in
+_retusa_ the hairs are shorter and not quite of such a deep black as those
+of _pilipes_, and the spurs of the tibiæ are pale, whereas in _pilipes_
+they are black. The males, however, differ widely, although much alike in
+colour; in _pilipes_ the feet of the middle pair of legs are clothed with
+enormously long hairs, the basal joint has a dense fringe of black hairs in
+front and some long black hairs behind (see pl. D, fig. 24); in _retusa_
+the basal joint of the middle pair of feet have a fan-shaped fringe of
+black hairs, and the rest of the joints are clothed with longer hairs, but
+not long enough to be specially noticeable. _A. retusa_ is visited by the
+same cuckoo as _A. pilipes_ and also by its rare ally _Melecta luctuosa_,
+which only differs from _armata_ {63} (pl. D, 26) in the larger and squarer
+spots of the body and various small structural characters hardly
+appreciable except by specialists. The Anthophoras have other parasites
+besides their cuckoos; one is a beetle, which, however, is rare, and which
+lays its egg in the _Anthophora_ cells; the other is a very minute member
+of the Hymenopterous family, whose larva when hatched feeds upon the larva
+of the bee. Notwithstanding these disadvantages both species are abundant,
+although _retusa_ is more local than _pilipes_. A very interesting fact
+connected with this genus has just been communicated to me by the Rev.
+F. D. Morice. John Ray, who lived in the seventeenth century, mentions in
+his book _Historia Insectorum_ (published posthumously in 1710), p. 243,
+that a large colony of a bee, which from his description was clearly an
+_Anthophora_, as he specially calls attention to the great difference
+between the males and females, inhabited a certain locality at Kilby near
+"Hill Morton" in Northamptonshire. Mr. Morice, who for many years resided
+at Rugby, knew Hillmorton, as it is now spelled, well, and tells me that a
+large colony of _Anthophora_ was in that same locality when he knew it only
+{64} a few years ago. Of course there is no proof that it has been there
+throughout the intervening period, but there seems to be no reason to doubt
+it, and if so it is a most interesting case of a persistent colony.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{65}
+
+BEES AND POLLEN-COLLECTING
+
+Bees whether solitary or social enter flowers for the sake of the honey in
+their nectaries and the pollen on their anthers. In some cases the flowers
+automatically deposit pollen on the bees during the operation, which
+enables them to fertilize other flowers of the same species, but the pollen
+which the bee requires for its own use has to be worked for and collected
+on organs specially adapted for the purpose. These vary very much in the
+different families and genera; they exist only in the females, and, if the
+males get covered with pollen, as they often do, it is probably more by
+chance than purpose, and it is doubtful if it is of any value to the brood,
+although no doubt useful in fertilizing other flowers. All our bees, as has
+been pointed out before, are clothed more or less with branched or
+feather-like hairs, which would appear to be admirably adapted for the
+collecting of pollen. {66} At the same time some species which have their
+bodies clothed with branched hairs have simple or spirally grooved hairs on
+the collecting organ--others collect on very much branched hairs--so that
+there seems to be no exact relationship between the plumosity of the hairs
+and their utility in collecting. The collecting brushes are either on the
+hind legs or, as in some cases, on the ventral surface of the body. In a
+female _Andrena_, the hind leg has a tuft of curled hairs near the base of
+the leg, and a more or less heavy brush on the outside of the tibia or shin
+(fig. 8). When a female returns after a collecting expedition these
+specially hairy regions are a mass of pollen grains, and the "beautiful
+yellow legs", so often remarked upon in some bees, are not always due to
+the colour of the hairs but to that of the grains of pollen adhering to
+them. The genera which collect on the under surface of the body have to
+visit flowers where the anthers lie in such a position that they can
+transfer the pollen on to it; the pea flower tribe are favourites with
+them, and also the _Compositæ_. All this section have long tongues so that
+they are able to reach the nectaries of {67} [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.] plants with long tubular flowers. In visiting these
+the pollen is often deposited on the back of the bee; this it is able to
+transfer to its under side by means of the brushes on its feet or tarsi.
+The arrangements of the humble bees for pollen gathering are altogether
+different from those mentioned above. They have the hind shin outwardly
+shining and rather concave, with a series of long curved hairs running down
+each side of it and partly curving over it, so that they carry their mass
+of pollen in a sort of basket, scientifically called the "corbicula" (fig.
+9); this would be impossible if the pollen were gathered dry, as it is by
+most of the solitary bees, so the bee moistens it on the flower with the
+nectar she has been sucking so as to make it sticky, and then transfers it
+into her basket by means of her foot brushes. The pollen therefore on the
+hind leg of a humble bee is all in one mass and can be {68} removed as
+such. When the bee reaches her nest this must of course save her the
+trouble which the solitary bee must have of cleaning off all the separate
+grains of pollen which are mixed up among the hairs.
+
+A word or two may be convenient here on the combs and cleaning apparatus of
+bees. Any one who has watched a bee clean itself will have noticed that the
+front legs work more or less horizontally--a bee will lower its head and
+bring its front leg over it with a curved motion--and that it will clean
+the sides of the face with a sort of shaving-like action, also that the
+antennæ are apparently pulled through the foot-joint in a remarkable way,
+often many times in succession. Now the foot of a bee consists of five
+joints, and is clothed with bristly looking hairs. If these hairs be
+examined through a microscope they will be found to be more or less
+razor-shaped, having a thick back and a dilated wing or knife-like blade
+(fig. 10). In some the blade is of some width, and the edge is evidently
+very sharp: these hairs or spines no doubt do the cleaning work, and
+admirably adapted they are to the purpose. The antennæ-cleaner {69}
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.] [Illustration: FIG. 11.] [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+(it may possibly be used for other purposes too) is a still more wonderful
+adaptation; in the basal joint of the foot there is a semicircular
+incision, which, when examined under the microscope, is seen to be a small
+toothed comb. The foot itself fits into the tibia or shin, and at the apex
+of the latter is a modified spine which is dilated on one side into a wing,
+or knife-like blade; this shuts down on to the semicircular comb, and the
+insect by passing the antennæ between the two can clean off anything which
+may have stuck to it (fig. 11). When we come to examine the other legs we
+find that the inner surface of their tibiæ and tarsi, i.e. that which is
+nearest the body, is clothed with hairs which have the points dilated and
+spade-like (fig. 12), which {70} allowing for the different action of the
+hind legs makes them just as good cleaners as the razors of the front pair;
+the spurs at the apex of the tibiæ, which are known as the _calcaria_, are
+also doubtless useful for cleaning purposes, and this is specially
+suggested by the beautiful saw-like form which they assume in some species;
+although there is no actual semicircular comb in the first joint of the
+tarsi, yet there can be little doubt that the spur and this joint in
+conjunction can act as a cleaning organ very much in the same way as the
+more elaborate arrangement in the front legs. Any one who has the
+opportunity of examining the hairs of bees under a microscope will be amply
+repaid for the trouble in noticing the beautiful shapes and structures
+which these organs assume. (Figs. 13-18; 17 showing pollen grains
+adhering.) At one time, when I was specially examining bee hairs, I shaved
+the various parts of a large number of species and mounted their hairs dry
+in microscopic slides, merely securing the cover glass with liquid glue;
+this was twenty years ago, and many are still quite good. It may seem a
+difficult operation to shave a bee, but {71} the hairs come off very
+easily, and with a sharp dissecting knife for a razor as many hairs as one
+wants are almost immediately at one's disposal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{72}
+
+ON BEES' TONGUES, AND HOW THEY SUCK HONEY
+
+In order to understand how a bee sucks honey it will be necessary to go
+into some rather careful details as to the construction of its tongue and
+mouth organs. These I will make as short and simple as I can, but the
+apparatus is a very complicated one, and it will be impossible to describe
+it without a good deal of technical phraseology.
+
+The tongue has always been considered such an important feature in a bee's
+structure that it has been made the chief basis of their classification. On
+this subject I will only say that there are three principal types of
+tongues--a short bifid tongue (fig. 19, 3[1]), resembling those of the
+fossors; a short pointed one, shaped somewhat like a spear head (fig. 19,
+2, 2a); and a long parallel-sided, ribbon-like tongue (fig. 19, 1, 1a). The
+bees are classified on what is considered to be an {73} ascending scale,
+beginning with the bifid-tongued species, through those with the short
+spear shaped tongues to the higher forms, which have this organ elongate
+and parallel-sided.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+The tongue is the central organ of an elaborate combination of mouth parts,
+which I will now try to explain. If we turn a bee's head over and look at
+its underside we shall find a deep cavity, filled up with the base of this
+combination which fits into it. If we extend the tongue (a humble bee is a
+good subject on account of its large size, fig. 20) so as to draw its base
+out of the cavity, we shall find that in the edge of each side of the
+cavity there is articulated a short rod (20, A), more or less dilated at
+its apex, called {74} the _stipes_; on the flattened ends of these rods
+there swings a joint shaped something like the "merrythought" bone of a
+chicken, called the _lora_ or reins (20, B), to the central angle of which
+are suspended the pieces of the apparatus which terminate in the tongue.
+This V-shaped joint can swing over on its feet, and can therefore lie
+either between the _stipites_ or rods with its angle pointing towards the
+tail of the bee, or in the opposite direction with its angle projecting
+beyond them and pointing forwards. It will at once be seen that by this
+turn of the V the tongue can be projected a distance equivalent to twice
+the length of the V.
+
+This V-shaped joint varies much in the length of its arms, which are much
+longer in the long-tongued than in the short-tongued bees.
+
+When we examine the parts that are suspended from this joint, we shall find
+that the actual tongue is separated from it by two distinct pieces; the
+first (i.e. that next to the _lora_) a short joint (the _submentum_, 20,
+C), the second (the _mentum_, 20, D) a long semi-cylindrical joint which
+holds as in a trough the softer parts at the base of the tongue. From the
+apex of the _mentum_ {75} project three organs; the central one is the
+actual tongue (or _ligula_, 20, E), and on each side are the organs which
+are called the _labial palpi_ (20, F); these in the long-tongued bees more
+or less fold over the base of the tongue and protect it. There are two
+other large and important mouth parts called the _maxillæ_ (20, G); these
+articulate on to the flattened apices of the _cardines_, outside the
+articulation of the feet of the _lora_, and extend on each side of the
+_mentum_; they also have flattened blades sheathing, when closed, the whole
+of the _mentum_ above, as well as the base of the tongue.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+So far we have been looking at the back of the head and mouth parts; if we
+now look at the front we shall see the _maxillæ_; if we open these we shall
+see the tongue lying between the {76} labial palpi, and at the base of the
+tongue we shall see two little sheaths called the _paraglossæ_; above these
+the softer parts lying in the trough of the _mentum_; from the base of the
+_mentum_, connecting with the _maxillæ_, there extends a membrane which
+entirely invests the spaces between the bases of these organs and extends
+up to the mouth. A membrane also extends between the _stipites_ and _lora_,
+and closes the cavity at the back of the head. The back of the tongue in
+the act of sucking can be formed into a tube through which, partly,
+probably by capillary action, partly by the pumping action caused by the
+dilating and contracting of certain parts of the mechanism, the liquid food
+is drawn up into the æsophagus. This, I believe, has been shown to be the
+principle on which all bees, short- or long-tongued, suck up their honey.
+The subject could be treated at much greater length, and many other
+structures connected with the mouth parts discussed, but more minute
+details are unnecessary in an elementary work such as this, and I have
+therefore limited myself to a description of the broad principles of the
+process.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{77}
+
+A DREADFUL PARASITE
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.]
+
+Of all the evils to which bee flesh is heir, there can hardly be any so
+terrible as the effects of the parasite _Stylops_ on the species of
+_Andrena_ and _Halictus_ which it attacks. This very extraordinary
+creature, which is now considered to be a beetle, lives during the early
+stages of both sexes in the body of the bee, which it enters when the bee
+is in the larval state. Its head protrudes like a minute flat seed between
+the body segments (fig. 21), and so is visible externally, but the rest of
+the creature, which is a grub-like larva, rests amongst the intestines of
+the bee; the female matures in the bee's body and never leaves it. The
+male, however, when mature, escapes, leaving the {78} [Illustration: FIG.
+22. Stylops larva in abdominal cavity: after Perez.] great hole which he
+inhabited open; he is provided with wings, and I have more than once caught
+one flying in the open--but to return to our afflicted bee. This may be
+attacked in either sex, and by one to five of the parasites. I have
+specimens myself with four parasites in them, and a case of five has been
+recorded. Mr. R. C. L. Perkins, writing on this subject, says: "On removing
+the integument dorsally from the bee, the large body of the female parasite
+will be seen lying above the viscera, often almost entirely concealing
+them". If this is the condition of a bee nourishing only one parasite, I
+must leave it to my readers to imagine the state of the poor wretch who is
+supporting five! The outward appearance of one with several parasites is
+generally much distorted; the abdomen is very much inflated, and the poor
+creature is unable to fly any {79} distance, and can only crawl about, or
+perhaps take short flights of a foot or so. The effects, however, seem to
+be very different in different cases. I have caught _Andrenas_ with two
+_Stylops_ in them, flying about as usual and apparently none the worse for
+their inmates. Probably the position the parasite occupies may make a great
+difference in its effects on the bee.
+
+The most notable effect produced by _Stylops_ is the alteration in the
+structure and colour of certain of the bee's characteristic features. In
+_Andrena_ the males differ very considerably from the females both in form
+and colouring. They have no pollen-brushes on their legs, and in some few
+species the face above the mouth is white, whereas in the female it is
+black. Now the effect of the parasite seems to be to unsex as it were its
+victims so far as their outward appearance is concerned. This is no doubt
+due to the internal effects it has on the larva of the bee. Anyhow, if a
+female is attacked, in most cases the pollen-brush is much reduced, the
+face tends to become more hairy, and, if it be the female of a white-faced
+male, spots of white are often produced on the face. On the other hand,
+{80} if it be a male subject, the hairiness of the face is diminished, the
+white colour is often reduced or absent, and the hairiness of the legs is
+increased.
+
+Before the effects of the parasite were recognized, several new species
+were described simply on specimens of unusual appearance in consequence of
+its presence.
+
+These effects, however, like the effects produced on the activity of the
+bee, vary exceedingly in extent. On some the parasite seems to have no
+effect, in others the alteration in appearance is very great. This, again,
+is probably due to the position of the parasites and to the pressure they
+exert on the reproductive organs of the body in the larval state.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{81}
+
+AMONGST THE BEES AT WORK
+
+Now I feel sure many will be thinking "It is all very well to talk about
+all these solitary and social bees, but I never see them. I certainly know
+a humble bee with a white tail and another with a red tail, and a wasp, and
+perhaps a hornet, but I never notice any others." The reason for this, no
+doubt, is that people are not as a rule observant, and even if they notice
+a creature one moment they probably forget all about it the next. If any
+one goes out on a bright spring morning, late in March or early in April,
+about 11 o'clock, into a garden well stocked with flowers, it will not, I
+think, be many minutes before an insect darts on the wing along some
+border, and, if attention be paid to the flowers, a little black hairy bee
+with yellow legs, like a small humble bee, will be seen diligently at work
+sucking honey from one of them. The darting bee, which is of a brownish red
+colour, gradually {82} fading to grey after a few days' exposure to the
+sun, is the male, and the black one the female. The male rarely settles,
+but flies about courting the female. Often two or three males may be seen
+dodging and crossing each other in their flight. The name of this bee is
+_Anthophora_. It is quite a harbinger of spring, and I mention it
+especially as it so forces itself on one's attention, and there are few who
+will not meet with it without going especially on its quest.
+
+Another opportunity of seeing several kinds of solitary bees flying
+together may be secured by standing on a sunny day in front of a sallow
+bush in full blossom, I mean what is commonly called "palm." Its catkins,
+when the anthers are out and covered with yellow pollen, are most
+attractive to all kinds of bees, humble bees, hive bees, and solitary bees,
+and any one who can manage to watch a sallow bush for some time will
+realize that there are many kinds of bees at work. Of course it is
+difficult, without special knowledge, to recognize which are bees and which
+are flies amongst the many which are coming and going, but the
+yellow-pollened legs of the female bees will generally betray them, as well
+{83} as their steadier flight. A fly turns about more rapidly than a bee,
+and sits down much more abruptly. Bees are very captious about the weather;
+they do not like an east wind and are, apparently, very sensitive to coming
+wet. I have often gone out on a bright morning and been surprised to find
+nothing stirring, and then clouds have come up and proved the wisdom of the
+bees in staying at home. They also fly very little in cloudy weather,
+especially in the early spring, when the temperature is reduced by cloud
+below their fancy. One may be watching a sallow bush and see dozens of
+insects flying about. A cloud shadows it, and almost immediately they
+disappear, to appear again as suddenly with the return of the sun's rays.
+It is interesting to watch bees at work collecting pollen, etc., but if any
+one wishes to study them at home, their nesting haunts must, of course, be
+visited. These are so various that it is impossible to point them all out,
+but the best locality to select is a sandy bank facing south. In June or
+July such a bank is often alive with bees, sand-wasps, etc.; here, again,
+we want sunshine or the bees will stay in their holes. {84} Even when dull,
+however, it is a very interesting spot, and we can notice the numbers of
+holes bored in the bank, and their different sizes and shapes; most of them
+are round, but some sandwasps make very irregular holes. If we look closely
+at some of the holes we shall see something closing the aperture, and, if
+we are too inquisitive, that something will disappear down the hole like
+lightning; it is the face of the owner of the burrow waiting to come out
+for the first ray of sunshine, but the owner is very timid and it will be
+some minutes before she puts her face so near danger again. In most of the
+sandwasps the face is clothed with bright silvery, or sometimes golden,
+hairs, and it is a very pretty sight to see these little silvery faces
+peering out of their burrows. Again, one may sometimes notice a little
+stream of sand emerging from a hole; this is from some bee who is enlarging
+her domain or clearing out some of the sand which occasionally falls in. In
+some cases this ejection of sand is done with a great deal of action: the
+sand comes streaming out and then the bee follows, quite up to the mouth of
+the passage, kicking out the sand as hard as it can. {85} The moment,
+however, that the sun comes out the whole bank is full of life; and just as
+in the case of the sallow bush, one wonders where it has all been during
+the shadow. Bees will now be seen flying home laden with pollen; they will
+pause at the opening of their burrow and then disappear suddenly into its
+depths. In a very short time they will reappear quite clean and ready for
+another journey. Their cleaning apparatus must be wonderfully well adapted
+to its purpose. I have often had to remove the pollen from a bee's leg to
+see what colour the hairs are, and it takes some time even to brush enough
+of it off to ascertain this, and yet the natural cleaning process seems to
+take no time in comparison. But to return to our bank, numbers of bees will
+be seen coursing up and down and hardly ever settling; these are males
+paying what attention they can to any females who have time to attend to
+them, and often falling foul of other males intent on similar pursuits. If
+one has good luck in the choice of one's bank an elegant wasp-like creature
+may occasionally be seen amongst the others; this is one of the cuckoos.
+The flight of all the cuckoo bees is peculiar; it is much {86} quieter and
+slower than that of the hosts, and a cuckoo may easily be seen solemnly
+flying up and down the bank, over the various holes, no doubt watching for
+the proper opportunity to enter one, and deposit its egg in it. This
+deliberate flight seems a curious habit in a creature which one would think
+would wish to escape detection. If it seemed to inspire fear in the mind of
+its host it would be different, but they appear to fly about together
+unconcerned at each other's presence, and the cuckoo sails along demurely
+and imposes on its hosts' labours without any apparent resentment on the
+latter's part; both seem to accept their relationship as a matter of
+course. Another very interesting frequenter of sandy banks is a pretty
+little stout sandwasp, about a quarter of an inch long, called _Oxybelus_.
+It has a very bright silvery face which shines most brilliantly in the sun,
+and the body has a row of white spots on each side, and it brings flies
+back to its nest. It is very active and common, and may often be seen with
+its fly going back to its hole. There is a rare species of the same genus,
+which is clothed all over with silvery hairs, and this in some places,
+curiously {87} enough, selects as its victim a fly which is also coated
+with silver. There are, of course, many other inhabitants in such a bank as
+this. There are sure to be ants, which are always interesting to watch, and
+probably now and then a _Pompilus_ will appear on the scene. These
+exceedingly lively creatures which run at a very rapid pace, vibrating
+their wings as they go, and taking short flights between the runs, are on
+the hunt for spiders. They will be seen to forage amongst any grass or
+herbage there may be on the bank, and if they can only secure a spider it
+is stung and paralyzed and carried off at once to the nest. Of course every
+sand bank will not yield a great number of insects, but some, especially in
+sandy districts like Woking, Oxshott, and other parts of the Surrey
+commons, and the New Forest, simply teem with life--and would repay any one
+for hours of watching and observation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{88}
+
+ANTS, THEIR GUESTS AND THEIR LODGERS
+
+The number of insects of different kinds which live in ants' nests, either
+as scavengers, stray visitors who have found a lodging for the moment, as
+guests carefully taken care of and appreciated by the ants, or as lodgers,
+either tolerated or hostile to their hosts and persecuted, and parasites,
+is very great. The most interesting of these from the ordinary observer's
+point of view are the true guests and the lodgers. The true guests are
+carefully attended to by the ants; they include such insects as the
+_Aphides_ or plant lice, and others which the ants use as "cows" to secure
+the saccharine juices which they can obtain from them, and also certain
+strange beetles which have tufts of golden hairs on their body, which the
+ants lick--on account of what E. Wasmann[2] calls the etherealized oil {89}
+given off by them. These beetles are fairly numerous and belong to several
+quite distinct families; the one which perhaps is amongst the most
+interesting is a creature called _Lomechusa strumosa_. This insect has
+rather an interesting history in connexion with our British fauna. It used
+to be considered as an indigenous insect, but so many years passed without
+any one finding it, that the old records were suspected as doubtful, and it
+was removed from the list of British species. In 1906, however, it was
+rediscovered near Woking in a nest of _Formica sanguinea_ (pl. A, 1, 2, 3),
+one of the large red ants, by Mr. H. Donisthorpe. The life-history of
+_Lomechusa_ is a very curious one: it is taken great care of by the ants,
+and its larvæ are even placed by them with their own, on which it feeds.
+Its numbers are kept down apparently by the overzeal of the ants to take
+care of them. The ants bring their own pupæ up frequently to obtain light
+and air and with them it brings up the _Lomechusa_ pupæ--this seems not to
+suit the latter and results in the death of many of them. It is a most
+interesting case of how a due balance can be maintained, and what might
+prove an enemy {90} kept in his proper place by kind intentions. There are
+also in ants' nests what Dr. Wasmann calls "tolerated lodgers"; these are
+mostly creatures which are supposed to escape the notice of the ants,
+either by their small size or by their slow, lethargic, or on the other
+hand very rapid movements--these in many cases act as scavengers, living on
+the dead bodies of insects, etc., brought in by the ants.
+
+The hostile lodgers are real enemies to the ants and devour their brood,
+and in consequence they are always at war with each other. These creatures
+generally resemble the ants considerably in form and colour and especially
+in their movements.
+
+Besides these lodgers there are numerous parasites of the ants, such as
+mites, etc., so that an ant colony is a very wonderful mixture of diverse
+inhabitants. The distinctions given above as to the habits of the various
+lodgers are not always kept up, as, in some, two or more of these habits
+are combined. The whole study of ants and their guests is a most
+fascinating one: many of the latter are great rarities and much sought
+after by collectors. Unfortunately, the great {91} drawback in collecting
+them is the havoc caused to the nests of the ants. These structures have
+been the result of enormous labour on the part of these little creatures,
+and one cannot regard their destruction without sincere regret. I think any
+one who, when collecting beetles, disturbs a large nest of the little
+garden ant (_Lasius niger_) or the little yellow ant (_Lasius flavus_) by
+turning over a stone, as the writer has often done himself, must have
+experienced a like regret at having broken up all the beautiful passages
+and galleries which the ants have constructed so carefully.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{92}
+
+HOW CAN AN "ACULEATE" BE RECOGNIZED?
+
+This is not an easy question to answer. We cannot make hard and fast
+definitions which will determine exactly what belongs to this group and
+what to that; there are always some intermediate forms which present
+themselves and make our classification unsatisfactory, but, I think, for
+all purposes of practical observation in the field we may say that if we
+find a creature with four membranous wings, burrowing in the ground or
+making a nest in any way, it is an aculeate or stinger. Also, that if we
+find a hairy-bodied insect with four clear wings collecting pollen or
+sucking nectar from a flower it is a bee. There are, of course, characters
+by which the stinging groups can be known almost for certain, but there is
+no single one which can be given to recognize them by. {93} They are known
+by a combination of many, and these are frequently small structural details
+which do not appeal to the field observer; in fact, which are unappreciable
+except under magnification. One of the chief difficulties experienced by an
+observer who is not versed in classification is to avoid being deceived by
+various flies, which in many cases greatly resemble bees, and especially
+wasps or the wasp-like fossors. They may mostly be known by their flight,
+and, when they settle, by their behaviour. A fly is more sudden in its
+movements--those wasp-like flies, for instance, which poise themselves in
+the air and appear quite stationary but dart off in a second when
+approached, betray themselves at once by their alertness. _Anthophora_ and
+_Saropoda_ poise in the air and dart somewhat after the same fashion, but
+they never remain poised for long, and do not get away from their position
+so rapidly. Also, a fly when it settles remains quiet, whereas an aculeate
+if in a flower sets to work collecting pollen, or if basking in the sun on
+a leaf rarely rests for many seconds without moving in some way. On a
+flower, if an insect is seen quietly sitting with its head away from the
+centre of the {94} flower, it is almost certain to be a fly. Most of the
+little bees (_Halicti_) which visit dandelions and such like "composites"
+fly in to them with some rapidity, attack them sideways, and move round the
+"flower", no doubt getting pollen from each floret in succession and with a
+businesslike action about it all, which is very different from the
+behaviour of any fly. The flies which really closely resemble bees in their
+flight are those which lay their eggs in the burrows of various bees and
+sandwasps. They are really deceptive. Last summer on the sandhills at
+Southbourne, near Bournemouth, I again and again was deceived by a small
+fly with a red belt across its body, thinking it was a red-bodied sandwasp.
+These it really only resembles on the wing. After having been taken in once
+or twice one felt ashamed of oneself for not recognizing it. The flies also
+which associate with the humble bees are often coloured very much like
+them, and could easily be mistaken for small specimens of the bees were it
+not for their behaviour and wings, which show a dark spot on the upper
+margin, not existing in the wing of the bee.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{95}
+
+MALES AND FEMALES
+
+These differ from each other very greatly in many cases. Eccentricity in
+structure almost always occurs in the male; excess of coloration usually in
+the female. In size the male is generally the smaller and the less robustly
+built of the two. Among the pollen-collectors, the male is usually less
+densely clothed with hairs than the [female]. In the fossors this rule is
+rather reversed, but in that section neither sex is densely clothed with
+hairs as are most of the pollenigerous bees.
+
+The male has normally thirteen joints in its antennæ, and the female only
+twelve. There are exceptions to this rule amongst the ants and in certain
+fossors of the genus _Crabro_, some species of which have the antennæ
+considerably distorted, and have two joints welded apparently into one.
+Another distinction between the sexes is that the male has seven dorsal
+segments {96} of the body exposed to view, and the female only six. In the
+males of some of those bees which collect pollen on the underside of the
+body, the body above terminates with the sixth segment. This is because the
+seventh is turned over on to the underside, and faces downwards, its apex
+pointing towards the head. This arrangement of course leaves less room for
+the regular ventral segments, and the usual apical segments are in
+consequence "telescoped" up under the fourth, so that the apical opening of
+the body lies on its underside between the fourth ventral and the inverted
+seventh dorsal segments. This very curious structure occurs only in those
+bees whose females collect pollen on the underside, and the reason of it is
+to me quite inexplicable. The females of a few of the fossors are destitute
+of wings; but in this country we have no wingless males, except in the case
+of one little ant (_Formicoxenus_); this lives in the nest of the common
+large red ant, and its male can hardly be known from the worker except by
+the number of joints in the antennæ and the absence of a sting. In the
+cases where the female is wingless, the male as a rule is much the larger
+of the two sexes. {97} There are few more puzzling questions than those
+which arise over these eccentricities of structure; they seem to have no
+relation to any habits of the creatures' lives so far as we can judge,
+neither can one suggest any useful purpose which they can serve. In some
+groups the males of all the species seem built on one regular plan--in
+others the males of each species seem to vie with the next as to what
+eccentricity of structure in antennæ or legs or apex of the body it can
+exhibit. In numbers, the males probably considerably exceed the females,
+and are far more frequently met with, as they seem to be less particular as
+to weather, and not being intent on obtaining food for their offspring they
+fly about more casually, and certainly are more in evidence generally.
+
+The great difference in structure, etc., between the males and females
+makes the work of pairing the sexes very difficult, especially in those
+genera where the males and females appear together only for a few weeks, as
+is the case in _Halictus_ and _Sphecodes_. If one visits a locality in the
+spring one may catch any number of females of _Halictus_, but no males
+appear till the late {98} summer or autumn, and, unless one visits the same
+spot again when both sexes are out, it is impossible to associate males and
+females. I have at the present moment in my collection several males,
+which, being in doubt about myself, I have communicated to continental
+authorities, who have returned them to me as possibly the male of so and
+so! and we shall have to remain in uncertainty about them till some one
+happens to take both sexes together, when the mystery will be solved.
+
+In time of appearance the males always precede the females--in burrows,
+such as those of the leaf-cutting bees, etc., it may seem puzzling as to
+how this is arranged, as one cell is placed over the other so that those
+lower down in the tube cannot pass those higher up. This difficulty is got
+over by the arrangement that the first eggs laid by the mother bee are
+female and the last male, so that those at the top belong to this latter
+sex; these emerge as soon as the warmth of the sun is great enough to
+energize them sufficiently to break through their cell covering, when they
+emerge and wait for the appearance of their females. The males of {99} some
+species of _Andrena_ seem to take great pleasure in flying rapidly up and
+down hedgerows, hardly ever settling, and apparently far away from their
+females, which are probably pollen collecting in dandelions or some such
+flowers in the neighbourhood.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{100}
+
+THE VAGARIES OF COLOUR AND STRUCTURE IN THE SEXES
+
+As a rule the male is rather smaller and especially slenderer than the
+female, but there are notable exceptions; in one genus of the fossors,
+_Myrmosa_ for instance, the male is many times larger than the female. In
+this case the male is winged and the female is wingless. Also, if there is
+a difference in brightness of coloration between the sexes, as a rule the
+male is duller than the female--this is especially the case among the
+bees--but if there is any eccentricity in the form of the limbs it is
+almost sure to occur in the male, and I think one would not go far wrong in
+saying that when peculiar features occur in the female, the reason for them
+is more or less apparent, whereas for the eccentricities of the male there
+really often seems to be no assignable cause. These male eccentricities are
+often exceedingly marked. A very good {101} [Illustration: FIG. 23.]
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.] example of them occurs among the small "keyhole"
+wasps. All the British species are practically alike in coloration. They
+may vary in having a greater or less number of yellow bands on the body,
+but otherwise their distinctions rest on structure. In the females the
+antennæ are slightly thickened towards the apex, but otherwise they are
+simple. The males, however, are divided into three quite distinct groups.
+In the first of these, the end joints of the antennæ are rolled up in more
+or less of a spiral (fig. 23, 2); in the second, the apical joint is turned
+sharply back like a hook (fig. 23, 1); in the third, the end joints of the
+antennæ are simple and more or less like those of the female. Now if we
+examine the legs of the males in the first group we shall find still
+greater peculiarities; in two of our species there is a long yellow spine
+at the extreme base of the middle leg on the little joint by which it
+articulates on to the body (fig. 24, 2), and a curious pencil of hairs
+{102} on each side of the mouth. In two others, the femora, or thighs of
+the middle legs, are cut into two deep somewhat semicircular incisions
+(fig. 24, 1)--a most curious character; but here again the females have no
+corresponding peculiarities. There seems to be no explanation known for
+these vagaries, and yet one feels that there must be some object served by
+them. If we turn to the bees we shall find that in many species the face of
+the male is white to a greater or less extent, whereas that character is
+very rare in the female. The front feet are produced into a wide flattened
+form in some, in others the middle legs are extraordinarily developed, and
+provided with tufts of hairs, etc. Another form of male development lies in
+the form of the head. This is sometimes very much enlarged--often varying
+considerably in this respect in specimens of the same species; there is
+often a projecting tooth or spine on the mandible or jaw at its base, or
+frequently on the cheek just above it. Then in the fossors the males of the
+genus _Crabro_ break out into numerous eccentricities; in some, two or more
+of the joints of the antennæ are soldered together and curved or cut out
+into {103} curious forms (fig. 26); in others the front shin or tibia is
+formed like a concave shield or shell (fig. 25), and all the joints of that
+leg more or less distorted; in another male (a rather doubtful native which
+has not been taken in this country for fifty years) the head is narrowed
+behind into an almost ridiculously small neck, being quite triangular in
+form, viewed from above, with the eyes projecting from its anterior angles
+(fig. 27, 1), the female head being of normal form (fig. 27, 2).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.]
+
+In the males of several species of fossors and bees the eyes are enormously
+developed, joining one another on the top of the head. This condition
+occurs also in the drone of the hive bee. The male of _Astatus_, which has
+this character, has also a peculiar habit. It sits basking in the sun on
+some bare sandy spot, and when disturbed makes a sort of circular detour
+and pitches down again exactly on the spot from which it started up. An
+{104} increased length of the antennæ is another male characteristic. This
+is carried to an extraordinary development in what is called the "long
+horned bee"; this bee, which is pretty common in some places, has antennæ
+which, when directed backwards, are almost as long as its body--the female
+has quite an ordinary pair.
+
+Another set of male characters which are of great value to systematists
+lies in the hidden apical segments of the underside; although these are
+hidden, being telescoped up inside the segments which close the apical
+opening of the body, they often assume most curious and beautiful forms,
+and are characters whereby the males of a species may be determined with
+certainty when the females defy all one's endeavours to discover their
+identity.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{105}
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION, RARITY, OR ABUNDANCE OF VARIOUS SPECIES
+
+There are few points about which we know less than the causes of
+distribution and rarity, although there are certain tolerably well
+recognized laws which govern the occurrence of some species in certain
+localities. What I mean is that marshy spots, say salt marshes for
+instance, attract certain beetles and bugs which are never found except in
+such places; certain kinds of flowers attract bees which never appear to
+visit any others, but these localities and kinds of flowers occur often at
+great distances from each other, and why--given a certain flower you
+probably find a certain bee peculiar to it; or given a certain kind of
+marsh you probably find a certain beetle, although the localities may be
+hundreds of miles apart--I think still awaits explanation. I will give an
+example with which I am personally well acquainted. {106} There is a rare
+little bee (_Macropis labiata_) which at one time was looked upon as an
+extreme rarity, having only occurred three or four times in this country.
+Mr. F. Enoch, comparatively lately, took a fair number on the flowers of
+the greater loose-strife (_Lysimachia vulgaris_) along the canal at Woking;
+now that its food-plant is known, it has occurred in several other places
+in numbers, and no doubt wherever the _Lysimachia_ is abundant _Macropis_
+will probably occur, but how the little creature has been distributed over
+the places where this plant occurs, which are often far distant from each
+other, seems to me to be an unsolved problem. Then there is another
+puzzling point, and that is the extreme rarity of certain insects. No doubt
+in many cases this is due to ignorance of their habits, as it has
+frequently happened that species once considered of great rarity have
+occurred in abundance when their habits have been discovered, as in the
+case of _Macropis_, but there are some cases which do not seem to be
+explainable in this way. I will again give an example which has been
+specially under my own observation. _Dufourea vulgaris_, a little black
+bee, {107} which certainly might not be recognized from its outward
+appearance, as there are many which very closely resemble it, is still one
+of our greatest rarities, only three British examples having been recorded.
+The first was taken by Sir Sidney Saunders at Chewton, Hants, on the
+twelfth of August, 1879; this was a male; the second, a female, was taken
+by Mr. T. R. Billups at Woking, on the first of August, 1881; and the third
+by myself at Chobham (about four miles from Woking) on the first of August,
+1891. I believe in all cases these were taken on yellow composite flowers.
+The flight and behaviour of the male I caught were so peculiar, as it
+wriggled itself into the flower, that I knew at once I had caught a rarity,
+and remarked to my companions that I believed I had got a _Dufourea_. I
+also hazarded the remark that it was "ten years since it had been taken."
+When I got home and looked up the former record it was ten years to a day.
+Now there are few places in England that have been better worked for the
+bee tribe than the Woking, Chobham, and Weybridge neighbourhood; it has
+been worked by experienced men who would see a difference {108} in the
+flight of an insect directly. The late Mr. F. Smith, in his day our leading
+authority, the Rev. F. D. Morice, than whom no one has probably worked the
+neighbourhood more thoroughly, Mr. T. R. Billups, Mr. E. B. Nevinson, and
+the late Mr. A. Beaumont, have all been over the ground again and again,
+and yet only these two _Dufoureas_! and these taken four miles apart. Here
+again is a problem which is very perplexing! What part in nature does this
+little rarity play? No doubt like everything else it has its duties, and
+its corner to fill, but beyond that one can suggest nothing.
+
+Other bees are often exceedingly abundant in one season and very rare the
+next, or they will entirely desert a locality where they have been
+abundant, and move somewhere else--the occasional scarceness is due
+probably to continued wet weather, which often appears to kill the larvæ.
+Cold winters seem to have no injurious effect, although at one time they
+were thought to determine the scarcity or otherwise of the bees of the
+following summer. It has, I think, been clearly shown that larvæ can stand
+almost any amount of cold, although they succumb to {109} the effects of
+mildew produced by wet, but there is often no apparent reason why a well
+established colony should migrate to quite new pastures. Sometimes the
+proximity of new buildings or the digging up of ground may disturb them,
+but I know of colonies that have gone from where I knew them a
+comparatively few years ago, and where I can detect no change likely to
+have affected them. On the other hand there are colonies which one has
+known all one's life and which still go on as strongly or more strongly
+than ever--the case quoted under _Anthophora_, p. 63, shows what
+persistence there can be in some.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{110}
+
+ON BEES' WINGS
+
+The Bees and the other stinging groups have four wings like all the
+_Hymenoptera_. These wings are almost always clear and transparent, at any
+rate amongst the British species, there being only one exception which I
+can call to mind in the female of the cuckoo of our large red-tailed
+humble-bee, which has the wings blackish; also they are never spotted, as
+in some flies. The hind or lower wings unite with the upper by a series of
+very beautiful hooks which extend along their upper margin and fix on to
+the posterior edge of the front wing, which is folded back on itself so as
+to receive them; in flight the two wings are united, but when at rest they
+separate; these hooks are beautiful objects under a microscope; their
+numbers vary; and in some cases this variation is useful in distinguishing
+closely allied species from one another. The hum of a bee is caused, to a
+great extent, by {111} the vibration of the wings, but it has been shown
+that a loud buzzing noise can be emitted by bees which have lost their
+wings; this proceeds from the spiracles or holes in the outer covering of
+the creature through which it breathes. It is therefore not always easy to
+say how much of the hum is caused by wing vibration and how much by the
+action of the spiracles. Some, in fact most, of our solitary bees are
+almost silent in flight, and their note can be heard only when large
+numbers are flying together; others have a very peculiar shrill hum, by
+which even the species can almost be recognized. In bright, hot, sunny
+weather their flight is more rapid and their note attains a higher pitch.
+The bees with the highest pitched hum with which I am acquainted are the
+two smaller species of _Anthophora_ and _Saropoda bimaculata_.
+
+In early spring, when it is hot in the sunshine and cold when a cloud
+covers the sun, it is no unusual thing to see a bee drop to the ground. The
+cold seems to paralyze altogether their powers of flight. When at rest a
+bee folds its wings along the sides of its back, but only in the wasp tribe
+is there the arrangement for them to be {112} folded longitudinally. The
+shape of the wings varies very little, but the arrangement and number of
+their cells vary considerably. There are some very interesting genera in
+which the neuration of some of the cells is so slightly indicated that they
+are hardly visible, and can be seen only when the wing is held in certain
+lights; these faintly indicated cells are nearly always those towards the
+apex of the wing, the neuration of the basal part of the wing being as
+strong as in the other genera. There are a few moths in this country which
+very much resemble, both in the colour of their bodies and their clear
+wings, the wasp tribe, but they may be known by the brown band of scales at
+the apex of the wings and also by the absence of the narrow waist, which
+exists in all the stinging tribes. The only wingless forms which we know
+are to be found amongst the ants and the fossors, and as a rule are
+females, but in a few cases in the ants, and in some foreign species of the
+genus _Mutilla_, the male is apterous also.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{113}
+
+ON BREEDING ACULEATES, ETC.
+
+Any one who wishes to study the life-histories of these insects, and has
+leisure to do so, can easily obtain various larvæ by digging for them in
+suitable places. If, for instance, during the summer, bees, etc., have been
+noticed entering holes in a certain bank or sandy spot, their larvæ or
+nymphs can be got in the autumn by digging down for about a foot in the
+direction of the holes, and if they be brought home and put into glass-top
+boxes they will generally emerge at their right time without giving any
+further trouble; it must, however, be remembered that the grubs are very
+soft and tender skinned, and it is better to avoid handling them if
+possible; they should be moved with a small soft camel-hair pencil, and it
+is well to put something soft at the bottom of the box so that if they fall
+in they will not be damaged. If the wood-boring {114} species are being
+collected, care must of course be taken in splitting the wood; most of
+these make a pupa case over themselves, and are in that respect easier to
+deal with. A label should be put in each box to show where the larvæ, etc.,
+were found. An old rotten stump of a tree will often produce a good number
+of species. Then there are the bramble-stem borers; these can be left in
+the stems. I have generally found it convenient, after arriving home, to
+split the stems down, to see if there are any living creatures in them,
+and, if there are, to close them up again, and, tie a little very fine net
+or gauze bag over the top of each stem; in this way one can find out
+exactly what insects come from what stem, and determine the cuckoos (if
+any) which belong to each. As the season advances towards May, it is well
+to give all the larvæ, etc., an occasional glimpse of the sun; they should
+not be left in the sun long enough for them to get dried up too much, but
+the sun is a very important factor in tempting them to emerge; naked larvæ
+and nymphs, in glass-top boxes, should be treated very carefully in this
+respect, as they are deprived of their {115} natural surroundings, in which
+the actual sunshine would never reach them--it would be better to place
+them in a sunny room, screened off from the actual rays of the sun, so that
+its warmth only would be felt. If they do not emerge the first year, it
+should not be taken for granted that they are dead, as very likely they
+will appear in the following spring. I have bred leaf-cutting bees several
+times with great success, and others I know have been successful with many
+species. The fear is to get them dried up too much; it is therefore not
+desirable to keep them in a very hot room. When first the insects emerge,
+their hairs are often more or less matted together, and they should be put
+in the sun in a larger box, so that they can crawl about and clean
+themselves; portions also of the skin in which they have been enveloped
+frequently adhere to them for some little time, but as a rule, unless the
+creature be too weak, these are very soon cleaned off. Breeding is a
+fascinating amusement, but it requires a great deal of attention when the
+emerging season begins, as the boxes want constant watching, or the insects
+will emerge unnoticed, and, if not given proper {116} air and sunshine, may
+die without cleaning themselves properly.
+
+If it is desired to preserve the specimens, they should be killed either
+with cyanide of potassium, ether, or chloroform. If the first of these
+agents is used, a piece of about the size of a small hazel nut should be
+put at the bottom of a bottle (for collecting purposes, an ordinary
+"Coleoptera bottle", which can be obtained from any naturalist's shop, is
+the most convenient) and should be kept down by a wad of blotting paper,
+well pressed down upon it; this prevents the cyanide, as it liquifies, from
+wetting the hairs, etc., of the insects. Over this a piece of white paper
+should be placed; this will get stained at once when there is much damp,
+and should then be changed. The objections to cyanide are its very
+poisonous nature, and the stiffness which is caused by its use to the
+specimens killed by it, and also its tendency to turn yellow colours red. I
+always use it myself as I think it is preferable to the other insecticides,
+notwithstanding its demerits, but then I do not extend the legs and wings
+of my specimens, but simply leave them in whatever position they happen to
+{117} die. Ether is a very favourite method of killing with many; a few
+drops in a bottle with some paper in it is sufficient to last for some
+hours; it however soon evaporates in hot weather, and it is necessary to
+carry a small phial of it in one's pocket to replenish the supply when
+exhausted; this makes one smell of ether perpetually, which is more than I
+can stand. But the insects killed in this way are beautifully supple, and,
+for those who wish to set their captures as they would _Lepidoptera_, it is
+an excellent medium, i.e. if they don't mind its smell; it has also the
+benefit of not affecting colour. Chloroform acts much as ether does. When
+killed, I strongly recommend collectors to pin their specimens through the
+thorax with a very fine pin (those used for micro-lepidoptera are the
+best), and then to pin this through a narrow strip of card, mounted on a
+long stout pin; in this way the insect can be moved about by the strong
+pin, and the thorax of the insect itself is not destroyed, as it often is
+in the case of the smaller species by the use of thicker pins. The cards
+should be cut as small as possible; they need not be more than a quarter of
+an inch long. The insect {118} should be pinned at right angles to the long
+axis of the card, and the long pin should be inserted on the right-hand
+side of the insect so as not quite to touch it. In this way the insects
+look quite as neat as if they were pinned direct. Locality labels, etc.,
+should be affixed to the long pin, and the insects should be stored in
+cabinets or boxes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{119}
+
+ON COLOUR
+
+There is but little tendency towards brilliant coloration amongst our
+native aculeates. No doubt our comparatively high latitude accounts for
+this to some extent, as also the fact that the aculeates do not, as a rule,
+elsewhere assume great brilliancy. Even in the tropics and other warm
+regions, where bright green, blue or coppery coloured species occur, they
+are comparatively few in number. In this country metallic colours are to be
+found in less than a dozen species, and in most of these it exists only as
+a tinge. Amongst our ants and wasps it does not exist at all, unless the
+slight bronziness of the typical form of _Formica fusca_ be so considered.
+The fossors can exhibit only a bluish tint in _Mutilla Europæa_ (pl. A, 4,
+5), and a slight bronzy tinge in two of quite the smallest species,
+_Miscophus maritimus_ and the [male] of _Crabro albilabris_. The bees can
+do a little better; five species of _Halictus_ have a distinctly {120}
+bronzy head and thorax, and in three the bronzy colour extends to the
+abdomen; there is also another with a very dull green tinge on the thorax;
+besides these there is a little bright blue bee, _Ceratina_ (unfortunately
+a great rarity in this country) and two or three species of _Osmia_,
+showing more or less tendency to bronziness, and one which is distinctly
+bluish; but, considering our indigenous species number nearly 400, this is
+a very small, and compared with other countries I should think an
+abnormally small, proportion.
+
+Species with bodies banded like a wasp's are much more abundant--no less
+than eighty of our native kinds having this style of coloration. The bands
+may be reduced to lateral spots, but such cases, I think, are only
+modifications of the banded scheme.
