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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Wild Bees, Wasps and Ants + and Other Stinging Insects + +Author: Edward Saunders + +Illustrator: Constance A. Saunders + +Release Date: October 18, 2010 [EBook #33874] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILD BEES, WASPS AND ANTS *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h2>WILD BEES, WASPS AND ANTS</h2> + + <p><a name="platea"></a></p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:69%;"> + <a href="images/PlateA.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/PlateA.png" + alt="Plate A" title="Plate A" /></a> + <span class="sc">Plate A.</span> + + <p class="poem">1. <i>Formica sanguinea, male.</i> 2. <i>Formica + sanguinea, female.</i> 3. <i>Formica sanguinea, worker.</i> 4. + <i>Mutilla europæa, male.</i> 5. <i>Mutilla Europæa, female.</i> 6. + <i>Cerceris arenaria, female.</i> 7. <i>Ammophila sabulosa, female.</i> + 8. <i>Crabro cribrarius, male.</i> 9. <i>Odynerus spinipes, + male.</i></p> + + <p class="author">[<i>front.</i></p> + + <p class="poem"></p> + </div> + +<h1>WILD BEES, WASPS<br /> +AND ANTS</h1> + +<h3>And Other Stinging Insects</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">By</p> + +<h3>EDWARD SAUNDERS</h3> + +<p class="cenhead">F.R.S., F.L.S., etc</p> + +<p class="cenhead">With numerous Illustrations in the text, and<br /> +Four Coloured Plates by<br /> +CONSTANCE A. SAUNDERS</p> + + <p> </p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:20%;"> + <a href="images/pmark.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/pmark.png" + alt="Printers Mark" title="Printers Mark" /></a> + </div> + <p> </p> + +<p class="cenhead">LONDON<br /> +GEORGE ROUTLEDGE & SONS, LIMITED<br /> +<span class="sc">New York</span>: E. P. DUTTON & CO.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page v --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagev"></a>{v}</span></p> + +<h3>PREFACE</h3> + + <p>The object of this little book is to give in as simple a form as + possible a short account of some of the British Wild Bees, Wasps, Ants, + etc., scientifically known as the <i>Hymenoptera Aculeata</i>. Of these + the non-scientific public rarely recognizes more than the Hive Bee, the + Humble Bee, the Wasp, and the Hornet, whereas there are about 400 + different kinds to be found in this country, and they can be recognized + by any one who is disposed to make a special study of the group.</p> + + <p>The author has not hesitated to make free use of the experiences of + others in regard to the habits of the insects he describes, and he has + not thought it necessary in each case to make separate acknowledgment of + this. He takes this opportunity of thanking Mr. H. Donisthorpe and Mr. + F. W. L. Sladen for assistance in the chapters on Ants and their Lodgers, + and Humble Bees, respectively. <!-- Page vi --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="pagevi"></a>{vi}</span></p> + + <p>These pages are written only for the non-scientific, as the scientific + entomologist will be already familiar with the elementary facts recorded; + but it is hoped that they may be of interest to lovers of Nature who wish + to know a little about the insects they see round them and how they spend + their lives. Of this knowledge very little exists, as the scraps which + have been here brought together evidence. There is an immense field open + for research and observation, and the writer of this little book will be + very glad if the following pages should encourage any one to take up the + subject and add to our present scanty stock of information.</p> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>EDWARD SAUNDERS.</p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><span class="sc">St. Ann's, Woking.</span></p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page vii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagevii"></a>{vii}</span></p> + +<h3>CONTENTS</h3> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Table of Contents" title="Table of Contents"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Subject in General</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page1">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Solitary Groups</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page6">6</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <span class="sc">The Solitary Bees</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page9">9</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <span class="sc">The Cuckoo Bees</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page14">14</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <span class="sc">The Fossors, or Diggers</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page18">18</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <span class="sc">The Solitary Wasps</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page24">24</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Social Groups</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page28">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <span class="sc">The Ants</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page31">31</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <span class="sc">The Social Wasps</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page35">35</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="padding-left:2em;"> <span class="sc">The Humble Bees</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page39">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Bees With Bifid Tongues</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page44">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Bees with Pointed Tongues</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page48">48</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">Leaf-Cutting Bees</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page52">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <i>Osmia</i> <span class="sc">and Its Habits</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page55">55</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">A Colony of</span> <i>Anthophora</i>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page61">61</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">Bees and Pollen-Collecting</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page65">65</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">On Bees' Tongues, and how They suck Honey</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page72">72</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">A Dreadful Parasite</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page77">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> +<!-- Page viii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageviii"></a>{viii}</span> + <span class="sc">Amongst the Bees at Work</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page81">81</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">Ants, their Guests, and their Lodgers</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page88">88</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">How can an "Aculeate" be Recognized?</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page92">92</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">Males and Females</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page95">95</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Vagaries of Colour and Structure in the Sexes</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page100">100</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Distribution, Rarity, or Abundance of Various Species</span>,</td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page105">105</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">On Bees' Wings</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page110">110</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">On Breeding Aculeates, etc.</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">On Colour</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page119">119</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">The Development of Insects from the Egg</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page124">124</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">On Structure</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page132">132</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> <span class="sc">Index</span>, </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page141">141</a></td></tr> +</table> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page ix --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pageix"></a>{ix}</span></p> + +<h3>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE +TEXT</h3> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="List of Illustrations" title="List of Illustrations"> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Fig. 1. <i>Bombus</i>, larva and nymph: after Packard </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page11">11</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 2. <i>Ammophila</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page22">22</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 3-4. Spines on the tarsi of female <i>Ammophila</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page23">23</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 5. Tubular entrance to hole of wasp </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page25">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 6. Basal segments of ants </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page33">33</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 7. Rose-leaf partially eaten by bees </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page52">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 8. Tufted hairs of hind leg of <i>Andrena</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page67">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 9. Corbicula of humble bee </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page67">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 10-12. Cleaning apparatus of bees </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page69">69</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 13-18. Hairs of bees, magnified </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page71">71</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 19. Tongues of bees, magnified </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page73">73</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 20. Diagram of tongue of bee </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page75">75</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 21. <i>Stylops</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page77">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 22. <i>Stylops</i> larva in abdominal cavity of bee </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page78">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 23. Antennæ of "Keyhole" wasps </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 24. Legs of male "Keyhole" wasps </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page101">101</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 25. Tibia of male <i>Crabro cribrarius</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page103">103</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 26. Antennæ of male <i>Crabro cribrarius</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page103">103</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 27. Head of male and female <i>Crabro clypeatus</i> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page103">103</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="spacsingle"> ,, 28. Parts of the insect </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> <a href="#page133">133</a></td></tr> +</table> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page xi --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexi"></a>{xi}</span></p> + +<h3>DESCRIPTION OF THE COLOURED +PLATES</h3> + +<p class="cenhead"><a href="#platea">PLATE A</a></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Figs. 1, 2, 3. <i>Formica sanguinea Latr.</i>: male, female, and + worker. The host of <i>Lomechusa</i> (p. <a href="#page89">89</a>), also + a slave-making species; makes irregular nests of dead leaves, etc., + generally against a sloping bank.</p> + + <p>Figs. 4, 5. <i>Mutilla europæa Linn.</i>: male and female. One of the + few British species of Aculeates where the female is wingless; found in + sandy places running in the sun.</p> + + <p>Fig. 6. <i>Cerceris arenaria L.</i>: female; burrows in the sand, and + provisions its nest with beetles (p. <a href="#page20">20</a>).</p> + + <p>Fig. 7. <i>Ammophila sabulosa L.</i>: female; burrows in the sand, + provisions its nest with caterpillars, peculiar for its very elongated + waist (p. <a href="#page22">22</a>).</p> + + <p>Fig. 8. <i>Crabro cribrarius L.</i>: male; peculiar for its + paddle-like tibiæ and flattened antennæ (p. <a + href="#page103">103</a>).</p> + + <p>Fig. 9. <i>Odynerus spinipes L.</i>: male; peculiar for the form of + its middle femora, which are cut out almost in two semicircles (p. <a + href="#page101">101</a>); female makes a tubular entrance to her nest (p. + <a href="#page25">25</a>).</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><a href="#plateb">PLATE B</a></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Fig. 10.—<i>Colletes succinctus L.</i>: female; lines its cells + with a gluey material (p. <a href="#page44">44</a>); colonizes in sandy + banks; host of <i>Epeolus rufipes</i> (fig. <a + href="#page19">19</a>).</p> + +<p><!-- Page xii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexii"></a>{xii}</span></p> + + <p>Fig. 11. <i>Sphecodes subquadratus Smith</i>: female; cuckoo of a + species of <i>Halictus</i>; female hibernates like its host (p. <a + href="#page17">17</a>).</p> + + <p>Fig. 12. <i>Halictus lencozonius Schr.</i>: burrows in the ground; the + host of <i>Sphecodes pilifrons Thoms</i> (p. <a + href="#page17">17</a>).</p> + + <p>Fig. 13. <i>Vespa crabro L.</i>: female (the Hornet), nests in hollow + trees; host of the rare beetle <i>Velleius dilatatus</i> (p. <a + href="#page38">38</a>).</p> + + <p>Fig. 14. <i>Vespa vulgaris L.</i>: female: one of our commonest wasps; + nests usually in the ground (p. <a href="#page35">35</a>); host of a + peculiar beetle (<i>Metœcus paradoxus</i>) (p. <a + href="#page38">38</a>)</p> + + <p>Figs. 15, 16. <i>Andrena fulva Schr.</i>: male and female; the bee + which burrows in lawns, etc. (p. <a href="#page9">9</a>); host of + <i>Nomada ruficornis var. signata</i> (p. <a href="#page15">15</a>).</p> + + <p>Fig. 17. <i>Panurgus ursinus Gmel.</i>: Female; legs loaded with + pollen, burrows in hard sandy paths, etc. (p. <a href="#page49">49</a>). + Males sleep curled up amongst the rays of yellow composite flowers.</p> + + <p>Fig. 18. <i>Nomada ruficornis L. var. signata</i>: cuckoo of + <i>Andrena fulva</i> (figs. 15 and 16).</p> + + <p>Fig. 19. <i>Epeolus rufipes Thoms</i>: female; cuckoo of <i>Colletes + succinctus</i> (fig. 10).</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p class="cenhead"><a href="#platec">PLATE C</a></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Fig. 20.—<i>Megachile maritima Kirby</i>: female; burrows in the + ground, makes its cells of pieces of leaves, which it cuts out with its + mandibles; host of <i>Cœlioxys conoidea</i>.</p> + + <p>Figs. 21, 22. <i>Cœlioxys conoidea Illig</i>: male and female; + cuckoo of <i>Megachile maritima</i>.</p> + + <p>Fig. 23. Burrows of <i>Megachile Willughbiella Kirby</i>, in a piece + of rotten willow; each burrow originally contained six cells, but two of + the left-hand series have been lost.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<p><!-- Page xiii --><span class="pagenum"><a name="pagexiii"></a>{xiii}</span></p> + +<p class="cenhead"><a href="#plated">PLATE D</a></p> + +<blockquote class="b1n"> + + <p>Figs. 24 and 25. <i>Anthophora pilipes F.</i>: male and female. A + spring bee, the male of which may often be seen in gardens, darting from + flower to flower (p. <a href="#page81">81</a>); while the female collects + pollen; it forms large colonies (p. <a href="#page62">62</a>).</p> + + <p>Fig. 26. <i>Melecta armata Pz.</i>: cuckoo of <i>Anthophora + pilipes</i>.</p> + + <p>Fig. 27. <i>Anthidium manicatum L.</i>: invests its cells with the + down off the stems of labiate plants, which it strips off with its + mandibles (p. <a href="#page50">50</a>).</p> + + <p>Fig. 28. <i>Osmia bicolor Schr.</i>: female; nests in snail-shells, + which it sometimes covers up with small pieces of grass-stems till a + little mound is formed, resembling a diminutive ants' nest (p. <a + href="#page59">59</a>).</p> + + <p>Fig. 29. <i>Bombus terrestris L.</i>: female. One of the commonest of + our Humble Bees; it nests in the ground. It is the host of <i>Psithyrus + vestalis</i>, which resembles it very closely in colour; it is this + species that was exhibited by Mr. Sladen at the Maidstone Agricultural + Hall (p. <a href="#page41">41</a>).</p> + + <p>Fig. 30. <i>Bombus lapidarius L.</i>: another common Humble Bee, also + an underground builder; it is the host of <i>Psithyrus rupestris</i>.</p> + + <p>Fig. 31. <i>Psithyrus rupestris F.</i>: female; the cuckoo of + <i>Bombus lapidarius</i>, which it closely resembles except for the + nearly black colour of the wings.</p> + +</blockquote> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 1 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1"></a>{1}</span></p> + +<h3>THE SUBJECT IN GENERAL</h3> + + <p>I think I ought here to say why I propose to limit myself to an + account of a certain portion only of the Hymenoptera. The reason for + this, in the first place, is that the section which I have selected is + the only one of which I have any special knowledge; it consists of the + bees, wasps, ants and sandwasps, four groups which make up the stinging + section of the order—or perhaps more accurately, which have poison + bags connected with their egg-laying apparatus or <i>ovipositor</i>. + Another reason for their selection lies in their nesting habits; these + enable one to get a further insight into their economy and ways than can + be obtained from those of almost any other group or order—at any + rate they make them comparatively easy to study; one can, so to say, find + these little creatures at home, whereas in most orders there seems to be + no definite home to which the <!-- Page 2 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page2"></a>{2}</span>individuals may be traced; a great advantage + also in selecting the stinging groups for study is that they are + creatures of the spring and summer, and of the sunshine, so that the + weather which tempts them out to their duties is of the kind most + agreeable to those who wish to investigate their habits.</p> + + <p>The habits of the hive bee have not been touched on, as so many + excellent treatises have been written on them that any observations here + would be superfluous.</p> + + <p>Although these groups are distinguished by their stinging habits, it + is only the female that possesses a sting—the male is a most + harmless creature and quite incapable of injuring any one. A male wasp or + even a male hornet may be handled with absolute impunity, only it is wise + to be certain as to the sex of the individual before presuming to play + with it too much! A word here may perhaps be said about stinging. People + often talk about a gnat stinging or a stinging fly; it may be difficult + to define exactly what "to sting" means, but the writer has always + considered that a sting is inflicted by the tail end of the creature or a + <!-- Page 3 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page3"></a>{3}</span>bite + by the mouth. A fly or gnat no doubt inserts its proboscis into one's + flesh just as a wasp does its sting; but the actions of such opposite + parts of the body surely demand distinct names. As we have been alluding + to flies it may not be inappropriate to say here that all the creatures + we are going to consider have four membranous wings except the worker + ants and a very few forms which are comparatively seldom met with. By + this character they may at once be known from flies, which have only two + membranous wings. The large brown "drone flies", so often seen on the + windows of our rooms, especially in autumn, and which most people mistake + for hive bees, to which they certainly bear a considerable general + resemblance, may be detected at once by wanting the two hind wings of the + bee.</p> + + <p>The "aculeate", or stinging, Hymenoptera, are divided into sections + and families according to their structure; but the groups which stand out + most clearly in regard to their habits are the solitary and social + species, the predaceous and non-predaceous and the inquilines or cuckoos. + <!-- Page 4 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page4"></a>{4}</span></p> + + <p>The vast majority of the aculeate Hymenoptera are what are called + "solitary", i.e. one male and one female alone are interested in the + production of the nest; but there are also three "social" + groups—the ants, the true wasps, and the humble and hive bees.</p> + + <p>These are called social because they form communities and all work + together towards the maintenance of the nest. In the social species there + are two forms of the females—the queens and the workers; these + latter have the ovaries imperfectly developed, and in the humble bees and + wasps they only differ outwardly from the fully developed females or + queens by being smaller. In the ants, however, the workers are wingless, + and of a very different form from that of the queen. The rôle of these + workers seems to be to do the general work of the nest; they have been + known to lay fertile eggs, but the resulting offspring has always been + male.</p> + + <p>Between these conditions of solitary and social we know of no actually + intermediate stages. We do not seem to see any attempts on the part of + solitary bees to become social or vice versâ. The only condition known + which <!-- Page 5 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page5"></a>{5}</span>could possibly be considered as intermediate + is shown in certain species where a number of individuals make their + nests close to each other in some particular bank, forming a colony. + These colonies are sometimes very extensive, and the burrows of the + individual bees very close together; it has also been shown that the + burrows sometimes unite—at the same time there seems to be no + positive evidence that there is any work done in the colony which could + be considered as done for the common good.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 6 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page6"></a>{6}</span></p> + +<h3>THE SOLITARY GROUPS</h3> + + <p>All the solitary kinds appear to feed themselves on vegetable juices, + honey, etc., but there is a well-marked division between those who + provision the cells of their offspring with insects, either fully + developed or in the larval stages, and those who provision them with the + pollen of flowers, honey, etc. The theory is that originally all fed + their cells with insects, but that by degrees the more progressive found + that the food which suited themselves would equally nourish their + offspring, and accordingly provided them with vegetable nourishment. We + find no intermediate stages. A certain class still goes on feeding on the + old principle. The members of this class are known as "<i>fossors</i>" or + diggers, while those which feed on the new principle are called + "<i>Anthophila</i>" or flower-lovers. These are not very happy names, as + many of the <i>Anthophila</i> dig out holes for their nests just <!-- + Page 7 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page7"></a>{7}</span>in the same + way as the <i>fossors</i> do, and many of the <i>fossors</i> are found in + flowers, apparently enjoying them just as much as a truly anthophilous + species would, although no doubt often with the ulterior object of + capturing some insect for their young! Still these names are known as + representing these two sections all over the world, and therefore it is + better to keep to them even if they are not as descriptive as one would + like them to be.</p> + + <p>The <i>fossors</i>, or "diggers", have all comparatively short and + bifid tongues, and have, as a rule, little in the way of hairy covering, + and what hairs they have are simple and only in very rare instances + branched or feather-like. The hind legs of the females are not modified + in any way so as to enable them to collect pollen, their legs are usually + long and slender, and they are admirably adapted to their life habits of + hunting spiders, insects, etc., for their young.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, the <i>Anthophila</i> or "flower-lovers", are + specially adapted for pollen collecting. Their tongues vary from a short + form like that of some <i>fossors</i> to the long tongues of the humble + bees. Their hairs are always plumose <!