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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/33844-0.txt b/33844-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..460eddf --- /dev/null +++ b/33844-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1920 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Cocoanut, by William S. Lyon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you +will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before +using this eBook. + +Title: The Cocoanut + With reference to its products and cultivation in the Philippines + +Author: William S. Lyon + +Release Date: October 7, 2010 [eBook #33844] +[Most recently updated: December 31, 2022] + +Language: English + +Produced by: Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project +Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously +made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COCOANUT *** + + + + + Bureau of Agriculture. + + + Farmer's Bulletin No. 8. + + THE COCOANUT + + With Reference to Its Products and Cultivation + in the Philippines. + + + + By + + WILLIAM S. LYON, + + In charge of Division of Plant Industry. + + + Manila: + Bureau of Public Printing. + 1903. + + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + Page. + + Letter of transmittal 4 + Introduction 5 + History 5 + Botany 6 + Uses 6 + Copra and cocoanut oil 6 + Coir 10 + Tuba 12 + Minor uses 13 + Cultivation 14 + Selection of location 14 + The soil 16 + Seed selection 17 + Planting 18 + Manuring 21 + Irrigation 27 + Harvest 28 + Enemies 28 + Remedies 29 + Renovation of old groves 30 + Conclusion 30 + + + + + +LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. + + +Bureau of Agriculture, + + Manila, June 1, 1903. + +Sir: In responding to numerous inquiries about the cocoanut, its +uses, cultivation, and preparation for market, I have prepared, +by your direction, the accompanying bulletin, which is intended to +cover the general field of the inquiries addressed to this Bureau, +and herewith submit the same, with the recommendation that it be +published as Farmers' Bulletin No. 8. + + + Respectfully, + + Wm. S. Lyon, + In Charge of Division of Plant Industry. + + To Hon. F. Lamson-Scribner, + Chief Bureau of Agriculture, Manila. + + + + + +THE COCOANUT. + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The following pages are written chiefly in the interests of the +planter, but the writer feels that the great agricultural importance +which the cocoanut palm is bound to assume in these Islands is +sufficient to justify the presentation of some of its history and +botany. + +For that part of the bulletin which touches upon the botany of the +cocoanut I am indebted to Don Regino Garcia, associate botanist of the +Forestry Bureau; for that relating to its products and local uses, to +the courtesy of manufacturers in Laguna; and, for the rest, to personal +experience and observations made in Laguna Province and in the southern +Visayan Islands where, as elsewhere in this Archipelago, the cocoanut +may properly be considered a spontaneous and not a cultivated product. + + + + + +HISTORY. + + +The legendary history of the "Prince of Palms," [1] as it has been +called, dates back to a period when the Christian era was young, +and its history is developing day by day in some new and striking +manifestation of its utility or beauty. It seems not unreasonable to +assume that much of the earlier traditionary history of the cocoanut +may have been inspired as much by its inherent beauty as by its +uses. Such traditional proverbs Or folklore as I have gathered in +the Visayas recognize the influence of the beautiful, in so far as +the blessings of the trees only inure to the good; for instance, +"He who is cruel to his beast or his family will only harvest barren +husks from the reproving trees that witness the pusillanimous act;" +and, again, "He who grinds the poor will only grind water instead of +fat oil from the meat." + +To this day the origin of the cocoanut is unknown. De Candolle (Origin +of Cult. Plants, p. 574) recites twelve specific claims pointing to +an Asiatic origin, and a single, but from a scientific standpoint +almost unanswerable, contention for an American derivation. None of +the remaining nineteen species of the genus Cocos are known to exist +elsewhere in the world than on the American continent. His review of +the story results in the nature of a compromise, assigning to our +own Islands and those to the south and west of us the distinction +of having first given birth to the cocoanut, and that thence it was +disseminated east and west by ocean currents. + + + + + +BOTANY. + + +The cocoanut (Cocos nucifera Linn.) is the sole oriental representative +of a tropical genus comprising nineteen species, restricted, with +this single exception, to the New World. + +Its geographical distribution is closely confined to the two +Tropics. [2] + +Not less than nineteen varieties of C. nucifera are described by +Miquel and Rumphius, and all are accepted by Filipino authors. + +Whether all of these varieties are constant enough to deserve +recognition need not be considered here. Many are characterized by +the fruits being distinctly globular, others by fruits of a much +prolonged oval form, still others by having the lower end of the +fruit terminating in a triangular point. + +In the Visayas there is a variety in which the fibrous outer husk +of the nut is sweet and watery, instead of dry and astringent, and +is chewed by the natives like sugar cane. Another variety occurs in +Luzon, known as "Pamocol," the fruit of which seldom exceeds 20 cm. in +diameter. There is also a dwarf variety of the palm, which rarely +exceeds 3 meters in height, and is known to the Tagalogs as "Adiavan." + +These different varieties are strongly marked, and maintain their +characters when reproduced from seed. + + + + + +USES. + + +The cocoanut furnishes two distinct commercial products--the dried +meat of the nut, or copra, and the outer fibrous husk. These products +are so dissimilar that they should be considered separately. + + + +COPRA AND COCOANUT OIL. + +Until very recent years the demand for the "meat" of the cocoanut +or its products was limited to the uses of soap boilers and +confectioners. Probably there is no other plant in the vegetable +kingdom which serves so many and so varied purposes in the domestic +economy of the peoples in whose countries it grows. Within the past +decade chemical science has produced from the cocoanut a series of +food products whose manufacture has revolutionized industry and placed +the business of the manufacturer and of the producer upon a plane of +prosperity never before enjoyed. + +There has also been a great advance in the processes by which the +new oil derivatives are manufactured. The United States took the +initiative with the first recorded commercial factories in 1895. In +1897 the Germans established factories in Mannheim, but it remained +for the French people to bring the industry to its present perfection. + +According to the latest reports of the American consul at Marseilles, +the conversion of cocoanut oil into dietetic compounds was undertaken +in that city in 1900, by Messrs. Rocca, Tassy and de Roux, who in +that year turned out an average of 25 tons per month. During the year +just closed (1902) their average monthly output exceeded 6,000 tons +and, in addition to this, four or five other large factories were +all working together to meet the world's demand for "vegetaline," +"cocoaline," or other products with suggestive names, belonging to +this infant industry. + +These articles are sold at gross price of 18 to 20 cents per kilo to +thrifty Hollandish and Danish merchants, who, at the added cost of a +cent or two, repack them in tins branded "Dairy Butter" and, as such, +ship them to all parts of the civilized world. It was necessary to +disguise the earlier products by subjecting them to trituration with +milk or cream; but so perfect is the present emulsion that the plain +and unadulterated fats now find as ready a market as butter. These +"butters" have so far found their readiest sale in the Tropics. + +The significance of these great discoveries to the cocoanut planter can +not be overestimated, for to none of these purely vegetable fats do the +prejudices attach that so long and seriously have handicapped those +derived from animal margarin or margarin in combination with stearic +acid, while the low fusion point of pure dairy butters necessarily +prohibits their use in the Tropics, outside of points equipped with +refrigerating plants. The field, therefore, is practically without +competition, and the question will no longer be that of finding a +market, but of procuring the millions of tons of copra or oil that +this one industry will annually absorb in the immediate future. + +Cocoanut oil was once used extensively in the manufacture of fine +candles, and is still occasionally in demand for this purpose in the +Philippines, in combination with the vegetable tallow of a species +of Stillingia. It is largely consumed in lamps, made of a tumbler or +drinking glass half filled with water, on top of which float a few +spoonfuls of oil, into which the wick is plunged. In remote barrios it +is still in general use as a street illuminant, and so perfect is its +combustion that under a constant flicker it emits little or no smoke. + +When freshly expressed, the oil is an exceptionally good cooking fat, +and enters largely into the dietary of our own people. The medicinal +uses of the oil are various, and in the past it has been strongly +advocated for the cure of eczema, burns, as a vermifuge, and even +as a substitute for cod-liver oil in phthisis. Its medicinal virtues +are now generally discredited, except as a restorative agent in the +loss of hair resulting from debilitating fevers. Its value in this +direction may be surmised from the splendid heads of hair possessed +by the Filipino women, who generally use the oil as a hair dressing. + +Cocoanut oil is derived from the fleshy albumen or meat of the ripe +fruit, either fresh or dried. The thoroughly dried meat is variously +known as copra, coprax, and copraz. The exportation of copra is +detrimental to the best interests of the planter, tending to enrich +the manufacturer and impoverish the grower. The practice, however, +is so firmly established that the writer can only record a probably +futile protest against its continuance. + +The causes which for a long time will favor the exportation of copra +instead of oil in this Archipelago may be briefly stated as follows: + +(1) An oil-milling plant, constructed with due regard to economy of +labor and the production of the best quality of oil, would involve +an outlay of capital of $2,500, gold, and upward, according to +capacity. The production of copra requires the labor of the planter's +hands only. + +(2) The oil packages must be well-made barrels, casks, or metallic +receptacles. The initial cost of the packages is consequently great, +their return from distant ports impracticable, and their sale value +in the market of delivery is not sufficient to offset the capital +locked up in an unproductive form. On the other hand, copra may be +sold or shipped in boxes, bags, sacks, and bales, or it may even be +stored in bulk in the ship's hold. + +(3) When land transportation has to be considered, the lack of good +roads still further impedes the oil maker. He can not change the +size and weight of his packages from day to day to meet the varying +passability of the trail. On the other hand, packages of copra may +be adjusted to meet all emergencies, and the planter can thus take +advantage of the market conditions which may be denied to the oil +maker. + +(4) Perhaps the most serious difficulty the oil maker has to contend +with is the continuous discouragement he encounters from the agent +of foreign factories, who buys in the open market and, bidding up to +nearly the full oil value of the copra, finds an ample manufacturer's +profit paid by the press cake, so valuable abroad, but, unfortunately, +practically without sale or value here. The residue from the mill may +be utilized both for food and for manure by the oil maker who is a +tree owner and who maintains cattle. For either of these purposes +its value rates closely up to cotton-seed cake, and the time is +not remote when it will be recognized in the Philippines as far +too valuable a product to be permitted to be removed from the farm +excepting at a price which will permit of the purchase at a less +figure of an equivalent in manure. So active are the copra-buying +agents in controlling this important branch of the industry, that +they refuse to buy the press cake at any price, with the result that, +in two instances known to the writer, they have forced the closure +of oil-milling plants and driven the oil maker back to his copra. + +Many copra-making plants in India and Ceylon are now supplied with +decorticating, breaking, and evaporating machinery. The process +employed in this Archipelago consists in first stripping the ripe +fruit of the outer fibrous husk. This is effected by means of a stout, +steel spearhead, whose shaft or shank is embedded firmly in the soil +to such a depth that the spear point projects above the ground rather +less than waist high. The operator then holds the nut in his hands +and strikes it upon the spear point, gives it a downward, rotary +twist, and thus, with apparent ease, quickly removes the husk. An +average operator will husk 1,000 nuts per day, and records have been +made of a clean up of as many as 3,000 per day. The work, however, +is exceedingly hard, and involves great dexterity and wrist strength. + +Another man now takes up the nut and with a bolo strikes it a smart +blow in the middle, dividing it into two almost equal parts. These +parts are spread out and exposed to the sun for a few hours, or such +time as may be necessary to cause the fleshy albumen to contract and +shrink away from the hard outer shell, so that the meat may be easily +detached with the fingers. + +Weather permitting, the meat thus secured is sun dried for a day +and then subjected to the heat of a slow fire for several hours. In +some countries this drying is now effected by hot-air driers, and a +very white and valuable product secured; but in the Philippines the +universal practice is to spread out the copra upon what may be called +a bamboo grill, over a smoky fire made of the shells and husks, just +sufficient heat being maintained not to set fire to the bamboo. The +halves, when dried, are broken by hand into still smaller irregular +fragments, and subjected to one or two days of sun bath. By this time +the moisture has been so thoroughly expelled that the copra is now +ready to be sacked or baled and stored away for shipment or use. + +All modern cocoanut-oil mills are supplied with a decorticator armed +with revolving discs that tear or cut through the husk longitudinally, +freeing the nut from its outer covering and leaving the latter in +the best possible condition for the subsequent extraction of its +fiber. This decorticator is fed from a hopper and is made of a size +and capacity to husk from 500 to 1,000 nuts per hour. + +Rasping and grinding machinery of many patterns and makes, for +reducing the meat to a pulp, is used in India, Ceylon, and China; +and, although far more expeditious, offers no improvements, so far +as concerns the condition to which the meats are reduced, over the +methods followed in the Philippines. Here the fleshy halves of the +meat are held by hand against a rapidly revolving, half-spherical +knife blade which scrapes and shaves the flesh down to a fine degree +of comminution. The resulting mass is then macerated in a little water +and placed in bags and subjected to pressure, and the milky juice which +flows therefrom is collected in receivers placed below. This is now +drawn off into boilers and cooked until the clear oil is concentrated +upon the surface. The oil is then skimmed off and is ready for market. + +The process outlined above is very wasteful. The processes I have seen +in operation are very inadequate, and I estimate that, not less than +10 per cent of the oil goes to loss in the press cake. This is a loss +that does not occur in establishments equipped with the best hydraulic +presses. It is true that very heavy pressure carries through much +coloring matter not withdrawn by the primitive native mill, and that +the oil is consequently darker, and sooner undergoes decomposition; +but modern mills are now supplied with filtration plants through +which this objection is practically overcome. + +The principles of the above process are daily reproduced in thousands +of Filipino homes, where the hand rasping of the nut, the expression +of the milky juice through coarse cloth, its subsequent boiling down +in an open pan, and the final skimming off of the oil are in common +practice. Notwithstanding the cheapness of labor, it is only by +employing a mill well equipped with decorticating, rasping, hydraulic +crushing, and steam-boiling machinery, and with facilities to convert +the residue to feeding or other uses, that one may hopefully enter +the field of oil manufacture in these Islands in competition with +copra buyers. + + + +COIR. + +The fiber of the cocoanut husk, or coir, as it is commercially known, +has never yet been utilized in this Archipelago, excepting occasionally +for local consumption. + +Second in value only to the copra, this product has been allowed to +go to waste. The rejected husks are thrown together in immense heaps, +which are finally burned and the ashes, exceedingly rich in potash +and phosphoric acid, are left to blow away. + +As the commercial value of the fiber is greater than the manurial +value of the salts therein, it is economy to utilize the fiber and +purchase potash and phosphoric acid when needed to enrich the soil. + +Highly improved and inexpensive power machinery for the complete and +easy extraction of the fibers of the husk, either wet or dry, is now +rapidly superseding the tedious hand process once in such general +use. Good patterns of machinery are shown in the "husk-crushing mill" +(fig. 1) and in the "fiber extractor" (fig. 2). The first breaks, +crushes, and flattens out the husks by means of powerful, fluted metal +rollers and, in the second the broken husks are fed over a revolving +drum set with teeth especially devised for tearing out the fiber from +the entire mass. Finally, it is fed into one of the many forms of +"willowing" machines, which reduces the mass to clean fiber, which +is now ready for grading, baling, and shipment. The residual dust +and waste from this operation may be used as an absorbent for liquid +manures, and ultimately returned to the plantation. The yield of fiber +varies from 12 to 25 quintals of coir and 4 to 7 quintals of brush +fiber per 10,000 average husks. In the Philippines the nuts yield +a large amount of fiber and a relatively small percentage of chaff +and dust. With improved machinery and careful handling, 18 quintals +of spinning coir and 5 quintals of bristle fiber from every 10,000 +husks is a fair estimate of the product. + +As the cost of manufacture is generally rated at one-half the selling +price, and as we must add a further charge of 20 per cent to cover +freight and commission, we have resulting from the sale of the 23 +quintals, or 2,300 kilos, at £16 per English ton, a balance of £11 +11s. per hectare. + +But there are other considerations which should not be overlooked. The +husks of 10,000 cocoanuts will withdraw from the land 61.5 kilos of +potash and 3 kilos of phosphoric acid, and the restoration of the full +amount is called for to compensate for the growing wants of the tree, +in addition to that withdrawn by the crop. The necessary fertilizers +are worth, approximately, 5 1/2d. per kilo, making a further reduction +of £1 8s. and leaving as a net profit £10 3s., or, reduced to American +money, nearly $50, gold, per hectare. + +The machines above referred to will cost $800, gold, and $1,200 +additional will purchase and house the power necessary to operate +them. Such a plant will work up 1,000 nuts a day, and handle in a +year the output of a grove of 30 hectares. With the addition of two +or more fiber extractors the capacity of the plant may be doubled +without material expense, and it should rather more than pay its +entire cost in one year. + + + +TUBA. + +Tuba is the fresh or mildly fermented sap drawn from the inflorescence +of the cocoanut. + +There are no figures or data of any kind available as a basis for an +estimate as to the importance of this product, but its extent may be +inferred from the fact that the outlying groves about Cebu, Iloilo, +and the larger Visayan towns are practically devoted to the production +of tuba, and not to the manufacture of copra. + +Tuba is collected from the unexpanded blossoms as soon as they have +fairly pushed through the subtending bracts. To prevent any lateral +expansion, the flowers are tied with strips of the green leaf blade +and then, with a sharp knife, an inch or two of the extreme tip is +removed. The whole flower cluster is now gently pulled forward until +it arches downward. In a day or two the sap begins to drip and is then +caught in a short joint of bamboo, properly secured for the purpose. + +As a healthy tree develops at least one or more flowering racemes +every month, and the flow of sap extends frequently over a period of +two or more months, it is not uncommon to see a number of tubes in +use upon one tree. + +The workmen usually visits the tree twice daily to collect the +liquor drawn during the preceding twelve hours in the larger tube, +which he carries upon his back. He slices daily a thin shaving from +the tip of the flower, in order that the wound may be kept open and +bleeding. This process is kept up until nearly all of the flower +cluster has been cut away, or until the sap ceases to flow. + +More than a liter a day is sometimes drawn from one tree, and 5 +hectoliters is considered a fair annual average from a good bearing +tree. + +In its fresh state tuba has a sweetish, slightly astringent taste; +but, as the vessels in which it is collected are rarely cleansed, +they become traps for many varieties of insects, etc., and it is, +therefore, not a very acceptable beverage to a delicate stomach. When +purified by a mild fermentation it is far more palatable. + +A secondary fermentation of tuba results in vinegar, and on this +account, chiefly, so much space has been devoted to this feature of +the industry. The vinegar so produced is of good strength and color, of +the highest keeping qualities, and of unrivaled flavor. Its excellence +is so pronounced that upon its inherent merits it would readily find +sale in the world's markets; and, although the local demand for the +tuba now exceeds the production, its conversion into vinegar will +probably prove the more profitable industry in the future. + +Spirits are distilled and in some places sugar is still made from the +flower sap; and, while the importance of these great staples may not +be overlooked, their commercial value as products of this tree are +relatively insignificant. + + + +MINOR USES. + +In addition to eighty-three utilities described by Mr. Pereira, +[3] it is in very common use in the Philippines for: + +1. Cocoanut cream. The freshly ground fruit, reduced to a pulp and +strained, is consumed in that form or made into cakes with rice. It +makes a delicious and nutritious food. According to Dr. W. J. Gies, +in experiments lately published, [4] its nutritive value is due to +35.4 per cent of oil, about 10 per cent of carbohydrates, and 3 per +cent of protein. The amount of cellulose (fibrous matter) is only 3 +per cent, and its digestibility is easy when the mass, by grating, +is reduced to a fine degree of comminution. + +2. The "milk" or water is used sparingly as a beverage. It is also +fermented and converted into inferior vinegar. + +3. The hard shell is used as fuel. When calcined, it produces a black, +lustrous substance, used for dyeing leather. + +4. The same shell, aside from many uses quoted by Pereira, is used +here for every conceivable form of cup, ladle, scoop, and spoon. + +5. From the tough midrib of the leaf, strong and beautiful baskets of +many designs are made, also excellent and durable brooms, and from +the part where the midrib coalesces with the