+
+Black species with a more or less pronounced red band across the body
+number about seventy, and a general testaceous or yellowish colour occurs
+in a few ants, but not elsewhere among the British aculeates. Nearly all
+the rest are black or dark brown so far as the actual surface of the body
+is concerned; but amongst the bees {121} there is often a dense clothing of
+coloured hairs sometimes so dense that the surface of the body may be
+rendered invisible. These coloured hairs may be distributed into brilliant
+bands, as in the humble bees, or they may be uniformly black, as in some of
+their varieties and in the females of the spring species of _Anthophora_
+(pl. D, 25), or entirely red as in _Andrena fulva_ (pl. B, 16), or black on
+the thorax and red on the abdomen as in _Osmia bicolor_ (pl. D, 28), or
+vice versâ as in _Andrena thoracica_, etc., but the most usual condition is
+that where the hairs form more or less pale bands along the joints of the
+segments, either immediately above or below them or both; sometimes these
+bands are very obscurely indicated, and visible only in certain positions.
+At others they are vividly white; to a certain extent this banded condition
+recalls the waspy coloration. The hairs, however, of the bands are rarely
+yellow, but as a rule greyish or white, or of a grade of colour slightly
+paler than those of the disc. There are some rather interesting points
+which arise out of this rough analysis. Among the bees, all the species
+which have a waspy coloration are cuckoos, with only one exception
+(_Anthidium_) {122} (pl. D, 27), as are also nearly all those which have
+red bands. With the exception of the males of three species of _Halictus_,
+and both sexes of three or four species of _Andrena_, all the red-banded
+forms belong to the genus _Sphecodes_ (pl. B, 11), which is a cuckoo genus.
+The red coloration occurs chiefly on nearly naked surfaces; this is
+specially noticeable in those bees which have two varieties, such as
+_Andrena rosæ_, one dull coloured and the other red-banded: in these cases
+the dull form is hairy and the red nearly naked. The greatest proportionate
+number of banded species occurs amongst the fossors, and these are seldom
+clothed with hairs to any extent. These bands seem to me probably to depend
+a good deal on retarded development. Dark and hairy bands, both as a rule,
+follow the joints of the segments, as stated above. I only say as a rule,
+as there are many where the banding does not follow this principle, but in
+far the larger majority the bands, whether of dark colour or hairs, are
+apical. As the segments overlap at the joints it is evident that their
+discs would tend to mature more rapidly than the overlapping bases and
+apices, {123} and the longer period spent in hardening and drying of the
+overlapping parts would favour the development of dark pigment and of
+hairs. Many species have the extreme apices of the segments pale, but with
+the apical integument so very thin, often looking nearly transparent and
+membranous, that its development would be very rapid. Again, in the case of
+red coloration, the red generally occurs on the discs of the segments, the
+apices and sides often being dark, and in cases where in one species both
+black and banded forms occur, with intermediate varieties, the last remnant
+of red colour is generally situated in the centre of the segment. By far
+the gayest effect is displayed by our humble bees, and, but for them and a
+few of the species of _Andrena_ and the wasp-coloured species, our
+aculeates would be a very sombre lot.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{124}
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS FROM THE EGG
+
+Although this and the following chapter may not be interesting to all my
+readers, I think it is only right to add some remarks on the structure and
+classification of insects, so that any one who wishes to follow up the
+subject may gather a few general ideas which may induce them to take up
+some technical and scientific work in which they will get fuller and more
+exact data on the difficulties which are involved in such simple questions
+as "What is an insect?" "How are the different orders of insects
+distinguished from each other?" "What is a species?" etc.
+
+To realize the characters of an insect in its perfect or "imago" state, we
+may for the moment forget what often seems to be its most important
+features, and which are frequently its most extensive parts, viz. its limbs
+or {125} appendages; by limbs are meant its wings, legs, horns or antennæ,
+jaws or mandibles, etc.: strip these all off, and we have a limbless trunk,
+which many would not recognize as belonging to an insect at all; still this
+limbless trunk possesses characters which assert its insect nature, as it
+may be known from other limbless trunks by being divided into three parts
+by two great transverse divisions; in most insects these are extremely well
+marked, and in all they have a very real existence. The parts thus divided
+off are known by the names of head, thorax, and abdomen. Anybody knows how
+easy it is to break off the head or body of a dried insect. Now the head or
+body breaks off at one of these divisions, and it is this partitioning of
+the body into three sections which makes one of the strongest characters in
+the definition of an insect. The three parts, thus divided off, each
+possesses special functions in the life of the creature. In the head are
+contained the principal organs of sense and brain; in the thorax, the
+organs of locomotion; and in the body those of digestion, reproduction,
+etc.
+
+This division into three parts does not however {126} always hold good in
+the early stages of the insect's life, and we must remember that the
+creature commences life on leaving the egg, and not merely on its emergence
+from the chrysalis, so that we have to reckon with caterpillars, grubs and
+all sorts of curious immature forms in our conceptions of an insect.
+
+These early stages do not as a rule interest the public much, but it is
+well to bear in mind that the "perfect insect" stage is reached by some
+insects along apparently a very different road from that travelled by
+others. Some leave the egg as caterpillars or grubs, and after various
+changes of skin become apparently lifeless chrysalids, from which they
+emerge as perfect insects. Others leave the egg as diminutive likenesses of
+their parents, and run or hop about much as they do, attaining the perfect
+insect stage simply by a series of changes of skin, without any definite
+quiescent or chrysalis condition.
+
+The observation, therefore, which one often hears that insects never grow,
+has to be taken with caution; all insects grow in their early stages, but
+it is an obvious truth that insects do not {127} grow after they attain the
+imago or "perfect insect" condition. A small fly will never become a large
+fly, nor a small beetle a large beetle. This is only because we do not
+recognize their caterpillars or grubs as flies and beetles; but a
+grasshopper we know grows, because its early stages are of the same general
+form as the perfect insect, and we see the little ones hopping about in
+some places, and if we visit the same place later on we notice that they
+have grown, but as soon as they cast their last skin and obtain the free
+use of their wings, growth ceases, as it does in a fly or a beetle or in
+any other insect.
+
+It must not be supposed that the limbs of insects are of no value in their
+identification. We only removed them in order to emphasize the great
+importance of the character derived from the regional constrictions of the
+body, which is considered to be certainly one of the most, if not the most,
+important of any. Besides this character every perfect insect should have
+six legs, four wings, and various appendages on the head, such as antennæ,
+mandibles, maxillæ, labium, etc.; some of these may be so modified as
+hardly to {128} be recognizable, but they are hardly ever absent
+altogether; for instance, the two fore wings of a beetle are modified into
+what are called wing cases, and fold over its back, protecting the two hind
+wings, which are more or less membranous, as are those of a bee. They have
+not the functions of locomotive organs, and are used in flight as poisers.
+Again in the case of a fly, the hind wings seem to be absent, but they are
+considered to be represented by two little projecting organs which look
+like large headed pins or nails, but which are quite useless for locomotive
+purposes.
+
+The organs of the mouth are especially liable to modification, and on these
+the older authors used to frame their classification. Insects were divided
+by them, primarily, into two great divisions, viz. those which had a biting
+and those which had a sucking mouth; treated in this way, the following
+orders fall into the division with biting mouths:--
+
+_Coleoptera_, or beetles; _Hymenoptera_, or bees, wasps, ants, etc.;
+_Orthoptera_ and _Neuroptera_, which include the grasshoppers, earwigs,
+cockroaches, dragonflies, May flies, etc. {129}
+
+And into the division with sucking mouths:--
+
+_Lepidoptera_, or butterflies and moths; _Diptera_ or flies, gnats, etc.;
+_Hemiptera_, or bugs, including the plant-lice, etc.
+
+These divisions, however, have not been found to be very satisfactory,
+although very simple when dealing only with the perfect insect stage. In
+the first place, being framed on this stage only, they are not always
+applicable to the earlier phases of the insect's life--for instance,
+although a butterfly or moth has a sucking proboscis, their caterpillars
+have strong biting jaws, as any gardener well knows. Also bees, wasps,
+etc., rather upset the arrangement, as they have not only a sucking mouth
+but also strong biting jaws.
+
+This system of classification has therefore been discarded by most
+entomologists in favour of that based on the difference between those
+insects which pass through the distinctive stages of caterpillar and
+chrysalis on the one hand, and those which emerge from the egg as
+diminutive likenesses of their parents on the other. In this arrangement,
+the _Coleoptera_, _Hymenoptera_, _Lepidoptera_, _Diptera_ and _Neuroptera_,
+fall into the {130} first division, or _Heteromorphæ_ as they are called;
+and the _Hemiptera_ and _Orthoptera_ into the second or _Homomorphæ_. The
+dragonflies are the only slightly discordant elements in this arrangement,
+as, although their larvæ have six legs and walk about under the water and
+never assume an actual chrysalis condition, still they can hardly be said
+to resemble their gorgeously coloured parents which fly about so
+majestically over our ponds, etc.; still this is only one of the many cases
+which show that nature cannot be held down by any of the arbitrary rules we
+make for her classification.
+
+The _Hymenoptera_ are therefore characterized and distinguished from other
+insects by having both a biting and sucking mouth, four clear wings, and by
+passing through the distinctive liveries of caterpillar or grub, and
+chrysalis or nymph. It is with this order only with which we have been
+dealing. To distinguish the aculeate section from the many other forms of
+the _Hymenoptera_ is too complex a task to undertake here, but the presence
+of a narrow waist between the thorax and the body, the number of joints in
+the antennæ never exceeding thirteen in {131} the male, twelve in the
+female, and the presence of a sting capable of ejecting poison in this
+latter sex, are the most prominent features by which the aculeates may be
+recognized.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{132}
+
+ON STRUCTURE
+
+Although in the foregoing chapter a little has been said on this subject,
+there is a great deal more that a student should learn about the general
+form of these creatures.
+
+They begin life as white or nearly colourless grubs, which, after various
+changes of skin, assume what is called the nymph or pupa stage, during
+which a change occurs, believed to be peculiar to the _Hymenoptera_; the
+fifth segment of the larval body is transferred to the mass which is called
+the thorax, so that a portion of what looks like thorax is really the first
+segment of the abdomen. Continental writers call this portion sometimes the
+first abdominal segment and sometimes the median segment, but Newman gave
+it a definite name, the "propodeum", and the most convenient method seems
+to be to call it so, and treat it as a part of the thorax, calling the
+first or basal segment of the abdomen {133} that which immediately follows
+the regional constriction, which occurs between the propodeum and the
+abdomen.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+    FIG. 28.
+
+    _a_ Head. _a_^1 Antennæ. _a_^2 Ocelli. _a_^3 Compound eyes.
+
+    _b_^1 Prothorax. _b_^2 Scutum of Mesothorax. _b_^3 Scutellum of
+    Mesothorax. _b_^4 Post-Scutellum of Metathorax. _b_^5 Propodeum.
+
+    _c_^1 _c_^2, etc., Segments of Abdomen.
+
+    Legs. _d_^1 Coxa. _d_^2 Trochanter. _d_^3 Femur. _d_^4 Tibia. _d_^5
+    Tarsi. _d_^6 Calcaria or Spurs. _d_^7 Unguiculi or claws. _d_^8
+    Pulvillus.
+
+    _e_ Front wing. 1 Costal nervure. 2 Post Costal nervure. 3 Median
+    nervure. 4 Posterior nervure. 5 Basal nervure. 6 Cubital nervure. 10
+    1st Recurrent nervure. 11 2nd Recurrent nervure.
+
+    _f._ Hind wing. 7 Anterior nervure. 8 Median nervure. 9 Posterior
+    nervure.
+
+    Cells. _A_ Marginal. _B_ Upper basal. _C_ Lower basal. _D_ 1st
+    Submarginal. _E_ 2nd Submarginal. _F_ 3rd Submarginal. _G_ 1st
+    Discoidal. _H_ 2nd Discoidal. _I_ 3rd Discoidal. _J_ 1st Apical. _K_
+    2nd Apical.
+
+{134} The perfect insect when it emerges has therefore a head, a thorax of
+four segments, and an abdomen of seven visible dorsal segments in the male,
+and of six in the female. The [male] has six ventral segments exposed, and
+often the apex of the eighth, which is frequently elongate, the seventh
+being almost always short and hidden; the eighth dorsal segment can be
+discovered hidden under the seventh, but it is very rarely exposed. The
+head (_a_) bears numerous appendages; a pair of antennæ (_a_^1), usually of
+thirteen joints in the male and of twelve in the female; two compound eyes
+(_a_^3), composed of many facets; three simple eyes (or ocelli) (_a_^2),
+which are situated on its vertex; two _mandibles_; two _maxillæ_, bearing
+_palpi_ on each side, of a varying number of joints; and a _labium_, or
+tongue, which also bears at its base two four-jointed palpi (cf. fig. 20).
+
+The thorax, as we are considering it, consists of four segments--the
+_prothorax_ (_b_^1), which bears the two front legs; the _mesothorax_
+(_b_^2), which bears the intermediate pair of legs and the anterior pair of
+wings; and the _metathorax_ (_b_^3), which bears the posterior pair of
+wings and the hind legs. The {135} propodeum has no appendages. The
+mesothorax above has two parts, a larger portion in front called by some
+the _scutum_ (_b_^2), and a smaller portion behind called the _scutellum_
+(_b_^3). These are separated from each other by a transverse impression,
+and the scutellum is often raised into a sort of little shield; behind this
+is another little elevation called the _post-scutellum_ (_b_^4); this is
+really the dorsal apex of the metathorax, and behind this lies the
+_propodeum_ (_b_^5). Each leg is composed of various parts, and articulates
+into a cavity of the thorax called the _acetabulum_. The first two joints
+of the leg, the _coxa_ (_d_^1) and the _trochanter_ (_d_^2), are very
+short; then follows the _femur_ or thigh (_d_^3); then the _tibia_ or shin
+(_d_^4); and finally the _tarsi_ (_d_^5), which compose the foot. At the
+apex of the _tibia_ are usually two spines called the _calcaria_ (_d_^6).
+The _tarsi_ are five-jointed, the joints following each other in a linear
+arrangement, and in the _Anthophila_ the basal joint is more or less
+dilated; the apical joint bears two claws (_unguiculi_, _d_^7) which are
+sometimes toothed, and between them, in some genera, there is what is
+called a _pulvillus_ (_d_^8) or cushion; this is very large and dilated in
+some of the fossors. {136}
+
+The wing neuration is always rather troublesome, as various authors use
+different names for the veins and cells. To begin with the anterior wing
+(_e_), there are four nerves which start from the base and run
+horizontally; the first of these, which forms the anterior margin of the
+wing, is called the _costal nervure_ (1); immediately below this, and
+running almost parallel to it with scarcely any space between them, is the
+_post-costal nervure_ (2); these end in the _stigma_ (_s_), a dark
+in-crassation towards the apex of the wing; from the stigma a nerve,
+curving first downwards and then up to the anterior margin of the wing,
+encloses the _marginal cell_ (_A_). Below the _post-costal_ nervure, and
+situated about the centre of the wing, is the third longitudinal nervure
+called the _median nervure_ (3); behind this again runs the _posterior
+nervure_ (4), and behind that the actual margin of the wing which is not
+provided with a protecting nervure, but is only folded back so as to
+receive the hooks of the posterior wing. Across the wing at, roughly, about
+a third of its length from the body runs the _basal nervure_ (5); this
+extends in a somewhat zigzag line from the _post-costal_ to the _posterior
+nervure_ crossing the _median_, and {137} thereby enclosing two cells, the
+_upper basal cell_ (_B_) and the _lower basal cell_ (_C_). From the centre
+of the apical nerve of each of these cells extends a longitudinal nervure;
+the upper of these runs out nearly to the apical margin of the wing and is
+called the _cubital nervure_ (6); this is united to the nervure of the
+_marginal cell_ by one, two, or three cross nervures, enclosing thereby
+one, two, or three cells called the first (_D_), second (_E_), and third
+(_F_) _submarginal cells_. The nervure from the lower basal cell is a short
+one, as it is met by a cross nervure called the first _recurrent nervure_
+(10), which runs from the _cubital_ to the _posterior_, thereby enclosing
+two cells, the first (_G_) and second (_H_) _discoidal_. The _second
+recurrent_ (11) leaves the _cubital_ nearer the apex of the wing than the
+first, meeting a nervure which, springing from the outer posterior angle of
+the second discoidal, closes the third discoidal (_I_), and, curving
+slightly upwards, nearly reaches the apical margin of the wing. Beyond the
+second recurrent, and behind this last nervure which we have been talking
+about, are two spaces not actually enclosed, but called the _first_ (_J_)
+_and second_ (_K_) _apical cells_.
+
+The posterior wings have very few cells. {138} Like the anterior pair they
+have three longitudinal nervures; the _anterior_ (7), which runs close and
+parallel to the anterior nerveless margin, and often touches it at about
+half the length of the wing; the _median_ (8) and _posterior_ (9) run in
+diverging lines from the base towards the exterior margin of the wing, the
+anterior and median nervures being almost always joined by a cross nervure,
+and the median usually united to the posterior by a cross or curved
+nervure. The actual base of the anterior wing is covered by a little convex
+somewhat shell-like cap, called the _tegula_ (_T_). The abdomen is composed
+of a series of segments in linear arrangement (_c_^1 _c_^2, etc.). These
+call for no special remark, beyond what has been said in the chapter on
+males and females, but those who wish to investigate the very interesting
+questions connected with the terminal segments of these creatures should
+consult some more technical work.[3] The arrangements of the mouth parts
+and of the apical segments of the Hymenoptera afford perhaps the most
+important structural {139} characters of the order, but they involve an
+amount of dissection and study which can only be undertaken by those who
+are inclined to give themselves up to this subject as a speciality.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+{141}
+
+INDEX
+
+  Abdomen, 125
+  Acetabulum, 135
+  Ammophila, 22
+  Andrena, 9, 12, 15, 48, 77, 79, 122, 139
+    -- fulva, 121
+    -- rosæ, 138
+    -- thoracica, 121
+  Antennæ, 101, 103, 134
+  Anthidium, 50, 121
+  Anthophila, 6
+  Anthophora, 48, 61, 82, 93, 109, 111, 121
+    -- pilipes, 61
+    -- retusa, 62
+  Ants, 28, 31, 88
+  Aphides, 88
+  Apis, 16
+  Astatus, 103
+
+  Banded bodies, 120
+  Beetles, 20
+  Biting, 3, 32
+  Black Species, 120
+  Bombus, 16
+    -- terrestris, 41, 42
+  Brain, 125
+  Bramble Stems, 12
+  Breeding, 113
+  Broods, 13
+  Burrows, 9
+
+  Calcaria, 70, 135
+  Carder Bees, 40
+  Cardines, 75
+  Carpenter bee, 55
+  Caterpillar, 19, 20
+  Cells, 10, 12, 28, 29, 40, 58
+    -- hexagonal, 28
+    -- pitcher-shaped, 58
+    -- waxen, 29, 40
+  Ceratina, 47, 128
+  Chimneys, 25
+  Chloroform, 118
+  Chrysis, 27
+  Cilissa, 48
+  Cleaning hairs, 68
+  Clover fertilization, 39
+  Cockroaches, 128
+  Cocoons, 33, 58
+  Coleoptera, 128, 129
+  Colletes, 44
+  Colonies, 5, 63
+  Colour, 100
+  Colour schemes, 22
+  Combs, 23, 68, 69
+  Corbicula, 67
+  Coxæ, 135
+  Crabro, 95, 102
+    -- albilabris, 119
+  Cuckoos, 3, 14, 30, 54
+    -- flight of, 85
+  Cyanide, 116
+
+  Dasypoda, 48
+  Development, 124
+  Digestion, 125
+  Diggers, 6, 7
+  {142}
+  Diptera, 129
+  Distribution, 105
+  Domestication, 41
+  Drone flies, 3
+  Dufourea, 106
+
+  Earwigs, 128
+  English names, 55
+  Epeolus, 45
+  Ether, 117
+  Eyes, 134
+
+  Females, 95
+  Femur, 135
+  Figwort, 36
+  Figure of insect, 133
+  Flies, 3, 129
+  Flower lovers, 6
+  Flute, 57
+  Food, 6, 28
+  Foot, 135
+  Formica, 34, 59
+    -- fusca, 119
+    -- sanguinea, 89
+  Formicoxenus, 96
+  Fossors, 6, 7
+
+  Galleries, 28
+  Grasshoppers, 19, 128
+  Growth, 126
+  Guests of Ants, 89
+
+  Hairs, 65, 71
+  Halictus, 13, 15, 17, 77, 94, 97, 119, 122
+  Head, 125
+  Hemiptera, 129, 130
+  Heterogyna, 28, 31
+  Heteromorphæ, 130
+  Hive bee, 2, 16
+  Homing instinct, 21
+  Homomorphæ, 130
+  Honey pots, 29
+  Hornets, 35
+  Humble bees, 39
+    -- mutilated, 41
+  Hymenoptera, 128, 129
+
+  Ichneumons, 21
+  Inquilines, 3
+
+  Jewel flies, 21, 27
+
+  Keyhole wasps, 101
+  Killing bottles, 126
+  Knife-like hairs, 68
+
+  Labels, 118
+  Labial palpi, 5
+  Labium, 127, 134
+  Larva, 11, 13
+  Lasius niger, 91
+    -- flavus, 91
+  Latin names, 55
+  Lawn bee, 9
+  Leaf-cutting bees, 52
+  Lepidoptera, 129
+  Ligula, 75, 134
+  Limbs, 125, 127
+  Locomotion, 125
+  Lodgers with ants, 89
+  Lomechusa, 89
+  Long-horned bee, 104
+  Lora, 74
+  Lysimachia, 106
+
+  Macropis, 106
+  Males, 95
+  Male wasp, 2
+    -- hornet, 2
+  Mandibles, 127, 129
+  Mason bee, 55
+  Maxillæ, 75, 127, 134
+  Mayflies, 128
+  {143}
+  Melecta armata, 61
+    -- luctuosa, 62
+  Mentum, 74
+  Metoecus paradoxus, 38
+  Mimicking flies, 94
+  Miscophus, 119
+  Moss, 29
+  Mouse's nest, 29
+  Mouth, 128
+  Mutilla, 112, 119
+  Myrmica, 34
+  Myrmosa, 100
+
+  Nests, 24, 26, 31, 35, 45, 49
+    -- in bramble stems, 45
+    -- Humble bees, 40
+    -- of leaves, 53
+    -- of paper, 37
+    -- in wren's nest, 41
+  Neuration, 136
+    -- figure and explanation of, 133
+  Neuroptera, 128, 129
+  Nodes, 33
+  Nomada, 15, 48
+  Non-predaceous hymenoptera, 3
+  Nymph, 11
+
+  Odynerus, 24
+  Orthoptera, 128, 130
+  Osmia, 48, 56, 120
+    -- bicolor, 59, 121
+    -- inermis, 58
+    -- leucomelana, 57
+    -- parietina, 58
+    -- rufa, 56
+  Ovaries, 4
+  Ovipositer, 1
+  Oxybelus, 86
+
+  Palm, 82
+  Palpi, 134
+  Panurgus, 49
+  Paper, 37
+  Paraglossæ, 76
+  Paralytics, 18
+  Plant lice, 19
+  Poison bags, 1
+  Pollen collecting, 65
+  Pompilus, 87
+  Ponera, 33
+  Porterage, 34
+  Post-scutellum, 135
+  Predaceous species, 3
+  Preservation, 116
+  Propodeum, 132, 135
+  Prosopis, 44, 46
+    -- cornuta, 47
+  Pulvillus, 135
+
+  Queens, 4
+
+  Rarity, 105
+  Ray, John, 63
+
+  Sallows, 82
+  Sandy bank, 83
+  Saropoda, 93, 111
+  Scale, 33
+  Scrophularia, 36
+  Scutellum, 135
+  Scutum, 135
+  Segments, 96
+  Setting, 117
+  Sexual structure, 100
+  Shin, 135
+  Snail shells, 12, 57
+  Social species, 3, 4, 28
+  Solitary species, 3, 4, 6
+  Spade-like hairs, 69
+  Sphecodes, 13, 15, 17, 48, 97, 122
+  Spiders, 19
+  Stinging, 2, 38
+  Stings, 2, 32
+  Stipes, 74
+  {144}
+  Straws, 12
+  Structure, 132
+  Stylops, 77
+  Submentum, 74
+  Swarming, 29
+
+  Tarsi, 135
+  Tegula, 133, 138
+  Thigh, 135
+  Thorax, 125, 129
+  Tibia, 135
+  Tomtit, 42
+  Tongues, 15, 39, 44, 49, 66, 72
+  Trochanter, 135
+  Tubular entrance, 25
+
+  Unguiculi, 135
+
+  Vagaries of structure, 104
+  Velleius dilatatus, 38
+  Vespa sylvestris, 36
+
+  Walls, 12
+  Wasps, social, 35
+    -- solitary, 24
+  Waspy coloration, 120, 121
+  Wings, 110
+    -- cells, 112, 133
+    -- folded, 24, 28
+    -- hooks, 110
+    -- nervures, 133
+  Workers, 4
+  Wrens' nests, 41
+
+  Yellow-coloured species, 120
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+NOTES
+
+[1] In this case, only the actual tongue (or _ligula_) and its _paraglossæ_
+are figured.
+
+[2] _The Guests of Ants and Termites_, by E. Wasmann, S. J., translated by
+H. Donisthorpe, F.Z.S. (_Ent. Record_, Vol. xii., 1900.)
+
+[3] cf. _Transactions of the Entomological Society of London_, 1884, p. 251
+et seq.: Hymenoptera Aculeate of the British Islands, etc.
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wild Bees, Wasps and Ants, by Edward Saunders
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Wild Bees, Wasps and Ants
+       and Other Stinging Insects
+
+Author: Edward Saunders
+
+Illustrator: Constance A. Saunders
+
+Release Date: October 18, 2010 [EBook #33874]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILD BEES, WASPS AND ANTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Keith Edkins and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<h2>WILD BEES, WASPS AND ANTS</h2>
+
+  <p><a name="platea"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:69%;">
+      <a href="images/PlateA.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/PlateA.png"
+      alt="Plate A" title="Plate A" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Plate A.</span>
+
+    <p class="poem">1. <i>Formica sanguinea, male.</i> 2. <i>Formica
+    sanguinea, female.</i> 3. <i>Formica sanguinea, worker.</i> 4.
+    <i>Mutilla europæa, male.</i> 5. <i>Mutilla Europæa, female.</i> 6.
+    <i>Cerceris arenaria, female.</i> 7. <i>Ammophila sabulosa, female.</i>
+    8. <i>Crabro cribrarius, male.</i> 9. <i>Odynerus spinipes,
+    male.</i></p>
+
+      <p class="author">[<i>front.</i></p>
+
+    <p class="poem"></p>
+  </div>
+
+<h1>WILD BEES, WASPS<br />
+AND ANTS</h1>
+
+<h3>And Other Stinging Insects</h3>
+
+<p class="cenhead">By</p>
+
+<h3>EDWARD SAUNDERS</h3>
+
+<p class="cenhead">F.R.S., F.L.S., etc</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead">With numerous Illustrations in the text, and<br />
+Four Coloured Plates by<br />
+CONSTANCE A. SAUNDERS</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/pmark.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/pmark.png"
+      alt="Printers Mark" title="Printers Mark" /></a>
+  </div>
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="cenhead">LONDON<br />
+GEORGE ROUTLEDGE &amp; SONS, LIMITED<br />
+<span class="sc">New York</span>: E. P. DUTTON &amp; CO.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<p><!-- Page v --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagev"></a>{v}</span></p>
+
+<h3>PREFACE</h3>
+
+  <p>The object of this little book is to give in as simple a form as
+  possible a short account of some of the British Wild Bees, Wasps, Ants,
+  etc., scientifically known as the <i>Hymenoptera Aculeata</i>. Of these
+  the non-scientific public rarely recognizes more than the Hive Bee, the
+  Humble Bee, the Wasp, and the Hornet, whereas there are about 400
+  different kinds to be found in this country, and they can be recognized
+  by any one who is disposed to make a special study of the group.</p>
+
+  <p>The author has not hesitated to make free use of the experiences of
+  others in regard to the habits of the insects he describes, and he has
+  not thought it necessary in each case to make separate acknowledgment of
+  this. He takes this opportunity of thanking Mr. H. Donisthorpe and Mr.
+  F.&nbsp;W.&nbsp;L. Sladen for assistance in the chapters on Ants and their Lodgers,
+  and Humble Bees, respectively. <!-- Page vi --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="pagevi"></a>{vi}</span></p>
+
+  <p>These pages are written only for the non-scientific, as the scientific
+  entomologist will be already familiar with the elementary facts recorded;
+  but it is hoped that they may be of interest to lovers of Nature who wish
+  to know a little about the insects they see round them and how they spend
+  their lives. Of this knowledge very little exists, as the scraps which
+  have been here brought together evidence. There is an immense field open
+  for research and observation, and the writer of this little book will be
+  very glad if the following pages should encourage any one to take up the
+  subject and add to our present scanty stock of information.</p>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>EDWARD SAUNDERS.</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class="sc">St. Ann's, Woking.</span></p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<p><!-- Page vii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii"></a>{vii}</span></p>
+
+<h3>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Table of Contents" title="Table of Contents">
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Subject in General</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Solitary Groups</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page6">6</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <span class="sc">The Solitary Bees</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page9">9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <span class="sc">The Cuckoo Bees</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page14">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <span class="sc">The Fossors, or Diggers</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page18">18</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <span class="sc">The Solitary Wasps</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page24">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Social Groups</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <span class="sc">The Ants</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <span class="sc">The Social Wasps</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <span class="sc">The Humble Bees</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Bees With Bifid Tongues</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Bees with Pointed Tongues</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page48">48</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">Leaf-Cutting Bees</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Osmia</i> <span class="sc">and Its Habits</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page55">55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">A Colony of</span> <i>Anthophora</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page61">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">Bees and Pollen-Collecting</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page65">65</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">On Bees' Tongues, and how They suck Honey</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">A Dreadful Parasite</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page77">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle">
+<!-- Page viii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageviii"></a>{viii}</span>
+   <span class="sc">Amongst the Bees at Work</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">Ants, their Guests, and their Lodgers</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page88">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">How can an "Aculeate" be Recognized?</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">Males and Females</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page95">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Vagaries of Colour and Structure in the Sexes</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Distribution, Rarity, or Abundance of Various Species</span>,</td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page105">105</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">On Bees' Wings</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">On Breeding Aculeates, etc.</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">On Colour</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page119">119</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Development of Insects from the Egg</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">On Structure</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">Index</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page141">141</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page ix --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageix"></a>{ix}</span></p>
+
+<h3>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE
+TEXT</h3>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="List of Illustrations" title="List of Illustrations">
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fig. &nbsp;1. <i>Bombus</i>, larva and nymph: after Packard </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page11">11</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; &nbsp; 2. <i>Ammophila</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; 3-4. Spines on the tarsi of female <i>Ammophila</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; &nbsp; 5. Tubular entrance to hole of wasp </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; &nbsp; 6. Basal segments of ants </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; &nbsp; 7. Rose-leaf partially eaten by bees </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; &nbsp; 8. Tufted hairs of hind leg of <i>Andrena</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; &nbsp; 9. Corbicula of humble bee </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; 10-12. Cleaning apparatus of bees </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page69">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; 13-18. Hairs of bees, magnified </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page71">71</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; 19. Tongues of bees, magnified </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; 20. Diagram of tongue of bee </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; 21. <i>Stylops</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page77">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; 22. <i>Stylops</i> larva in abdominal cavity of bee </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; 23. Antennæ of "Keyhole" wasps </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; 24. Legs of male "Keyhole" wasps </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; 25. Tibia of male <i>Crabro cribrarius</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; 26. Antennæ of male <i>Crabro cribrarius</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; 27. Head of male and female <i>Crabro clypeatus</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> &nbsp; ,,&nbsp; 28. Parts of the insect </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page133">133</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page xi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexi"></a>{xi}</span></p>
+
+<h3>DESCRIPTION OF THE COLOURED
+PLATES</h3>
+
+<p class="cenhead"><a href="#platea">PLATE A</a></p>
+
+<blockquote class="b1n">
+
+  <p>Figs. 1, 2, 3. <i>Formica sanguinea Latr.</i>: male, female, and
+  worker. The host of <i>Lomechusa</i> (p. <a href="#page89">89</a>), also
+  a slave-making species; makes irregular nests of dead leaves, etc.,
+  generally against a sloping bank.</p>
+
+  <p>Figs. 4, 5. <i>Mutilla europæa Linn.</i>: male and female. One of the
+  few British species of Aculeates where the female is wingless; found in
+  sandy places running in the sun.</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 6. <i>Cerceris arenaria L.</i>: female; burrows in the sand, and
+  provisions its nest with beetles (p. <a href="#page20">20</a>).</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 7. <i>Ammophila sabulosa L.</i>: female; burrows in the sand,
+  provisions its nest with caterpillars, peculiar for its very elongated
+  waist (p. <a href="#page22">22</a>).</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 8. <i>Crabro cribrarius L.</i>: male; peculiar for its
+  paddle-like tibiæ and flattened antennæ (p. <a
+  href="#page103">103</a>).</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 9. <i>Odynerus spinipes L.</i>: male; peculiar for the form of
+  its middle femora, which are cut out almost in two semicircles (p. <a
+  href="#page101">101</a>); female makes a tubular entrance to her nest (p.
+  <a href="#page25">25</a>).</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="cenhead"><a href="#plateb">PLATE B</a></p>
+
+<blockquote class="b1n">
+
+  <p>Fig. 10.&mdash;<i>Colletes succinctus L.</i>: female; lines its cells
+  with a gluey material (p. <a href="#page44">44</a>); colonizes in sandy
+  banks; host of <i>Epeolus rufipes</i> (fig. <a
+  href="#page19">19</a>).</p>
+
+<p><!-- Page xii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexii"></a>{xii}</span></p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 11. <i>Sphecodes subquadratus Smith</i>: female; cuckoo of a
+  species of <i>Halictus</i>; female hibernates like its host (p. <a
+  href="#page17">17</a>).</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 12. <i>Halictus lencozonius Schr.</i>: burrows in the ground; the
+  host of <i>Sphecodes pilifrons Thoms</i> (p. <a
+  href="#page17">17</a>).</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 13. <i>Vespa crabro L.</i>: female (the Hornet), nests in hollow
+  trees; host of the rare beetle <i>Velleius dilatatus</i> (p. <a
+  href="#page38">38</a>).</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 14. <i>Vespa vulgaris L.</i>: female: one of our commonest wasps;
+  nests usually in the ground (p. <a href="#page35">35</a>); host of a
+  peculiar beetle (<i>Met&oelig;cus paradoxus</i>) (p. <a
+  href="#page38">38</a>)</p>
+
+  <p>Figs. 15, 16. <i>Andrena fulva Schr.</i>: male and female; the bee
+  which burrows in lawns, etc. (p. <a href="#page9">9</a>); host of
+  <i>Nomada ruficornis var. signata</i> (p. <a href="#page15">15</a>).</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 17. <i>Panurgus ursinus Gmel.</i>: Female; legs loaded with
+  pollen, burrows in hard sandy paths, etc. (p. <a href="#page49">49</a>).
+  Males sleep curled up amongst the rays of yellow composite flowers.</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 18. <i>Nomada ruficornis L. var. signata</i>: cuckoo of
+  <i>Andrena fulva</i> (figs. 15 and 16).</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 19. <i>Epeolus rufipes Thoms</i>: female; cuckoo of <i>Colletes
+  succinctus</i> (fig. 10).</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="cenhead"><a href="#platec">PLATE C</a></p>
+
+<blockquote class="b1n">
+
+  <p>Fig. 20.&mdash;<i>Megachile maritima Kirby</i>: female; burrows in the
+  ground, makes its cells of pieces of leaves, which it cuts out with its
+  mandibles; host of <i>C&oelig;lioxys conoidea</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>Figs. 21, 22. <i>C&oelig;lioxys conoidea Illig</i>: male and female;
+  cuckoo of <i>Megachile maritima</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 23. Burrows of <i>Megachile Willughbiella Kirby</i>, in a piece
+  of rotten willow; each burrow originally contained six cells, but two of
+  the left-hand series have been lost.</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p><!-- Page xiii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexiii"></a>{xiii}</span></p>
+
+<p class="cenhead"><a href="#plated">PLATE D</a></p>
+
+<blockquote class="b1n">
+
+  <p>Figs. 24 and 25. <i>Anthophora pilipes F.</i>: male and female. A
+  spring bee, the male of which may often be seen in gardens, darting from
+  flower to flower (p. <a href="#page81">81</a>); while the female collects
+  pollen; it forms large colonies (p. <a href="#page62">62</a>).</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 26. <i>Melecta armata Pz.</i>: cuckoo of <i>Anthophora
+  pilipes</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 27. <i>Anthidium manicatum L.</i>: invests its cells with the
+  down off the stems of labiate plants, which it strips off with its
+  mandibles (p. <a href="#page50">50</a>).</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 28. <i>Osmia bicolor Schr.</i>: female; nests in snail-shells,
+  which it sometimes covers up with small pieces of grass-stems till a
+  little mound is formed, resembling a diminutive ants' nest (p. <a
+  href="#page59">59</a>).</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 29. <i>Bombus terrestris L.</i>: female. One of the commonest of
+  our Humble Bees; it nests in the ground. It is the host of <i>Psithyrus
+  vestalis</i>, which resembles it very closely in colour; it is this
+  species that was exhibited by Mr. Sladen at the Maidstone Agricultural
+  Hall (p. <a href="#page41">41</a>).</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 30. <i>Bombus lapidarius L.</i>: another common Humble Bee, also
+  an underground builder; it is the host of <i>Psithyrus rupestris</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 31. <i>Psithyrus rupestris F.</i>: female; the cuckoo of
+  <i>Bombus lapidarius</i>, which it closely resembles except for the
+  nearly black colour of the wings.</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 1 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"></a>{1}</span></p>
+
+<h3>THE SUBJECT IN GENERAL</h3>
+
+  <p>I think I ought here to say why I propose to limit myself to an
+  account of a certain portion only of the Hymenoptera. The reason for
+  this, in the first place, is that the section which I have selected is
+  the only one of which I have any special knowledge; it consists of the
+  bees, wasps, ants and sandwasps, four groups which make up the stinging
+  section of the order&mdash;or perhaps more accurately, which have poison
+  bags connected with their egg-laying apparatus or <i>ovipositor</i>.
+  Another reason for their selection lies in their nesting habits; these
+  enable one to get a further insight into their economy and ways than can
+  be obtained from those of almost any other group or order&mdash;at any
+  rate they make them comparatively easy to study; one can, so to say, find
+  these little creatures at home, whereas in most orders there seems to be
+  no definite home to which the <!-- Page 2 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page2"></a>{2}</span>individuals may be traced; a great advantage
+  also in selecting the stinging groups for study is that they are
+  creatures of the spring and summer, and of the sunshine, so that the
+  weather which tempts them out to their duties is of the kind most
+  agreeable to those who wish to investigate their habits.</p>
+
+  <p>The habits of the hive bee have not been touched on, as so many
+  excellent treatises have been written on them that any observations here
+  would be superfluous.</p>
+
+  <p>Although these groups are distinguished by their stinging habits, it
+  is only the female that possesses a sting&mdash;the male is a most
+  harmless creature and quite incapable of injuring any one. A male wasp or
+  even a male hornet may be handled with absolute impunity, only it is wise
+  to be certain as to the sex of the individual before presuming to play
+  with it too much! A word here may perhaps be said about stinging. People
+  often talk about a gnat stinging or a stinging fly; it may be difficult
+  to define exactly what "to sting" means, but the writer has always
+  considered that a sting is inflicted by the tail end of the creature or a
+  <!-- Page 3 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page3"></a>{3}</span>bite
+  by the mouth. A fly or gnat no doubt inserts its proboscis into one's
+  flesh just as a wasp does its sting; but the actions of such opposite
+  parts of the body surely demand distinct names. As we have been alluding
+  to flies it may not be inappropriate to say here that all the creatures
+  we are going to consider have four membranous wings except the worker
+  ants and a very few forms which are comparatively seldom met with. By
+  this character they may at once be known from flies, which have only two
+  membranous wings. The large brown "drone flies", so often seen on the
+  windows of our rooms, especially in autumn, and which most people mistake
+  for hive bees, to which they certainly bear a considerable general
+  resemblance, may be detected at once by wanting the two hind wings of the
+  bee.</p>
+
+  <p>The "aculeate", or stinging, Hymenoptera, are divided into sections
+  and families according to their structure; but the groups which stand out
+  most clearly in regard to their habits are the solitary and social
+  species, the predaceous and non-predaceous and the inquilines or cuckoos.
+  <!-- Page 4 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page4"></a>{4}</span></p>
+
+  <p>The vast majority of the aculeate Hymenoptera are what are called
+  "solitary", i.e. one male and one female alone are interested in the
+  production of the nest; but there are also three "social"
+  groups&mdash;the ants, the true wasps, and the humble and hive bees.</p>
+
+  <p>These are called social because they form communities and all work
+  together towards the maintenance of the nest. In the social species there
+  are two forms of the females&mdash;the queens and the workers; these
+  latter have the ovaries imperfectly developed, and in the humble bees and
+  wasps they only differ outwardly from the fully developed females or
+  queens by being smaller. In the ants, however, the workers are wingless,
+  and of a very different form from that of the queen. The rôle of these
+  workers seems to be to do the general work of the nest; they have been
+  known to lay fertile eggs, but the resulting offspring has always been
+  male.</p>
+
+  <p>Between these conditions of solitary and social we know of no actually
+  intermediate stages. We do not seem to see any attempts on the part of
+  solitary bees to become social or vice versâ. The only condition known
+  which <!-- Page 5 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page5"></a>{5}</span>could possibly be considered as intermediate
+  is shown in certain species where a number of individuals make their
+  nests close to each other in some particular bank, forming a colony.
+  These colonies are sometimes very extensive, and the burrows of the
+  individual bees very close together; it has also been shown that the
+  burrows sometimes unite&mdash;at the same time there seems to be no
+  positive evidence that there is any work done in the colony which could
+  be considered as done for the common good.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 6 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page6"></a>{6}</span></p>
+
+<h3>THE SOLITARY GROUPS</h3>
+
+  <p>All the solitary kinds appear to feed themselves on vegetable juices,
+  honey, etc., but there is a well-marked division between those who
+  provision the cells of their offspring with insects, either fully
+  developed or in the larval stages, and those who provision them with the
+  pollen of flowers, honey, etc. The theory is that originally all fed
+  their cells with insects, but that by degrees the more progressive found
+  that the food which suited themselves would equally nourish their
+  offspring, and accordingly provided them with vegetable nourishment. We
+  find no intermediate stages. A certain class still goes on feeding on the
+  old principle. The members of this class are known as "<i>fossors</i>" or
+  diggers, while those which feed on the new principle are called
+  "<i>Anthophila</i>" or flower-lovers. These are not very happy names, as
+  many of the <i>Anthophila</i> dig out holes for their nests just <!--
+  Page 7 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page7"></a>{7}</span>in the same
+  way as the <i>fossors</i> do, and many of the <i>fossors</i> are found in
+  flowers, apparently enjoying them just as much as a truly anthophilous
+  species would, although no doubt often with the ulterior object of
+  capturing some insect for their young! Still these names are known as
+  representing these two sections all over the world, and therefore it is
+  better to keep to them even if they are not as descriptive as one would
+  like them to be.</p>
+
+  <p>The <i>fossors</i>, or "diggers", have all comparatively short and
+  bifid tongues, and have, as a rule, little in the way of hairy covering,
+  and what hairs they have are simple and only in very rare instances
+  branched or feather-like. The hind legs of the females are not modified
+  in any way so as to enable them to collect pollen, their legs are usually
+  long and slender, and they are admirably adapted to their life habits of
+  hunting spiders, insects, etc., for their young.</p>
+
+  <p>On the other hand, the <i>Anthophila</i> or "flower-lovers", are
+  specially adapted for pollen collecting. Their tongues vary from a short
+  form like that of some <i>fossors</i> to the long tongues of the humble
+  bees. Their hairs are always plumose <!-- Page 8 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page8"></a>{8}</span>or branched on some part of
+  the body and the hind legs of the females in most species are provided on
+  the tibia or shin with a special brush on which pollen may be collected.
+  In some of the long-tongued bees, however, this brush occurs on the
+  underside of the body instead of on the tibia. The pollen-collecting
+  arrangements of the different genera of the <i>Anthophila</i> and the
+  corresponding organs for cleaning off the pollen again are amongst the
+  most interesting instances of modification and adaptation: some of the
+  more striking of these will be mentioned later on. (See pp. <a
+  href="#page65">65</a> <i>sqq.</i>)</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 9 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page9"></a>{9}</span></p>
+
+<h3>THE SOLITARY BEES</h3>
+
+  <p>The life-history of an ordinary pair of solitary bees is, roughly, as
+  follows: I will take for an example one of the spring species of
+  <i>Andrena</i>. Many people know the little red bee, which for some
+  apparently unaccountable reason suddenly appears in myriads on their lawn
+  or gravel path, throwing up little mounds of finely powdered
+  earth&mdash;in this respect being quite different from worm casts, which
+  are formed of wet mould and the particles of which cling
+  together&mdash;sometimes causing considerable alarm as to the possible
+  effect on the lawn. These have hatched out from burrows made by their
+  parents in the previous year, the mouths of which have been filled up
+  with earth and therefore are quite invisible till the newly fledged bees
+  gnaw their way out. They, in their turn, are now making fresh burrows for
+  their own broods; possibly they infested some one else's lawn the year
+  before or were only in comparatively small <!-- Page 10 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page10"></a>{10}</span>numbers on the lawn under
+  notice and so passed unrecognized. They may safely be left alone, as they
+  never seem to breed many consecutive years in one such locality: probably
+  the treatment of a lawn does not suit them, mowing and rolling upsetting
+  their arrangements. We will now consider these arrangements. The female
+  bee, so soon as she realizes that she is charged with the duty of
+  providing for her future offspring, makes a burrow in the ground, and the
+  earth thrown up from the tunnel forms the little heap which is so
+  observable; this burrow varies in depth from 6 to 12 inches and has short
+  lateral branches; each of these she shapes, more or less, into the form
+  of a cell, provisions it with a small mass of pollen mixed with honey for
+  the maintenance of the larva when hatched, and lays her egg; she then
+  seals up that cell and proceeds to the next, and in this way fills the
+  burrow up until pretty near the surface. The bee caterpillar when hatched
+  is a white grub-like creature which, after devouring the food provided
+  for it, becomes more or less torpid; it then makes its final change of
+  skin, after how long a period is probably uncertain, and appears in the
+  nymph stage. <!-- Page 11 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page11"></a>{11}</span><span class="figright" style="width:26%;"><a
+  href="images/Fig1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig1.png"
+  alt="Fig 1. Bombus" title="Fig 1. Bombus" /></a><span
+  class="sc">Fig.</span> 1. Bombus, larva and nymph: after Packard.</span>
+  This stage corresponds to the chrysalis of a moth or butterfly, the
+  creature being shortened up and rather more like the perfect insect
+  compacted into the smallest form possible. People are often misled into
+  the idea that the caterpillar forms the chrysalis over its former self,
+  whereas the chrysalis has been all the time forming inside the
+  caterpillar and only shows itself when the final skin is shed; of course
+  some caterpillars spin a cocoon over themselves before they change their
+  skin, but then the true chrysalis is found inside the cocoon. A curious
+  fact connected with the change from the nymph to the perfect insect is
+  that this takes place sometimes as early as August in the year preceding
+  their appearance; so that cells dug up in August may contain fully
+  fledged insects which are not due to appear till April or May of the
+  following year. It is wonderful also how long life can be <!-- Page 12
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page12"></a>{12}</span>sustained by
+  these creatures in the "full-fed larva" condition. Some years ago I
+  collected a number of pierced bramble stems in order to breed out some of
+  the small "sandwasps" which nest in them. On opening them in May, when
+  the perfect insects are generally ready to appear, I found that several
+  of the larvæ had rather shrunk up and had not changed into nymphs. These
+  I left in the stems, covering them up again, and they appeared as perfect
+  insects in the May of the following year.</p>
+
+  <p>The account given of the nesting habits of the above <i>Andrena</i> of
+  our lawns, etc., is more or less true of nearly all the solitary bees.