-- Page 8 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page8"></a>{8}</span>or branched on some part of + the body and the hind legs of the females in most species are provided on + the tibia or shin with a special brush on which pollen may be collected. + In some of the long-tongued bees, however, this brush occurs on the + underside of the body instead of on the tibia. The pollen-collecting + arrangements of the different genera of the <i>Anthophila</i> and the + corresponding organs for cleaning off the pollen again are amongst the + most interesting instances of modification and adaptation: some of the + more striking of these will be mentioned later on. (See pp. <a + href="#page65">65</a> <i>sqq.</i>)</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 9 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page9"></a>{9}</span></p> + +<h3>THE SOLITARY BEES</h3> + + <p>The life-history of an ordinary pair of solitary bees is, roughly, as + follows: I will take for an example one of the spring species of + <i>Andrena</i>. Many people know the little red bee, which for some + apparently unaccountable reason suddenly appears in myriads on their lawn + or gravel path, throwing up little mounds of finely powdered + earth—in this respect being quite different from worm casts, which + are formed of wet mould and the particles of which cling + together—sometimes causing considerable alarm as to the possible + effect on the lawn. These have hatched out from burrows made by their + parents in the previous year, the mouths of which have been filled up + with earth and therefore are quite invisible till the newly fledged bees + gnaw their way out. They, in their turn, are now making fresh burrows for + their own broods; possibly they infested some one else's lawn the year + before or were only in comparatively small <!-- Page 10 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page10"></a>{10}</span>numbers on the lawn under + notice and so passed unrecognized. They may safely be left alone, as they + never seem to breed many consecutive years in one such locality: probably + the treatment of a lawn does not suit them, mowing and rolling upsetting + their arrangements. We will now consider these arrangements. The female + bee, so soon as she realizes that she is charged with the duty of + providing for her future offspring, makes a burrow in the ground, and the + earth thrown up from the tunnel forms the little heap which is so + observable; this burrow varies in depth from 6 to 12 inches and has short + lateral branches; each of these she shapes, more or less, into the form + of a cell, provisions it with a small mass of pollen mixed with honey for + the maintenance of the larva when hatched, and lays her egg; she then + seals up that cell and proceeds to the next, and in this way fills the + burrow up until pretty near the surface. The bee caterpillar when hatched + is a white grub-like creature which, after devouring the food provided + for it, becomes more or less torpid; it then makes its final change of + skin, after how long a period is probably uncertain, and appears in the + nymph stage. <!-- Page 11 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page11"></a>{11}</span><span class="figright" style="width:26%;"><a + href="images/Fig1.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig1.png" + alt="Fig 1. Bombus" title="Fig 1. Bombus" /></a><span + class="sc">Fig.</span> 1. Bombus, larva and nymph: after Packard.</span> + This stage corresponds to the chrysalis of a moth or butterfly, the + creature being shortened up and rather more like the perfect insect + compacted into the smallest form possible. People are often misled into + the idea that the caterpillar forms the chrysalis over its former self, + whereas the chrysalis has been all the time forming inside the + caterpillar and only shows itself when the final skin is shed; of course + some caterpillars spin a cocoon over themselves before they change their + skin, but then the true chrysalis is found inside the cocoon. A curious + fact connected with the change from the nymph to the perfect insect is + that this takes place sometimes as early as August in the year preceding + their appearance; so that cells dug up in August may contain fully + fledged insects which are not due to appear till April or May of the + following year. It is wonderful also how long life can be <!-- Page 12 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page12"></a>{12}</span>sustained by + these creatures in the "full-fed larva" condition. Some years ago I + collected a number of pierced bramble stems in order to breed out some of + the small "sandwasps" which nest in them. On opening them in May, when + the perfect insects are generally ready to appear, I found that several + of the larvæ had rather shrunk up and had not changed into nymphs. These + I left in the stems, covering them up again, and they appeared as perfect + insects in the May of the following year.</p> + + <p>The account given of the nesting habits of the above <i>Andrena</i> of + our lawns, etc., is more or less true of nearly all the solitary bees. + Their methods vary, some burrow in the ground, some in old wood, some in + snail shells, some in bramble stems or straws or the hollow stems of + various plants, some in holes or crevices in walls, etc., and their + methods of building their cells vary exceedingly: all of these are of + great interest and some display an ingenuity which is quite surprising. + Of these special nesting habits some of the most striking will be + mentioned later on.</p> + + <p>Before leaving these general remarks on the <!-- Page 13 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page13"></a>{13}</span>solitary bees the habits + of two genera must be specially noticed, as they differ in an essential + point from those of the others. These are known to entomologists under + the names of <i>Halictus</i> and <i>Sphecodes</i>.</p> + + <p>In most species of these the males and females of the new brood are + not hatched out till after midsummer, and no work is done for the + provisioning of new burrows that autumn; but the female, after having + undertaken the duties of maternity, hibernates, i.e. goes back into a + burrow and lives there till the next spring, the males dying off before + the winter. In the spring the ♀ wakes up and does the necessary + work for the future brood just as any ordinary spring bee would—but + there are no attendant males—the duties of that sex having been + performed in the autumn. The larvæ contained in these burrows hatch out + after midsummer and therefore never spend a winter in the ground. In this + respect they resemble the social bees and wasps, about which more + hereafter; in the meanwhile a few words must be said about the cuckoos or + inquilines, which are perhaps the most interesting creatures of all.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 14 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page14"></a>{14}</span></p> + +<h3>THE CUCKOO BEES</h3> + + <p>These cuckoos live at the expense of their hosts. The mother of the + industrial brood makes her cell and provisions it, and lays her egg. The + cuckoo bee manages to enter also and lay her egg in the same cell, the + usual result being that the cuckoo devours most of the food instead of + the rightful offspring, which gradually gets starved and dies, the cuckoo + appearing in its place; but there have been cases, how frequent they are + is difficult to say, in which both offsprings have emerged.</p> + + <p>The whole problem of the relationships between host and cuckoo is most + interesting. In some cases the cuckoos are so like their hosts that it is + difficult to tell one from the other, in others they are so unlike that + it is difficult to trace any resemblance between them. There are a great + number of different kinds of cuckoos, and most of them select a special + host to associate <!-- Page 15 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page15"></a>{15}</span>with, and are never found except with that + species. There are, however, cases of cuckoos which visit the nests of + more than one host, and cases of hosts which are visited by several kinds + of cuckoos. In the short-tongued bees, with the exception of + <i>Halictus</i> and <i>Sphecodes</i>, the cuckoos are quite unlike their + hosts both in form and colour. In the <i>Andrenas</i> (the lawn bee being + one of them) the hosts are clothed with reddish, or brown and black, + hairs, and are of a more or less stout build (<a href="#plateb">pl. + B</a>, 15, 16). The cuckoos are elegant in shape, almost devoid of hairs, + and most of them are striped with yellow or brown across the body so that + they present a wasp-like appearance (<a href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, 18). + Species more unlike one another than host and cuckoo one could hardly + imagine; still this stranger seems to get access to the nest of its host + without opposition. In a colony of <i>Andrena</i> one may see the cuckoos + (which rejoice in the name of <i>Nomada</i> or wanderers) flying about + among the females of the industrious bee, and no alarm or concern appears + to be felt by the latter. As we go up in the scale of bees, i.e. towards + the more specialized, and arrive at those with longer tongues, the <!-- + Page 16 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page16"></a>{16}</span>cuckoos + are found as a rule to resemble their hosts more closely, both in colour + and structure, and when we reach the social genus <i>Bombus</i> (i.e. the + humble bees) we find the cuckoos so like their hosts (<a + href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 30, 31) that even entomologists of experience + mistake one for the other. <i>Apis</i> (the hive bee) has no cuckoo. It + seems to be theoretically probable that both cuckoo and host once + originated from common parents; this is suggested by the similarity of + structure of certain parts of both host and cuckoo, even in cases where + they are otherwise most dissimilar. <i>Andrena</i> and <i>Nomada</i>, for + instance, which are very unlike, as stated above, agree in both having + very feeble stings and in possessing three conspicuous spines on the + upper and posterior edge of the orbit of the larva. Also, although + <i>Andrena</i> the host has a short tongue, and <i>Nomada</i>, its + cuckoo, a long one, the appendages (<i>labial palpi</i>) of the latter's + tongue are framed on the same plan as those of the tongue of + <i>Andrena</i>, and are quite unlike those of the other long-tongued + bees. On the other hand, the cuckoos of the social species resemble them + so closely in structure as well as <!-- Page 17 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page17"></a>{17}</span>appearance that it is + more necessary to search for points of difference than of similarity. + There is only one case known of a cuckoo wasp, and that resembles its + host even more closely than do the cuckoos of the humble bees. All these + points certainly suggest the probability that the social bees and wasps + and their cuckoos adopted different habits at a much more recent date + than the solitary species, and therefore have not had so much time to + become differentiated in structure. The only short-tongued bees which + have cuckoos of similar structure are the species of <i>Halictus</i> (<a + href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, 12); their cuckoos, <i>Sphecodes</i> (<a + href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, 11), are closely allied to them, but then + <i>Halictus</i> and <i>Sphecodes</i> are most peculiar genera; although + short-tongued, their females spend the winter in the earth, as do the + social bees and wasps (see p. <a href="#page13">13</a>), and they + colonize largely, which may prove to be a step towards socialism.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 18 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page18"></a>{18}</span></p> + +<h3>THE FOSSORS OR DIGGERS</h3> + + <p>In many respects the insects of this section adopt the same methods as + the solitary bees so far as the construction of their nests is concerned, + but the food brought home for their offspring is animal instead of + vegetable. In order to supply their larvæ with "fresh meat" these little + creatures, when they have captured a suitable prey, sting it in such a + way that it becomes paralyzed, but does not die; after provisioning a + cell with the necessary number of these paralytics, the mother lays her + egg on one of them or amongst them, and closes up the cell. In + consequence of this wonderful maternal instinct, foresight, or whatever + the faculty may be, the larva when hatched finds fresh food ready for + consumption. The various species provision their nests with different + kinds of foods, and some appear to be most fastidious in their selection, + and are said never to err in choosing <!-- Page 19 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page19"></a>{19}</span>species of some + particular family, thereby displaying a discernment worthy of any + advanced entomologist. Some provision their cells with beetles, some with + grasshoppers, others with spiders, caterpillars, plant lice, etc.</p> + + <p>The strength possessed by the female fossor must be proportionately + enormous, as she can bring back to her burrow, after paralyzing them, + insects many times her own size. It is a most interesting sight to see + the excitement and flurry of the captor as it tries to drag along some + huge prey to its nest. I remember seeing one dragging along a good-sized + caterpillar, of a noctuid moth, over rather rough ground: the poor + creature had a difficult job; it had to go backwards itself, and pull the + body of the caterpillar, after it—its behaviour was very much like + that of an ant which has a large burden; at times it would loose its hold + of it and try it from some other quarter; however, by degrees, by pulling + and tugging, the prey was safely brought home, but the force expended + must have been very great. Many species, however, hunt insects of much + smaller size than themselves, and it is those which take a fancy to + grasshoppers and <!-- Page 20 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page20"></a>{20}</span>caterpillars which seem to be the most + doughty in deeds of force. One, a very rare kind in this country, sets + its affection especially on the honey bee as a prey; the two insects are + about equal in size, but the hive bee must be a dangerous foe to attack, + and one would have thought as likely to sting its captor as its captor + would be to sting it; also one would imagine that a hive bee, unless + thoroughly paralyzed, would be a dangerous subject for a juvenile larva + to commence making a meal upon! but whether the venture ever turns out + unsatisfactorily there are no data to show, so far as I am aware. The + larvæ must vary very much in their tastes; one can imagine that a nice + juicy caterpillar, or even a good fat grasshopper, may be appetizing and + easily assimilated, but one can equally fancy that the larvæ, who wake up + to find their food consisting of small hard beetles, may feel more or + less resentment against their parents' ideas of dainties for the young! + Still they seem to thrive on it, and come out eventually as exact + likenesses of their parents. A large number of the fossors inhabit dry + sandy wastes, such as the dunes along the sea coast at Deal, Lowestoft, + <!-- Page 21 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page21"></a>{21}</span>etc.; many of these, when they leave their + burrows, throw up some sand over the hole so as completely to cover it; + how these insects find the spot again after a lengthy chase after spiders + or other prey is a marvel; and yet those who have observed carefully say + that they come home from long distances with unerring precision. No sense + of which we have any knowledge, however accentuated, seems to explain + this. To be able to arrive back at a home in an extensive arid sandy + plain, where no outward sign indicates its whereabouts, must surely + require perception of a different nature from any of those with which we + are endowed. Some fossors are subject to the depredations of cuckoos, + just as the solitary bees are, but their cuckoos are rarely of aculeate + origin. The only ones which I have had any opportunity of studying are + the species which nest in bramble stems. The cuckoos which associate with + them are some of the smaller jewel flies and <i>Ichneumons</i>: the + habits of both these differ from those of the aculeate cuckoos, the jewel + flies devouring the larva of the aculeate and the <i>Ichneumon</i> laying + its eggs in it. The fossors <!-- Page 22 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page22"></a>{22}</span><span class="figright" style="width:17%;"><a + href="images/Fig2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig2.png" + alt="Fig 2. Ammophila" title="Fig 2. Ammophila" /></a><span + class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</span> vary exceedingly in size, shape and + colour. Our largest species are about an inch long and our smallest about + the eighth of an inch, nearly all having the body where it joins the + thorax constricted into a very narrow waist; this is sometimes of + considerable length. In one genus known to entomologists by the name + <i>Ammophila</i> (fig. 2) or "lover of the sand", the waist is + practically the longest part of the body, so that looking at one sideways + as it flies along, one could almost be deceived into thinking that there + were two insects, one following the other (cf. <a href="#platea">pl. + A</a>, fig. 7). In colour, there seem to be three dominant schemes: Black + (cf. <a href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, fig. 17); black with a red band across + the body (cf. <a href="#platea">pl. A</a>, fig. 7); and black banded with + yellow, like a wasp (cf. <a href="#platea">pl. A</a>, figs. 6 and 8, + etc.) In some the yellow bands may not be complete, and appear only as + spots on each side of the body segments, or the red band may be almost + obliterated, or the black species may <!-- Page 23 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page23"></a>{23}</span><span class="figleft" + style="width:8%;"><a href="images/Fig3.png"><img style="width:100%" + src="images/Fig3.png" alt="Fig 3. Spines of Ammophila" title="Fig 3. Spines of Ammophila" + /></a><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.</span> <span class="figleft" + style="width:7%;"><a href="images/Fig4.png"><img style="width:100%" + src="images/Fig4.png" alt="Fig 4. Spines of Ammophila" title="Fig 4. Spines of Ammophila" + /></a><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.</span> be more or less variegated + with yellow spots on the head and thorax, but as a general rule all our + species fall into one or other of these colour schemes. The females of + some of our sand frequenting species have beautiful combs on their front + feet, each joint of the tarsi having one or more long spines on its + external side (figs. 3 and 4). These are of importance to them in their + burrowing, as they enable them to move with one kick of their front leg a + considerable amount of the dry sand in which they make their nests. + Although sandy commons, etc., are the resort of many fossors, others may + be found burrowing in wood or in hard pathways or banks; in fact, like + most other insects, some of their members may be found almost + anywhere.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 24 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page24"></a>{24}</span></p> + +<h3>THE SOLITARY WASPS</h3> + + <p>The ordinary wasps are acquaintances of every one, but the solitary or + keyhole wasps are not so well known, although they are far from uncommon. + They are little narrow black insects striped across the body with yellow, + belonging to the genus <i>Odynerus</i> (<a href="#platea">pl. A</a>, 9), + and might hardly be recognized as belonging to the same family as the + true or social wasps. Still they have considerable powers of stinging, + and fold their wings lengthwise when at rest like their larger relatives. + I dare say some people may have noticed that a wasp's wing sometimes + assumes a narrow straight form, quite unlike what it is when expanded. + This is due to the wasp being able to fold its wing lengthwise like a + fan. The wasp tribe are, so far as I know, the only stinging Hymenoptera + which have this power.</p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:9%;"> + <a href="images/Fig5.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig5.png" + alt="Fig 5. Entrance to wasp hole" title="Fig 5. Entrance to wasp hole" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5. + </div> + + <p>They make their nests of mud, etc., in crevices of walls, in banks, in + plant stems, and often <!-- Page 25 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page25"></a>{25}</span>in most inconvenient places, such as + keyholes, etc. Some of the solitary wasps have a very curious habit of + making a tubular entrance to their hole. These may sometimes be seen + projecting from sandy banks. The tube is composed of a series of little + pellets of mud, which the wasp by degrees, with the help of its mouth + secretions, sticks together till a sort of openwork curved tube of + sometimes an inch long is formed (fig. 5). This curve is directed + downwards, so that the wasp has to creep up it before reaching the actual + orifice of the nest. It looks as if the first shower of rain would wash + the whole structure away, and I have very little doubt that it often does + so. The object of these tubes is difficult to appreciate. There is a bee + on the continent which makes straight chimneys above its holes, so as to + raise the entrance above the surrounding herbage; possibly these solitary + wasps once required <!-- Page 26 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page26"></a>{26}</span>their tubes also for some such purpose, and + have continued on truly conservative lines to build them long after all + usefulness has passed away from the habit; anyhow they are very + interesting and beautiful structures. I have found the tubes of one of + our rarer species projecting perpendicularly out of the level sand, but + even then the tubes were curved over at the end, so that the wasp had to + go up and down again before entering its actual hole. The Rev. F. D. + Morice in 1906 found the tubes of the same species in numbers projecting + from the walls of an old stuccoed cottage situated close to the locality + where I found mine, so it is evident that more than one situation suits + its requirements. The solitary wasps provision their cells with + caterpillars, stinging them in the same way as the fossors do. One very + peculiar genus, of one species only in this country, has its body much + narrowed at the waist by reason of the constricted form of the basal + segment; it makes a little round nest of clay which it suspends from a + twig of heather or other plant. This species is rarely met with except on + the heathery commons of Surrey, Hants, Dorset, etc. The <!-- Page 27 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page27"></a>{27}</span>solitary wasps + are subject to the attacks of cuckoos belonging to the jewel fly or + <i>Chrysis</i> tribe; these behave differently from those belonging to + the aculeate groups, as their larvæ do not eat the food laid up for the + wasp, but wait till the wasp larva has finished feeding up, and then + devour it. Unlike as these cuckoos are to their hosts in their brilliant + metallic coloration, etc., they have structural characters curiously like + theirs, so that even here a common parentage in bygone generations may be + reasonably suspected. At present, however, they are placed, except by a + few systematists, in quite distinct families of the Hymenoptera.</p> + + <p>In general form these solitary wasps resemble the fossors more than + the bees; they have mostly short tongues (I think all our British ones + have), and their hairs are simple or more or less spirally twisted.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 28 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page28"></a>{28}</span></p> + +<h3>THE SOCIAL GROUPS</h3> + + <p>The social bees are certainly the most highly specialized of the + <i>Anthophila</i>, and the social wasps of the <i>Diploptera</i> or + insects with folded wings. The ants occupy a less definite position: they + would seem to be the outcome of specialization among the fossors, only + they feed their young with vegetable juices and not with animal as the + latter do. They are always kept as a separate tribe under the name + <i>Heterogyna</i>, but for our purposes the better known word "ant" will + suffice.</p> + + <p>The hive bee and the social wasps are the only British Hymenoptera + which adopt the hexagonal cell-formation in their nests, the bee + fashioning its cells in wax, the wasps and hornet in masticated wood or + paper. The formation of ants' nests is far less regular, being composed + of irregular passages, called galleries, and open spaces, no doubt built + on a plan, but probably <!