petiole pot-cleaning +brushes are made. + +6. The roots are sometimes used for chewing, as a substitute for +Areca. They also furnish red dyestuff and with one end finely +subdivided may be used in making toothbrushes. + +7. The leaves and midribs, when burned, furnish an ash so rich in +potash that it may be used alone in water as a substitute for soap +or when a powerful detergent is required. + +8. The fiber of the husk is used extensively by the natives for +calking boats. + +9. The milk is used in the preparation of a native dish of rice, +known as "casi." It is an excellent and highly prized dietary article, +prepared with rice or in combination with chicken or locusts. + +10. The oil, melted with resins, is an effective and lasting covering +for anything desired to be protected from the ravages of white ants. + +11. The timber is used to bridge streams and bog holes, and the slowly +decaying leaves to fill them up and render them temporarily passable. + +12. The fiber is used in cordage and rope making, but to a far less +extent here than in India. + +Its further uses are, in general, those current in the Orient. Briefly +summed up, its timber is employed in every form of house construction; +its foliage in making mats, sacks, and thatches; its fruit in curry +and sweetmeats; its oil for medicine, cookery, and illumination; +its various juices in the manufacture of wines, spirits, sugar, and +vinegar; while not to overlook a final and not inconsiderable Filipino +product, the splinters of the midrib are used in making toothpicks. + + + + + +CULTIVATION. + + +SELECTION OF LOCATION. + +In the selection of a site for a cocoanut grove it is best to select +land near the seashore and not extending inland more than 2 or 3 +miles. Within this narrow zone there is commonly a deposit of rich, +permeable, well-drained alluvium offering soil conditions of far +greater importance to successful tree growth than the mere exposure +to marine influences. The success that has followed cocoanut growing +in Cochin China, remote from the seaboard, in Annam and up the Ganges +basin one hundred or more miles from the coast, and in our own interior +Province of Laguna, definitely proves that immediate contiguity to +the sea is not essential to success. + +That the cocoanut will grow and thrive upon the immediate seashore, in +common with other plants, is simply an indication of its adaptability +to environment. That it is at a positive disadvantage as a shore plant +may be determined conclusively by anyone who will examine the root +system of a seashore-grown tree upturned by a wash or tidal wave, and +one uprooted from any cause, farther inland. It will be seen that the +root system of the maritime plant is immensely larger than the other, +and that a corresponding amount of energy has been expended in the +search through much inert material to forage for the necessary plant +food which the more favored inland species has found concentrated +within a smaller zone. + +The planting must be made in a thoroughly permeable soil. + +The thick, fleshy roots of the newly upturned palm are loaded with +water, and tell us that an inexhaustible store of this fluid is an +indispensable element of success. If further evidence of this were +required, the testimony of drooping leaves and of crops shrunken +from one-half to two-thirds, throughout the cocoanut districts and +upon our own orchard in Mindanao, as the result of drought, confirm +it and bespeak the necessity of copious water at all times. + +The living tree upon the sea sands further emphasizes this necessity; +for, while its roots are lapped by the tides, it never flags or wilts, +and from this we may gather the added value of a site which can be +irrigated. The careful observer will note that along miles of sea +beach, among hundreds of trees whose roots are either in actual contact +with the incoming waves, or subjected to the subterranean influence of +the sea, there will never be so much as one tree growing in any beach +basin which collects and holds tidal water for even a brief time; +and that, notwithstanding the large number of nuts that must have +found lodgment and favorable germinating influence in such places, +none succeed in growing. From this we may derive the assurance that +the desired water must be in motion and that land near stagnant water, +or marsh land, is unsuitable to the plant. + +It may frequently be observed that trees will be found growing +fairly thriftily upon mounds or hummocks, in places invaded by +flood or other waters which, by reason of backing or damming up, +have become stagnant. An examination of the roots of an overthrown +tree in such a locality will show that all of those in the submerged +zone have perished and rotted away, but that such is the vitality and +recuperative energy of the tree that it has thrown out a new feeding +system in the dryer soil of the mound immediately surrounding the stem, +which has been sufficient to successfully carry on the functions of +nutrition, but altogether ineffective to anchor the tree securely, +or to prevent its prostration before the first heavy gale. + +While this phase of the question will receive more attention when +we come to consider the chemistry of suitable manures, it may be +said that, although analysis of the cocoanut ash derived from +beach-grown nuts shows a larger percentage of those salts that +abound in sea water than those grown inland, yet the equal vigor, +vitality, and fruitfulness of the latter simply confirm the plant's +exceptional adaptability to environment and ability to take up and +decompose, without detriment, the salts of sea or brackish waters. As +a victim to the maritime idea, the writer in 1886 planted, far inland, +several hundred nuts in beds especially devised to reproduce littoral +conditions; shore gravel, sea sand, broken shells, and salt derived +from sea water being used in preparing the seed beds. The starting +growth was unexcelled. Then came a long period of yellowing decline +and almost suspended animation, ultimately followed by a complete +restoration to health and vigor. The early excellent growth was +due to the fact that the first nourishment of the plant is entirely +derived from the endosperm, and careful lifting of the young plants +disclosed the fact that recovery from their moribund condition was, +in every instance, coincident with the time that the roots first +succeeded in working through the unpalatable mess about them into +the outlying good, sweet soil. + +The exposure of the plantation is an important consideration, and +a maritime site should be selected in preference to one far inland, +unless it be on an open, unprotected flat, exposed to the influence +of every breeze or the fiercest gales that blow. + +The structure of the cocoanut seems well fitted to endure winds of +almost any force, and that a remarkably abundant and strong circulation +of air is essential to its best development is well shown by comparing +a tree subjected to it with the wretched, spindling specimen growing +in a sheltered glen or ravine. + +Strong confirmation of this may be found within the artificial +environment of a plant conservatory, where it is feasible to reproduce, +in the minute detail of soil, water, temperature, and humidity, +every essential to its welfare except a good, strong breeze. As a +consequence, the palm languishes and it has long been deemed, on +this account, one of the most rebellious subjects introduced into +palm-house cultivation. + + + +THE SOIL. + +The soils for cocoanut growing are best selected by the process of +exclusion. The study of the root development of the palm will prove +to be an unerring guide to proper soil selection. + +The roots of monocotyledons, to which great division this palm belongs, +are devoid of the well-defined descending axis, which is possessed +by most tree plants, and is often so strongly developed as to permit +of rock cleavage and the withdrawal of food supplies from great depths. + +The cocoanut has no such provision for its support. Its subterranean +parts are simply a mat-like expanse of thick, fleshy, worm-like +growths, devoid of any feeders other than those provided at the +extreme tips of the relatively few roots. These roots are fleshy (not +fibrous) and can not thrive in any soil through which they may not grow +freely in search of sustenance. It then becomes obvious that stiff, +tenacious, or waxy soils, however rich, are wholly unsuitable. All +very heavy lands, or those that break up into solid, impervious lumps, +and, lastly, any land underlaid near the surface with bed rocks or +impervious clays or conglomerates, are naturally excluded. All other +soils, susceptible of proper drainage, may be considered appropriate +to the growth of the palm. Spons (Encyclop.) advocates light, sandy +soils. Simmonds (Trop. Agric.) names nine different varieties suitable +for this purpose, describing each at tedious length, and laying more +or less emphasis upon a sandy mixture. These might all have been +covered by the single word "permeable." + +As a matter of fact every grain of sand in excess of that required to +secure a condition of perfect permeability is a positive disadvantage +and must be paid for by a correspondingly larger area of cultivation +and by future soil amendment. For the rest, the richer and deeper +the soil the less the expense of maintaining soil fertility. + +The preparatory work of establishing an orchard is light, provided +the location is not one demanding the opening of drainage canals, +and on lands of good porosity it involves neither subsoiling nor a +deeper plowing than to effectually cover the sod or any minor weed +growths with which it may be covered. + +It has long been the reprehensible practice of cocoanut growers to +merely dig pits, manure them, set the plants therein, and permit +the intervening lands (except immediately about the trees) to run to +weeds or jungle. + +In the Philippines the native planter has not yet progressed beyond +the pit stage, nor do his subsequent cultural activities include more +than the occasional "boloing" of such weeds as threaten to choke and +exterminate the young plants. + +Fortunately it will not be long till the force and influence of +example are sure to be felt by our own planters. The progressive +German colonist of Kamerun, German East Africa, and the South +Pacific Islands, as well as the French in Congo and Madagascar, +are vigorously practicing conventional, modern orchard methods in +the treatment of their cocoanut groves, and it is amazing to read +of discussions between Ceylon and Indian nut growers as to the best +method of tethering cattle upon cocoanut palms in pasture, so as to +obtain the most benefit from their excreta. + +With an intelligent study of the plant and its characteristics +it is believed that our native planter may put into practical use +the knowledge that the veteran Indian planter has in fifty years +failed to learn or utilize. He will learn that in time the entire +superficies of his orchard will be required by the wide-spreading, +surface-feeding roots of the trees, and that pasture crops of any +kind, grown for any purpose other than soiling or for green manuring, +are prejudicial to future success. He will know that the initial +preparation of all of his orchard and its continuous maintenance in +good cultivation are essential not only to the future welfare of +his trees but as a necessary means in connection with a judicious +intermediate crop rotation. + +Hence the preparatory requirements may be summed up as such preliminary +soil breaking as would be required for a corn crop in similar lands, +succeeded by such superficial plowings and cultivations as would be +required to raise a cotton or any other of the so-called hoed crops. + + + +SEED SELECTION. + +Preliminary to planting the very important question of seed selection +calls for close scrutiny on the planter's part. + +The small native planter is often familiar with the individual +characteristics of his trees. Owners of small estates in Cuyos and +about Zamboanga have pointed out to me trees that have the constant +fruiting habit confirmed, others that will fruit erratically, and +others that flower yet rarely bear fruit. The fruitfulness of the +first class is undoubtedly a result of accidental heredity, for the +planter has in the past made no selection except by chance, nor is the +characteristic in any way due to his cultural system, which consists +in planting the nut and letting nature and heredity do the rest. One +tree in Zamboanga, the owner assured me, had never produced less than +200 nuts annually for fully twenty-three years. Asked as to the bearing +of all of his trees (of which he owned some three hundred), he stated +that from the lot he averaged 20 nuts at a picking, five times a year, +a total of 100 nuts; that the crop of these was very fluctuating, +some years falling to 60 nuts, again running as high as 130. The +especially prized tree did not vary appreciably. In very dry seasons +the nuts shrunk somewhat in size and the copra in weight, but the yield +of nuts never fell below 200, and only once had amounted to 220. He +had raised a great number of seedlings, but it had never occurred to +him to select for planting the nuts from that particular tree. + + + +PLANTING. + +We have pointed out the necessity of selecting seed trees of known good +bearing habits, and equal care should be exercised in selecting those +the nuts of which are well formed and uniform. This precaution will +suggest itself when one observes that some trees have the habit of +producing a few very large nuts and many of very small and irregular +size and shape, and it is obviously to the planter's interest to lend +no assistance to the propagation and transmission of such traits. In +view of what has been previously stated, it is almost superfluous +earnestly to recommend planters to sow no seeds from young trees. The +principle for this contention--that no seed should be selected except +from trees of established, well-known fruiting habits--would seem to +cover the ground effectually. + +The best seed should be selected and picked when perfectly mature and +lowered to the ground. The fall from a lofty tree not infrequently +cracks the inner shell, without giving any external evidence of the +injury. A seed so injured will never sprout and therefore is worthless +for seed purposes. + +Freshly collected seed nuts contain in the husk more moisture than +is required to effect germination, and if planted in this condition, +decay is apt to set in before germination occurs. To avoid this the +natives tie them in pairs, sling them over bamboo poles where they are +exposed to the air but sheltered from the sun, and leave them until +well sprouted. It is, however, more expeditious to pile the nuts up in +small heaps of eight to ten nuts, in partial shade, where the surface +nuts may be sprinkled occasionally to prevent complete drying out. + +Germination is very erratic, sometimes occurring within a month +and sometimes extending over four, five, or more months. When the +young shoot or plumule (see illustration) has fairly thrust its way +through the fibrous husk it is a good practice to go over the heaps +and segregate those that have sprouted, carefully placing them so +that the growing tip be not deformed or distorted by the pressure +of superincumbent nuts. When these sprouts are 30 to 50 cm. high, +and a few roots have thrust through the husk, they are in the best +possible condition for permanent planting. + +First. The original preparation of the land should be good and the +surface tilth at the time of planting irreproachable; i. e., free +from weeds and so mellow that the soil can be closely and properly +pressed around the roots by hand. + +Second. The orchard should be securely protected from the invasion of +cattle, etc. It is sometimes impossible to protect orchards against +entry of these animals. If the success of these precautions can not +be assured, then the nuts had better be grown in a closely protected +nursery until about a year old, when the albumen of the seed will be +completely assimilated and will therefore no longer attract vermin, +and when the larger size of the plant will give it more protection +from stray cattle. + +In either case planting should be made concurrently with the opening of +the rainy monsoon, during which season further field operations will +not be required except when an intermittent, drier period indicates +the advisability of running the cultivator. + +The planting "pit" fetish, in such common use in India, has nothing +to commend it. If stable manures of any kind are available, a good +application at the time of planting will effect wonders in accelerating +the growth of the young plants. + +Where the necessary protection is assured, the young seedling planted +out as above recommended should start at once, without check of any +kind, into vigorous growth. + +The nursery-grown subject receives an unavoidable setback. Its roots +have been more or less mutilated and, as we may not prune the top +sufficiently to compensate for the root injury, it is generally several +months before the equilibrium of top and root is fully restored. In +most cases, by the end of the second year, it will have been far +outstripped in the growing race by the former. + +The history, habits, and characteristics of the cocoanut tree indicate +that it needs a full and free exposure to sun, air, and wind; and, +as it makes a tree, under such circumstances, of wide crown expansion, +these indispensables can not be secured except by very wide planting. + +Conventional recommendations cover all distances, from 5 to 8 meters, +with quincunx (i. e., triangular plantings) urged when the 8-meter +plan is adopted. But the writer has seen too many groves spaced at +this distance in good soil, with interlacing leaves and badly spindled +in the desperate struggle for light, air, and sun, ever to recommend +the quincunx, or any system other than the square, at distances not +less than 9 meters and, in good soils, preferably 9.5 meters. + +The former distance will allow for 123 and the latter 111 trees to +the hectare. They should be lined out with the greatest regularity, so +as to admit at all times of cross plowing and cultivation as desired. + +From this time forward the treatment is one of cultural and manurial +routine. + +Annual plowings should not be dispensed with during the life +of the plantation. These plowings may be relatively shallow, +sufficient to cover under the green manures and crops that are made +an indispensable condition to the continued profitable conduct of +the industry. Nothing is to be gained by the removal of the earliest +flowering spikes. Flowering is the congestion of sap at a special point +which, if the grower could control it, he would wish to direct, in the +case of young plants, to the building up of leaf and wood. Cutting the +inflorescence of the cocoanut results in profuse bleeding and, unless +this be checked by the use of a powerful styptic or otherwise, it is +doubtful if the desired end would be accomplished. The earlier crops +of nuts should all be taken with extension cutters or from ladders. No +shoulders for climbing should be cut in any tree, the stem of which +has not become dense, hard, and woody. Cut when the wood is the least +bit succulent, they become inviting points of attack for borers. + +With these reservations, there is everything to commend the practice +of shouldering the tree, as offering the safest, most expeditious +and economical way of making it possible to climb and secure the +harvest. It is, of course, understood that the cuts should be made +sloping outward, so as not to collect moisture and invite decay, +and no larger than is strictly necessary for the purpose. + + + +MANURING. [5] + +The manuring problem must be met and solved by the best resources at +our command. The writer has had pointed out hundred of trees that, +wholly guiltless of any direct application of manure, have borne +excellent crops for many successive years; but he has also seen +hundreds of others in their very prime, at thirty years, which once +produced a hundred select nuts per year, now producing fluctuating +and uncertain crops of fifteen to thirty inferior fruits. + +Time and again native growers have told me of the large and uniformly +continuous crops of nuts from the trees immediately overshadowing their +dwellings and, although some have attributed this to a sentimental +appreciation and gratitude on the part of the palm at being made one +of the family of the owner, a few were sensible enough to realize +that it came of the opportunity that those particular trees had to +get the manurial benefit of the household sewage and waste. + +Yet, the lesson is still unlearned and, after much diligent inquiry, +I have yet to find a nut grower in the Philippines who at any time +(except at planting) makes direct and systematic application of manure +to his trees. + +In India, Ceylon, the Penang Peninsula, and Cochin China, where the +tree has been cultivated for generations, the most that was ever +attempted until very recently was to throw a little manure in the +hole where the tree was planted, and for all future time to depend +on the inferior, grass-made droppings of a few cattle tethered among +the trees, to compensate for the half million or more nuts that a +hectare of fairly productive trees should yield during their normal +bearing life. + +Upon suitable cocoanut soils--i. e., those that are light and +permeable--common salt is positively injurious. In support of this +contention, I will state that salt in solution will break up and +freely combine with lime, making equally soluble chlorids of lime +which, of course, freely leach out in such a soil and carry down +to unavailable depths these salts, invaluable as necessary bases +to render assimilable most plant foods; and that, on this account, +commercial manures containing large amounts of salt, are always to +be used with much discretion, owing to the danger of impoverishing +the supply of necessary lime in the soil. + +Finally, so injurious is the direct application of salt to the roots +of most plants that the invariable custom of trained planters (who, +for the sake of the potash contained, are compelled to use crude +Stassfurt mineral manures, which contain large quantities of common +salt) is to apply it a very considerable time before the crop is +planted, in order that this deleterious agent should be well leached +and washed away from the immediate field of root activity. + +That the cocoanut is able to take up large quantities of salt may not +be disputed. That the character of its root is such as to enable it to +do so without the injury that would occur to most cultivated plants +I have previously shown, while the history of the cocoanut's inland +career, and the records of agricultural chemistry, both conclusively +point to the fact that its presence is an incident that in no way +contributes to the health, vigor, or fruitfulness of the tree. + +Mr. Cochran's analysis, based upon the unit of 1,000 average nuts, +weighing in the aggregate 3,125 pounds, discloses a drain upon soil +fertility for that number, amounting in round numbers to-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 8 1/4 + Potash 17 + Phosphoric acid 3 + + +Reducing this to crop and area, and taking 60 fruits per annum per tree +as a fair mean for the bearing groves in our cocoanut districts and +on those rare estates where a systematic spacing of about 173 trees +to the hectare has been made, we should have an annual harvest of +10,300 nuts, or, stated in round numbers, 10,000, which will exhaust +each year from the soil a total of-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 82 1/2 + Potash 170 + Phosphoric acid 30 + + +The cocoanut, therefore, while a good feeder, may not be classed with +the most depleting of field crops. + +To make this clear I exhibit, by way of contrast, the drafts made +by a relatively good crop of two notoriously soil-impoverishing +crops--tobacco and corn--and, on the other hand, the drafts made by +an equivalent average cotton crop--a product considered to make but +light drains upon sources of soil fertility. + +A proportionate tobacco crop of 1,000 kilos per hectare will withdraw +from the soil (reduced to the same standard of weights adopted by +Mr. Cochran)-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 