+  Their methods vary, some burrow in the ground, some in old wood, some in
+  snail shells, some in bramble stems or straws or the hollow stems of
+  various plants, some in holes or crevices in walls, etc., and their
+  methods of building their cells vary exceedingly: all of these are of
+  great interest and some display an ingenuity which is quite surprising.
+  Of these special nesting habits some of the most striking will be
+  mentioned later on.</p>
+
+  <p>Before leaving these general remarks on the <!-- Page 13 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page13"></a>{13}</span>solitary bees the habits
+  of two genera must be specially noticed, as they differ in an essential
+  point from those of the others. These are known to entomologists under
+  the names of <i>Halictus</i> and <i>Sphecodes</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>In most species of these the males and females of the new brood are
+  not hatched out till after midsummer, and no work is done for the
+  provisioning of new burrows that autumn; but the female, after having
+  undertaken the duties of maternity, hibernates, i.e. goes back into a
+  burrow and lives there till the next spring, the males dying off before
+  the winter. In the spring the &#x2640; wakes up and does the necessary
+  work for the future brood just as any ordinary spring bee would&mdash;but
+  there are no attendant males&mdash;the duties of that sex having been
+  performed in the autumn. The larvæ contained in these burrows hatch out
+  after midsummer and therefore never spend a winter in the ground. In this
+  respect they resemble the social bees and wasps, about which more
+  hereafter; in the meanwhile a few words must be said about the cuckoos or
+  inquilines, which are perhaps the most interesting creatures of all.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 14 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page14"></a>{14}</span></p>
+
+<h3>THE CUCKOO BEES</h3>
+
+  <p>These cuckoos live at the expense of their hosts. The mother of the
+  industrial brood makes her cell and provisions it, and lays her egg. The
+  cuckoo bee manages to enter also and lay her egg in the same cell, the
+  usual result being that the cuckoo devours most of the food instead of
+  the rightful offspring, which gradually gets starved and dies, the cuckoo
+  appearing in its place; but there have been cases, how frequent they are
+  is difficult to say, in which both offsprings have emerged.</p>
+
+  <p>The whole problem of the relationships between host and cuckoo is most
+  interesting. In some cases the cuckoos are so like their hosts that it is
+  difficult to tell one from the other, in others they are so unlike that
+  it is difficult to trace any resemblance between them. There are a great
+  number of different kinds of cuckoos, and most of them select a special
+  host to associate <!-- Page 15 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page15"></a>{15}</span>with, and are never found except with that
+  species. There are, however, cases of cuckoos which visit the nests of
+  more than one host, and cases of hosts which are visited by several kinds
+  of cuckoos. In the short-tongued bees, with the exception of
+  <i>Halictus</i> and <i>Sphecodes</i>, the cuckoos are quite unlike their
+  hosts both in form and colour. In the <i>Andrenas</i> (the lawn bee being
+  one of them) the hosts are clothed with reddish, or brown and black,
+  hairs, and are of a more or less stout build (<a href="#plateb">pl.
+  B</a>, 15, 16). The cuckoos are elegant in shape, almost devoid of hairs,
+  and most of them are striped with yellow or brown across the body so that
+  they present a wasp-like appearance (<a href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, 18).
+  Species more unlike one another than host and cuckoo one could hardly
+  imagine; still this stranger seems to get access to the nest of its host
+  without opposition. In a colony of <i>Andrena</i> one may see the cuckoos
+  (which rejoice in the name of <i>Nomada</i> or wanderers) flying about
+  among the females of the industrious bee, and no alarm or concern appears
+  to be felt by the latter. As we go up in the scale of bees, i.e. towards
+  the more specialized, and arrive at those with longer tongues, the <!--
+  Page 16 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page16"></a>{16}</span>cuckoos
+  are found as a rule to resemble their hosts more closely, both in colour
+  and structure, and when we reach the social genus <i>Bombus</i> (i.e. the
+  humble bees) we find the cuckoos so like their hosts (<a
+  href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 30, 31) that even entomologists of experience
+  mistake one for the other. <i>Apis</i> (the hive bee) has no cuckoo. It
+  seems to be theoretically probable that both cuckoo and host once
+  originated from common parents; this is suggested by the similarity of
+  structure of certain parts of both host and cuckoo, even in cases where
+  they are otherwise most dissimilar. <i>Andrena</i> and <i>Nomada</i>, for
+  instance, which are very unlike, as stated above, agree in both having
+  very feeble stings and in possessing three conspicuous spines on the
+  upper and posterior edge of the orbit of the larva. Also, although
+  <i>Andrena</i> the host has a short tongue, and <i>Nomada</i>, its
+  cuckoo, a long one, the appendages (<i>labial palpi</i>) of the latter's
+  tongue are framed on the same plan as those of the tongue of
+  <i>Andrena</i>, and are quite unlike those of the other long-tongued
+  bees. On the other hand, the cuckoos of the social species resemble them
+  so closely in structure as well as <!-- Page 17 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page17"></a>{17}</span>appearance that it is
+  more necessary to search for points of difference than of similarity.
+  There is only one case known of a cuckoo wasp, and that resembles its
+  host even more closely than do the cuckoos of the humble bees. All these
+  points certainly suggest the probability that the social bees and wasps
+  and their cuckoos adopted different habits at a much more recent date
+  than the solitary species, and therefore have not had so much time to
+  become differentiated in structure. The only short-tongued bees which
+  have cuckoos of similar structure are the species of <i>Halictus</i> (<a
+  href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, 12); their cuckoos, <i>Sphecodes</i> (<a
+  href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, 11), are closely allied to them, but then
+  <i>Halictus</i> and <i>Sphecodes</i> are most peculiar genera; although
+  short-tongued, their females spend the winter in the earth, as do the
+  social bees and wasps (see p. <a href="#page13">13</a>), and they
+  colonize largely, which may prove to be a step towards socialism.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page18"></a>{18}</span></p>
+
+<h3>THE FOSSORS OR DIGGERS</h3>
+
+  <p>In many respects the insects of this section adopt the same methods as
+  the solitary bees so far as the construction of their nests is concerned,
+  but the food brought home for their offspring is animal instead of
+  vegetable. In order to supply their larvæ with "fresh meat" these little
+  creatures, when they have captured a suitable prey, sting it in such a
+  way that it becomes paralyzed, but does not die; after provisioning a
+  cell with the necessary number of these paralytics, the mother lays her
+  egg on one of them or amongst them, and closes up the cell. In
+  consequence of this wonderful maternal instinct, foresight, or whatever
+  the faculty may be, the larva when hatched finds fresh food ready for
+  consumption. The various species provision their nests with different
+  kinds of foods, and some appear to be most fastidious in their selection,
+  and are said never to err in choosing <!-- Page 19 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page19"></a>{19}</span>species of some
+  particular family, thereby displaying a discernment worthy of any
+  advanced entomologist. Some provision their cells with beetles, some with
+  grasshoppers, others with spiders, caterpillars, plant lice, etc.</p>
+
+  <p>The strength possessed by the female fossor must be proportionately
+  enormous, as she can bring back to her burrow, after paralyzing them,
+  insects many times her own size. It is a most interesting sight to see
+  the excitement and flurry of the captor as it tries to drag along some
+  huge prey to its nest. I remember seeing one dragging along a good-sized
+  caterpillar, of a noctuid moth, over rather rough ground: the poor
+  creature had a difficult job; it had to go backwards itself, and pull the
+  body of the caterpillar, after it&mdash;its behaviour was very much like
+  that of an ant which has a large burden; at times it would loose its hold
+  of it and try it from some other quarter; however, by degrees, by pulling
+  and tugging, the prey was safely brought home, but the force expended
+  must have been very great. Many species, however, hunt insects of much
+  smaller size than themselves, and it is those which take a fancy to
+  grasshoppers and <!-- Page 20 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page20"></a>{20}</span>caterpillars which seem to be the most
+  doughty in deeds of force. One, a very rare kind in this country, sets
+  its affection especially on the honey bee as a prey; the two insects are
+  about equal in size, but the hive bee must be a dangerous foe to attack,
+  and one would have thought as likely to sting its captor as its captor
+  would be to sting it; also one would imagine that a hive bee, unless
+  thoroughly paralyzed, would be a dangerous subject for a juvenile larva
+  to commence making a meal upon! but whether the venture ever turns out
+  unsatisfactorily there are no data to show, so far as I am aware. The
+  larvæ must vary very much in their tastes; one can imagine that a nice
+  juicy caterpillar, or even a good fat grasshopper, may be appetizing and
+  easily assimilated, but one can equally fancy that the larvæ, who wake up
+  to find their food consisting of small hard beetles, may feel more or
+  less resentment against their parents' ideas of dainties for the young!
+  Still they seem to thrive on it, and come out eventually as exact
+  likenesses of their parents. A large number of the fossors inhabit dry
+  sandy wastes, such as the dunes along the sea coast at Deal, Lowestoft,
+  <!-- Page 21 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page21"></a>{21}</span>etc.; many of these, when they leave their
+  burrows, throw up some sand over the hole so as completely to cover it;
+  how these insects find the spot again after a lengthy chase after spiders
+  or other prey is a marvel; and yet those who have observed carefully say
+  that they come home from long distances with unerring precision. No sense
+  of which we have any knowledge, however accentuated, seems to explain
+  this. To be able to arrive back at a home in an extensive arid sandy
+  plain, where no outward sign indicates its whereabouts, must surely
+  require perception of a different nature from any of those with which we
+  are endowed. Some fossors are subject to the depredations of cuckoos,
+  just as the solitary bees are, but their cuckoos are rarely of aculeate
+  origin. The only ones which I have had any opportunity of studying are
+  the species which nest in bramble stems. The cuckoos which associate with
+  them are some of the smaller jewel flies and <i>Ichneumons</i>: the
+  habits of both these differ from those of the aculeate cuckoos, the jewel
+  flies devouring the larva of the aculeate and the <i>Ichneumon</i> laying
+  its eggs in it. The fossors <!-- Page 22 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page22"></a>{22}</span><span class="figright" style="width:17%;"><a
+  href="images/Fig2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig2.png"
+  alt="Fig 2. Ammophila" title="Fig 2. Ammophila" /></a><span
+  class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</span> vary exceedingly in size, shape and
+  colour. Our largest species are about an inch long and our smallest about
+  the eighth of an inch, nearly all having the body where it joins the
+  thorax constricted into a very narrow waist; this is sometimes of
+  considerable length. In one genus known to entomologists by the name
+  <i>Ammophila</i> (fig. 2) or "lover of the sand", the waist is
+  practically the longest part of the body, so that looking at one sideways
+  as it flies along, one could almost be deceived into thinking that there
+  were two insects, one following the other (cf. <a href="#platea">pl.
+  A</a>, fig. 7). In colour, there seem to be three dominant schemes: Black
+  (cf. <a href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, fig. 17); black with a red band across
+  the body (cf. <a href="#platea">pl. A</a>, fig. 7); and black banded with
+  yellow, like a wasp (cf. <a href="#platea">pl. A</a>, figs. 6 and 8,
+  etc.) In some the yellow bands may not be complete, and appear only as
+  spots on each side of the body segments, or the red band may be almost
+  obliterated, or the black species may <!-- Page 23 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page23"></a>{23}</span><span class="figleft"
+  style="width:8%;"><a href="images/Fig3.png"><img style="width:100%"
+  src="images/Fig3.png" alt="Fig 3. Spines of Ammophila" title="Fig 3. Spines of Ammophila"
+  /></a><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.</span> <span class="figleft"
+  style="width:7%;"><a href="images/Fig4.png"><img style="width:100%"
+  src="images/Fig4.png" alt="Fig 4. Spines of Ammophila" title="Fig 4. Spines of Ammophila"
+  /></a><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.</span> be more or less variegated
+  with yellow spots on the head and thorax, but as a general rule all our
+  species fall into one or other of these colour schemes. The females of
+  some of our sand frequenting species have beautiful combs on their front
+  feet, each joint of the tarsi having one or more long spines on its
+  external side (figs. 3 and 4). These are of importance to them in their
+  burrowing, as they enable them to move with one kick of their front leg a
+  considerable amount of the dry sand in which they make their nests.
+  Although sandy commons, etc., are the resort of many fossors, others may
+  be found burrowing in wood or in hard pathways or banks; in fact, like
+  most other insects, some of their members may be found almost
+  anywhere.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 24 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page24"></a>{24}</span></p>
+
+<h3>THE SOLITARY WASPS</h3>
+
+  <p>The ordinary wasps are acquaintances of every one, but the solitary or
+  keyhole wasps are not so well known, although they are far from uncommon.
+  They are little narrow black insects striped across the body with yellow,
+  belonging to the genus <i>Odynerus</i> (<a href="#platea">pl. A</a>, 9),
+  and might hardly be recognized as belonging to the same family as the
+  true or social wasps. Still they have considerable powers of stinging,
+  and fold their wings lengthwise when at rest like their larger relatives.
+  I dare say some people may have noticed that a wasp's wing sometimes
+  assumes a narrow straight form, quite unlike what it is when expanded.
+  This is due to the wasp being able to fold its wing lengthwise like a
+  fan. The wasp tribe are, so far as I know, the only stinging Hymenoptera
+  which have this power.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:9%;">
+      <a href="images/Fig5.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig5.png"
+      alt="Fig 5. Entrance to wasp hole" title="Fig 5. Entrance to wasp hole" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.
+  </div>
+
+  <p>They make their nests of mud, etc., in crevices of walls, in banks, in
+  plant stems, and often <!-- Page 25 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page25"></a>{25}</span>in most inconvenient places, such as
+  keyholes, etc. Some of the solitary wasps have a very curious habit of
+  making a tubular entrance to their hole. These may sometimes be seen
+  projecting from sandy banks. The tube is composed of a series of little
+  pellets of mud, which the wasp by degrees, with the help of its mouth
+  secretions, sticks together till a sort of openwork curved tube of
+  sometimes an inch long is formed (fig. 5). This curve is directed
+  downwards, so that the wasp has to creep up it before reaching the actual
+  orifice of the nest. It looks as if the first shower of rain would wash
+  the whole structure away, and I have very little doubt that it often does
+  so. The object of these tubes is difficult to appreciate. There is a bee
+  on the continent which makes straight chimneys above its holes, so as to
+  raise the entrance above the surrounding herbage; possibly these solitary
+  wasps once required <!-- Page 26 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page26"></a>{26}</span>their tubes also for some such purpose, and
+  have continued on truly conservative lines to build them long after all
+  usefulness has passed away from the habit; anyhow they are very
+  interesting and beautiful structures. I have found the tubes of one of
+  our rarer species projecting perpendicularly out of the level sand, but
+  even then the tubes were curved over at the end, so that the wasp had to
+  go up and down again before entering its actual hole. The Rev. F.&nbsp;D.
+  Morice in 1906 found the tubes of the same species in numbers projecting
+  from the walls of an old stuccoed cottage situated close to the locality
+  where I found mine, so it is evident that more than one situation suits
+  its requirements. The solitary wasps provision their cells with
+  caterpillars, stinging them in the same way as the fossors do. One very
+  peculiar genus, of one species only in this country, has its body much
+  narrowed at the waist by reason of the constricted form of the basal
+  segment; it makes a little round nest of clay which it suspends from a
+  twig of heather or other plant. This species is rarely met with except on
+  the heathery commons of Surrey, Hants, Dorset, etc. The <!-- Page 27
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page27"></a>{27}</span>solitary wasps
+  are subject to the attacks of cuckoos belonging to the jewel fly or
+  <i>Chrysis</i> tribe; these behave differently from those belonging to
+  the aculeate groups, as their larvæ do not eat the food laid up for the
+  wasp, but wait till the wasp larva has finished feeding up, and then
+  devour it. Unlike as these cuckoos are to their hosts in their brilliant
+  metallic coloration, etc., they have structural characters curiously like
+  theirs, so that even here a common parentage in bygone generations may be
+  reasonably suspected. At present, however, they are placed, except by a
+  few systematists, in quite distinct families of the Hymenoptera.</p>
+
+  <p>In general form these solitary wasps resemble the fossors more than
+  the bees; they have mostly short tongues (I think all our British ones
+  have), and their hairs are simple or more or less spirally twisted.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 28 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page28"></a>{28}</span></p>
+
+<h3>THE SOCIAL GROUPS</h3>
+
+  <p>The social bees are certainly the most highly specialized of the
+  <i>Anthophila</i>, and the social wasps of the <i>Diploptera</i> or
+  insects with folded wings. The ants occupy a less definite position: they
+  would seem to be the outcome of specialization among the fossors, only
+  they feed their young with vegetable juices and not with animal as the
+  latter do. They are always kept as a separate tribe under the name
+  <i>Heterogyna</i>, but for our purposes the better known word "ant" will
+  suffice.</p>
+
+  <p>The hive bee and the social wasps are the only British Hymenoptera
+  which adopt the hexagonal cell-formation in their nests, the bee
+  fashioning its cells in wax, the wasps and hornet in masticated wood or
+  paper. The formation of ants' nests is far less regular, being composed
+  of irregular passages, called galleries, and open spaces, no doubt built
+  on a plan, but probably <!-- Page 29 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page29"></a>{29}</span>in respect of plan no two nests are exactly
+  alike. The humble bees again differ from either in their nesting habits:
+  the female in the spring seeks out a mouse's nest or other suitable
+  foundation of moss, etc., in or on the surface of the ground, according
+  to the species. This she lines with wax, deposits a heap of pollen, and
+  lays her eggs in it. She also makes waxen cells for honey, but these are
+  not hexagonal and symmetrical as are those of the hive bee, but are more
+  like little pots, and are known as "honey pots".</p>
+
+  <p>It must be borne in mind that the economic arrangements of the wasps
+  and humble bees only last for a single season, whereas those of the ant
+  and hive bee exist for many years. In consequence of this the swarming
+  habits belong exclusively to the ants and hive bee. That of the hive bee
+  is well known to all, and most people must have observed the swarms of
+  male and female ants which fill the air on some sultry summer or autumn
+  evening. Thousands of these must perish, but a certain number of the
+  females accept the responsibility of starting a fresh nest, and so the
+  ant population is kept up. <!-- Page 30 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page30"></a>{30}</span>It will be seen from these remarks that the
+  three social groups are very distinct in their methods of nest making,
+  and have really very little in common except the social habit. The humble
+  bees have their cuckoos; one species of wasp has a cuckoo, and there is a
+  possible case of a cuckoo amongst the continental ants, but this has not
+  yet been observed in this country. The ants harbour so many species of
+  insects in their nests besides their own family that it is difficult to
+  form an idea as to whether the case in question is at all analogous to
+  that of host and cuckoo in the other aculeates or not.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 31 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page31"></a>{31}</span></p>
+
+<h3>THE ANTS</h3>
+
+  <p>These little creatures are probably the most intelligent of all the
+  insects&mdash;and yet at times they seem to wander about almost
+  aimlessly. A worker may be found with an insect or something which it is
+  eagerly dragging along and drops probably from fear. It appears anxious
+  to regain its hold of it, but goes about in all sorts of wrong directions
+  before it again finds it, it may be to make sure its enemy is clear away
+  before it resumes operations, but the effect to the ordinary onlooker is
+  one of sheer incapacity&mdash;at the same time the wonderful habits of
+  the tribe, the way in which they keep plant lice for their larvæ, their
+  methods of carrying each other, their nest-building, and the slave-making
+  instincts of some of the species, show an intelligence surpassed by no
+  other family of insects. Their nests are formed in very various ways: the
+  same species even will sometimes nest under a stone and sometimes make
+  ant hills; some <!-- Page 32 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page32"></a>{32}</span>of the large species make their nests of
+  huge heaps of fir needles, and number 400 to 500 thousand in one
+  nest&mdash;others live in quite small communities, nesting in bramble
+  stems, old rotten wood, moss, etc. One little species, rare with us,
+  lives in the walls of other ants' nests, just as mice live in the walls
+  of our houses; another quite small species lives apparently on friendly
+  terms with the common large red or horse ant, and may be found running
+  about amongst them, on and in their nests, but, so far as I know, nothing
+  is known as to how its young are reared. There is a curious division in
+  the family between the ants that have true stings and those which have
+  not. The large ants of our fir woods can bite and are able to eject
+  poison through the apical opening of the body into the wound they create,
+  but these as well as the larger and smaller black ants and some others
+  have the sting undeveloped, whereas some of our small species have a
+  sting which they can use with considerable effect; this difference in
+  habit is accompanied by a difference in the structure in the basal
+  segments of the body. In the stingless species the basal segment is
+  reduced <!-- Page 33 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page33"></a>{33}</span><span class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a
+  href="images/Fig6.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig6.png"
+  alt="Fig 6. Basal segments of ants" title="Fig 6. Basal segments of ants"
+  /></a><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6</span> to a flat upright transverse
+  scale (fig. 6, 1); in the stinging ants two segments at the base are
+  reduced to nodes (fig. 6, 3). There is an exception in the case of one
+  little rare genus, <i>Ponera</i>, which has only the basal abdominal
+  segment reduced to a scale although a much thicker scale than in the
+  others (fig. 6, 2), and yet which has a distinct sting. These
+  arrangements give the body very free movement so that the tail can be
+  bent forward till it reaches the head. Another curious distinction
+  between the stingers and non-stingers is that the larvæ of the former
+  spin cocoons and those of the latter do not; the larvæ of <i>Formica
+  fusca</i> occasionally do not do so, but they are an exception to the
+  rule. Cocoon spinning seems to involve the larvæ in some difficulties, as
+  without the help of the worker ants they are often unable to extract
+  themselves from their prison. This is a condition which does not, I
+  believe, exist in other groups. In the stingless ants there is a curious
+  difference in habit between the <!-- Page 34 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page34"></a>{34}</span>species of the genus <i>Formica</i>, where,
+  according to Forel, the workers do not follow in line over unknown
+  ground, and frequently carry one another, the one carried being rolled up
+  under the head of the other, and the species of <i>Lasius</i>, where the
+  workers follow one another in line, but never carry each other. Among the
+  stinging ants another method of carrying occurs in certain genera. The
+  porter seizes the one she wishes to carry by the external edge of one of
+  her mandibles and then throws her over her back, so that she lies along
+  the back of her porter with her ventral aspect uppermost and her legs and
+  antennæ folded as in the nymph state. Neither of these methods sounds
+  very comfortable, but then probably an ant's idea of comfort and our own
+  may be very different.</p>
+
+  <p>Lord Avebury, in his <i>Ants, Bees and Wasps</i>, tells us that he has
+  known a male of <i>Myrmica ruginodis</i> live for nine months, although
+  no doubt, as he says, they generally die almost immediately, and he has
+  known queen ants to live for seven years, and workers, which he had in
+  his nest, for six years.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 35 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page35"></a>{35}</span></p>
+
+<h3>THE SOCIAL WASPS</h3>
+
+  <p>Of these we have only seven different kinds, and with the exception of
+  the hornet they are all very much alike. One often hears people say that
+  they have seen such a large wasp that they think it must have been a
+  hornet, but no one who has ever seen a hornet could mistake a wasp for
+  one. A hornet is <i>red-brown</i> with yellow markings (<a
+  href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, 13), a wasp is <i>black</i> and yellow, and
+  altogether a less formidable-looking creature (<a href="#plateb">pl.
+  B</a>, 14). Even a queen wasp is not so large as a small worker hornet.
+  The hornet nests in hollow trees, our three commoner wasps nest, as a
+  rule, in the ground, but occasionally in outhouses, under roofs, etc. One
+  of the others as a rule makes its nest in shrubs, but occasionally in the
+  ground, another always nests in a bush or shrub, preferring a gooseberry
+  or currant bush, and the only remaining one is a cuckoo of one of the
+  ground species. The gooseberry-bush <!-- Page 36 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page36"></a>{36}</span>wasp is not a common
+  species in the south, but in the midlands and north it is abundant. Wasps
+  will eat most things, but are especially fond of syrups and sweets. One
+  species, <i>Vespa sylvestris</i>, which seldom enters our houses, is very
+  partial to the flowers of <i>Scrophularia</i> (Figwort). One rarely finds
+  a plant of this in full blossom without finding its attendant wasps. I
+  have seen other species of wasps also visiting it, but <i>sylvestris</i>
+  is practically sure to be there. The diet which wasps provide for their
+  larvæ is probably a mixed one, but consists largely of insects. Dr.
+  Ormerod says that a microscopic examination of the contents of a larval
+  stomach shows "the mass to consist of scales, hairs and other fragments
+  of insects, hairs of vegetables and other substances less easy of
+  recognition."</p>
+
+  <p><a name="plateb"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:70%;">
+      <a href="images/PlateB.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/PlateB.png"
+      alt="Plate B" title="Plate B" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Plate B.</span>
+
+    <p class="poem">10. <i>Colletes succinctus</i>, <i>female.</i> 11.
+    <i>Sphecodes subquadratus</i>, <i>female.</i> 12. <i>Halictus
+    leucozonius</i>, <i>female.</i> 13. <i>Vespa crabro</i>, <i>female.</i>
+    14. <i>Vespa vulgaris</i>, <i>female.</i> 15. <i>Andrena fulva</i>,
+    <i>male.</i> 16. <i>Andrena fulva</i>, <i>female.</i> 17. <i>Panurgus
+    banksianus</i>, <i>female.</i> 18. <i>Nomada ruficornis</i>, <i>var.
+    signata</i>, <i>female.</i> 19. <i>Epeolus rufipes</i>,
+    <i>female.</i></p>
+
+      <p class="author">[<i>face p. 36.</i></p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><!-- Page 37 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page37"></a>{37}</span></p>
+
+  <p>Wasps do not store honey in their nest; the papery nature of their
+  cells would make such storage impossible. I dare say some of my readers
+  will have noticed wasps sitting in the sun on a wooden paling busily
+  engaged apparently eating something&mdash;they are really pulling off
+  little fibres of wood which they chew up into a substance fitted for the
+  walls of their cells; they will also chew paper, and the experiment has
+  been tried of giving them coloured papers, which resulted in stripes of
+  colour appearing in their nests. The different species vary somewhat in
+  the architecture of their nests; but they are built very much on the same
+  general plan. The population of some underground nests is very large. The
+  Rev. G.&nbsp;A. Crawshay estimated the number in a large nest of <i>Vespa
+  vulgaris</i>, which he took on September 20, 1904, at about 12,000; of
+  these he actually counted, including eggs and larvæ, 11,370, and
+  estimated the rest as having left the nest and escaped, so that anyhow
+  the computation cannot be far wrong. This, however, was probably a very
+  large nest. The cuckoo wasp (<i>Vespa austriaca</i>), formerly known as
+  <i>V. arborea</i>, is an associate of <i>Vespa rufa</i>; its habits had
+  been suspected for a long time, but Mr. Robson set all doubts at rest by
+  finding the nymphs of the cuckoo in the actual nest of <i>rufa</i>. It is
+  a rare species in the south, but far from uncommon as one goes north, and
+  also in Ireland, where the relationship of the host and cuckoo have been
+  <!-- Page 38 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page38"></a>{38}</span>carefully studied by Prof. Carpenter and Mr.
+  Pack Beresford. <i>Vespa vulgaris</i> has a beetle parasite, but this is
+  somewhat of a rarity. This creature <i>Met&oelig;cus paradoxus</i> lays
+  its egg in the cell of the wasp, and enters the body of the larva,
+  eventually entirely devouring it. The hornet also has a beetle associate,
+  but this is a great rarity. It is a large black species of the "Devil's
+  coach horse" or "Cock tail" tribe (<i>Velleius dilatatus</i>), but in
+  what relation it stands to the hornet beyond inhabiting its nest is not
+  known.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 39 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page39"></a>{39}</span></p>
+
+<h3>THE HUMBLE BEES</h3>
+
+  <p>Of these beautiful creatures we have thirteen kinds in this country.
+  Their velvety clothing and bright colours make them the favourites of
+  most people. They are most industrious and may be seen on the wing from
+  early morning often till quite late on summer evenings, whereas the
+  solitary bees do not, as a rule, commence work till nine or ten in the
+  morning, except in very hot weather, and generally retire about four or
+  five p.m. There is an idea prevalent that humble bees do not sting, but
+  this is fallacious. They can sting pretty severely, but I do not think
+  they are so ready to use their defensive weapon as a wasp or hive bee is.
+  The length of the tongue in these creatures makes them of great value to
+  the farmer and gardener, as they can fertilize the red clover and
+  probably other flowers which require a longer tongue to reach the nectary
+  than is possessed by the hive bee. <!-- Page 40 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page40"></a>{40}</span>In New Zealand, when
+  first the red clover was introduced from this country, it was found
+  impossible to fertilize it, and humble bees had to be sent out. Now they
+  are established there its fertilization is carried on quite successfully.
+  The humble bees are divided into two natural groups, the underground
+  species, i.e. those that make a subterranean nest, and the carder bees,
+  as they have been called, which make a nest on the surface of the ground.
+  The former live in much larger communities and are far more aggressive
+  and pugnacious than the latter. They also feed their young, according to
+  Mr. F.&nbsp;W.&nbsp;L. Sladen, of Ripple Court, in a different way. The carder bees
+  "form little pockets or pouches of wax at the side of a wax-covered mass
+  of growing larvæ into which the workers drop the pellets of pollen direct
+  from their hind tibiæ. The pollen storers, on the contrary, store the
+  newly gathered pollen in waxen cells, made for the purpose, or in old
+  cocoons, specially set apart to receive it, from which it is taken and
+  given to the larvæ mixed with honey through the mouths of the nurse-bees
+  as required." As the author remarks, the methods of the underground <!--
+  Page 41 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page41"></a>{41}</span>species
+  more resemble those of the hive bee than do those of the carder bees. Mr.
+  Sladen has made many experiments in trying to domesticate humble bees,
+  and succeeded so far with <i>Bombus terrestris</i> (<a href="#plated">pl.
+  D</a>, 29, our common black and yellow banded species with a tawny tail)
+  as to get it to breed in captivity, and in 1899 was able to show nests in
+  full work at the Maidstone agricultural show, the bees coming in and out
+  of the building to their nest. An interesting case of one of the carder
+  bees (<i>Bombus agrorum</i>) is recorded by F. Smith. It invaded a wren's
+  nest, heaping up its pollen, etc., amongst the eggs of the bird, till the
+  parent bird was forced to desert the nest. The underground species are
+  more subject to the attacks of cuckoos than the carder bees. Altogether
+  the humble bees afford an excellent subject for study, as they appear to
+  be amenable to treatment, and to any one who could give time and careful
+  attention to them many interesting problems connected with them and not
+  yet understood might have light thrown upon them. Dead humble bees are
+  often found in numbers in a mutilated state, under lime trees. These <!--
+  Page 42 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page42"></a>{42}</span>have
+  been caught after they have filled themselves with honey, and become
+  torpid in consequence, by the great tomtit and possibly other birds. The
+  bird pecks a hole in the insect's thorax, enjoys the honey it has eaten
+  and then drops the quivering body which falls to the ground. I once had
+  the opportunity of seeing this slaughter going on, and was able to detect
+  the great tomtit as the murderer.</p>
+
+  <p>In colour the humble bees vary remarkably, the variation occurring
+  chiefly in the females. This variation is not so noticeable in this
+  country, although in many species even here the variability is very
+  great, but when we trace a common species such as <i>terrestris</i>,
+  which varies very little here, over a large area such as the Palæarctic
+  region its liveries are so diverse that its females have been treated as
+  belonging to many different species. In the Siberian district its yellow
+  bands become of a pale, almost whitish or straw colour, and the whole
+  appearance of the insect is altered. If, instead of going north, we go to
+  the Mediterranean region we find a large, fine form tolerably common,
+  with bright yellow hairs on the legs. In Corsica <!-- Page 43 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page43"></a>{43}</span>again we find a quite
+  different form; entirely black except for the bright red hairs on the
+  apex of the body, and bright red tibiæ, clothed with red hairs. In the
+  Canaries another coloration occurs: the whole insect is black with the
+  exception of the apex of the body which is clothed with white hairs; but
+  in all these the male varies comparatively little. In the Siberian and
+  Canary forms it resembles the female, but in the others it varies very
+  little from some varieties we find here. A rather similar series of
+  varieties occurs in <i>Bombus hortorum</i>, another species little liable
+  to variation here. In Italy and south-east Europe a form with entirely
+  black body and black wings occurs, and in Corsica a black form with
+  reddish hairs on the apical segments. The male keeps throughout very
+  constant to its normal coloration. The tendency to vary towards an
+  entirely black form seems to exist in nearly all the species, although in
+  Britain black varieties of some are very rare.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 44 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page44"></a>{44}</span></p>
+
+<h3>THE BEES WITH BIFID TONGUES</h3>
+
+  <p>In this country we have only two genera in which the tongue is bifid
+  at the apex, and on this account they are kept together as close allies
+  in our classification. They are, however, very different in general
+  appearance. One of these groups is called <i>Colletes</i>, on account of
+  its habit of lining its cells with a gluey material, the other,
+  <i>Prosopis</i>, on account of the markings on the face. The various
+  kinds of <i>Colletes</i> are densely clothed on the head and thorax with
+  brownish hairs, and the segments of the body have whitish bands composed
+  of a dense, tight-fitting, duvet of hairs (<a href="#plateb">pl. B</a>,
+  10). There is in this country only one exception, a large insect like a
+  hive bee, but rarely met with, its headquarters being the Wallasey
+  Sandhills near Liverpool, and other localities in Lancashire. All the
+  species tend to colonize; some building in huge colonies <!-- Page 45
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page45"></a>{45}</span>in sandy
+  cuttings, etc. They are preyed upon by a pretty little cuckoo bee called
+  <i>Epeolus</i> (<a href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, 19), which is black,
+  ornamented with brownish red and whitish spots. One of our best known
+  species, <i>Colletes fodiens</i>, can often be found in abundance on the
+  heads of ragwort along the sea-coast in July.</p>
+
+  <p>The other genus <i>Prosopis</i> is outwardly entirely unlike
+  <i>Colletes</i>: its species are nearly all very small coal-black
+  insects, with scarcely any noticeable hairs, rather unusually narrow and
+  cylindrical in form; they emit a peculiar, agreeably scented fluid when
+  handled; in the males the face is almost always white or yellow, in the
+  females there is generally a yellow spot on each side near the eye. These
+  little creatures are especially fond of burrowing in bramble stems. They
+  like those which have been cut off in trimming the hedges, because in
+  them the pith is exposed and they can burrow their way into it without
+  gnawing through the wood. If any one, going along a hedge which has been
+  trimmed, containing a lot of brambles, in the autumn or winter, would
+  examine the cut-off ends they would soon find some with holes in them.
+  These <!-- Page 46 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page46"></a>{46}</span>may be the work of <i>Prosopis</i>, but
+  there are other bees and fossors which also burrow in this way. So the
+  stems should be brought home and opened. Then the <i>Prosopis</i> cells
+  may be known by the fine membranous pellicle which surrounds them, but
+  possibly even then a little jewel-bee cuckoo may be found in possession
+  of the cell, instead of the rightful owner. When these little bees emerge
+  they are generally to be found on wild mignonette, bramble flowers or
+  those of the wild parsley tribe. Some are very common, others of great
+  rarity. The males of this genus seem to have a peculiar tendency to
+  develop eccentricities in the shape of the first joint of the antennæ, or
+  feelers, some having it expanded and concave, others rounded but
+  thickened towards the apex; in only one British species, <i>P.
+  cornuta</i>, does the female show any special peculiarity of form, but in
+  this the face is produced on each side between the eyes into a distinct
+  horn-shaped process. In the females there is scarcely any indication of
+  pollen brush, and for this reason they used to be considered as
+  possessors of cuckoo instincts, but there is now no doubt of their
+  industrious habits; but <!-- Page 47 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page47"></a>{47}</span>there is no other genus of industrious bees
+  in this country, with the exception of <i>Ceratina</i>, with so little
+  specialization for pollen collecting.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 48 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page48"></a>{48}</span></p>
+
+<h3>THE BEES WITH POINTED TONGUES</h3>
+
+  <p>All the genera, except the two mentioned in the last chapter, belong
+  to this section, which comprises a variety of very different styles of
+  bees, beginning with the short spear-shape-tongued species and ascending
+  to the long-tongued species, which are considered to culminate in the
+  hive bee. The habits of these genera vary very greatly in some respects;
+  special notice has been or will be given of <i>Halictus</i> (<a
+  href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, 12) and <i>Sphecodes</i> (<a
+  href="#plateb">B</a>, 11), <i>Andrena</i> (<a href="#plateb">B</a>, 15,
+  16), <i>Nomada</i> (<a href="#plateb">B</a>, 18) and the other cuckoos,
+  <i>Osmia</i> (<a href="#plated">D</a>, 28) and <i>Anthophora</i> (<a
+  href="#plated">D</a>, 24, 25) and the leaf-cutting bees, but there are
+  several other genera which deserve a passing notice, although their
+  habits are not so peculiar as those of the specially selected ones.
+  <i>Cilissa</i>, which is a very close ally of <i>Andrena</i>, is peculiar
+  in having the hairs of the tongue erect and arranged almost in
+  bottle-brush fashion. Its habits are much like those of <!-- Page 49
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page49"></a>{49}</span><i>Andrena</i>.
+  <i>Dasypoda</i>, so called on account of the enormously long hairs of the
+  pollen brushes of the legs in the female, is one of our most beautiful
+  bees; it is of moderate size, a little more than half an inch long, with
+  a brown haired thorax, and a black body with white apical bands on the
+  segments; the hind legs are rather unusually long and the brush is
+  composed of very long bright fulvous hairs, and when the bee returns home
+  laden with pollen it is, as F. Smith says, "sufficiently singular to
+  attract the attention of the most apathetic observer." It burrows in
+  sandy places much after the fashion of <i>Andrena</i>, etc. The male is a
+  different looking insect, entirely covered with yellowish hairs.
+  <i>Panurgus</i> (<a href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, 17) is a curious genus of
+  coal-black bees, whose females have bright yellow pollen brushes on their
+  hind legs; they visit yellow composite flowers and the males often sleep
+  curled up amongst their rays; they are most active bees, and burrow
+  generally in hard pathways. I was watching a large colony of one of the
+  species near Chobham in the end of June&mdash;they were burrowing in a
+  gravel path, under which the soil was of a black sandy nature; the path
+  was scattered all over with little black <!-- Page 50 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page50"></a>{50}</span>hillocks of sand, and
+  seemed alive with bees. It was showery weather, and occasionally the
+  hillocks were washed nearly flat and a lot of sand must have entered
+  their burrows&mdash;however, as soon as the sun came out again they
+  cleaned out their holes and returned to their work. <i>Panurgus</i> is
+  most businesslike in its pollen collecting; it flies in a rapid headlong
+  way into a flower, and seems to do its best to bury itself, with a
+  remarkable amount of action as if it was in a great hurry, and often
+  bustles out of it again almost immediately and goes on to the next. Its
+  methods suggest that it does more work in five minutes than any other bee
+  would do in ten.</p>
+
+  <p>Another genus, <i>Anthidium</i> (<a href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 27),
+  this time one of the long-tongued bees, is peculiar in having the male
+  larger than the female. Both sexes are black, variegated with yellow
+  markings and spots, but the male is more ornate in this respect than the
+  female and also has a peculiarly shaped body, which is unusually flat,
+  curving downwards towards the apex, which is armed with five teeth, two
+  bent ones on the sixth segment and three on the seventh. The female
+  collects pollen on the underside of its body and collects the <!-- Page
+  51 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page51"></a>{51}</span>down off the
+  stems of various plants, especially those of the dead nettle or "labiate"
+  tribe, with which it invests its cells. I cannot do better than quote the
+  following from F. Smith: "This is the social bee which White in his
+  History of Selbourne has so well described in the following words: 'There
+  is a sort of wild bee frequenting the Garden Campion for the sake of its
+  tomentum, which probably it turns to some purpose in the business of
+  nidification. It is very pleasant to see with what address it strips off
+  the pubes running from the top to the bottom of a branch and shaving it
+  bare with the dexterity of a hoop shaver; when it has got a vast bundle,
+  almost as large as itself, it flies away, holding it secure between its
+  chin and fore legs.'"</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 52 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page52"></a>{52}</span></p>
+
+<h3>LEAF-CUTTING BEES</h3>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:28%;">
+      <a href="images/Fig7.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig7.png"
+      alt="Fig 7. Leaf cut by bees" title="Fig 7. Leaf cut by bees" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>These are amongst the specially interesting of the bees in their
+  habits. They are dull-brown coloured creatures rather like a stout hive
+  bee in form (<a href="#platec">pl. C</a>, 20). They all collect pollen on
+  the underside of their body. They burrow either in decayed wood or in the
+  ground, but they make their cells of pieces of leaves which they cut off
+  from rose bushes or other plants; these cells when completed are
+  wonderful works of art. Probably some of my readers may have noticed rose
+  leaves with semicircular pieces cut out of them, and often with almost
+  circular ones; this is the work of the leaf cutter (fig. 7).</p>
+
+  <p><a name="platec"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:68%;">
+      <a href="images/PlateC.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/PlateC.png"
+      alt="Plate C" title="Plate C" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Plate C.</span>
+
+    <p class="poem">20. <i>Megachile maritima</i>, <i>female</i>. 21.
+    <i>C&oelig;lioxys conoidea</i>, <i>male</i>. 22. <i>C&oelig;lioxys
+    conoidea</i>, <i>female</i>. 23. <i>Nest of Megachile
+    willughbiella.</i></p>
+
+      <p class="author">[<i>face p. 52.</i></p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><!-- Page 53 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page53"></a>{53}</span></p>
+
+  <p>She alights on a leaf, holds on to the edge of the piece she wants to
+  cut off with her legs, and then cuts it out by means of her jaws, or
+  mandibles; as soon as it is cut free she uses her wings and so prevents
+  herself from falling, and goes off with the cut off piece safely held
+  under her body by her legs. I have frequently seen bees flying home with
+  their leafy burden, and once or twice I have seen them cutting the pieces
+  out. They cut round the piece they select with great rapidity&mdash;the
+  marvel is that they can arrange so exactly as not to fall when the last
+  attachment is removed. The pieces they cut have to be of several shapes
+  in order to build up the cell they require; some are more or less lozenge
+  shaped, some almost circular; the cells they make are somewhat
+  thimble-shaped. The lozenge-shaped pieces are used to build up the sides
+  and lower end of the cell, and the circular pieces to close it in with at
+  the top; it is all cemented together with a gluey substance excreted by
+  the bee. The burrows of the leaf-cutters are made, as stated above,
+  either in the ground or in rotten wood. I have never had a subterranean
+  nest to examine, but have had several nests in rotten wood under my
+  notice, one of which is now before me (<a href="#platec">pl. C</a>, 23).
+  It is in a piece of very <!-- Page 54 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page54"></a>{54}</span>soft willow, almost in a touchwood
+  condition. So that by carefully cutting away the wood I have been able to
+  expose the whole series of cells. Two distinct burrows run almost
+  parallel to each other; both of them are slightly curved and each has
+  contained six cells; these are about half an inch long, and they fit one
+  over another in the tube as closely as possible so as to look like two
+  long thick green worms. Each cell is composed of many pieces of leaf, and
+  the final plug which closes the cell is often made of several rounds of
+  leaf one over the other. The amount of labour taken by the mother bee to
+  make these cells must be enormous. The cells are provisioned like those
+  of any other solitary bee with pollen, etc., and the egg is laid upon it.
+  Most of the leaf-cutters have their attendant cuckoos, which are rather
+  smaller than themselves, of a deep black with white bands on the sides of
+  the body. The female has a very pointed tail, and the male's body ends in
+  a series of spine-like projections (<a href="#platec">pl. C</a>, 21,
+  22).</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 55 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page55"></a>{55}</span></p>
+
+<h3>OSMIA AND ITS HABITS</h3>
+
+  <p>I have tried as much as possible to avoid scientific names, but the
+  misfortune is that there are hardly any popular names in use which can be
+  attached for certain to any particular species, and unless this can be
+  done it is of no use using vague names like the "Carpenter Bee", the
+  "Mason Bee", etc. There are many carpenter bees and many mason bees, and
+  though their habits may be alike in this one particular they differ among
+  themselves in the way they use their tools, and it is necessary to know
+  which one we are talking about. It is a common thing to hear people
+  inveighing against Latin names, etc., but they forget that there are no
+  English ones in use, and what is more important, that Greek and Latin
+  names are common property to all nations, so that we can all know what we
+  are talking about, whereas if we call an insect by an English name and
+  the Russians <!-- Page 56 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page56"></a>{56}</span>call it by a Russian name, the difficulty of
+  coming to a mutual understanding is very great. This is only an aside to
+  justify the use of classical names. I quite feel that for popular use in
+  this country a good series of English names might be useful, but we have
+  not got one, and it would require a great deal of care and thought to
+  frame a nomenclature which would really be useable by the persons who
+  require it.</p>
+
+  <p>I have made these remarks here because <i>Osmia</i> is a genus whose
+  members vary very much in their habits, and some species of which, like
+  sensible beings, adapt their habits to their surroundings, so that no
+  name such as carpenter bee, etc., would apply to all the species, or, as
+  a rule, even to one. <i>Osmia rufa</i> especially adopts several methods
+  of nesting. This little bee is clothed more or less all over with
+  yellowish hairs; it is compact in shape like all the other species of
+  <i>Osmia</i>, and like them collects its pollen on the underside of the
+  body. It may sometimes be seen flying up and down the walls of a house
+  looking for a crevice to build in, but it is not the least particular as
+  to where to form its cells. In one memorable case the female selected a
+  flute <!-- Page 57 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page57"></a>{57}</span>which had been left in a garden-arbour. The
+  bee constructed fourteen cells in the tube of the instrument, commencing
+  its first cell a quarter of an inch below the mouthhole. The flute is
+  preserved in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. At other
+  times this species burrows in the ground, at others it makes its cells in
+  crevices of old walls; it has been known to build in a lock, and is said
+  sometimes to inhabit snail shells. Other species of <i>Osmia</i> almost
+  always burrow in banks, but in no case does a habit seem to be uniformly
+  adopted by a species. One well known and rare species, <i>Osmia
+  leucomelana</i>, is a regular bramble-stick species, tunnelling down the
+  pith in the centre of the stalks, but I once found it to my surprise in
+  fair numbers nesting in a sandy bank. Other species again, as a rule,
+  select snail shells to build in; they find an old disused shell lying
+  about in some sheltered place and adapt it to their purposes, commencing
+  their cells singly in the narrow whorls of the shell and side by side as
+  they approach its mouth, i.e. if the shell be a wide-mouthed one like the
+  common garden snail (<i>Helix aspersa</i>). F. Smith, who gives a very
+  interesting account of these <!-- Page 58 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page58"></a>{58}</span>creatures in his <i>Catalogue of British
+  Hymenoptera in the British Museum</i>, mentions a case where the bee
+  finding the larger whorls of the shell too wide constructed two cells
+  across the whorl. Another very interesting case given by Smith is of a
+  nest of many cells of the rare <i>Osmia inermis</i> (which in his days
+  was known as <i>Osmia parietina</i>). A slab of stone, 10 inches by 6,
+  was brought to him with 230 cocoons of this <i>Osmia</i> attached to its
+  under side; when found in the month of November, 1849, about a third of
+  them were empty; in March of the following year a few males made their
+  appearance and shortly afterwards a few females, and they continued to
+  come out at intervals till the end of June, at which time he had 35
+  cocoons still unopened; in 1851 some more emerged, and he opened one or
+  two of the closed ones and found that they still contained living larvæ;
+  he closed them up again, and in April, 1852, examined them and found the
+  larvæ still alive; at the end of May they changed to pupæ and appeared as
+  perfect insects, the result being that some of the specimens were at
+  least three years before reaching maturity. <!-- Page 59 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page59"></a>{59}</span></p>
+
+  <p>There is a nest of yet another style adopted by one of our species
+  (<i>Osmia xanthomelana</i>). This is formed of a series of pitcher-shaped
+  cells made of mud, constructed at the roots of grass. The species which
+  makes it is rare and seems to have its headquarters on the coasts of
+  Wales, although it has occurred in the Isle of Wight and elsewhere. This
+  species also is not constant in its habits, as it has been known to make
+  its cells underground. A very curious habit was noticed some years ago by
+  Mr. Vincent R. Perkins in another species of this genus (<i>Osmia
+  bicolor</i>; <a href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 28); the species nests in the
+  ground or in snail shells, but, in the case under his observation, Mr.