-- Page 29 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page29"></a>{29}</span>in respect of plan no two nests are exactly + alike. The humble bees again differ from either in their nesting habits: + the female in the spring seeks out a mouse's nest or other suitable + foundation of moss, etc., in or on the surface of the ground, according + to the species. This she lines with wax, deposits a heap of pollen, and + lays her eggs in it. She also makes waxen cells for honey, but these are + not hexagonal and symmetrical as are those of the hive bee, but are more + like little pots, and are known as "honey pots".</p> + + <p>It must be borne in mind that the economic arrangements of the wasps + and humble bees only last for a single season, whereas those of the ant + and hive bee exist for many years. In consequence of this the swarming + habits belong exclusively to the ants and hive bee. That of the hive bee + is well known to all, and most people must have observed the swarms of + male and female ants which fill the air on some sultry summer or autumn + evening. Thousands of these must perish, but a certain number of the + females accept the responsibility of starting a fresh nest, and so the + ant population is kept up. <!-- Page 30 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page30"></a>{30}</span>It will be seen from these remarks that the + three social groups are very distinct in their methods of nest making, + and have really very little in common except the social habit. The humble + bees have their cuckoos; one species of wasp has a cuckoo, and there is a + possible case of a cuckoo amongst the continental ants, but this has not + yet been observed in this country. The ants harbour so many species of + insects in their nests besides their own family that it is difficult to + form an idea as to whether the case in question is at all analogous to + that of host and cuckoo in the other aculeates or not.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 31 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page31"></a>{31}</span></p> + +<h3>THE ANTS</h3> + + <p>These little creatures are probably the most intelligent of all the + insects—and yet at times they seem to wander about almost + aimlessly. A worker may be found with an insect or something which it is + eagerly dragging along and drops probably from fear. It appears anxious + to regain its hold of it, but goes about in all sorts of wrong directions + before it again finds it, it may be to make sure its enemy is clear away + before it resumes operations, but the effect to the ordinary onlooker is + one of sheer incapacity—at the same time the wonderful habits of + the tribe, the way in which they keep plant lice for their larvæ, their + methods of carrying each other, their nest-building, and the slave-making + instincts of some of the species, show an intelligence surpassed by no + other family of insects. Their nests are formed in very various ways: the + same species even will sometimes nest under a stone and sometimes make + ant hills; some <!-- Page 32 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page32"></a>{32}</span>of the large species make their nests of + huge heaps of fir needles, and number 400 to 500 thousand in one + nest—others live in quite small communities, nesting in bramble + stems, old rotten wood, moss, etc. One little species, rare with us, + lives in the walls of other ants' nests, just as mice live in the walls + of our houses; another quite small species lives apparently on friendly + terms with the common large red or horse ant, and may be found running + about amongst them, on and in their nests, but, so far as I know, nothing + is known as to how its young are reared. There is a curious division in + the family between the ants that have true stings and those which have + not. The large ants of our fir woods can bite and are able to eject + poison through the apical opening of the body into the wound they create, + but these as well as the larger and smaller black ants and some others + have the sting undeveloped, whereas some of our small species have a + sting which they can use with considerable effect; this difference in + habit is accompanied by a difference in the structure in the basal + segments of the body. In the stingless species the basal segment is + reduced <!-- Page 33 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page33"></a>{33}</span><span class="figright" style="width:25%;"><a + href="images/Fig6.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig6.png" + alt="Fig 6. Basal segments of ants" title="Fig 6. Basal segments of ants" + /></a><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6</span> to a flat upright transverse + scale (fig. 6, 1); in the stinging ants two segments at the base are + reduced to nodes (fig. 6, 3). There is an exception in the case of one + little rare genus, <i>Ponera</i>, which has only the basal abdominal + segment reduced to a scale although a much thicker scale than in the + others (fig. 6, 2), and yet which has a distinct sting. These + arrangements give the body very free movement so that the tail can be + bent forward till it reaches the head. Another curious distinction + between the stingers and non-stingers is that the larvæ of the former + spin cocoons and those of the latter do not; the larvæ of <i>Formica + fusca</i> occasionally do not do so, but they are an exception to the + rule. Cocoon spinning seems to involve the larvæ in some difficulties, as + without the help of the worker ants they are often unable to extract + themselves from their prison. This is a condition which does not, I + believe, exist in other groups. In the stingless ants there is a curious + difference in habit between the <!-- Page 34 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page34"></a>{34}</span>species of the genus <i>Formica</i>, where, + according to Forel, the workers do not follow in line over unknown + ground, and frequently carry one another, the one carried being rolled up + under the head of the other, and the species of <i>Lasius</i>, where the + workers follow one another in line, but never carry each other. Among the + stinging ants another method of carrying occurs in certain genera. The + porter seizes the one she wishes to carry by the external edge of one of + her mandibles and then throws her over her back, so that she lies along + the back of her porter with her ventral aspect uppermost and her legs and + antennæ folded as in the nymph state. Neither of these methods sounds + very comfortable, but then probably an ant's idea of comfort and our own + may be very different.</p> + + <p>Lord Avebury, in his <i>Ants, Bees and Wasps</i>, tells us that he has + known a male of <i>Myrmica ruginodis</i> live for nine months, although + no doubt, as he says, they generally die almost immediately, and he has + known queen ants to live for seven years, and workers, which he had in + his nest, for six years.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 35 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page35"></a>{35}</span></p> + +<h3>THE SOCIAL WASPS</h3> + + <p>Of these we have only seven different kinds, and with the exception of + the hornet they are all very much alike. One often hears people say that + they have seen such a large wasp that they think it must have been a + hornet, but no one who has ever seen a hornet could mistake a wasp for + one. A hornet is <i>red-brown</i> with yellow markings (<a + href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, 13), a wasp is <i>black</i> and yellow, and + altogether a less formidable-looking creature (<a href="#plateb">pl. + B</a>, 14). Even a queen wasp is not so large as a small worker hornet. + The hornet nests in hollow trees, our three commoner wasps nest, as a + rule, in the ground, but occasionally in outhouses, under roofs, etc. One + of the others as a rule makes its nest in shrubs, but occasionally in the + ground, another always nests in a bush or shrub, preferring a gooseberry + or currant bush, and the only remaining one is a cuckoo of one of the + ground species. The gooseberry-bush <!-- Page 36 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page36"></a>{36}</span>wasp is not a common + species in the south, but in the midlands and north it is abundant. Wasps + will eat most things, but are especially fond of syrups and sweets. One + species, <i>Vespa sylvestris</i>, which seldom enters our houses, is very + partial to the flowers of <i>Scrophularia</i> (Figwort). One rarely finds + a plant of this in full blossom without finding its attendant wasps. I + have seen other species of wasps also visiting it, but <i>sylvestris</i> + is practically sure to be there. The diet which wasps provide for their + larvæ is probably a mixed one, but consists largely of insects. Dr. + Ormerod says that a microscopic examination of the contents of a larval + stomach shows "the mass to consist of scales, hairs and other fragments + of insects, hairs of vegetables and other substances less easy of + recognition."</p> + + <p><a name="plateb"></a></p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:70%;"> + <a href="images/PlateB.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/PlateB.png" + alt="Plate B" title="Plate B" /></a> + <span class="sc">Plate B.</span> + + <p class="poem">10. <i>Colletes succinctus</i>, <i>female.</i> 11. + <i>Sphecodes subquadratus</i>, <i>female.</i> 12. <i>Halictus + leucozonius</i>, <i>female.</i> 13. <i>Vespa crabro</i>, <i>female.</i> + 14. <i>Vespa vulgaris</i>, <i>female.</i> 15. <i>Andrena fulva</i>, + <i>male.</i> 16. <i>Andrena fulva</i>, <i>female.</i> 17. <i>Panurgus + banksianus</i>, <i>female.</i> 18. <i>Nomada ruficornis</i>, <i>var. + signata</i>, <i>female.</i> 19. <i>Epeolus rufipes</i>, + <i>female.</i></p> + + <p class="author">[<i>face p. 36.</i></p> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 37 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page37"></a>{37}</span></p> + + <p>Wasps do not store honey in their nest; the papery nature of their + cells would make such storage impossible. I dare say some of my readers + will have noticed wasps sitting in the sun on a wooden paling busily + engaged apparently eating something—they are really pulling off + little fibres of wood which they chew up into a substance fitted for the + walls of their cells; they will also chew paper, and the experiment has + been tried of giving them coloured papers, which resulted in stripes of + colour appearing in their nests. The different species vary somewhat in + the architecture of their nests; but they are built very much on the same + general plan. The population of some underground nests is very large. The + Rev. G. A. Crawshay estimated the number in a large nest of <i>Vespa + vulgaris</i>, which he took on September 20, 1904, at about 12,000; of + these he actually counted, including eggs and larvæ, 11,370, and + estimated the rest as having left the nest and escaped, so that anyhow + the computation cannot be far wrong. This, however, was probably a very + large nest. The cuckoo wasp (<i>Vespa austriaca</i>), formerly known as + <i>V. arborea</i>, is an associate of <i>Vespa rufa</i>; its habits had + been suspected for a long time, but Mr. Robson set all doubts at rest by + finding the nymphs of the cuckoo in the actual nest of <i>rufa</i>. It is + a rare species in the south, but far from uncommon as one goes north, and + also in Ireland, where the relationship of the host and cuckoo have been + <!-- Page 38 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page38"></a>{38}</span>carefully studied by Prof. Carpenter and Mr. + Pack Beresford. <i>Vespa vulgaris</i> has a beetle parasite, but this is + somewhat of a rarity. This creature <i>Metœcus paradoxus</i> lays + its egg in the cell of the wasp, and enters the body of the larva, + eventually entirely devouring it. The hornet also has a beetle associate, + but this is a great rarity. It is a large black species of the "Devil's + coach horse" or "Cock tail" tribe (<i>Velleius dilatatus</i>), but in + what relation it stands to the hornet beyond inhabiting its nest is not + known.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 39 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page39"></a>{39}</span></p> + +<h3>THE HUMBLE BEES</h3> + + <p>Of these beautiful creatures we have thirteen kinds in this country. + Their velvety clothing and bright colours make them the favourites of + most people. They are most industrious and may be seen on the wing from + early morning often till quite late on summer evenings, whereas the + solitary bees do not, as a rule, commence work till nine or ten in the + morning, except in very hot weather, and generally retire about four or + five p.m. There is an idea prevalent that humble bees do not sting, but + this is fallacious. They can sting pretty severely, but I do not think + they are so ready to use their defensive weapon as a wasp or hive bee is. + The length of the tongue in these creatures makes them of great value to + the farmer and gardener, as they can fertilize the red clover and + probably other flowers which require a longer tongue to reach the nectary + than is possessed by the hive bee. <!-- Page 40 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page40"></a>{40}</span>In New Zealand, when + first the red clover was introduced from this country, it was found + impossible to fertilize it, and humble bees had to be sent out. Now they + are established there its fertilization is carried on quite successfully. + The humble bees are divided into two natural groups, the underground + species, i.e. those that make a subterranean nest, and the carder bees, + as they have been called, which make a nest on the surface of the ground. + The former live in much larger communities and are far more aggressive + and pugnacious than the latter. They also feed their young, according to + Mr. F. W. L. Sladen, of Ripple Court, in a different way. The carder bees + "form little pockets or pouches of wax at the side of a wax-covered mass + of growing larvæ into which the workers drop the pellets of pollen direct + from their hind tibiæ. The pollen storers, on the contrary, store the + newly gathered pollen in waxen cells, made for the purpose, or in old + cocoons, specially set apart to receive it, from which it is taken and + given to the larvæ mixed with honey through the mouths of the nurse-bees + as required." As the author remarks, the methods of the underground <!-- + Page 41 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page41"></a>{41}</span>species + more resemble those of the hive bee than do those of the carder bees. Mr. + Sladen has made many experiments in trying to domesticate humble bees, + and succeeded so far with <i>Bombus terrestris</i> (<a href="#plated">pl. + D</a>, 29, our common black and yellow banded species with a tawny tail) + as to get it to breed in captivity, and in 1899 was able to show nests in + full work at the Maidstone agricultural show, the bees coming in and out + of the building to their nest. An interesting case of one of the carder + bees (<i>Bombus agrorum</i>) is recorded by F. Smith. It invaded a wren's + nest, heaping up its pollen, etc., amongst the eggs of the bird, till the + parent bird was forced to desert the nest. The underground species are + more subject to the attacks of cuckoos than the carder bees. Altogether + the humble bees afford an excellent subject for study, as they appear to + be amenable to treatment, and to any one who could give time and careful + attention to them many interesting problems connected with them and not + yet understood might have light thrown upon them. Dead humble bees are + often found in numbers in a mutilated state, under lime trees. These <!-- + Page 42 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page42"></a>{42}</span>have + been caught after they have filled themselves with honey, and become + torpid in consequence, by the great tomtit and possibly other birds. The + bird pecks a hole in the insect's thorax, enjoys the honey it has eaten + and then drops the quivering body which falls to the ground. I once had + the opportunity of seeing this slaughter going on, and was able to detect + the great tomtit as the murderer.</p> + + <p>In colour the humble bees vary remarkably, the variation occurring + chiefly in the females. This variation is not so noticeable in this + country, although in many species even here the variability is very + great, but when we trace a common species such as <i>terrestris</i>, + which varies very little here, over a large area such as the Palæarctic + region its liveries are so diverse that its females have been treated as + belonging to many different species. In the Siberian district its yellow + bands become of a pale, almost whitish or straw colour, and the whole + appearance of the insect is altered. If, instead of going north, we go to + the Mediterranean region we find a large, fine form tolerably common, + with bright yellow hairs on the legs. In Corsica <!-- Page 43 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page43"></a>{43}</span>again we find a quite + different form; entirely black except for the bright red hairs on the + apex of the body, and bright red tibiæ, clothed with red hairs. In the + Canaries another coloration occurs: the whole insect is black with the + exception of the apex of the body which is clothed with white hairs; but + in all these the male varies comparatively little. In the Siberian and + Canary forms it resembles the female, but in the others it varies very + little from some varieties we find here. A rather similar series of + varieties occurs in <i>Bombus hortorum</i>, another species little liable + to variation here. In Italy and south-east Europe a form with entirely + black body and black wings occurs, and in Corsica a black form with + reddish hairs on the apical segments. The male keeps throughout very + constant to its normal coloration. The tendency to vary towards an + entirely black form seems to exist in nearly all the species, although in + Britain black varieties of some are very rare.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 44 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page44"></a>{44}</span></p> + +<h3>THE BEES WITH BIFID TONGUES</h3> + + <p>In this country we have only two genera in which the tongue is bifid + at the apex, and on this account they are kept together as close allies + in our classification. They are, however, very different in general + appearance. One of these groups is called <i>Colletes</i>, on account of + its habit of lining its cells with a gluey material, the other, + <i>Prosopis</i>, on account of the markings on the face. The various + kinds of <i>Colletes</i> are densely clothed on the head and thorax with + brownish hairs, and the segments of the body have whitish bands composed + of a dense, tight-fitting, duvet of hairs (<a href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, + 10). There is in this country only one exception, a large insect like a + hive bee, but rarely met with, its headquarters being the Wallasey + Sandhills near Liverpool, and other localities in Lancashire. All the + species tend to colonize; some building in huge colonies <!-- Page 45 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page45"></a>{45}</span>in sandy + cuttings, etc. They are preyed upon by a pretty little cuckoo bee called + <i>Epeolus</i> (<a href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, 19), which is black, + ornamented with brownish red and whitish spots. One of our best known + species, <i>Colletes fodiens</i>, can often be found in abundance on the + heads of ragwort along the sea-coast in July.</p> + + <p>The other genus <i>Prosopis</i> is outwardly entirely unlike + <i>Colletes</i>: its species are nearly all very small coal-black + insects, with scarcely any noticeable hairs, rather unusually narrow and + cylindrical in form; they emit a peculiar, agreeably scented fluid when + handled; in the males the face is almost always white or yellow, in the + females there is generally a yellow spot on each side near the eye. These + little creatures are especially fond of burrowing in bramble stems. They + like those which have been cut off in trimming the hedges, because in + them the pith is exposed and they can burrow their way into it without + gnawing through the wood. If any one, going along a hedge which has been + trimmed, containing a lot of brambles, in the autumn or winter, would + examine the cut-off ends they would soon find some with holes in them. + These <!-- Page 46 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page46"></a>{46}</span>may be the work of <i>Prosopis</i>, but + there are other bees and fossors which also burrow in this way. So the + stems should be brought home and opened. Then the <i>Prosopis</i> cells + may be known by the fine membranous pellicle which surrounds them, but + possibly even then a little jewel-bee cuckoo may be found in possession + of the cell, instead of the rightful owner. When these little bees emerge + they are generally to be found on wild mignonette, bramble flowers or + those of the wild parsley tribe. Some are very common, others of great + rarity. The males of this genus seem to have a peculiar tendency to + develop eccentricities in the shape of the first joint of the antennæ, or + feelers, some having it expanded and concave, others rounded but + thickened towards the apex; in only one British species, <i>P. + cornuta</i>, does the female show any special peculiarity of form, but in + this the face is produced on each side between the eyes into a distinct + horn-shaped process. In the females there is scarcely any indication of + pollen brush, and for this reason they used to be considered as + possessors of cuckoo instincts, but there is now no doubt of their + industrious habits; but <!-- Page 47 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page47"></a>{47}</span>there is no other genus of industrious bees + in this country, with the exception of <i>Ceratina</i>, with so little + specialization for pollen collecting.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 48 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page48"></a>{48}</span></p> + +<h3>THE BEES WITH POINTED TONGUES</h3> + + <p>All the genera, except the two mentioned in the last chapter, belong + to this section, which comprises a variety of very different styles of + bees, beginning with the short spear-shape-tongued species and ascending + to the long-tongued species, which are considered to culminate in the + hive bee. The habits of these genera vary very greatly in some respects; + special notice has been or will be given of <i>Halictus</i> (<a + href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, 12) and <i>Sphecodes</i> (<a + href="#plateb">B</a>, 11), <i>Andrena</i> (<a href="#plateb">B</a>, 15, + 16), <i>Nomada</i> (<a href="#plateb">B</a>, 18) and the other cuckoos, + <i>Osmia</i> (<a href="#plated">D</a>, 28) and <i>Anthophora</i> (<a + href="#plated">D</a>, 24, 25) and the leaf-cutting bees, but there are + several other genera which deserve a passing notice, although their + habits are not so peculiar as those of the specially selected ones. + <i>Cilissa</i>, which is a very close ally of <i>Andrena</i>, is peculiar + in having the hairs of the tongue erect and arranged almost in + bottle-brush fashion. Its habits are much like those of <!-- Page 49 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page49"></a>{49}</span><i>Andrena</i>. + <i>Dasypoda</i>, so called on account of the enormously long hairs of the + pollen brushes of the legs in the female, is one of our most beautiful + bees; it is of moderate size, a little more than half an inch long, with + a brown haired thorax, and a black body with white apical bands on the + segments; the hind legs are rather unusually long and the brush is + composed of very long bright fulvous hairs, and when the bee returns home + laden with pollen it is, as F. Smith says, "sufficiently singular to + attract the attention of the most apathetic observer." It burrows in + sandy places much after the fashion of <i>Andrena</i>, etc. The male is a + different looking insect, entirely covered with yellowish hairs. + <i>Panurgus</i> (<a href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, 17) is a curious genus of + coal-black bees, whose females have bright yellow pollen brushes on their + hind legs; they visit yellow composite flowers and the males often sleep + curled up amongst their rays; they are most active bees, and burrow + generally in hard pathways. I was watching a large colony of one of the + species near Chobham in the end of June—they were burrowing in a + gravel path, under which the soil was of a black sandy nature; the path + was scattered all over with little black <!