168 + Potash 213 + Phosphoric acid 23 + + +An equivalent crop of shelled corn, say, of 125 bushels per hectare, +will withdraw-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 200 + Potash 135 + Phosphoric acid 75 + + +while a relative crop of lint cotton of 237 kilos (700 pounds) per +hectare [6] will only exhaust, in round numbers-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 114 + Potash 70 + Phosphoric acid 30 + + +There is an analogy between these four products that makes them +all comparable, in so far as all are largely surface feeders, and, +as experience shows that there can be no continuing success with +the last three that does not include both cultivation and manuring, +we may use the analogy to infer a like indispensable necessity for +the successful issue of the first. + +Cultivation as a manurial factor should, therefore, not be overlooked, +and all the more strongly does it become emphasized by the very +difficulties that for some years to come must beset the Philippine +planter in the way of procuring direct manures. + +When it comes to the specific application of manures and how to make +the most of our resources, we shall have to turn back to the analysis +of the nut and note that, relatively to other crops, it makes small +demands for nitrogen. At the same time it must not be forgotten that +these chemical determinations only refer to the fruit and that, +with the present incomplete data and lack of investigation of the +constituent parts of root, stem, leaf, and branch, we have nothing +to guide us but what we may infer from the behavior of the plant and +its relationship to plants of long-deferred fruition, whose manurial +wants are well understood. + +It is now the most approved orchard practice to encourage an early +development of leaf and branch by the liberal application of nitrogen, +whose stimulant actions upon growth are conceded as the best. + +In temperate regions, the exigencies of climate exact that this be +done with discretion and care, in order that the unduly stimulated +growths may be fully ripened and matured against the approach of an +inclement season. In the Tropics no such limitations exist, and the +early growth of the tree may be profitably stimulated to the highest +pitch. That this general treatment, as applied to young fruit trees, +is specifically the one indicated in the early life of the cocoanut, +may be quickly learned by him who will observe the avidity with +which the fleshy roots of a young cocoanut will invade, embrace, +and disintegrate a piece of stable manure. + +Notwithstanding lack of chemical analysis, we may not question the +fact that considerable supplies of both potash and phosphoric acid +are withdrawn in the building up of leaf and stem; but these are +found in sufficient quantity in soils of average quality to meet +the early requirements of the plant. It is only when the fruiting +age is reached that demands are made, especially upon the potash, +which the planter is called upon to make good. + +Good cultivation, the application of a generous supply of stimulating +nitrogen during its early career, and the gradual substitution in +later life of manures in which potash and phosphoric acid, particularly +the former, predominate, are necessary. + +How, then, may we best apply the nitrogen requirements of its early +life? Undoubtedly through the application of abundant supplies of +stable manures, press cakes, tankage, or of such fertilizers as furnish +nitrogen in combination with the large volume of humus necessary to +minister to the gross appetite of the plant under consideration. But +the chances are that none of these are available, and the planter +must have recourse to some of the green, nitrogen-gathering manures +that are always at his command. + +He must sow and plow under crops of pease, beans, or other legumes +that will furnish both humus and nitrogen in excess of what they +remove. Incidentally, they will draw heavily upon the potash deposits +of the soil, and they must all be turned back, or, if fed, every +kilo of the resulting manure must be scrupulously returned. He must +pay for the cultivation of the land, for the growing of crops that +he turns back as manure (and that involves further expense for their +growing and plowing under), and, in addition, he must be subject to +such outlay for about seven years before he can begin to realize for +the time and labor expended. + +But there are expedients to which the planter may have recourse +which, if utilized, may return every dollar of cultural outlay. By +the use of a wise rotation he can not only maintain his land in a good +productive condition but realize a good biennial crop that will keep +the plantation from being a financial drag. The rotation that occurs +to me as most promising on the average cocoanut lands of these Islands +would be, first, a green manure crop, followed by corn and legumes, +succeeded by cotton, and then back to green manures. + +To make the first green crop effective as a manure, both lime and +potash are essential--the former to make available the nitrogen we +hope to gather, and the potash in order to secure the largest and +quickest growth of the pulse we are to raise for manurial purposes. + +Both these elements are generally in good supply in our cocoanut lands; +but, if there is uncertainty upon this point, both should be supplied, +in some form. Fortunately, the former is cheap and abundant in most +parts of the Archipelago, and, when well slaked, may be freely applied +with benefit, at the rate of a ton or even more to the hectare. + +In default of the mineral potash salts, the grower must seek unleached +wood ashes, either by burning his own unused jungle land to procure +them or by purchasing them from the neighbor who has such land to +burn over. If located on the littoral, he will carefully collect +all the seaweed that is blown in, although in our tropical waters +the huge and abundant marine algæ are mostly lacking. Such as are +found, however, furnish a not inconsiderable amount of potash, and, +in the extremities to which planters remote from commercial centers +are driven, no source is too inconsiderable to be overlooked. + +The first green crop selected will be one known to be of tropical +origin which, with fair soil conditions, will not fail to give a good +yield. He may with safety try any of the native rank-growing beans, +or cowpeas, soja, or velvet beans; or, if these are not procurable, he +has at command everywhere an unstinted seed supply of Cajanus indicus, +or of Clitorea ternatea, which will as well effect the desired end--to +wit, a great volume of humus and a new soil supply of nitrogen. It +remains for the planter to determine if the crop thus grown is to +be plowed under, or if he will use it to still better advantage by +partially feeding it, subject, as previously stated, to an honest +return to the land of all the manure resulting therefrom. + +He may utilize it in any way, even to selling the resulting seed +crop, provided all the remaining brush is turned back to the land +and a portion of the money he receives for the seed be reinvested in +high-grade potash and phosphatic manures. The plantation should now +be in fair condition for a corn crop, and, as a very slight shading +is not prejudicial to the young palms, the corn can be planted close +enough to the trees, leaving only sufficient space to admit of the +free cultivation that both require. + +It must not be forgotten that corn makes the most serious inroads +upon our soil fertility of any of the crops in our rotation, and, +unless by this time the planter is prepared to feed all the grain +produced to fatten swine or cattle, it had better be eliminated from +the rotation and peanuts substituted. In addition to this, he must +still make good whatever drains the corn will have made upon this +element of soil fertility. + +Cropping to corn attacks the cocoanut at a new and vulnerable point, +against which the careful grower must make provision. It will be +remembered that an average corn crop makes very considerable drafts +upon the soil supply of phosphoric acid; but, if the grain is used +for fattening swine, whose manure is much richer in phosphates than +most farm manures, and the latter is restored to the land, serious +soil impoverishment may be averted. + +The next step in our suggested rotation is the cotton crop. Here, +too, limitations are imposed upon the planter who is without abundant +manurial resources to maintain the future integrity of his grove. He +may sell the lint from his cotton, but he can not dispose of it +(as is frequently done here) in the seed. + +If the enterprise be not upon a scale that will justify the equipment +of a mill and the manufacture of the oil, he has no alternative but +to return the seed in lieu of the seed cake, wasteful and extravagant +though such a process be. + +The oil so returned is without manurial value and, if left in the +seed, is so much money wasted. The rational process, of course, +calls for the return of the press cake, either direct or in the form +of manure after it has been fed. With this is also secured the hull, +rich in both the potash and the phosphoric acid [7] which we now know +is so essential to the future welfare of the grove. + +The above rotation is simply suggested as a tentative expedient. + +The ground will now be so shaded that we can not hope to raise more +catch crops for harvesting, although it may be possible during the +dry season to raise a partial stand of pulses, of manure value only; +but, from the fruiting stage on, this becomes a minor consideration. + +This stage of the cultural story brings us once more face to face +with the principle contended for at the beginning of this paper, +namely, that there can be no permanent prosperity in this branch of +horticulture until the crop is so worked up into its ultimate products +that none of the residue of manufacture goes to waste. + +At best the return of these side products is insufficient, and, despite +their careful husbandry, we can not ultimately evade a greater or less +resort to inorganic manures of high cost and difficult procurement. + +The residue from the press cake is rich in nitrogen and humus, which, +in the ever-increasing shade of the grove, will become more and more +difficult to produce there through nitrogen-making agencies; but the +waste from the manufacture of coir and the ashes from the woody shell +will go far toward supplying the needed potash. + +Such a system would, if closely followed, practically restrict the +farmer's ultimate purchases to a small quantity of acid phosphates, +or of bone dust, which, in conjunction with good tillage, should +serve to maintain the grove in a highly productive condition for an +indefinite term of years. + + + +IRRIGATION. + +As an auxiliary manurial agent of definite, well-proven value in this +Archipelago, I will briefly recite some of the benefits that may be +expected to follow occasional irrigation during the dry season. + +It strongly accelerates growth and early maturity. A few irrigated +trees, reputed to be under five years from seed and already bearing +fruit, were shown the writer on the Island of Joló. The growth was +remarkably strong and vigorous, notwithstanding that the water of +irrigation had been applied in such a way that the tree could only +hope to derive a minimum of benefit from its application. It had merely +been turned on from a convenient ditch whenever the soil seemed baked +and dry, at intervals of one to three weeks, as circumstances seemed +to require. + +Irrigation, but always in connection with subsequent cultivation, +may be considered equal to a crop guaranty that is not afforded so +effectually by any purely cultural system. + +Rarely has a better opportunity occurred to demonstrate the +unquestioned benefits that have inured to these few Joló trees from +the use of irrigating waters than the present season of 1902-3. From +many sources reports come to this Bureau of trees failing, or dying +outright, from lack of moisture. While it is true that the present +dry season has had no parallel since 1885-86, and that the rainfall +during the dry season has been less than half the normal, yet it +should not be forgotten that, during the eight months from October to +May, inclusive, the average precipitation on the west coast, at the +latitude of Manila, is only about 460 mm. and that, when the amount +falls below this, the cocoanut is bound to suffer. + +Though it is true that the evil effects of drought may be modified, +if not altogether controlled, by cultivation, the assistance of +irrigation places the cultivator in an impregnable position. If +evidence in support of this statement were called for, it might be +found to-day in the deplorable condition of those groves that have +been permitted to run to pasture, as compared with those in which some +attempts have been made to bolo out the encroaching weeds and grasses. + +It is probably true that, except on very sandy soils, continued surface +irrigation would aggravate the superficial root-developing tendency +of the tree; and to what extent, if any, occasional laceration by +deep shovel tooth cultivation would injure the tree remains to be +seen. There are, however, few economic plants that so quickly repair +root damage as the Palmæ, and, unless the seat of injury extends over +a very large area, it is probable that the resulting injury would be +of no consequence, as compared with the general benefits that would +result from irrigation. + + + + + +HARVEST. + + +Harvest of the crop requires but a brief discussion. The nuts should +be plucked when ripe. The phenomenon of maturity can not be readily +described in print. It frequently is as evident in nuts of a bright +green color as in those of a golden-yellow color, and the recognition +is one of those things that can only be learned by experience. + +The practice, so general in the Seychelles, of allowing the nut to +hang till it falls to the ground is certainly undesirable in these +Islands. On the contrary, the overripe nuts will seldom fall until +dislodged by a storm, and it is no uncommon thing to see nuts that +have sprouted and started to grow upon trees in plantations where the +harvest is left to the action of natural causes. Such nuts, of course, +are entirely worthless for the manufacture of oil or copra, and even +the husk has depreciated in value, the finest coirs, in fact, being +derived only from the fruits that have not attained full ripeness. In +any case, the nuts should be picked and the crop worked up before any +considerable enlargement or swelling of the embryo occurs. From this +time onward physiological changes arise which injuriously affect the +quantity and quality of what is called the meat. + +The heaping up of the nuts for some time after harvest favors some milk +absorption, which seems to facilitate the subsequent easy extraction +of the endosperm. + + + + + +ENEMIES. + + +Outside of certain insects of the order Coleoptera, cocoanuts in +the Philippines are reasonably free from enemies; in some districts, +close to forest-clad areas, the raids of monkeys do some damage. A +tree-nesting rat, which nibbles the young nuts, is also a source of +considerable loss. The rat is best overcome by frequent disturbance of +his quarters. This involves the removal of the dead leaves and thatch +that form constantly about the base of the crown. But the wisdom of +this recommendation will depend entirely upon circumstances. As the +planter may find that rats or the rhinoceros beetle are the lesser +evil, so should he be governed. + +There are localities in the Archipelago where the plague of rats +is unknown and where the beetles abound. In that case it would be +unwise to disturb the leaves which are very tardily deciduous and +do not naturally fall till the wood beneath is hard, mature, and +practically impervious to the attacks of insects. + +Where rats are numerous and insects few, which is the case in some +localities, the dead and dying leaves, among which the rat nests, +may be advantageously cleared away whenever the tree is climbed to +harvest the fruit. + +Among serious insect enemies we have to contend largely with the very +obnoxious black beetle, Oryctes rhinocerus, and, fortunately, to a +lesser extent, with Rhynchoporus ferrugineous (probably the same as +R. ochreatus of Eydoux), while R. pascha, Boehm, and Chalcosma atlas, +Linn., are also said to appear occasionally. + +However different their mode of attack, the general result is the +same, and their presence may surely be detected by the appearance of +deformed or badly misshapen or lacerated leaves. + +The attacks of all species are confined to the growing point and as +far downward as the wood is tender and susceptible to the action of +their powerful mandibles. + +The black beetle makes its attacks when fully mature, eating its way +into the soft tissues and generally selecting the axil of a young +leaf as the point of least resistance. Others simply deposit their +eggs, which hatch out, and the resulting grub is provided with jaws +powerful enough to do the same mischief. Two or three of these grubs, +if undisturbed, are sufficient in time to completely riddle the +growing tip, which then falls over and the tree necessarily dies. + + + + + +REMEDIES. + + +Remedies may be described as preventive and aggressive, and, by an +active campaign of precaution, many subsequent remedial applications +can be avoided. + +Most of the beetles attacking the palm are known to select heaps of +decomposing rubbish and manure as their favorite (if not necessary) +breeding places, and it is obviously of importance to break up and +destroy such; nor can any better or more advantageous way of effecting +this be suggested than by promptly spreading and plowing under all such +accumulations as fast as they are made; or, if this be impracticable, +by forking or turning over or otherwise disturbing the heaps, until +convenient to dispose of them as first suggested. + +A truly preventive and simple remedy, and one that I can commend as a +result of close observation, is the application of a handful or two +of sharp, coarse, clean sand in the axillæ of the young leaves. The +native practice is to mix this with ashes, salt, or tobacco dust; +but it is questionable if the efficacy of the remedy lies so much in +these additions as in the purely mechanical effect of the sand, the +constant attrition of which can not be other than highly objectionable +to the insect while burrowing. + +Of offensive remedies, probing with a stout hooked wire is the only +form of warfare carried on in these Islands; but, as the channel of the +borer is sometimes tortuous and deep, this is not always effective. A +certain, simple, and easily applied remedy may be found in carbon +bisulphid. It could be applied in the holes (which invariably trend +downward) with a small metal syringe. The hole should be sealed +immediately with a pinch of stiff, moist clay. + +It is likely that this remedy and probing with a wire are the only +successful ways of combatting the red beetle, whose grub strikes in +wherever it finds a soft spot; but, for these species which attack +the axils of the leaves, I have great faith in the efficacy of the +"sand cure," and no nut picker should go aloft unprovided with a small +bamboo tube of dry, sifted sand, to protect the bases of recently +expanded leaves. + +In Selangor cocoanut trees now come under the government inspection, +and planters and owners, under penalties, are compelled to destroy +these pests. Mr. L. C. Brown, of Kuala Lampur, in that State, +who writes intelligently on this subject, [8] lays great stress on +the value of clean cultivation in subduing beetles, and repeats a +cultural axiom that never grows old and that will, consequently, +bear reiteration here--that it is rarely anything but the neglected +plantation that suffers, and that the maintenance at all times of a +healthy, vigorous growth is in itself almost a guaranty of immunity +from attacks of these pernicious insects. + +While we, unfortunately, know that this is not in all cases an assured +protection against diseases or insect enemies, it certainly minimizes +the danger and, in itself, is a justification of the high-pressure +cultural treatment advocated throughout the preceding pages. + + + + + +RENOVATION OF OLD GROVES. + + +Material improvement of old plantations may sometimes be effected +and, unless the trees are known to be upward of fifty years old, +generally repays the labor. Marked increase in crop has followed a +heavy thinning out of trees upon the Government cocoanut farm at San +Ramon, Mindanao. The improvement that a freer circulation of air and +abundant sunlight have effected is very marked. Where it can be done, +plowing is also sometimes feasible and should be followed by immediate +crop improvement. The average native plow is not so well adapted for +working over an old or neglected grove as it is for original soil +preparation. It acts more as a subsoiler and will tear and lacerate +more roots than is desirable. A single carabao, or one-horse American +garden plow, is the better implement for this work. Extensive bat guano +deposits are found in Mindoro, Guimarás, and Luzon. Some of them show +richness in nitrogen and, when accessible at a moderate cost, would +be useful in the renovation of old groves, where the shade would be +adverse to the rearing of good crops of nitrogen gatherers. + + + + + +CONCLUSION. + + +1. There are large areas throughout the littoral valleys of the +Archipelago, as yet unexploited, which, in the essentials of soil, +climate, irrigation facilities, and general environment are suitable +for cocoanut growing. + +2. The present conditions present especially flattering attractions +to cocoanut growers capable of undertaking the cultivation upon a +scale of some magnitude. By coöperation, small estates could combine +in the common ownership of machinery, whereby the products of the +grove could be converted into more profitable substances than copra. + +3. The present production of copra (estimated at 278,000 piculs in +1902) is an assurance of a sufficient supply to warrant the erection +of a high-class modern plant for the manufacture of the ultimate (the +"butter") products of the nut. The products of such an enterprise would +be increased by the certainty of a local market in the Philippines for +some part of the output. The average market value of the best grades of +copra in the Marseilles market is $54.40, gold, per English ton. The +jobbing value on January 1 of this year, of the refined products, +were, for each ton of copra: + + + Butter fats $90.00 + Residual soap oils 21.00 + Press cake 5.20 + ------ + Total 116.20 + + +the difference representing the profit per ton, less the cost of +manufacture. + +4. The minimum size of a plantation, on which economical application +of oil and fiber preparing machinery could be made, is 60 hectares. + +5. There is no other horticultural tropical product which may be grown +in these Islands where crop assurance may be so nearly guaranteed, +or natural conditions so nearly controlled by the planter who, +knowing correct principles, has the facilities for applying them. + +6. The natural enemies and diseases of the plant are relatively few, +easily held in check by vigilance and the exercise of competent +business management. + +7. The labor situation is bound more seriously to affect the small +planter, wholly dependent upon hand labor, than the estate conducted +on a large enough scale to justify the employment of modern machinery. + +8. In view of an ever-expanding demand for cocoanut products, and in +the light of the foregoing conclusions, the industry, when prosecuted +upon a considerable scale and subject to the requirements previously +set forth, promises for many years to be one of the most profitable +and desirable enterprises which command the attention of the Filipino +planter. + +The greatest mine of horticultural wealth which is open to the shrewd +planter lies in the heaps of waste and neglected husks that he can +now procure from adjoining estates for the asking and cartage. + +With labor at 1 peso per diem and at the present price of potash and +phosphoric acid, all the husks in excess of 300 per diem which could +be hauled would be clear profit. The ashes of these, when burned and +applied to the old grove, would have an immediate and revivifying +influence. + +Many trees in an old plantation have ceased to bear. Whether this is +due to exhaustion from old age or from soil exhaustion is immaterial; +each should be eradicated and the time-honored custom of replanting +a fresh tree in its place abandoned. These renewals are difficult +enough in any fruit or nut orchard where the scientific cultural +conditions have been of the best. Renewals in a cocoanut grove, +unless the vacant space is abnormally large and can be subjected to +some years of soil improvement, are unprofitable. + +There is a wide range of opinion as to the bearing life of a cocoanut +tree. It is said to vary from thirty to one hundred and thirty +years. Grown more than forty, or possibly fifty years old, the writer +would hesitate to undertake the improvement or renewal of the grove. + +Palms, unlike exogenous trees, afford no evidence by which their +age may be determined. In general, with advanced years, come great +height and great attenuation. In the open, and where fully exposed +to atmospheric influences, these form an approximate criterion of +age. The so-called annular scars, marking the earlier attachments of +leaves, furnish no clue to age. + + + + + +NOTES + + +[1] "The Prince of Palms," Treloar. + +[2] The cocoanut palm has been reared as far north as Indian River, +Florida, latitude 28° N., but has not proven a profitable commercial +venture. + +[3] Quoted in "Watts's Dict.," II, 456. + +[4] Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 1902. + +[5] Throughout this paper the writer uses this word in preference to +"fertilizing" even when speaking of so-called "commercial fertilizers." + +[6] Farmers' Bulletin 114, United States Department of Agriculture. + +[7] Conn. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1897, Part II. + +[8] Ag. Bull. Fed. Malay States, February, 1903. + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COCOANUT *** + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the +United States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part +of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +concept and trademark. 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+margin-bottom: 2em; +} +.figureHead, .noteref, .pseudonoteref, .marginnote, p.legend, .versenum, .stage +{ +color: #001FA4; +} +.rightnote, .pagenum, .linenum, .pagenum a +{ +color: #AAAAAA; +} +a.hidden:hover, a.noteref:hover +{ +color: red; +} +p.dropcap:first-letter +{ +color: #001FA4; +font-weight: bold; +} +sub, sup +{ +line-height: 0; +} +.pagenum, .linenum +{ +speak: none; +} +</style> + +<style type="text/css"> +.xd20e84width +{ +width:461px; +} +.xd20e409width +{ +width:593px; +} +.xd20e443width +{ +width:321px; +} +.xd20e467width +{ +width:318px; +} +.xd20e608width +{ +width:670px; +} +.xd20e652width +{ +width:485px; +} +.xd20e715 +{ +margin:0px auto; display:table; +} +</style> +</head> +<body> + +<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Cocoanut, by William S. Lyon</p> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The Cocoanut<br> +With reference to its products and cultivation in the Philippines</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: William S. Lyon</div> +<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: October 7, 2010 [eBook #33844]<br> +[Most recently updated: December 31, 2022]</p> +<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> + <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: + Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project + Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</p> +<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COCOANUT ***</div> + +<div class="front"> +<div class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<p class="firstpar"></p> +<div class="figure xd20e84width"><img src="images/titlepage.png" alt= +"Original Title Page." width="461" height="720"></div> +</div> +<div class="titlePage"> +<div class="docImprint">Bureau of Agriculture.</div> +<div class="docTitle"> +<div class="seriesTitle">Farmer’s Bulletin No. 8.</div> +<div class="mainTitle">The Cocoanut</div> +<div class="subTitle">With Reference to Its Products and Cultivation in +the Philippines.</div> +</div> +<div class="byline">By<br> +<span class="docAuthor">William S. Lyon,</span><br> +In charge of Division of Plant Industry.</div> +<div class="docImprint">Manila:<br> +Bureau of Public Printing.<br> +<span class="docDate">1903.</span></div> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e115" href="#xd20e115" name= +"xd20e115">3</a>]</span></p> +<div id="toc" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Contents.</h2> +<ul> +<li> <span class="tocPagenum">Page.</span></li> +<li><a href="#transmittal">Letter of transmittal</a> + <span class="tocPagenum">4</span></li> +<li><a href="#intro">Introduction</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">5</span></li> +<li><a href="#history">History</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">5</span></li> +<li><a href="#botany">Botany</a> <span class= +"tocPagenum">6</span></li> +<li><a href="#uses">Uses</a> <span class= +"tocPagenum">6</span> +<ul> +<li><a href="#copra">Copra and cocoanut oil</a> + <span class="tocPagenum">6</span></li> +<li><a href="#coir">Coir</a> <span class= +"tocPagenum">10</span></li> +<li><a href="#tuba">Tuba</a> <span class= +"tocPagenum">12</span></li> +<li><a href="#minor">Minor uses</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">13</span></li> +</ul> +</li> +<li><a href="#cultivation">Cultivation</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">14</span> +<ul> +<li><a href="#location">Selection of location</a> + <span class="tocPagenum">14</span></li> +<li><a href="#soil">The soil</a> <span class= +"tocPagenum">16</span></li> +<li><a href="#seed">Seed selection</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">17</span></li> +<li><a href="#planting">Planting</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">18</span></li> +<li><a href="#manuring">Manuring</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">21</span></li> +<li><a href="#irrigation">Irrigation</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">27</span></li> +</ul> +</li> +<li><a href="#harvest">Harvest</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">28</span></li> +<li><a href="#enemies">Enemies</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">28</span></li> +<li><a href="#remedies">Remedies</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">29</span></li> +<li><a href="#renovation">Renovation of old groves</a> + <span class="tocPagenum">30</span></li> +<li><a href="#conclusion">Conclusion</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">30</span></li> +</ul> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e265" href="#xd20e265" name= +"xd20e265">4</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div id="transmittal" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Letter of Transmittal.</h2> +<p class="firstpar salute"><span class="sc">Bureau of +Agriculture</span>,</p> +<p class="dateline"><i>Manila, June 1, 1903</i>.</p> +<p><span class="sc">Sir</span>: In responding to numerous inquiries +about the cocoanut, its uses, cultivation, and preparation for market, +I have prepared, by your direction, the accompanying bulletin, which is +intended to cover the general field of the inquiries addressed to this +Bureau, and herewith submit the same, with the recommendation that it +be published as Farmers’ Bulletin No. 8.</p> +<p class="salute">Respectfully,</p> +<p class="signed"><span class="sc">Wm. S. Lyon</span>,</p> +<p class="signed"><i>In Charge of Division of Plant Industry</i>.</p> +<p class="signed">To Hon. <span class="sc">F. +Lamson-Scribner</span>,</p> +<p class="signed"><i>Chief Bureau of Agriculture, Manila</i>. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e300" href="#xd20e300" name= +"xd20e300">5</a>]</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="body"> +<div id="intro" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="super">The Cocoanut.</h2> +<h2 class="main">Introduction.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">The following pages are written chiefly in the +interests of the planter, but the writer feels that the great +agricultural importance which the cocoanut palm is bound to assume in +these Islands is sufficient to justify the presentation of some of its +history and botany.</p> +<p>For that part of the bulletin which touches upon the botany of the +cocoanut I am indebted to Don Regino Garcia, associate botanist of the +Forestry Bureau; for that relating to its products and local uses, to +the courtesy of manufacturers in Laguna; and, for the rest, to personal +experience and observations made in Laguna Province and in the southern +Visayan Islands where, as elsewhere in this Archipelago, the cocoanut +may properly be considered a spontaneous and not a cultivated +product.</p> +</div> +<div id="history" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">History.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">The legendary history of the “Prince of +Palms,”<a class="noteref" id="xd20e316src" href="#xd20e316" name= +"xd20e316src">1</a> as it has been called, dates back to a period when +the Christian era was young, and its history is developing day by day +in some new and striking manifestation of its utility or beauty. It +seems not unreasonable to assume that much of the earlier traditionary +history of the cocoanut may have been inspired as much by its inherent +beauty as by its uses. Such traditional proverbs Or folklore as I have +gathered in the Visayas recognize the influence of the beautiful, in so +far as the blessings of the trees only inure to the good; for instance, +“He who is cruel to his beast or his family will only harvest +barren husks from the reproving trees that witness the pusillanimous +act;” and, again, “He who grinds the poor will only grind +water instead of fat oil from the meat.”</p> +<p>To this day the origin of the cocoanut is unknown. De Candolle +(Origin of Cult. Plants, p. 574) recites twelve specific claims +pointing to an Asiatic origin, and a single, but from a scientific +standpoint almost unanswerable, contention for an American derivation. +None of the remaining nineteen species of the genus Cocos are known to +exist elsewhere in the world than on the American continent. His review +of the story results in the nature of a compromise, assigning to our +own Islands and those to the south and west of us the distinction of +having first given birth to the cocoanut, and that thence it was +disseminated east and west by ocean currents. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e321" href="#xd20e321" name= +"xd20e321">6</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e316" href="#xd20e316src" name="xd20e316">1</a></span> “The +Prince of Palms,” Treloar.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="botany" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Botany.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">The cocoanut (<i>Cocos nucifera</i> Linn.) is the +sole oriental representative of a tropical genus comprising nineteen +species, restricted, with this single exception, to the New World.</p> +<p>Its geographical distribution is closely confined to the two +Tropics.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e332src" href="#xd20e332" name= +"xd20e332src">1</a></p> +<p>Not less than nineteen <span class="corr" id="xd20e337" title= +"Source: variesties">varieties</span> of <i>C. nucifera</i> are +described by Miquel and Rumphius, and all are accepted by Filipino +authors.</p> +<p>Whether all of these varieties are constant enough to deserve +recognition need not be considered here. Many are characterized by the +fruits being distinctly globular, others by fruits of a much prolonged +oval form, still others by having <span class="corr" id="xd20e345" +title="Source: the the">the</span> lower end of the fruit terminating +in a triangular point.</p> +<p>In the Visayas there is a variety in which the fibrous outer husk of +the nut is sweet and watery, instead of dry and astringent, and is +chewed by the natives like sugar cane. Another variety occurs in Luzon, +known as “Pamocol,” the fruit of which seldom exceeds 20 +cm. in diameter. There is also a dwarf variety of the palm, which +rarely exceeds 3 meters in height, and is known to the Tagalogs as +“Adiavan.”</p> +<p>These different varieties are strongly marked, and maintain their +characters when reproduced from seed.</p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e332" href="#xd20e332src" name="xd20e332">1</a></span> The +cocoanut palm has been reared as far north as Indian River, Florida, +latitude 28° N., but has not proven a profitable commercial +venture.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="uses" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Uses.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">The cocoanut furnishes two distinct commercial +products—the dried meat of the nut, or copra, and the outer +fibrous husk. These products are so dissimilar that they should be +considered separately.</p> +<div class="div2" id="copra"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Copra and Cocoanut Oil.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">Until very recent years the demand for the +“meat” of the cocoanut or its products was limited to the +uses of soap boilers and confectioners. Probably there is no other +plant in the vegetable kingdom which serves so many and so varied +purposes in the domestic economy of the peoples in whose countries it +grows. Within the past decade chemical science has produced from the +cocoanut a series of food products whose manufacture has revolutionized +industry and placed the business of the manufacturer and of the +producer upon a plane of prosperity never before enjoyed.</p> +<p>There has also been a great advance in the processes by which the +new oil derivatives are manufactured. The United States took the +initiative with the first recorded commercial factories in 1895. In +1897 the Germans established factories in Mannheim, but it remained for +the French people to bring the industry to its present perfection. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e364" href="#xd20e364" name= +"xd20e364">7</a>]</span></p> +<p>According to the latest reports of the American consul at +Marseilles, the conversion of cocoanut oil into dietetic compounds was +undertaken in that city in 1900, by Messrs. Rocca, Tassy and de Roux, +who in that year turned out an average of 25 tons per month. During the +year just closed (1902) their average monthly output exceeded 6,000 +tons and, in addition to this, four or five other large factories were +all working together to meet the world’s demand for +“vegetaline,” “cocoaline,” or other products +with suggestive names, belonging to this infant industry.</p> +<p>These articles are sold at gross price of 18 to 20 cents per kilo to +thrifty Hollandish and Danish merchants, who, at the added cost of a +cent or two, repack them in tins branded “Dairy Butter” +and, as such, ship them <span class="corr" id="xd20e372" title= +"Not in source">to</span> all parts of the civilized world. It was +necessary to disguise the earlier products by subjecting them to +trituration with milk or cream; but so perfect is the present emulsion +that the plain and unadulterated fats now find as ready a market as +butter. These “butters” have so far found their readiest +sale in the Tropics.</p> +<p>The significance of these great discoveries to the cocoanut planter +can not be overestimated, for to none of these purely vegetable fats do +the prejudices attach that so long and seriously have handicapped those +derived from animal margarin or margarin in combination with stearic +acid, while the low fusion point of pure dairy butters necessarily +prohibits their use in the Tropics, outside of points equipped with +refrigerating plants. The field, therefore, is practically without +competition, and the question will no longer be that of finding a +market, but of procuring the millions of tons of copra or oil that this +one industry will annually absorb in the immediate future.</p> +<p>Cocoanut oil was once used extensively in the manufacture of fine +candles, and is still occasionally in demand for this purpose in the +Philippines, in combination with the vegetable tallow of a species of +<i>Stillingia</i>. It is largely consumed in lamps, made of a tumbler +or drinking glass half filled with water, on top of which float a few +spoonfuls of oil, into which the wick is plunged. In remote barrios it +is still in general use as a street illuminant, and so perfect is its +combustion that under a constant flicker it emits little or no +smoke.</p> +<p>When freshly expressed, the oil is an exceptionally good cooking +fat, and enters largely into the dietary of our own people. The +medicinal uses of the oil are various, and in the past it has been +strongly advocated for the cure of eczema, burns, as a vermifuge, and +even as a substitute for cod-liver oil in phthisis. Its medicinal +virtues are now generally discredited, except as a restorative agent in +the loss of hair resulting from debilitating fevers. Its value in this +direction may be surmised from the splendid heads of hair possessed by +the Filipino women, who generally use the oil as a hair dressing.</p> +<p>Cocoanut oil is derived from the fleshy albumen or meat of the ripe +fruit, either fresh or dried. The thoroughly dried meat is variously +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e386" href="#xd20e386" name= +"xd20e386">8</a>]</span>known as <i>copra</i>, <i>coprax</i>, and +<i>copraz</i>. The exportation of copra is detrimental to the best +interests of the planter, tending to enrich the manufacturer and +impoverish the grower. The practice, however, is so firmly established +that the writer can only record a probably futile protest against its +continuance.</p> +<p>The causes which for a long time will favor the exportation of copra +instead of oil in this Archipelago may be briefly stated as +follows:</p> +<p>(1) An oil-milling plant, constructed with due regard to economy of +labor and the production of the best quality of oil, would involve an +outlay of capital of $2,500, gold, and upward, according to capacity. +The production of copra requires the labor of the planter’s hands +only.</p> +<p>(2) The oil packages must be well-made barrels, casks, or metallic +receptacles. The initial cost of the packages is consequently great, +their return from distant ports impracticable, and their sale value in +the market of delivery is not sufficient to offset the capital locked +up in an unproductive form. On the other hand, copra may be sold or +shipped in boxes, bags, sacks, and bales, or it may even be stored in +bulk in the ship’s hold.</p> +<p>(3) When land transportation has to be considered, the lack of good +roads still further impedes the oil maker. He can not change the size +and weight of his packages from day to day to meet the varying +passability of the trail. On the other hand, packages of copra may be +adjusted to meet all emergencies, and the planter can thus take +advantage of the market conditions which may be denied to the oil +maker.</p> +<p>(4) Perhaps the most serious difficulty the oil maker has to contend +with is the continuous discouragement he encounters from the agent of +foreign factories, who buys in the open market and, bidding up to +nearly the full oil value of the copra, finds an ample +manufacturer’s profit paid by the press cake, so valuable abroad, +but, unfortunately, practically without sale or value here. The residue +from the mill may be utilized both for food and for manure by the oil +maker who is a tree owner and who maintains cattle. For either of these +purposes its value rates closely up to cotton-seed cake, and the time +is not remote when it will be recognized in the Philippines as far too +valuable a product to be permitted to be removed from the farm +excepting at a price which will permit of the purchase at a less figure +of an equivalent in manure. So active are the copra-buying agents in +controlling this important branch of the industry, that they refuse to +buy the press cake at any price, with the result that, in two instances +known to the writer, they have forced the closure of oil-milling plants +and driven the oil maker back to his copra.</p> +<div class="figure xd20e409width"><img src="images/p008.jpg" alt= +"A young cocoanut tree." width="593" height="715"> +<p class="figureHead">A young cocoanut tree.</p> +</div> +<p>Many copra-making plants in India and Ceylon are now supplied with +decorticating, breaking, and evaporating machinery. The process +employed in this Archipelago consists in first stripping the ripe fruit +of the outer fibrous husk. This is effected by means of a stout, steel +spearhead, whose shaft or shank is embedded firmly in the soil to such +a depth <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e415" href="#xd20e415" name= +"xd20e415">11</a>]</span>that the spear point projects above the ground +rather less than waist high. The operator then holds the nut in his +hands and strikes it upon the spear point, gives it a downward, rotary +twist, and thus, with apparent ease, quickly removes the husk. An +average operator will husk 1,000 nuts per day, and records have been +made of a clean up of as many as 3,000 per day. The work, however, is +exceedingly hard, and involves great dexterity and wrist strength.</p> +<p>Another man now takes up the nut and with a bolo strikes it a smart +blow in the middle, dividing it into two almost equal parts. These +parts are spread out and exposed to the sun for a few hours, or such +time as may be necessary to cause the fleshy albumen to contract and +shrink away from the hard outer shell, so that the meat may be easily +detached with the fingers.</p> +<p>Weather permitting, the meat thus secured is sun dried for a day and +then subjected to the heat of a slow fire for several hours. In some +countries this drying is now effected by hot-air driers, and a very +white and valuable product secured; but in the Philippines the +universal practice is to spread out the copra upon what may be called a +bamboo grill, over a smoky fire made of the shells and husks, just +sufficient heat being maintained not to set fire to the bamboo. The +halves, when dried, are broken by hand into still smaller irregular +fragments, and subjected to one or two days of sun bath. By this time +the moisture has been so thoroughly expelled that the copra is now +ready to be sacked or baled and stored away for shipment or use.</p> +<p>All modern cocoanut-oil mills are supplied with a decorticator armed +with revolving discs that tear or cut through the husk longitudinally, +freeing the nut from its outer covering and leaving the latter in the +best possible condition for the subsequent extraction of its fiber. +This decorticator is fed from a hopper and is made of a size and +capacity to husk from 500 to 1,000 nuts per hour.</p> +<p>Rasping and grinding machinery of many patterns and makes, for +reducing the meat to a pulp, is used in India, Ceylon, and China; and, +although far more expeditious, offers no improvements, so far as +concerns the condition to which the meats are reduced, over the methods +followed in the Philippines. Here the fleshy halves of the meat are +held by hand against a rapidly revolving, half-spherical knife blade +which scrapes and shaves the flesh down to a fine degree of +comminution. The resulting mass is then macerated in a little water and +placed in bags and subjected to pressure, and the milky juice which +flows therefrom is collected in receivers placed below. This is now +drawn off into boilers and cooked until the clear oil is concentrated +upon the surface. The oil is then skimmed off and is ready for +market.</p> +<p>The process outlined above is very wasteful<span class="corr" id= +"xd20e427" title="Not in source">.</span> The processes I have seen in +operation are very inadequate, and I estimate that, not less than 10 +per <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e430" href="#xd20e430" name= +"xd20e430">12</a>]</span>cent of the oil goes to loss in the press +cake. This is a loss that does not occur in establishments equipped +with the best hydraulic presses. It is true that very heavy pressure +carries through much coloring matter not withdrawn by the primitive +native mill, and that the oil is consequently darker, and sooner +undergoes decomposition; but modern mills are now supplied with +filtration plants through which this objection is practically +overcome.