+  Perkins found that the little bees covered up all the snail shells in
+  which they had built their cells with short pieces of "bents" so as to
+  make a little hillock over each about two or three inches in height,
+  somewhat resembling a miniature nest of <i>Formica rufa</i>, the large
+  horse ant, each mound containing hundreds of pieces. This is the only
+  record I know of this habit, which must entail a large amount of labour
+  for the bee.</p>
+
+  <p>These varying habits in the same species <!-- Page 60 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page60"></a>{60}</span>show pretty clearly that
+  these little creatures are not driven by any blind instinct in the
+  adoption of their methods of nest building: they appear to have a
+  distinct power of choice and adaptation according to their environment,
+  unless of course it can be shown that the offspring of, say, a snail
+  shell inhabitant follows its parents' habits, and that that of a ground
+  borer does the same&mdash;but even that would not explain the case given
+  by F. Smith, and quoted above, where an <i>Osmia</i> had filled up the
+  whorls of a shell and then, finding the final whorl too large, placed two
+  cells horizontally to fill it: that seems to indicate distinct design on
+  the part of the bee and would be hard to explain as due to instinct.
+  Unfortunately, with the exception of a very few, the species of
+  <i>Osmia</i> are rare in this country, so that few opportunities are
+  available for studying their habits, which are certainly amongst the most
+  interesting of any genus.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="plated"></a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:71%;">
+      <a href="images/PlateD.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/PlateD.png"
+      alt="Plate D" title="Plate D" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Plate D.</span>
+
+    <p class="poem">24. <i>Anthophora pilipes, male.</i> 25. <i>Anthophora
+    pilipes, female.</i> 26. <i>Melecta armata, female.</i> 27.
+    <i>Anthidium manicatum, female.</i> 28. <i>Osmia bicolor, female.</i>
+    29. <i>Bombus terrestris, female.</i> 30. <i>Bombus lapidarius.
+    female.</i> 31. <i>Psithyrus rupestris, female.</i></p>
+
+      <p class="author">[<i>face p. 61.</i></p>
+  </div>
+
+<p><!-- Page 61 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page61"></a>{61}</span></p>
+
+<h3>A COLONY OF ANTHOPHORA</h3>
+
+  <p><i>Anthophora pilipes</i> (<a href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 24, 25), one
+  of our early spring bees, often forms enormous colonies. I have sometimes
+  seen sandpits in which the sides were riddled all over with holes of this
+  species, and where the insects were in such numbers that a distinct hum
+  was audible from the vibration of their wings. In such colonies one is
+  sure to detect some of their cuckoo associates, <i>Melecta armata</i> (<a
+  href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 26). They are deep black bees, much of the same
+  size as their hosts but with more pointed tails and with a small spot of
+  snow-white hairs on the side of each segment of the body; like other
+  cuckoos they sail about in a more demure way than their hosts, but a more
+  lively scene than a large colony of <i>Anthophora</i> can hardly be
+  found. The <i>Anthophora</i> provisions its cells with honey and pollen,
+  and its egg in consequence floats on the top&mdash;the <!-- Page 62
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page62"></a>{62}</span>number of cells
+  varies from five or six up to ten or eleven.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Anthophora pilipes</i> has a very close relative in <i>Anthophora
+  retusa</i>, which also forms large colonies, but it is as a rule less
+  common. These two species are exceedingly alike, in fact it requires some
+  skill on the part of the observer to differentiate their females. They
+  are both black and clothed with black hairs, and both have yellow
+  pollen-brushes, but in <i>retusa</i> the hairs are shorter and not quite
+  of such a deep black as those of <i>pilipes</i>, and the spurs of the
+  tibiæ are pale, whereas in <i>pilipes</i> they are black. The males,
+  however, differ widely, although much alike in colour; in <i>pilipes</i>
+  the feet of the middle pair of legs are clothed with enormously long
+  hairs, the basal joint has a dense fringe of black hairs in front and
+  some long black hairs behind (see <a href="#plated">pl. D</a>, fig. 24);
+  in <i>retusa</i> the basal joint of the middle pair of feet have a
+  fan-shaped fringe of black hairs, and the rest of the joints are clothed
+  with longer hairs, but not long enough to be specially noticeable. <i>A.
+  retusa</i> is visited by the same cuckoo as <i>A. pilipes</i> and also by
+  its rare ally <i>Melecta luctuosa</i>, which only differs from
+  <i>armata</i> <!-- Page 63 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page63"></a>{63}</span>(<a href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 26) in the
+  larger and squarer spots of the body and various small structural
+  characters hardly appreciable except by specialists. The Anthophoras have
+  other parasites besides their cuckoos; one is a beetle, which, however,
+  is rare, and which lays its egg in the <i>Anthophora</i> cells; the other
+  is a very minute member of the Hymenopterous family, whose larva when
+  hatched feeds upon the larva of the bee. Notwithstanding these
+  disadvantages both species are abundant, although <i>retusa</i> is more
+  local than <i>pilipes</i>. A very interesting fact connected with this
+  genus has just been communicated to me by the Rev. F.&nbsp;D. Morice. John
+  Ray, who lived in the seventeenth century, mentions in his book
+  <i>Historia Insectorum</i> (published posthumously in 1710), p. 243, that
+  a large colony of a bee, which from his description was clearly an
+  <i>Anthophora</i>, as he specially calls attention to the great
+  difference between the males and females, inhabited a certain locality at
+  Kilby near "Hill Morton" in Northamptonshire. Mr. Morice, who for many
+  years resided at Rugby, knew Hillmorton, as it is now spelled, well, and
+  tells me that a large colony of <i>Anthophora</i> was in that same
+  locality when he knew it only <!-- Page 64 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page64"></a>{64}</span>a few years ago. Of course there is no proof
+  that it has been there throughout the intervening period, but there seems
+  to be no reason to doubt it, and if so it is a most interesting case of a
+  persistent colony.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 65 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page65"></a>{65}</span></p>
+
+<h3>BEES AND POLLEN-COLLECTING</h3>
+
+  <p>Bees whether solitary or social enter flowers for the sake of the
+  honey in their nectaries and the pollen on their anthers. In some cases
+  the flowers automatically deposit pollen on the bees during the
+  operation, which enables them to fertilize other flowers of the same
+  species, but the pollen which the bee requires for its own use has to be
+  worked for and collected on organs specially adapted for the purpose.
+  These vary very much in the different families and genera; they exist
+  only in the females, and, if the males get covered with pollen, as they
+  often do, it is probably more by chance than purpose, and it is doubtful
+  if it is of any value to the brood, although no doubt useful in
+  fertilizing other flowers. All our bees, as has been pointed out before,
+  are clothed more or less with branched or feather-like hairs, which would
+  appear to be admirably adapted for the collecting of pollen. <!-- Page 66
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page66"></a>{66}</span>At the same time
+  some species which have their bodies clothed with branched hairs have
+  simple or spirally grooved hairs on the collecting organ&mdash;others
+  collect on very much branched hairs&mdash;so that there seems to be no
+  exact relationship between the plumosity of the hairs and their utility
+  in collecting. The collecting brushes are either on the hind legs or, as
+  in some cases, on the ventral surface of the body. In a female
+  <i>Andrena</i>, the hind leg has a tuft of curled hairs near the base of
+  the leg, and a more or less heavy brush on the outside of the tibia or
+  shin (fig. 8). When a female returns after a collecting expedition these
+  specially hairy regions are a mass of pollen grains, and the "beautiful
+  yellow legs", so often remarked upon in some bees, are not always due to
+  the colour of the hairs but to that of the grains of pollen adhering to
+  them. The genera which collect on the under surface of the body have to
+  visit flowers where the anthers lie in such a position that they can
+  transfer the pollen on to it; the pea flower tribe are favourites with
+  them, and also the <i>Compositæ</i>. All this section have long tongues
+  so that they are able to reach the nectaries of <!-- Page 67 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page67"></a>{67}</span><span class="figleft"
+  style="width:12%;"><a href="images/Fig8.png"><img style="width:100%"
+  src="images/Fig8.png" alt="Fig 8. Leg hairs of Andrena" title="Fig 8. Leg hairs of Andrena"
+  /></a><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.</span> <span class="figright"
+  style="width:10%;"><a href="images/Fig9.png"><img style="width:100%"
+  src="images/Fig9.png" alt="Fig 9. Corbicula of humble bee" title="Fig 9. Corbicula of humble bee"
+  /></a><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.</span> plants with long tubular
+  flowers. In visiting these the pollen is often deposited on the back of
+  the bee; this it is able to transfer to its under side by means of the
+  brushes on its feet or tarsi. The arrangements of the humble bees for
+  pollen gathering are altogether different from those mentioned above.
+  They have the hind shin outwardly shining and rather concave, with a
+  series of long curved hairs running down each side of it and partly
+  curving over it, so that they carry their mass of pollen in a sort of
+  basket, scientifically called the "corbicula" (fig. 9); this would be
+  impossible if the pollen were gathered dry, as it is by most of the
+  solitary bees, so the bee moistens it on the flower with the nectar she
+  has been sucking so as to make it sticky, and then transfers it into her
+  basket by means of her foot brushes. The pollen therefore on the hind leg
+  of a humble bee is all in one mass and can be <!-- Page 68 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page68"></a>{68}</span>removed as such. When the
+  bee reaches her nest this must of course save her the trouble which the
+  solitary bee must have of cleaning off all the separate grains of pollen
+  which are mixed up among the hairs.</p>
+
+  <p>A word or two may be convenient here on the combs and cleaning
+  apparatus of bees. Any one who has watched a bee clean itself will have
+  noticed that the front legs work more or less horizontally&mdash;a bee
+  will lower its head and bring its front leg over it with a curved
+  motion&mdash;and that it will clean the sides of the face with a sort of
+  shaving-like action, also that the antennæ are apparently pulled through
+  the foot-joint in a remarkable way, often many times in succession. Now
+  the foot of a bee consists of five joints, and is clothed with bristly
+  looking hairs. If these hairs be examined through a microscope they will
+  be found to be more or less razor-shaped, having a thick back and a
+  dilated wing or knife-like blade (fig. 10). In some the blade is of some
+  width, and the edge is evidently very sharp: these hairs or spines no
+  doubt do the cleaning work, and admirably adapted they are to the
+  purpose. The antennæ-cleaner <!-- Page 69 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page69"></a>{69}</span><span class="figleft" style="width:11%;"><a
+  href="images/Fig10.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig10.png"
+  alt="Fig 10. Cleaning apparatus of bee" title="Fig 10. Cleaning apparatus of bee"
+  /></a><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></span> <span class="figleft"
+  style="width:12%;"><a href="images/Fig11.png"><img style="width:100%"
+  src="images/Fig11.png" alt="Fig 11. Antenna cleaner of bee" title="Fig 11. Antenna cleaner of bee"
+  /></a><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></span> <span class="figright"
+  style="width:8%;"><a href="images/Fig12.png"><img style="width:100%"
+  src="images/Fig12.png" alt="Fig 12. Cleaning apparatus of bee" title="Fig 12. Cleaning apparatus of bee"
+  /></a><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></span> (it may possibly be used
+  for other purposes too) is a still more wonderful adaptation; in the
+  basal joint of the foot there is a semicircular incision, which, when
+  examined under the microscope, is seen to be a small toothed comb. The
+  foot itself fits into the tibia or shin, and at the apex of the latter is
+  a modified spine which is dilated on one side into a wing, or knife-like
+  blade; this shuts down on to the semicircular comb, and the insect by
+  passing the antennæ between the two can clean off anything which may have
+  stuck to it (fig. 11). When we come to examine the other legs we find
+  that the inner surface of their tibiæ and tarsi, i.e. that which is
+  nearest the body, is clothed with hairs which have the points dilated and
+  spade-like (fig. 12), which <!-- Page 70 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page70"></a>{70}</span>allowing for the different action of the
+  hind legs makes them just as good cleaners as the razors of the front
+  pair; the spurs at the apex of the tibiæ, which are known as the
+  <i>calcaria</i>, are also doubtless useful for cleaning purposes, and
+  this is specially suggested by the beautiful saw-like form which they
+  assume in some species; although there is no actual semicircular comb in
+  the first joint of the tarsi, yet there can be little doubt that the spur
+  and this joint in conjunction can act as a cleaning organ very much in
+  the same way as the more elaborate arrangement in the front legs. Any one
+  who has the opportunity of examining the hairs of bees under a microscope
+  will be amply repaid for the trouble in noticing the beautiful shapes and
+  structures which these organs assume. (Figs. 13-18; 17 showing pollen
+  grains adhering.) At one time, when I was specially examining bee hairs,
+  I shaved the various parts of a large number of species and mounted their
+  hairs dry in microscopic slides, merely securing the cover glass with
+  liquid glue; this was twenty years ago, and many are still quite good. It
+  may seem a difficult operation to shave a bee, but <!-- Page 71 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page71"></a>{71}</span>the hairs come off very
+  easily, and with a sharp dissecting knife for a razor as many hairs as
+  one wants are almost immediately at one's disposal.</p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:14%;">
+      <a href="images/Fig13.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig13.png"
+      alt="Fig 13. Hairs of bees" title="Fig 13. Hairs of bees" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:11%;">
+      <a href="images/Fig14.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig14.png"
+      alt="Fig 14. Hair of bee" title="Fig 14. Hair of bee" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:12%;">
+      <a href="images/Fig15.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig15.png"
+      alt="Fig 15. Hair of bee" title="Fig 15. Hair of bee" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:10%;">
+      <a href="images/Fig16.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig16.png"
+      alt="Fig 16. Hair of bee" title="Fig 16. Hair of bee" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:11%;">
+      <a href="images/Fig17.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig17.png"
+      alt="Fig 17. Hair of bee with pollen adhering" title="Fig 17. Hair of bee with pollen adhering" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:24%;">
+      <a href="images/Fig18.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig18.png"
+      alt="Fig 18. Hairs of bees" title="Fig 18. Hairs of bees" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 72 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page72"></a>{72}</span></p>
+
+<h3>ON BEES' TONGUES, AND HOW THEY
+SUCK HONEY</h3>
+
+  <p>In order to understand how a bee sucks honey it will be necessary to
+  go into some rather careful details as to the construction of its tongue
+  and mouth organs. These I will make as short and simple as I can, but the
+  apparatus is a very complicated one, and it will be impossible to
+  describe it without a good deal of technical phraseology.</p>
+
+  <p>The tongue has always been considered such an important feature in a
+  bee's structure that it has been made the chief basis of their
+  classification. On this subject I will only say that there are three
+  principal types of tongues&mdash;a short bifid tongue (fig. <b>19</b>,
+  3<a name="NtA1" href="#Nt1"><sup>[1]</sup></a>), resembling those of the
+  fossors; a short pointed one, shaped somewhat like a spear head (fig.
+  <b>19</b>, 2, 2a); and a long parallel-sided, ribbon-like tongue (fig.
+  <b>19</b>, 1, 1a). The bees are classified on what is considered to be an
+  <!-- Page 73 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page73"></a>{73}</span>ascending scale, beginning with the
+  bifid-tongued species, through those with the short spear shaped tongues
+  to the higher forms, which have this organ elongate and
+  parallel-sided.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:56%;">
+      <a href="images/Fig19.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig19.png"
+      alt="Fig 19. Tongues of bees" title="Fig 19. Tongues of bees" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The tongue is the central organ of an elaborate combination of mouth
+  parts, which I will now try to explain. If we turn a bee's head over and
+  look at its underside we shall find a deep cavity, filled up with the
+  base of this combination which fits into it. If we extend the tongue (a
+  humble bee is a good subject on account of its large size, fig. 20) so as
+  to draw its base out of the cavity, we shall find that in the edge of
+  each side of the cavity there is articulated a short rod (20, A), more or
+  less dilated at its apex, called <!-- Page 74 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page74"></a>{74}</span>the <i>stipes</i>; on the flattened ends of
+  these rods there swings a joint shaped something like the "merrythought"
+  bone of a chicken, called the <i>lora</i> or reins (20, B), to the
+  central angle of which are suspended the pieces of the apparatus which
+  terminate in the tongue. This <b>V</b>-shaped joint can swing over on its
+  feet, and can therefore lie either between the <i>stipites</i> or rods
+  with its angle pointing towards the tail of the bee, or in the opposite
+  direction with its angle projecting beyond them and pointing forwards. It
+  will at once be seen that by this turn of the <b>V</b> the tongue can be
+  projected a distance equivalent to twice the length of the <b>V</b>.</p>
+
+  <p>This <b>V</b>-shaped joint varies much in the length of its arms,
+  which are much longer in the long-tongued than in the short-tongued
+  bees.</p>
+
+  <p>When we examine the parts that are suspended from this joint, we shall
+  find that the actual tongue is separated from it by two distinct pieces;
+  the first (i.e. that next to the <i>lora</i>) a short joint (the
+  <i>submentum</i>, 20, C), the second (the <i>mentum</i>, 20, D) a long
+  semi-cylindrical joint which holds as in a trough the softer parts at the
+  base of the tongue. From the apex of the <i>mentum</i> <!-- Page 75
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page75"></a>{75}</span>project three
+  organs; the central one is the actual tongue (or <i>ligula</i>, 20, E),
+  and on each side are the organs which are called the <i>labial palpi</i>
+  (20, F); these in the long-tongued bees more or less fold over the base
+  of the tongue and protect it. There are two other large and important
+  mouth parts called the <i>maxillæ</i> (20, G); these articulate on to the
+  flattened apices of the <i>cardines</i>, outside the articulation of the
+  feet of the <i>lora</i>, and extend on each side of the <i>mentum</i>;
+  they also have flattened blades sheathing, when closed, the whole of the
+  <i>mentum</i> above, as well as the base of the tongue.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:22%;">
+      <a href="images/Fig20.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig20.png"
+      alt="Fig 20. Tongue of bee" title="Fig 20. Tongue of bee" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>So far we have been looking at the back of the head and mouth parts;
+  if we now look at the front we shall see the <i>maxillæ</i>; if we open
+  these we shall see the tongue lying between the <!-- Page 76 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page76"></a>{76}</span>labial palpi, and at the
+  base of the tongue we shall see two little sheaths called the
+  <i>paraglossæ</i>; above these the softer parts lying in the trough of
+  the <i>mentum</i>; from the base of the <i>mentum</i>, connecting with
+  the <i>maxillæ</i>, there extends a membrane which entirely invests the
+  spaces between the bases of these organs and extends up to the mouth. A
+  membrane also extends between the <i>stipites</i> and <i>lora</i>, and
+  closes the cavity at the back of the head. The back of the tongue in the
+  act of sucking can be formed into a tube through which, partly, probably
+  by capillary action, partly by the pumping action caused by the dilating
+  and contracting of certain parts of the mechanism, the liquid food is
+  drawn up into the æsophagus. This, I believe, has been shown to be the
+  principle on which all bees, short- or long-tongued, suck up their honey.
+  The subject could be treated at much greater length, and many other
+  structures connected with the mouth parts discussed, but more minute
+  details are unnecessary in an elementary work such as this, and I have
+  therefore limited myself to a description of the broad principles of the
+  process.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 77 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page77"></a>{77}</span></p>
+
+<h3>A DREADFUL PARASITE</h3>
+
+  <p><span class="figleft" style="width:7%;"><a
+  href="images/Fig21.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig21.png"
+  alt="Fig 21. Stylops" title="Fig 21. Stylops" /></a><span
+  class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.</span></p>
+
+  <p>Of all the evils to which bee flesh is heir, there can hardly be any
+  so terrible as the effects of the parasite <i>Stylops</i> on the species
+  of <i>Andrena</i> and <i>Halictus</i> which it attacks. This very
+  extraordinary creature, which is now considered to be a beetle, lives
+  during the early stages of both sexes in the body of the bee, which it
+  enters when the bee is in the larval state. Its head protrudes like a
+  minute flat seed between the body segments (fig. 21), and so is visible
+  externally, but the rest of the creature, which is a grub-like larva,
+  rests amongst the intestines of the bee; the female matures in the bee's
+  body and never leaves it. The male, however, when mature, escapes,
+  leaving the <!-- Page 78 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page78"></a>{78}</span><span class="figright" style="width:12%;"><a
+  href="images/Fig22.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig22.png"
+  alt="Fig 22. Stylops" title="Fig 22. Stylops" /></a><span
+  class="sc">Fig.</span> 22. Stylops larva in abdominal cavity: after
+  Perez.</span> great hole which he inhabited open; he is provided with
+  wings, and I have more than once caught one flying in the open&mdash;but
+  to return to our afflicted bee. This may be attacked in either sex, and
+  by one to five of the parasites. I have specimens myself with four
+  parasites in them, and a case of five has been recorded. Mr. R.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;L.
+  Perkins, writing on this subject, says: "On removing the integument
+  dorsally from the bee, the large body of the female parasite will be seen
+  lying above the viscera, often almost entirely concealing them". If this
+  is the condition of a bee nourishing only one parasite, I must leave it
+  to my readers to imagine the state of the poor wretch who is supporting
+  five! The outward appearance of one with several parasites is generally
+  much distorted; the abdomen is very much inflated, and the poor creature
+  is unable to fly any <!-- Page 79 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page79"></a>{79}</span>distance, and can only crawl about, or
+  perhaps take short flights of a foot or so. The effects, however, seem to
+  be very different in different cases. I have caught <i>Andrenas</i> with
+  two <i>Stylops</i> in them, flying about as usual and apparently none the
+  worse for their inmates. Probably the position the parasite occupies may
+  make a great difference in its effects on the bee.</p>
+
+  <p>The most notable effect produced by <i>Stylops</i> is the alteration
+  in the structure and colour of certain of the bee's characteristic
+  features. In <i>Andrena</i> the males differ very considerably from the
+  females both in form and colouring. They have no pollen-brushes on their
+  legs, and in some few species the face above the mouth is white, whereas
+  in the female it is black. Now the effect of the parasite seems to be to
+  unsex as it were its victims so far as their outward appearance is
+  concerned. This is no doubt due to the internal effects it has on the
+  larva of the bee. Anyhow, if a female is attacked, in most cases the
+  pollen-brush is much reduced, the face tends to become more hairy, and,
+  if it be the female of a white-faced male, spots of white are often
+  produced on the face. On the other hand, <!-- Page 80 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page80"></a>{80}</span>if it be a male subject,
+  the hairiness of the face is diminished, the white colour is often
+  reduced or absent, and the hairiness of the legs is increased.</p>
+
+  <p>Before the effects of the parasite were recognized, several new
+  species were described simply on specimens of unusual appearance in
+  consequence of its presence.</p>
+
+  <p>These effects, however, like the effects produced on the activity of
+  the bee, vary exceedingly in extent. On some the parasite seems to have
+  no effect, in others the alteration in appearance is very great. This,
+  again, is probably due to the position of the parasites and to the
+  pressure they exert on the reproductive organs of the body in the larval
+  state.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 81 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page81"></a>{81}</span></p>
+
+<h3>AMONGST THE BEES AT WORK</h3>
+
+  <p>Now I feel sure many will be thinking "It is all very well to talk
+  about all these solitary and social bees, but I never see them. I
+  certainly know a humble bee with a white tail and another with a red
+  tail, and a wasp, and perhaps a hornet, but I never notice any others."
+  The reason for this, no doubt, is that people are not as a rule
+  observant, and even if they notice a creature one moment they probably
+  forget all about it the next. If any one goes out on a bright spring
+  morning, late in March or early in April, about 11 o'clock, into a garden
+  well stocked with flowers, it will not, I think, be many minutes before
+  an insect darts on the wing along some border, and, if attention be paid
+  to the flowers, a little black hairy bee with yellow legs, like a small
+  humble bee, will be seen diligently at work sucking honey from one of
+  them. The darting bee, which is of a brownish red colour, gradually <!--
+  Page 82 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page82"></a>{82}</span>fading
+  to grey after a few days' exposure to the sun, is the male, and the black
+  one the female. The male rarely settles, but flies about courting the
+  female. Often two or three males may be seen dodging and crossing each
+  other in their flight. The name of this bee is <i>Anthophora</i>. It is
+  quite a harbinger of spring, and I mention it especially as it so forces
+  itself on one's attention, and there are few who will not meet with it
+  without going especially on its quest.</p>
+
+  <p>Another opportunity of seeing several kinds of solitary bees flying
+  together may be secured by standing on a sunny day in front of a sallow
+  bush in full blossom, I mean what is commonly called "palm." Its catkins,
+  when the anthers are out and covered with yellow pollen, are most
+  attractive to all kinds of bees, humble bees, hive bees, and solitary
+  bees, and any one who can manage to watch a sallow bush for some time
+  will realize that there are many kinds of bees at work. Of course it is
+  difficult, without special knowledge, to recognize which are bees and
+  which are flies amongst the many which are coming and going, but the
+  yellow-pollened legs of the female bees will generally betray them, as
+  well <!-- Page 83 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page83"></a>{83}</span>as their steadier flight. A fly turns about
+  more rapidly than a bee, and sits down much more abruptly. Bees are very
+  captious about the weather; they do not like an east wind and are,
+  apparently, very sensitive to coming wet. I have often gone out on a
+  bright morning and been surprised to find nothing stirring, and then
+  clouds have come up and proved the wisdom of the bees in staying at home.
+  They also fly very little in cloudy weather, especially in the early
+  spring, when the temperature is reduced by cloud below their fancy. One
+  may be watching a sallow bush and see dozens of insects flying about. A
+  cloud shadows it, and almost immediately they disappear, to appear again
+  as suddenly with the return of the sun's rays. It is interesting to watch
+  bees at work collecting pollen, etc., but if any one wishes to study them
+  at home, their nesting haunts must, of course, be visited. These are so
+  various that it is impossible to point them all out, but the best
+  locality to select is a sandy bank facing south. In June or July such a
+  bank is often alive with bees, sand-wasps, etc.; here, again, we want
+  sunshine or the bees will stay in their holes. <!-- Page 84 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page84"></a>{84}</span>Even when dull, however,
+  it is a very interesting spot, and we can notice the numbers of holes
+  bored in the bank, and their different sizes and shapes; most of them are
+  round, but some sandwasps make very irregular holes. If we look closely
+  at some of the holes we shall see something closing the aperture, and, if
+  we are too inquisitive, that something will disappear down the hole like
+  lightning; it is the face of the owner of the burrow waiting to come out
+  for the first ray of sunshine, but the owner is very timid and it will be
+  some minutes before she puts her face so near danger again. In most of
+  the sandwasps the face is clothed with bright silvery, or sometimes
+  golden, hairs, and it is a very pretty sight to see these little silvery
+  faces peering out of their burrows. Again, one may sometimes notice a
+  little stream of sand emerging from a hole; this is from some bee who is
+  enlarging her domain or clearing out some of the sand which occasionally
+  falls in. In some cases this ejection of sand is done with a great deal
+  of action: the sand comes streaming out and then the bee follows, quite
+  up to the mouth of the passage, kicking out the sand as hard as it can.
+  <!-- Page 85 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page85"></a>{85}</span>The
+  moment, however, that the sun comes out the whole bank is full of life;
+  and just as in the case of the sallow bush, one wonders where it has all
+  been during the shadow. Bees will now be seen flying home laden with
+  pollen; they will pause at the opening of their burrow and then disappear
+  suddenly into its depths. In a very short time they will reappear quite
+  clean and ready for another journey. Their cleaning apparatus must be
+  wonderfully well adapted to its purpose. I have often had to remove the
+  pollen from a bee's leg to see what colour the hairs are, and it takes
+  some time even to brush enough of it off to ascertain this, and yet the
+  natural cleaning process seems to take no time in comparison. But to
+  return to our bank, numbers of bees will be seen coursing up and down and
+  hardly ever settling; these are males paying what attention they can to
+  any females who have time to attend to them, and often falling foul of
+  other males intent on similar pursuits. If one has good luck in the
+  choice of one's bank an elegant wasp-like creature may occasionally be
+  seen amongst the others; this is one of the cuckoos. The flight of all
+  the cuckoo bees is peculiar; it is much <!-- Page 86 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page86"></a>{86}</span>quieter and slower than
+  that of the hosts, and a cuckoo may easily be seen solemnly flying up and
+  down the bank, over the various holes, no doubt watching for the proper
+  opportunity to enter one, and deposit its egg in it. This deliberate
+  flight seems a curious habit in a creature which one would think would
+  wish to escape detection. If it seemed to inspire fear in the mind of its
+  host it would be different, but they appear to fly about together
+  unconcerned at each other's presence, and the cuckoo sails along demurely
+  and imposes on its hosts' labours without any apparent resentment on the
+  latter's part; both seem to accept their relationship as a matter of
+  course. Another very interesting frequenter of sandy banks is a pretty
+  little stout sandwasp, about a quarter of an inch long, called
+  <i>Oxybelus</i>. It has a very bright silvery face which shines most
+  brilliantly in the sun, and the body has a row of white spots on each
+  side, and it brings flies back to its nest. It is very active and common,
+  and may often be seen with its fly going back to its hole. There is a
+  rare species of the same genus, which is clothed all over with silvery
+  hairs, and this in some places, curiously <!-- Page 87 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page87"></a>{87}</span>enough, selects as its
+  victim a fly which is also coated with silver. There are, of course, many
+  other inhabitants in such a bank as this. There are sure to be ants,
+  which are always interesting to watch, and probably now and then a
+  <i>Pompilus</i> will appear on the scene. These exceedingly lively
+  creatures which run at a very rapid pace, vibrating their wings as they
+  go, and taking short flights between the runs, are on the hunt for
+  spiders. They will be seen to forage amongst any grass or herbage there
+  may be on the bank, and if they can only secure a spider it is stung and
+  paralyzed and carried off at once to the nest. Of course every sand bank
+  will not yield a great number of insects, but some, especially in sandy
+  districts like Woking, Oxshott, and other parts of the Surrey commons,
+  and the New Forest, simply teem with life&mdash;and would repay any one
+  for hours of watching and observation.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 88 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page88"></a>{88}</span></p>
+
+<h3>ANTS, THEIR GUESTS AND THEIR
+LODGERS</h3>
+
+  <p>The number of insects of different kinds which live in ants' nests,
+  either as scavengers, stray visitors who have found a lodging for the
+  moment, as guests carefully taken care of and appreciated by the ants, or
+  as lodgers, either tolerated or hostile to their hosts and persecuted,
+  and parasites, is very great. The most interesting of these from the
+  ordinary observer's point of view are the true guests and the lodgers.
+  The true guests are carefully attended to by the ants; they include such
+  insects as the <i>Aphides</i> or plant lice, and others which the ants
+  use as "cows" to secure the saccharine juices which they can obtain from
+  them, and also certain strange beetles which have tufts of golden hairs
+  on their body, which the ants lick&mdash;on account of what E. Wasmann<a
+  name="NtA2" href="#Nt2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> calls the etherealized oil
+  <!-- Page 89 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page89"></a>{89}</span>given off by them. These beetles are fairly
+  numerous and belong to several quite distinct families; the one which
+  perhaps is amongst the most interesting is a creature called <i>Lomechusa
+  strumosa</i>. This insect has rather an interesting history in connexion
+  with our British fauna. It used to be considered as an indigenous insect,
+  but so many years passed without any one finding it, that the old records
+  were suspected as doubtful, and it was removed from the list of British
+  species. In 1906, however, it was rediscovered near Woking in a nest of
+  <i>Formica sanguinea</i> (<a href="#platea">pl. A</a>, 1, 2, 3), one of
+  the large red ants, by Mr. H. Donisthorpe. The life-history of
+  <i>Lomechusa</i> is a very curious one: it is taken great care of by the
+  ants, and its larvæ are even placed by them with their own, on which it
+  feeds. Its numbers are kept down apparently by the overzeal of the ants
+  to take care of them. The ants bring their own pupæ up frequently to
+  obtain light and air and with them it brings up the <i>Lomechusa</i>
+  pupæ&mdash;this seems not to suit the latter and results in the death of
+  many of them. It is a most interesting case of how a due balance can be
+  maintained, and what might prove an enemy <!-- Page 90 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page90"></a>{90}</span>kept in his proper place
+  by kind intentions. There are also in ants' nests what Dr. Wasmann calls
+  "tolerated lodgers"; these are mostly creatures which are supposed to
+  escape the notice of the ants, either by their small size or by their
+  slow, lethargic, or on the other hand very rapid movements&mdash;these in
+  many cases act as scavengers, living on the dead bodies of insects, etc.,
+  brought in by the ants.</p>
+
+  <p>The hostile lodgers are real enemies to the ants and devour their
+  brood, and in consequence they are always at war with each other. These
+  creatures generally resemble the ants considerably in form and colour and
+  especially in their movements.</p>
+
+  <p>Besides these lodgers there are numerous parasites of the ants, such
+  as mites, etc., so that an ant colony is a very wonderful mixture of
+  diverse inhabitants. The distinctions given above as to the habits of the
+  various lodgers are not always kept up, as, in some, two or more of these
+  habits are combined. The whole study of ants and their guests is a most
+  fascinating one: many of the latter are great rarities and much sought
+  after by collectors. Unfortunately, the great <!-- Page 91 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page91"></a>{91}</span>drawback in collecting
+  them is the havoc caused to the nests of the ants. These structures have
+  been the result of enormous labour on the part of these little creatures,
+  and one cannot regard their destruction without sincere regret. I think
+  any one who, when collecting beetles, disturbs a large nest of the little
+  garden ant (<i>Lasius niger</i>) or the little yellow ant (<i>Lasius
+  flavus</i>) by turning over a stone, as the writer has often done
+  himself, must have experienced a like regret at having broken up all the
+  beautiful passages and galleries which the ants have constructed so
+  carefully.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 92 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page92"></a>{92}</span></p>
+
+<h3>HOW CAN AN "ACULEATE" BE
+RECOGNIZED?</h3>
+
+  <p>This is not an easy question to answer. We cannot make hard and fast
+  definitions which will determine exactly what belongs to this group and
+  what to that; there are always some intermediate forms which present
+  themselves and make our classification unsatisfactory, but, I think, for
+  all purposes of practical observation in the field we may say that if we
+  find a creature with four membranous wings, burrowing in the ground or
+  making a nest in any way, it is an aculeate or stinger. Also, that if we
+  find a hairy-bodied insect with four clear wings collecting pollen or
+  sucking nectar from a flower it is a bee. There are, of course,
+  characters by which the stinging groups can be known almost for certain,
+  but there is no single one which can be given to recognize them by. <!--
+  Page 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page93"></a>{93}</span>They are
+  known by a combination of many, and these are frequently small structural
+  details which do not appeal to the field observer; in fact, which are
+  unappreciable except under magnification. One of the chief difficulties
+  experienced by an observer who is not versed in classification is to
+  avoid being deceived by various flies, which in many cases greatly
+  resemble bees, and especially wasps or the wasp-like fossors. They may
+  mostly be known by their flight, and, when they settle, by their
+  behaviour. A fly is more sudden in its movements&mdash;those wasp-like
+  flies, for instance, which poise themselves in the air and appear quite
+  stationary but dart off in a second when approached, betray themselves at
+  once by their alertness. <i>Anthophora</i> and <i>Saropoda</i> poise in
+  the air and dart somewhat after the same fashion, but they never remain
+  poised for long, and do not get away from their position so rapidly.
+  Also, a fly when it settles remains quiet, whereas an aculeate if in a
+  flower sets to work collecting pollen, or if basking in the sun on a leaf
+  rarely rests for many seconds without moving in some way. On a flower, if
+  an insect is seen quietly sitting with its head away from the centre of
+  the <!-- Page 94 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page94"></a>{94}</span>flower, it is almost certain to be a fly.
+  Most of the little bees (<i>Halicti</i>) which visit dandelions and such
+  like "composites" fly in to them with some rapidity, attack them
+  sideways, and move round the "flower", no doubt getting pollen from each
+  floret in succession and with a businesslike action about it all, which
+  is very different from the behaviour of any fly. The flies which really
+  closely resemble bees in their flight are those which lay their eggs in
+  the burrows of various bees and sandwasps. They are really deceptive.
+  Last summer on the sandhills at Southbourne, near Bournemouth, I again
+  and again was deceived by a small fly with a red belt across its body,
+  thinking it was a red-bodied sandwasp. These it really only resembles on
+  the wing. After having been taken in once or twice one felt ashamed of
+  oneself for not recognizing it. The flies also which associate with the
+  humble bees are often coloured very much like them, and could easily be
+  mistaken for small specimens of the bees were it not for their behaviour
+  and wings, which show a dark spot on the upper margin, not existing in
+  the wing of the bee.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 95 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page95"></a>{95}</span></p>
+
+<h3>MALES AND FEMALES</h3>
+
+  <p>These differ from each other very greatly in many cases. Eccentricity
+  in structure almost always occurs in the male; excess of coloration
+  usually in the female. In size the male is generally the smaller and the
+  less robustly built of the two. Among the pollen-collectors, the male is
+  usually less densely clothed with hairs than the &#x2640;. In the fossors
+  this rule is rather reversed, but in that section neither sex is densely
+  clothed with hairs as are most of the pollenigerous bees.</p>
+
+  <p>The male has normally thirteen joints in its antennæ, and the female
+  only twelve. There are exceptions to this rule amongst the ants and in
+  certain fossors of the genus <i>Crabro</i>, some species of which have
+  the antennæ considerably distorted, and have two joints welded apparently
+  into one. Another distinction between the sexes is that the male has
+  seven dorsal segments <!-- Page 96 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page96"></a>{96}</span>of the body exposed to view, and the female
+  only six. In the males of some of those bees which collect pollen on the
+  underside of the body, the body above terminates with the sixth segment.
+  This is because the seventh is turned over on to the underside, and faces
+  downwards, its apex pointing towards the head. This arrangement of course
+  leaves less room for the regular ventral segments, and the usual apical
+  segments are in consequence "telescoped" up under the fourth, so that the
+  apical opening of the body lies on its underside between the fourth
+  ventral and the inverted seventh dorsal segments. This very curious
+  structure occurs only in those bees whose females collect pollen on the
+  underside, and the reason of it is to me quite inexplicable. The females
+  of a few of the fossors are destitute of wings; but in this country we
+  have no wingless males, except in the case of one little ant
+  (<i>Formicoxenus</i>); this lives in the nest of the common large red
+  ant, and its male can hardly be known from the worker except by the
+  number of joints in the antennæ and the absence of a sting. In the cases
+  where the female is wingless, the male as a rule is much the larger of
+  the two sexes. <!-- Page 97 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page97"></a>{97}</span>There are few more puzzling questions than
+  those which arise over these eccentricities of structure; they seem to
+  have no relation to any habits of the creatures' lives so far as we can
+  judge, neither can one suggest any useful purpose which they can serve.
+  In some groups the males of all the species seem built on one regular
+  plan&mdash;in others the males of each species seem to vie with the next
+  as to what eccentricity of structure in antennæ or legs or apex of the
+  body it can exhibit. In numbers, the males probably considerably exceed
+  the females, and are far more frequently met with, as they seem to be
+  less particular as to weather, and not being intent on obtaining food for
+  their offspring they fly about more casually, and certainly are more in
+  evidence generally.</p>
+
+  <p>The great difference in structure, etc., between the males and females
+  makes the work of pairing the sexes very difficult, especially in those
+  genera where the males and females appear together only for a few weeks,
+  as is the case in <i>Halictus</i> and <i>Sphecodes</i>. If one visits a
+  locality in the spring one may catch any number of females of
+  <i>Halictus</i>, but no males appear till the late <!-- Page 98 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page98"></a>{98}</span>summer or autumn, and,
+  unless one visits the same spot again when both sexes are out, it is
+  impossible to associate males and females. I have at the present moment
+  in my collection several males, which, being in doubt about myself, I
+  have communicated to continental authorities, who have returned them to
+  me as possibly the male of so and so! and we shall have to remain in
+  uncertainty about them till some one happens to take both sexes together,
+  when the mystery will be solved.</p>
+
+  <p>In time of appearance the males always precede the females&mdash;in
+  burrows, such as those of the leaf-cutting bees, etc., it may seem
+  puzzling as to how this is arranged, as one cell is placed over the other
+  so that those lower down in the tube cannot pass those higher up. This
+  difficulty is got over by the arrangement that the first eggs laid by the
+  mother bee are female and the last male, so that those at the top belong
+  to this latter sex; these emerge as soon as the warmth of the sun is
+  great enough to energize them sufficiently to break through their cell
+  covering, when they emerge and wait for the appearance of their females.