-- Page 50 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page50"></a>{50}</span>hillocks of sand, and + seemed alive with bees. It was showery weather, and occasionally the + hillocks were washed nearly flat and a lot of sand must have entered + their burrows—however, as soon as the sun came out again they + cleaned out their holes and returned to their work. <i>Panurgus</i> is + most businesslike in its pollen collecting; it flies in a rapid headlong + way into a flower, and seems to do its best to bury itself, with a + remarkable amount of action as if it was in a great hurry, and often + bustles out of it again almost immediately and goes on to the next. Its + methods suggest that it does more work in five minutes than any other bee + would do in ten.</p> + + <p>Another genus, <i>Anthidium</i> (<a href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 27), + this time one of the long-tongued bees, is peculiar in having the male + larger than the female. Both sexes are black, variegated with yellow + markings and spots, but the male is more ornate in this respect than the + female and also has a peculiarly shaped body, which is unusually flat, + curving downwards towards the apex, which is armed with five teeth, two + bent ones on the sixth segment and three on the seventh. The female + collects pollen on the underside of its body and collects the <!-- Page + 51 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page51"></a>{51}</span>down off the + stems of various plants, especially those of the dead nettle or "labiate" + tribe, with which it invests its cells. I cannot do better than quote the + following from F. Smith: "This is the social bee which White in his + History of Selbourne has so well described in the following words: 'There + is a sort of wild bee frequenting the Garden Campion for the sake of its + tomentum, which probably it turns to some purpose in the business of + nidification. It is very pleasant to see with what address it strips off + the pubes running from the top to the bottom of a branch and shaving it + bare with the dexterity of a hoop shaver; when it has got a vast bundle, + almost as large as itself, it flies away, holding it secure between its + chin and fore legs.'"</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 52 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page52"></a>{52}</span></p> + +<h3>LEAF-CUTTING BEES</h3> + + <div class="figright" style="width:28%;"> + <a href="images/Fig7.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig7.png" + alt="Fig 7. Leaf cut by bees" title="Fig 7. Leaf cut by bees" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span> + </div> + + <p>These are amongst the specially interesting of the bees in their + habits. They are dull-brown coloured creatures rather like a stout hive + bee in form (<a href="#platec">pl. C</a>, 20). They all collect pollen on + the underside of their body. They burrow either in decayed wood or in the + ground, but they make their cells of pieces of leaves which they cut off + from rose bushes or other plants; these cells when completed are + wonderful works of art. Probably some of my readers may have noticed rose + leaves with semicircular pieces cut out of them, and often with almost + circular ones; this is the work of the leaf cutter (fig. 7).</p> + + <p><a name="platec"></a></p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:68%;"> + <a href="images/PlateC.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/PlateC.png" + alt="Plate C" title="Plate C" /></a> + <span class="sc">Plate C.</span> + + <p class="poem">20. <i>Megachile maritima</i>, <i>female</i>. 21. + <i>Cœlioxys conoidea</i>, <i>male</i>. 22. <i>Cœlioxys + conoidea</i>, <i>female</i>. 23. <i>Nest of Megachile + willughbiella.</i></p> + + <p class="author">[<i>face p. 52.</i></p> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 53 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page53"></a>{53}</span></p> + + <p>She alights on a leaf, holds on to the edge of the piece she wants to + cut off with her legs, and then cuts it out by means of her jaws, or + mandibles; as soon as it is cut free she uses her wings and so prevents + herself from falling, and goes off with the cut off piece safely held + under her body by her legs. I have frequently seen bees flying home with + their leafy burden, and once or twice I have seen them cutting the pieces + out. They cut round the piece they select with great rapidity—the + marvel is that they can arrange so exactly as not to fall when the last + attachment is removed. The pieces they cut have to be of several shapes + in order to build up the cell they require; some are more or less lozenge + shaped, some almost circular; the cells they make are somewhat + thimble-shaped. The lozenge-shaped pieces are used to build up the sides + and lower end of the cell, and the circular pieces to close it in with at + the top; it is all cemented together with a gluey substance excreted by + the bee. The burrows of the leaf-cutters are made, as stated above, + either in the ground or in rotten wood. I have never had a subterranean + nest to examine, but have had several nests in rotten wood under my + notice, one of which is now before me (<a href="#platec">pl. C</a>, 23). + It is in a piece of very <!-- Page 54 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page54"></a>{54}</span>soft willow, almost in a touchwood + condition. So that by carefully cutting away the wood I have been able to + expose the whole series of cells. Two distinct burrows run almost + parallel to each other; both of them are slightly curved and each has + contained six cells; these are about half an inch long, and they fit one + over another in the tube as closely as possible so as to look like two + long thick green worms. Each cell is composed of many pieces of leaf, and + the final plug which closes the cell is often made of several rounds of + leaf one over the other. The amount of labour taken by the mother bee to + make these cells must be enormous. The cells are provisioned like those + of any other solitary bee with pollen, etc., and the egg is laid upon it. + Most of the leaf-cutters have their attendant cuckoos, which are rather + smaller than themselves, of a deep black with white bands on the sides of + the body. The female has a very pointed tail, and the male's body ends in + a series of spine-like projections (<a href="#platec">pl. C</a>, 21, + 22).</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 55 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page55"></a>{55}</span></p> + +<h3>OSMIA AND ITS HABITS</h3> + + <p>I have tried as much as possible to avoid scientific names, but the + misfortune is that there are hardly any popular names in use which can be + attached for certain to any particular species, and unless this can be + done it is of no use using vague names like the "Carpenter Bee", the + "Mason Bee", etc. There are many carpenter bees and many mason bees, and + though their habits may be alike in this one particular they differ among + themselves in the way they use their tools, and it is necessary to know + which one we are talking about. It is a common thing to hear people + inveighing against Latin names, etc., but they forget that there are no + English ones in use, and what is more important, that Greek and Latin + names are common property to all nations, so that we can all know what we + are talking about, whereas if we call an insect by an English name and + the Russians <!-- Page 56 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page56"></a>{56}</span>call it by a Russian name, the difficulty of + coming to a mutual understanding is very great. This is only an aside to + justify the use of classical names. I quite feel that for popular use in + this country a good series of English names might be useful, but we have + not got one, and it would require a great deal of care and thought to + frame a nomenclature which would really be useable by the persons who + require it.</p> + + <p>I have made these remarks here because <i>Osmia</i> is a genus whose + members vary very much in their habits, and some species of which, like + sensible beings, adapt their habits to their surroundings, so that no + name such as carpenter bee, etc., would apply to all the species, or, as + a rule, even to one. <i>Osmia rufa</i> especially adopts several methods + of nesting. This little bee is clothed more or less all over with + yellowish hairs; it is compact in shape like all the other species of + <i>Osmia</i>, and like them collects its pollen on the underside of the + body. It may sometimes be seen flying up and down the walls of a house + looking for a crevice to build in, but it is not the least particular as + to where to form its cells. In one memorable case the female selected a + flute <!-- Page 57 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page57"></a>{57}</span>which had been left in a garden-arbour. The + bee constructed fourteen cells in the tube of the instrument, commencing + its first cell a quarter of an inch below the mouthhole. The flute is + preserved in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. At other + times this species burrows in the ground, at others it makes its cells in + crevices of old walls; it has been known to build in a lock, and is said + sometimes to inhabit snail shells. Other species of <i>Osmia</i> almost + always burrow in banks, but in no case does a habit seem to be uniformly + adopted by a species. One well known and rare species, <i>Osmia + leucomelana</i>, is a regular bramble-stick species, tunnelling down the + pith in the centre of the stalks, but I once found it to my surprise in + fair numbers nesting in a sandy bank. Other species again, as a rule, + select snail shells to build in; they find an old disused shell lying + about in some sheltered place and adapt it to their purposes, commencing + their cells singly in the narrow whorls of the shell and side by side as + they approach its mouth, i.e. if the shell be a wide-mouthed one like the + common garden snail (<i>Helix aspersa</i>). F. Smith, who gives a very + interesting account of these <!-- Page 58 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page58"></a>{58}</span>creatures in his <i>Catalogue of British + Hymenoptera in the British Museum</i>, mentions a case where the bee + finding the larger whorls of the shell too wide constructed two cells + across the whorl. Another very interesting case given by Smith is of a + nest of many cells of the rare <i>Osmia inermis</i> (which in his days + was known as <i>Osmia parietina</i>). A slab of stone, 10 inches by 6, + was brought to him with 230 cocoons of this <i>Osmia</i> attached to its + under side; when found in the month of November, 1849, about a third of + them were empty; in March of the following year a few males made their + appearance and shortly afterwards a few females, and they continued to + come out at intervals till the end of June, at which time he had 35 + cocoons still unopened; in 1851 some more emerged, and he opened one or + two of the closed ones and found that they still contained living larvæ; + he closed them up again, and in April, 1852, examined them and found the + larvæ still alive; at the end of May they changed to pupæ and appeared as + perfect insects, the result being that some of the specimens were at + least three years before reaching maturity. <!-- Page 59 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page59"></a>{59}</span></p> + + <p>There is a nest of yet another style adopted by one of our species + (<i>Osmia xanthomelana</i>). This is formed of a series of pitcher-shaped + cells made of mud, constructed at the roots of grass. The species which + makes it is rare and seems to have its headquarters on the coasts of + Wales, although it has occurred in the Isle of Wight and elsewhere. This + species also is not constant in its habits, as it has been known to make + its cells underground. A very curious habit was noticed some years ago by + Mr. Vincent R. Perkins in another species of this genus (<i>Osmia + bicolor</i>; <a href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 28); the species nests in the + ground or in snail shells, but, in the case under his observation, Mr. + Perkins found that the little bees covered up all the snail shells in + which they had built their cells with short pieces of "bents" so as to + make a little hillock over each about two or three inches in height, + somewhat resembling a miniature nest of <i>Formica rufa</i>, the large + horse ant, each mound containing hundreds of pieces. This is the only + record I know of this habit, which must entail a large amount of labour + for the bee.</p> + + <p>These varying habits in the same species <!-- Page 60 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page60"></a>{60}</span>show pretty clearly that + these little creatures are not driven by any blind instinct in the + adoption of their methods of nest building: they appear to have a + distinct power of choice and adaptation according to their environment, + unless of course it can be shown that the offspring of, say, a snail + shell inhabitant follows its parents' habits, and that that of a ground + borer does the same—but even that would not explain the case given + by F. Smith, and quoted above, where an <i>Osmia</i> had filled up the + whorls of a shell and then, finding the final whorl too large, placed two + cells horizontally to fill it: that seems to indicate distinct design on + the part of the bee and would be hard to explain as due to instinct. + Unfortunately, with the exception of a very few, the species of + <i>Osmia</i> are rare in this country, so that few opportunities are + available for studying their habits, which are certainly amongst the most + interesting of any genus.</p> + + <p><a name="plated"></a></p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:71%;"> + <a href="images/PlateD.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/PlateD.png" + alt="Plate D" title="Plate D" /></a> + <span class="sc">Plate D.</span> + + <p class="poem">24. <i>Anthophora pilipes, male.</i> 25. <i>Anthophora + pilipes, female.</i> 26. <i>Melecta armata, female.</i> 27. + <i>Anthidium manicatum, female.</i> 28. <i>Osmia bicolor, female.</i> + 29. <i>Bombus terrestris, female.</i> 30. <i>Bombus lapidarius. + female.</i> 31. <i>Psithyrus rupestris, female.</i></p> + + <p class="author">[<i>face p. 61.</i></p> + </div> + +<p><!-- Page 61 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page61"></a>{61}</span></p> + +<h3>A COLONY OF ANTHOPHORA</h3> + + <p><i>Anthophora pilipes</i> (<a href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 24, 25), one + of our early spring bees, often forms enormous colonies. I have sometimes + seen sandpits in which the sides were riddled all over with holes of this + species, and where the insects were in such numbers that a distinct hum + was audible from the vibration of their wings. In such colonies one is + sure to detect some of their cuckoo associates, <i>Melecta armata</i> (<a + href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 26). They are deep black bees, much of the same + size as their hosts but with more pointed tails and with a small spot of + snow-white hairs on the side of each segment of the body; like other + cuckoos they sail about in a more demure way than their hosts, but a more + lively scene than a large colony of <i>Anthophora</i> can hardly be + found. The <i>Anthophora</i> provisions its cells with honey and pollen, + and its egg in consequence floats on the top—the <!-- Page 62 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page62"></a>{62}</span>number of cells + varies from five or six up to ten or eleven.</p> + + <p><i>Anthophora pilipes</i> has a very close relative in <i>Anthophora + retusa</i>, which also forms large colonies, but it is as a rule less + common. These two species are exceedingly alike, in fact it requires some + skill on the part of the observer to differentiate their females. They + are both black and clothed with black hairs, and both have yellow + pollen-brushes, but in <i>retusa</i> the hairs are shorter and not quite + of such a deep black as those of <i>pilipes</i>, and the spurs of the + tibiæ are pale, whereas in <i>pilipes</i> they are black. The males, + however, differ widely, although much alike in colour; in <i>pilipes</i> + the feet of the middle pair of legs are clothed with enormously long + hairs, the basal joint has a dense fringe of black hairs in front and + some long black hairs behind (see <a href="#plated">pl. D</a>, fig. 24); + in <i>retusa</i> the basal joint of the middle pair of feet have a + fan-shaped fringe of black hairs, and the rest of the joints are clothed + with longer hairs, but not long enough to be specially noticeable. <i>A. + retusa</i> is visited by the same cuckoo as <i>A. pilipes</i> and also by + its rare ally <i>Melecta luctuosa</i>, which only differs from + <i>armata</i> <!-- Page 63 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page63"></a>{63}</span>(<a href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 26) in the + larger and squarer spots of the body and various small structural + characters hardly appreciable except by specialists. The Anthophoras have + other parasites besides their cuckoos; one is a beetle, which, however, + is rare, and which lays its egg in the <i>Anthophora</i> cells; the other + is a very minute member of the Hymenopterous family, whose larva when + hatched feeds upon the larva of the bee. Notwithstanding these + disadvantages both species are abundant, although <i>retusa</i> is more + local than <i>pilipes</i>. A very interesting fact connected with this + genus has just been communicated to me by the Rev. F. D. Morice. John + Ray, who lived in the seventeenth century, mentions in his book + <i>Historia Insectorum</i> (published posthumously in 1710), p. 243, that + a large colony of a bee, which from his description was clearly an + <i>Anthophora</i>, as he specially calls attention to the great + difference between the males and females, inhabited a certain locality at + Kilby near "Hill Morton" in Northamptonshire. Mr. Morice, who for many + years resided at Rugby, knew Hillmorton, as it is now spelled, well, and + tells me that a large colony of <i>Anthophora</i> was in that same + locality when he knew it only <!-- Page 64 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page64"></a>{64}</span>a few years ago. Of course there is no proof + that it has been there throughout the intervening period, but there seems + to be no reason to doubt it, and if so it is a most interesting case of a + persistent colony.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 65 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page65"></a>{65}</span></p> + +<h3>BEES AND POLLEN-COLLECTING</h3> + + <p>Bees whether solitary or social enter flowers for the sake of the + honey in their nectaries and the pollen on their anthers. In some cases + the flowers automatically deposit pollen on the bees during the + operation, which enables them to fertilize other flowers of the same + species, but the pollen which the bee requires for its own use has to be + worked for and collected on organs specially adapted for the purpose. + These vary very much in the different families and genera; they exist + only in the females, and, if the males get covered with pollen, as they + often do, it is probably more by chance than purpose, and it is doubtful + if it is of any value to the brood, although no doubt useful in + fertilizing other flowers. All our bees, as has been pointed out before, + are clothed more or less with branched or feather-like hairs, which would + appear to be admirably adapted for the collecting of pollen. <!-- Page 66 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page66"></a>{66}</span>At the same time + some species which have their bodies clothed with branched hairs have + simple or spirally grooved hairs on the collecting organ—others + collect on very much branched hairs—so that there seems to be no + exact relationship between the plumosity of the hairs and their utility + in collecting. The collecting brushes are either on the hind legs or, as + in some cases, on the ventral surface of the body. In a female + <i>Andrena</i>, the hind leg has a tuft of curled hairs near the base of + the leg, and a more or less heavy brush on the outside of the tibia or + shin (fig. 8). When a female returns after a collecting expedition these + specially hairy regions are a mass of pollen grains, and the "beautiful + yellow legs", so often remarked upon in some bees, are not always due to + the colour of the hairs but to that of the grains of pollen adhering to + them. The genera which collect on the under surface of the body have to + visit flowers where the anthers lie in such a position that they can + transfer the pollen on to it; the pea flower tribe are favourites with + them, and also the <i>Compositæ</i>. All this section have long tongues + so that they are able to reach the nectaries of <!-- Page 67 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page67"></a>{67}</span><span class="figleft" + style="width:12%;"><a href="images/Fig8.png"><img style="width:100%" + src="images/Fig8.png" alt="Fig 8. Leg hairs of Andrena" title="Fig 8. Leg hairs of Andrena" + /></a><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.</span> <span class="figright" + style="width:10%;"><a href="images/Fig9.png"><img style="width:100%" + src="images/Fig9.png" alt="Fig 9. Corbicula of humble bee" title="Fig 9. Corbicula of humble bee" + /></a><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.</span> plants with long tubular + flowers. In visiting these the pollen is often deposited on the back of + the bee; this it is able to transfer to its under side by means of the + brushes on its feet or tarsi. The arrangements of the humble bees for + pollen gathering are altogether different from those mentioned above. + They have the hind shin outwardly shining and rather concave, with a + series of long curved hairs running down each side of it and partly + curving over it, so that they carry their mass of pollen in a sort of + basket, scientifically called the "corbicula" (fig. 9); this would be + impossible if the pollen were gathered dry, as it is by most of the + solitary bees, so the bee moistens it on the flower with the nectar she + has been sucking so as to make it sticky, and then transfers it into her + basket by means of her foot brushes. The pollen therefore on the hind leg + of a humble bee is all in one mass and can be <!-- Page 68 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page68"></a>{68}</span>removed as such. When the + bee reaches her nest this must of course save her the trouble which the + solitary bee must have of cleaning off all the separate grains of pollen + which are mixed up among the hairs.</p> + + <p>A word or two may be convenient here on the combs and cleaning + apparatus of bees. Any one who has watched a bee clean itself will have + noticed that the front legs work more or less horizontally—a bee + will lower its head and bring its front leg over it with a curved + motion—and that it will clean the sides of the face with a sort of + shaving-like action, also that the antennæ are apparently pulled through + the foot-joint in a remarkable way, often many times in succession. Now + the foot of a bee consists of five joints, and is clothed with bristly + looking hairs. If these hairs be examined through a microscope they will + be found to be more or less razor-shaped, having a thick back and a + dilated wing or knife-like blade (fig. 10). In some the blade is of some + width, and the edge is evidently very sharp: these hairs or spines no + doubt do the cleaning work, and admirably adapted they are to the + purpose. The antennæ-cleaner <!-- Page 69 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page69"></a>{69}</span><span class="figleft" style="width:11%;"><a + href="images/Fig10.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig10.png" + alt="Fig 10. Cleaning apparatus of bee" title="Fig 10. Cleaning apparatus of bee" + /></a><span class="sc">Fig. 10.</span></span> <span class="figleft" + style="width:12%;"><a href="images/Fig11.png"><img style="width:100%" + src="images/Fig11.png" alt="Fig 11. Antenna cleaner of bee" title="Fig 11. Antenna cleaner of bee" + /></a><span class="sc">Fig. 11.</span></span> <span class="figright" + style="width:8%;"><a href="images/Fig12.png"><img style="width:100%" + src="images/Fig12.png" alt="Fig 12. Cleaning apparatus of bee" title="Fig 12. Cleaning apparatus of bee" + /></a><span class="sc">Fig. 12.</span></span> (it may possibly be used + for other purposes too) is a still more wonderful adaptation; in the + basal joint of the foot there is a semicircular incision, which, when + examined under the microscope, is seen to be a small toothed comb. The + foot itself fits into the tibia or shin, and at the apex of the latter is + a modified spine which is dilated on one side into a wing, or knife-like + blade; this shuts down on to the semicircular comb, and the insect by + passing the antennæ between the two can clean off anything which may have + stuck to it (fig. 11). When we come to examine the other legs we find + that the inner surface of their tibiæ and tarsi, i.e. that which is + nearest the body, is clothed with hairs which have the points dilated and + spade-like (fig. 12), which <!