</p> +<p>The principles of the above process are daily reproduced in +thousands of Filipino homes, where the hand rasping of the nut, the +expression of the milky juice through coarse cloth, its subsequent +boiling down in an open pan, and the final skimming off of the oil are +in <span class="corr" id="xd20e434" title="Source: comon">common</span> +practice. Notwithstanding the cheapness of labor, it is only by +employing a mill well equipped with decorticating, rasping, hydraulic +crushing, and steam-boiling machinery, and with facilities to convert +the residue to feeding or other uses, that one may hopefully enter the +field of oil manufacture in these Islands in competition with copra +buyers.</p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="coir"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Coir.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">The fiber of the cocoanut husk, or coir, as it is +commercially known, has never yet been utilized in this Archipelago, +excepting occasionally for local consumption.</p> +<div class="figure xd20e443width" id="p010"><img src="images/p010.jpg" +alt="Fig. 1.—Cocoanut husk-crushing mill." width="321" height= +"254"> +<p class="figureHead"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Cocoanut +husk-crushing mill.</p> +</div> +<p>Second in value only to the copra, this product has been allowed to +go to waste. The rejected husks are thrown together in immense heaps, +which are finally burned and the ashes, exceedingly rich in potash and +phosphoric acid, are left to blow away.</p> +<p>As the commercial value of the fiber is greater than the manurial +value of the salts therein, it is economy to utilize the fiber and +purchase potash and phosphoric acid when needed to enrich the soil.</p> +<p>Highly improved and inexpensive power machinery for the complete and +easy extraction of the fibers of the husk, either wet or dry, is now +rapidly superseding the tedious hand process once in such general use. +Good <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e455" href="#xd20e455" name= +"xd20e455">13</a>]</span>patterns of machinery are shown in the +“husk-crushing mill<span class="corr" id="xd20e457" title= +"Not in source">”</span> (<a href="#p010">fig. 1</a>) and in the +“fiber extractor” (<a href="#p011">fig. 2</a>). The first +breaks, crushes, and flattens out the husks by means of powerful, +fluted metal rollers and, in the second the broken husks are fed over a +revolving drum set with teeth especially devised for tearing out the +fiber from the entire mass. Finally, it is fed into one of the many +forms of “willowing” machines, which reduces the mass to +clean fiber, which is now ready for grading, baling, and shipment. The +residual dust and waste from this operation may be used as an absorbent +for liquid manures, and ultimately returned to the plantation. The +yield of fiber varies from 12 to 25 quintals of coir and 4 to 7 +quintals of brush fiber per 10,000 average husks. In the Philippines +the nuts yield a large amount of fiber and a relatively small +percentage of chaff and dust. With improved machinery and careful +handling, 18 quintals of spinning coir and 5 quintals of bristle fiber +from every 10,000 husks is a fair estimate of the product.</p> +<div class="figure xd20e467width" id="p011"><img src="images/p011.jpg" +alt="Fig. 2.—Cocoanut fiber-extracting machine." width="318" +height="301"> +<p class="figureHead"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Cocoanut +fiber-extracting machine.</p> +</div> +<p>As the cost of manufacture is generally rated at one-half the +selling price, and as we must add a further charge of 20 per cent to +cover freight and commission, we have resulting from the sale of the 23 +quintals, or 2,300 kilos, at £16 per English ton, a balance of +£11 11s. per hectare.</p> +<p>But there are other considerations which should not be overlooked. +The husks of 10,000 cocoanuts will withdraw from the land 61.5 kilos of +potash and 3 kilos of phosphoric acid, and the restoration of the full +amount is called for to compensate for the growing wants of the tree, +in addition to that withdrawn by the crop. The necessary fertilizers +are worth, approximately, 5½d. per kilo, making a further +reduction of £1 8s. and leaving as a net profit £10 3s., +or, reduced to American money, nearly $50, gold, per hectare.</p> +<p>The machines above referred to will cost $800, gold, and $1,200 +additional will purchase and house the power necessary to operate them. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e479" href="#xd20e479" name= +"xd20e479">14</a>]</span>Such a plant will work up 1,000 nuts a day, +and handle in a year the output of a grove of 30 hectares. With the +addition of two or more fiber extractors the capacity of the plant may +be doubled without material expense, and it should rather more than pay +its entire cost in one year.</p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="tuba"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Tuba.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">Tuba is the fresh or mildly fermented sap drawn +from the inflorescence of the cocoanut.</p> +<p>There are no figures or data of any kind available as a basis for an +estimate as to the importance of this product, but its extent may be +inferred from the fact that the outlying groves about Cebu, Iloilo, and +the larger Visayan towns are practically devoted to the production of +tuba, and not to the manufacture of copra.</p> +<p>Tuba is collected from the unexpanded blossoms as soon as they have +fairly pushed through the subtending bracts. To prevent any lateral +expansion, the flowers are tied with strips of the green leaf blade and +then, with a sharp knife, an inch or two of the extreme tip is removed. +The whole flower cluster is now gently pulled forward until it arches +downward. In a day or two the sap begins to drip and is then caught in +a short joint of bamboo, properly secured for the purpose.</p> +<p>As a healthy tree <span class="corr" id="xd20e492" title= +"Source: developes">develops</span> at least one or more flowering +racemes every month, and the flow of sap extends frequently over a +period of two or more months, it is not uncommon <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e495" title="Not in source">to</span> see a number of tubes in use +upon one tree.</p> +<p>The workmen usually visits the tree twice daily to collect +<span class="corr" id="xd20e500" title="Source: the the">the</span> +liquor drawn during the preceding twelve hours in the larger tube, +which he carries upon his back. He slices daily a thin shaving from the +tip of the flower, in order that the wound may be kept open and +bleeding. This process is kept up until nearly all of the flower +cluster has been cut away, or until the sap ceases to flow.</p> +<p>More than a liter a day is sometimes drawn from one tree, and 5 +hectoliters is considered a fair annual average from a good bearing +tree.</p> +<p>In its fresh state tuba has a sweetish, slightly astringent taste; +but, as the vessels in which it is collected are rarely cleansed, they +become traps for many varieties of insects, etc., and it is, therefore, +not a very acceptable beverage to a delicate stomach. When purified by +a mild fermentation it is far more palatable.</p> +<p>A secondary fermentation of tuba results in vinegar, and on this +account, chiefly, so much space has been devoted to this feature of the +industry. The vinegar so produced is of good strength and color, of the +highest keeping qualities, and of unrivaled flavor. Its excellence is +so pronounced that upon its inherent merits it would readily find sale +in the world’s markets; and, although the local demand for the +tuba now exceeds the production, its conversion into vinegar will +probably prove the more profitable industry in the future. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e509" href="#xd20e509" name= +"xd20e509">15</a>]</span></p> +<p>Spirits are distilled and in some places sugar is still made from +the flower sap; and, while the importance of these great staples may +not be overlooked, their commercial value as products of this tree are +relatively insignificant.</p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="minor"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Minor Uses.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">In addition to eighty-three utilities described by +Mr. Pereira,<a class="noteref" id="xd20e517src" href="#xd20e517" name= +"xd20e517src">1</a> it is in very common use in the Philippines +for:</p> +<p>1. Cocoanut cream. The freshly ground fruit, reduced to a pulp and +strained, is consumed in that form or made into cakes with rice. It +makes a delicious and nutritious food. According to Dr. W. J. Gies, in +experiments lately published,<a class="noteref" id="xd20e522src" href= +"#xd20e522" name="xd20e522src">2</a> its nutritive value is due to 35.4 +per cent of oil, about 10 per cent of carbohydrates, and 3 per cent of +protein. The amount of cellulose (fibrous matter) is only 3 per cent, +and its digestibility is easy when the mass, by grating, is reduced to +a fine degree of comminution.</p> +<p>2. The “milk” or water is used sparingly as a beverage. +It is also fermented and converted into inferior vinegar.</p> +<p>3. The hard shell is used as fuel. When calcined, it produces a +black, lustrous substance, used for dyeing leather.</p> +<p>4. The same shell, aside from many uses quoted by Pereira, is used +here for every conceivable form of cup, ladle, scoop, and spoon.</p> +<p>5. From the tough midrib of the leaf, strong and beautiful baskets +of many designs are made, also excellent and durable brooms, and from +the part where the midrib coalesces with the petiole pot-cleaning +brushes are made.</p> +<p>6. The roots are sometimes used for chewing, as a substitute for +Areca. They also furnish red dyestuff and with one end finely +subdivided may be used in making toothbrushes.</p> +<p>7. The leaves and midribs, when burned, furnish an ash so rich in +potash that it may be used alone in water as a substitute for soap or +when a powerful detergent is required.</p> +<p>8. The fiber of the husk is used extensively by the natives for +calking boats.</p> +<p>9. The milk is used in the preparation of a native dish of rice, +known as “casi.” It is an excellent and highly prized +dietary article, prepared with rice or in combination with chicken or +locusts.</p> +<p>10. The oil, melted with resins, is an effective and lasting +covering for anything desired to be protected from the ravages of white +ants.</p> +<p>11. The timber is used to bridge streams and bog holes, and the +slowly decaying leaves to fill them up and render them temporarily +passable.</p> +<p>12. The fiber is used in cordage and rope making, but to a far less +extent here than in India. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e548" +href="#xd20e548" name="xd20e548">16</a>]</span></p> +<p>Its further uses are, in general, those current in the Orient. +Briefly summed up, its timber is employed in every form of house +construction; its foliage in making mats, sacks, and thatches; its +fruit in curry and sweetmeats; its oil for medicine, cookery, and +illumination; its various juices in the manufacture of wines, spirits, +sugar, and vinegar; while not to overlook a final and not +inconsiderable Filipino product, the splinters of the midrib are used +in making toothpicks.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e517" href="#xd20e517src" name="xd20e517">1</a></span> Quoted in +“Watts’s Dict.,” II, 456.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e522" href="#xd20e522src" name="xd20e522">2</a></span> Bull. Torr. +Bot. Club, 1902.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="cultivation" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Cultivation.</h2> +<div class="div2" id="location"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Selection of Location.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">In the selection of a site for a cocoanut grove it +is best to select land near the seashore and not extending inland more +than 2 or 3 miles. Within this narrow zone there is commonly a deposit +of rich, permeable, well-drained alluvium offering soil conditions of +far greater importance to successful tree growth than the mere exposure +to marine influences. The success that has followed cocoanut growing in +Cochin China, remote from the seaboard, in Annam and up the Ganges +basin one hundred or more miles from the coast, and in our own interior +Province of Laguna, definitely proves that immediate contiguity to the +sea is not essential to success.</p> +<p>That the cocoanut will grow and thrive upon the immediate seashore, +in common with other plants, is simply an indication of its +<span class="corr" id="xd20e561" title= +"Source: adaptibility">adaptability</span> to environment. That it is +at a positive disadvantage as a shore plant may be determined +conclusively by anyone who will examine the root system of a +seashore-grown tree upturned by a wash or tidal wave, and one uprooted +from any cause, farther inland. It will be seen that the root system of +the maritime plant is immensely larger than the other, and that a +corresponding amount of energy has been expended in the search through +much inert material to forage for the necessary plant food which the +more favored inland species has found concentrated within a smaller +zone.</p> +<p>The planting <i>must</i> be made in a thoroughly permeable soil.</p> +<p>The thick, fleshy roots of the newly upturned palm are loaded with +water, and tell us that an inexhaustible store of this fluid is an +indispensable element of success. If further evidence of this were +required, the testimony of drooping leaves and of crops shrunken from +one-half to two-thirds, throughout the cocoanut districts and upon our +own orchard in Mindanao, as the result of drought, confirm it and +bespeak the necessity of copious water at all times.</p> +<p>The living tree upon the sea sands further emphasizes this +necessity; for, while its roots are lapped by the tides, it never flags +<span class="corr" id="xd20e573" title="Source: or or">or</span> wilts, +and from this we may gather the added value of a site which can be +irrigated. The careful observer will note that along miles of sea +beach, among hundreds of trees whose roots are either in actual contact +with the incoming <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e576" href= +"#xd20e576" name="xd20e576">17</a>]</span>waves, or subjected to the +subterranean influence of the sea, there will never be so much as one +tree growing in any beach basin which collects and holds tidal water +for even a brief time; and that, notwithstanding the large number of +nuts that must have found lodgment and favorable germinating influence +in such places, none succeed in growing. From this we may derive the +assurance that the desired water must be in motion and that land near +stagnant water, or marsh land, is unsuitable to the plant.</p> +<p>It may frequently be observed that trees will be found growing +fairly thriftily upon mounds or hummocks, in places invaded by flood or +other waters which, by reason of backing or damming up, have become +stagnant. An examination of the roots of an overthrown tree in such a +locality will show that all of those in the submerged zone have +perished and rotted away, but that such is the vitality and +recuperative energy of the tree that it has thrown out a new feeding +system in the dryer soil of the mound immediately surrounding the stem, +which has been sufficient to successfully carry on the functions of +nutrition, but altogether ineffective to anchor the tree securely, or +to prevent its prostration before the first heavy gale.</p> +<p>While this phase of the question will receive more attention when we +come to consider the chemistry of suitable manures, it may be said +that, although analysis of the cocoanut ash derived from beach-grown +nuts shows a larger percentage of those salts that abound in sea water +than those grown inland, yet the equal vigor, vitality, and +fruitfulness of the latter simply confirm the plant’s exceptional +adaptability to environment and ability to take up and decompose, +without detriment, the salts of sea or brackish waters. As a victim to +the maritime idea, the writer in 1886 planted, far inland, several +hundred nuts in beds especially devised to reproduce littoral +conditions; shore gravel, sea sand, broken shells, and salt derived +from sea water being used in preparing the seed beds. The starting +growth was unexcelled. Then came a long period of yellowing decline and +almost suspended animation, ultimately followed by a complete +restoration to health and vigor. The early excellent growth was due to +the fact that the first nourishment of the plant is entirely derived +from the endosperm, and careful lifting of the young plants disclosed +the fact that recovery from their moribund condition was, in every +instance, coincident with the time that the roots first succeeded in +working through the unpalatable mess about them into the outlying good, +sweet soil.</p> +<p>The exposure of the plantation is an important consideration, and a +maritime site should be selected in preference to one far inland, +unless it be on an open, unprotected flat, exposed to the influence of +every breeze or the fiercest gales that blow.</p> +<p>The structure of the cocoanut seems well fitted to endure winds of +almost any force, and that a remarkably abundant and strong circulation +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e586" href="#xd20e586" name= +"xd20e586">18</a>]</span>of air is essential to its best development is +well shown by comparing a tree subjected to it with the wretched, +spindling specimen growing in a sheltered glen or ravine.</p> +<p>Strong confirmation of this may be found within the artificial +environment of a plant conservatory, where it is feasible to reproduce, +in the minute detail of soil, water, temperature, and humidity, every +essential to its welfare except a good, strong breeze. As a +consequence, the palm languishes and it has long been deemed, on this +account, one of the most rebellious subjects introduced into palm-house +cultivation.</p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="soil"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">The Soil.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">The soils for cocoanut growing are best selected by +the process of exclusion. The study of the root development of the palm +will prove to be an unerring guide to proper soil selection.</p> +<p>The roots of monocotyledons, to which great division this palm +belongs, are devoid of the well-defined descending axis, which is +possessed by most tree plants, and is often so strongly developed as to +permit of rock cleavage and the withdrawal of food supplies from great +depths.</p> +<p>The cocoanut has no such provision for its support. Its subterranean +parts are simply a mat-like expanse of thick, fleshy, worm-like +growths, devoid of any feeders other than those provided at the extreme +tips of the relatively few roots. These roots are fleshy (not fibrous) +and can not thrive in any soil through which they may not grow freely +in search of sustenance. It then becomes obvious that stiff, tenacious, +or waxy soils, however rich, are wholly unsuitable. All very heavy +lands, or those that break up into solid, impervious lumps, and, +lastly, any land underlaid near the surface with bed rocks or +impervious clays or conglomerates, are naturally excluded. All other +soils, susceptible of proper drainage, may be considered appropriate to +the growth of the palm. Spons (Encyclop.) advocates light, sandy soils. +Simmonds (Trop. Agric.) names nine different varieties suitable for +this purpose, describing each at tedious length, and laying more or +less emphasis upon a sandy mixture. These might all have been covered +by the single word “permeable.”</p> +<p>As a matter of fact every grain of sand in excess of that required +to secure a condition of perfect permeability is a positive +disadvantage and must be paid for by a correspondingly larger area of +cultivation and by future soil amendment. For the rest, the richer and +deeper the soil the less the expense of maintaining soil fertility.</p> +<p>The preparatory work of establishing an orchard is light, provided +the location is not one demanding the opening of drainage canals, and +on lands of good porosity it involves neither subsoiling nor a deeper +plowing than to effectually cover the sod or any minor weed growths +with which it may be covered.</p> +<p>It has long been the reprehensible practice of cocoanut growers to +merely dig pits, manure them, set the plants therein, and permit the +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e605" href="#xd20e605" name= +"xd20e605">21</a>]</span>intervening lands (except immediately about +the trees) to run to weeds or jungle.</p> +<div class="figure xd20e608width"><img src="images/p017.jpg" alt= +"A group of sprouted nuts." width="670" height="541"> +<p class="figureHead">A group of sprouted nuts.</p> +</div> +<p>In the Philippines the native planter has not yet progressed beyond +the pit stage, nor do his subsequent cultural activities include more +than the occasional “boloing” of such weeds as threaten to +choke and exterminate the young plants.</p> +<p>Fortunately it will not be long till the force and influence of +example are sure to be felt by our own planters. The progressive German +colonist of Kamerun, German East Africa, and the South Pacific Islands, +as well as the French in Congo and Madagascar, are vigorously +practicing conventional, modern orchard methods in the treatment of +their cocoanut groves, and it is amazing to read of discussions between +Ceylon and Indian nut growers as to the best method of tethering cattle +upon cocoanut palms in pasture, so as to obtain the most benefit from +their excreta.</p> +<p>With an intelligent study of the plant and its characteristics it is +believed that our native planter may put into practical use the +knowledge that the veteran Indian planter has in fifty years failed to +learn or utilize. He will learn that in time the entire superficies of +his orchard will be required by the wide-spreading, surface-feeding +roots of the trees, and that pasture crops of any kind, grown for any +purpose other than soiling or for green manuring, are prejudicial to +future success. He will know that the initial preparation of all of his +orchard and its continuous maintenance in good cultivation are +essential not only to the future welfare of his trees but as a +necessary means in connection with a judicious intermediate crop +rotation.</p> +<p>Hence the preparatory requirements may be summed up as such +preliminary soil breaking as would be required for a corn crop in +similar lands, succeeded by such superficial plowings and cultivations +as would be required to raise a cotton or any other of the so-called +hoed crops.</p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="seed"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Seed Selection.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">Preliminary to planting the very important question +of <i>seed selection</i> calls for close scrutiny on the +planter’s part.</p> +<p>The small native planter is often familiar with the individual +characteristics of his trees. Owners of small estates in Cuyos and +about Zamboanga have pointed out to me trees that have the constant +fruiting habit confirmed, others that will fruit erratically, and +others that flower yet rarely bear fruit. The fruitfulness of the first +class is undoubtedly a result of accidental heredity, for the planter +has in the past made no selection except by chance, nor is the +characteristic in any way due to his cultural system, which consists in +planting the nut and letting nature and heredity do the rest. One tree +in Zamboanga, the owner assured me, had never produced less than 200 +nuts annually for fully twenty-three years. Asked as to the bearing of +all of his trees (of which he owned <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e631" href="#xd20e631" name="xd20e631">22</a>]</span>some three +hundred), he stated that from the lot he averaged 20 nuts at a picking, +five times a year, a total of 100 nuts; that the crop of these was very +fluctuating, some years falling to 60 nuts, again running as high as +130. The especially prized tree did not vary appreciably. In very dry +seasons the nuts shrunk somewhat in size and the copra in weight, but +the yield of nuts never fell below 200, and only once had amounted to +220. He had raised a great number of seedlings, but it had never +occurred to him to select for planting the nuts from that particular +tree.