+  The males of <!-- Page 99 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page99"></a>{99}</span>some species of <i>Andrena</i> seem to take
+  great pleasure in flying rapidly up and down hedgerows, hardly ever
+  settling, and apparently far away from their females, which are probably
+  pollen collecting in dandelions or some such flowers in the
+  neighbourhood.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page100"></a>{100}</span></p>
+
+<h3>THE VAGARIES OF COLOUR AND
+STRUCTURE IN THE SEXES</h3>
+
+  <p>As a rule the male is rather smaller and especially slenderer than the
+  female, but there are notable exceptions; in one genus of the fossors,
+  <i>Myrmosa</i> for instance, the male is many times larger than the
+  female. In this case the male is winged and the female is wingless. Also,
+  if there is a difference in brightness of coloration between the sexes,
+  as a rule the male is duller than the female&mdash;this is especially the
+  case among the bees&mdash;but if there is any eccentricity in the form of
+  the limbs it is almost sure to occur in the male, and I think one would
+  not go far wrong in saying that when peculiar features occur in the
+  female, the reason for them is more or less apparent, whereas for the
+  eccentricities of the male there really often seems to be no assignable
+  cause. These male eccentricities are often exceedingly marked. A very
+  good <!-- Page 101 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page101"></a>{101}</span><span class="figleft"
+  style="width:14%;"><a href="images/Fig23.png"><img style="width:100%"
+  src="images/Fig23.png" alt="Fig 23. Antennae of wasps" title="Fig 23. Antennae of wasps"
+  /></a><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span></span> <span class="figright"
+  style="width:18%;"><a href="images/Fig24.png"><img style="width:100%"
+  src="images/Fig24.png" alt="Fig 24. Legs of wasps" title="Fig 24. Legs of wasps"
+  /></a><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span></span> example of them occurs
+  among the small "keyhole" wasps. All the British species are practically
+  alike in coloration. They may vary in having a greater or less number of
+  yellow bands on the body, but otherwise their distinctions rest on
+  structure. In the females the antennæ are slightly thickened towards the
+  apex, but otherwise they are simple. The males, however, are divided into
+  three quite distinct groups. In the first of these, the end joints of the
+  antennæ are rolled up in more or less of a spiral (fig. 23, 2); in the
+  second, the apical joint is turned sharply back like a hook (fig. 23, 1);
+  in the third, the end joints of the antennæ are simple and more or less
+  like those of the female. Now if we examine the legs of the males in the
+  first group we shall find still greater peculiarities; in two of our
+  species there is a long yellow spine at the extreme base of the middle
+  leg on the little joint by which it articulates on to the body (fig. 24,
+  2), and a curious pencil of hairs <!-- Page 102 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page102"></a>{102}</span>on each side of the
+  mouth. In two others, the femora, or thighs of the middle legs, are cut
+  into two deep somewhat semicircular incisions (fig. 24, 1)&mdash;a most
+  curious character; but here again the females have no corresponding
+  peculiarities. There seems to be no explanation known for these vagaries,
+  and yet one feels that there must be some object served by them. If we
+  turn to the bees we shall find that in many species the face of the male
+  is white to a greater or less extent, whereas that character is very rare
+  in the female. The front feet are produced into a wide flattened form in
+  some, in others the middle legs are extraordinarily developed, and
+  provided with tufts of hairs, etc. Another form of male development lies
+  in the form of the head. This is sometimes very much enlarged&mdash;often
+  varying considerably in this respect in specimens of the same species;
+  there is often a projecting tooth or spine on the mandible or jaw at its
+  base, or frequently on the cheek just above it. Then in the fossors the
+  males of the genus <i>Crabro</i> break out into numerous eccentricities;
+  in some, two or more of the joints of the antennæ are soldered together
+  and curved or cut out into <!-- Page 103 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page103"></a>{103}</span>curious forms (fig. 26); in others the
+  front shin or tibia is formed like a concave shield or shell (fig. 25),
+  and all the joints of that leg more or less distorted; in another male (a
+  rather doubtful native which has not been taken in this country for fifty
+  years) the head is narrowed behind into an almost ridiculously small
+  neck, being quite triangular in form, viewed from above, with the eyes
+  projecting from its anterior angles (fig. 27, 1), the female head being
+  of normal form (fig. 27, 2).</p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;">
+      <a href="images/Fig25.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig25.png"
+      alt="Fig 25. Tibia of Crabro cribrarius" title="Fig 25. Tibia of Crabro cribrarius" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:15%;">
+      <a href="images/Fig26.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig26.png"
+      alt="Fig 26. Antennae of Crabro cribrarius" title="Fig 26. Antennae of Crabro cribrarius" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:12%;">
+      <a href="images/Fig27.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig27.png"
+      alt="Fig 27. Heads of Crabro clypeatus" title="Fig 27. Heads of Crabro clypeatus" /></a>
+    <span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In the males of several species of fossors and bees the eyes are
+  enormously developed, joining one another on the top of the head. This
+  condition occurs also in the drone of the hive bee. The male of
+  <i>Astatus</i>, which has this character, has also a peculiar habit. It
+  sits basking in the sun on some bare sandy spot, and when disturbed makes
+  a sort of circular detour and pitches down again exactly on the spot from
+  which it started up. An <!-- Page 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page104"></a>{104}</span>increased length of the antennæ is another
+  male characteristic. This is carried to an extraordinary development in
+  what is called the "long horned bee"; this bee, which is pretty common in
+  some places, has antennæ which, when directed backwards, are almost as
+  long as its body&mdash;the female has quite an ordinary pair.</p>
+
+  <p>Another set of male characters which are of great value to
+  systematists lies in the hidden apical segments of the underside;
+  although these are hidden, being telescoped up inside the segments which
+  close the apical opening of the body, they often assume most curious and
+  beautiful forms, and are characters whereby the males of a species may be
+  determined with certainty when the females defy all one's endeavours to
+  discover their identity.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 105 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page105"></a>{105}</span></p>
+
+<h3>THE DISTRIBUTION, RARITY, OR ABUNDANCE
+OF VARIOUS SPECIES</h3>
+
+  <p>There are few points about which we know less than the causes of
+  distribution and rarity, although there are certain tolerably well
+  recognized laws which govern the occurrence of some species in certain
+  localities. What I mean is that marshy spots, say salt marshes for
+  instance, attract certain beetles and bugs which are never found except
+  in such places; certain kinds of flowers attract bees which never appear
+  to visit any others, but these localities and kinds of flowers occur
+  often at great distances from each other, and why&mdash;given a certain
+  flower you probably find a certain bee peculiar to it; or given a certain
+  kind of marsh you probably find a certain beetle, although the localities
+  may be hundreds of miles apart&mdash;I think still awaits explanation. I
+  will give an example with which I am personally well acquainted. <!--
+  Page 106 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page106"></a>{106}</span>There
+  is a rare little bee (<i>Macropis labiata</i>) which at one time was
+  looked upon as an extreme rarity, having only occurred three or four
+  times in this country. Mr. F. Enoch, comparatively lately, took a fair
+  number on the flowers of the greater loose-strife (<i>Lysimachia
+  vulgaris</i>) along the canal at Woking; now that its food-plant is
+  known, it has occurred in several other places in numbers, and no doubt
+  wherever the <i>Lysimachia</i> is abundant <i>Macropis</i> will probably
+  occur, but how the little creature has been distributed over the places
+  where this plant occurs, which are often far distant from each other,
+  seems to me to be an unsolved problem. Then there is another puzzling
+  point, and that is the extreme rarity of certain insects. No doubt in
+  many cases this is due to ignorance of their habits, as it has frequently
+  happened that species once considered of great rarity have occurred in
+  abundance when their habits have been discovered, as in the case of
+  <i>Macropis</i>, but there are some cases which do not seem to be
+  explainable in this way. I will again give an example which has been
+  specially under my own observation. <i>Dufourea vulgaris</i>, a little
+  black bee, <!-- Page 107 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page107"></a>{107}</span>which certainly might not be recognized
+  from its outward appearance, as there are many which very closely
+  resemble it, is still one of our greatest rarities, only three British
+  examples having been recorded. The first was taken by Sir Sidney Saunders
+  at Chewton, Hants, on the twelfth of August, 1879; this was a male; the
+  second, a female, was taken by Mr. T.&nbsp;R. Billups at Woking, on the first
+  of August, 1881; and the third by myself at Chobham (about four miles
+  from Woking) on the first of August, 1891. I believe in all cases these
+  were taken on yellow composite flowers. The flight and behaviour of the
+  male I caught were so peculiar, as it wriggled itself into the flower,
+  that I knew at once I had caught a rarity, and remarked to my companions
+  that I believed I had got a <i>Dufourea</i>. I also hazarded the remark
+  that it was "ten years since it had been taken." When I got home and
+  looked up the former record it was ten years to a day. Now there are few
+  places in England that have been better worked for the bee tribe than the
+  Woking, Chobham, and Weybridge neighbourhood; it has been worked by
+  experienced men who would see a difference <!-- Page 108 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page108"></a>{108}</span>in the flight of an
+  insect directly. The late Mr. F. Smith, in his day our leading authority,
+  the Rev. F.&nbsp;D. Morice, than whom no one has probably worked the
+  neighbourhood more thoroughly, Mr. T.&nbsp;R. Billups, Mr. E.&nbsp;B. Nevinson, and
+  the late Mr. A. Beaumont, have all been over the ground again and again,
+  and yet only these two <i>Dufoureas</i>! and these taken four miles
+  apart. Here again is a problem which is very perplexing! What part in
+  nature does this little rarity play? No doubt like everything else it has
+  its duties, and its corner to fill, but beyond that one can suggest
+  nothing.</p>
+
+  <p>Other bees are often exceedingly abundant in one season and very rare
+  the next, or they will entirely desert a locality where they have been
+  abundant, and move somewhere else&mdash;the occasional scarceness is due
+  probably to continued wet weather, which often appears to kill the larvæ.
+  Cold winters seem to have no injurious effect, although at one time they
+  were thought to determine the scarcity or otherwise of the bees of the
+  following summer. It has, I think, been clearly shown that larvæ can
+  stand almost any amount of cold, although they succumb to <!-- Page 109
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page109"></a>{109}</span>the effects of
+  mildew produced by wet, but there is often no apparent reason why a well
+  established colony should migrate to quite new pastures. Sometimes the
+  proximity of new buildings or the digging up of ground may disturb them,
+  but I know of colonies that have gone from where I knew them a
+  comparatively few years ago, and where I can detect no change likely to
+  have affected them. On the other hand there are colonies which one has
+  known all one's life and which still go on as strongly or more strongly
+  than ever&mdash;the case quoted under <i>Anthophora</i>, p. <a
+  href="#page63">63</a>, shows what persistence there can be in some.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 110 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page110"></a>{110}</span></p>
+
+<h3>ON BEES' WINGS</h3>
+
+  <p>The Bees and the other stinging groups have four wings like all the
+  <i>Hymenoptera</i>. These wings are almost always clear and transparent,
+  at any rate amongst the British species, there being only one exception
+  which I can call to mind in the female of the cuckoo of our large
+  red-tailed humble-bee, which has the wings blackish; also they are never
+  spotted, as in some flies. The hind or lower wings unite with the upper
+  by a series of very beautiful hooks which extend along their upper margin
+  and fix on to the posterior edge of the front wing, which is folded back
+  on itself so as to receive them; in flight the two wings are united, but
+  when at rest they separate; these hooks are beautiful objects under a
+  microscope; their numbers vary; and in some cases this variation is
+  useful in distinguishing closely allied species from one another. The hum
+  of a bee is caused, to a great extent, by <!-- Page 111 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page111"></a>{111}</span>the vibration of the
+  wings, but it has been shown that a loud buzzing noise can be emitted by
+  bees which have lost their wings; this proceeds from the spiracles or
+  holes in the outer covering of the creature through which it breathes. It
+  is therefore not always easy to say how much of the hum is caused by wing
+  vibration and how much by the action of the spiracles. Some, in fact
+  most, of our solitary bees are almost silent in flight, and their note
+  can be heard only when large numbers are flying together; others have a
+  very peculiar shrill hum, by which even the species can almost be
+  recognized. In bright, hot, sunny weather their flight is more rapid and
+  their note attains a higher pitch. The bees with the highest pitched hum
+  with which I am acquainted are the two smaller species of
+  <i>Anthophora</i> and <i>Saropoda bimaculata</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>In early spring, when it is hot in the sunshine and cold when a cloud
+  covers the sun, it is no unusual thing to see a bee drop to the ground.
+  The cold seems to paralyze altogether their powers of flight. When at
+  rest a bee folds its wings along the sides of its back, but only in the
+  wasp tribe is there the arrangement for them to be <!-- Page 112 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page112"></a>{112}</span>folded longitudinally.
+  The shape of the wings varies very little, but the arrangement and number
+  of their cells vary considerably. There are some very interesting genera
+  in which the neuration of some of the cells is so slightly indicated that
+  they are hardly visible, and can be seen only when the wing is held in
+  certain lights; these faintly indicated cells are nearly always those
+  towards the apex of the wing, the neuration of the basal part of the wing
+  being as strong as in the other genera. There are a few moths in this
+  country which very much resemble, both in the colour of their bodies and
+  their clear wings, the wasp tribe, but they may be known by the brown
+  band of scales at the apex of the wings and also by the absence of the
+  narrow waist, which exists in all the stinging tribes. The only wingless
+  forms which we know are to be found amongst the ants and the fossors, and
+  as a rule are females, but in a few cases in the ants, and in some
+  foreign species of the genus <i>Mutilla</i>, the male is apterous
+  also.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 113 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page113"></a>{113}</span></p>
+
+<h3>ON BREEDING ACULEATES, ETC.</h3>
+
+  <p>Any one who wishes to study the life-histories of these insects, and
+  has leisure to do so, can easily obtain various larvæ by digging for them
+  in suitable places. If, for instance, during the summer, bees, etc., have
+  been noticed entering holes in a certain bank or sandy spot, their larvæ
+  or nymphs can be got in the autumn by digging down for about a foot in
+  the direction of the holes, and if they be brought home and put into
+  glass-top boxes they will generally emerge at their right time without
+  giving any further trouble; it must, however, be remembered that the
+  grubs are very soft and tender skinned, and it is better to avoid
+  handling them if possible; they should be moved with a small soft
+  camel-hair pencil, and it is well to put something soft at the bottom of
+  the box so that if they fall in they will not be damaged. If the
+  wood-boring <!-- Page 114 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page114"></a>{114}</span>species are being collected, care must of
+  course be taken in splitting the wood; most of these make a pupa case
+  over themselves, and are in that respect easier to deal with. A label
+  should be put in each box to show where the larvæ, etc., were found. An
+  old rotten stump of a tree will often produce a good number of species.
+  Then there are the bramble-stem borers; these can be left in the stems. I
+  have generally found it convenient, after arriving home, to split the
+  stems down, to see if there are any living creatures in them, and, if
+  there are, to close them up again, and, tie a little very fine net or
+  gauze bag over the top of each stem; in this way one can find out exactly
+  what insects come from what stem, and determine the cuckoos (if any)
+  which belong to each. As the season advances towards May, it is well to
+  give all the larvæ, etc., an occasional glimpse of the sun; they should
+  not be left in the sun long enough for them to get dried up too much, but
+  the sun is a very important factor in tempting them to emerge; naked
+  larvæ and nymphs, in glass-top boxes, should be treated very carefully in
+  this respect, as they are deprived of their <!-- Page 115 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page115"></a>{115}</span>natural surroundings,
+  in which the actual sunshine would never reach them&mdash;it would be
+  better to place them in a sunny room, screened off from the actual rays
+  of the sun, so that its warmth only would be felt. If they do not emerge
+  the first year, it should not be taken for granted that they are dead, as
+  very likely they will appear in the following spring. I have bred
+  leaf-cutting bees several times with great success, and others I know
+  have been successful with many species. The fear is to get them dried up
+  too much; it is therefore not desirable to keep them in a very hot room.
+  When first the insects emerge, their hairs are often more or less matted
+  together, and they should be put in the sun in a larger box, so that they
+  can crawl about and clean themselves; portions also of the skin in which
+  they have been enveloped frequently adhere to them for some little time,
+  but as a rule, unless the creature be too weak, these are very soon
+  cleaned off. Breeding is a fascinating amusement, but it requires a great
+  deal of attention when the emerging season begins, as the boxes want
+  constant watching, or the insects will emerge unnoticed, and, if not
+  given proper <!-- Page 116 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page116"></a>{116}</span>air and sunshine, may die without cleaning
+  themselves properly.</p>
+
+  <p>If it is desired to preserve the specimens, they should be killed
+  either with cyanide of potassium, ether, or chloroform. If the first of
+  these agents is used, a piece of about the size of a small hazel nut
+  should be put at the bottom of a bottle (for collecting purposes, an
+  ordinary "Coleoptera bottle", which can be obtained from any naturalist's
+  shop, is the most convenient) and should be kept down by a wad of
+  blotting paper, well pressed down upon it; this prevents the cyanide, as
+  it liquifies, from wetting the hairs, etc., of the insects. Over this a
+  piece of white paper should be placed; this will get stained at once when
+  there is much damp, and should then be changed. The objections to cyanide
+  are its very poisonous nature, and the stiffness which is caused by its
+  use to the specimens killed by it, and also its tendency to turn yellow
+  colours red. I always use it myself as I think it is preferable to the
+  other insecticides, notwithstanding its demerits, but then I do not
+  extend the legs and wings of my specimens, but simply leave them in
+  whatever position they happen to <!-- Page 117 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page117"></a>{117}</span>die. Ether is a very
+  favourite method of killing with many; a few drops in a bottle with some
+  paper in it is sufficient to last for some hours; it however soon
+  evaporates in hot weather, and it is necessary to carry a small phial of
+  it in one's pocket to replenish the supply when exhausted; this makes one
+  smell of ether perpetually, which is more than I can stand. But the
+  insects killed in this way are beautifully supple, and, for those who
+  wish to set their captures as they would <i>Lepidoptera</i>, it is an
+  excellent medium, i.e. if they don't mind its smell; it has also the
+  benefit of not affecting colour. Chloroform acts much as ether does. When
+  killed, I strongly recommend collectors to pin their specimens through
+  the thorax with a very fine pin (those used for micro-lepidoptera are the
+  best), and then to pin this through a narrow strip of card, mounted on a
+  long stout pin; in this way the insect can be moved about by the strong
+  pin, and the thorax of the insect itself is not destroyed, as it often is
+  in the case of the smaller species by the use of thicker pins. The cards
+  should be cut as small as possible; they need not be more than a quarter
+  of an inch long. The insect <!-- Page 118 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page118"></a>{118}</span>should be pinned at right angles to the
+  long axis of the card, and the long pin should be inserted on the
+  right-hand side of the insect so as not quite to touch it. In this way
+  the insects look quite as neat as if they were pinned direct. Locality
+  labels, etc., should be affixed to the long pin, and the insects should
+  be stored in cabinets or boxes.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 119 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page119"></a>{119}</span></p>
+
+<h3>ON COLOUR</h3>
+
+  <p>There is but little tendency towards brilliant coloration amongst our
+  native aculeates. No doubt our comparatively high latitude accounts for
+  this to some extent, as also the fact that the aculeates do not, as a
+  rule, elsewhere assume great brilliancy. Even in the tropics and other
+  warm regions, where bright green, blue or coppery coloured species occur,
+  they are comparatively few in number. In this country metallic colours
+  are to be found in less than a dozen species, and in most of these it
+  exists only as a tinge. Amongst our ants and wasps it does not exist at
+  all, unless the slight bronziness of the typical form of <i>Formica
+  fusca</i> be so considered. The fossors can exhibit only a bluish tint in
+  <i>Mutilla Europæa</i> (<a href="#platea">pl. A</a>, 4, 5), and a slight
+  bronzy tinge in two of quite the smallest species, <i>Miscophus
+  maritimus</i> and the &#x2642; of <i>Crabro albilabris</i>. The bees can
+  do a little better; five species of <i>Halictus</i> have a distinctly
+  <!-- Page 120 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page120"></a>{120}</span>bronzy head and thorax, and in three the
+  bronzy colour extends to the abdomen; there is also another with a very
+  dull green tinge on the thorax; besides these there is a little bright
+  blue bee, <i>Ceratina</i> (unfortunately a great rarity in this country)
+  and two or three species of <i>Osmia</i>, showing more or less tendency
+  to bronziness, and one which is distinctly bluish; but, considering our
+  indigenous species number nearly 400, this is a very small, and compared
+  with other countries I should think an abnormally small, proportion.</p>
+
+  <p>Species with bodies banded like a wasp's are much more
+  abundant&mdash;no less than eighty of our native kinds having this style
+  of coloration. The bands may be reduced to lateral spots, but such cases,
+  I think, are only modifications of the banded scheme.</p>
+
+  <p>Black species with a more or less pronounced red band across the body
+  number about seventy, and a general testaceous or yellowish colour occurs
+  in a few ants, but not elsewhere among the British aculeates. Nearly all
+  the rest are black or dark brown so far as the actual surface of the body
+  is concerned; but amongst the bees <!-- Page 121 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page121"></a>{121}</span>there is often a dense
+  clothing of coloured hairs sometimes so dense that the surface of the
+  body may be rendered invisible. These coloured hairs may be distributed
+  into brilliant bands, as in the humble bees, or they may be uniformly
+  black, as in some of their varieties and in the females of the spring
+  species of <i>Anthophora</i> (<a href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 25), or
+  entirely red as in <i>Andrena fulva</i> (<a href="#plateb">pl. B</a>,
+  16), or black on the thorax and red on the abdomen as in <i>Osmia
+  bicolor</i> (<a href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 28), or vice versâ as in
+  <i>Andrena thoracica</i>, etc., but the most usual condition is that
+  where the hairs form more or less pale bands along the joints of the
+  segments, either immediately above or below them or both; sometimes these
+  bands are very obscurely indicated, and visible only in certain
+  positions. At others they are vividly white; to a certain extent this
+  banded condition recalls the waspy coloration. The hairs, however, of the
+  bands are rarely yellow, but as a rule greyish or white, or of a grade of
+  colour slightly paler than those of the disc. There are some rather
+  interesting points which arise out of this rough analysis. Among the
+  bees, all the species which have a waspy coloration are cuckoos, with
+  only one exception (<i>Anthidium</i>) <!-- Page 122 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page122"></a>{122}</span>(<a href="#plated">pl.
+  D</a>, 27), as are also nearly all those which have red bands. With the
+  exception of the males of three species of <i>Halictus</i>, and both
+  sexes of three or four species of <i>Andrena</i>, all the red-banded
+  forms belong to the genus <i>Sphecodes</i> (<a href="#plateb">pl. B</a>,
+  11), which is a cuckoo genus. The red coloration occurs chiefly on nearly
+  naked surfaces; this is specially noticeable in those bees which have two
+  varieties, such as <i>Andrena rosæ</i>, one dull coloured and the other
+  red-banded: in these cases the dull form is hairy and the red nearly
+  naked. The greatest proportionate number of banded species occurs amongst
+  the fossors, and these are seldom clothed with hairs to any extent. These
+  bands seem to me probably to depend a good deal on retarded development.
+  Dark and hairy bands, both as a rule, follow the joints of the segments,
+  as stated above. I only say as a rule, as there are many where the
+  banding does not follow this principle, but in far the larger majority
+  the bands, whether of dark colour or hairs, are apical. As the segments
+  overlap at the joints it is evident that their discs would tend to mature
+  more rapidly than the overlapping bases and apices, <!-- Page 123
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page123"></a>{123}</span>and the longer
+  period spent in hardening and drying of the overlapping parts would
+  favour the development of dark pigment and of hairs. Many species have
+  the extreme apices of the segments pale, but with the apical integument
+  so very thin, often looking nearly transparent and membranous, that its
+  development would be very rapid. Again, in the case of red coloration,
+  the red generally occurs on the discs of the segments, the apices and
+  sides often being dark, and in cases where in one species both black and
+  banded forms occur, with intermediate varieties, the last remnant of red
+  colour is generally situated in the centre of the segment. By far the
+  gayest effect is displayed by our humble bees, and, but for them and a
+  few of the species of <i>Andrena</i> and the wasp-coloured species, our
+  aculeates would be a very sombre lot.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 124 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page124"></a>{124}</span></p>
+
+<h3>THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS FROM
+THE EGG</h3>
+
+  <p>Although this and the following chapter may not be interesting to all
+  my readers, I think it is only right to add some remarks on the structure
+  and classification of insects, so that any one who wishes to follow up
+  the subject may gather a few general ideas which may induce them to take
+  up some technical and scientific work in which they will get fuller and
+  more exact data on the difficulties which are involved in such simple
+  questions as "What is an insect?" "How are the different orders of
+  insects distinguished from each other?" "What is a species?" etc.</p>
+
+  <p>To realize the characters of an insect in its perfect or "imago"
+  state, we may for the moment forget what often seems to be its most
+  important features, and which are frequently its most extensive parts,
+  viz. its limbs or <!-- Page 125 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page125"></a>{125}</span>appendages; by limbs are meant its wings,
+  legs, horns or antennæ, jaws or mandibles, etc.: strip these all off, and
+  we have a limbless trunk, which many would not recognize as belonging to
+  an insect at all; still this limbless trunk possesses characters which
+  assert its insect nature, as it may be known from other limbless trunks
+  by being divided into three parts by two great transverse divisions; in
+  most insects these are extremely well marked, and in all they have a very
+  real existence. The parts thus divided off are known by the names of
+  head, thorax, and abdomen. Anybody knows how easy it is to break off the
+  head or body of a dried insect. Now the head or body breaks off at one of
+  these divisions, and it is this partitioning of the body into three
+  sections which makes one of the strongest characters in the definition of
+  an insect. The three parts, thus divided off, each possesses special
+  functions in the life of the creature. In the head are contained the
+  principal organs of sense and brain; in the thorax, the organs of
+  locomotion; and in the body those of digestion, reproduction, etc.</p>
+
+  <p>This division into three parts does not however <!-- Page 126 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page126"></a>{126}</span>always hold good in the
+  early stages of the insect's life, and we must remember that the creature
+  commences life on leaving the egg, and not merely on its emergence from
+  the chrysalis, so that we have to reckon with caterpillars, grubs and all
+  sorts of curious immature forms in our conceptions of an insect.</p>
+
+  <p>These early stages do not as a rule interest the public much, but it
+  is well to bear in mind that the "perfect insect" stage is reached by
+  some insects along apparently a very different road from that travelled
+  by others. Some leave the egg as caterpillars or grubs, and after various
+  changes of skin become apparently lifeless chrysalids, from which they
+  emerge as perfect insects. Others leave the egg as diminutive likenesses
+  of their parents, and run or hop about much as they do, attaining the
+  perfect insect stage simply by a series of changes of skin, without any
+  definite quiescent or chrysalis condition.</p>
+
+  <p>The observation, therefore, which one often hears that insects never
+  grow, has to be taken with caution; all insects grow in their early
+  stages, but it is an obvious truth that insects do not <!-- Page 127
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page127"></a>{127}</span>grow after
+  they attain the imago or "perfect insect" condition. A small fly will
+  never become a large fly, nor a small beetle a large beetle. This is only
+  because we do not recognize their caterpillars or grubs as flies and
+  beetles; but a grasshopper we know grows, because its early stages are of
+  the same general form as the perfect insect, and we see the little ones
+  hopping about in some places, and if we visit the same place later on we
+  notice that they have grown, but as soon as they cast their last skin and
+  obtain the free use of their wings, growth ceases, as it does in a fly or
+  a beetle or in any other insect.</p>
+
+  <p>It must not be supposed that the limbs of insects are of no value in
+  their identification. We only removed them in order to emphasize the
+  great importance of the character derived from the regional constrictions
+  of the body, which is considered to be certainly one of the most, if not
+  the most, important of any. Besides this character every perfect insect
+  should have six legs, four wings, and various appendages on the head,
+  such as antennæ, mandibles, maxillæ, labium, etc.; some of these may be
+  so modified as hardly to <!-- Page 128 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page128"></a>{128}</span>be recognizable, but they are hardly ever
+  absent altogether; for instance, the two fore wings of a beetle are
+  modified into what are called wing cases, and fold over its back,
+  protecting the two hind wings, which are more or less membranous, as are
+  those of a bee. They have not the functions of locomotive organs, and are
+  used in flight as poisers. Again in the case of a fly, the hind wings
+  seem to be absent, but they are considered to be represented by two
+  little projecting organs which look like large headed pins or nails, but
+  which are quite useless for locomotive purposes.</p>
+
+  <p>The organs of the mouth are especially liable to modification, and on
+  these the older authors used to frame their classification. Insects were
+  divided by them, primarily, into two great divisions, viz. those which
+  had a biting and those which had a sucking mouth; treated in this way,
+  the following orders fall into the division with biting
+  mouths:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p><i>Coleoptera</i>, or beetles; <i>Hymenoptera</i>, or bees, wasps,
+  ants, etc.; <i>Orthoptera</i> and <i>Neuroptera</i>, which include the
+  grasshoppers, earwigs, cockroaches, dragonflies, May flies, etc. <!--
+  Page 129 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page129"></a>{129}</span></p>
+
+  <p>And into the division with sucking mouths:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p><i>Lepidoptera</i>, or butterflies and moths; <i>Diptera</i> or flies,
+  gnats, etc.; <i>Hemiptera</i>, or bugs, including the plant-lice,
+  etc.</p>
+
+  <p>These divisions, however, have not been found to be very satisfactory,
+  although very simple when dealing only with the perfect insect stage. In
+  the first place, being framed on this stage only, they are not always
+  applicable to the earlier phases of the insect's life&mdash;for instance,
+  although a butterfly or moth has a sucking proboscis, their caterpillars
+  have strong biting jaws, as any gardener well knows. Also bees, wasps,
+  etc., rather upset the arrangement, as they have not only a sucking mouth
+  but also strong biting jaws.</p>
+
+  <p>This system of classification has therefore been discarded by most
+  entomologists in favour of that based on the difference between those
+  insects which pass through the distinctive stages of caterpillar and
+  chrysalis on the one hand, and those which emerge from the egg as
+  diminutive likenesses of their parents on the other. In this arrangement,
+  the <i>Coleoptera</i>, <i>Hymenoptera</i>, <i>Lepidoptera</i>,
+  <i>Diptera</i> and <i>Neuroptera</i>, fall into the <!-- Page 130
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page130"></a>{130}</span>first
+  division, or <i>Heteromorphæ</i> as they are called; and the
+  <i>Hemiptera</i> and <i>Orthoptera</i> into the second or
+  <i>Homomorphæ</i>. The dragonflies are the only slightly discordant
+  elements in this arrangement, as, although their larvæ have six legs and
+  walk about under the water and never assume an actual chrysalis
+  condition, still they can hardly be said to resemble their gorgeously
+  coloured parents which fly about so majestically over our ponds, etc.;
+  still this is only one of the many cases which show that nature cannot be
+  held down by any of the arbitrary rules we make for her
+  classification.</p>
+
+  <p>The <i>Hymenoptera</i> are therefore characterized and distinguished
+  from other insects by having both a biting and sucking mouth, four clear
+  wings, and by passing through the distinctive liveries of caterpillar or
+  grub, and chrysalis or nymph. It is with this order only with which we
+  have been dealing. To distinguish the aculeate section from the many
+  other forms of the <i>Hymenoptera</i> is too complex a task to undertake
+  here, but the presence of a narrow waist between the thorax and the body,
+  the number of joints in the antennæ never exceeding thirteen in <!-- Page
+  131 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page131"></a>{131}</span>the male,
+  twelve in the female, and the presence of a sting capable of ejecting
+  poison in this latter sex, are the most prominent features by which the
+  aculeates may be recognized.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 132 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page132"></a>{132}</span></p>
+
+<h3>ON STRUCTURE</h3>
+
+  <p>Although in the foregoing chapter a little has been said on this
+  subject, there is a great deal more that a student should learn about the
+  general form of these creatures.</p>
+
+  <p>They begin life as white or nearly colourless grubs, which, after
+  various changes of skin, assume what is called the nymph or pupa stage,
+  during which a change occurs, believed to be peculiar to the
+  <i>Hymenoptera</i>; the fifth segment of the larval body is transferred
+  to the mass which is called the thorax, so that a portion of what looks
+  like thorax is really the first segment of the abdomen. Continental
+  writers call this portion sometimes the first abdominal segment and
+  sometimes the median segment, but Newman gave it a definite name, the
+  "propodeum", and the most convenient method seems to be to call it so,
+  and treat it as a part of the thorax, calling the first or basal segment
+  of the abdomen <!-- Page 133 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page133"></a>{133}</span>that which immediately follows the
+  regional constriction, which occurs between the propodeum and the
+  abdomen.</p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:55%;">
+      <a href="images/Fig28.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig28.png"
+      alt="Fig 28. Parts of an aculeate" title="Fig 28. Parts of an aculeate" /></a>
+  </div>
+<blockquote class="b1s">
+
+  <p><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span></p>
+
+  <p><i>a</i> Head. <i>a</i><sup>1</sup> Antennæ. <i>a</i><sup>2</sup>
+  Ocelli. <i>a</i><sup>3</sup> Compound eyes.</p>
+
+  <p><i>b</i><sup>1</sup> Prothorax. <i>b</i><sup>2</sup> Scutum of
+  Mesothorax. <i>b</i><sup>3</sup> Scutellum of Mesothorax.
+  <i>b</i><sup>4</sup> Post-Scutellum of Metathorax. <i>b</i><sup>5</sup>
+  Propodeum.</p>
+
+  <p><i>c</i><sup>1</sup> <i>c</i><sup>2</sup>, etc., Segments of
+  Abdomen.</p>
+
+  <p>Legs. <i>d</i><sup>1</sup> Coxa. <i>d</i><sup>2</sup> Trochanter.
+  <i>d</i><sup>3</sup> Femur. <i>d</i><sup>4</sup> Tibia.
+  <i>d</i><sup>5</sup> Tarsi. <i>d</i><sup>6</sup> Calcaria or Spurs.
+  <i>d</i><sup>7</sup> Unguiculi or claws. <i>d</i><sup>8</sup>
+  Pulvillus.</p>
+
+  <p><i>e</i> Front wing. 1 Costal nervure. 2 Post Costal nervure. 3 Median
+  nervure. 4 Posterior nervure. 5 Basal nervure. 6 Cubital nervure. 10 1st
+  Recurrent nervure. 11 2nd Recurrent nervure.</p>
+
+  <p><i>f.</i> Hind wing. 7 Anterior nervure. 8 Median nervure. 9 Posterior
+  nervure.</p>
+
+  <p>Cells. <i>A</i> Marginal. <i>B</i> Upper basal. <i>C</i> Lower basal.
+  <i>D</i> 1st Submarginal. <i>E</i> 2nd Submarginal. <i>F</i> 3rd
+  Submarginal. <i>G</i> 1st Discoidal. <i>H</i> 2nd Discoidal. <i>I</i> 3rd
+  Discoidal. <i>J</i> 1st Apical. <i>K</i> 2nd Apical.</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<div style="clear: both"></div>
+<p><!-- Page 134 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page134"></a>{134}</span></p>
+
+  <p>The perfect insect when it emerges has therefore a head, a thorax of
+  four segments, and an abdomen of seven visible dorsal segments in the
+  male, and of six in the female. The &#x2642; has six ventral segments
+  exposed, and often the apex of the eighth, which is frequently elongate,
+  the seventh being almost always short and hidden; the eighth dorsal
+  segment can be discovered hidden under the seventh, but it is very rarely
+  exposed. The head (<i>a</i>) bears numerous appendages; a pair of antennæ
+  (<i>a</i><sup>1</sup>), usually of thirteen joints in the male and of
+  twelve in the female; two compound eyes (<i>a</i><sup>3</sup>), composed
+  of many facets; three simple eyes (or ocelli) (<i>a</i><sup>2</sup>),
+  which are situated on its vertex; two <i>mandibles</i>; two
+  <i>maxillæ</i>, bearing <i>palpi</i> on each side, of a varying number of
+  joints; and a <i>labium</i>, or tongue, which also bears at its base two
+  four-jointed palpi (cf. fig. 20).</p>
+
+  <p>The thorax, as we are considering it, consists of four
+  segments&mdash;the <i>prothorax</i> (<i>b</i><sup>1</sup>), which bears
+  the two front legs; the <i>mesothorax</i> (<i>b</i><sup>2</sup>), which
+  bears the intermediate pair of legs and the anterior pair of wings; and
+  the <i>metathorax</i> (<i>b</i><sup>3</sup>), which bears the posterior
+  pair of wings and the hind legs. The <!-- Page 135 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page135"></a>{135}</span>propodeum has no
+  appendages. The mesothorax above has two parts, a larger portion in front
+  called by some the <i>scutum</i> (<i>b</i><sup>2</sup>), and a smaller
+  portion behind called the <i>scutellum</i> (<i>b</i><sup>3</sup>). These
+  are separated from each other by a transverse impression, and the
+  scutellum is often raised into a sort of little shield; behind this is
+  another little elevation called the <i>post-scutellum</i>
+  (<i>b</i><sup>4</sup>); this is really the dorsal apex of the metathorax,
+  and behind this lies the <i>propodeum</i> (<i>b</i><sup>5</sup>). Each
+  leg is composed of various parts, and articulates into a cavity of the
+  thorax called the <i>acetabulum</i>. The first two joints of the leg, the
+  <i>coxa</i> (<i>d</i><sup>1</sup>) and the <i>trochanter</i>
+  (<i>d</i><sup>2</sup>), are very short; then follows the <i>femur</i> or
+  thigh (<i>d</i><sup>3</sup>); then the <i>tibia</i> or shin
+  (<i>d</i><sup>4</sup>); and finally the <i>tarsi</i>
+  (<i>d</i><sup>5</sup>), which compose the foot. At the apex of the
+  <i>tibia</i> are usually two spines called the <i>calcaria</i>
+  (<i>d</i><sup>6</sup>). The <i>tarsi</i> are five-jointed, the joints
+  following each other in a linear arrangement, and in the
+  <i>Anthophila</i> the basal joint is more or less dilated; the apical
+  joint bears two claws (<i>unguiculi</i>, <i>d</i><sup>7</sup>) which are
+  sometimes toothed, and between them, in some genera, there is what is
+  called a <i>pulvillus</i> (<i>d</i><sup>8</sup>) or cushion; this is very
+  large and dilated in some of the fossors. <!-- Page 136 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page136"></a>{136}</span></p>
+
+  <p>The wing neuration is always rather troublesome, as various authors
+  use different names for the veins and cells. To begin with the anterior
+  wing (<i>e</i>), there are four nerves which start from the base and run
+  horizontally; the first of these, which forms the anterior margin of the
+  wing, is called the <i>costal nervure</i> (1); immediately below this,
+  and running almost parallel to it with scarcely any space between them,
+  is the <i>post-costal nervure</i> (2); these end in the <i>stigma</i>
+  (<i>s</i>), a dark in-crassation towards the apex of the wing; from the
+  stigma a nerve, curving first downwards and then up to the anterior
+  margin of the wing, encloses the <i>marginal cell</i> (<i>A</i>). Below
+  the <i>post-costal</i> nervure, and situated about the centre of the
+  wing, is the third longitudinal nervure called the <i>median nervure</i>
+  (3); behind this again runs the <i>posterior nervure</i> (4), and behind
+  that the actual margin of the wing which is not provided with a
+  protecting nervure, but is only folded back so as to receive the hooks of
+  the posterior wing. Across the wing at, roughly, about a third of its
+  length from the body runs the <i>basal nervure</i> (5); this extends in a
+  somewhat zigzag line from the <i>post-costal</i> to the <i>posterior
+  nervure</i> crossing the <i>median</i>, and <!-- Page 137 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page137"></a>{137}</span>thereby enclosing two
+  cells, the <i>upper basal cell</i> (<i>B</i>) and the <i>lower basal
+  cell</i> (<i>C</i>). From the centre of the apical nerve of each of these
+  cells extends a longitudinal nervure; the upper of these runs out nearly
+  to the apical margin of the wing and is called the <i>cubital nervure</i>
+  (6); this is united to the nervure of the <i>marginal cell</i> by one,
+  two, or three cross nervures, enclosing thereby one, two, or three cells
+  called the first (<i>D</i>), second (<i>E</i>), and third (<i>F</i>)
+  <i>submarginal cells</i>. The nervure from the lower basal cell is a
+  short one, as it is met by a cross nervure called the first <i>recurrent
+  nervure</i> (10), which runs from the <i>cubital</i> to the
+  <i>posterior</i>, thereby enclosing two cells, the first (<i>G</i>) and
+  second (<i>H</i>) <i>discoidal</i>. The <i>second recurrent</i> (11)
+  leaves the <i>cubital</i> nearer the apex of the wing than the first,
+  meeting a nervure which, springing from the outer posterior angle of the
+  second discoidal, closes the third discoidal (<i>I</i>), and, curving
+  slightly upwards, nearly reaches the apical margin of the wing. Beyond
+  the second recurrent, and behind this last nervure which we have been
+  talking about, are two spaces not actually enclosed, but called the
+  <i>first</i> (<i>J</i>) <i>and second</i> (<i>K</i>) <i>apical
+  cells</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>The posterior wings have very few cells. <!-- Page 138 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page138"></a>{138}</span>Like the anterior pair
+  they have three longitudinal nervures; the <i>anterior</i> (7), which
+  runs close and parallel to the anterior nerveless margin, and often
+  touches it at about half the length of the wing; the <i>median</i> (8)
+  and <i>posterior</i> (9) run in diverging lines from the base towards the
+  exterior margin of the wing, the anterior and median nervures being
+  almost always joined by a cross nervure, and the median usually united to
+  the posterior by a cross or curved nervure. The actual base of the
+  anterior wing is covered by a little convex somewhat shell-like cap,
+  called the <i>tegula</i> (<i>T</i>). The abdomen is composed of a series
+  of segments in linear arrangement (<i>c</i><sup>1</sup>
+  <i>c</i><sup>2</sup>, etc.). These call for no special remark, beyond
+  what has been said in the chapter on males and females, but those who
+  wish to investigate the very interesting questions connected with the
+  terminal segments of these creatures should consult some more technical
+  work.<a name="NtA3" href="#Nt3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> The arrangements of
+  the mouth parts and of the apical segments of the Hymenoptera afford
+  perhaps the most important structural <!-- Page 139 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page139"></a>{139}</span>characters of the
+  order, but they involve an amount of dissection and study which can only
+  be undertaken by those who are inclined to give themselves up to this
+  subject as a speciality.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 141 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page141"></a>{141}</span></p>
+
+<h3>INDEX</h3>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Abdomen, <a href="#page125">125</a></p>
+      <p>Acetabulum, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+      <p>Ammophila, <a href="#page22">22</a></p>
+      <p>Andrena, <a href="#page9">9</a>, <a href="#page12">12</a>, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page77">77</a>, <a href="#page79">79</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; fulva, <a href="#page121">121</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; rosæ, <a href="#page138">138</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; thoracica, <a href="#page121">121</a></p>
+      <p>Antennæ, <a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a></p>
+      <p>Anthidium, <a href="#page50">50</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></p>
+      <p>Anthophila, <a href="#page6">6</a></p>
+      <p>Anthophora, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page61">61</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page93">93</a>, <a href="#page109">109</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; pilipes, <a href="#page61">61</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; retusa, <a href="#page62">62</a></p>
+      <p>Ants, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a>, <a href="#page88">88</a></p>
+      <p>Aphides, <a href="#page88">88</a></p>
+      <p>Apis, <a href="#page16">16</a></p>
+      <p>Astatus, <a href="#page103">103</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Banded bodies, <a href="#page120">120</a></p>
+      <p>Beetles, <a href="#page20">20</a></p>
+      <p>Biting, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page32">32</a></p>
+      <p>Black Species, <a href="#page120">120</a></p>
+      <p>Bombus, <a href="#page16">16</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; terrestris, <a href="#page41">41</a>, <a href="#page42">42</a></p>
+      <p>Brain, <a href="#page125">125</a></p>
+      <p>Bramble Stems, <a href="#page12">12</a></p>
+      <p>Breeding, <a href="#page113">113</a></p>
+      <p>Broods, <a href="#page13">13</a></p>
+      <p>Burrows, <a href="#page9">9</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Calcaria, <a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+      <p>Carder Bees, <a href="#page40">40</a></p>
+      <p>Cardines, <a href="#page75">75</a></p>
+      <p>Carpenter bee, <a href="#page55">55</a></p>
+      <p>Caterpillar, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a href="#page20">20</a></p>
+      <p>Cells, <a href="#page10">10</a>, <a href="#page12">12</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page40">40</a>, <a href="#page58">58</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; hexagonal, <a href="#page28">28</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; pitcher-shaped, <a href="#page58">58</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; waxen, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page40">40</a></p>
+      <p>Ceratina, <a href="#page47">47</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a></p>
+      <p>Chimneys, <a href="#page25">25</a></p>
+      <p>Chloroform, <a href="#page118">118</a></p>
+      <p>Chrysis, <a href="#page27">27</a></p>
+      <p>Cilissa, <a href="#page48">48</a></p>
+      <p>Cleaning hairs, <a href="#page68">68</a></p>
+      <p>Clover fertilization, <a href="#page39">39</a></p>
+      <p>Cockroaches, <a href="#page128">128</a></p>
+      <p>Cocoons, <a href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page58">58</a></p>
+      <p>Coleoptera, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a></p>
+      <p>Colletes, <a href="#page44">44</a></p>
+      <p>Colonies, <a href="#page5">5</a>, <a href="#page63">63</a></p>
+      <p>Colour, <a href="#page100">100</a></p>
+      <p>Colour schemes, <a href="#page22">22</a></p>
+      <p>Combs, <a href="#page23">23</a>, <a href="#page68">68</a>, <a href="#page69">69</a></p>
+      <p>Corbicula, <a href="#page67">67</a></p>
+      <p>Coxæ, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+      <p>Crabro, <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; albilabris, <a href="#page119">119</a></p>
+      <p>Cuckoos, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page14">14</a>, <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page54">54</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; flight of, <a href="#page85">85</a></p>
+      <p>Cyanide, <a href="#page116">116</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Dasypoda, <a href="#page48">48</a></p>
+      <p>Development, <a href="#page124">124</a></p>
+      <p>Digestion, <a href="#page125">125</a></p>
+      <p>Diggers, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page7">7</a></p>
+<!-- Page 142 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page142"></a>{142}</span>
+      <p>Diptera, <a href="#page129">129</a></p>
+      <p>Distribution, <a href="#page105">105</a></p>
+      <p>Domestication, <a href="#page41">41</a></p>
+      <p>Drone flies, <a href="#page3">3</a></p>
+      <p>Dufourea, <a href="#page106">106</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Earwigs, <a href="#page128">128</a></p>
+      <p>English names, <a href="#page55">55</a></p>
+      <p>Epeolus, <a href="#page45">45</a></p>
+      <p>Ether, <a href="#page117">117</a></p>
+      <p>Eyes, <a href="#page134">134</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Females, <a href="#page95">95</a></p>
+      <p>Femur, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+      <p>Figwort, <a href="#page36">36</a></p>
+      <p>Figure of insect, <a href="#page133">133</a></p>
+      <p>Flies, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a></p>
+      <p>Flower lovers, <a href="#page6">6</a></p>
+      <p>Flute, <a href="#page57">57</a></p>
+      <p>Food, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a></p>
+      <p>Foot, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+      <p>Formica, <a href="#page34">34</a>, <a href="#page59">59</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; fusca, <a href="#page119">119</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; sanguinea, <a href="#page89">89</a></p>
+      <p>Formicoxenus, <a href="#page96">96</a></p>
+      <p>Fossors, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page7">7</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Galleries, <a href="#page28">28</a></p>
+      <p>Grasshoppers, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a></p>
+      <p>Growth, <a href="#page126">126</a></p>
+      <p>Guests of Ants, <a href="#page89">89</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Hairs, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page71">71</a></p>
+      <p>Halictus, <a href="#page13">13</a>, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a href="#page17">17</a>, <a href="#page77">77</a>, <a href="#page94">94</a>, <a href="#page97">97</a>, <a href="#page119">119</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a></p>
+      <p>Head, <a href="#page125">125</a></p>
+      <p>Hemiptera, <a href="#page129">129</a>, <a href="#page130">130</a></p>
+      <p>Heterogyna, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a></p>
+      <p>Heteromorphæ, <a href="#page130">130</a></p>
+      <p>Hive bee, <a href="#page2">2</a>, <a href="#page16">16</a></p>
+      <p>Homing instinct, <a href="#page21">21</a></p>
+      <p>Homomorphæ, <a href="#page130">130</a></p>
+      <p>Honey pots, <a href="#page29">29</a></p>
+      <p>Hornets, <a href="#page35">35</a></p>
+      <p>Humble bees, <a href="#page39">39</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; mutilated, <a href="#page41">41</a></p>
+      <p>Hymenoptera, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Ichneumons, <a href="#page21">21</a></p>
+      <p>Inquilines, <a href="#page3">3</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Jewel flies, <a href="#page21">21</a>, <a href="#page27">27</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Keyhole wasps, <a href="#page101">101</a></p>
+      <p>Killing bottles, <a href="#page126">126</a></p>
+      <p>Knife-like hairs, <a href="#page68">68</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Labels, <a href="#page118">118</a></p>
+      <p>Labial palpi, <a href="#page5">5</a></p>
+      <p>Labium, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a></p>
+      <p>Larva, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href="#page13">13</a></p>
+      <p>Lasius niger, <a href="#page91">91</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; flavus, <a href="#page91">91</a></p>
+      <p>Latin names, <a href="#page55">55</a></p>
+      <p>Lawn bee, <a href="#page9">9</a></p>
+      <p>Leaf-cutting bees, <a href="#page52">52</a></p>
+      <p>Lepidoptera, <a href="#page129">129</a></p>
+      <p>Ligula, <a href="#page75">75</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a></p>
+      <p>Limbs, <a href="#page125">125</a>, <a href="#page127">127</a></p>
+      <p>Locomotion, <a href="#page125">125</a></p>
+      <p>Lodgers with ants, <a href="#page89">89</a></p>
+      <p>Lomechusa, <a href="#page89">89</a></p>
+      <p>Long-horned bee, <a href="#page104">104</a></p>
+      <p>Lora, <a href="#page74">74</a></p>
+      <p>Lysimachia, <a href="#page106">106</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Macropis, <a href="#page106">106</a></p>
+      <p>Males, <a href="#page95">95</a></p>
+      <p>Male wasp, <a href="#page2">2</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; hornet, <a href="#page2">2</a></p>
+      <p>Mandibles, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a></p>
+      <p>Mason bee, <a href="#page55">55</a></p>
+      <p>Maxillæ, <a href="#page75">75</a>, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a></p>
+      <p>Mayflies, <a href="#page128">128</a></p>
+<!-- Page 143 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page143"></a>{143}</span>
+      <p>Melecta armata, <a href="#page61">61</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; luctuosa, <a href="#page62">62</a></p>
+      <p>Mentum, <a href="#page74">74</a></p>
+      <p>Met&oelig;cus paradoxus, <a href="#page38">38</a></p>
+      <p>Mimicking flies, <a href="#page94">94</a></p>
+      <p>Miscophus, <a href="#page119">119</a></p>
+      <p>Moss, <a href="#page29">29</a></p>
+      <p>Mouse's nest, <a href="#page29">29</a></p>
+      <p>Mouth, <a href="#page128">128</a></p>
+      <p>Mutilla, <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page119">119</a></p>
+      <p>Myrmica, <a href="#page34">34</a></p>
+      <p>Myrmosa, <a href="#page100">100</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Nests, <a href="#page24">24</a>, <a href="#page26">26</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a>, <a href="#page35">35</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>, <a href="#page49">49</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; in bramble stems, <a href="#page45">45</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; Humble bees, <a href="#page40">40</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; of leaves, <a href="#page53">53</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; of paper, <a href="#page37">37</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; in wren's nest, <a href="#page41">41</a></p>
+      <p>Neuration, <a href="#page136">136</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; figure and explanation of, <a href="#page133">133</a></p>
+      <p>Neuroptera, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a></p>
+      <p>Nodes, <a href="#page33">33</a></p>
+      <p>Nomada, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a href="#page48">48</a></p>
+      <p>Non-predaceous hymenoptera, <a href="#page3">3</a></p>
+      <p>Nymph, <a href="#page11">11</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Odynerus, <a href="#page24">24</a></p>
+      <p>Orthoptera, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page130">130</a></p>
+      <p>Osmia, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; bicolor, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; inermis, <a href="#page58">58</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; leucomelana, <a href="#page57">57</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; parietina, <a href="#page58">58</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; rufa, <a href="#page56">56</a></p>
+      <p>Ovaries, <a href="#page4">4</a></p>
+      <p>Ovipositer, <a href="#page1">1</a></p>
+      <p>Oxybelus, <a href="#page86">86</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Palm, <a href="#page82">82</a></p>
+      <p>Palpi, <a href="#page134">134</a></p>
+      <p>Panurgus, <a href="#page49">49</a></p>
+      <p>Paper, <a href="#page37">37</a></p>
+      <p>Paraglossæ, <a href="#page76">76</a></p>
+      <p>Paralytics, <a href="#page18">18</a></p>
+      <p>Plant lice, <a href="#page19">19</a></p>
+      <p>Poison bags, <a href="#page1">1</a></p>
+      <p>Pollen collecting, <a href="#page65">65</a></p>
+      <p>Pompilus, <a href="#page87">87</a></p>
+      <p>Ponera, <a href="#page33">33</a></p>
+      <p>Porterage, <a href="#page34">34</a></p>
+      <p>Post-scutellum, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+      <p>Predaceous species, <a href="#page3">3</a></p>
+      <p>Preservation, <a href="#page116">116</a></p>
+      <p>Propodeum, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+      <p>Prosopis, <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a href="#page46">46</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; cornuta, <a href="#page47">47</a></p>
+      <p>Pulvillus, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Queens, <a href="#page4">4</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Rarity, <a href="#page105">105</a></p>
+      <p>Ray, John, <a href="#page63">63</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Sallows, <a href="#page82">82</a></p>
+      <p>Sandy bank, <a href="#page83">83</a></p>
+      <p>Saropoda, <a href="#page93">93</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a></p>
+      <p>Scale, <a href="#page33">33</a></p>
+      <p>Scrophularia, <a href="#page36">36</a></p>
+      <p>Scutellum, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+      <p>Scutum, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+      <p>Segments, <a href="#page96">96</a></p>
+      <p>Setting, <a href="#page117">117</a></p>
+      <p>Sexual structure, <a href="#page100">100</a></p>
+      <p>Shin, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+      <p>Snail shells, <a href="#page12">12</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a></p>
+      <p>Social species, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page4">4</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a></p>
+      <p>Solitary species, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page4">4</a>, <a href="#page6">6</a></p>
+      <p>Spade-like hairs, <a href="#page69">69</a></p>
+      <p>Sphecodes, <a href="#page13">13</a>, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a href="#page17">17</a>, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page97">97</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a></p>
+      <p>Spiders, <a href="#page19">19</a></p>
+      <p>Stinging, <a href="#page2">2</a>, <a href="#page38">38</a></p>
+      <p>Stings, <a href="#page2">2</a>, <a href="#page32">32</a></p>
+      <p>Stipes, <a href="#page74">74</a></p>
+<!-- Page 144 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page144"></a>{144}</span>
+      <p>Straws, <a href="#page12">12</a></p>
+      <p>Structure, <a href="#page132">132</a></p>
+      <p>Stylops, <a href="#page77">77</a></p>
+      <p>Submentum, <a href="#page74">74</a></p>
+      <p>Swarming, <a href="#page29">29</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Tarsi, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+      <p>Tegula, <a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page138">138</a></p>
+      <p>Thigh, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+      <p>Thorax, <a href="#page125">125</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a></p>
+      <p>Tibia, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+      <p>Tomtit, <a href="#page42">42</a></p>
+      <p>Tongues, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a href="#page39">39</a>, <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a href="#page49">49</a>, <a href="#page66">66</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a></p>
+      <p>Trochanter, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+      <p>Tubular entrance, <a href="#page25">25</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Unguiculi, <a href="#page135">135</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Vagaries of structure, <a href="#page104">104</a></p>
+      <p>Velleius dilatatus, <a href="#page38">38</a></p>
+      <p>Vespa sylvestris, <a href="#page36">36</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Walls, <a href="#page12">12</a></p>
+      <p>Wasps, social, <a href="#page35">35</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; solitary, <a href="#page24">24</a></p>
+      <p>Waspy coloration, <a href="#page120">120</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></p>
+      <p>Wings, <a href="#page110">110</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; cells, <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page133">133</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; folded, <a href="#page24">24</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; hooks, <a href="#page110">110</a></p>
+      <p class="i2">&mdash; nervures, <a href="#page133">133</a></p>
+      <p>Workers, <a href="#page4">4</a></p>
+      <p>Wrens' nests, <a href="#page41">41</a></p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>Yellow-coloured species, <a href="#page120">120</a></p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<h3>NOTES</h3>
+
+<div class="note">
+  <p><a name="Nt1" href="#NtA1">[1]</a> In this case, only the actual
+  tongue (or <i>ligula</i>) and its <i>paraglossæ</i> are figured.</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Nt2" href="#NtA2">[2]</a> <i>The Guests of Ants and
+  Termites</i>, by E. Wasmann, S.&nbsp;J., translated by H. Donisthorpe, F.Z.S.