-- Page 70 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page70"></a>{70}</span>allowing for the different action of the + hind legs makes them just as good cleaners as the razors of the front + pair; the spurs at the apex of the tibiæ, which are known as the + <i>calcaria</i>, are also doubtless useful for cleaning purposes, and + this is specially suggested by the beautiful saw-like form which they + assume in some species; although there is no actual semicircular comb in + the first joint of the tarsi, yet there can be little doubt that the spur + and this joint in conjunction can act as a cleaning organ very much in + the same way as the more elaborate arrangement in the front legs. Any one + who has the opportunity of examining the hairs of bees under a microscope + will be amply repaid for the trouble in noticing the beautiful shapes and + structures which these organs assume. (Figs. 13-18; 17 showing pollen + grains adhering.) At one time, when I was specially examining bee hairs, + I shaved the various parts of a large number of species and mounted their + hairs dry in microscopic slides, merely securing the cover glass with + liquid glue; this was twenty years ago, and many are still quite good. It + may seem a difficult operation to shave a bee, but <!-- Page 71 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page71"></a>{71}</span>the hairs come off very + easily, and with a sharp dissecting knife for a razor as many hairs as + one wants are almost immediately at one's disposal.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:14%;"> + <a href="images/Fig13.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig13.png" + alt="Fig 13. Hairs of bees" title="Fig 13. Hairs of bees" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig. 13.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:11%;"> + <a href="images/Fig14.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig14.png" + alt="Fig 14. Hair of bee" title="Fig 14. Hair of bee" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig. 14.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:12%;"> + <a href="images/Fig15.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig15.png" + alt="Fig 15. Hair of bee" title="Fig 15. Hair of bee" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig. 15.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:10%;"> + <a href="images/Fig16.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig16.png" + alt="Fig 16. Hair of bee" title="Fig 16. Hair of bee" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:11%;"> + <a href="images/Fig17.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig17.png" + alt="Fig 17. Hair of bee with pollen adhering" title="Fig 17. Hair of bee with pollen adhering" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:24%;"> + <a href="images/Fig18.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig18.png" + alt="Fig 18. Hairs of bees" title="Fig 18. Hairs of bees" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span> + </div> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 72 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page72"></a>{72}</span></p> + +<h3>ON BEES' TONGUES, AND HOW THEY +SUCK HONEY</h3> + + <p>In order to understand how a bee sucks honey it will be necessary to + go into some rather careful details as to the construction of its tongue + and mouth organs. These I will make as short and simple as I can, but the + apparatus is a very complicated one, and it will be impossible to + describe it without a good deal of technical phraseology.</p> + + <p>The tongue has always been considered such an important feature in a + bee's structure that it has been made the chief basis of their + classification. On this subject I will only say that there are three + principal types of tongues—a short bifid tongue (fig. <b>19</b>, + 3<a name="NtA1" href="#Nt1"><sup>[1]</sup></a>), resembling those of the + fossors; a short pointed one, shaped somewhat like a spear head (fig. + <b>19</b>, 2, 2a); and a long parallel-sided, ribbon-like tongue (fig. + <b>19</b>, 1, 1a). The bees are classified on what is considered to be an + <!-- Page 73 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page73"></a>{73}</span>ascending scale, beginning with the + bifid-tongued species, through those with the short spear shaped tongues + to the higher forms, which have this organ elongate and + parallel-sided.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:56%;"> + <a href="images/Fig19.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig19.png" + alt="Fig 19. Tongues of bees" title="Fig 19. Tongues of bees" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span> + </div> + + <p>The tongue is the central organ of an elaborate combination of mouth + parts, which I will now try to explain. If we turn a bee's head over and + look at its underside we shall find a deep cavity, filled up with the + base of this combination which fits into it. If we extend the tongue (a + humble bee is a good subject on account of its large size, fig. 20) so as + to draw its base out of the cavity, we shall find that in the edge of + each side of the cavity there is articulated a short rod (20, A), more or + less dilated at its apex, called <!-- Page 74 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page74"></a>{74}</span>the <i>stipes</i>; on the flattened ends of + these rods there swings a joint shaped something like the "merrythought" + bone of a chicken, called the <i>lora</i> or reins (20, B), to the + central angle of which are suspended the pieces of the apparatus which + terminate in the tongue. This <b>V</b>-shaped joint can swing over on its + feet, and can therefore lie either between the <i>stipites</i> or rods + with its angle pointing towards the tail of the bee, or in the opposite + direction with its angle projecting beyond them and pointing forwards. It + will at once be seen that by this turn of the <b>V</b> the tongue can be + projected a distance equivalent to twice the length of the <b>V</b>.</p> + + <p>This <b>V</b>-shaped joint varies much in the length of its arms, + which are much longer in the long-tongued than in the short-tongued + bees.</p> + + <p>When we examine the parts that are suspended from this joint, we shall + find that the actual tongue is separated from it by two distinct pieces; + the first (i.e. that next to the <i>lora</i>) a short joint (the + <i>submentum</i>, 20, C), the second (the <i>mentum</i>, 20, D) a long + semi-cylindrical joint which holds as in a trough the softer parts at the + base of the tongue. From the apex of the <i>mentum</i> <!-- Page 75 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page75"></a>{75}</span>project three + organs; the central one is the actual tongue (or <i>ligula</i>, 20, E), + and on each side are the organs which are called the <i>labial palpi</i> + (20, F); these in the long-tongued bees more or less fold over the base + of the tongue and protect it. There are two other large and important + mouth parts called the <i>maxillæ</i> (20, G); these articulate on to the + flattened apices of the <i>cardines</i>, outside the articulation of the + feet of the <i>lora</i>, and extend on each side of the <i>mentum</i>; + they also have flattened blades sheathing, when closed, the whole of the + <i>mentum</i> above, as well as the base of the tongue.</p> + + <div class="figcenter" style="width:22%;"> + <a href="images/Fig20.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig20.png" + alt="Fig 20. Tongue of bee" title="Fig 20. Tongue of bee" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span> + </div> + + <p>So far we have been looking at the back of the head and mouth parts; + if we now look at the front we shall see the <i>maxillæ</i>; if we open + these we shall see the tongue lying between the <!-- Page 76 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page76"></a>{76}</span>labial palpi, and at the + base of the tongue we shall see two little sheaths called the + <i>paraglossæ</i>; above these the softer parts lying in the trough of + the <i>mentum</i>; from the base of the <i>mentum</i>, connecting with + the <i>maxillæ</i>, there extends a membrane which entirely invests the + spaces between the bases of these organs and extends up to the mouth. A + membrane also extends between the <i>stipites</i> and <i>lora</i>, and + closes the cavity at the back of the head. The back of the tongue in the + act of sucking can be formed into a tube through which, partly, probably + by capillary action, partly by the pumping action caused by the dilating + and contracting of certain parts of the mechanism, the liquid food is + drawn up into the æsophagus. This, I believe, has been shown to be the + principle on which all bees, short- or long-tongued, suck up their honey. + The subject could be treated at much greater length, and many other + structures connected with the mouth parts discussed, but more minute + details are unnecessary in an elementary work such as this, and I have + therefore limited myself to a description of the broad principles of the + process.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 77 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page77"></a>{77}</span></p> + +<h3>A DREADFUL PARASITE</h3> + + <p><span class="figleft" style="width:7%;"><a + href="images/Fig21.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig21.png" + alt="Fig 21. Stylops" title="Fig 21. Stylops" /></a><span + class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.</span></p> + + <p>Of all the evils to which bee flesh is heir, there can hardly be any + so terrible as the effects of the parasite <i>Stylops</i> on the species + of <i>Andrena</i> and <i>Halictus</i> which it attacks. This very + extraordinary creature, which is now considered to be a beetle, lives + during the early stages of both sexes in the body of the bee, which it + enters when the bee is in the larval state. Its head protrudes like a + minute flat seed between the body segments (fig. 21), and so is visible + externally, but the rest of the creature, which is a grub-like larva, + rests amongst the intestines of the bee; the female matures in the bee's + body and never leaves it. The male, however, when mature, escapes, + leaving the <!-- Page 78 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page78"></a>{78}</span><span class="figright" style="width:12%;"><a + href="images/Fig22.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig22.png" + alt="Fig 22. Stylops" title="Fig 22. Stylops" /></a><span + class="sc">Fig.</span> 22. Stylops larva in abdominal cavity: after + Perez.</span> great hole which he inhabited open; he is provided with + wings, and I have more than once caught one flying in the open—but + to return to our afflicted bee. This may be attacked in either sex, and + by one to five of the parasites. I have specimens myself with four + parasites in them, and a case of five has been recorded. Mr. R. C. L. + Perkins, writing on this subject, says: "On removing the integument + dorsally from the bee, the large body of the female parasite will be seen + lying above the viscera, often almost entirely concealing them". If this + is the condition of a bee nourishing only one parasite, I must leave it + to my readers to imagine the state of the poor wretch who is supporting + five! The outward appearance of one with several parasites is generally + much distorted; the abdomen is very much inflated, and the poor creature + is unable to fly any <!-- Page 79 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page79"></a>{79}</span>distance, and can only crawl about, or + perhaps take short flights of a foot or so. The effects, however, seem to + be very different in different cases. I have caught <i>Andrenas</i> with + two <i>Stylops</i> in them, flying about as usual and apparently none the + worse for their inmates. Probably the position the parasite occupies may + make a great difference in its effects on the bee.</p> + + <p>The most notable effect produced by <i>Stylops</i> is the alteration + in the structure and colour of certain of the bee's characteristic + features. In <i>Andrena</i> the males differ very considerably from the + females both in form and colouring. They have no pollen-brushes on their + legs, and in some few species the face above the mouth is white, whereas + in the female it is black. Now the effect of the parasite seems to be to + unsex as it were its victims so far as their outward appearance is + concerned. This is no doubt due to the internal effects it has on the + larva of the bee. Anyhow, if a female is attacked, in most cases the + pollen-brush is much reduced, the face tends to become more hairy, and, + if it be the female of a white-faced male, spots of white are often + produced on the face. On the other hand, <!-- Page 80 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page80"></a>{80}</span>if it be a male subject, + the hairiness of the face is diminished, the white colour is often + reduced or absent, and the hairiness of the legs is increased.</p> + + <p>Before the effects of the parasite were recognized, several new + species were described simply on specimens of unusual appearance in + consequence of its presence.</p> + + <p>These effects, however, like the effects produced on the activity of + the bee, vary exceedingly in extent. On some the parasite seems to have + no effect, in others the alteration in appearance is very great. This, + again, is probably due to the position of the parasites and to the + pressure they exert on the reproductive organs of the body in the larval + state.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 81 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page81"></a>{81}</span></p> + +<h3>AMONGST THE BEES AT WORK</h3> + + <p>Now I feel sure many will be thinking "It is all very well to talk + about all these solitary and social bees, but I never see them. I + certainly know a humble bee with a white tail and another with a red + tail, and a wasp, and perhaps a hornet, but I never notice any others." + The reason for this, no doubt, is that people are not as a rule + observant, and even if they notice a creature one moment they probably + forget all about it the next. If any one goes out on a bright spring + morning, late in March or early in April, about 11 o'clock, into a garden + well stocked with flowers, it will not, I think, be many minutes before + an insect darts on the wing along some border, and, if attention be paid + to the flowers, a little black hairy bee with yellow legs, like a small + humble bee, will be seen diligently at work sucking honey from one of + them. The darting bee, which is of a brownish red colour, gradually <!-- + Page 82 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page82"></a>{82}</span>fading + to grey after a few days' exposure to the sun, is the male, and the black + one the female. The male rarely settles, but flies about courting the + female. Often two or three males may be seen dodging and crossing each + other in their flight. The name of this bee is <i>Anthophora</i>. It is + quite a harbinger of spring, and I mention it especially as it so forces + itself on one's attention, and there are few who will not meet with it + without going especially on its quest.</p> + + <p>Another opportunity of seeing several kinds of solitary bees flying + together may be secured by standing on a sunny day in front of a sallow + bush in full blossom, I mean what is commonly called "palm." Its catkins, + when the anthers are out and covered with yellow pollen, are most + attractive to all kinds of bees, humble bees, hive bees, and solitary + bees, and any one who can manage to watch a sallow bush for some time + will realize that there are many kinds of bees at work. Of course it is + difficult, without special knowledge, to recognize which are bees and + which are flies amongst the many which are coming and going, but the + yellow-pollened legs of the female bees will generally betray them, as + well <!-- Page 83 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page83"></a>{83}</span>as their steadier flight. A fly turns about + more rapidly than a bee, and sits down much more abruptly. Bees are very + captious about the weather; they do not like an east wind and are, + apparently, very sensitive to coming wet. I have often gone out on a + bright morning and been surprised to find nothing stirring, and then + clouds have come up and proved the wisdom of the bees in staying at home. + They also fly very little in cloudy weather, especially in the early + spring, when the temperature is reduced by cloud below their fancy. One + may be watching a sallow bush and see dozens of insects flying about. A + cloud shadows it, and almost immediately they disappear, to appear again + as suddenly with the return of the sun's rays. It is interesting to watch + bees at work collecting pollen, etc., but if any one wishes to study them + at home, their nesting haunts must, of course, be visited. These are so + various that it is impossible to point them all out, but the best + locality to select is a sandy bank facing south. In June or July such a + bank is often alive with bees, sand-wasps, etc.; here, again, we want + sunshine or the bees will stay in their holes. <!-- Page 84 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page84"></a>{84}</span>Even when dull, however, + it is a very interesting spot, and we can notice the numbers of holes + bored in the bank, and their different sizes and shapes; most of them are + round, but some sandwasps make very irregular holes. If we look closely + at some of the holes we shall see something closing the aperture, and, if + we are too inquisitive, that something will disappear down the hole like + lightning; it is the face of the owner of the burrow waiting to come out + for the first ray of sunshine, but the owner is very timid and it will be + some minutes before she puts her face so near danger again. In most of + the sandwasps the face is clothed with bright silvery, or sometimes + golden, hairs, and it is a very pretty sight to see these little silvery + faces peering out of their burrows. Again, one may sometimes notice a + little stream of sand emerging from a hole; this is from some bee who is + enlarging her domain or clearing out some of the sand which occasionally + falls in. In some cases this ejection of sand is done with a great deal + of action: the sand comes streaming out and then the bee follows, quite + up to the mouth of the passage, kicking out the sand as hard as it can. + <!-- Page 85 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page85"></a>{85}</span>The + moment, however, that the sun comes out the whole bank is full of life; + and just as in the case of the sallow bush, one wonders where it has all + been during the shadow. Bees will now be seen flying home laden with + pollen; they will pause at the opening of their burrow and then disappear + suddenly into its depths. In a very short time they will reappear quite + clean and ready for another journey. Their cleaning apparatus must be + wonderfully well adapted to its purpose. I have often had to remove the + pollen from a bee's leg to see what colour the hairs are, and it takes + some time even to brush enough of it off to ascertain this, and yet the + natural cleaning process seems to take no time in comparison. But to + return to our bank, numbers of bees will be seen coursing up and down and + hardly ever settling; these are males paying what attention they can to + any females who have time to attend to them, and often falling foul of + other males intent on similar pursuits. If one has good luck in the + choice of one's bank an elegant wasp-like creature may occasionally be + seen amongst the others; this is one of the cuckoos. The flight of all + the cuckoo bees is peculiar; it is much <!-- Page 86 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page86"></a>{86}</span>quieter and slower than + that of the hosts, and a cuckoo may easily be seen solemnly flying up and + down the bank, over the various holes, no doubt watching for the proper + opportunity to enter one, and deposit its egg in it. This deliberate + flight seems a curious habit in a creature which one would think would + wish to escape detection. If it seemed to inspire fear in the mind of its + host it would be different, but they appear to fly about together + unconcerned at each other's presence, and the cuckoo sails along demurely + and imposes on its hosts' labours without any apparent resentment on the + latter's part; both seem to accept their relationship as a matter of + course. Another very interesting frequenter of sandy banks is a pretty + little stout sandwasp, about a quarter of an inch long, called + <i>Oxybelus</i>. It has a very bright silvery face which shines most + brilliantly in the sun, and the body has a row of white spots on each + side, and it brings flies back to its nest. It is very active and common, + and may often be seen with its fly going back to its hole. There is a + rare species of the same genus, which is clothed all over with silvery + hairs, and this in some places, curiously <!-- Page 87 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page87"></a>{87}</span>enough, selects as its + victim a fly which is also coated with silver. There are, of course, many + other inhabitants in such a bank as this. There are sure to be ants, + which are always interesting to watch, and probably now and then a + <i>Pompilus</i> will appear on the scene. These exceedingly lively + creatures which run at a very rapid pace, vibrating their wings as they + go, and taking short flights between the runs, are on the hunt for + spiders. They will be seen to forage amongst any grass or herbage there + may be on the bank, and if they can only secure a spider it is stung and + paralyzed and carried off at once to the nest. Of course every sand bank + will not yield a great number of insects, but some, especially in sandy + districts like Woking, Oxshott, and other parts of the Surrey commons, + and the New Forest, simply teem with life—and would repay any one + for hours of watching and observation.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 88 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page88"></a>{88}</span></p> + +<h3>ANTS, THEIR GUESTS AND THEIR +LODGERS</h3> + + <p>The number of insects of different kinds which live in ants' nests, + either as scavengers, stray visitors who have found a lodging for the + moment, as guests carefully taken care of and appreciated by the ants, or + as lodgers, either tolerated or hostile to their hosts and persecuted, + and parasites, is very great. The most interesting of these from the + ordinary observer's point of view are the true guests and the lodgers. + The true guests are carefully attended to by the ants; they include such + insects as the <i>Aphides</i> or plant lice, and others which the ants + use as "cows" to secure the saccharine juices which they can obtain from + them, and also certain strange beetles which have tufts of golden hairs + on their body, which the ants lick—on account of what E. Wasmann<a + name="NtA2" href="#Nt2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> calls the etherealized oil + <!-- Page 89 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page89"></a>{89}</span>given off by them. These beetles are fairly + numerous and belong to several quite distinct families; the one which + perhaps is amongst the most interesting is a creature called <i>Lomechusa + strumosa</i>. This insect has rather an interesting history in connexion + with our British fauna. It used to be considered as an indigenous insect, + but so many years passed without any one finding it, that the old records + were suspected as doubtful, and it was removed from the list of British + species. In 1906, however, it was rediscovered near Woking in a nest of + <i>Formica sanguinea</i> (<a href="#platea">pl. A</a>, 1, 2, 3), one of + the large red ants, by Mr. H. Donisthorpe. The life-history of + <i>Lomechusa</i> is a very curious one: it is taken great care of by the + ants, and its larvæ are even placed by them with their own, on which it + feeds. Its numbers are kept down apparently by the overzeal of the ants + to take care of them. The ants bring their own pupæ up frequently to + obtain light and air and with them it brings up the <i>Lomechusa</i> + pupæ—this seems not to suit the latter and results in the death of + many of them. It is a most interesting case of how a due balance can be + maintained, and what might prove an enemy <!-- Page 90 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page90"></a>{90}</span>kept in his proper place + by kind intentions. There are also in ants' nests what Dr. Wasmann calls + "tolerated lodgers"; these are mostly creatures which are supposed to + escape the notice of the ants, either by their small size or by their + slow, lethargic, or on the other hand very rapid movements—these in + many cases act as scavengers, living on the dead bodies of insects, etc., + brought in by the ants.</p> + + <p>The hostile lodgers are real enemies to the ants and devour their + brood, and in consequence they are always at war with each other. These + creatures generally resemble the ants considerably in form and colour and + especially in their movements.