</p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="planting"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Planting.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">We have pointed out the necessity of selecting seed +trees of known good bearing habits, and equal care should be exercised +in selecting those the nuts of which are well formed and uniform. This +precaution will suggest itself when one observes that some trees have +the habit of producing a few very large nuts and many of very small and +irregular size and shape, and it is obviously to the planter’s +interest to lend no assistance to the propagation and transmission of +such traits. In view of what has been previously stated, it is almost +superfluous earnestly to recommend planters to sow no seeds from young +trees. The principle for this contention—that no seed should be +selected except from trees of established, well-known fruiting +habits—would seem to cover the ground effectually.</p> +<p>The best seed should be selected and picked when perfectly mature +and lowered to the ground. The fall from a lofty tree not infrequently +cracks the inner shell, without giving any external evidence of the +injury. A seed so injured will never sprout and therefore is worthless +for seed purposes.</p> +<p>Freshly collected seed nuts contain in the husk more moisture than +is required to effect germination, and if planted in this condition, +decay is apt to set in before germination occurs. To avoid this the +natives tie them in pairs, sling them over bamboo poles where they are +exposed to the air but sheltered from the sun, and leave them until +well sprouted. It is, however, more expeditious to pile the nuts up in +small heaps of eight to ten nuts, in partial shade, where the surface +nuts may be sprinkled occasionally to prevent complete drying out.</p> +<p>Germination is very erratic, sometimes occurring within a month and +sometimes extending over four, five, or more months. When the young +shoot or plumule (see illustration) has fairly thrust its way through +the fibrous husk it is a good practice to go over the heaps and +segregate those that have sprouted, carefully placing them so that the +growing tip be not deformed or distorted by the pressure of +superincumbent nuts. When these sprouts are 30 to 50 cm. high, and a +few roots have thrust through the husk, <i>they are in the best +possible condition for permanent planting</i>.</p> +<p>First. The original preparation of the land should be good and the +surface tilth at the time of planting irreproachable; i. e., free from +weeds <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e649" href="#xd20e649" name= +"xd20e649">24</a>]</span>and so mellow that the soil can be closely and +properly pressed around the roots by hand.</p> +<div class="figure xd20e652width"><img src="images/p019.jpg" alt= +"Fig 3.—Germination of cocoanut." width="485" height="720"> +<p class="figureHead"><span class="sc">Fig 3</span>.—Germination +of cocoanut.</p> +</div> +<p>Second. The orchard should be securely protected from the invasion +of cattle, etc. It is sometimes impossible to protect orchards against +entry of these animals. If the success of these precautions can not be +assured, then the nuts had better be grown in a closely protected +nursery until about a year old, when the albumen of the seed will be +completely assimilated and will therefore no longer attract vermin, and +when the larger size of the plant will give it more protection from +stray cattle.</p> +<p>In either case planting should be made concurrently with the opening +of the rainy monsoon, during which season further field operations will +not be required except when an intermittent, drier period indicates the +advisability of running the cultivator.</p> +<p>The planting “pit” fetish, in such common use in India, +has nothing to commend it. If stable manures of any kind are available, +a good application at the time of planting will effect wonders in +accelerating the growth of the young plants.</p> +<p>Where the necessary protection is assured, the young seedling +planted out as above recommended should start at once, without check of +any kind, into vigorous growth.</p> +<p>The nursery-grown subject receives an unavoidable setback. Its roots +have been more or less mutilated and, as we may not prune the top +sufficiently to compensate for the root injury, it is generally several +months before the equilibrium of top and root is fully restored. In +most cases, by the end of the second year, it will have been far +outstripped in the growing race by the former.</p> +<p>The history, habits, and characteristics of the cocoanut tree +indicate that it needs a full and free exposure to sun, air, and wind; +and, as it makes a tree, under such circumstances, of wide crown +expansion, these indispensables can not be secured except by very wide +planting.</p> +<p>Conventional recommendations cover all distances, from 5 to 8 +meters, with quincunx (i. e., triangular plantings) urged when the +8-meter plan is adopted. But the writer has seen too many groves spaced +at this distance in good soil, with interlacing leaves and badly +spindled in the desperate struggle for light, air, and sun, ever to +recommend the quincunx, or any system other than the square, at +distances not less than 9 meters and, in good soils, preferably 9.5 +meters.</p> +<p>The former distance will allow for 123 and the latter 111 trees to +the hectare. They should be lined out with the greatest regularity, so +as to admit at all times of cross plowing and cultivation as +desired.</p> +<p>From this time forward the treatment is one of <i>cultural</i> and +<i>manurial</i> routine.</p> +<p>Annual plowings should not be dispensed with during the life of the +plantation. These plowings may be relatively shallow, sufficient to +cover under the green manures and crops that are made an indispensable +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e685" href="#xd20e685" name= +"xd20e685">25</a>]</span>condition to the continued profitable conduct +of the industry. Nothing is to be gained by the removal of the earliest +flowering spikes. Flowering is the congestion of sap at a special point +which, if the grower could control it, he would wish to direct, in the +case of young plants, to the building up of leaf and wood. Cutting the +inflorescence of the cocoanut results in profuse bleeding and, unless +this be checked by the use of a powerful styptic or otherwise, it is +doubtful if the desired end would be accomplished. The earlier crops of +nuts should all be taken with extension cutters or from ladders. No +shoulders for climbing should be cut in any tree, the stem of which has +not become dense, hard, and woody. Cut when the wood is the least bit +succulent, they <span class="corr" id="xd20e687" title= +"Source: becoming">become</span> inviting points of attack for +borers.</p> +<p>With these reservations, there is everything to commend the practice +of shouldering the tree, as offering the safest, most expeditious and +economical way of making it possible to climb and secure the harvest. +It is, of course, understood that the cuts should be made sloping +outward, so as not to collect moisture and invite decay, and no larger +than is strictly necessary for the purpose.</p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="manuring"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Manuring.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e695src" href= +"#xd20e695" name="xd20e695src">1</a></h3> +<p class="firstpar">The manuring problem must be met and solved by the +best resources at our command. The writer has had pointed out hundred +of trees that, wholly guiltless of any direct application of manure, +have borne excellent crops for many successive years; but he has also +seen hundreds of others in their very prime, at thirty years, which +once produced a hundred select nuts per year, now producing fluctuating +and uncertain crops of fifteen to thirty inferior fruits.</p> +<p>Time and again native growers have told me of the large and +uniformly continuous crops of nuts from the trees immediately +overshadowing their dwellings and, although some have attributed this +to a sentimental appreciation and gratitude on the part of the palm at +being made one of the family of the owner, a few were sensible enough +to realize that it came of the opportunity that those particular trees +had to get the manurial benefit of the household sewage and waste.</p> +<p>Yet, the lesson is still unlearned and, after much diligent inquiry, +I have yet to find a nut grower in the Philippines who at any time +(except at planting) makes direct and systematic application of manure +to his trees.</p> +<p>In India, Ceylon, the Penang Peninsula, and Cochin China, where the +tree has been cultivated for generations, the most that was ever +attempted until very recently was to throw a little manure in the hole +where the tree was planted, and for all future time to depend on the +inferior, grass-made <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e705" href= +"#xd20e705" name="xd20e705">26</a>]</span>droppings of a few cattle +tethered among the trees, to compensate for the half million or more +nuts that a hectare of fairly productive trees should yield during +their normal bearing life.</p> +<p>Upon suitable cocoanut soils—i. e., those that are light and +permeable—common salt is positively injurious. In support of this +contention, I will state that salt in solution will break up and freely +combine with lime, making equally soluble chlorids of lime which, of +course, freely leach out in such a soil and carry down to unavailable +depths these salts, invaluable as necessary bases to render assimilable +most plant foods; and that, on this account, commercial manures +containing large amounts of salt, are always to be used with much +discretion, owing to the danger of impoverishing the supply of +necessary lime in the soil.</p> +<p>Finally, so injurious is the direct application of salt to the roots +of most plants that the invariable custom of trained planters (who, for +the sake of the potash contained, are compelled to use crude Stassfurt +mineral manures, which contain large quantities of common salt) is to +apply it a very considerable time before the crop is planted, in order +that this deleterious agent should be well leached and washed away from +the immediate field of root activity.</p> +<p>That the cocoanut is able to take up large quantities of salt may +not be disputed. That the character of its root is such as to enable it +to do so without the injury that would occur to most cultivated plants +I have previously shown, while the history of the cocoanut’s +inland career, and the records of agricultural chemistry, both +conclusively point to the fact that its presence is an incident that in +no way contributes to the health, vigor, or fruitfulness of the +tree.</p> +<p>Mr. Cochran’s analysis, based upon the unit of 1,000 average +nuts, weighing in the aggregate 3,125 pounds, discloses a drain upon +soil fertility for that number, amounting in round numbers +to—</p> +<div class="table xd20e715"> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Pounds.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Nitrogen</td> +<td valign="top">8¼</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Potash</td> +<td valign="top">17</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Phosphoric acid</td> +<td valign="top">3</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p>Reducing this to crop and area, and taking 60 fruits per annum per +tree as a fair mean for the bearing groves in our cocoanut districts +and on those rare estates where a systematic spacing of about 173 trees +to the hectare has been made, we should have an annual harvest of +10,300 nuts, or, stated in round numbers, 10,000, which will exhaust +each year from the soil a total of—</p> +<div class="table xd20e715"> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Pounds.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Nitrogen</td> +<td valign="top">82½</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Potash</td> +<td valign="top">170</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Phosphoric acid</td> +<td valign="top">30</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p>The cocoanut, therefore, while a good feeder, may not be classed +with the most depleting of field crops. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e763" href="#xd20e763" name="xd20e763">27</a>]</span></p> +<p>To make this clear I exhibit, by way of contrast, the drafts made by +a <i>relatively</i> good crop of two notoriously soil-impoverishing +crops—tobacco and corn—and, on the other hand, the drafts +made by an equivalent average cotton crop—a product considered to +make but light drains upon sources of soil fertility.</p> +<p>A proportionate tobacco crop of 1,000 kilos per hectare will +withdraw from the soil (reduced to the same standard of weights adopted +by Mr. Cochran)—</p> +<div class="table xd20e715"> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Pounds.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Nitrogen</td> +<td valign="top">168</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Potash</td> +<td valign="top">213</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Phosphoric acid</td> +<td valign="top">23</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p>An equivalent crop of shelled corn, say, of 125 bushels per hectare, +will withdraw—</p> +<div class="table xd20e715"> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Pounds.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Nitrogen</td> +<td valign="top">200</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Potash</td> +<td valign="top">135</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Phosphoric acid</td> +<td valign="top">75</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p>while a relative crop of lint cotton of 237 kilos (700 pounds) per +hectare<a class="noteref" id="xd20e820src" href="#xd20e820" name= +"xd20e820src">2</a> will only exhaust, in round numbers—</p> +<div class="table xd20e715"> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Pounds.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Nitrogen</td> +<td valign="top">114</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Potash</td> +<td valign="top">70</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Phosphoric acid</td> +<td valign="top">30</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p>There is an analogy between these four products that makes them all +comparable, in so far as all are largely surface feeders, and, as +experience shows that there can be no continuing success with the last +three that does not include both cultivation and manuring, we may use +the analogy to infer a like indispensable necessity for the successful +issue of the first.</p> +<p>Cultivation as a manurial factor should, therefore, not be +overlooked, and all the more strongly does it become emphasized by the +very difficulties that for some years to come must beset the Philippine +planter in the way of procuring direct manures.</p> +<p>When it comes to the specific application of manures and how to make +the most of our resources, we shall have to turn back to the analysis +of the nut and note that, relatively to other crops, it makes small +demands for nitrogen. At the same time it must not be forgotten that +these chemical determinations only refer to the fruit and that, with +the present incomplete data and lack of investigation of the +constituent parts of root, stem, leaf, and branch, we have nothing to +guide us but what we may infer from the behavior of the plant and its +relationship to plants of long-deferred fruition, whose manurial wants +are well understood.</p> +<p>It is now the most approved orchard practice to encourage an early +development of leaf and branch by the liberal application of nitrogen, +whose stimulant actions upon growth are conceded as the best. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e853" href="#xd20e853" name= +"xd20e853">28</a>]</span></p> +<p>In temperate regions, the exigencies of climate exact that this be +done with discretion and care, in order that the unduly stimulated +growths may be fully ripened and matured against the approach of an +inclement season. In the Tropics no such limitations exist, and the +early growth of the tree may be profitably stimulated to the highest +pitch. That this general treatment, as applied to young fruit trees, is +specifically the one indicated in the early life of the cocoanut, may +be quickly learned by him who will observe the avidity with which the +fleshy roots of a young cocoanut will invade, embrace, and disintegrate +a piece of stable manure.</p> +<p>Notwithstanding lack of chemical analysis, we may not question the +fact that considerable supplies of both potash and phosphoric acid are +withdrawn in the building up of leaf and stem; but these are found in +sufficient quantity in soils of average quality to meet the early +requirements of the plant. It is only when the fruiting age is reached +that demands are made, especially upon the potash, which the planter is +called upon to make good.</p> +<p>Good cultivation, the application of a generous supply of +stimulating nitrogen during its early career, and the gradual +substitution in later life of manures in which potash and phosphoric +acid, particularly the former, predominate, are necessary.</p> +<p>How, then, may we best apply the nitrogen requirements of its early +life? Undoubtedly through the application of abundant supplies of +stable manures, press cakes, tankage, or of such fertilizers as furnish +nitrogen in combination with the large volume of humus necessary to +minister to the gross appetite of the plant under consideration. But +the chances are that none of these are available, and the planter must +have recourse to some of the green, nitrogen-gathering manures that are +always at his command.</p> +<p>He must sow and plow under crops of pease, beans, or other legumes +that will furnish both humus and nitrogen in excess of what they +remove. Incidentally, they will draw heavily upon the potash deposits +of the soil, and they must all be turned back, or, if fed, every kilo +of the resulting manure must be scrupulously returned. He must pay for +the cultivation of the land, for the growing of crops that he turns +back as manure (and that involves further expense for their growing and +plowing under), and, in addition, he must be subject to such outlay for +about seven years before he can begin to realize for the time and labor +expended.</p> +<p>But there are expedients to which the planter may have recourse +which, if utilized, may return every dollar of cultural outlay. By the +use of a wise rotation he can not only maintain his land in a good +productive condition but realize a good biennial crop that will keep +the plantation from being a financial drag. The rotation that occurs to +me as most promising on the average cocoanut lands of these Islands +would be, first, a green manure crop, followed by corn and legumes, +succeeded by cotton, and then back to green manures. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e867" href="#xd20e867" name= +"xd20e867">29</a>]</span></p> +<p>To make the first green crop effective as a manure, both lime and +potash are essential—the former to make available the nitrogen we +hope to gather, and the potash in order to secure the largest and +quickest growth of the pulse we are to raise for manurial purposes.</p> +<p>Both these elements are generally in good supply in our cocoanut +lands; but, if there is uncertainty upon this point, both should be +supplied, in some form. Fortunately, the former is cheap and abundant +in most parts of the Archipelago, and, when well slaked, may be freely +applied with benefit, at the rate of a ton or even more to the +hectare.</p> +<p>In default of the mineral potash salts, the grower must seek +unleached wood ashes, either by burning his own unused jungle land to +procure them or by purchasing them from the neighbor who has such land +to burn over. If located on the littoral, he will carefully collect all +the seaweed that is blown in, although in our tropical waters the huge +and abundant marine algæ are mostly lacking. Such as are found, +however, furnish a not inconsiderable amount of potash, and, in the +extremities to which planters remote from commercial centers are +driven, no source is too inconsiderable to be overlooked.</p> +<p>The first green crop selected will be one <i>known</i> to be of +tropical origin which, with fair soil conditions, will not fail to give +a good yield. He may with safety try any of the native rank-growing +beans, or cowpeas, soja, or velvet beans; or, if these are not +procurable, he has at command everywhere an unstinted seed supply of +<i>Cajanus indicus</i>, or of <i>Clitorea ternatea</i>, which will as +well effect the desired end—to wit, a great volume of humus and a +new soil supply of nitrogen. It remains for the planter to determine if +the crop thus grown is to be plowed under, or if he will use it to +still better advantage by partially feeding it, subject, as previously +stated, to an honest return to the land of all the manure resulting +therefrom.</p> +<p>He may utilize it in any way, even to selling the resulting seed +crop, provided all the remaining brush is turned back to the land and a +portion of the money he receives for the seed be reinvested in +high-grade potash and phosphatic manures. The plantation should now be +in fair condition for a corn crop, and, as a very slight shading is not +prejudicial to the young palms, the corn can be planted close enough to +the trees, leaving only sufficient space to admit of the free +cultivation that both require.</p> +<p>It must not be forgotten that corn makes the most serious inroads +upon our soil fertility of any of the crops in our rotation, and, +unless by this time the planter is prepared to feed all the grain +produced to fatten swine or cattle, it had better be eliminated from +the rotation and peanuts substituted. In addition to this, he must +still make good whatever drains the corn will have made upon this +element of soil fertility.</p> +<p>Cropping to corn attacks the cocoanut at a new and vulnerable point, +against which the careful grower must make provision. It will be +remembered <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e891" href="#xd20e891" +name="xd20e891">30</a>]</span>that an average corn crop makes very +considerable drafts upon the soil supply of phosphoric acid; but, if +the grain is used for fattening swine, whose manure is much richer in +phosphates than most farm manures, and the latter is restored to the +land, serious soil impoverishment may be averted.</p> +<p>The next step in our suggested rotation is the cotton crop. Here, +too, limitations are imposed upon the planter who is without abundant +manurial resources to maintain the future integrity of his grove. He +may sell the lint from his cotton, but he can not dispose of it (as is +frequently done here) in the seed.</p> +<p>If the enterprise be not upon a scale that will justify the +equipment of a mill and the manufacture of the oil, he has no +alternative but to return the seed in lieu of the seed cake, wasteful +and extravagant though such a process be.</p> +<p>The oil so returned is without manurial value and, if left in the +seed, is so much money wasted. The rational process, of course, calls +for the return of the press cake, either direct or in the form of +manure after it has been fed. With this is also secured the hull, rich +in both the potash and the phosphoric acid<a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e900src" href="#xd20e900" name="xd20e900src">3</a> which we now +know is so essential to the future welfare of the grove.