+  (<i>Ent. Record</i>, Vol. xii., 1900.)</p>
+
+  <p><a name="Nt3" href="#NtA3">[3]</a> cf. <i>Transactions of the
+  Entomological Society of London</i>, 1884, p. 251 et seq.: Hymenoptera
+  Aculeate of the British Islands, etc.</p>
+
+</div>
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:21%;">
+      <a href="images/pmark2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/pmark2.png"
+      alt="Printers Mark" title="Printers Mark" /></a>
+  </div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Wild Bees, Wasps and Ants, by Edward Saunders
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Wild Bees, Wasps and Ants
+       and Other Stinging Insects
+
+Author: Edward Saunders
+
+Illustrator: Constance A. Saunders
+
+Release Date: October 18, 2010 [EBook #33874]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILD BEES, WASPS AND ANTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Keith Edkins and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+WILD BEES, WASPS AND ANTS
+
+[Illustration: PLATE A.
+
+1. _Formica sanguinea, male._ 2. _Formica sanguinea, female._ 3. _Formica
+sanguinea, worker._ 4. _Mutilla europaea, male._ 5. _Mutilla Europaea,
+female._ 6. _Cerceris arenaria, female._ 7. _Ammophila sabulosa, female._
+8. _Crabro cribrarius, male._ 9. _Odynerus spinipes, male._
+
+[_front._
+
+WILD BEES, WASPS
+AND ANTS
+
+And Other Stinging Insects
+
+By
+
+EDWARD SAUNDERS
+
+F.R.S., F.L.S., etc
+
+With numerous Illustrations in the text, and
+Four Coloured Plates by
+CONSTANCE A. SAUNDERS
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+LONDON
+GEORGE ROUTLEDGE & SONS, LIMITED
+NEW YORK: E. P. DUTTON & CO.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+{v}
+
+PREFACE
+
+The object of this little book is to give in as simple a form as possible a
+short account of some of the British Wild Bees, Wasps, Ants, etc.,
+scientifically known as the _Hymenoptera Aculeata_. Of these the
+non-scientific public rarely recognizes more than the Hive Bee, the Humble
+Bee, the Wasp, and the Hornet, whereas there are about 400 different kinds
+to be found in this country, and they can be recognized by any one who is
+disposed to make a special study of the group.
+
+The author has not hesitated to make free use of the experiences of others
+in regard to the habits of the insects he describes, and he has not thought
+it necessary in each case to make separate acknowledgment of this. He takes
+this opportunity of thanking Mr. H. Donisthorpe and Mr. F. W. L. Sladen for
+assistance in the chapters on Ants and their Lodgers, and Humble Bees,
+respectively. {vi}
+
+These pages are written only for the non-scientific, as the scientific
+entomologist will be already familiar with the elementary facts recorded;
+but it is hoped that they may be of interest to lovers of Nature who wish
+to know a little about the insects they see round them and how they spend
+their lives. Of this knowledge very little exists, as the scraps which have
+been here brought together evidence. There is an immense field open for
+research and observation, and the writer of this little book will be very
+glad if the following pages should encourage any one to take up the subject
+and add to our present scanty stock of information.
+
+  EDWARD SAUNDERS.
+
+ST. ANN'S, WOKING.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+{vii}
+
+CONTENTS
+
+                                                             PAGE
+
+  THE SUBJECT IN GENERAL,                                       1
+
+  THE SOLITARY GROUPS,                                          6
+
+      THE SOLITARY BEES,                                        9
+
+      THE CUCKOO BEES,                                         14
+
+      THE FOSSORS, OR DIGGERS,                                 18
+
+      THE SOLITARY WASPS,                                      24
+
+  THE SOCIAL GROUPS,                                           28
+
+      THE ANTS,                                                31
+
+      THE SOCIAL WASPS,                                        35
+
+      THE HUMBLE BEES,                                         39
+
+  THE BEES WITH BIFID TONGUES,                                 44
+
+  THE BEES WITH POINTED TONGUES,                               48
+
+  LEAF-CUTTING BEES,                                           52
+
+  _Osmia_ AND ITS HABITS,                                      55
+
+  A COLONY OF _Anthophora_,                                    61
+
+  BEES AND POLLEN-COLLECTING,                                  65
+
+  ON BEES' TONGUES, AND HOW THEY SUCK HONEY,                   72
+
+  A DREADFUL PARASITE,                                         77
+
+  {viii}
+  AMONGST THE BEES AT WORK,                                    81
+
+  ANTS, THEIR GUESTS, AND THEIR LODGERS,                       88
+
+  HOW CAN AN "ACULEATE" BE RECOGNIZED?,                        92
+
+  MALES AND FEMALES,                                           95
+
+  THE VAGARIES OF COLOUR AND STRUCTURE IN THE SEXES,          100
+
+  THE DISTRIBUTION, RARITY, OR ABUNDANCE OF VARIOUS SPECIES,  105
+
+  ON BEES' WINGS,                                             110
+
+  ON BREEDING ACULEATES, ETC.,                                113
+
+  ON COLOUR,                                                  119
+
+  THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS FROM THE EGG,                    124
+
+  ON STRUCTURE,                                               132
+
+  INDEX,                                                      141
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{ix}
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
+
+                                                             PAGE
+
+  Fig. 1. _Bombus_, larva and nymph: after Packard             11
+
+   "   2. _Ammophila_                                          22
+
+   "  3-4. Spines on the tarsi of female _Ammophila_           23
+
+   "   5. Tubular entrance to hole of wasp                     25
+
+   "   6. Basal segments of ants                               33
+
+   "   7. Rose-leaf partially eaten by bees                    52
+
+   "   8. Tufted hairs of hind leg of _Andrena_                67
+
+   "   9. Corbicula of humble bee                              67
+
+   "  10-12. Cleaning apparatus of bees                        69
+
+   "  13-18. Hairs of bees, magnified                          71
+
+   "  19. Tongues of bees, magnified                           73
+
+   "  20. Diagram of tongue of bee                             75
+
+   "  21. _Stylops_                                            77
+
+   "  22. _Stylops_ larva in abdominal cavity of bee           78
+
+   "  23. Antennae of "Keyhole" wasps                         101
+
+   "  24. Legs of male "Keyhole" wasps                        101
+
+   "  25. Tibia of male _Crabro cribrarius_                   103
+
+   "  26. Antennae of male _Crabro cribrarius_                103
+
+   "  27. Head of male and female _Crabro clypeatus_          103
+
+   "  28. Parts of the insect                                 133
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{xi}
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE COLOURED PLATES
+
+PLATE A
+
+    Figs. 1, 2, 3. _Formica sanguinea Latr._: male, female, and worker. The
+    host of _Lomechusa_ (p. 89), also a slave-making species; makes
+    irregular nests of dead leaves, etc., generally against a sloping bank.
+
+    Figs. 4, 5. _Mutilla europaea Linn._: male and female. One of the few
+    British species of Aculeates where the female is wingless; found in
+    sandy places running in the sun.
+
+    Fig. 6. _Cerceris arenaria L._: female; burrows in the sand, and
+    provisions its nest with beetles (p. 20).
+
+    Fig. 7. _Ammophila sabulosa L._: female; burrows in the sand,
+    provisions its nest with caterpillars, peculiar for its very elongated
+    waist (p. 22).
+
+    Fig. 8. _Crabro cribrarius L._: male; peculiar for its paddle-like
+    tibiae and flattened antennae (p. 103).
+
+    Fig. 9. _Odynerus spinipes L._: male; peculiar for the form of its
+    middle femora, which are cut out almost in two semicircles (p. 101);
+    female makes a tubular entrance to her nest (p. 25).
+
+PLATE B
+
+    Fig. 10.--_Colletes succinctus L._: female; lines its cells with a
+    gluey material (p. 44); colonizes in sandy banks; host of _Epeolus
+    rufipes_ (fig. 19).
+
+    {xii} Fig. 11. _Sphecodes subquadratus Smith_: female; cuckoo of a
+    species of _Halictus_; female hibernates like its host (p. 17).
+
+    Fig. 12. _Halictus lencozonius Schr._: burrows in the ground; the host
+    of _Sphecodes pilifrons Thoms_ (p. 17).
+
+    Fig. 13. _Vespa crabro L._: female (the Hornet), nests in hollow trees;
+    host of the rare beetle _Velleius dilatatus_ (p. 38).
+
+    Fig. 14. _Vespa vulgaris L._: female: one of our commonest wasps; nests
+    usually in the ground (p. 35); host of a peculiar beetle (_Metoecus
+    paradoxus_) (p. 38)
+
+    Figs. 15, 16. _Andrena fulva Schr._: male and female; the bee which
+    burrows in lawns, etc. (p. 9); host of _Nomada ruficornis var. signata_
+    (p. 15).
+
+    Fig. 17. _Panurgus ursinus Gmel._: Female; legs loaded with pollen,
+    burrows in hard sandy paths, etc. (p. 49). Males sleep curled up
+    amongst the rays of yellow composite flowers.
+
+    Fig. 18. _Nomada ruficornis L. var. signata_: cuckoo of _Andrena fulva_
+    (figs. 15 and 16).
+
+    Fig. 19. _Epeolus rufipes Thoms_: female; cuckoo of _Colletes
+    succinctus_ (fig. 10).
+
+PLATE C
+
+    Fig. 20.--_Megachile maritima Kirby_: female; burrows in the ground,
+    makes its cells of pieces of leaves, which it cuts out with its
+    mandibles; host of _Coelioxys conoidea_.
+
+    Figs. 21, 22. _Coelioxys conoidea Illig_: male and female; cuckoo of
+    _Megachile maritima_.
+
+    Fig. 23. Burrows of _Megachile Willughbiella Kirby_, in a piece of
+    rotten willow; each burrow originally contained six cells, but two of
+    the left-hand series have been lost.
+
+{xiii}
+
+PLATE D
+
+    Figs. 24 and 25. _Anthophora pilipes F._: male and female. A spring
+    bee, the male of which may often be seen in gardens, darting from
+    flower to flower (p. 81); while the female collects pollen; it forms
+    large colonies (p. 62).
+
+    Fig. 26. _Melecta armata Pz._: cuckoo of _Anthophora pilipes_.
+
+    Fig. 27. _Anthidium manicatum L._: invests its cells with the down off
+    the stems of labiate plants, which it strips off with its mandibles (p.
+    50).
+
+    Fig. 28. _Osmia bicolor Schr._: female; nests in snail-shells, which it
+    sometimes covers up with small pieces of grass-stems till a little
+    mound is formed, resembling a diminutive ants' nest (p. 59).
+
+    Fig. 29. _Bombus terrestris L._: female. One of the commonest of our
+    Humble Bees; it nests in the ground. It is the host of _Psithyrus
+    vestalis_, which resembles it very closely in colour; it is this
+    species that was exhibited by Mr. Sladen at the Maidstone Agricultural
+    Hall (p. 41).
+
+    Fig. 30. _Bombus lapidarius L._: another common Humble Bee, also an
+    underground builder; it is the host of _Psithyrus rupestris_.
+
+    Fig. 31. _Psithyrus rupestris F._: female; the cuckoo of _Bombus
+    lapidarius_, which it closely resembles except for the nearly black
+    colour of the wings.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+{1}
+
+THE SUBJECT IN GENERAL
+
+I think I ought here to say why I propose to limit myself to an account of
+a certain portion only of the Hymenoptera. The reason for this, in the
+first place, is that the section which I have selected is the only one of
+which I have any special knowledge; it consists of the bees, wasps, ants
+and sandwasps, four groups which make up the stinging section of the
+order--or perhaps more accurately, which have poison bags connected with
+their egg-laying apparatus or _ovipositor_. Another reason for their
+selection lies in their nesting habits; these enable one to get a further
+insight into their economy and ways than can be obtained from those of
+almost any other group or order--at any rate they make them comparatively
+easy to study; one can, so to say, find these little creatures at home,
+whereas in most orders there seems to be no definite home to which the {2}
+individuals may be traced; a great advantage also in selecting the stinging
+groups for study is that they are creatures of the spring and summer, and
+of the sunshine, so that the weather which tempts them out to their duties
+is of the kind most agreeable to those who wish to investigate their
+habits.
+
+The habits of the hive bee have not been touched on, as so many excellent
+treatises have been written on them that any observations here would be
+superfluous.
+
+Although these groups are distinguished by their stinging habits, it is
+only the female that possesses a sting--the male is a most harmless
+creature and quite incapable of injuring any one. A male wasp or even a
+male hornet may be handled with absolute impunity, only it is wise to be
+certain as to the sex of the individual before presuming to play with it
+too much! A word here may perhaps be said about stinging. People often talk
+about a gnat stinging or a stinging fly; it may be difficult to define
+exactly what "to sting" means, but the writer has always considered that a
+sting is inflicted by the tail end of the creature or a {3} bite by the
+mouth. A fly or gnat no doubt inserts its proboscis into one's flesh just
+as a wasp does its sting; but the actions of such opposite parts of the
+body surely demand distinct names. As we have been alluding to flies it may
+not be inappropriate to say here that all the creatures we are going to
+consider have four membranous wings except the worker ants and a very few
+forms which are comparatively seldom met with. By this character they may
+at once be known from flies, which have only two membranous wings. The
+large brown "drone flies", so often seen on the windows of our rooms,
+especially in autumn, and which most people mistake for hive bees, to which
+they certainly bear a considerable general resemblance, may be detected at
+once by wanting the two hind wings of the bee.
+
+The "aculeate", or stinging, Hymenoptera, are divided into sections and
+families according to their structure; but the groups which stand out most
+clearly in regard to their habits are the solitary and social species, the
+predaceous and non-predaceous and the inquilines or cuckoos. {4}
+
+The vast majority of the aculeate Hymenoptera are what are called
+"solitary", i.e. one male and one female alone are interested in the
+production of the nest; but there are also three "social" groups--the ants,
+the true wasps, and the humble and hive bees.
+
+These are called social because they form communities and all work together
+towards the maintenance of the nest. In the social species there are two
+forms of the females--the queens and the workers; these latter have the
+ovaries imperfectly developed, and in the humble bees and wasps they only
+differ outwardly from the fully developed females or queens by being
+smaller. In the ants, however, the workers are wingless, and of a very
+different form from that of the queen. The role of these workers seems to
+be to do the general work of the nest; they have been known to lay fertile
+eggs, but the resulting offspring has always been male.
+
+Between these conditions of solitary and social we know of no actually
+intermediate stages. We do not seem to see any attempts on the part of
+solitary bees to become social or vice versa. The only condition known
+which {5} could possibly be considered as intermediate is shown in certain
+species where a number of individuals make their nests close to each other
+in some particular bank, forming a colony. These colonies are sometimes
+very extensive, and the burrows of the individual bees very close together;
+it has also been shown that the burrows sometimes unite--at the same time
+there seems to be no positive evidence that there is any work done in the
+colony which could be considered as done for the common good.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{6}
+
+THE SOLITARY GROUPS
+
+All the solitary kinds appear to feed themselves on vegetable juices,
+honey, etc., but there is a well-marked division between those who
+provision the cells of their offspring with insects, either fully developed
+or in the larval stages, and those who provision them with the pollen of
+flowers, honey, etc. The theory is that originally all fed their cells with
+insects, but that by degrees the more progressive found that the food which
+suited themselves would equally nourish their offspring, and accordingly
+provided them with vegetable nourishment. We find no intermediate stages. A
+certain class still goes on feeding on the old principle. The members of
+this class are known as "_fossors_" or diggers, while those which feed on
+the new principle are called "_Anthophila_" or flower-lovers. These are not
+very happy names, as many of the _Anthophila_ dig out holes for their nests
+just {7} in the same way as the _fossors_ do, and many of the _fossors_ are
+found in flowers, apparently enjoying them just as much as a truly
+anthophilous species would, although no doubt often with the ulterior
+object of capturing some insect for their young! Still these names are
+known as representing these two sections all over the world, and therefore
+it is better to keep to them even if they are not as descriptive as one
+would like them to be.
+
+The _fossors_, or "diggers", have all comparatively short and bifid
+tongues, and have, as a rule, little in the way of hairy covering, and what
+hairs they have are simple and only in very rare instances branched or
+feather-like. The hind legs of the females are not modified in any way so
+as to enable them to collect pollen, their legs are usually long and
+slender, and they are admirably adapted to their life habits of hunting
+spiders, insects, etc., for their young.
+
+On the other hand, the _Anthophila_ or "flower-lovers", are specially
+adapted for pollen collecting. Their tongues vary from a short form like
+that of some _fossors_ to the long tongues of the humble bees. Their hairs
+are always plumose {8} or branched on some part of the body and the hind
+legs of the females in most species are provided on the tibia or shin with
+a special brush on which pollen may be collected. In some of the
+long-tongued bees, however, this brush occurs on the underside of the body
+instead of on the tibia. The pollen-collecting arrangements of the
+different genera of the _Anthophila_ and the corresponding organs for
+cleaning off the pollen again are amongst the most interesting instances of
+modification and adaptation: some of the more striking of these will be
+mentioned later on. (See pp. 65 _sqq._)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{9}
+
+THE SOLITARY BEES
+
+The life-history of an ordinary pair of solitary bees is, roughly, as
+follows: I will take for an example one of the spring species of _Andrena_.
+Many people know the little red bee, which for some apparently
+unaccountable reason suddenly appears in myriads on their lawn or gravel
+path, throwing up little mounds of finely powdered earth--in this respect
+being quite different from worm casts, which are formed of wet mould and
+the particles of which cling together--sometimes causing considerable alarm
+as to the possible effect on the lawn. These have hatched out from burrows
+made by their parents in the previous year, the mouths of which have been
+filled up with earth and therefore are quite invisible till the newly
+fledged bees gnaw their way out. They, in their turn, are now making fresh
+burrows for their own broods; possibly they infested some one else's lawn
+the year before or were only in comparatively small {10} numbers on the
+lawn under notice and so passed unrecognized. They may safely be left
+alone, as they never seem to breed many consecutive years in one such
+locality: probably the treatment of a lawn does not suit them, mowing and
+rolling upsetting their arrangements. We will now consider these
+arrangements. The female bee, so soon as she realizes that she is charged
+with the duty of providing for her future offspring, makes a burrow in the
+ground, and the earth thrown up from the tunnel forms the little heap which
+is so observable; this burrow varies in depth from 6 to 12 inches and has
+short lateral branches; each of these she shapes, more or less, into the
+form of a cell, provisions it with a small mass of pollen mixed with honey
+for the maintenance of the larva when hatched, and lays her egg; she then
+seals up that cell and proceeds to the next, and in this way fills the
+burrow up until pretty near the surface. The bee caterpillar when hatched
+is a white grub-like creature which, after devouring the food provided for
+it, becomes more or less torpid; it then makes its final change of skin,
+after how long a period is probably uncertain, and appears in the nymph
+stage. {11} [Illustration: FIG. 1. Bombus, larva and nymph: after Packard.]
+This stage corresponds to the chrysalis of a moth or butterfly, the
+creature being shortened up and rather more like the perfect insect
+compacted into the smallest form possible. People are often misled into the
+idea that the caterpillar forms the chrysalis over its former self, whereas
+the chrysalis has been all the time forming inside the caterpillar and only
+shows itself when the final skin is shed; of course some caterpillars spin
+a cocoon over themselves before they change their skin, but then the true
+chrysalis is found inside the cocoon. A curious fact connected with the
+change from the nymph to the perfect insect is that this takes place
+sometimes as early as August in the year preceding their appearance; so
+that cells dug up in August may contain fully fledged insects which are not
+due to appear till April or May of the following year. It is wonderful also
+how long life can be {12} sustained by these creatures in the "full-fed
+larva" condition. Some years ago I collected a number of pierced bramble
+stems in order to breed out some of the small "sandwasps" which nest in
+them. On opening them in May, when the perfect insects are generally ready
+to appear, I found that several of the larvae had rather shrunk up and had
+not changed into nymphs. These I left in the stems, covering them up again,
+and they appeared as perfect insects in the May of the following year.
+
+The account given of the nesting habits of the above _Andrena_ of our
+lawns, etc., is more or less true of nearly all the solitary bees. Their
+methods vary, some burrow in the ground, some in old wood, some in snail
+shells, some in bramble stems or straws or the hollow stems of various
+plants, some in holes or crevices in walls, etc., and their methods of
+building their cells vary exceedingly: all of these are of great interest
+and some display an ingenuity which is quite surprising. Of these special
+nesting habits some of the most striking will be mentioned later on.
+
+Before leaving these general remarks on the {13} solitary bees the habits
+of two genera must be specially noticed, as they differ in an essential
+point from those of the others. These are known to entomologists under the
+names of _Halictus_ and _Sphecodes_.
+
+In most species of these the males and females of the new brood are not
+hatched out till after midsummer, and no work is done for the provisioning
+of new burrows that autumn; but the female, after having undertaken the
+duties of maternity, hibernates, i.e. goes back into a burrow and lives
+there till the next spring, the males dying off before the winter. In the
+spring the [female] wakes up and does the necessary work for the future
+brood just as any ordinary spring bee would--but there are no attendant
+males--the duties of that sex having been performed in the autumn. The
+larvae contained in these burrows hatch out after midsummer and therefore
+never spend a winter in the ground. In this respect they resemble the
+social bees and wasps, about which more hereafter; in the meanwhile a few
+words must be said about the cuckoos or inquilines, which are perhaps the
+most interesting creatures of all.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{14}
+
+THE CUCKOO BEES
+
+These cuckoos live at the expense of their hosts. The mother of the
+industrial brood makes her cell and provisions it, and lays her egg. The
+cuckoo bee manages to enter also and lay her egg in the same cell, the
+usual result being that the cuckoo devours most of the food instead of the
+rightful offspring, which gradually gets starved and dies, the cuckoo
+appearing in its place; but there have been cases, how frequent they are is
+difficult to say, in which both offsprings have emerged.
+
+The whole problem of the relationships between host and cuckoo is most
+interesting. In some cases the cuckoos are so like their hosts that it is
+difficult to tell one from the other, in others they are so unlike that it
+is difficult to trace any resemblance between them. There are a great
+number of different kinds of cuckoos, and most of them select a special
+host to associate {15} with, and are never found except with that species.
+There are, however, cases of cuckoos which visit the nests of more than one
+host, and cases of hosts which are visited by several kinds of cuckoos. In
+the short-tongued bees, with the exception of _Halictus_ and _Sphecodes_,
+the cuckoos are quite unlike their hosts both in form and colour. In the
+_Andrenas_ (the lawn bee being one of them) the hosts are clothed with
+reddish, or brown and black, hairs, and are of a more or less stout build
+(pl. B, 15, 16). The cuckoos are elegant in shape, almost devoid of hairs,
+and most of them are striped with yellow or brown across the body so that
+they present a wasp-like appearance (pl. B, 18). Species more unlike one
+another than host and cuckoo one could hardly imagine; still this stranger
+seems to get access to the nest of its host without opposition. In a colony
+of _Andrena_ one may see the cuckoos (which rejoice in the name of _Nomada_
+or wanderers) flying about among the females of the industrious bee, and no
+alarm or concern appears to be felt by the latter. As we go up in the scale
+of bees, i.e. towards the more specialized, and arrive at those with longer
+tongues, the {16} cuckoos are found as a rule to resemble their hosts more
+closely, both in colour and structure, and when we reach the social genus
+_Bombus_ (i.e. the humble bees) we find the cuckoos so like their hosts
+(pl. D, 30, 31) that even entomologists of experience mistake one for the
+other. _Apis_ (the hive bee) has no cuckoo. It seems to be theoretically
+probable that both cuckoo and host once originated from common parents;
+this is suggested by the similarity of structure of certain parts of both
+host and cuckoo, even in cases where they are otherwise most dissimilar.
+_Andrena_ and _Nomada_, for instance, which are very unlike, as stated
+above, agree in both having very feeble stings and in possessing three
+conspicuous spines on the upper and posterior edge of the orbit of the
+larva. Also, although _Andrena_ the host has a short tongue, and _Nomada_,
+its cuckoo, a long one, the appendages (_labial palpi_) of the latter's
+tongue are framed on the same plan as those of the tongue of _Andrena_, and
+are quite unlike those of the other long-tongued bees. On the other hand,
+the cuckoos of the social species resemble them so closely in structure as
+well as {17} appearance that it is more necessary to search for points of
+difference than of similarity. There is only one case known of a cuckoo
+wasp, and that resembles its host even more closely than do the cuckoos of
+the humble bees. All these points certainly suggest the probability that
+the social bees and wasps and their cuckoos adopted different habits at a
+much more recent date than the solitary species, and therefore have not had
+so much time to become differentiated in structure. The only short-tongued
+bees which have cuckoos of similar structure are the species of _Halictus_
+(pl. B, 12); their cuckoos, _Sphecodes_ (pl. B, 11), are closely allied to
+them, but then _Halictus_ and _Sphecodes_ are most peculiar genera;
+although short-tongued, their females spend the winter in the earth, as do
+the social bees and wasps (see p. 13), and they colonize largely, which may
+prove to be a step towards socialism.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{18}
+
+THE FOSSORS OR DIGGERS
+
+In many respects the insects of this section adopt the same methods as the
+solitary bees so far as the construction of their nests is concerned, but
+the food brought home for their offspring is animal instead of vegetable.
+In order to supply their larvae with "fresh meat" these little creatures,
+when they have captured a suitable prey, sting it in such a way that it
+becomes paralyzed, but does not die; after provisioning a cell with the
+necessary number of these paralytics, the mother lays her egg on one of
+them or amongst them, and closes up the cell. In consequence of this
+wonderful maternal instinct, foresight, or whatever the faculty may be, the
+larva when hatched finds fresh food ready for consumption. The various
+species provision their nests with different kinds of foods, and some
+appear to be most fastidious in their selection, and are said never to err
+in choosing {19} species of some particular family, thereby displaying a
+discernment worthy of any advanced entomologist. Some provision their cells
+with beetles, some with grasshoppers, others with spiders, caterpillars,
+plant lice, etc.
+
+The strength possessed by the female fossor must be proportionately
+enormous, as she can bring back to her burrow, after paralyzing them,
+insects many times her own size. It is a most interesting sight to see the
+excitement and flurry of the captor as it tries to drag along some huge
+prey to its nest. I remember seeing one dragging along a good-sized
+caterpillar, of a noctuid moth, over rather rough ground: the poor creature
+had a difficult job; it had to go backwards itself, and pull the body of
+the caterpillar, after it--its behaviour was very much like that of an ant
+which has a large burden; at times it would loose its hold of it and try it
+from some other quarter; however, by degrees, by pulling and tugging, the
+prey was safely brought home, but the force expended must have been very
+great. Many species, however, hunt insects of much smaller size than
+themselves, and it is those which take a fancy to grasshoppers and {20}
+caterpillars which seem to be the most doughty in deeds of force. One, a
+very rare kind in this country, sets its affection especially on the honey
+bee as a prey; the two insects are about equal in size, but the hive bee
+must be a dangerous foe to attack, and one would have thought as likely to
+sting its captor as its captor would be to sting it; also one would imagine
+that a hive bee, unless thoroughly paralyzed, would be a dangerous subject
+for a juvenile larva to commence making a meal upon! but whether the
+venture ever turns out unsatisfactorily there are no data to show, so far
+as I am aware. The larvae must vary very much in their tastes; one can
+imagine that a nice juicy caterpillar, or even a good fat grasshopper, may
+be appetizing and easily assimilated, but one can equally fancy that the
+larvae, who wake up to find their food consisting of small hard beetles,
+may feel more or less resentment against their parents' ideas of dainties
+for the young! Still they seem to thrive on it, and come out eventually as
+exact likenesses of their parents. A large number of the fossors inhabit
+dry sandy wastes, such as the dunes along the sea coast at Deal, Lowestoft,
+{21} etc.; many of these, when they leave their burrows, throw up some sand
+over the hole so as completely to cover it; how these insects find the spot
+again after a lengthy chase after spiders or other prey is a marvel; and
+yet those who have observed carefully say that they come home from long
+distances with unerring precision. No sense of which we have any knowledge,
+however accentuated, seems to explain this. To be able to arrive back at a
+home in an extensive arid sandy plain, where no outward sign indicates its
+whereabouts, must surely require perception of a different nature from any
+of those with which we are endowed. Some fossors are subject to the
+depredations of cuckoos, just as the solitary bees are, but their cuckoos
+are rarely of aculeate origin. The only ones which I have had any
+opportunity of studying are the species which nest in bramble stems. The
+cuckoos which associate with them are some of the smaller jewel flies and
+_Ichneumons_: the habits of both these differ from those of the aculeate
+cuckoos, the jewel flies devouring the larva of the aculeate and the
+_Ichneumon_ laying its eggs in it. The fossors {22} [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+vary exceedingly in size, shape and colour. Our largest species are about
+an inch long and our smallest about the eighth of an inch, nearly all
+having the body where it joins the thorax constricted into a very narrow
+waist; this is sometimes of considerable length. In one genus known to
+entomologists by the name _Ammophila_ (fig. 2) or "lover of the sand", the
+waist is practically the longest part of the body, so that looking at one
+sideways as it flies along, one could almost be deceived into thinking that
+there were two insects, one following the other (cf. pl. A, fig. 7). In
+colour, there seem to be three dominant schemes: Black (cf. pl. B, fig.
+17); black with a red band across the body (cf. pl. A, fig. 7); and black
+banded with yellow, like a wasp (cf. pl. A, figs. 6 and 8, etc.) In some
+the yellow bands may not be complete, and appear only as spots on each side
+of the body segments, or the red band may be almost obliterated, or the
+black species may {23} [Illustration: FIG. 3.] [Illustration: FIG. 4.] be
+more or less variegated with yellow spots on the head and thorax, but as a
+general rule all our species fall into one or other of these colour
+schemes. The females of some of our sand frequenting species have beautiful
+combs on their front feet, each joint of the tarsi having one or more long
+spines on its external side (figs. 3 and 4). These are of importance to
+them in their burrowing, as they enable them to move with one kick of their
+front leg a considerable amount of the dry sand in which they make their
+nests. Although sandy commons, etc., are the resort of many fossors, others
+may be found burrowing in wood or in hard pathways or banks; in fact, like
+most other insects, some of their members may be found almost anywhere.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{24}
+
+THE SOLITARY WASPS
+
+The ordinary wasps are acquaintances of every one, but the solitary or
+keyhole wasps are not so well known, although they are far from uncommon.
+They are little narrow black insects striped across the body with yellow,
+belonging to the genus _Odynerus_ (pl. A, 9), and might hardly be
+recognized as belonging to the same family as the true or social wasps.
+Still they have considerable powers of stinging, and fold their wings
+lengthwise when at rest like their larger relatives. I dare say some people
+may have noticed that a wasp's wing sometimes assumes a narrow straight
+form, quite unlike what it is when expanded. This is due to the wasp being
+able to fold its wing lengthwise like a fan. The wasp tribe are, so far as
+I know, the only stinging Hymenoptera which have this power.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+They make their nests of mud, etc., in crevices of walls, in banks, in
+plant stems, and often {25} in most inconvenient places, such as keyholes,
+etc. Some of the solitary wasps have a very curious habit of making a
+tubular entrance to their hole. These may sometimes be seen projecting from
+sandy banks. The tube is composed of a series of little pellets of mud,
+which the wasp by degrees, with the help of its mouth secretions, sticks
+together till a sort of openwork curved tube of sometimes an inch long is
+formed (fig. 5). This curve is directed downwards, so that the wasp has to
+creep up it before reaching the actual orifice of the nest. It looks as if
+the first shower of rain would wash the whole structure away, and I have
+very little doubt that it often does so. The object of these tubes is
+difficult to appreciate. There is a bee on the continent which makes
+straight chimneys above its holes, so as to raise the entrance above the
+surrounding herbage; possibly these solitary wasps once required {26} their
+tubes also for some such purpose, and have continued on truly conservative
+lines to build them long after all usefulness has passed away from the
+habit; anyhow they are very interesting and beautiful structures. I have
+found the tubes of one of our rarer species projecting perpendicularly out
+of the level sand, but even then the tubes were curved over at the end, so
+that the wasp had to go up and down again before entering its actual hole.
+The Rev. F. D. Morice in 1906 found the tubes of the same species in
+numbers projecting from the walls of an old stuccoed cottage situated close
+to the locality where I found mine, so it is evident that more than one
+situation suits its requirements. The solitary wasps provision their cells
+with caterpillars, stinging them in the same way as the fossors do. One
+very peculiar genus, of one species only in this country, has its body much
+narrowed at the waist by reason of the constricted form of the basal
+segment; it makes a little round nest of clay which it suspends from a twig
+of heather or other plant. This species is rarely met with except on the
+heathery commons of Surrey, Hants, Dorset, etc. The {27} solitary wasps are
+subject to the attacks of cuckoos belonging to the jewel fly or _Chrysis_
+tribe; these behave differently from those belonging to the aculeate
+groups, as their larvae do not eat the food laid up for the wasp, but wait
+till the wasp larva has finished feeding up, and then devour it. Unlike as
+these cuckoos are to their hosts in their brilliant metallic coloration,
+etc., they have structural characters curiously like theirs, so that even
+here a common parentage in bygone generations may be reasonably suspected.
+At present, however, they are placed, except by a few systematists, in
+quite distinct families of the Hymenoptera.
+
+In general form these solitary wasps resemble the fossors more than the
+bees; they have mostly short tongues (I think all our British ones have),
+and their hairs are simple or more or less spirally twisted.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{28}
+
+THE SOCIAL GROUPS
+
+The social bees are certainly the most highly specialized of the
+_Anthophila_, and the social wasps of the _Diploptera_ or insects with
+folded wings. The ants occupy a less definite position: they would seem to
+be the outcome of specialization among the fossors, only they feed their
+young with vegetable juices and not with animal as the latter do. They are
+always kept as a separate tribe under the name _Heterogyna_, but for our
+purposes the better known word "ant" will suffice.
+
+The hive bee and the social wasps are the only British Hymenoptera which
+adopt the hexagonal cell-formation in their nests, the bee fashioning its
+cells in wax, the wasps and hornet in masticated wood or paper. The
+formation of ants' nests is far less regular, being composed of irregular
+passages, called galleries, and open spaces, no doubt built on a plan, but
+probably {29} in respect of plan no two nests are exactly alike. The humble
+bees again differ from either in their nesting habits: the female in the
+spring seeks out a mouse's nest or other suitable foundation of moss, etc.,
+in or on the surface of the ground, according to the species. This she
+lines with wax, deposits a heap of pollen, and lays her eggs in it. She
+also makes waxen cells for honey, but these are not hexagonal and
+symmetrical as are those of the hive bee, but are more like little pots,
+and are known as "honey pots".
+
+It must be borne in mind that the economic arrangements of the wasps and
+humble bees only last for a single season, whereas those of the ant and
+hive bee exist for many years. In consequence of this the swarming habits
+belong exclusively to the ants and hive bee. That of the hive bee is well
+known to all, and most people must have observed the swarms of male and
+female ants which fill the air on some sultry summer or autumn evening.
+Thousands of these must perish, but a certain number of the females accept
+the responsibility of starting a fresh nest, and so the ant population is
+kept up. {30} It will be seen from these remarks that the three social
+groups are very distinct in their methods of nest making, and have really
+very little in common except the social habit. The humble bees have their
+cuckoos; one species of wasp has a cuckoo, and there is a possible case of
+a cuckoo amongst the continental ants, but this has not yet been observed
+in this country. The ants harbour so many species of insects in their nests
+besides their own family that it is difficult to form an idea as to whether
+the case in question is at all analogous to that of host and cuckoo in the
+other aculeates or not.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{31}
+
+THE ANTS
+
+These little creatures are probably the most intelligent of all the
+insects--and yet at times they seem to wander about almost aimlessly. A
+worker may be found with an insect or something which it is eagerly
+dragging along and drops probably from fear. It appears anxious to regain
+its hold of it, but goes about in all sorts of wrong directions before it
+again finds it, it may be to make sure its enemy is clear away before it
+resumes operations, but the effect to the ordinary onlooker is one of sheer
+incapacity--at the same time the wonderful habits of the tribe, the way in
+which they keep plant lice for their larvae, their methods of carrying each
+other, their nest-building, and the slave-making instincts of some of the
+species, show an intelligence surpassed by no other family of insects.
+Their nests are formed in very various ways: the same species even will
+sometimes nest under a stone and sometimes make ant hills; some {32} of the
+large species make their nests of huge heaps of fir needles, and number 400
+to 500 thousand in one nest--others live in quite small communities,
+nesting in bramble stems, old rotten wood, moss, etc. One little species,
+rare with us, lives in the walls of other ants' nests, just as mice live in
+the walls of our houses; another quite small species lives apparently on
+friendly terms with the common large red or horse ant, and may be found
+running about amongst them, on and in their nests, but, so far as I know,
+nothing is known as to how its young are reared. There is a curious
+division in the family between the ants that have true stings and those
+which have not. The large ants of our fir woods can bite and are able to
+eject poison through the apical opening of the body into the wound they
+create, but these as well as the larger and smaller black ants and some
+others have the sting undeveloped, whereas some of our small species have a
+sting which they can use with considerable effect; this difference in habit
+is accompanied by a difference in the structure in the basal segments of
+the body. In the stingless species the basal segment is reduced {33}
+[Illustration: FIG. 6] to a flat upright transverse scale (fig. 6, 1); in
+the stinging ants two segments at the base are reduced to nodes (fig. 6,
+3). There is an exception in the case of one little rare genus, _Ponera_,
+which has only the basal abdominal segment reduced to a scale although a
+much thicker scale than in the others (fig. 6, 2), and yet which has a
+distinct sting. These arrangements give the body very free movement so that
+the tail can be bent forward till it reaches the head. Another curious
+distinction between the stingers and non-stingers is that the larvae of the
+former spin cocoons and those of the latter do not; the larvae of _Formica
+fusca_ occasionally do not do so, but they are an exception to the rule.
+Cocoon spinning seems to involve the larvae in some difficulties, as
+without the help of the worker ants they are often unable to extract
+themselves from their prison. This is a condition which does not, I
+believe, exist in other groups. In the stingless ants there is a curious
+difference in habit between the {34} species of the genus _Formica_, where,
+according to Forel, the workers do not follow in line over unknown ground,
+and frequently carry one another, the one carried being rolled up under the
+head of the other, and the species of _Lasius_, where the workers follow
+one another in line, but never carry each other. Among the stinging ants
+another method of carrying occurs in certain genera. The porter seizes the
+one she wishes to carry by the external edge of one of her mandibles and
+then throws her over her back, so that she lies along the back of her
+porter with her ventral aspect uppermost and her legs and antennae folded
+as in the nymph state. Neither of these methods sounds very comfortable,
+but then probably an ant's idea of comfort and our own may be very
+different.
+
+Lord Avebury, in his _Ants, Bees and Wasps_, tells us that he has known a
+male of _Myrmica ruginodis_ live for nine months, although no doubt, as he
+says, they generally die almost immediately, and he has known queen ants to
+live for seven years, and workers, which he had in his nest, for six years.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{35}
+
+THE SOCIAL WASPS
+
+Of these we have only seven different kinds, and with the exception of the
+hornet they are all very much alike. One often hears people say that they
+have seen such a large wasp that they think it must have been a hornet, but
+no one who has ever seen a hornet could mistake a wasp for one. A hornet is
+_red-brown_ with yellow markings (pl. B, 13), a wasp is _black_ and yellow,
+and altogether a less formidable-looking creature (pl. B, 14). Even a queen
+wasp is not so large as a small worker hornet. The hornet nests in hollow
+trees, our three commoner wasps nest, as a rule, in the ground, but
+occasionally in outhouses, under roofs, etc. One of the others as a rule
+makes its nest in shrubs, but occasionally in the ground, another always
+nests in a bush or shrub, preferring a gooseberry or currant bush, and the
+only remaining one is a cuckoo of one of the ground species. The
+gooseberry-bush {36} wasp is not a common species in the south, but in the
+midlands and north it is abundant. Wasps will eat most things, but are
+especially fond of syrups and sweets. One species, _Vespa sylvestris_,
+which seldom enters our houses, is very partial to the flowers of
+_Scrophularia_ (Figwort). One rarely finds a plant of this in full blossom
+without finding its attendant wasps. I have seen other species of wasps
+also visiting it, but _sylvestris_ is practically sure to be there. The
+diet which wasps provide for their larvae is probably a mixed one, but
+consists largely of insects. Dr. Ormerod says that a microscopic
+examination of the contents of a larval stomach shows "the mass to consist
+of scales, hairs and other fragments of insects, hairs of vegetables and
+other substances less easy of recognition."
+
+[Illustration: PLATE B.
+
+10. _Colletes succinctus_, _female._ 11. _Sphecodes subquadratus_,
+_female._ 12. _Halictus leucozonius_, _female._ 13. _Vespa crabro_,
+_female._ 14. _Vespa vulgaris_, _female._ 15. _Andrena fulva_, _male._ 16.