</p> + + <p>Besides these lodgers there are numerous parasites of the ants, such + as mites, etc., so that an ant colony is a very wonderful mixture of + diverse inhabitants. The distinctions given above as to the habits of the + various lodgers are not always kept up, as, in some, two or more of these + habits are combined. The whole study of ants and their guests is a most + fascinating one: many of the latter are great rarities and much sought + after by collectors. Unfortunately, the great <!-- Page 91 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page91"></a>{91}</span>drawback in collecting + them is the havoc caused to the nests of the ants. These structures have + been the result of enormous labour on the part of these little creatures, + and one cannot regard their destruction without sincere regret. I think + any one who, when collecting beetles, disturbs a large nest of the little + garden ant (<i>Lasius niger</i>) or the little yellow ant (<i>Lasius + flavus</i>) by turning over a stone, as the writer has often done + himself, must have experienced a like regret at having broken up all the + beautiful passages and galleries which the ants have constructed so + carefully.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 92 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page92"></a>{92}</span></p> + +<h3>HOW CAN AN "ACULEATE" BE +RECOGNIZED?</h3> + + <p>This is not an easy question to answer. We cannot make hard and fast + definitions which will determine exactly what belongs to this group and + what to that; there are always some intermediate forms which present + themselves and make our classification unsatisfactory, but, I think, for + all purposes of practical observation in the field we may say that if we + find a creature with four membranous wings, burrowing in the ground or + making a nest in any way, it is an aculeate or stinger. Also, that if we + find a hairy-bodied insect with four clear wings collecting pollen or + sucking nectar from a flower it is a bee. There are, of course, + characters by which the stinging groups can be known almost for certain, + but there is no single one which can be given to recognize them by. <!-- + Page 93 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page93"></a>{93}</span>They are + known by a combination of many, and these are frequently small structural + details which do not appeal to the field observer; in fact, which are + unappreciable except under magnification. One of the chief difficulties + experienced by an observer who is not versed in classification is to + avoid being deceived by various flies, which in many cases greatly + resemble bees, and especially wasps or the wasp-like fossors. They may + mostly be known by their flight, and, when they settle, by their + behaviour. A fly is more sudden in its movements—those wasp-like + flies, for instance, which poise themselves in the air and appear quite + stationary but dart off in a second when approached, betray themselves at + once by their alertness. <i>Anthophora</i> and <i>Saropoda</i> poise in + the air and dart somewhat after the same fashion, but they never remain + poised for long, and do not get away from their position so rapidly. + Also, a fly when it settles remains quiet, whereas an aculeate if in a + flower sets to work collecting pollen, or if basking in the sun on a leaf + rarely rests for many seconds without moving in some way. On a flower, if + an insect is seen quietly sitting with its head away from the centre of + the <!-- Page 94 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page94"></a>{94}</span>flower, it is almost certain to be a fly. + Most of the little bees (<i>Halicti</i>) which visit dandelions and such + like "composites" fly in to them with some rapidity, attack them + sideways, and move round the "flower", no doubt getting pollen from each + floret in succession and with a businesslike action about it all, which + is very different from the behaviour of any fly. The flies which really + closely resemble bees in their flight are those which lay their eggs in + the burrows of various bees and sandwasps. They are really deceptive. + Last summer on the sandhills at Southbourne, near Bournemouth, I again + and again was deceived by a small fly with a red belt across its body, + thinking it was a red-bodied sandwasp. These it really only resembles on + the wing. After having been taken in once or twice one felt ashamed of + oneself for not recognizing it. The flies also which associate with the + humble bees are often coloured very much like them, and could easily be + mistaken for small specimens of the bees were it not for their behaviour + and wings, which show a dark spot on the upper margin, not existing in + the wing of the bee.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 95 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page95"></a>{95}</span></p> + +<h3>MALES AND FEMALES</h3> + + <p>These differ from each other very greatly in many cases. Eccentricity + in structure almost always occurs in the male; excess of coloration + usually in the female. In size the male is generally the smaller and the + less robustly built of the two. Among the pollen-collectors, the male is + usually less densely clothed with hairs than the ♀. In the fossors + this rule is rather reversed, but in that section neither sex is densely + clothed with hairs as are most of the pollenigerous bees.</p> + + <p>The male has normally thirteen joints in its antennæ, and the female + only twelve. There are exceptions to this rule amongst the ants and in + certain fossors of the genus <i>Crabro</i>, some species of which have + the antennæ considerably distorted, and have two joints welded apparently + into one. Another distinction between the sexes is that the male has + seven dorsal segments <!-- Page 96 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page96"></a>{96}</span>of the body exposed to view, and the female + only six. In the males of some of those bees which collect pollen on the + underside of the body, the body above terminates with the sixth segment. + This is because the seventh is turned over on to the underside, and faces + downwards, its apex pointing towards the head. This arrangement of course + leaves less room for the regular ventral segments, and the usual apical + segments are in consequence "telescoped" up under the fourth, so that the + apical opening of the body lies on its underside between the fourth + ventral and the inverted seventh dorsal segments. This very curious + structure occurs only in those bees whose females collect pollen on the + underside, and the reason of it is to me quite inexplicable. The females + of a few of the fossors are destitute of wings; but in this country we + have no wingless males, except in the case of one little ant + (<i>Formicoxenus</i>); this lives in the nest of the common large red + ant, and its male can hardly be known from the worker except by the + number of joints in the antennæ and the absence of a sting. In the cases + where the female is wingless, the male as a rule is much the larger of + the two sexes. <!-- Page 97 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page97"></a>{97}</span>There are few more puzzling questions than + those which arise over these eccentricities of structure; they seem to + have no relation to any habits of the creatures' lives so far as we can + judge, neither can one suggest any useful purpose which they can serve. + In some groups the males of all the species seem built on one regular + plan—in others the males of each species seem to vie with the next + as to what eccentricity of structure in antennæ or legs or apex of the + body it can exhibit. In numbers, the males probably considerably exceed + the females, and are far more frequently met with, as they seem to be + less particular as to weather, and not being intent on obtaining food for + their offspring they fly about more casually, and certainly are more in + evidence generally.</p> + + <p>The great difference in structure, etc., between the males and females + makes the work of pairing the sexes very difficult, especially in those + genera where the males and females appear together only for a few weeks, + as is the case in <i>Halictus</i> and <i>Sphecodes</i>. If one visits a + locality in the spring one may catch any number of females of + <i>Halictus</i>, but no males appear till the late <!-- Page 98 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page98"></a>{98}</span>summer or autumn, and, + unless one visits the same spot again when both sexes are out, it is + impossible to associate males and females. I have at the present moment + in my collection several males, which, being in doubt about myself, I + have communicated to continental authorities, who have returned them to + me as possibly the male of so and so! and we shall have to remain in + uncertainty about them till some one happens to take both sexes together, + when the mystery will be solved.</p> + + <p>In time of appearance the males always precede the females—in + burrows, such as those of the leaf-cutting bees, etc., it may seem + puzzling as to how this is arranged, as one cell is placed over the other + so that those lower down in the tube cannot pass those higher up. This + difficulty is got over by the arrangement that the first eggs laid by the + mother bee are female and the last male, so that those at the top belong + to this latter sex; these emerge as soon as the warmth of the sun is + great enough to energize them sufficiently to break through their cell + covering, when they emerge and wait for the appearance of their females. + The males of <!-- Page 99 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page99"></a>{99}</span>some species of <i>Andrena</i> seem to take + great pleasure in flying rapidly up and down hedgerows, hardly ever + settling, and apparently far away from their females, which are probably + pollen collecting in dandelions or some such flowers in the + neighbourhood.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 100 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page100"></a>{100}</span></p> + +<h3>THE VAGARIES OF COLOUR AND +STRUCTURE IN THE SEXES</h3> + + <p>As a rule the male is rather smaller and especially slenderer than the + female, but there are notable exceptions; in one genus of the fossors, + <i>Myrmosa</i> for instance, the male is many times larger than the + female. In this case the male is winged and the female is wingless. Also, + if there is a difference in brightness of coloration between the sexes, + as a rule the male is duller than the female—this is especially the + case among the bees—but if there is any eccentricity in the form of + the limbs it is almost sure to occur in the male, and I think one would + not go far wrong in saying that when peculiar features occur in the + female, the reason for them is more or less apparent, whereas for the + eccentricities of the male there really often seems to be no assignable + cause. These male eccentricities are often exceedingly marked. A very + good <!-- Page 101 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page101"></a>{101}</span><span class="figleft" + style="width:14%;"><a href="images/Fig23.png"><img style="width:100%" + src="images/Fig23.png" alt="Fig 23. Antennae of wasps" title="Fig 23. Antennae of wasps" + /></a><span class="sc">Fig. 23.</span></span> <span class="figright" + style="width:18%;"><a href="images/Fig24.png"><img style="width:100%" + src="images/Fig24.png" alt="Fig 24. Legs of wasps" title="Fig 24. Legs of wasps" + /></a><span class="sc">Fig. 24.</span></span> example of them occurs + among the small "keyhole" wasps. All the British species are practically + alike in coloration. They may vary in having a greater or less number of + yellow bands on the body, but otherwise their distinctions rest on + structure. In the females the antennæ are slightly thickened towards the + apex, but otherwise they are simple. The males, however, are divided into + three quite distinct groups. In the first of these, the end joints of the + antennæ are rolled up in more or less of a spiral (fig. 23, 2); in the + second, the apical joint is turned sharply back like a hook (fig. 23, 1); + in the third, the end joints of the antennæ are simple and more or less + like those of the female. Now if we examine the legs of the males in the + first group we shall find still greater peculiarities; in two of our + species there is a long yellow spine at the extreme base of the middle + leg on the little joint by which it articulates on to the body (fig. 24, + 2), and a curious pencil of hairs <!-- Page 102 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page102"></a>{102}</span>on each side of the + mouth. In two others, the femora, or thighs of the middle legs, are cut + into two deep somewhat semicircular incisions (fig. 24, 1)—a most + curious character; but here again the females have no corresponding + peculiarities. There seems to be no explanation known for these vagaries, + and yet one feels that there must be some object served by them. If we + turn to the bees we shall find that in many species the face of the male + is white to a greater or less extent, whereas that character is very rare + in the female. The front feet are produced into a wide flattened form in + some, in others the middle legs are extraordinarily developed, and + provided with tufts of hairs, etc. Another form of male development lies + in the form of the head. This is sometimes very much enlarged—often + varying considerably in this respect in specimens of the same species; + there is often a projecting tooth or spine on the mandible or jaw at its + base, or frequently on the cheek just above it. Then in the fossors the + males of the genus <i>Crabro</i> break out into numerous eccentricities; + in some, two or more of the joints of the antennæ are soldered together + and curved or cut out into <!-- Page 103 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page103"></a>{103}</span>curious forms (fig. 26); in others the + front shin or tibia is formed like a concave shield or shell (fig. 25), + and all the joints of that leg more or less distorted; in another male (a + rather doubtful native which has not been taken in this country for fifty + years) the head is narrowed behind into an almost ridiculously small + neck, being quite triangular in form, viewed from above, with the eyes + projecting from its anterior angles (fig. 27, 1), the female head being + of normal form (fig. 27, 2).</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;"> + <a href="images/Fig25.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig25.png" + alt="Fig 25. Tibia of Crabro cribrarius" title="Fig 25. Tibia of Crabro cribrarius" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig. 25.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:15%;"> + <a href="images/Fig26.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig26.png" + alt="Fig 26. Antennae of Crabro cribrarius" title="Fig 26. Antennae of Crabro cribrarius" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig. 26.</span> + </div> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:12%;"> + <a href="images/Fig27.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig27.png" + alt="Fig 27. Heads of Crabro clypeatus" title="Fig 27. Heads of Crabro clypeatus" /></a> + <span class="sc">Fig. 27.</span> + </div> + + <p>In the males of several species of fossors and bees the eyes are + enormously developed, joining one another on the top of the head. This + condition occurs also in the drone of the hive bee. The male of + <i>Astatus</i>, which has this character, has also a peculiar habit. It + sits basking in the sun on some bare sandy spot, and when disturbed makes + a sort of circular detour and pitches down again exactly on the spot from + which it started up. An <!-- Page 104 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page104"></a>{104}</span>increased length of the antennæ is another + male characteristic. This is carried to an extraordinary development in + what is called the "long horned bee"; this bee, which is pretty common in + some places, has antennæ which, when directed backwards, are almost as + long as its body—the female has quite an ordinary pair.</p> + + <p>Another set of male characters which are of great value to + systematists lies in the hidden apical segments of the underside; + although these are hidden, being telescoped up inside the segments which + close the apical opening of the body, they often assume most curious and + beautiful forms, and are characters whereby the males of a species may be + determined with certainty when the females defy all one's endeavours to + discover their identity.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 105 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page105"></a>{105}</span></p> + +<h3>THE DISTRIBUTION, RARITY, OR ABUNDANCE +OF VARIOUS SPECIES</h3> + + <p>There are few points about which we know less than the causes of + distribution and rarity, although there are certain tolerably well + recognized laws which govern the occurrence of some species in certain + localities. What I mean is that marshy spots, say salt marshes for + instance, attract certain beetles and bugs which are never found except + in such places; certain kinds of flowers attract bees which never appear + to visit any others, but these localities and kinds of flowers occur + often at great distances from each other, and why—given a certain + flower you probably find a certain bee peculiar to it; or given a certain + kind of marsh you probably find a certain beetle, although the localities + may be hundreds of miles apart—I think still awaits explanation. I + will give an example with which I am personally well acquainted. <!-- + Page 106 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page106"></a>{106}</span>There + is a rare little bee (<i>Macropis labiata</i>) which at one time was + looked upon as an extreme rarity, having only occurred three or four + times in this country. Mr. F. Enoch, comparatively lately, took a fair + number on the flowers of the greater loose-strife (<i>Lysimachia + vulgaris</i>) along the canal at Woking; now that its food-plant is + known, it has occurred in several other places in numbers, and no doubt + wherever the <i>Lysimachia</i> is abundant <i>Macropis</i> will probably + occur, but how the little creature has been distributed over the places + where this plant occurs, which are often far distant from each other, + seems to me to be an unsolved problem. Then there is another puzzling + point, and that is the extreme rarity of certain insects. No doubt in + many cases this is due to ignorance of their habits, as it has frequently + happened that species once considered of great rarity have occurred in + abundance when their habits have been discovered, as in the case of + <i>Macropis</i>, but there are some cases which do not seem to be + explainable in this way. I will again give an example which has been + specially under my own observation. <i>Dufourea vulgaris</i>, a little + black bee, <!-- Page 107 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page107"></a>{107}</span>which certainly might not be recognized + from its outward appearance, as there are many which very closely + resemble it, is still one of our greatest rarities, only three British + examples having been recorded. The first was taken by Sir Sidney Saunders + at Chewton, Hants, on the twelfth of August, 1879; this was a male; the + second, a female, was taken by Mr. T. R. Billups at Woking, on the first + of August, 1881; and the third by myself at Chobham (about four miles + from Woking) on the first of August, 1891. I believe in all cases these + were taken on yellow composite flowers. The flight and behaviour of the + male I caught were so peculiar, as it wriggled itself into the flower, + that I knew at once I had caught a rarity, and remarked to my companions + that I believed I had got a <i>Dufourea</i>. I also hazarded the remark + that it was "ten years since it had been taken." When I got home and + looked up the former record it was ten years to a day. Now there are few + places in England that have been better worked for the bee tribe than the + Woking, Chobham, and Weybridge neighbourhood; it has been worked by + experienced men who would see a difference <!-- Page 108 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page108"></a>{108}</span>in the flight of an + insect directly. The late Mr. F. Smith, in his day our leading authority, + the Rev. F. D. Morice, than whom no one has probably worked the + neighbourhood more thoroughly, Mr. T. R. Billups, Mr. E. B. Nevinson, and + the late Mr. A. Beaumont, have all been over the ground again and again, + and yet only these two <i>Dufoureas</i>! and these taken four miles + apart. Here again is a problem which is very perplexing! What part in + nature does this little rarity play? No doubt like everything else it has + its duties, and its corner to fill, but beyond that one can suggest + nothing.</p> + + <p>Other bees are often exceedingly abundant in one season and very rare + the next, or they will entirely desert a locality where they have been + abundant, and move somewhere else—the occasional scarceness is due + probably to continued wet weather, which often appears to kill the larvæ. + Cold winters seem to have no injurious effect, although at one time they + were thought to determine the scarcity or otherwise of the bees of the + following summer. It has, I think, been clearly shown that larvæ can + stand almost any amount of cold, although they succumb to <!-- Page 109 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page109"></a>{109}</span>the effects of + mildew produced by wet, but there is often no apparent reason why a well + established colony should migrate to quite new pastures. Sometimes the + proximity of new buildings or the digging up of ground may disturb them, + but I know of colonies that have gone from where I knew them a + comparatively few years ago, and where I can detect no change likely to + have affected them. On the other hand there are colonies which one has + known all one's life and which still go on as strongly or more strongly + than ever—the case quoted under <i>Anthophora</i>, p. <a + href="#page63">63</a>, shows what persistence there can be in some.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 110 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page110"></a>{110}</span></p> + +<h3>ON BEES' WINGS</h3> + + <p>The Bees and the other stinging groups have four wings like all the + <i>Hymenoptera</i>. These wings are almost always clear and transparent, + at any rate amongst the British species, there being only one exception + which I can call to mind in the female of the cuckoo of our large + red-tailed humble-bee, which has the wings blackish; also they are never + spotted, as in some flies. The hind or lower wings unite with the upper + by a series of very beautiful hooks which extend along their upper margin + and fix on to the posterior edge of the front wing, which is folded back + on itself so as to receive them; in flight the two wings are united, but + when at rest they separate; these hooks are beautiful objects under a + microscope; their numbers vary; and in some cases this variation is + useful in distinguishing closely allied species from one another. The hum + of a bee is caused, to a great extent, by <!-- Page 111 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page111"></a>{111}</span>the vibration of the + wings, but it has been shown that a loud buzzing noise can be emitted by + bees which have lost their wings; this proceeds from the spiracles or + holes in the outer covering of the creature through which it breathes. It + is therefore not always easy to say how much of the hum is caused by wing + vibration and how much by the action of the spiracles. Some, in fact + most, of our solitary bees are almost silent in flight, and their note + can be heard only when large numbers are flying together; others have a + very peculiar shrill hum, by which even the species can almost be + recognized. In bright, hot, sunny weather their flight is more rapid and + their note attains a higher pitch. The bees with the highest pitched hum + with which I am acquainted are the two smaller species of + <i>Anthophora</i> and <i>Saropoda bimaculata</i>.</p> + + <p>In early spring, when it is hot in the sunshine and cold when a cloud + covers the sun, it is no unusual thing to see a bee drop to the ground. + The cold seems to paralyze altogether their powers of flight. When at + rest a bee folds its wings along the sides of its back, but only in the + wasp tribe is there the arrangement for them to be <!