</p> +<p>The above rotation is simply suggested as a tentative expedient.</p> +<p>The ground will now be so shaded that we can not hope to raise more +catch crops for harvesting, although it may be possible during the dry +season to raise a partial stand of pulses, of manure value only; but, +from the fruiting stage on, this becomes a minor consideration.</p> +<p>This stage of the cultural story brings us once more face to face +with the principle contended for at the beginning of this paper, +namely, that there can be no permanent prosperity in this branch of +horticulture until the crop is so worked up into its ultimate products +that none of the residue of manufacture goes to waste.</p> +<p>At best the return of these side products is insufficient, and, +despite their careful husbandry, we can not ultimately evade a greater +or less resort to inorganic manures of high cost and difficult +procurement.</p> +<p>The residue from the press cake is rich in nitrogen and humus, +which, in the ever-increasing shade of the grove, will become more and +more difficult to produce there through nitrogen-making agencies; but +the waste from the manufacture of coir and the ashes from the woody +shell will go far toward supplying the needed potash.</p> +<p>Such a system would, if closely followed, practically restrict the +farmer’s ultimate purchases to a small quantity of acid +phosphates, or of bone dust, which, in conjunction with good tillage, +should serve to maintain the grove in a highly productive condition for +an indefinite term of years. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e915" +href="#xd20e915" name="xd20e915">31</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="irrigation"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Irrigation.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">As an auxiliary manurial agent of definite, +well-proven value in this Archipelago, I will briefly recite some of +the benefits that may be expected to follow occasional irrigation +during the dry season.</p> +<p>It strongly accelerates growth and early maturity. A few irrigated +trees, reputed to be under five years from seed and already bearing +fruit, were shown the writer on the Island of Joló. The growth +was remarkably strong and vigorous, notwithstanding that the water of +irrigation had been applied in such a way that the tree could only hope +to derive a minimum of benefit from its application. It had merely been +turned on from a convenient ditch whenever the soil seemed baked and +dry, at intervals of one to three weeks, as circumstances seemed to +require.</p> +<p>Irrigation, but always in connection with subsequent cultivation, +may be considered equal to a crop guaranty that is not afforded so +effectually by any purely cultural system.</p> +<p>Rarely has a better opportunity occurred to demonstrate the +unquestioned benefits that have inured to these few Joló trees +from the use of irrigating waters than the present season of +1902–3. From many sources reports come to this Bureau of trees +failing, or dying outright, from lack of moisture. While it is true +that the present dry season has had no parallel since 1885–86, +and that the rainfall during the dry season has been less than half the +normal, yet it should not be forgotten that, during the eight months +from October to May, inclusive, the average precipitation on the west +coast, at the latitude of Manila, is only about 460 mm. and that, when +the amount falls below this, the cocoanut is bound to suffer.</p> +<p>Though it is true that the evil effects of drought may be modified, +if not altogether controlled, by cultivation, the assistance of +irrigation places the cultivator in an impregnable position. If +evidence in support of this statement were called for, it might be +found to-day in the deplorable condition of those groves that have been +permitted to run to pasture, as compared with those in which some +attempts have been made to bolo out the encroaching weeds and +grasses.</p> +<p>It is probably true that, except on very sandy soils, continued +surface irrigation would aggravate the superficial root-developing +tendency of the tree; and to what extent, if any, occasional laceration +by deep shovel tooth cultivation would injure the tree remains to be +seen. There are, however, few economic plants that so quickly repair +root damage as the Palmæ, and, unless the seat of injury extends +over a very large area, it is probable that the resulting injury would +be of no consequence, as compared with the <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e931" title="Source: geneal">general</span> benefits that would +result from irrigation. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e934" href= +"#xd20e934" name="xd20e934">32</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e695" href="#xd20e695src" name="xd20e695">1</a></span> Throughout +this paper the writer uses this word in preference to +“fertilizing” even when speaking of so-called +“commercial fertilizers.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e820" href="#xd20e820src" name="xd20e820">2</a></span> +Farmers’ Bulletin 114, United States Department of +Agriculture.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e900" href="#xd20e900src" name="xd20e900">3</a></span> Conn. Exp. +Sta. Rep. 1897, Part II.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="harvest" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Harvest.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">Harvest of the crop requires but a brief +discussion. The nuts should be plucked when ripe. The phenomenon of +maturity can not be readily described in print. It frequently is as +evident in nuts of a bright green color as in those of a golden-yellow +color, and the recognition is one of those things that can only be +learned by experience.</p> +<p>The practice, so general in the Seychelles, of allowing the nut to +hang till it falls to the ground is certainly undesirable in these +Islands. On the contrary, the overripe nuts will seldom fall until +dislodged by a storm, and it is no uncommon thing to see nuts that have +sprouted and started to grow upon trees in plantations where the +harvest is left to the action of natural causes. Such nuts, of course, +are entirely worthless for the manufacture of oil or copra, and even +the husk has depreciated in value, the finest coirs, in fact, being +derived only from the fruits that have not attained full ripeness. In +any case, the nuts should be picked and the crop worked up before any +considerable enlargement or swelling of the embryo occurs. From this +time onward physiological changes arise which injuriously affect the +quantity and quality of what is called the meat.</p> +<p>The heaping up of the nuts for some time after harvest favors some +milk absorption, which seems to facilitate the subsequent easy +extraction of the endosperm.</p> +</div> +<div id="enemies" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Enemies.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">Outside of certain insects of the order Coleoptera, +cocoanuts in the Philippines are reasonably free from enemies; in some +districts, close to forest-clad areas, the raids of monkeys do some +damage. A tree-nesting rat, which nibbles the young nuts, is also a +source of considerable loss. The rat is best overcome by frequent +disturbance of his quarters. This involves the removal of the dead +leaves and thatch that form constantly about the base of the crown. But +the wisdom of this recommendation will depend entirely upon +circumstances. As the planter may find that rats or the rhinoceros +beetle are the lesser evil, so should he be governed.</p> +<p>There are localities in the Archipelago where the plague of rats is +unknown and where the beetles abound. In that case it would be unwise +to disturb the leaves which are very tardily deciduous and do not +naturally fall till the wood beneath is hard, mature, and practically +impervious to the attacks of insects.</p> +<p>Where rats are numerous and insects few, which is the case in some +localities, the dead and dying leaves, among which the rat nests, may +be advantageously cleared away whenever the tree is climbed to harvest +the fruit.</p> +<p>Among serious insect enemies we have to contend largely with the +very obnoxious black beetle, <i>Oryctes rhinocerus</i>, and, +fortunately, to a lesser extent, with <i>Rhynchoporus ferrugineous</i> +(probably the same as <i>R. ochreatus</i> <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e964" href="#xd20e964" name="xd20e964">33</a>]</span>of Eydoux), +while <i>R. pascha</i>, Boehm, and <i>Chalcosma atlas</i>, Linn., are +also said to appear occasionally.</p> +<p>However different their mode of attack, the general result is the +same, and their presence may surely be detected by the appearance of +deformed or badly misshapen or lacerated leaves.</p> +<p>The attacks of all species are confined to the growing point and as +far downward as the wood is tender and susceptible to the action of +their powerful mandibles.</p> +<p>The black beetle makes its attacks when fully mature, eating its way +into the soft tissues and generally selecting the axil of a young leaf +as the point of least resistance. Others simply deposit their eggs, +which hatch out, and the resulting grub is provided with jaws powerful +enough to do the same mischief. Two or three of these grubs, if +undisturbed, are sufficient in time to completely riddle the growing +tip, which then falls over and the tree necessarily dies.</p> +</div> +<div id="remedies" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Remedies.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">Remedies may be described as preventive and +aggressive, and, by an active campaign of precaution, many subsequent +remedial applications can be avoided.</p> +<p>Most of the beetles attacking the palm are known to select heaps of +decomposing rubbish and manure as their favorite (if not necessary) +breeding places, and it is obviously of importance to break up and +destroy such; nor can any better or more advantageous way of effecting +this be suggested than by promptly spreading and plowing under all such +accumulations as fast as they are made; or, if this be impracticable, +by forking or turning over or otherwise disturbing the heaps, until +convenient to dispose of them as first suggested.</p> +<p>A truly preventive and simple remedy, and one that I can commend as +a result of close observation, is the application of a handful or two +of sharp, coarse, clean sand in the axillæ of the young leaves. +The native practice is to mix this with ashes, salt, or tobacco dust; +but it is questionable if the efficacy of the remedy lies so much in +these additions as in the purely mechanical effect of the sand, the +constant attrition of which can not be other than highly objectionable +to the insect while burrowing.</p> +<p>Of offensive remedies, probing with a stout hooked wire is the only +form of warfare carried on in these Islands; but, as the channel of the +borer is sometimes tortuous and deep, this is not always effective. A +certain, simple, and easily applied remedy may be found in carbon +bisulphid. It could be applied in the holes (which invariably trend +downward) with a small metal syringe. The hole should be sealed +immediately with a pinch of stiff, moist clay.</p> +<p>It is likely that this remedy and probing with a wire are the only +successful ways of combatting the red beetle, whose grub strikes in +wherever <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e992" href="#xd20e992" name= +"xd20e992">34</a>]</span>it finds a soft spot; but, for these species +which attack the axils of the leaves, I have great faith in the +efficacy of the “sand cure,” and no nut picker should go +aloft unprovided with a small bamboo tube of dry, sifted sand, to +protect the bases of recently expanded leaves.</p> +<p>In Selangor cocoanut trees now come under the government inspection, +and planters and owners, under penalties, are compelled to destroy +these pests. Mr. L. C. Brown, of Kuala Lampur, in that State, who +writes intelligently on this subject,<a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e996src" href="#xd20e996" name="xd20e996src">1</a> lays great +stress on the value of clean cultivation in subduing beetles, and +repeats a cultural axiom that never grows old and that will, +consequently, bear reiteration here—that it is rarely anything +but the neglected plantation that suffers, and that the maintenance at +all times of a healthy, vigorous growth is in itself almost a guaranty +of immunity from attacks of these pernicious insects.</p> +<p>While we, unfortunately, know that this is not in all cases an +assured protection against diseases or insect enemies, it certainly +minimizes the danger and, in itself, is a justification of the +high-pressure cultural treatment advocated throughout the preceding +pages.</p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e996" href="#xd20e996src" name="xd20e996">1</a></span> Ag. Bull. +Fed. Malay States, February, 1903.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="renovation" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Renovation of Old Groves.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">Material improvement of old plantations may +sometimes be effected and, unless the trees are known to be upward of +fifty years old, generally repays the labor. Marked increase in crop +has followed a heavy thinning out of trees upon the Government cocoanut +farm at San Ramon, Mindanao. The improvement that a freer circulation +of air and abundant sunlight have effected is very marked. Where it can +be done, plowing is also sometimes feasible and should be followed by +immediate crop improvement. The average native plow is not so well +adapted for working over an old or neglected grove as it is for +original soil preparation. It acts more as a subsoiler and will tear +and lacerate more roots than is desirable. A single carabao, or +one-horse American garden plow, is the better implement for this work. +Extensive bat guano deposits are found in Mindoro, Guimarás, and +Luzon. Some of them show richness in nitrogen and, when accessible at a +moderate cost, would be useful in the renovation of old groves, where +the shade would be adverse to the rearing of good crops of nitrogen +gatherers.</p> +</div> +<div id="conclusion" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Conclusion.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">1. There are large areas throughout the littoral +valleys of the Archipelago, as yet unexploited, which, in the +essentials of soil, climate, irrigation facilities, and general +environment are suitable for cocoanut growing.</p> +<p>2. The present conditions present especially flattering attractions +to cocoanut growers capable of undertaking the cultivation upon a scale +of some magnitude. By coöperation, small estates could combine in +the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1013" href="#xd20e1013" name= +"xd20e1013">35</a>]</span>common ownership of machinery, whereby the +products of the grove could be converted into more profitable +substances than copra.</p> +<p>3. The present production of copra (estimated at 278,000 piculs in +1902) is an assurance of a sufficient supply to warrant the erection of +a high-class modern plant for the manufacture of the ultimate (the +“butter”) products of the nut. The products of such an +enterprise would be increased by the certainty of a local market in the +Philippines for some part of the output. The average market value of +the best grades of copra in the Marseilles market is $54.40, gold, per +English ton. The jobbing value on January 1 of this year, of the +refined products, were, for each ton of copra:</p> +<div class="table xd20e715"> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Butter fats</td> +<td valign="top">$90.00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Residual soap oils</td> +<td valign="top">21.00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Press cake</td> +<td valign="top">5.20</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total</td> +<td valign="top" class="sum">116.20</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p>the difference representing the profit per ton, less the cost of +manufacture.</p> +<p>4. The minimum size of a plantation, on which economical application +of oil and fiber preparing machinery could be made, is 60 hectares.</p> +<p>5. There is no other horticultural tropical product which may be +grown in these Islands where crop assurance may be so nearly +guaranteed, or natural conditions so nearly controlled by the planter +who, knowing correct principles, has the facilities for applying +them.</p> +<p>6. The natural enemies and diseases of the plant are relatively few, +easily held in check by vigilance and the exercise of competent +business management.</p> +<p>7. The labor situation is bound more seriously to affect the small +planter, wholly dependent upon hand labor, than the estate conducted on +a large enough scale to justify the employment of modern machinery.</p> +<p>8. In view of an ever-expanding demand for cocoanut products, and in +the light of the foregoing conclusions, the industry, when prosecuted +upon a considerable scale and subject to the requirements previously +set forth, promises for many years to be one of the most profitable and +desirable enterprises which command the attention of the Filipino +planter.</p> +<p>The greatest mine of horticultural wealth which is open to the +shrewd planter lies in the heaps of waste and neglected husks that he +can now procure from adjoining estates for the asking and cartage.</p> +<p>With labor at 1 peso per diem and at the present price of potash and +phosphoric acid, all the husks in excess of 300 per diem which could be +hauled would be clear profit. The ashes of these, when burned and +applied to the old grove, would have an immediate and revivifying +influence.</p> +<p>Many trees in an old plantation have ceased to bear. Whether this is +due to exhaustion from old age or from soil exhaustion is immaterial; +each should be eradicated and the time-honored custom of replanting a +fresh tree in its place abandoned. These renewals are difficult enough +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1058" href="#xd20e1058" name= +"xd20e1058">36</a>]</span>in any fruit or nut orchard where the +scientific cultural conditions have been of the best. Renewals in a +cocoanut grove, unless the vacant space is abnormally large and can be +subjected to some years of soil improvement, are unprofitable.</p> +<p>There is a wide range of opinion as to the bearing life of a +cocoanut tree. It is said to vary from thirty to one hundred and thirty +years. Grown more than forty, or possibly fifty years old, the writer +would hesitate to undertake the improvement or renewal of the +grove.</p> +<p>Palms, unlike exogenous trees, afford no evidence by which their age +may be determined. In general, with advanced years, come great height +and great attenuation. In the open, and where fully exposed to +atmospheric influences, these form an approximate criterion of age. The +so-called annular scars, marking the earlier attachments of leaves, +furnish no clue to age.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="back"> +<div class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="transcribernote"> +<h2 class="main">Colophon</h2> +<h3 class="main">Availability</h3> +<p class="firstpar">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no +cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give +it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License +included with this eBook or online at <a class="exlink" title= +"External link" href= +"http://www.gutenberg.org/">www.gutenberg.org</a>.</p> +<p>This eBook is produced by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team +at <a class="exlink" title="External link" href= +"http://www.pgdp.net/">www.pgdp.net</a>.</p> +<p>Transcribed from scans available at the <a class="exlink" title= +"External link" href= +"http://www.archive.org/details/cocoanutwithrefe00lyonrich">Internet +Archive</a>.</p> +<h3 class="main">Encoding</h3> +<p class="firstpar"></p> +<h3 class="main">Revision History</h3> +<ul> +<li>2010-10-06 Started.</li> +</ul> +<h3 class="main">External References</h3> +<p>This Project Gutenberg eBook contains external references. These +links may not work for you.</p> +<h3 class="main">Corrections</h3> +<p>The following corrections have been applied to the text:</p> +<table width="75%" summary= +"Overview of corrections applied to the text."> +<tr> +<th>Page</th> +<th>Source</th> +<th>Correction</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e337">6</a></td> +<td class="width40">variesties</td> +<td class="width40">varieties</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e345">6</a></td> +<td class="width40">the the</td> +<td class="width40">the</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e372">7</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">to</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e427">11</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e434">12</a></td> +<td class="width40">comon</td> +<td class="width40">common</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e457">13</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">”</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e492">14</a></td> +<td class="width40">developes</td> +<td class="width40">develops</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e495">14</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">to</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e500">14</a></td> +<td class="width40">the the</td> +<td class="width40">the</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e561">16</a></td> +<td class="width40">adaptibility</td> +<td class="width40">adaptability</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e573">16</a></td> +<td class="width40">or or</td> +<td class="width40">or</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e687">25</a></td> +<td class="width40">becoming</td> +<td class="width40">become</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e931">31</a></td> +<td class="width40">geneal</td> +<td class="width40">general</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Cocoanut, by William S. 