+_Andrena fulva_, _female._ 17. _Panurgus banksianus_, _female._ 18. _Nomada
+ruficornis_, _var. signata_, _female._ 19. _Epeolus rufipes_, _female._
+
+[_face p. 36._ ]
+
+{37} Wasps do not store honey in their nest; the papery nature of their
+cells would make such storage impossible. I dare say some of my readers
+will have noticed wasps sitting in the sun on a wooden paling busily
+engaged apparently eating something--they are really pulling off little
+fibres of wood which they chew up into a substance fitted for the walls of
+their cells; they will also chew paper, and the experiment has been tried
+of giving them coloured papers, which resulted in stripes of colour
+appearing in their nests. The different species vary somewhat in the
+architecture of their nests; but they are built very much on the same
+general plan. The population of some underground nests is very large. The
+Rev. G. A. Crawshay estimated the number in a large nest of _Vespa
+vulgaris_, which he took on September 20, 1904, at about 12,000; of these
+he actually counted, including eggs and larvae, 11,370, and estimated the
+rest as having left the nest and escaped, so that anyhow the computation
+cannot be far wrong. This, however, was probably a very large nest. The
+cuckoo wasp (_Vespa austriaca_), formerly known as _V. arborea_, is an
+associate of _Vespa rufa_; its habits had been suspected for a long time,
+but Mr. Robson set all doubts at rest by finding the nymphs of the cuckoo
+in the actual nest of _rufa_. It is a rare species in the south, but far
+from uncommon as one goes north, and also in Ireland, where the
+relationship of the host and cuckoo have been {38} carefully studied by
+Prof. Carpenter and Mr. Pack Beresford. _Vespa vulgaris_ has a beetle
+parasite, but this is somewhat of a rarity. This creature _Metoecus
+paradoxus_ lays its egg in the cell of the wasp, and enters the body of the
+larva, eventually entirely devouring it. The hornet also has a beetle
+associate, but this is a great rarity. It is a large black species of the
+"Devil's coach horse" or "Cock tail" tribe (_Velleius dilatatus_), but in
+what relation it stands to the hornet beyond inhabiting its nest is not
+known.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{39}
+
+THE HUMBLE BEES
+
+Of these beautiful creatures we have thirteen kinds in this country. Their
+velvety clothing and bright colours make them the favourites of most
+people. They are most industrious and may be seen on the wing from early
+morning often till quite late on summer evenings, whereas the solitary bees
+do not, as a rule, commence work till nine or ten in the morning, except in
+very hot weather, and generally retire about four or five p.m. There is an
+idea prevalent that humble bees do not sting, but this is fallacious. They
+can sting pretty severely, but I do not think they are so ready to use
+their defensive weapon as a wasp or hive bee is. The length of the tongue
+in these creatures makes them of great value to the farmer and gardener, as
+they can fertilize the red clover and probably other flowers which require
+a longer tongue to reach the nectary than is possessed by the hive bee.
+{40} In New Zealand, when first the red clover was introduced from this
+country, it was found impossible to fertilize it, and humble bees had to be
+sent out. Now they are established there its fertilization is carried on
+quite successfully. The humble bees are divided into two natural groups,
+the underground species, i.e. those that make a subterranean nest, and the
+carder bees, as they have been called, which make a nest on the surface of
+the ground. The former live in much larger communities and are far more
+aggressive and pugnacious than the latter. They also feed their young,
+according to Mr. F. W. L. Sladen, of Ripple Court, in a different way. The
+carder bees "form little pockets or pouches of wax at the side of a
+wax-covered mass of growing larvae into which the workers drop the pellets
+of pollen direct from their hind tibiae. The pollen storers, on the
+contrary, store the newly gathered pollen in waxen cells, made for the
+purpose, or in old cocoons, specially set apart to receive it, from which
+it is taken and given to the larvae mixed with honey through the mouths of
+the nurse-bees as required." As the author remarks, the methods of the
+underground {41} species more resemble those of the hive bee than do those
+of the carder bees. Mr. Sladen has made many experiments in trying to
+domesticate humble bees, and succeeded so far with _Bombus terrestris_ (pl.
+D, 29, our common black and yellow banded species with a tawny tail) as to
+get it to breed in captivity, and in 1899 was able to show nests in full
+work at the Maidstone agricultural show, the bees coming in and out of the
+building to their nest. An interesting case of one of the carder bees
+(_Bombus agrorum_) is recorded by F. Smith. It invaded a wren's nest,
+heaping up its pollen, etc., amongst the eggs of the bird, till the parent
+bird was forced to desert the nest. The underground species are more
+subject to the attacks of cuckoos than the carder bees. Altogether the
+humble bees afford an excellent subject for study, as they appear to be
+amenable to treatment, and to any one who could give time and careful
+attention to them many interesting problems connected with them and not yet
+understood might have light thrown upon them. Dead humble bees are often
+found in numbers in a mutilated state, under lime trees. These {42} have
+been caught after they have filled themselves with honey, and become torpid
+in consequence, by the great tomtit and possibly other birds. The bird
+pecks a hole in the insect's thorax, enjoys the honey it has eaten and then
+drops the quivering body which falls to the ground. I once had the
+opportunity of seeing this slaughter going on, and was able to detect the
+great tomtit as the murderer.
+
+In colour the humble bees vary remarkably, the variation occurring chiefly
+in the females. This variation is not so noticeable in this country,
+although in many species even here the variability is very great, but when
+we trace a common species such as _terrestris_, which varies very little
+here, over a large area such as the Palaearctic region its liveries are so
+diverse that its females have been treated as belonging to many different
+species. In the Siberian district its yellow bands become of a pale, almost
+whitish or straw colour, and the whole appearance of the insect is altered.
+If, instead of going north, we go to the Mediterranean region we find a
+large, fine form tolerably common, with bright yellow hairs on the legs. In
+Corsica {43} again we find a quite different form; entirely black except
+for the bright red hairs on the apex of the body, and bright red tibiae,
+clothed with red hairs. In the Canaries another coloration occurs: the
+whole insect is black with the exception of the apex of the body which is
+clothed with white hairs; but in all these the male varies comparatively
+little. In the Siberian and Canary forms it resembles the female, but in
+the others it varies very little from some varieties we find here. A rather
+similar series of varieties occurs in _Bombus hortorum_, another species
+little liable to variation here. In Italy and south-east Europe a form with
+entirely black body and black wings occurs, and in Corsica a black form
+with reddish hairs on the apical segments. The male keeps throughout very
+constant to its normal coloration. The tendency to vary towards an entirely
+black form seems to exist in nearly all the species, although in Britain
+black varieties of some are very rare.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{44}
+
+THE BEES WITH BIFID TONGUES
+
+In this country we have only two genera in which the tongue is bifid at the
+apex, and on this account they are kept together as close allies in our
+classification. They are, however, very different in general appearance.
+One of these groups is called _Colletes_, on account of its habit of lining
+its cells with a gluey material, the other, _Prosopis_, on account of the
+markings on the face. The various kinds of _Colletes_ are densely clothed
+on the head and thorax with brownish hairs, and the segments of the body
+have whitish bands composed of a dense, tight-fitting, duvet of hairs (pl.
+B, 10). There is in this country only one exception, a large insect like a
+hive bee, but rarely met with, its headquarters being the Wallasey
+Sandhills near Liverpool, and other localities in Lancashire. All the
+species tend to colonize; some building in huge colonies {45} in sandy
+cuttings, etc. They are preyed upon by a pretty little cuckoo bee called
+_Epeolus_ (pl. B, 19), which is black, ornamented with brownish red and
+whitish spots. One of our best known species, _Colletes fodiens_, can often
+be found in abundance on the heads of ragwort along the sea-coast in July.
+
+The other genus _Prosopis_ is outwardly entirely unlike _Colletes_: its
+species are nearly all very small coal-black insects, with scarcely any
+noticeable hairs, rather unusually narrow and cylindrical in form; they
+emit a peculiar, agreeably scented fluid when handled; in the males the
+face is almost always white or yellow, in the females there is generally a
+yellow spot on each side near the eye. These little creatures are
+especially fond of burrowing in bramble stems. They like those which have
+been cut off in trimming the hedges, because in them the pith is exposed
+and they can burrow their way into it without gnawing through the wood. If
+any one, going along a hedge which has been trimmed, containing a lot of
+brambles, in the autumn or winter, would examine the cut-off ends they
+would soon find some with holes in them. These {46} may be the work of
+_Prosopis_, but there are other bees and fossors which also burrow in this
+way. So the stems should be brought home and opened. Then the _Prosopis_
+cells may be known by the fine membranous pellicle which surrounds them,
+but possibly even then a little jewel-bee cuckoo may be found in possession
+of the cell, instead of the rightful owner. When these little bees emerge
+they are generally to be found on wild mignonette, bramble flowers or those
+of the wild parsley tribe. Some are very common, others of great rarity.
+The males of this genus seem to have a peculiar tendency to develop
+eccentricities in the shape of the first joint of the antennae, or feelers,
+some having it expanded and concave, others rounded but thickened towards
+the apex; in only one British species, _P. cornuta_, does the female show
+any special peculiarity of form, but in this the face is produced on each
+side between the eyes into a distinct horn-shaped process. In the females
+there is scarcely any indication of pollen brush, and for this reason they
+used to be considered as possessors of cuckoo instincts, but there is now
+no doubt of their industrious habits; but {47} there is no other genus of
+industrious bees in this country, with the exception of _Ceratina_, with so
+little specialization for pollen collecting.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{48}
+
+THE BEES WITH POINTED TONGUES
+
+All the genera, except the two mentioned in the last chapter, belong to
+this section, which comprises a variety of very different styles of bees,
+beginning with the short spear-shape-tongued species and ascending to the
+long-tongued species, which are considered to culminate in the hive bee.
+The habits of these genera vary very greatly in some respects; special
+notice has been or will be given of _Halictus_ (pl. B, 12) and _Sphecodes_
+(B, 11), _Andrena_ (B, 15, 16), _Nomada_ (B, 18) and the other cuckoos,
+_Osmia_ (D, 28) and _Anthophora_ (D, 24, 25) and the leaf-cutting bees, but
+there are several other genera which deserve a passing notice, although
+their habits are not so peculiar as those of the specially selected ones.
+_Cilissa_, which is a very close ally of _Andrena_, is peculiar in having
+the hairs of the tongue erect and arranged almost in bottle-brush fashion.
+Its habits are much like those of {49} _Andrena_. _Dasypoda_, so called on
+account of the enormously long hairs of the pollen brushes of the legs in
+the female, is one of our most beautiful bees; it is of moderate size, a
+little more than half an inch long, with a brown haired thorax, and a black
+body with white apical bands on the segments; the hind legs are rather
+unusually long and the brush is composed of very long bright fulvous hairs,
+and when the bee returns home laden with pollen it is, as F. Smith says,
+"sufficiently singular to attract the attention of the most apathetic
+observer." It burrows in sandy places much after the fashion of _Andrena_,
+etc. The male is a different looking insect, entirely covered with
+yellowish hairs. _Panurgus_ (pl. B, 17) is a curious genus of coal-black
+bees, whose females have bright yellow pollen brushes on their hind legs;
+they visit yellow composite flowers and the males often sleep curled up
+amongst their rays; they are most active bees, and burrow generally in hard
+pathways. I was watching a large colony of one of the species near Chobham
+in the end of June--they were burrowing in a gravel path, under which the
+soil was of a black sandy nature; the path was scattered all over with
+little black {50} hillocks of sand, and seemed alive with bees. It was
+showery weather, and occasionally the hillocks were washed nearly flat and
+a lot of sand must have entered their burrows--however, as soon as the sun
+came out again they cleaned out their holes and returned to their work.
+_Panurgus_ is most businesslike in its pollen collecting; it flies in a
+rapid headlong way into a flower, and seems to do its best to bury itself,
+with a remarkable amount of action as if it was in a great hurry, and often
+bustles out of it again almost immediately and goes on to the next. Its
+methods suggest that it does more work in five minutes than any other bee
+would do in ten.
+
+Another genus, _Anthidium_ (pl. D, 27), this time one of the long-tongued
+bees, is peculiar in having the male larger than the female. Both sexes are
+black, variegated with yellow markings and spots, but the male is more
+ornate in this respect than the female and also has a peculiarly shaped
+body, which is unusually flat, curving downwards towards the apex, which is
+armed with five teeth, two bent ones on the sixth segment and three on the
+seventh. The female collects pollen on the underside of its body and
+collects the {51} down off the stems of various plants, especially those of
+the dead nettle or "labiate" tribe, with which it invests its cells. I
+cannot do better than quote the following from F. Smith: "This is the
+social bee which White in his History of Selbourne has so well described in
+the following words: 'There is a sort of wild bee frequenting the Garden
+Campion for the sake of its tomentum, which probably it turns to some
+purpose in the business of nidification. It is very pleasant to see with
+what address it strips off the pubes running from the top to the bottom of
+a branch and shaving it bare with the dexterity of a hoop shaver; when it
+has got a vast bundle, almost as large as itself, it flies away, holding it
+secure between its chin and fore legs.'"
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{52}
+
+LEAF-CUTTING BEES
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+These are amongst the specially interesting of the bees in their habits.
+They are dull-brown coloured creatures rather like a stout hive bee in form
+(pl. C, 20). They all collect pollen on the underside of their body. They
+burrow either in decayed wood or in the ground, but they make their cells
+of pieces of leaves which they cut off from rose bushes or other plants;
+these cells when completed are wonderful works of art. Probably some of my
+readers may have noticed rose leaves with semicircular pieces cut out of
+them, and often with almost circular ones; this is the work of the leaf
+cutter (fig. 7).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE C.
+
+20. _Megachile maritima_, _female_. 21. _Coelioxys conoidea_, _male_. 22.
+_Coelioxys conoidea_, _female_. 23. _Nest of Megachile willughbiella._
+
+[_face p. 52._ ]
+
+{53} She alights on a leaf, holds on to the edge of the piece she wants to
+cut off with her legs, and then cuts it out by means of her jaws, or
+mandibles; as soon as it is cut free she uses her wings and so prevents
+herself from falling, and goes off with the cut off piece safely held under
+her body by her legs. I have frequently seen bees flying home with their
+leafy burden, and once or twice I have seen them cutting the pieces out.
+They cut round the piece they select with great rapidity--the marvel is
+that they can arrange so exactly as not to fall when the last attachment is
+removed. The pieces they cut have to be of several shapes in order to build
+up the cell they require; some are more or less lozenge shaped, some almost
+circular; the cells they make are somewhat thimble-shaped. The
+lozenge-shaped pieces are used to build up the sides and lower end of the
+cell, and the circular pieces to close it in with at the top; it is all
+cemented together with a gluey substance excreted by the bee. The burrows
+of the leaf-cutters are made, as stated above, either in the ground or in
+rotten wood. I have never had a subterranean nest to examine, but have had
+several nests in rotten wood under my notice, one of which is now before me
+(pl. C, 23). It is in a piece of very {54} soft willow, almost in a
+touchwood condition. So that by carefully cutting away the wood I have been
+able to expose the whole series of cells. Two distinct burrows run almost
+parallel to each other; both of them are slightly curved and each has
+contained six cells; these are about half an inch long, and they fit one
+over another in the tube as closely as possible so as to look like two long
+thick green worms. Each cell is composed of many pieces of leaf, and the
+final plug which closes the cell is often made of several rounds of leaf
+one over the other. The amount of labour taken by the mother bee to make
+these cells must be enormous. The cells are provisioned like those of any
+other solitary bee with pollen, etc., and the egg is laid upon it. Most of
+the leaf-cutters have their attendant cuckoos, which are rather smaller
+than themselves, of a deep black with white bands on the sides of the body.
+The female has a very pointed tail, and the male's body ends in a series of
+spine-like projections (pl. C, 21, 22).
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{55}
+
+OSMIA AND ITS HABITS
+
+I have tried as much as possible to avoid scientific names, but the
+misfortune is that there are hardly any popular names in use which can be
+attached for certain to any particular species, and unless this can be done
+it is of no use using vague names like the "Carpenter Bee", the "Mason
+Bee", etc. There are many carpenter bees and many mason bees, and though
+their habits may be alike in this one particular they differ among
+themselves in the way they use their tools, and it is necessary to know
+which one we are talking about. It is a common thing to hear people
+inveighing against Latin names, etc., but they forget that there are no
+English ones in use, and what is more important, that Greek and Latin names
+are common property to all nations, so that we can all know what we are
+talking about, whereas if we call an insect by an English name and the
+Russians {56} call it by a Russian name, the difficulty of coming to a
+mutual understanding is very great. This is only an aside to justify the
+use of classical names. I quite feel that for popular use in this country a
+good series of English names might be useful, but we have not got one, and
+it would require a great deal of care and thought to frame a nomenclature
+which would really be useable by the persons who require it.
+
+I have made these remarks here because _Osmia_ is a genus whose members
+vary very much in their habits, and some species of which, like sensible
+beings, adapt their habits to their surroundings, so that no name such as
+carpenter bee, etc., would apply to all the species, or, as a rule, even to
+one. _Osmia rufa_ especially adopts several methods of nesting. This little
+bee is clothed more or less all over with yellowish hairs; it is compact in
+shape like all the other species of _Osmia_, and like them collects its
+pollen on the underside of the body. It may sometimes be seen flying up and
+down the walls of a house looking for a crevice to build in, but it is not
+the least particular as to where to form its cells. In one memorable case
+the female selected a flute {57} which had been left in a garden-arbour.
+The bee constructed fourteen cells in the tube of the instrument,
+commencing its first cell a quarter of an inch below the mouthhole. The
+flute is preserved in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. At
+other times this species burrows in the ground, at others it makes its
+cells in crevices of old walls; it has been known to build in a lock, and
+is said sometimes to inhabit snail shells. Other species of _Osmia_ almost
+always burrow in banks, but in no case does a habit seem to be uniformly
+adopted by a species. One well known and rare species, _Osmia leucomelana_,
+is a regular bramble-stick species, tunnelling down the pith in the centre
+of the stalks, but I once found it to my surprise in fair numbers nesting
+in a sandy bank. Other species again, as a rule, select snail shells to
+build in; they find an old disused shell lying about in some sheltered
+place and adapt it to their purposes, commencing their cells singly in the
+narrow whorls of the shell and side by side as they approach its mouth,
+i.e. if the shell be a wide-mouthed one like the common garden snail
+(_Helix aspersa_). F. Smith, who gives a very interesting account of these
+{58} creatures in his _Catalogue of British Hymenoptera in the British
+Museum_, mentions a case where the bee finding the larger whorls of the
+shell too wide constructed two cells across the whorl. Another very
+interesting case given by Smith is of a nest of many cells of the rare
+_Osmia inermis_ (which in his days was known as _Osmia parietina_). A slab
+of stone, 10 inches by 6, was brought to him with 230 cocoons of this
+_Osmia_ attached to its under side; when found in the month of November,
+1849, about a third of them were empty; in March of the following year a
+few males made their appearance and shortly afterwards a few females, and
+they continued to come out at intervals till the end of June, at which time
+he had 35 cocoons still unopened; in 1851 some more emerged, and he opened
+one or two of the closed ones and found that they still contained living
+larvae; he closed them up again, and in April, 1852, examined them and
+found the larvae still alive; at the end of May they changed to pupae and
+appeared as perfect insects, the result being that some of the specimens
+were at least three years before reaching maturity. {59}
+
+There is a nest of yet another style adopted by one of our species (_Osmia
+xanthomelana_). This is formed of a series of pitcher-shaped cells made of
+mud, constructed at the roots of grass. The species which makes it is rare
+and seems to have its headquarters on the coasts of Wales, although it has
+occurred in the Isle of Wight and elsewhere. This species also is not
+constant in its habits, as it has been known to make its cells underground.
+A very curious habit was noticed some years ago by Mr. Vincent R. Perkins
+in another species of this genus (_Osmia bicolor_; pl. D, 28); the species
+nests in the ground or in snail shells, but, in the case under his
+observation, Mr. Perkins found that the little bees covered up all the
+snail shells in which they had built their cells with short pieces of
+"bents" so as to make a little hillock over each about two or three inches
+in height, somewhat resembling a miniature nest of _Formica rufa_, the
+large horse ant, each mound containing hundreds of pieces. This is the only
+record I know of this habit, which must entail a large amount of labour for
+the bee.
+
+These varying habits in the same species {60} show pretty clearly that
+these little creatures are not driven by any blind instinct in the adoption
+of their methods of nest building: they appear to have a distinct power of
+choice and adaptation according to their environment, unless of course it
+can be shown that the offspring of, say, a snail shell inhabitant follows
+its parents' habits, and that that of a ground borer does the same--but
+even that would not explain the case given by F. Smith, and quoted above,
+where an _Osmia_ had filled up the whorls of a shell and then, finding the
+final whorl too large, placed two cells horizontally to fill it: that seems
+to indicate distinct design on the part of the bee and would be hard to
+explain as due to instinct. Unfortunately, with the exception of a very
+few, the species of _Osmia_ are rare in this country, so that few
+opportunities are available for studying their habits, which are certainly
+amongst the most interesting of any genus.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE D.
+
+24. _Anthophora pilipes, male._ 25. _Anthophora pilipes, female._ 26.
+_Melecta armata, female._ 27. _Anthidium manicatum, female._ 28. _Osmia
+bicolor, female._ 29. _Bombus terrestris, female._ 30. _Bombus lapidarius.
+female._ 31. _Psithyrus rupestris, female._
+
+[_face p. 61._ ]
+
+{61}
+
+A COLONY OF ANTHOPHORA
+
+_Anthophora pilipes_ (pl. D, 24, 25), one of our early spring bees, often
+forms enormous colonies. I have sometimes seen sandpits in which the sides
+were riddled all over with holes of this species, and where the insects
+were in such numbers that a distinct hum was audible from the vibration of
+their wings. In such colonies one is sure to detect some of their cuckoo
+associates, _Melecta armata_ (pl. D, 26). They are deep black bees, much of
+the same size as their hosts but with more pointed tails and with a small
+spot of snow-white hairs on the side of each segment of the body; like
+other cuckoos they sail about in a more demure way than their hosts, but a
+more lively scene than a large colony of _Anthophora_ can hardly be found.
+The _Anthophora_ provisions its cells with honey and pollen, and its egg in
+consequence floats on the top--the {62} number of cells varies from five or
+six up to ten or eleven.
+
+_Anthophora pilipes_ has a very close relative in _Anthophora retusa_,
+which also forms large colonies, but it is as a rule less common. These two
+species are exceedingly alike, in fact it requires some skill on the part
+of the observer to differentiate their females. They are both black and
+clothed with black hairs, and both have yellow pollen-brushes, but in
+_retusa_ the hairs are shorter and not quite of such a deep black as those
+of _pilipes_, and the spurs of the tibiae are pale, whereas in _pilipes_
+they are black. The males, however, differ widely, although much alike in
+colour; in _pilipes_ the feet of the middle pair of legs are clothed with
+enormously long hairs, the basal joint has a dense fringe of black hairs in
+front and some long black hairs behind (see pl. D, fig. 24); in _retusa_
+the basal joint of the middle pair of feet have a fan-shaped fringe of
+black hairs, and the rest of the joints are clothed with longer hairs, but
+not long enough to be specially noticeable. _A. retusa_ is visited by the
+same cuckoo as _A. pilipes_ and also by its rare ally _Melecta luctuosa_,
+which only differs from _armata_ {63} (pl. D, 26) in the larger and squarer
+spots of the body and various small structural characters hardly
+appreciable except by specialists. The Anthophoras have other parasites
+besides their cuckoos; one is a beetle, which, however, is rare, and which
+lays its egg in the _Anthophora_ cells; the other is a very minute member
+of the Hymenopterous family, whose larva when hatched feeds upon the larva
+of the bee. Notwithstanding these disadvantages both species are abundant,
+although _retusa_ is more local than _pilipes_. A very interesting fact
+connected with this genus has just been communicated to me by the Rev.
+F. D. Morice. John Ray, who lived in the seventeenth century, mentions in
+his book _Historia Insectorum_ (published posthumously in 1710), p. 243,
+that a large colony of a bee, which from his description was clearly an
+_Anthophora_, as he specially calls attention to the great difference
+between the males and females, inhabited a certain locality at Kilby near
+"Hill Morton" in Northamptonshire. Mr. Morice, who for many years resided
+at Rugby, knew Hillmorton, as it is now spelled, well, and tells me that a
+large colony of _Anthophora_ was in that same locality when he knew it only
+{64} a few years ago. Of course there is no proof that it has been there
+throughout the intervening period, but there seems to be no reason to doubt
+it, and if so it is a most interesting case of a persistent colony.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{65}
+
+BEES AND POLLEN-COLLECTING
+
+Bees whether solitary or social enter flowers for the sake of the honey in
+their nectaries and the pollen on their anthers. In some cases the flowers
+automatically deposit pollen on the bees during the operation, which
+enables them to fertilize other flowers of the same species, but the pollen
+which the bee requires for its own use has to be worked for and collected
+on organs specially adapted for the purpose. These vary very much in the
+different families and genera; they exist only in the females, and, if the
+males get covered with pollen, as they often do, it is probably more by
+chance than purpose, and it is doubtful if it is of any value to the brood,
+although no doubt useful in fertilizing other flowers. All our bees, as has
+been pointed out before, are clothed more or less with branched or
+feather-like hairs, which would appear to be admirably adapted for the
+collecting of pollen. {66} At the same time some species which have their
+bodies clothed with branched hairs have simple or spirally grooved hairs on
+the collecting organ--others collect on very much branched hairs--so that
+there seems to be no exact relationship between the plumosity of the hairs
+and their utility in collecting. The collecting brushes are either on the
+hind legs or, as in some cases, on the ventral surface of the body. In a
+female _Andrena_, the hind leg has a tuft of curled hairs near the base of
+the leg, and a more or less heavy brush on the outside of the tibia or shin
+(fig. 8). When a female returns after a collecting expedition these
+specially hairy regions are a mass of pollen grains, and the "beautiful
+yellow legs", so often remarked upon in some bees, are not always due to
+the colour of the hairs but to that of the grains of pollen adhering to
+them. The genera which collect on the under surface of the body have to
+visit flowers where the anthers lie in such a position that they can
+transfer the pollen on to it; the pea flower tribe are favourites with
+them, and also the _Compositae_. All this section have long tongues so that
+they are able to reach the nectaries of {67} [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.] plants with long tubular flowers. In visiting these
+the pollen is often deposited on the back of the bee; this it is able to
+transfer to its under side by means of the brushes on its feet or tarsi.
+The arrangements of the humble bees for pollen gathering are altogether
+different from those mentioned above. They have the hind shin outwardly
+shining and rather concave, with a series of long curved hairs running down
+each side of it and partly curving over it, so that they carry their mass
+of pollen in a sort of basket, scientifically called the "corbicula" (fig.
+9); this would be impossible if the pollen were gathered dry, as it is by
+most of the solitary bees, so the bee moistens it on the flower with the
+nectar she has been sucking so as to make it sticky, and then transfers it
+into her basket by means of her foot brushes. The pollen therefore on the
+hind leg of a humble bee is all in one mass and can be {68} removed as
+such. When the bee reaches her nest this must of course save her the
+trouble which the solitary bee must have of cleaning off all the separate
+grains of pollen which are mixed up among the hairs.
+
+A word or two may be convenient here on the combs and cleaning apparatus of
+bees. Any one who has watched a bee clean itself will have noticed that the
+front legs work more or less horizontally--a bee will lower its head and
+bring its front leg over it with a curved motion--and that it will clean
+the sides of the face with a sort of shaving-like action, also that the
+antennae are apparently pulled through the foot-joint in a remarkable way,
+often many times in succession. Now the foot of a bee consists of five
+joints, and is clothed with bristly looking hairs. If these hairs be
+examined through a microscope they will be found to be more or less
+razor-shaped, having a thick back and a dilated wing or knife-like blade
+(fig. 10). In some the blade is of some width, and the edge is evidently
+very sharp: these hairs or spines no doubt do the cleaning work, and
+admirably adapted they are to the purpose. The antennae-cleaner {69}
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.] [Illustration: FIG. 11.] [Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+(it may possibly be used for other purposes too) is a still more wonderful
+adaptation; in the basal joint of the foot there is a semicircular
+incision, which, when examined under the microscope, is seen to be a small
+toothed comb. The foot itself fits into the tibia or shin, and at the apex
+of the latter is a modified spine which is dilated on one side into a wing,
+or knife-like blade; this shuts down on to the semicircular comb, and the
+insect by passing the antennae between the two can clean off anything which
+may have stuck to it (fig. 11). When we come to examine the other legs we
+find that the inner surface of their tibiae and tarsi, i.e. that which is
+nearest the body, is clothed with hairs which have the points dilated and
+spade-like (fig. 12), which {70} allowing for the different action of the
+hind legs makes them just as good cleaners as the razors of the front pair;
+the spurs at the apex of the tibiae, which are known as the _calcaria_, are
+also doubtless useful for cleaning purposes, and this is specially
+suggested by the beautiful saw-like form which they assume in some species;
+although there is no actual semicircular comb in the first joint of the
+tarsi, yet there can be little doubt that the spur and this joint in
+conjunction can act as a cleaning organ very much in the same way as the
+more elaborate arrangement in the front legs. Any one who has the
+opportunity of examining the hairs of bees under a microscope will be amply
+repaid for the trouble in noticing the beautiful shapes and structures
+which these organs assume. (Figs. 13-18; 17 showing pollen grains
+adhering.) At one time, when I was specially examining bee hairs, I shaved
+the various parts of a large number of species and mounted their hairs dry
+in microscopic slides, merely securing the cover glass with liquid glue;
+this was twenty years ago, and many are still quite good. It may seem a
+difficult operation to shave a bee, but {71} the hairs come off very
+easily, and with a sharp dissecting knife for a razor as many hairs as one
+wants are almost immediately at one's disposal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{72}
+
+ON BEES' TONGUES, AND HOW THEY SUCK HONEY
+
+In order to understand how a bee sucks honey it will be necessary to go
+into some rather careful details as to the construction of its tongue and
+mouth organs. These I will make as short and simple as I can, but the
+apparatus is a very complicated one, and it will be impossible to describe
+it without a good deal of technical phraseology.
+
+The tongue has always been considered such an important feature in a bee's
+structure that it has been made the chief basis of their classification. On
+this subject I will only say that there are three principal types of
+tongues--a short bifid tongue (fig. 19, 3[1]), resembling those of the
+fossors; a short pointed one, shaped somewhat like a spear head (fig. 19,
+2, 2a); and a long parallel-sided, ribbon-like tongue (fig. 19, 1, 1a). The
+bees are classified on what is considered to be an {73} ascending scale,
+beginning with the bifid-tongued species, through those with the short
+spear shaped tongues to the higher forms, which have this organ elongate
+and parallel-sided.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.]
+
+The tongue is the central organ of an elaborate combination of mouth parts,
+which I will now try to explain. If we turn a bee's head over and look at
+its underside we shall find a deep cavity, filled up with the base of this
+combination which fits into it. If we extend the tongue (a humble bee is a
+good subject on account of its large size, fig. 20) so as to draw its base
+out of the cavity, we shall find that in the edge of each side of the
+cavity there is articulated a short rod (20, A), more or less dilated at
+its apex, called {74} the _stipes_; on the flattened ends of these rods
+there swings a joint shaped something like the "merrythought" bone of a
+chicken, called the _lora_ or reins (20, B), to the central angle of which
+are suspended the pieces of the apparatus which terminate in the tongue.
+This V-shaped joint can swing over on its feet, and can therefore lie
+either between the _stipites_ or rods with its angle pointing towards the
+tail of the bee, or in the opposite direction with its angle projecting
+beyond them and pointing forwards. It will at once be seen that by this
+turn of the V the tongue can be projected a distance equivalent to twice
+the length of the V.
+
+This V-shaped joint varies much in the length of its arms, which are much
+longer in the long-tongued than in the short-tongued bees.
+
+When we examine the parts that are suspended from this joint, we shall find
+that the actual tongue is separated from it by two distinct pieces; the
+first (i.e. that next to the _lora_) a short joint (the _submentum_, 20,
+C), the second (the _mentum_, 20, D) a long semi-cylindrical joint which
+holds as in a trough the softer parts at the base of the tongue. From the
+apex of the _mentum_ {75} project three organs; the central one is the
+actual tongue (or _ligula_, 20, E), and on each side are the organs which
+are called the _labial palpi_ (20, F); these in the long-tongued bees more
+or less fold over the base of the tongue and protect it. There are two
+other large and important mouth parts called the _maxillae_ (20, G); these
+articulate on to the flattened apices of the _cardines_, outside the
+articulation of the feet of the _lora_, and extend on each side of the
+_mentum_; they also have flattened blades sheathing, when closed, the whole
+of the _mentum_ above, as well as the base of the tongue.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.]
+
+So far we have been looking at the back of the head and mouth parts; if we
+now look at the front we shall see the _maxillae_; if we open these we
+shall see the tongue lying between the {76} labial palpi, and at the base
+of the tongue we shall see two little sheaths called the _paraglossae_;
+above these the softer parts lying in the trough of the _mentum_; from the
+base of the _mentum_, connecting with the _maxillae_, there extends a
+membrane which entirely invests the spaces between the bases of these
+organs and extends up to the mouth. A membrane also extends between the
+_stipites_ and _lora_, and closes the cavity at the back of the head. The
+back of the tongue in the act of sucking can be formed into a tube through
+which, partly, probably by capillary action, partly by the pumping action
+caused by the dilating and contracting of certain parts of the mechanism,
+the liquid food is drawn up into the aesophagus. This, I believe, has been
+shown to be the principle on which all bees, short- or long-tongued, suck
+up their honey. The subject could be treated at much greater length, and
+many other structures connected with the mouth parts discussed, but more
+minute details are unnecessary in an elementary work such as this, and I
+have therefore limited myself to a description of the broad principles of
+the process.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{77}
+
+A DREADFUL PARASITE
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.]
+
+Of all the evils to which bee flesh is heir, there can hardly be any so
+terrible as the effects of the parasite _Stylops_ on the species of
+_Andrena_ and _Halictus_ which it attacks. This very extraordinary
+creature, which is now considered to be a beetle, lives during the early
+stages of both sexes in the body of the bee, which it enters when the bee
+is in the larval state. Its head protrudes like a minute flat seed between
+the body segments (fig. 21), and so is visible externally, but the rest of
+the creature, which is a grub-like larva, rests amongst the intestines of
+the bee; the female matures in the bee's body and never leaves it. The
+male, however, when mature, escapes, leaving the {78} [Illustration: FIG.
+22. Stylops larva in abdominal cavity: after Perez.] great hole which he
+inhabited open; he is provided with wings, and I have more than once caught
+one flying in the open--but to return to our afflicted bee. This may be
+attacked in either sex, and by one to five of the parasites. I have
+specimens myself with four parasites in them, and a case of five has been
+recorded. Mr. R. C. L. Perkins, writing on this subject, says: "On removing
+the integument dorsally from the bee, the large body of the female parasite
+will be seen lying above the viscera, often almost entirely concealing
+them". If this is the condition of a bee nourishing only one parasite, I
+must leave it to my readers to imagine the state of the poor wretch who is
+supporting five! The outward appearance of one with several parasites is
+generally much distorted; the abdomen is very much inflated, and the poor
+creature is unable to fly any {79} distance, and can only crawl about, or
+perhaps take short flights of a foot or so. The effects, however, seem to
+be very different in different cases. I have caught _Andrenas_ with two
+_Stylops_ in them, flying about as usual and apparently none the worse for
+their inmates. Probably the position the parasite occupies may make a great
+difference in its effects on the bee.
+
+The most notable effect produced by _Stylops_ is the alteration in the
+structure and colour of certain of the bee's characteristic features. In
+_Andrena_ the males differ very considerably from the females both in form
+and colouring. They have no pollen-brushes on their legs, and in some few
+species the face above the mouth is white, whereas in the female it is
+black. Now the effect of the parasite seems to be to unsex as it were its
+victims so far as their outward appearance is concerned. This is no doubt
+due to the internal effects it has on the larva of the bee. Anyhow, if a
+female is attacked, in most cases the pollen-brush is much reduced, the
+face tends to become more hairy, and, if it be the female of a white-faced
+male, spots of white are often produced on the face. On the other hand,
+{80} if it be a male subject, the hairiness of the face is diminished, the
+white colour is often reduced or absent, and the hairiness of the legs is
+increased.
+
+Before the effects of the parasite were recognized, several new species
+were described simply on specimens of unusual appearance in consequence of
+its presence.
+
+These effects, however, like the effects produced on the activity of the
+bee, vary exceedingly in extent. On some the parasite seems to have no
+effect, in others the alteration in appearance is very great. This, again,
+is probably due to the position of the parasites and to the pressure they
+exert on the reproductive organs of the body in the larval state.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{81}
+
+AMONGST THE BEES AT WORK
+
+Now I feel sure many will be thinking "It is all very well to talk about
+all these solitary and social bees, but I never see them. I certainly know
+a humble bee with a white tail and another with a red tail, and a wasp, and
+perhaps a hornet, but I never notice any others." The reason for this, no
+doubt, is that people are not as a rule observant, and even if they notice
+a creature one moment they probably forget all about it the next. If any
+one goes out on a bright spring morning, late in March or early in April,
+about 11 o'clock, into a garden well stocked with flowers, it will not, I
+think, be many minutes before an insect darts on the wing along some
+border, and, if attention be paid to the flowers, a little black hairy bee
+with yellow legs, like a small humble bee, will be seen diligently at work
+sucking honey from one of them. The darting bee, which is of a brownish red
+colour, gradually {82} fading to grey after a few days' exposure to the
+sun, is the male, and the black one the female. The male rarely settles,
+but flies about courting the female. Often two or three males may be seen
+dodging and crossing each other in their flight. The name of this bee is
+_Anthophora_. It is quite a harbinger of spring, and I mention it
+especially as it so forces itself on one's attention, and there are few who
+will not meet with it without going especially on its quest.
+
+Another opportunity of seeing several kinds of solitary bees flying
+together may be secured by standing on a sunny day in front of a sallow
+bush in full blossom, I mean what is commonly called "palm." Its catkins,
+when the anthers are out and covered with yellow pollen, are most
+attractive to all kinds of bees, humble bees, hive bees, and solitary bees,
+and any one who can manage to watch a sallow bush for some time will
+realize that there are many kinds of bees at work. Of course it is
+difficult, without special knowledge, to recognize which are bees and which
+are flies amongst the many which are coming and going, but the
+yellow-pollened legs of the female bees will generally betray them, as well
+{83} as their steadier flight. A fly turns about more rapidly than a bee,
+and sits down much more abruptly. Bees are very captious about the weather;
+they do not like an east wind and are, apparently, very sensitive to coming
+wet. I have often gone out on a bright morning and been surprised to find
+nothing stirring, and then clouds have come up and proved the wisdom of the
+bees in staying at home. They also fly very little in cloudy weather,
+especially in the early spring, when the temperature is reduced by cloud
+below their fancy. One may be watching a sallow bush and see dozens of
+insects flying about. A cloud shadows it, and almost immediately they
+disappear, to appear again as suddenly with the return of the sun's rays.
+It is interesting to watch bees at work collecting pollen, etc., but if any
+one wishes to study them at home, their nesting haunts must, of course, be
+visited. These are so various that it is impossible to point them all out,
+but the best locality to select is a sandy bank facing south. In June or
+July such a bank is often alive with bees, sand-wasps, etc.; here, again,
+we want sunshine or the bees will stay in their holes. {84} Even when dull,
+however, it is a very interesting spot, and we can notice the numbers of
+holes bored in the bank, and their different sizes and shapes; most of them
+are round, but some sandwasps make very irregular holes. If we look closely
+at some of the holes we shall see something closing the aperture, and, if
+we are too inquisitive, that something will disappear down the hole like
+lightning; it is the face of the owner of the burrow waiting to come out
+for the first ray of sunshine, but the owner is very timid and it will be
+some minutes before she puts her face so near danger again. In most of the
+sandwasps the face is clothed with bright silvery, or sometimes golden,
+hairs, and it is a very pretty sight to see these little silvery faces
+peering out of their burrows. Again, one may sometimes notice a little
+stream of sand emerging from a hole; this is from some bee who is enlarging
+her domain or clearing out some of the sand which occasionally falls in. In
+some cases this ejection of sand is done with a great deal of action: the
+sand comes streaming out and then the bee follows, quite up to the mouth of
+the passage, kicking out the sand as hard as it can. {85} The moment,
+however, that the sun comes out the whole bank is full of life; and just as
+in the case of the sallow bush, one wonders where it has all been during
+the shadow. Bees will now be seen flying home laden with pollen; they will
+pause at the opening of their burrow and then disappear suddenly into its
+depths. In a very short time they will reappear quite clean and ready for
+another journey. Their cleaning apparatus must be wonderfully well adapted
+to its purpose. I have often had to remove the pollen from a bee's leg to
+see what colour the hairs are, and it takes some time even to brush enough
+of it off to ascertain this, and yet the natural cleaning process seems to
+take no time in comparison. But to return to our bank, numbers of bees will
+be seen coursing up and down and hardly ever settling; these are males
+paying what attention they can to any females who have time to attend to
+them, and often falling foul of other males intent on similar pursuits. If
+one has good luck in the choice of one's bank an elegant wasp-like creature
+may occasionally be seen amongst the others; this is one of the cuckoos.
+The flight of all the cuckoo bees is peculiar; it is much {86} quieter and
+slower than that of the hosts, and a cuckoo may easily be seen solemnly
+flying up and down the bank, over the various holes, no doubt watching for
+the proper opportunity to enter one, and deposit its egg in it. This
+deliberate flight seems a curious habit in a creature which one would think
+would wish to escape detection. If it seemed to inspire fear in the mind of
+its host it would be different, but they appear to fly about together
+unconcerned at each other's presence, and the cuckoo sails along demurely
+and imposes on its hosts' labours without any apparent resentment on the
+latter's part; both seem to accept their relationship as a matter of
+course. Another very interesting frequenter of sandy banks is a pretty
+little stout sandwasp, about a quarter of an inch long, called _Oxybelus_.
+It has a very bright silvery face which shines most brilliantly in the sun,
+and the body has a row of white spots on each side, and it brings flies
+back to its nest. It is very active and common, and may often be seen with
+its fly going back to its hole. There is a rare species of the same genus,
+which is clothed all over with silvery hairs, and this in some places,
+curiously {87} enough, selects as its victim a fly which is also coated
+with silver. There are, of course, many other inhabitants in such a bank as
+this. There are sure to be ants, which are always interesting to watch, and
+probably now and then a _Pompilus_ will appear on the scene. These
+exceedingly lively creatures which run at a very rapid pace, vibrating
+their wings as they go, and taking short flights between the runs, are on
+the hunt for spiders. They will be seen to forage amongst any grass or
+herbage there may be on the bank, and if they can only secure a spider it
+is stung and paralyzed and carried off at once to the nest. Of course every
+sand bank will not yield a great number of insects, but some, especially in
+sandy districts like Woking, Oxshott, and other parts of the Surrey
+commons, and the New Forest, simply teem with life--and would repay any one
+for hours of watching and observation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{88}
+
+ANTS, THEIR GUESTS AND THEIR LODGERS
+
+The number of insects of different kinds which live in ants' nests, either
+as scavengers, stray visitors who have found a lodging for the moment, as
+guests carefully taken care of and appreciated by the ants, or as lodgers,
+either tolerated or hostile to their hosts and persecuted, and parasites,
+is very great. The most interesting of these from the ordinary observer's
+point of view are the true guests and the lodgers. The true guests are
+carefully attended to by the ants; they include such insects as the
+_Aphides_ or plant lice, and others which the ants use as "cows" to secure
+the saccharine juices which they can obtain from them, and also certain
+strange beetles which have tufts of golden hairs on their body, which the
+ants lick--on account of what E. Wasmann[2] calls the etherealized oil {89}
+given off by them. These beetles are fairly numerous and belong to several
+quite distinct families; the one which perhaps is amongst the most
+interesting is a creature called _Lomechusa strumosa_. This insect has
+rather an interesting history in connexion with our British fauna. It used
+to be considered as an indigenous insect, but so many years passed without
+any one finding it, that the old records were suspected as doubtful, and it
+was removed from the list of British species. In 1906, however, it was
+rediscovered near Woking in a nest of _Formica sanguinea_ (pl. A, 1, 2, 3),
+one of the large red ants, by Mr. H. Donisthorpe. The life-history of
+_Lomechusa_ is a very curious one: it is taken great care of by the ants,
+and its larvae are even placed by them with their own, on which it feeds.
+Its numbers are kept down apparently by the overzeal of the ants to take
+care of them. The ants bring their own pupae up frequently to obtain light
+and air and with them it brings up the _Lomechusa_ pupae--this seems not to
+suit the latter and results in the death of many of them. It is a most
+interesting case of how a due balance can be maintained, and what might
+prove an enemy {90} kept in his proper place by kind intentions. There are
+also in ants' nests what Dr. Wasmann calls "tolerated lodgers"; these are
+mostly creatures which are supposed to escape the notice of the ants,
+either by their small size or by their slow, lethargic, or on the other
+hand very rapid movements--these in many cases act as scavengers, living on
+the dead bodies of insects, etc., brought in by the ants.
+
+The hostile lodgers are real enemies to the ants and devour their brood,
+and in consequence they are always at war with each other. These creatures
+generally resemble the ants considerably in form and colour and especially
+in their movements.
+
+Besides these lodgers there are numerous parasites of the ants, such as
+mites, etc., so that an ant colony is a very wonderful mixture of diverse
+inhabitants. The distinctions given above as to the habits of the various
+lodgers are not always kept up, as, in some, two or more of these habits
+are combined. The whole study of ants and their guests is a most
+fascinating one: many of the latter are great rarities and much sought
+after by collectors. Unfortunately, the great {91} drawback in collecting
+them is the havoc caused to the nests of the ants. These structures have
+been the result of enormous labour on the part of these little creatures,
+and one cannot regard their destruction without sincere regret. I think any
+one who, when collecting beetles, disturbs a large nest of the little
+garden ant (_Lasius niger_) or the little yellow ant (_Lasius flavus_) by
+turning over a stone, as the writer has often done himself, must have
+experienced a like regret at having broken up all the beautiful passages
+and galleries which the ants have constructed so carefully.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{92}
+
+HOW CAN AN "ACULEATE" BE RECOGNIZED?
+
+This is not an easy question to answer. We cannot make hard and fast
+definitions which will determine exactly what belongs to this group and
+what to that; there are always some intermediate forms which present
+themselves and make our classification unsatisfactory, but, I think, for
+all purposes of practical observation in the field we may say that if we
+find a creature with four membranous wings, burrowing in the ground or
+making a nest in any way, it is an aculeate or stinger. Also, that if we
+find a hairy-bodied insect with four clear wings collecting pollen or
+sucking nectar from a flower it is a bee. There are, of course, characters
+by which the stinging groups can be known almost for certain, but there is
+no single one which can be given to recognize them by. {93} They are known
+by a combination of many, and these are frequently small structural details
+which do not appeal to the field observer; in fact, which are unappreciable
+except under magnification. One of the chief difficulties experienced by an
+observer who is not versed in classification is to avoid being deceived by
+various flies, which in many cases greatly resemble bees, and especially
+wasps or the wasp-like fossors. They may mostly be known by their flight,
+and, when they settle, by their behaviour. A fly is more sudden in its
+movements--those wasp-like flies, for instance, which poise themselves in
+the air and appear quite stationary but dart off in a second when
+approached, betray themselves at once by their alertness. _Anthophora_ and
+_Saropoda_ poise in the air and dart somewhat after the same fashion, but
+they never remain poised for long, and do not get away from their position
+so rapidly. Also, a fly when it settles remains quiet, whereas an aculeate
+if in a flower sets to work collecting pollen, or if basking in the sun on
+a leaf rarely rests for many seconds without moving in some way. On a
+flower, if an insect is seen quietly sitting with its head away from the
+centre of the {94} flower, it is almost certain to be a fly. Most of the
+little bees (_Halicti_) which visit dandelions and such like "composites"
+fly in to them with some rapidity, attack them sideways, and move round the
+"flower", no doubt getting pollen from each floret in succession and with a
+businesslike action about it all, which is very different from the
+behaviour of any fly. The flies which really closely resemble bees in their
+flight are those which lay their eggs in the burrows of various bees and
+sandwasps. They are really deceptive. Last summer on the sandhills at
+Southbourne, near Bournemouth, I again and again was deceived by a small
+fly with a red belt across its body, thinking it was a red-bodied sandwasp.