-- Page 112 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page112"></a>{112}</span>folded longitudinally. + The shape of the wings varies very little, but the arrangement and number + of their cells vary considerably. There are some very interesting genera + in which the neuration of some of the cells is so slightly indicated that + they are hardly visible, and can be seen only when the wing is held in + certain lights; these faintly indicated cells are nearly always those + towards the apex of the wing, the neuration of the basal part of the wing + being as strong as in the other genera. There are a few moths in this + country which very much resemble, both in the colour of their bodies and + their clear wings, the wasp tribe, but they may be known by the brown + band of scales at the apex of the wings and also by the absence of the + narrow waist, which exists in all the stinging tribes. The only wingless + forms which we know are to be found amongst the ants and the fossors, and + as a rule are females, but in a few cases in the ants, and in some + foreign species of the genus <i>Mutilla</i>, the male is apterous + also.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 113 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page113"></a>{113}</span></p> + +<h3>ON BREEDING ACULEATES, ETC.</h3> + + <p>Any one who wishes to study the life-histories of these insects, and + has leisure to do so, can easily obtain various larvæ by digging for them + in suitable places. If, for instance, during the summer, bees, etc., have + been noticed entering holes in a certain bank or sandy spot, their larvæ + or nymphs can be got in the autumn by digging down for about a foot in + the direction of the holes, and if they be brought home and put into + glass-top boxes they will generally emerge at their right time without + giving any further trouble; it must, however, be remembered that the + grubs are very soft and tender skinned, and it is better to avoid + handling them if possible; they should be moved with a small soft + camel-hair pencil, and it is well to put something soft at the bottom of + the box so that if they fall in they will not be damaged. If the + wood-boring <!-- Page 114 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page114"></a>{114}</span>species are being collected, care must of + course be taken in splitting the wood; most of these make a pupa case + over themselves, and are in that respect easier to deal with. A label + should be put in each box to show where the larvæ, etc., were found. An + old rotten stump of a tree will often produce a good number of species. + Then there are the bramble-stem borers; these can be left in the stems. I + have generally found it convenient, after arriving home, to split the + stems down, to see if there are any living creatures in them, and, if + there are, to close them up again, and, tie a little very fine net or + gauze bag over the top of each stem; in this way one can find out exactly + what insects come from what stem, and determine the cuckoos (if any) + which belong to each. As the season advances towards May, it is well to + give all the larvæ, etc., an occasional glimpse of the sun; they should + not be left in the sun long enough for them to get dried up too much, but + the sun is a very important factor in tempting them to emerge; naked + larvæ and nymphs, in glass-top boxes, should be treated very carefully in + this respect, as they are deprived of their <!-- Page 115 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page115"></a>{115}</span>natural surroundings, + in which the actual sunshine would never reach them—it would be + better to place them in a sunny room, screened off from the actual rays + of the sun, so that its warmth only would be felt. If they do not emerge + the first year, it should not be taken for granted that they are dead, as + very likely they will appear in the following spring. I have bred + leaf-cutting bees several times with great success, and others I know + have been successful with many species. The fear is to get them dried up + too much; it is therefore not desirable to keep them in a very hot room. + When first the insects emerge, their hairs are often more or less matted + together, and they should be put in the sun in a larger box, so that they + can crawl about and clean themselves; portions also of the skin in which + they have been enveloped frequently adhere to them for some little time, + but as a rule, unless the creature be too weak, these are very soon + cleaned off. Breeding is a fascinating amusement, but it requires a great + deal of attention when the emerging season begins, as the boxes want + constant watching, or the insects will emerge unnoticed, and, if not + given proper <!-- Page 116 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page116"></a>{116}</span>air and sunshine, may die without cleaning + themselves properly.</p> + + <p>If it is desired to preserve the specimens, they should be killed + either with cyanide of potassium, ether, or chloroform. If the first of + these agents is used, a piece of about the size of a small hazel nut + should be put at the bottom of a bottle (for collecting purposes, an + ordinary "Coleoptera bottle", which can be obtained from any naturalist's + shop, is the most convenient) and should be kept down by a wad of + blotting paper, well pressed down upon it; this prevents the cyanide, as + it liquifies, from wetting the hairs, etc., of the insects. Over this a + piece of white paper should be placed; this will get stained at once when + there is much damp, and should then be changed. The objections to cyanide + are its very poisonous nature, and the stiffness which is caused by its + use to the specimens killed by it, and also its tendency to turn yellow + colours red. I always use it myself as I think it is preferable to the + other insecticides, notwithstanding its demerits, but then I do not + extend the legs and wings of my specimens, but simply leave them in + whatever position they happen to <!-- Page 117 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page117"></a>{117}</span>die. Ether is a very + favourite method of killing with many; a few drops in a bottle with some + paper in it is sufficient to last for some hours; it however soon + evaporates in hot weather, and it is necessary to carry a small phial of + it in one's pocket to replenish the supply when exhausted; this makes one + smell of ether perpetually, which is more than I can stand. But the + insects killed in this way are beautifully supple, and, for those who + wish to set their captures as they would <i>Lepidoptera</i>, it is an + excellent medium, i.e. if they don't mind its smell; it has also the + benefit of not affecting colour. Chloroform acts much as ether does. When + killed, I strongly recommend collectors to pin their specimens through + the thorax with a very fine pin (those used for micro-lepidoptera are the + best), and then to pin this through a narrow strip of card, mounted on a + long stout pin; in this way the insect can be moved about by the strong + pin, and the thorax of the insect itself is not destroyed, as it often is + in the case of the smaller species by the use of thicker pins. The cards + should be cut as small as possible; they need not be more than a quarter + of an inch long. The insect <!-- Page 118 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page118"></a>{118}</span>should be pinned at right angles to the + long axis of the card, and the long pin should be inserted on the + right-hand side of the insect so as not quite to touch it. In this way + the insects look quite as neat as if they were pinned direct. Locality + labels, etc., should be affixed to the long pin, and the insects should + be stored in cabinets or boxes.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 119 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page119"></a>{119}</span></p> + +<h3>ON COLOUR</h3> + + <p>There is but little tendency towards brilliant coloration amongst our + native aculeates. No doubt our comparatively high latitude accounts for + this to some extent, as also the fact that the aculeates do not, as a + rule, elsewhere assume great brilliancy. Even in the tropics and other + warm regions, where bright green, blue or coppery coloured species occur, + they are comparatively few in number. In this country metallic colours + are to be found in less than a dozen species, and in most of these it + exists only as a tinge. Amongst our ants and wasps it does not exist at + all, unless the slight bronziness of the typical form of <i>Formica + fusca</i> be so considered. The fossors can exhibit only a bluish tint in + <i>Mutilla Europæa</i> (<a href="#platea">pl. A</a>, 4, 5), and a slight + bronzy tinge in two of quite the smallest species, <i>Miscophus + maritimus</i> and the ♂ of <i>Crabro albilabris</i>. The bees can + do a little better; five species of <i>Halictus</i> have a distinctly + <!-- Page 120 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page120"></a>{120}</span>bronzy head and thorax, and in three the + bronzy colour extends to the abdomen; there is also another with a very + dull green tinge on the thorax; besides these there is a little bright + blue bee, <i>Ceratina</i> (unfortunately a great rarity in this country) + and two or three species of <i>Osmia</i>, showing more or less tendency + to bronziness, and one which is distinctly bluish; but, considering our + indigenous species number nearly 400, this is a very small, and compared + with other countries I should think an abnormally small, proportion.</p> + + <p>Species with bodies banded like a wasp's are much more + abundant—no less than eighty of our native kinds having this style + of coloration. The bands may be reduced to lateral spots, but such cases, + I think, are only modifications of the banded scheme.</p> + + <p>Black species with a more or less pronounced red band across the body + number about seventy, and a general testaceous or yellowish colour occurs + in a few ants, but not elsewhere among the British aculeates. Nearly all + the rest are black or dark brown so far as the actual surface of the body + is concerned; but amongst the bees <!-- Page 121 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page121"></a>{121}</span>there is often a dense + clothing of coloured hairs sometimes so dense that the surface of the + body may be rendered invisible. These coloured hairs may be distributed + into brilliant bands, as in the humble bees, or they may be uniformly + black, as in some of their varieties and in the females of the spring + species of <i>Anthophora</i> (<a href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 25), or + entirely red as in <i>Andrena fulva</i> (<a href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, + 16), or black on the thorax and red on the abdomen as in <i>Osmia + bicolor</i> (<a href="#plated">pl. D</a>, 28), or vice versâ as in + <i>Andrena thoracica</i>, etc., but the most usual condition is that + where the hairs form more or less pale bands along the joints of the + segments, either immediately above or below them or both; sometimes these + bands are very obscurely indicated, and visible only in certain + positions. At others they are vividly white; to a certain extent this + banded condition recalls the waspy coloration. The hairs, however, of the + bands are rarely yellow, but as a rule greyish or white, or of a grade of + colour slightly paler than those of the disc. There are some rather + interesting points which arise out of this rough analysis. Among the + bees, all the species which have a waspy coloration are cuckoos, with + only one exception (<i>Anthidium</i>) <!-- Page 122 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page122"></a>{122}</span>(<a href="#plated">pl. + D</a>, 27), as are also nearly all those which have red bands. With the + exception of the males of three species of <i>Halictus</i>, and both + sexes of three or four species of <i>Andrena</i>, all the red-banded + forms belong to the genus <i>Sphecodes</i> (<a href="#plateb">pl. B</a>, + 11), which is a cuckoo genus. The red coloration occurs chiefly on nearly + naked surfaces; this is specially noticeable in those bees which have two + varieties, such as <i>Andrena rosæ</i>, one dull coloured and the other + red-banded: in these cases the dull form is hairy and the red nearly + naked. The greatest proportionate number of banded species occurs amongst + the fossors, and these are seldom clothed with hairs to any extent. These + bands seem to me probably to depend a good deal on retarded development. + Dark and hairy bands, both as a rule, follow the joints of the segments, + as stated above. I only say as a rule, as there are many where the + banding does not follow this principle, but in far the larger majority + the bands, whether of dark colour or hairs, are apical. As the segments + overlap at the joints it is evident that their discs would tend to mature + more rapidly than the overlapping bases and apices, <!-- Page 123 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page123"></a>{123}</span>and the longer + period spent in hardening and drying of the overlapping parts would + favour the development of dark pigment and of hairs. Many species have + the extreme apices of the segments pale, but with the apical integument + so very thin, often looking nearly transparent and membranous, that its + development would be very rapid. Again, in the case of red coloration, + the red generally occurs on the discs of the segments, the apices and + sides often being dark, and in cases where in one species both black and + banded forms occur, with intermediate varieties, the last remnant of red + colour is generally situated in the centre of the segment. By far the + gayest effect is displayed by our humble bees, and, but for them and a + few of the species of <i>Andrena</i> and the wasp-coloured species, our + aculeates would be a very sombre lot.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 124 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page124"></a>{124}</span></p> + +<h3>THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS FROM +THE EGG</h3> + + <p>Although this and the following chapter may not be interesting to all + my readers, I think it is only right to add some remarks on the structure + and classification of insects, so that any one who wishes to follow up + the subject may gather a few general ideas which may induce them to take + up some technical and scientific work in which they will get fuller and + more exact data on the difficulties which are involved in such simple + questions as "What is an insect?" "How are the different orders of + insects distinguished from each other?" "What is a species?" etc.</p> + + <p>To realize the characters of an insect in its perfect or "imago" + state, we may for the moment forget what often seems to be its most + important features, and which are frequently its most extensive parts, + viz. its limbs or <!-- Page 125 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page125"></a>{125}</span>appendages; by limbs are meant its wings, + legs, horns or antennæ, jaws or mandibles, etc.: strip these all off, and + we have a limbless trunk, which many would not recognize as belonging to + an insect at all; still this limbless trunk possesses characters which + assert its insect nature, as it may be known from other limbless trunks + by being divided into three parts by two great transverse divisions; in + most insects these are extremely well marked, and in all they have a very + real existence. The parts thus divided off are known by the names of + head, thorax, and abdomen. Anybody knows how easy it is to break off the + head or body of a dried insect. Now the head or body breaks off at one of + these divisions, and it is this partitioning of the body into three + sections which makes one of the strongest characters in the definition of + an insect. The three parts, thus divided off, each possesses special + functions in the life of the creature. In the head are contained the + principal organs of sense and brain; in the thorax, the organs of + locomotion; and in the body those of digestion, reproduction, etc.</p> + + <p>This division into three parts does not however <!-- Page 126 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page126"></a>{126}</span>always hold good in the + early stages of the insect's life, and we must remember that the creature + commences life on leaving the egg, and not merely on its emergence from + the chrysalis, so that we have to reckon with caterpillars, grubs and all + sorts of curious immature forms in our conceptions of an insect.</p> + + <p>These early stages do not as a rule interest the public much, but it + is well to bear in mind that the "perfect insect" stage is reached by + some insects along apparently a very different road from that travelled + by others. Some leave the egg as caterpillars or grubs, and after various + changes of skin become apparently lifeless chrysalids, from which they + emerge as perfect insects. Others leave the egg as diminutive likenesses + of their parents, and run or hop about much as they do, attaining the + perfect insect stage simply by a series of changes of skin, without any + definite quiescent or chrysalis condition.</p> + + <p>The observation, therefore, which one often hears that insects never + grow, has to be taken with caution; all insects grow in their early + stages, but it is an obvious truth that insects do not <!-- Page 127 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page127"></a>{127}</span>grow after + they attain the imago or "perfect insect" condition. A small fly will + never become a large fly, nor a small beetle a large beetle. This is only + because we do not recognize their caterpillars or grubs as flies and + beetles; but a grasshopper we know grows, because its early stages are of + the same general form as the perfect insect, and we see the little ones + hopping about in some places, and if we visit the same place later on we + notice that they have grown, but as soon as they cast their last skin and + obtain the free use of their wings, growth ceases, as it does in a fly or + a beetle or in any other insect.</p> + + <p>It must not be supposed that the limbs of insects are of no value in + their identification. We only removed them in order to emphasize the + great importance of the character derived from the regional constrictions + of the body, which is considered to be certainly one of the most, if not + the most, important of any. Besides this character every perfect insect + should have six legs, four wings, and various appendages on the head, + such as antennæ, mandibles, maxillæ, labium, etc.; some of these may be + so modified as hardly to <!-- Page 128 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page128"></a>{128}</span>be recognizable, but they are hardly ever + absent altogether; for instance, the two fore wings of a beetle are + modified into what are called wing cases, and fold over its back, + protecting the two hind wings, which are more or less membranous, as are + those of a bee. They have not the functions of locomotive organs, and are + used in flight as poisers. Again in the case of a fly, the hind wings + seem to be absent, but they are considered to be represented by two + little projecting organs which look like large headed pins or nails, but + which are quite useless for locomotive purposes.</p> + + <p>The organs of the mouth are especially liable to modification, and on + these the older authors used to frame their classification. Insects were + divided by them, primarily, into two great divisions, viz. those which + had a biting and those which had a sucking mouth; treated in this way, + the following orders fall into the division with biting + mouths:—</p> + + <p><i>Coleoptera</i>, or beetles; <i>Hymenoptera</i>, or bees, wasps, + ants, etc.; <i>Orthoptera</i> and <i>Neuroptera</i>, which include the + grasshoppers, earwigs, cockroaches, dragonflies, May flies, etc. <!-- + Page 129 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page129"></a>{129}</span></p> + + <p>And into the division with sucking mouths:—</p> + + <p><i>Lepidoptera</i>, or butterflies and moths; <i>Diptera</i> or flies, + gnats, etc.; <i>Hemiptera</i>, or bugs, including the plant-lice, + etc.</p> + + <p>These divisions, however, have not been found to be very satisfactory, + although very simple when dealing only with the perfect insect stage. In + the first place, being framed on this stage only, they are not always + applicable to the earlier phases of the insect's life—for instance, + although a butterfly or moth has a sucking proboscis, their caterpillars + have strong biting jaws, as any gardener well knows. Also bees, wasps, + etc., rather upset the arrangement, as they have not only a sucking mouth + but also strong biting jaws.</p> + + <p>This system of classification has therefore been discarded by most + entomologists in favour of that based on the difference between those + insects which pass through the distinctive stages of caterpillar and + chrysalis on the one hand, and those which emerge from the egg as + diminutive likenesses of their parents on the other. In this arrangement, + the <i>Coleoptera</i>, <i>Hymenoptera</i>, <i>Lepidoptera</i>, + <i>Diptera</i> and <i>Neuroptera</i>, fall into the <!-- Page 130 + --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page130"></a>{130}</span>first + division, or <i>Heteromorphæ</i> as they are called; and the + <i>Hemiptera</i> and <i>Orthoptera</i> into the second or + <i>Homomorphæ</i>. The dragonflies are the only slightly discordant + elements in this arrangement, as, although their larvæ have six legs and + walk about under the water and never assume an actual chrysalis + condition, still they can hardly be said to resemble their gorgeously + coloured parents which fly about so majestically over our ponds, etc.; + still this is only one of the many cases which show that nature cannot be + held down by any of the arbitrary rules we make for her + classification.</p> + + <p>The <i>Hymenoptera</i> are therefore characterized and distinguished + from other insects by having both a biting and sucking mouth, four clear + wings, and by passing through the distinctive liveries of caterpillar or + grub, and chrysalis or nymph. It is with this order only with which we + have been dealing. To distinguish the aculeate section from the many + other forms of the <i>Hymenoptera</i> is too complex a task to undertake + here, but the presence of a narrow waist between the thorax and the body, + the number of joints in the antennæ never exceeding thirteen in <!-- Page + 131 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page131"></a>{131}</span>the male, + twelve in the female, and the presence of a sting capable of ejecting + poison in this latter sex, are the most prominent features by which the + aculeates may be recognized.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="short" /> + +<p><!-- Page 132 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page132"></a>{132}</span></p> + +<h3>ON STRUCTURE</h3> + + <p>Although in the foregoing chapter a little has been said on this + subject, there is a great deal more that a student should learn about the + general form of these creatures.</p> + + <p>They begin life as white or nearly colourless grubs, which, after + various changes of skin, assume what is called the nymph or pupa stage, + during which a change occurs, believed to be peculiar to the + <i>Hymenoptera</i>; the fifth segment of the larval body is transferred + to the mass which is called the thorax, so that a portion of what looks + like thorax is really the first segment of the abdomen. Continental + writers call this portion sometimes the first abdominal segment and + sometimes the median segment, but Newman gave it a definite name, the + "propodeum", and the most convenient method seems to be to call it so, + and treat it as a part of the thorax, calling the first or basal segment + of the abdomen <!-- Page 133 --><span class="pagenum"><a + name="page133"></a>{133}</span>that which immediately follows the + regional constriction, which occurs between the propodeum and the + abdomen.</p> + + <div class="figleft" style="width:55%;"> + <a href="images/Fig28.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/Fig28.png" + alt="Fig 28. Parts of an aculeate" title="Fig 28. Parts of an aculeate" /></a> + </div> +<blockquote class="b1s"> + + <p><span class="sc">Fig. 28.</span></p> + + <p><i>a</i> Head. <i>a</i><sup>1</sup> Antennæ. <i>a</i><sup>2</sup> + Ocelli. <i>a</i><sup>3</sup> Compound eyes.</p> + + <p><i>b</i><sup>1</sup> Prothorax. <i>b</i><sup>2</sup> Scutum of + Mesothorax. <i>b</i><sup>3</sup> Scutellum of Mesothorax. + <i>b</i><sup>4</sup> Post-Scutellum of Metathorax. <i>b</i><sup>5</sup> + Propodeum.</p> + + <p><i>c</i><sup>1</sup> <i>c</i><sup>2</sup>, etc., Segments of + Abdomen.</p> + + <p>Legs. <i>d</i><sup>1</sup> Coxa. <i>d</i><sup>2</sup> Trochanter. + <i>d</i><sup>3</sup> Femur. <i>d</i><sup>4</sup> Tibia. + <i>d</i><sup>5</sup> Tarsi. <i>d</i><sup>6</sup> Calcaria or Spurs. + <i>d</i><sup>7</sup> Unguiculi or claws. <i>d</i><sup>8</sup> + Pulvillus.</p> + + <p><i>e</i> Front wing. 1 Costal nervure. 2 Post Costal nervure. 3 Median + nervure. 4 Posterior nervure. 5 Basal nervure. 6 Cubital nervure. 10 1st + Recurrent nervure. 11 2nd Recurrent nervure.</p> + + <p><i>f.</i> Hind wing. 7 Anterior nervure. 8 Median nervure. 9 Posterior + nervure.</p> + + <p>Cells. <i>A</i> Marginal. <i>B</i> Upper basal. <i>C</i> Lower basal. + <i>D</i> 1st Submarginal. <i>E</i> 2nd Submarginal. <i>F</i> 3rd + Submarginal. <i>G</i> 1st Discoidal. <i>H</i> 2nd Discoidal. <i>I</i> 3rd + Discoidal. <i>J</i> 1st Apical. <i>K</i> 2nd Apical.