+These it really only resembles on the wing. After having been taken in once
+or twice one felt ashamed of oneself for not recognizing it. The flies also
+which associate with the humble bees are often coloured very much like
+them, and could easily be mistaken for small specimens of the bees were it
+not for their behaviour and wings, which show a dark spot on the upper
+margin, not existing in the wing of the bee.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{95}
+
+MALES AND FEMALES
+
+These differ from each other very greatly in many cases. Eccentricity in
+structure almost always occurs in the male; excess of coloration usually in
+the female. In size the male is generally the smaller and the less robustly
+built of the two. Among the pollen-collectors, the male is usually less
+densely clothed with hairs than the [female]. In the fossors this rule is
+rather reversed, but in that section neither sex is densely clothed with
+hairs as are most of the pollenigerous bees.
+
+The male has normally thirteen joints in its antennae, and the female only
+twelve. There are exceptions to this rule amongst the ants and in certain
+fossors of the genus _Crabro_, some species of which have the antennae
+considerably distorted, and have two joints welded apparently into one.
+Another distinction between the sexes is that the male has seven dorsal
+segments {96} of the body exposed to view, and the female only six. In the
+males of some of those bees which collect pollen on the underside of the
+body, the body above terminates with the sixth segment. This is because the
+seventh is turned over on to the underside, and faces downwards, its apex
+pointing towards the head. This arrangement of course leaves less room for
+the regular ventral segments, and the usual apical segments are in
+consequence "telescoped" up under the fourth, so that the apical opening of
+the body lies on its underside between the fourth ventral and the inverted
+seventh dorsal segments. This very curious structure occurs only in those
+bees whose females collect pollen on the underside, and the reason of it is
+to me quite inexplicable. The females of a few of the fossors are destitute
+of wings; but in this country we have no wingless males, except in the case
+of one little ant (_Formicoxenus_); this lives in the nest of the common
+large red ant, and its male can hardly be known from the worker except by
+the number of joints in the antennae and the absence of a sting. In the
+cases where the female is wingless, the male as a rule is much the larger
+of the two sexes. {97} There are few more puzzling questions than those
+which arise over these eccentricities of structure; they seem to have no
+relation to any habits of the creatures' lives so far as we can judge,
+neither can one suggest any useful purpose which they can serve. In some
+groups the males of all the species seem built on one regular plan--in
+others the males of each species seem to vie with the next as to what
+eccentricity of structure in antennae or legs or apex of the body it can
+exhibit. In numbers, the males probably considerably exceed the females,
+and are far more frequently met with, as they seem to be less particular as
+to weather, and not being intent on obtaining food for their offspring they
+fly about more casually, and certainly are more in evidence generally.
+
+The great difference in structure, etc., between the males and females
+makes the work of pairing the sexes very difficult, especially in those
+genera where the males and females appear together only for a few weeks, as
+is the case in _Halictus_ and _Sphecodes_. If one visits a locality in the
+spring one may catch any number of females of _Halictus_, but no males
+appear till the late {98} summer or autumn, and, unless one visits the same
+spot again when both sexes are out, it is impossible to associate males and
+females. I have at the present moment in my collection several males,
+which, being in doubt about myself, I have communicated to continental
+authorities, who have returned them to me as possibly the male of so and
+so! and we shall have to remain in uncertainty about them till some one
+happens to take both sexes together, when the mystery will be solved.
+
+In time of appearance the males always precede the females--in burrows,
+such as those of the leaf-cutting bees, etc., it may seem puzzling as to
+how this is arranged, as one cell is placed over the other so that those
+lower down in the tube cannot pass those higher up. This difficulty is got
+over by the arrangement that the first eggs laid by the mother bee are
+female and the last male, so that those at the top belong to this latter
+sex; these emerge as soon as the warmth of the sun is great enough to
+energize them sufficiently to break through their cell covering, when they
+emerge and wait for the appearance of their females. The males of {99} some
+species of _Andrena_ seem to take great pleasure in flying rapidly up and
+down hedgerows, hardly ever settling, and apparently far away from their
+females, which are probably pollen collecting in dandelions or some such
+flowers in the neighbourhood.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{100}
+
+THE VAGARIES OF COLOUR AND STRUCTURE IN THE SEXES
+
+As a rule the male is rather smaller and especially slenderer than the
+female, but there are notable exceptions; in one genus of the fossors,
+_Myrmosa_ for instance, the male is many times larger than the female. In
+this case the male is winged and the female is wingless. Also, if there is
+a difference in brightness of coloration between the sexes, as a rule the
+male is duller than the female--this is especially the case among the
+bees--but if there is any eccentricity in the form of the limbs it is
+almost sure to occur in the male, and I think one would not go far wrong in
+saying that when peculiar features occur in the female, the reason for them
+is more or less apparent, whereas for the eccentricities of the male there
+really often seems to be no assignable cause. These male eccentricities are
+often exceedingly marked. A very good {101} [Illustration: FIG. 23.]
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.] example of them occurs among the small "keyhole"
+wasps. All the British species are practically alike in coloration. They
+may vary in having a greater or less number of yellow bands on the body,
+but otherwise their distinctions rest on structure. In the females the
+antennae are slightly thickened towards the apex, but otherwise they are
+simple. The males, however, are divided into three quite distinct groups.
+In the first of these, the end joints of the antennae are rolled up in more
+or less of a spiral (fig. 23, 2); in the second, the apical joint is turned
+sharply back like a hook (fig. 23, 1); in the third, the end joints of the
+antennae are simple and more or less like those of the female. Now if we
+examine the legs of the males in the first group we shall find still
+greater peculiarities; in two of our species there is a long yellow spine
+at the extreme base of the middle leg on the little joint by which it
+articulates on to the body (fig. 24, 2), and a curious pencil of hairs
+{102} on each side of the mouth. In two others, the femora, or thighs of
+the middle legs, are cut into two deep somewhat semicircular incisions
+(fig. 24, 1)--a most curious character; but here again the females have no
+corresponding peculiarities. There seems to be no explanation known for
+these vagaries, and yet one feels that there must be some object served by
+them. If we turn to the bees we shall find that in many species the face of
+the male is white to a greater or less extent, whereas that character is
+very rare in the female. The front feet are produced into a wide flattened
+form in some, in others the middle legs are extraordinarily developed, and
+provided with tufts of hairs, etc. Another form of male development lies in
+the form of the head. This is sometimes very much enlarged--often varying
+considerably in this respect in specimens of the same species; there is
+often a projecting tooth or spine on the mandible or jaw at its base, or
+frequently on the cheek just above it. Then in the fossors the males of the
+genus _Crabro_ break out into numerous eccentricities; in some, two or more
+of the joints of the antennae are soldered together and curved or cut out
+into {103} curious forms (fig. 26); in others the front shin or tibia is
+formed like a concave shield or shell (fig. 25), and all the joints of that
+leg more or less distorted; in another male (a rather doubtful native which
+has not been taken in this country for fifty years) the head is narrowed
+behind into an almost ridiculously small neck, being quite triangular in
+form, viewed from above, with the eyes projecting from its anterior angles
+(fig. 27, 1), the female head being of normal form (fig. 27, 2).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.]
+
+In the males of several species of fossors and bees the eyes are enormously
+developed, joining one another on the top of the head. This condition
+occurs also in the drone of the hive bee. The male of _Astatus_, which has
+this character, has also a peculiar habit. It sits basking in the sun on
+some bare sandy spot, and when disturbed makes a sort of circular detour
+and pitches down again exactly on the spot from which it started up. An
+{104} increased length of the antennae is another male characteristic. This
+is carried to an extraordinary development in what is called the "long
+horned bee"; this bee, which is pretty common in some places, has antennae
+which, when directed backwards, are almost as long as its body--the female
+has quite an ordinary pair.
+
+Another set of male characters which are of great value to systematists
+lies in the hidden apical segments of the underside; although these are
+hidden, being telescoped up inside the segments which close the apical
+opening of the body, they often assume most curious and beautiful forms,
+and are characters whereby the males of a species may be determined with
+certainty when the females defy all one's endeavours to discover their
+identity.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{105}
+
+THE DISTRIBUTION, RARITY, OR ABUNDANCE OF VARIOUS SPECIES
+
+There are few points about which we know less than the causes of
+distribution and rarity, although there are certain tolerably well
+recognized laws which govern the occurrence of some species in certain
+localities. What I mean is that marshy spots, say salt marshes for
+instance, attract certain beetles and bugs which are never found except in
+such places; certain kinds of flowers attract bees which never appear to
+visit any others, but these localities and kinds of flowers occur often at
+great distances from each other, and why--given a certain flower you
+probably find a certain bee peculiar to it; or given a certain kind of
+marsh you probably find a certain beetle, although the localities may be
+hundreds of miles apart--I think still awaits explanation. I will give an
+example with which I am personally well acquainted. {106} There is a rare
+little bee (_Macropis labiata_) which at one time was looked upon as an
+extreme rarity, having only occurred three or four times in this country.
+Mr. F. Enoch, comparatively lately, took a fair number on the flowers of
+the greater loose-strife (_Lysimachia vulgaris_) along the canal at Woking;
+now that its food-plant is known, it has occurred in several other places
+in numbers, and no doubt wherever the _Lysimachia_ is abundant _Macropis_
+will probably occur, but how the little creature has been distributed over
+the places where this plant occurs, which are often far distant from each
+other, seems to me to be an unsolved problem. Then there is another
+puzzling point, and that is the extreme rarity of certain insects. No doubt
+in many cases this is due to ignorance of their habits, as it has
+frequently happened that species once considered of great rarity have
+occurred in abundance when their habits have been discovered, as in the
+case of _Macropis_, but there are some cases which do not seem to be
+explainable in this way. I will again give an example which has been
+specially under my own observation. _Dufourea vulgaris_, a little black
+bee, {107} which certainly might not be recognized from its outward
+appearance, as there are many which very closely resemble it, is still one
+of our greatest rarities, only three British examples having been recorded.
+The first was taken by Sir Sidney Saunders at Chewton, Hants, on the
+twelfth of August, 1879; this was a male; the second, a female, was taken
+by Mr. T. R. Billups at Woking, on the first of August, 1881; and the third
+by myself at Chobham (about four miles from Woking) on the first of August,
+1891. I believe in all cases these were taken on yellow composite flowers.
+The flight and behaviour of the male I caught were so peculiar, as it
+wriggled itself into the flower, that I knew at once I had caught a rarity,
+and remarked to my companions that I believed I had got a _Dufourea_. I
+also hazarded the remark that it was "ten years since it had been taken."
+When I got home and looked up the former record it was ten years to a day.
+Now there are few places in England that have been better worked for the
+bee tribe than the Woking, Chobham, and Weybridge neighbourhood; it has
+been worked by experienced men who would see a difference {108} in the
+flight of an insect directly. The late Mr. F. Smith, in his day our leading
+authority, the Rev. F. D. Morice, than whom no one has probably worked the
+neighbourhood more thoroughly, Mr. T. R. Billups, Mr. E. B. Nevinson, and
+the late Mr. A. Beaumont, have all been over the ground again and again,
+and yet only these two _Dufoureas_! and these taken four miles apart. Here
+again is a problem which is very perplexing! What part in nature does this
+little rarity play? No doubt like everything else it has its duties, and
+its corner to fill, but beyond that one can suggest nothing.
+
+Other bees are often exceedingly abundant in one season and very rare the
+next, or they will entirely desert a locality where they have been
+abundant, and move somewhere else--the occasional scarceness is due
+probably to continued wet weather, which often appears to kill the larvae.
+Cold winters seem to have no injurious effect, although at one time they
+were thought to determine the scarcity or otherwise of the bees of the
+following summer. It has, I think, been clearly shown that larvae can stand
+almost any amount of cold, although they succumb to {109} the effects of
+mildew produced by wet, but there is often no apparent reason why a well
+established colony should migrate to quite new pastures. Sometimes the
+proximity of new buildings or the digging up of ground may disturb them,
+but I know of colonies that have gone from where I knew them a
+comparatively few years ago, and where I can detect no change likely to
+have affected them. On the other hand there are colonies which one has
+known all one's life and which still go on as strongly or more strongly
+than ever--the case quoted under _Anthophora_, p. 63, shows what
+persistence there can be in some.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{110}
+
+ON BEES' WINGS
+
+The Bees and the other stinging groups have four wings like all the
+_Hymenoptera_. These wings are almost always clear and transparent, at any
+rate amongst the British species, there being only one exception which I
+can call to mind in the female of the cuckoo of our large red-tailed
+humble-bee, which has the wings blackish; also they are never spotted, as
+in some flies. The hind or lower wings unite with the upper by a series of
+very beautiful hooks which extend along their upper margin and fix on to
+the posterior edge of the front wing, which is folded back on itself so as
+to receive them; in flight the two wings are united, but when at rest they
+separate; these hooks are beautiful objects under a microscope; their
+numbers vary; and in some cases this variation is useful in distinguishing
+closely allied species from one another. The hum of a bee is caused, to a
+great extent, by {111} the vibration of the wings, but it has been shown
+that a loud buzzing noise can be emitted by bees which have lost their
+wings; this proceeds from the spiracles or holes in the outer covering of
+the creature through which it breathes. It is therefore not always easy to
+say how much of the hum is caused by wing vibration and how much by the
+action of the spiracles. Some, in fact most, of our solitary bees are
+almost silent in flight, and their note can be heard only when large
+numbers are flying together; others have a very peculiar shrill hum, by
+which even the species can almost be recognized. In bright, hot, sunny
+weather their flight is more rapid and their note attains a higher pitch.
+The bees with the highest pitched hum with which I am acquainted are the
+two smaller species of _Anthophora_ and _Saropoda bimaculata_.
+
+In early spring, when it is hot in the sunshine and cold when a cloud
+covers the sun, it is no unusual thing to see a bee drop to the ground. The
+cold seems to paralyze altogether their powers of flight. When at rest a
+bee folds its wings along the sides of its back, but only in the wasp tribe
+is there the arrangement for them to be {112} folded longitudinally. The
+shape of the wings varies very little, but the arrangement and number of
+their cells vary considerably. There are some very interesting genera in
+which the neuration of some of the cells is so slightly indicated that they
+are hardly visible, and can be seen only when the wing is held in certain
+lights; these faintly indicated cells are nearly always those towards the
+apex of the wing, the neuration of the basal part of the wing being as
+strong as in the other genera. There are a few moths in this country which
+very much resemble, both in the colour of their bodies and their clear
+wings, the wasp tribe, but they may be known by the brown band of scales at
+the apex of the wings and also by the absence of the narrow waist, which
+exists in all the stinging tribes. The only wingless forms which we know
+are to be found amongst the ants and the fossors, and as a rule are
+females, but in a few cases in the ants, and in some foreign species of the
+genus _Mutilla_, the male is apterous also.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{113}
+
+ON BREEDING ACULEATES, ETC.
+
+Any one who wishes to study the life-histories of these insects, and has
+leisure to do so, can easily obtain various larvae by digging for them in
+suitable places. If, for instance, during the summer, bees, etc., have been
+noticed entering holes in a certain bank or sandy spot, their larvae or
+nymphs can be got in the autumn by digging down for about a foot in the
+direction of the holes, and if they be brought home and put into glass-top
+boxes they will generally emerge at their right time without giving any
+further trouble; it must, however, be remembered that the grubs are very
+soft and tender skinned, and it is better to avoid handling them if
+possible; they should be moved with a small soft camel-hair pencil, and it
+is well to put something soft at the bottom of the box so that if they fall
+in they will not be damaged. If the wood-boring {114} species are being
+collected, care must of course be taken in splitting the wood; most of
+these make a pupa case over themselves, and are in that respect easier to
+deal with. A label should be put in each box to show where the larvae,
+etc., were found. An old rotten stump of a tree will often produce a good
+number of species. Then there are the bramble-stem borers; these can be
+left in the stems. I have generally found it convenient, after arriving
+home, to split the stems down, to see if there are any living creatures in
+them, and, if there are, to close them up again, and, tie a little very
+fine net or gauze bag over the top of each stem; in this way one can find
+out exactly what insects come from what stem, and determine the cuckoos (if
+any) which belong to each. As the season advances towards May, it is well
+to give all the larvae, etc., an occasional glimpse of the sun; they should
+not be left in the sun long enough for them to get dried up too much, but
+the sun is a very important factor in tempting them to emerge; naked larvae
+and nymphs, in glass-top boxes, should be treated very carefully in this
+respect, as they are deprived of their {115} natural surroundings, in which
+the actual sunshine would never reach them--it would be better to place
+them in a sunny room, screened off from the actual rays of the sun, so that
+its warmth only would be felt. If they do not emerge the first year, it
+should not be taken for granted that they are dead, as very likely they
+will appear in the following spring. I have bred leaf-cutting bees several
+times with great success, and others I know have been successful with many
+species. The fear is to get them dried up too much; it is therefore not
+desirable to keep them in a very hot room. When first the insects emerge,
+their hairs are often more or less matted together, and they should be put
+in the sun in a larger box, so that they can crawl about and clean
+themselves; portions also of the skin in which they have been enveloped
+frequently adhere to them for some little time, but as a rule, unless the
+creature be too weak, these are very soon cleaned off. Breeding is a
+fascinating amusement, but it requires a great deal of attention when the
+emerging season begins, as the boxes want constant watching, or the insects
+will emerge unnoticed, and, if not given proper {116} air and sunshine, may
+die without cleaning themselves properly.
+
+If it is desired to preserve the specimens, they should be killed either
+with cyanide of potassium, ether, or chloroform. If the first of these
+agents is used, a piece of about the size of a small hazel nut should be
+put at the bottom of a bottle (for collecting purposes, an ordinary
+"Coleoptera bottle", which can be obtained from any naturalist's shop, is
+the most convenient) and should be kept down by a wad of blotting paper,
+well pressed down upon it; this prevents the cyanide, as it liquifies, from
+wetting the hairs, etc., of the insects. Over this a piece of white paper
+should be placed; this will get stained at once when there is much damp,
+and should then be changed. The objections to cyanide are its very
+poisonous nature, and the stiffness which is caused by its use to the
+specimens killed by it, and also its tendency to turn yellow colours red. I
+always use it myself as I think it is preferable to the other insecticides,
+notwithstanding its demerits, but then I do not extend the legs and wings
+of my specimens, but simply leave them in whatever position they happen to
+{117} die. Ether is a very favourite method of killing with many; a few
+drops in a bottle with some paper in it is sufficient to last for some
+hours; it however soon evaporates in hot weather, and it is necessary to
+carry a small phial of it in one's pocket to replenish the supply when
+exhausted; this makes one smell of ether perpetually, which is more than I
+can stand. But the insects killed in this way are beautifully supple, and,
+for those who wish to set their captures as they would _Lepidoptera_, it is
+an excellent medium, i.e. if they don't mind its smell; it has also the
+benefit of not affecting colour. Chloroform acts much as ether does. When
+killed, I strongly recommend collectors to pin their specimens through the
+thorax with a very fine pin (those used for micro-lepidoptera are the
+best), and then to pin this through a narrow strip of card, mounted on a
+long stout pin; in this way the insect can be moved about by the strong
+pin, and the thorax of the insect itself is not destroyed, as it often is
+in the case of the smaller species by the use of thicker pins. The cards
+should be cut as small as possible; they need not be more than a quarter of
+an inch long. The insect {118} should be pinned at right angles to the long
+axis of the card, and the long pin should be inserted on the right-hand
+side of the insect so as not quite to touch it. In this way the insects
+look quite as neat as if they were pinned direct. Locality labels, etc.,
+should be affixed to the long pin, and the insects should be stored in
+cabinets or boxes.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{119}
+
+ON COLOUR
+
+There is but little tendency towards brilliant coloration amongst our
+native aculeates. No doubt our comparatively high latitude accounts for
+this to some extent, as also the fact that the aculeates do not, as a rule,
+elsewhere assume great brilliancy. Even in the tropics and other warm
+regions, where bright green, blue or coppery coloured species occur, they
+are comparatively few in number. In this country metallic colours are to be
+found in less than a dozen species, and in most of these it exists only as
+a tinge. Amongst our ants and wasps it does not exist at all, unless the
+slight bronziness of the typical form of _Formica fusca_ be so considered.
+The fossors can exhibit only a bluish tint in _Mutilla Europaea_ (pl. A, 4,
+5), and a slight bronzy tinge in two of quite the smallest species,
+_Miscophus maritimus_ and the [male] of _Crabro albilabris_. The bees can
+do a little better; five species of _Halictus_ have a distinctly {120}
+bronzy head and thorax, and in three the bronzy colour extends to the
+abdomen; there is also another with a very dull green tinge on the thorax;
+besides these there is a little bright blue bee, _Ceratina_ (unfortunately
+a great rarity in this country) and two or three species of _Osmia_,
+showing more or less tendency to bronziness, and one which is distinctly
+bluish; but, considering our indigenous species number nearly 400, this is
+a very small, and compared with other countries I should think an
+abnormally small, proportion.
+
+Species with bodies banded like a wasp's are much more abundant--no less
+than eighty of our native kinds having this style of coloration. The bands
+may be reduced to lateral spots, but such cases, I think, are only
+modifications of the banded scheme.
+
+Black species with a more or less pronounced red band across the body
+number about seventy, and a general testaceous or yellowish colour occurs
+in a few ants, but not elsewhere among the British aculeates. Nearly all
+the rest are black or dark brown so far as the actual surface of the body
+is concerned; but amongst the bees {121} there is often a dense clothing of
+coloured hairs sometimes so dense that the surface of the body may be
+rendered invisible. These coloured hairs may be distributed into brilliant
+bands, as in the humble bees, or they may be uniformly black, as in some of
+their varieties and in the females of the spring species of _Anthophora_
+(pl. D, 25), or entirely red as in _Andrena fulva_ (pl. B, 16), or black on
+the thorax and red on the abdomen as in _Osmia bicolor_ (pl. D, 28), or
+vice versa as in _Andrena thoracica_, etc., but the most usual condition is
+that where the hairs form more or less pale bands along the joints of the
+segments, either immediately above or below them or both; sometimes these
+bands are very obscurely indicated, and visible only in certain positions.
+At others they are vividly white; to a certain extent this banded condition
+recalls the waspy coloration. The hairs, however, of the bands are rarely
+yellow, but as a rule greyish or white, or of a grade of colour slightly
+paler than those of the disc. There are some rather interesting points
+which arise out of this rough analysis. Among the bees, all the species
+which have a waspy coloration are cuckoos, with only one exception
+(_Anthidium_) {122} (pl. D, 27), as are also nearly all those which have
+red bands. With the exception of the males of three species of _Halictus_,
+and both sexes of three or four species of _Andrena_, all the red-banded
+forms belong to the genus _Sphecodes_ (pl. B, 11), which is a cuckoo genus.
+The red coloration occurs chiefly on nearly naked surfaces; this is
+specially noticeable in those bees which have two varieties, such as
+_Andrena rosae_, one dull coloured and the other red-banded: in these cases
+the dull form is hairy and the red nearly naked. The greatest proportionate
+number of banded species occurs amongst the fossors, and these are seldom
+clothed with hairs to any extent. These bands seem to me probably to depend
+a good deal on retarded development. Dark and hairy bands, both as a rule,
+follow the joints of the segments, as stated above. I only say as a rule,
+as there are many where the banding does not follow this principle, but in
+far the larger majority the bands, whether of dark colour or hairs, are
+apical. As the segments overlap at the joints it is evident that their
+discs would tend to mature more rapidly than the overlapping bases and
+apices, {123} and the longer period spent in hardening and drying of the
+overlapping parts would favour the development of dark pigment and of
+hairs. Many species have the extreme apices of the segments pale, but with
+the apical integument so very thin, often looking nearly transparent and
+membranous, that its development would be very rapid. Again, in the case of
+red coloration, the red generally occurs on the discs of the segments, the
+apices and sides often being dark, and in cases where in one species both
+black and banded forms occur, with intermediate varieties, the last remnant
+of red colour is generally situated in the centre of the segment. By far
+the gayest effect is displayed by our humble bees, and, but for them and a
+few of the species of _Andrena_ and the wasp-coloured species, our
+aculeates would be a very sombre lot.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{124}
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS FROM THE EGG
+
+Although this and the following chapter may not be interesting to all my
+readers, I think it is only right to add some remarks on the structure and
+classification of insects, so that any one who wishes to follow up the
+subject may gather a few general ideas which may induce them to take up
+some technical and scientific work in which they will get fuller and more
+exact data on the difficulties which are involved in such simple questions
+as "What is an insect?" "How are the different orders of insects
+distinguished from each other?" "What is a species?" etc.
+
+To realize the characters of an insect in its perfect or "imago" state, we
+may for the moment forget what often seems to be its most important
+features, and which are frequently its most extensive parts, viz. its limbs
+or {125} appendages; by limbs are meant its wings, legs, horns or antennae,
+jaws or mandibles, etc.: strip these all off, and we have a limbless trunk,
+which many would not recognize as belonging to an insect at all; still this
+limbless trunk possesses characters which assert its insect nature, as it
+may be known from other limbless trunks by being divided into three parts
+by two great transverse divisions; in most insects these are extremely well
+marked, and in all they have a very real existence. The parts thus divided
+off are known by the names of head, thorax, and abdomen. Anybody knows how
+easy it is to break off the head or body of a dried insect. Now the head or
+body breaks off at one of these divisions, and it is this partitioning of
+the body into three sections which makes one of the strongest characters in
+the definition of an insect. The three parts, thus divided off, each
+possesses special functions in the life of the creature. In the head are
+contained the principal organs of sense and brain; in the thorax, the
+organs of locomotion; and in the body those of digestion, reproduction,
+etc.
+
+This division into three parts does not however {126} always hold good in
+the early stages of the insect's life, and we must remember that the
+creature commences life on leaving the egg, and not merely on its emergence
+from the chrysalis, so that we have to reckon with caterpillars, grubs and
+all sorts of curious immature forms in our conceptions of an insect.
+
+These early stages do not as a rule interest the public much, but it is
+well to bear in mind that the "perfect insect" stage is reached by some
+insects along apparently a very different road from that travelled by
+others. Some leave the egg as caterpillars or grubs, and after various
+changes of skin become apparently lifeless chrysalids, from which they
+emerge as perfect insects. Others leave the egg as diminutive likenesses of
+their parents, and run or hop about much as they do, attaining the perfect
+insect stage simply by a series of changes of skin, without any definite
+quiescent or chrysalis condition.
+
+The observation, therefore, which one often hears that insects never grow,
+has to be taken with caution; all insects grow in their early stages, but
+it is an obvious truth that insects do not {127} grow after they attain the
+imago or "perfect insect" condition. A small fly will never become a large
+fly, nor a small beetle a large beetle. This is only because we do not
+recognize their caterpillars or grubs as flies and beetles; but a
+grasshopper we know grows, because its early stages are of the same general
+form as the perfect insect, and we see the little ones hopping about in
+some places, and if we visit the same place later on we notice that they
+have grown, but as soon as they cast their last skin and obtain the free
+use of their wings, growth ceases, as it does in a fly or a beetle or in
+any other insect.
+
+It must not be supposed that the limbs of insects are of no value in their
+identification. We only removed them in order to emphasize the great
+importance of the character derived from the regional constrictions of the
+body, which is considered to be certainly one of the most, if not the most,
+important of any. Besides this character every perfect insect should have
+six legs, four wings, and various appendages on the head, such as antennae,
+mandibles, maxillae, labium, etc.; some of these may be so modified as
+hardly to {128} be recognizable, but they are hardly ever absent
+altogether; for instance, the two fore wings of a beetle are modified into
+what are called wing cases, and fold over its back, protecting the two hind
+wings, which are more or less membranous, as are those of a bee. They have
+not the functions of locomotive organs, and are used in flight as poisers.
+Again in the case of a fly, the hind wings seem to be absent, but they are
+considered to be represented by two little projecting organs which look
+like large headed pins or nails, but which are quite useless for locomotive
+purposes.
+
+The organs of the mouth are especially liable to modification, and on these
+the older authors used to frame their classification. Insects were divided
+by them, primarily, into two great divisions, viz. those which had a biting
+and those which had a sucking mouth; treated in this way, the following
+orders fall into the division with biting mouths:--
+
+_Coleoptera_, or beetles; _Hymenoptera_, or bees, wasps, ants, etc.;
+_Orthoptera_ and _Neuroptera_, which include the grasshoppers, earwigs,
+cockroaches, dragonflies, May flies, etc. {129}
+
+And into the division with sucking mouths:--
+
+_Lepidoptera_, or butterflies and moths; _Diptera_ or flies, gnats, etc.;
+_Hemiptera_, or bugs, including the plant-lice, etc.
+
+These divisions, however, have not been found to be very satisfactory,
+although very simple when dealing only with the perfect insect stage. In
+the first place, being framed on this stage only, they are not always
+applicable to the earlier phases of the insect's life--for instance,
+although a butterfly or moth has a sucking proboscis, their caterpillars
+have strong biting jaws, as any gardener well knows. Also bees, wasps,
+etc., rather upset the arrangement, as they have not only a sucking mouth
+but also strong biting jaws.
+
+This system of classification has therefore been discarded by most
+entomologists in favour of that based on the difference between those
+insects which pass through the distinctive stages of caterpillar and
+chrysalis on the one hand, and those which emerge from the egg as
+diminutive likenesses of their parents on the other. In this arrangement,
+the _Coleoptera_, _Hymenoptera_, _Lepidoptera_, _Diptera_ and _Neuroptera_,
+fall into the {130} first division, or _Heteromorphae_ as they are called;
+and the _Hemiptera_ and _Orthoptera_ into the second or _Homomorphae_. The
+dragonflies are the only slightly discordant elements in this arrangement,
+as, although their larvae have six legs and walk about under the water and
+never assume an actual chrysalis condition, still they can hardly be said
+to resemble their gorgeously coloured parents which fly about so
+majestically over our ponds, etc.; still this is only one of the many cases
+which show that nature cannot be held down by any of the arbitrary rules we
+make for her classification.
+
+The _Hymenoptera_ are therefore characterized and distinguished from other
+insects by having both a biting and sucking mouth, four clear wings, and by
+passing through the distinctive liveries of caterpillar or grub, and
+chrysalis or nymph. It is with this order only with which we have been
+dealing. To distinguish the aculeate section from the many other forms of
+the _Hymenoptera_ is too complex a task to undertake here, but the presence
+of a narrow waist between the thorax and the body, the number of joints in
+the antennae never exceeding thirteen in {131} the male, twelve in the
+female, and the presence of a sting capable of ejecting poison in this
+latter sex, are the most prominent features by which the aculeates may be
+recognized.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+{132}
+
+ON STRUCTURE
+
+Although in the foregoing chapter a little has been said on this subject,
+there is a great deal more that a student should learn about the general
+form of these creatures.
+
+They begin life as white or nearly colourless grubs, which, after various
+changes of skin, assume what is called the nymph or pupa stage, during
+which a change occurs, believed to be peculiar to the _Hymenoptera_; the
+fifth segment of the larval body is transferred to the mass which is called
+the thorax, so that a portion of what looks like thorax is really the first
+segment of the abdomen. Continental writers call this portion sometimes the
+first abdominal segment and sometimes the median segment, but Newman gave
+it a definite name, the "propodeum", and the most convenient method seems
+to be to call it so, and treat it as a part of the thorax, calling the
+first or basal segment of the abdomen {133} that which immediately follows
+the regional constriction, which occurs between the propodeum and the
+abdomen.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+    FIG. 28.
+
+    _a_ Head. _a_^1 Antennae. _a_^2 Ocelli. _a_^3 Compound eyes.
+
+    _b_^1 Prothorax. _b_^2 Scutum of Mesothorax. _b_^3 Scutellum of
+    Mesothorax. _b_^4 Post-Scutellum of Metathorax. _b_^5 Propodeum.
+
+    _c_^1 _c_^2, etc., Segments of Abdomen.
+
+    Legs. _d_^1 Coxa. _d_^2 Trochanter. _d_^3 Femur. _d_^4 Tibia. _d_^5
+    Tarsi. _d_^6 Calcaria or Spurs. _d_^7 Unguiculi or claws. _d_^8
+    Pulvillus.
+
+    _e_ Front wing. 1 Costal nervure. 2 Post Costal nervure. 3 Median
+    nervure. 4 Posterior nervure. 5 Basal nervure. 6 Cubital nervure. 10
+    1st Recurrent nervure. 11 2nd Recurrent nervure.
+
+    _f._ Hind wing. 7 Anterior nervure. 8 Median nervure. 9 Posterior
+    nervure.
+
+    Cells. _A_ Marginal. _B_ Upper basal. _C_ Lower basal. _D_ 1st
+    Submarginal. _E_ 2nd Submarginal. _F_ 3rd Submarginal. _G_ 1st
+    Discoidal. _H_ 2nd Discoidal. _I_ 3rd Discoidal. _J_ 1st Apical. _K_
+    2nd Apical.
+
+{134} The perfect insect when it emerges has therefore a head, a thorax of
+four segments, and an abdomen of seven visible dorsal segments in the male,
+and of six in the female. The [male] has six ventral segments exposed, and
+often the apex of the eighth, which is frequently elongate, the seventh
+being almost always short and hidden; the eighth dorsal segment can be
+discovered hidden under the seventh, but it is very rarely exposed. The
+head (_a_) bears numerous appendages; a pair of antennae (_a_^1), usually
+of thirteen joints in the male and of twelve in the female; two compound
+eyes (_a_^3), composed of many facets; three simple eyes (or ocelli)
+(_a_^2), which are situated on its vertex; two _mandibles_; two _maxillae_,
+bearing _palpi_ on each side, of a varying number of joints; and a
+_labium_, or tongue, which also bears at its base two four-jointed palpi
+(cf. fig. 20).
+
+The thorax, as we are considering it, consists of four segments--the
+_prothorax_ (_b_^1), which bears the two front legs; the _mesothorax_
+(_b_^2), which bears the intermediate pair of legs and the anterior pair of
+wings; and the _metathorax_ (_b_^3), which bears the posterior pair of
+wings and the hind legs. The {135} propodeum has no appendages. The
+mesothorax above has two parts, a larger portion in front called by some
+the _scutum_ (_b_^2), and a smaller portion behind called the _scutellum_
+(_b_^3). These are separated from each other by a transverse impression,
+and the scutellum is often raised into a sort of little shield; behind this
+is another little elevation called the _post-scutellum_ (_b_^4); this is
+really the dorsal apex of the metathorax, and behind this lies the
+_propodeum_ (_b_^5). Each leg is composed of various parts, and articulates
+into a cavity of the thorax called the _acetabulum_. The first two joints
+of the leg, the _coxa_ (_d_^1) and the _trochanter_ (_d_^2), are very
+short; then follows the _femur_ or thigh (_d_^3); then the _tibia_ or shin
+(_d_^4); and finally the _tarsi_ (_d_^5), which compose the foot. At the
+apex of the _tibia_ are usually two spines called the _calcaria_ (_d_^6).
+The _tarsi_ are five-jointed, the joints following each other in a linear
+arrangement, and in the _Anthophila_ the basal joint is more or less
+dilated; the apical joint bears two claws (_unguiculi_, _d_^7) which are
+sometimes toothed, and between them, in some genera, there is what is
+called a _pulvillus_ (_d_^8) or cushion; this is very large and dilated in
+some of the fossors. {136}
+
+The wing neuration is always rather troublesome, as various authors use
+different names for the veins and cells. To begin with the anterior wing
+(_e_), there are four nerves which start from the base and run
+horizontally; the first of these, which forms the anterior margin of the
+wing, is called the _costal nervure_ (1); immediately below this, and
+running almost parallel to it with scarcely any space between them, is the
+_post-costal nervure_ (2); these end in the _stigma_ (_s_), a dark
+in-crassation towards the apex of the wing; from the stigma a nerve,
+curving first downwards and then up to the anterior margin of the wing,
+encloses the _marginal cell_ (_A_). Below the _post-costal_ nervure, and
+situated about the centre of the wing, is the third longitudinal nervure
+called the _median nervure_ (3); behind this again runs the _posterior
+nervure_ (4), and behind that the actual margin of the wing which is not
+provided with a protecting nervure, but is only folded back so as to
+receive the hooks of the posterior wing. Across the wing at, roughly, about
+a third of its length from the body runs the _basal nervure_ (5); this
+extends in a somewhat zigzag line from the _post-costal_ to the _posterior
+nervure_ crossing the _median_, and {137} thereby enclosing two cells, the
+_upper basal cell_ (_B_) and the _lower basal cell_ (_C_). From the centre
+of the apical nerve of each of these cells extends a longitudinal nervure;
+the upper of these runs out nearly to the apical margin of the wing and is
+called the _cubital nervure_ (6); this is united to the nervure of the
+_marginal cell_ by one, two, or three cross nervures, enclosing thereby
+one, two, or three cells called the first (_D_), second (_E_), and third
+(_F_) _submarginal cells_. The nervure from the lower basal cell is a short
+one, as it is met by a cross nervure called the first _recurrent nervure_
+(10), which runs from the _cubital_ to the _posterior_, thereby enclosing
+two cells, the first (_G_) and second (_H_) _discoidal_. The _second
+recurrent_ (11) leaves the _cubital_ nearer the apex of the wing than the
+first, meeting a nervure which, springing from the outer posterior angle of
+the second discoidal, closes the third discoidal (_I_), and, curving
+slightly upwards, nearly reaches the apical margin of the wing. Beyond the
+second recurrent, and behind this last nervure which we have been talking
+about, are two spaces not actually enclosed, but called the _first_ (_J_)
+_and second_ (_K_) _apical cells_.
+
+The posterior wings have very few cells. {138} Like the anterior pair they
+have three longitudinal nervures; the _anterior_ (7), which runs close and
+parallel to the anterior nerveless margin, and often touches it at about
+half the length of the wing; the _median_ (8) and _posterior_ (9) run in
+diverging lines from the base towards the exterior margin of the wing, the
+anterior and median nervures being almost always joined by a cross nervure,
+and the median usually united to the posterior by a cross or curved
+nervure. The actual base of the anterior wing is covered by a little convex
+somewhat shell-like cap, called the _tegula_ (_T_). The abdomen is composed
+of a series of segments in linear arrangement (_c_^1 _c_^2, etc.). These
+call for no special remark, beyond what has been said in the chapter on
+males and females, but those who wish to investigate the very interesting
+questions connected with the terminal segments of these creatures should
+consult some more technical work.[3] The arrangements of the mouth parts
+and of the apical segments of the Hymenoptera afford perhaps the most
+important structural {139} characters of the order, but they involve an
+amount of dissection and study which can only be undertaken by those who
+are inclined to give themselves up to this subject as a speciality.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+{141}
+
+INDEX
+
+  Abdomen, 125
+  Acetabulum, 135
+  Ammophila, 22
+  Andrena, 9, 12, 15, 48, 77, 79, 122, 139
+    -- fulva, 121
+    -- rosae, 138
+    -- thoracica, 121
+  Antennae, 101, 103, 134
+  Anthidium, 50, 121
+  Anthophila, 6
+  Anthophora, 48, 61, 82, 93, 109, 111, 121
+    -- pilipes, 61
+    -- retusa, 62
+  Ants, 28, 31, 88
+  Aphides, 88
+  Apis, 16
+  Astatus, 103
+
+  Banded bodies, 120
+  Beetles, 20
+  Biting, 3, 32
+  Black Species, 120
+  Bombus, 16
+    -- terrestris, 41, 42
+  Brain, 125
+  Bramble Stems, 12
+  Breeding, 113
+  Broods, 13
+  Burrows, 9
+
+  Calcaria, 70, 135
+  Carder Bees, 40
+  Cardines, 75
+  Carpenter bee, 55
+  Caterpillar, 19, 20
+  Cells, 10, 12, 28, 29, 40, 58
+    -- hexagonal, 28
+    -- pitcher-shaped, 58
+    -- waxen, 29, 40
+  Ceratina, 47, 128
+  Chimneys, 25
+  Chloroform, 118
+  Chrysis, 27
+  Cilissa, 48
+  Cleaning hairs, 68
+  Clover fertilization, 39
+  Cockroaches, 128
+  Cocoons, 33, 58
+  Coleoptera, 128, 129
+  Colletes, 44
+  Colonies, 5, 63
+  Colour, 100
+  Colour schemes, 22
+  Combs, 23, 68, 69
+  Corbicula, 67
+  Coxae, 135
+  Crabro, 95, 102
+    -- albilabris, 119
+  Cuckoos, 3, 14, 30, 54
+    -- flight of, 85
+  Cyanide, 116
+
+  Dasypoda, 48
+  Development, 124
+  Digestion, 125
+  Diggers, 6, 7
+  {142}
+  Diptera, 129
+  Distribution, 105
+  Domestication, 41
+  Drone flies, 3
+  Dufourea, 106
+
+  Earwigs, 128
+  English names, 55
+  Epeolus, 45
+  Ether, 117
+  Eyes, 134
+
+  Females, 95
+  Femur, 135
+  Figwort, 36
+  Figure of insect, 133
+  Flies, 3, 129
+  Flower lovers, 6
+  Flute, 57
+  Food, 6, 28
+  Foot, 135
+  Formica, 34, 59
+    -- fusca, 119
+    -- sanguinea, 89
+  Formicoxenus, 96
+  Fossors, 6, 7
+
+  Galleries, 28
+  Grasshoppers, 19, 128
+  Growth, 126
+  Guests of Ants, 89
+
+  Hairs, 65, 71
+  Halictus, 13, 15, 17, 77, 94, 97, 119, 122
+  Head, 125
+  Hemiptera, 129, 130
+  Heterogyna, 28, 31
+  Heteromorphae, 130
+  Hive bee, 2, 16
+  Homing instinct, 21
+  Homomorphae, 130
+  Honey pots, 29
+  Hornets, 35
+  Humble bees, 39
+    -- mutilated, 41
+  Hymenoptera, 128, 129
+
+  Ichneumons, 21
+  Inquilines, 3
+
+  Jewel flies, 21, 27
+
+  Keyhole wasps, 101
+  Killing bottles, 126
+  Knife-like hairs, 68
+
+  Labels, 118
+  Labial palpi, 5
+  Labium, 127, 134
+  Larva, 11, 13
+  Lasius niger, 91
+    -- flavus, 91
+  Latin names, 55
+  Lawn bee, 9
+  Leaf-cutting bees, 52
+  Lepidoptera, 129
+  Ligula, 75, 134
+  Limbs, 125, 127
+  Locomotion, 125
+  Lodgers with ants, 89
+  Lomechusa, 89
+  Long-horned bee, 104
+  Lora, 74
+  Lysimachia, 106
+
+  Macropis, 106
+  Males, 95
+  Male wasp, 2
+    -- hornet, 2
+  Mandibles, 127, 129
+  Mason bee, 55
+  Maxillae, 75, 127, 134
+  Mayflies, 128
+  {143}
+  Melecta armata, 61
+    -- luctuosa, 62
+  Mentum, 74
+  Metoecus paradoxus, 38
+  Mimicking flies, 94
+  Miscophus, 119
+  Moss, 29
+  Mouse's nest, 29
+  Mouth, 128
+  Mutilla, 112, 119
+  Myrmica, 34
+  Myrmosa, 100
+
+  Nests, 24, 26, 31, 35, 45, 49
+    -- in bramble stems, 45
+    -- Humble bees, 40
+    -- of leaves, 53
+    -- of paper, 37
+    -- in wren's nest, 41
+  Neuration, 136
+    -- figure and explanation of, 133
+  Neuroptera, 128, 129
+  Nodes, 33
+  Nomada, 15, 48
+  Non-predaceous hymenoptera, 3
+  Nymph, 11
+
+  Odynerus, 24
+  Orthoptera, 128, 130
+  Osmia, 48, 56, 120
+    -- bicolor, 59, 121
+    -- inermis, 58
+    -- leucomelana, 57
+    -- parietina, 58
+    -- rufa, 56
+  Ovaries, 4
+  Ovipositer, 1
+  Oxybelus, 86
+
+  Palm, 82
+  Palpi, 134
+  Panurgus, 49
+  Paper, 37
+  Paraglossae, 76
+  Paralytics, 18
+  Plant lice, 19
+  Poison bags, 1
+  Pollen collecting, 65
+  Pompilus, 87
+  Ponera, 33
+  Porterage, 34
+  Post-scutellum, 135
+  Predaceous species, 3
+  Preservation, 116
+  Propodeum, 132, 135
+  Prosopis, 44, 46
+    -- cornuta, 47
+  Pulvillus, 135
+
+  Queens, 4
+
+  Rarity, 105
+  Ray, John, 63
+
+  Sallows, 82
+  Sandy bank, 83
+  Saropoda, 93, 111
+  Scale, 33
+  Scrophularia, 36
+  Scutellum, 135
+  Scutum, 135
+  Segments, 96
+  Setting, 117
+  Sexual structure, 100
+  Shin, 135
+  Snail shells, 12, 57
+  Social species, 3, 4, 28
+  Solitary species, 3, 4, 6
+  Spade-like hairs, 69
+  Sphecodes, 13, 15, 17, 48, 97, 122
+  Spiders, 19
+  Stinging, 2, 38
+  Stings, 2, 32
+  Stipes, 74
+  {144}
+  Straws, 12
+  Structure, 132
+  Stylops, 77
+  Submentum, 74
+  Swarming, 29
+
+  Tarsi, 135
+  Tegula, 133, 138
+  Thigh, 135
+  Thorax, 125, 129
+  Tibia, 135
+  Tomtit, 42
+  Tongues, 15, 39, 44, 49, 66, 72
+  Trochanter, 135
+  Tubular entrance, 25
+
+  Unguiculi, 135
+
+  Vagaries of structure, 104
+  Velleius dilatatus, 38
+  Vespa sylvestris, 36
+
+  Walls, 12
+  Wasps, social, 35
+    -- solitary, 24
+  Waspy coloration, 120, 121
+  Wings, 110
+    -- cells, 112, 133
+    -- folded, 24, 28
+    -- hooks, 110
+    -- nervures, 133
+  Workers, 4
+  Wrens' nests, 41
+
+  Yellow-coloured species, 120
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+NOTES
+
+[1] In this case, only the actual tongue (or _ligula_) and its
+_paraglossae_ are figured.
+
+[2] _The Guests of Ants and Termites_, by E. Wasmann, S. J., translated by
+H. Donisthorpe, F.Z.S. (_Ent. Record_, Vol. xii., 1900.)
+
+[3] cf. _Transactions of the Entomological Society of London_, 1884, p. 251
+et seq.: Hymenoptera Aculeate of the British Islands, etc.
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Wild Bees, Wasps and Ants, by Edward Saunders
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