</p> + +</blockquote> + +<div style="clear: both"></div> +<p><!-- Page 134 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page134"></a>{134}</span></p> + + <p>The perfect insect when it emerges has therefore a head, a thorax of + four segments, and an abdomen of seven visible dorsal segments in the + male, and of six in the female. The ♂ has six ventral segments + exposed, and often the apex of the eighth, which is frequently elongate, + the seventh being almost always short and hidden; the eighth dorsal + segment can be discovered hidden under the seventh, but it is very rarely + exposed. The head (<i>a</i>) bears numerous appendages; a pair of antennæ + (<i>a</i><sup>1</sup>), usually of thirteen joints in the male and of + twelve in the female; two compound eyes (<i>a</i><sup>3</sup>), composed + of many facets; three simple eyes (or ocelli) (<i>a</i><sup>2</sup>), + which are situated on its vertex; two <i>mandibles</i>; two + <i>maxillæ</i>, bearing <i>palpi</i> on each side, of a varying number of + joints; and a <i>labium</i>, or tongue, which also bears at its base two + four-jointed palpi (cf. fig. 20).</p> + + <p>The thorax, as we are considering it, consists of four + segments—the <i>prothorax</i> (<i>b</i><sup>1</sup>), which bears + the two front legs; the <i>mesothorax</i> (<i>b</i><sup>2</sup>), which + bears the intermediate pair of legs and the anterior pair of wings; and + the <i>metathorax</i> (<i>b</i><sup>3</sup>), which bears the posterior + pair of wings and the hind legs. The <!-- Page 135 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page135"></a>{135}</span>propodeum has no + appendages. The mesothorax above has two parts, a larger portion in front + called by some the <i>scutum</i> (<i>b</i><sup>2</sup>), and a smaller + portion behind called the <i>scutellum</i> (<i>b</i><sup>3</sup>). These + are separated from each other by a transverse impression, and the + scutellum is often raised into a sort of little shield; behind this is + another little elevation called the <i>post-scutellum</i> + (<i>b</i><sup>4</sup>); this is really the dorsal apex of the metathorax, + and behind this lies the <i>propodeum</i> (<i>b</i><sup>5</sup>). Each + leg is composed of various parts, and articulates into a cavity of the + thorax called the <i>acetabulum</i>. The first two joints of the leg, the + <i>coxa</i> (<i>d</i><sup>1</sup>) and the <i>trochanter</i> + (<i>d</i><sup>2</sup>), are very short; then follows the <i>femur</i> or + thigh (<i>d</i><sup>3</sup>); then the <i>tibia</i> or shin + (<i>d</i><sup>4</sup>); and finally the <i>tarsi</i> + (<i>d</i><sup>5</sup>), which compose the foot. At the apex of the + <i>tibia</i> are usually two spines called the <i>calcaria</i> + (<i>d</i><sup>6</sup>). The <i>tarsi</i> are five-jointed, the joints + following each other in a linear arrangement, and in the + <i>Anthophila</i> the basal joint is more or less dilated; the apical + joint bears two claws (<i>unguiculi</i>, <i>d</i><sup>7</sup>) which are + sometimes toothed, and between them, in some genera, there is what is + called a <i>pulvillus</i> (<i>d</i><sup>8</sup>) or cushion; this is very + large and dilated in some of the fossors. <!-- Page 136 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page136"></a>{136}</span></p> + + <p>The wing neuration is always rather troublesome, as various authors + use different names for the veins and cells. To begin with the anterior + wing (<i>e</i>), there are four nerves which start from the base and run + horizontally; the first of these, which forms the anterior margin of the + wing, is called the <i>costal nervure</i> (1); immediately below this, + and running almost parallel to it with scarcely any space between them, + is the <i>post-costal nervure</i> (2); these end in the <i>stigma</i> + (<i>s</i>), a dark in-crassation towards the apex of the wing; from the + stigma a nerve, curving first downwards and then up to the anterior + margin of the wing, encloses the <i>marginal cell</i> (<i>A</i>). Below + the <i>post-costal</i> nervure, and situated about the centre of the + wing, is the third longitudinal nervure called the <i>median nervure</i> + (3); behind this again runs the <i>posterior nervure</i> (4), and behind + that the actual margin of the wing which is not provided with a + protecting nervure, but is only folded back so as to receive the hooks of + the posterior wing. Across the wing at, roughly, about a third of its + length from the body runs the <i>basal nervure</i> (5); this extends in a + somewhat zigzag line from the <i>post-costal</i> to the <i>posterior + nervure</i> crossing the <i>median</i>, and <!-- Page 137 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page137"></a>{137}</span>thereby enclosing two + cells, the <i>upper basal cell</i> (<i>B</i>) and the <i>lower basal + cell</i> (<i>C</i>). From the centre of the apical nerve of each of these + cells extends a longitudinal nervure; the upper of these runs out nearly + to the apical margin of the wing and is called the <i>cubital nervure</i> + (6); this is united to the nervure of the <i>marginal cell</i> by one, + two, or three cross nervures, enclosing thereby one, two, or three cells + called the first (<i>D</i>), second (<i>E</i>), and third (<i>F</i>) + <i>submarginal cells</i>. The nervure from the lower basal cell is a + short one, as it is met by a cross nervure called the first <i>recurrent + nervure</i> (10), which runs from the <i>cubital</i> to the + <i>posterior</i>, thereby enclosing two cells, the first (<i>G</i>) and + second (<i>H</i>) <i>discoidal</i>. The <i>second recurrent</i> (11) + leaves the <i>cubital</i> nearer the apex of the wing than the first, + meeting a nervure which, springing from the outer posterior angle of the + second discoidal, closes the third discoidal (<i>I</i>), and, curving + slightly upwards, nearly reaches the apical margin of the wing. Beyond + the second recurrent, and behind this last nervure which we have been + talking about, are two spaces not actually enclosed, but called the + <i>first</i> (<i>J</i>) <i>and second</i> (<i>K</i>) <i>apical + cells</i>.</p> + + <p>The posterior wings have very few cells. <!-- Page 138 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page138"></a>{138}</span>Like the anterior pair + they have three longitudinal nervures; the <i>anterior</i> (7), which + runs close and parallel to the anterior nerveless margin, and often + touches it at about half the length of the wing; the <i>median</i> (8) + and <i>posterior</i> (9) run in diverging lines from the base towards the + exterior margin of the wing, the anterior and median nervures being + almost always joined by a cross nervure, and the median usually united to + the posterior by a cross or curved nervure. The actual base of the + anterior wing is covered by a little convex somewhat shell-like cap, + called the <i>tegula</i> (<i>T</i>). The abdomen is composed of a series + of segments in linear arrangement (<i>c</i><sup>1</sup> + <i>c</i><sup>2</sup>, etc.). These call for no special remark, beyond + what has been said in the chapter on males and females, but those who + wish to investigate the very interesting questions connected with the + terminal segments of these creatures should consult some more technical + work.<a name="NtA3" href="#Nt3"><sup>[3]</sup></a> The arrangements of + the mouth parts and of the apical segments of the Hymenoptera afford + perhaps the most important structural <!-- Page 139 --><span + class="pagenum"><a name="page139"></a>{139}</span>characters of the + order, but they involve an amount of dissection and study which can only + be undertaken by those who are inclined to give themselves up to this + subject as a speciality.</p> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<p><!-- Page 141 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page141"></a>{141}</span></p> + +<h3>INDEX</h3> + + <div class="poem"> + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Abdomen, <a href="#page125">125</a></p> + <p>Acetabulum, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + <p>Ammophila, <a href="#page22">22</a></p> + <p>Andrena, <a href="#page9">9</a>, <a href="#page12">12</a>, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page77">77</a>, <a href="#page79">79</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a>, <a href="#page139">139</a></p> + <p class="i2">— fulva, <a href="#page121">121</a></p> + <p class="i2">— rosæ, <a href="#page138">138</a></p> + <p class="i2">— thoracica, <a href="#page121">121</a></p> + <p>Antennæ, <a href="#page101">101</a>, <a href="#page103">103</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a></p> + <p>Anthidium, <a href="#page50">50</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></p> + <p>Anthophila, <a href="#page6">6</a></p> + <p>Anthophora, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page61">61</a>, <a href="#page82">82</a>, <a href="#page93">93</a>, <a href="#page109">109</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></p> + <p class="i2">— pilipes, <a href="#page61">61</a></p> + <p class="i2">— retusa, <a href="#page62">62</a></p> + <p>Ants, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a>, <a href="#page88">88</a></p> + <p>Aphides, <a href="#page88">88</a></p> + <p>Apis, <a href="#page16">16</a></p> + <p>Astatus, <a href="#page103">103</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Banded bodies, <a href="#page120">120</a></p> + <p>Beetles, <a href="#page20">20</a></p> + <p>Biting, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page32">32</a></p> + <p>Black Species, <a href="#page120">120</a></p> + <p>Bombus, <a href="#page16">16</a></p> + <p class="i2">— terrestris, <a href="#page41">41</a>, <a href="#page42">42</a></p> + <p>Brain, <a href="#page125">125</a></p> + <p>Bramble Stems, <a href="#page12">12</a></p> + <p>Breeding, <a href="#page113">113</a></p> + <p>Broods, <a href="#page13">13</a></p> + <p>Burrows, <a href="#page9">9</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Calcaria, <a href="#page70">70</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + <p>Carder Bees, <a href="#page40">40</a></p> + <p>Cardines, <a href="#page75">75</a></p> + <p>Carpenter bee, <a href="#page55">55</a></p> + <p>Caterpillar, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a href="#page20">20</a></p> + <p>Cells, <a href="#page10">10</a>, <a href="#page12">12</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page40">40</a>, <a href="#page58">58</a></p> + <p class="i2">— hexagonal, <a href="#page28">28</a></p> + <p class="i2">— pitcher-shaped, <a href="#page58">58</a></p> + <p class="i2">— waxen, <a href="#page29">29</a>, <a href="#page40">40</a></p> + <p>Ceratina, <a href="#page47">47</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a></p> + <p>Chimneys, <a href="#page25">25</a></p> + <p>Chloroform, <a href="#page118">118</a></p> + <p>Chrysis, <a href="#page27">27</a></p> + <p>Cilissa, <a href="#page48">48</a></p> + <p>Cleaning hairs, <a href="#page68">68</a></p> + <p>Clover fertilization, <a href="#page39">39</a></p> + <p>Cockroaches, <a href="#page128">128</a></p> + <p>Cocoons, <a href="#page33">33</a>, <a href="#page58">58</a></p> + <p>Coleoptera, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a></p> + <p>Colletes, <a href="#page44">44</a></p> + <p>Colonies, <a href="#page5">5</a>, <a href="#page63">63</a></p> + <p>Colour, <a href="#page100">100</a></p> + <p>Colour schemes, <a href="#page22">22</a></p> + <p>Combs, <a href="#page23">23</a>, <a href="#page68">68</a>, <a href="#page69">69</a></p> + <p>Corbicula, <a href="#page67">67</a></p> + <p>Coxæ, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + <p>Crabro, <a href="#page95">95</a>, <a href="#page102">102</a></p> + <p class="i2">— albilabris, <a href="#page119">119</a></p> + <p>Cuckoos, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page14">14</a>, <a href="#page30">30</a>, <a href="#page54">54</a></p> + <p class="i2">— flight of, <a href="#page85">85</a></p> + <p>Cyanide, <a href="#page116">116</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Dasypoda, <a href="#page48">48</a></p> + <p>Development, <a href="#page124">124</a></p> + <p>Digestion, <a href="#page125">125</a></p> + <p>Diggers, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page7">7</a></p> +<!-- Page 142 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page142"></a>{142}</span> + <p>Diptera, <a href="#page129">129</a></p> + <p>Distribution, <a href="#page105">105</a></p> + <p>Domestication, <a href="#page41">41</a></p> + <p>Drone flies, <a href="#page3">3</a></p> + <p>Dufourea, <a href="#page106">106</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Earwigs, <a href="#page128">128</a></p> + <p>English names, <a href="#page55">55</a></p> + <p>Epeolus, <a href="#page45">45</a></p> + <p>Ether, <a href="#page117">117</a></p> + <p>Eyes, <a href="#page134">134</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Females, <a href="#page95">95</a></p> + <p>Femur, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + <p>Figwort, <a href="#page36">36</a></p> + <p>Figure of insect, <a href="#page133">133</a></p> + <p>Flies, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a></p> + <p>Flower lovers, <a href="#page6">6</a></p> + <p>Flute, <a href="#page57">57</a></p> + <p>Food, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a></p> + <p>Foot, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + <p>Formica, <a href="#page34">34</a>, <a href="#page59">59</a></p> + <p class="i2">— fusca, <a href="#page119">119</a></p> + <p class="i2">— sanguinea, <a href="#page89">89</a></p> + <p>Formicoxenus, <a href="#page96">96</a></p> + <p>Fossors, <a href="#page6">6</a>, <a href="#page7">7</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Galleries, <a href="#page28">28</a></p> + <p>Grasshoppers, <a href="#page19">19</a>, <a href="#page128">128</a></p> + <p>Growth, <a href="#page126">126</a></p> + <p>Guests of Ants, <a href="#page89">89</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Hairs, <a href="#page65">65</a>, <a href="#page71">71</a></p> + <p>Halictus, <a href="#page13">13</a>, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a href="#page17">17</a>, <a href="#page77">77</a>, <a href="#page94">94</a>, <a href="#page97">97</a>, <a href="#page119">119</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a></p> + <p>Head, <a href="#page125">125</a></p> + <p>Hemiptera, <a href="#page129">129</a>, <a href="#page130">130</a></p> + <p>Heterogyna, <a href="#page28">28</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a></p> + <p>Heteromorphæ, <a href="#page130">130</a></p> + <p>Hive bee, <a href="#page2">2</a>, <a href="#page16">16</a></p> + <p>Homing instinct, <a href="#page21">21</a></p> + <p>Homomorphæ, <a href="#page130">130</a></p> + <p>Honey pots, <a href="#page29">29</a></p> + <p>Hornets, <a href="#page35">35</a></p> + <p>Humble bees, <a href="#page39">39</a></p> + <p class="i2">— mutilated, <a href="#page41">41</a></p> + <p>Hymenoptera, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Ichneumons, <a href="#page21">21</a></p> + <p>Inquilines, <a href="#page3">3</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Jewel flies, <a href="#page21">21</a>, <a href="#page27">27</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Keyhole wasps, <a href="#page101">101</a></p> + <p>Killing bottles, <a href="#page126">126</a></p> + <p>Knife-like hairs, <a href="#page68">68</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Labels, <a href="#page118">118</a></p> + <p>Labial palpi, <a href="#page5">5</a></p> + <p>Labium, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a></p> + <p>Larva, <a href="#page11">11</a>, <a href="#page13">13</a></p> + <p>Lasius niger, <a href="#page91">91</a></p> + <p class="i2">— flavus, <a href="#page91">91</a></p> + <p>Latin names, <a href="#page55">55</a></p> + <p>Lawn bee, <a href="#page9">9</a></p> + <p>Leaf-cutting bees, <a href="#page52">52</a></p> + <p>Lepidoptera, <a href="#page129">129</a></p> + <p>Ligula, <a href="#page75">75</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a></p> + <p>Limbs, <a href="#page125">125</a>, <a href="#page127">127</a></p> + <p>Locomotion, <a href="#page125">125</a></p> + <p>Lodgers with ants, <a href="#page89">89</a></p> + <p>Lomechusa, <a href="#page89">89</a></p> + <p>Long-horned bee, <a href="#page104">104</a></p> + <p>Lora, <a href="#page74">74</a></p> + <p>Lysimachia, <a href="#page106">106</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Macropis, <a href="#page106">106</a></p> + <p>Males, <a href="#page95">95</a></p> + <p>Male wasp, <a href="#page2">2</a></p> + <p class="i2">— hornet, <a href="#page2">2</a></p> + <p>Mandibles, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a></p> + <p>Mason bee, <a href="#page55">55</a></p> + <p>Maxillæ, <a href="#page75">75</a>, <a href="#page127">127</a>, <a href="#page134">134</a></p> + <p>Mayflies, <a href="#page128">128</a></p> +<!-- Page 143 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page143"></a>{143}</span> + <p>Melecta armata, <a href="#page61">61</a></p> + <p class="i2">— luctuosa, <a href="#page62">62</a></p> + <p>Mentum, <a href="#page74">74</a></p> + <p>Metœcus paradoxus, <a href="#page38">38</a></p> + <p>Mimicking flies, <a href="#page94">94</a></p> + <p>Miscophus, <a href="#page119">119</a></p> + <p>Moss, <a href="#page29">29</a></p> + <p>Mouse's nest, <a href="#page29">29</a></p> + <p>Mouth, <a href="#page128">128</a></p> + <p>Mutilla, <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page119">119</a></p> + <p>Myrmica, <a href="#page34">34</a></p> + <p>Myrmosa, <a href="#page100">100</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Nests, <a href="#page24">24</a>, <a href="#page26">26</a>, <a href="#page31">31</a>, <a href="#page35">35</a>, <a href="#page45">45</a>, <a href="#page49">49</a></p> + <p class="i2">— in bramble stems, <a href="#page45">45</a></p> + <p class="i2">— Humble bees, <a href="#page40">40</a></p> + <p class="i2">— of leaves, <a href="#page53">53</a></p> + <p class="i2">— of paper, <a href="#page37">37</a></p> + <p class="i2">— in wren's nest, <a href="#page41">41</a></p> + <p>Neuration, <a href="#page136">136</a></p> + <p class="i2">— figure and explanation of, <a href="#page133">133</a></p> + <p>Neuroptera, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a></p> + <p>Nodes, <a href="#page33">33</a></p> + <p>Nomada, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a href="#page48">48</a></p> + <p>Non-predaceous hymenoptera, <a href="#page3">3</a></p> + <p>Nymph, <a href="#page11">11</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Odynerus, <a href="#page24">24</a></p> + <p>Orthoptera, <a href="#page128">128</a>, <a href="#page130">130</a></p> + <p>Osmia, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page56">56</a>, <a href="#page120">120</a></p> + <p class="i2">— bicolor, <a href="#page59">59</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></p> + <p class="i2">— inermis, <a href="#page58">58</a></p> + <p class="i2">— leucomelana, <a href="#page57">57</a></p> + <p class="i2">— parietina, <a href="#page58">58</a></p> + <p class="i2">— rufa, <a href="#page56">56</a></p> + <p>Ovaries, <a href="#page4">4</a></p> + <p>Ovipositer, <a href="#page1">1</a></p> + <p>Oxybelus, <a href="#page86">86</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Palm, <a href="#page82">82</a></p> + <p>Palpi, <a href="#page134">134</a></p> + <p>Panurgus, <a href="#page49">49</a></p> + <p>Paper, <a href="#page37">37</a></p> + <p>Paraglossæ, <a href="#page76">76</a></p> + <p>Paralytics, <a href="#page18">18</a></p> + <p>Plant lice, <a href="#page19">19</a></p> + <p>Poison bags, <a href="#page1">1</a></p> + <p>Pollen collecting, <a href="#page65">65</a></p> + <p>Pompilus, <a href="#page87">87</a></p> + <p>Ponera, <a href="#page33">33</a></p> + <p>Porterage, <a href="#page34">34</a></p> + <p>Post-scutellum, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + <p>Predaceous species, <a href="#page3">3</a></p> + <p>Preservation, <a href="#page116">116</a></p> + <p>Propodeum, <a href="#page132">132</a>, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + <p>Prosopis, <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a href="#page46">46</a></p> + <p class="i2">— cornuta, <a href="#page47">47</a></p> + <p>Pulvillus, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Queens, <a href="#page4">4</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Rarity, <a href="#page105">105</a></p> + <p>Ray, John, <a href="#page63">63</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Sallows, <a href="#page82">82</a></p> + <p>Sandy bank, <a href="#page83">83</a></p> + <p>Saropoda, <a href="#page93">93</a>, <a href="#page111">111</a></p> + <p>Scale, <a href="#page33">33</a></p> + <p>Scrophularia, <a href="#page36">36</a></p> + <p>Scutellum, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + <p>Scutum, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + <p>Segments, <a href="#page96">96</a></p> + <p>Setting, <a href="#page117">117</a></p> + <p>Sexual structure, <a href="#page100">100</a></p> + <p>Shin, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + <p>Snail shells, <a href="#page12">12</a>, <a href="#page57">57</a></p> + <p>Social species, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page4">4</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a></p> + <p>Solitary species, <a href="#page3">3</a>, <a href="#page4">4</a>, <a href="#page6">6</a></p> + <p>Spade-like hairs, <a href="#page69">69</a></p> + <p>Sphecodes, <a href="#page13">13</a>, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a href="#page17">17</a>, <a href="#page48">48</a>, <a href="#page97">97</a>, <a href="#page122">122</a></p> + <p>Spiders, <a href="#page19">19</a></p> + <p>Stinging, <a href="#page2">2</a>, <a href="#page38">38</a></p> + <p>Stings, <a href="#page2">2</a>, <a href="#page32">32</a></p> + <p>Stipes, <a href="#page74">74</a></p> +<!-- Page 144 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page144"></a>{144}</span> + <p>Straws, <a href="#page12">12</a></p> + <p>Structure, <a href="#page132">132</a></p> + <p>Stylops, <a href="#page77">77</a></p> + <p>Submentum, <a href="#page74">74</a></p> + <p>Swarming, <a href="#page29">29</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Tarsi, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + <p>Tegula, <a href="#page133">133</a>, <a href="#page138">138</a></p> + <p>Thigh, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + <p>Thorax, <a href="#page125">125</a>, <a href="#page129">129</a></p> + <p>Tibia, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + <p>Tomtit, <a href="#page42">42</a></p> + <p>Tongues, <a href="#page15">15</a>, <a href="#page39">39</a>, <a href="#page44">44</a>, <a href="#page49">49</a>, <a href="#page66">66</a>, <a href="#page72">72</a></p> + <p>Trochanter, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + <p>Tubular entrance, <a href="#page25">25</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Unguiculi, <a href="#page135">135</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Vagaries of structure, <a href="#page104">104</a></p> + <p>Velleius dilatatus, <a href="#page38">38</a></p> + <p>Vespa sylvestris, <a href="#page36">36</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Walls, <a href="#page12">12</a></p> + <p>Wasps, social, <a href="#page35">35</a></p> + <p class="i2">— solitary, <a href="#page24">24</a></p> + <p>Waspy coloration, <a href="#page120">120</a>, <a href="#page121">121</a></p> + <p>Wings, <a href="#page110">110</a></p> + <p class="i2">— cells, <a href="#page112">112</a>, <a href="#page133">133</a></p> + <p class="i2">— folded, <a href="#page24">24</a>, <a href="#page28">28</a></p> + <p class="i2">— hooks, <a href="#page110">110</a></p> + <p class="i2">— nervures, <a href="#page133">133</a></p> + <p>Workers, <a href="#page4">4</a></p> + <p>Wrens' nests, <a href="#page41">41</a></p> + </div> + + <div class="stanza"> + <p>Yellow-coloured species, <a href="#page120">120</a></p> + </div> + </div> + + <p><br style="clear:both" /></p> +<hr class="full" /> + +<h3>NOTES</h3> + +<div class="note"> + <p><a name="Nt1" href="#NtA1">[1]</a> In this case, only the actual + tongue (or <i>ligula</i>) and its <i>paraglossæ</i> are figured.</p> + + <p><a name="Nt2" href="#NtA2">[2]</a> <i>The Guests of Ants and + Termites</i>, by E. Wasmann, S. J., translated by H. Donisthorpe, F.Z.S. + (<i>Ent. Record</i>, Vol. xii., 1900.)</p> + + <p><a name="Nt3" href="#NtA3">[3]</a> cf. <i>Transactions of the + Entomological Society of London</i>, 1884, p. 251 et seq.: Hymenoptera + Aculeate of the British Islands, etc.</p> + +</div> + <p> </p> + + <div class="figright" style="width:21%;"> + <a href="images/pmark2.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/pmark2.png" + alt="Printers Mark" title="Printers Mark" /></a> + </div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Wild Bees, Wasps and Ants, by Edward Saunders + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WILD BEES, WASPS AND ANTS *** + +***** This file should be named 33874-h.htm or 33874-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/8/7/33874/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Keith Edkins and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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