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Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0759628 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #33844 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33844) diff --git a/old/33844-8.txt b/old/33844-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..181a1e6 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/33844-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1948 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Cocoanut, by William S. Lyon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Cocoanut + With reference to its products and cultivation in the Philippines + +Author: William S. Lyon + +Release Date: October 7, 2010 [EBook #33844] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COCOANUT *** + + + + +Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project +Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously +made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + Bureau of Agriculture. + + + Farmer's Bulletin No. 8. + + THE COCOANUT + + With Reference to Its Products and Cultivation + in the Philippines. + + + + By + + WILLIAM S. LYON, + + In charge of Division of Plant Industry. + + + Manila: + Bureau of Public Printing. + 1903. + + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + Page. + + Letter of transmittal 4 + Introduction 5 + History 5 + Botany 6 + Uses 6 + Copra and cocoanut oil 6 + Coir 10 + Tuba 12 + Minor uses 13 + Cultivation 14 + Selection of location 14 + The soil 16 + Seed selection 17 + Planting 18 + Manuring 21 + Irrigation 27 + Harvest 28 + Enemies 28 + Remedies 29 + Renovation of old groves 30 + Conclusion 30 + + + + + +LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. + + +Bureau of Agriculture, + + Manila, June 1, 1903. + +Sir: In responding to numerous inquiries about the cocoanut, its +uses, cultivation, and preparation for market, I have prepared, +by your direction, the accompanying bulletin, which is intended to +cover the general field of the inquiries addressed to this Bureau, +and herewith submit the same, with the recommendation that it be +published as Farmers' Bulletin No. 8. + + + Respectfully, + + Wm. S. Lyon, + In Charge of Division of Plant Industry. + + To Hon. F. Lamson-Scribner, + Chief Bureau of Agriculture, Manila. + + + + + +THE COCOANUT. + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The following pages are written chiefly in the interests of the +planter, but the writer feels that the great agricultural importance +which the cocoanut palm is bound to assume in these Islands is +sufficient to justify the presentation of some of its history and +botany. + +For that part of the bulletin which touches upon the botany of the +cocoanut I am indebted to Don Regino Garcia, associate botanist of the +Forestry Bureau; for that relating to its products and local uses, to +the courtesy of manufacturers in Laguna; and, for the rest, to personal +experience and observations made in Laguna Province and in the southern +Visayan Islands where, as elsewhere in this Archipelago, the cocoanut +may properly be considered a spontaneous and not a cultivated product. + + + + + +HISTORY. + + +The legendary history of the "Prince of Palms," [1] as it has been +called, dates back to a period when the Christian era was young, +and its history is developing day by day in some new and striking +manifestation of its utility or beauty. It seems not unreasonable to +assume that much of the earlier traditionary history of the cocoanut +may have been inspired as much by its inherent beauty as by its +uses. Such traditional proverbs Or folklore as I have gathered in +the Visayas recognize the influence of the beautiful, in so far as +the blessings of the trees only inure to the good; for instance, +"He who is cruel to his beast or his family will only harvest barren +husks from the reproving trees that witness the pusillanimous act;" +and, again, "He who grinds the poor will only grind water instead of +fat oil from the meat." + +To this day the origin of the cocoanut is unknown. De Candolle (Origin +of Cult. Plants, p. 574) recites twelve specific claims pointing to +an Asiatic origin, and a single, but from a scientific standpoint +almost unanswerable, contention for an American derivation. None of +the remaining nineteen species of the genus Cocos are known to exist +elsewhere in the world than on the American continent. His review of +the story results in the nature of a compromise, assigning to our +own Islands and those to the south and west of us the distinction +of having first given birth to the cocoanut, and that thence it was +disseminated east and west by ocean currents. + + + + + +BOTANY. + + +The cocoanut (Cocos nucifera Linn.) is the sole oriental representative +of a tropical genus comprising nineteen species, restricted, with +this single exception, to the New World. + +Its geographical distribution is closely confined to the two +Tropics. [2] + +Not less than nineteen varieties of C. nucifera are described by +Miquel and Rumphius, and all are accepted by Filipino authors. + +Whether all of these varieties are constant enough to deserve +recognition need not be considered here. Many are characterized by +the fruits being distinctly globular, others by fruits of a much +prolonged oval form, still others by having the lower end of the +fruit terminating in a triangular point. + +In the Visayas there is a variety in which the fibrous outer husk +of the nut is sweet and watery, instead of dry and astringent, and +is chewed by the natives like sugar cane. Another variety occurs in +Luzon, known as "Pamocol," the fruit of which seldom exceeds 20 cm. in +diameter. There is also a dwarf variety of the palm, which rarely +exceeds 3 meters in height, and is known to the Tagalogs as "Adiavan." + +These different varieties are strongly marked, and maintain their +characters when reproduced from seed. + + + + + +USES. + + +The cocoanut furnishes two distinct commercial products--the dried +meat of the nut, or copra, and the outer fibrous husk. These products +are so dissimilar that they should be considered separately. + + + +COPRA AND COCOANUT OIL. + +Until very recent years the demand for the "meat" of the cocoanut +or its products was limited to the uses of soap boilers and +confectioners. Probably there is no other plant in the vegetable +kingdom which serves so many and so varied purposes in the domestic +economy of the peoples in whose countries it grows. Within the past +decade chemical science has produced from the cocoanut a series of +food products whose manufacture has revolutionized industry and placed +the business of the manufacturer and of the producer upon a plane of +prosperity never before enjoyed. + +There has also been a great advance in the processes by which the +new oil derivatives are manufactured. The United States took the +initiative with the first recorded commercial factories in 1895. In +1897 the Germans established factories in Mannheim, but it remained +for the French people to bring the industry to its present perfection. + +According to the latest reports of the American consul at Marseilles, +the conversion of cocoanut oil into dietetic compounds was undertaken +in that city in 1900, by Messrs. Rocca, Tassy and de Roux, who in +that year turned out an average of 25 tons per month. During the year +just closed (1902) their average monthly output exceeded 6,000 tons +and, in addition to this, four or five other large factories were +all working together to meet the world's demand for "vegetaline," +"cocoaline," or other products with suggestive names, belonging to +this infant industry. + +These articles are sold at gross price of 18 to 20 cents per kilo to +thrifty Hollandish and Danish merchants, who, at the added cost of a +cent or two, repack them in tins branded "Dairy Butter" and, as such, +ship them to all parts of the civilized world. It was necessary to +disguise the earlier products by subjecting them to trituration with +milk or cream; but so perfect is the present emulsion that the plain +and unadulterated fats now find as ready a market as butter. These +"butters" have so far found their readiest sale in the Tropics. + +The significance of these great discoveries to the cocoanut planter can +not be overestimated, for to none of these purely vegetable fats do the +prejudices attach that so long and seriously have handicapped those +derived from animal margarin or margarin in combination with stearic +acid, while the low fusion point of pure dairy butters necessarily +prohibits their use in the Tropics, outside of points equipped with +refrigerating plants. The field, therefore, is practically without +competition, and the question will no longer be that of finding a +market, but of procuring the millions of tons of copra or oil that +this one industry will annually absorb in the immediate future. + +Cocoanut oil was once used extensively in the manufacture of fine +candles, and is still occasionally in demand for this purpose in the +Philippines, in combination with the vegetable tallow of a species +of Stillingia. It is largely consumed in lamps, made of a tumbler or +drinking glass half filled with water, on top of which float a few +spoonfuls of oil, into which the wick is plunged. In remote barrios it +is still in general use as a street illuminant, and so perfect is its +combustion that under a constant flicker it emits little or no smoke. + +When freshly expressed, the oil is an exceptionally good cooking fat, +and enters largely into the dietary of our own people. The medicinal +uses of the oil are various, and in the past it has been strongly +advocated for the cure of eczema, burns, as a vermifuge, and even +as a substitute for cod-liver oil in phthisis. Its medicinal virtues +are now generally discredited, except as a restorative agent in the +loss of hair resulting from debilitating fevers. Its value in this +direction may be surmised from the splendid heads of hair possessed +by the Filipino women, who generally use the oil as a hair dressing. + +Cocoanut oil is derived from the fleshy albumen or meat of the ripe +fruit, either fresh or dried. The thoroughly dried meat is variously +known as copra, coprax, and copraz. The exportation of copra is +detrimental to the best interests of the planter, tending to enrich +the manufacturer and impoverish the grower. The practice, however, +is so firmly established that the writer can only record a probably +futile protest against its continuance. + +The causes which for a long time will favor the exportation of copra +instead of oil in this Archipelago may be briefly stated as follows: + +(1) An oil-milling plant, constructed with due regard to economy of +labor and the production of the best quality of oil, would involve +an outlay of capital of $2,500, gold, and upward, according to +capacity. The production of copra requires the labor of the planter's +hands only. + +(2) The oil packages must be well-made barrels, casks, or metallic +receptacles. The initial cost of the packages is consequently great, +their return from distant ports impracticable, and their sale value +in the market of delivery is not sufficient to offset the capital +locked up in an unproductive form. On the other hand, copra may be +sold or shipped in boxes, bags, sacks, and bales, or it may even be +stored in bulk in the ship's hold. + +(3) When land transportation has to be considered, the lack of good +roads still further impedes the oil maker. He can not change the +size and weight of his packages from day to day to meet the varying +passability of the trail. On the other hand, packages of copra may +be adjusted to meet all emergencies, and the planter can thus take +advantage of the market conditions which may be denied to the oil +maker. + +(4) Perhaps the most serious difficulty the oil maker has to contend +with is the continuous discouragement he encounters from the agent +of foreign factories, who buys in the open market and, bidding up to +nearly the full oil value of the copra, finds an ample manufacturer's +profit paid by the press cake, so valuable abroad, but, unfortunately, +practically without sale or value here. The residue from the mill may +be utilized both for food and for manure by the oil maker who is a +tree owner and who maintains cattle. For either of these purposes +its value rates closely up to cotton-seed cake, and the time is +not remote when it will be recognized in the Philippines as far +too valuable a product to be permitted to be removed from the farm +excepting at a price which will permit of the purchase at a less +figure of an equivalent in manure. So active are the copra-buying +agents in controlling this important branch of the industry, that +they refuse to buy the press cake at any price, with the result that, +in two instances known to the writer, they have forced the closure +of oil-milling plants and driven the oil maker back to his copra. + +Many copra-making plants in India and Ceylon are now supplied with +decorticating, breaking, and evaporating machinery. The process +employed in this Archipelago consists in first stripping the ripe +fruit of the outer fibrous husk. This is effected by means of a stout, +steel spearhead, whose shaft or shank is embedded firmly in the soil +to such a depth that the spear point projects above the ground rather +less than waist high. The operator then holds the nut in his hands +and strikes it upon the spear point, gives it a downward, rotary +twist, and thus, with apparent ease, quickly removes the husk. An +average operator will husk 1,000 nuts per day, and records have been +made of a clean up of as many as 3,000 per day. The work, however, +is exceedingly hard, and involves great dexterity and wrist strength. + +Another man now takes up the nut and with a bolo strikes it a smart +blow in the middle, dividing it into two almost equal parts. These +parts are spread out and exposed to the sun for a few hours, or such +time as may be necessary to cause the fleshy albumen to contract and +shrink away from the hard outer shell, so that the meat may be easily +detached with the fingers. + +Weather permitting, the meat thus secured is sun dried for a day +and then subjected to the heat of a slow fire for several hours. In +some countries this drying is now effected by hot-air driers, and a +very white and valuable product secured; but in the Philippines the +universal practice is to spread out the copra upon what may be called +a bamboo grill, over a smoky fire made of the shells and husks, just +sufficient heat being maintained not to set fire to the bamboo. The +halves, when dried, are broken by hand into still smaller irregular +fragments, and subjected to one or two days of sun bath. By this time +the moisture has been so thoroughly expelled that the copra is now +ready to be sacked or baled and stored away for shipment or use. + +All modern cocoanut-oil mills are supplied with a decorticator armed +with revolving discs that tear or cut through the husk longitudinally, +freeing the nut from its outer covering and leaving the latter in +the best possible condition for the subsequent extraction of its +fiber. This decorticator is fed from a hopper and is made of a size +and capacity to husk from 500 to 1,000 nuts per hour. + +Rasping and grinding machinery of many patterns and makes, for +reducing the meat to a pulp, is used in India, Ceylon, and China; +and, although far more expeditious, offers no improvements, so far +as concerns the condition to which the meats are reduced, over the +methods followed in the Philippines. Here the fleshy halves of the +meat are held by hand against a rapidly revolving, half-spherical +knife blade which scrapes and shaves the flesh down to a fine degree +of comminution. The resulting mass is then macerated in a little water +and placed in bags and subjected to pressure, and the milky juice which +flows therefrom is collected in receivers placed below. This is now +drawn off into boilers and cooked until the clear oil is concentrated +upon the surface. The oil is then skimmed off and is ready for market. + +The process outlined above is very wasteful. The processes I have seen +in operation are very inadequate, and I estimate that, not less than +10 per cent of the oil goes to loss in the press cake. This is a loss +that does not occur in establishments equipped with the best hydraulic +presses. It is true that very heavy pressure carries through much +coloring matter not withdrawn by the primitive native mill, and that +the oil is consequently darker, and sooner undergoes decomposition; +but modern mills are now supplied with filtration plants through +which this objection is practically overcome. + +The principles of the above process are daily reproduced in thousands +of Filipino homes, where the hand rasping of the nut, the expression +of the milky juice through coarse cloth, its subsequent boiling down +in an open pan, and the final skimming off of the oil are in common +practice. Notwithstanding the cheapness of labor, it is only by +employing a mill well equipped with decorticating, rasping, hydraulic +crushing, and steam-boiling machinery, and with facilities to convert +the residue to feeding or other uses, that one may hopefully enter +the field of oil manufacture in these Islands in competition with +copra buyers. + + + +COIR. + +The fiber of the cocoanut husk, or coir, as it is commercially known, +has never yet been utilized in this Archipelago, excepting occasionally +for local consumption. + +Second in value only to the copra, this product has been allowed to +go to waste. The rejected husks are thrown together in immense heaps, +which are finally burned and the ashes, exceedingly rich in potash +and phosphoric acid, are left to blow away. + +As the commercial value of the fiber is greater than the manurial +value of the salts therein, it is economy to utilize the fiber and +purchase potash and phosphoric acid when needed to enrich the soil. + +Highly improved and inexpensive power machinery for the complete and +easy extraction of the fibers of the husk, either wet or dry, is now +rapidly superseding the tedious hand process once in such general +use. Good patterns of machinery are shown in the "husk-crushing mill" +(fig. 1) and in the "fiber extractor" (fig. 2). The first breaks, +crushes, and flattens out the husks by means of powerful, fluted metal +rollers and, in the second the broken husks are fed over a revolving +drum set with teeth especially devised for tearing out the fiber from +the entire mass. Finally, it is fed into one of the many forms of +"willowing" machines, which reduces the mass to clean fiber, which +is now ready for grading, baling, and shipment. The residual dust +and waste from this operation may be used as an absorbent for liquid +manures, and ultimately returned to the plantation. The yield of fiber +varies from 12 to 25 quintals of coir and 4 to 7 quintals of brush +fiber per 10,000 average husks. In the Philippines the nuts yield +a large amount of fiber and a relatively small percentage of chaff +and dust. With improved machinery and careful handling, 18 quintals +of spinning coir and 5 quintals of bristle fiber from every 10,000 +husks is a fair estimate of the product. + +As the cost of manufacture is generally rated at one-half the selling +price, and as we must add a further charge of 20 per cent to cover +freight and commission, we have resulting from the sale of the 23 +quintals, or 2,300 kilos, at £16 per English ton, a balance of £11 +11s. per hectare. + +But there are other considerations which should not be overlooked. The +husks of 10,000 cocoanuts will withdraw from the land 61.5 kilos of +potash and 3 kilos of phosphoric acid, and the restoration of the full +amount is called for to compensate for the growing wants of the tree, +in addition to that withdrawn by the crop. The necessary fertilizers +are worth, approximately, 5 1/2d. per kilo, making a further reduction +of £1 8s. and leaving as a net profit £10 3s., or, reduced to American +money, nearly $50, gold, per hectare. + +The machines above referred to will cost $800, gold, and $1,200 +additional will purchase and house the power necessary to operate +them. Such a plant will work up 1,000 nuts a day, and handle in a +year the output of a grove of 30 hectares. With the addition of two +or more fiber extractors the capacity of the plant may be doubled +without material expense, and it should rather more than pay its +entire cost in one year. + + + +TUBA. + +Tuba is the fresh or mildly fermented sap drawn from the inflorescence +of the cocoanut. + +There are no figures or data of any kind available as a basis for an +estimate as to the importance of this product, but its extent may be +inferred from the fact that the outlying groves about Cebu, Iloilo, +and the larger Visayan towns are practically devoted to the production +of tuba, and not to the manufacture of copra. + +Tuba is collected from the unexpanded blossoms as soon as they have +fairly pushed through the subtending bracts. To prevent any lateral +expansion, the flowers are tied with strips of the green leaf blade +and then, with a sharp knife, an inch or two of the extreme tip is +removed. The whole flower cluster is now gently pulled forward until +it arches downward. In a day or two the sap begins to drip and is then +caught in a short joint of bamboo, properly secured for the purpose. + +As a healthy tree develops at least one or more flowering racemes +every month, and the flow of sap extends frequently over a period of +two or more months, it is not uncommon to see a number of tubes in +use upon one tree. + +The workmen usually visits the tree twice daily to collect the +liquor drawn during the preceding twelve hours in the larger tube, +which he carries upon his back. He slices daily a thin shaving from +the tip of the flower, in order that the wound may be kept open and +bleeding. This process is kept up until nearly all of the flower +cluster has been cut away, or until the sap ceases to flow. + +More than a liter a day is sometimes drawn from one tree, and 5 +hectoliters is considered a fair annual average from a good bearing +tree. + +In its fresh state tuba has a sweetish, slightly astringent taste; +but, as the vessels in which it is collected are rarely cleansed, +they become traps for many varieties of insects, etc., and it is, +therefore, not a very acceptable beverage to a delicate stomach. When +purified by a mild fermentation it is far more palatable. + +A secondary fermentation of tuba results in vinegar, and on this +account, chiefly, so much space has been devoted to this feature of +the industry. The vinegar so produced is of good strength and color, of +the highest keeping qualities, and of unrivaled flavor. Its excellence +is so pronounced that upon its inherent merits it would readily find +sale in the world's markets; and, although the local demand for the +tuba now exceeds the production, its conversion into vinegar will +probably prove the more profitable industry in the future. + +Spirits are distilled and in some places sugar is still made from the +flower sap; and, while the importance of these great staples may not +be overlooked, their commercial value as products of this tree are +relatively insignificant. + + + +MINOR USES. + +In addition to eighty-three utilities described by Mr. Pereira, +[3] it is in very common use in the Philippines for: + +1. Cocoanut cream. The freshly ground fruit, reduced to a pulp and +strained, is consumed in that form or made into cakes with rice. It +makes a delicious and nutritious food. According to Dr. W. J. Gies, +in experiments lately published, [4] its nutritive value is due to +35.4 per cent of oil, about 10 per cent of carbohydrates, and 3 per +cent of protein. The amount of cellulose (fibrous matter) is only 3 +per cent, and its digestibility is easy when the mass, by grating, +is reduced to a fine degree of comminution. + +2. The "milk" or water is used sparingly as a beverage. It is also +fermented and converted into inferior vinegar. + +3. The hard shell is used as fuel. When calcined, it produces a black, +lustrous substance, used for dyeing leather. + +4. The same shell, aside from many uses quoted by Pereira, is used +here for every conceivable form of cup, ladle, scoop, and spoon. + +5. From the tough midrib of the leaf, strong and beautiful baskets of +many designs are made, also excellent and durable brooms, and from +the part where the midrib coalesces with the petiole pot-cleaning +brushes are made. + +6. The roots are sometimes used for chewing, as a substitute for +Areca. They also furnish red dyestuff and with one end finely +subdivided may be used in making toothbrushes. + +7. The leaves and midribs, when burned, furnish an ash so rich in +potash that it may be used alone in water as a substitute for soap +or when a powerful detergent is required. + +8. The fiber of the husk is used extensively by the natives for +calking boats. + +9. The milk is used in the preparation of a native dish of rice, +known as "casi." It is an excellent and highly prized dietary article, +prepared with rice or in combination with chicken or locusts. + +10. The oil, melted with resins, is an effective and lasting covering +for anything desired to be protected from the ravages of white ants. + +11. The timber is used to bridge streams and bog holes, and the slowly +decaying leaves to fill them up and render them temporarily passable. + +12. The fiber is used in cordage and rope making, but to a far less +extent here than in India. + +Its further uses are, in general, those current in the Orient. Briefly +summed up, its timber is employed in every form of house construction; +its foliage in making mats, sacks, and thatches; its fruit in curry +and sweetmeats; its oil for medicine, cookery, and illumination; +its various juices in the manufacture of wines, spirits, sugar, and +vinegar; while not to overlook a final and not inconsiderable Filipino +product, the splinters of the midrib are used in making toothpicks. + + + + + +CULTIVATION. + + +SELECTION OF LOCATION. + +In the selection of a site for a cocoanut grove it is best to select +land near the seashore and not extending inland more than 2 or 3 +miles. Within this narrow zone there is commonly a deposit of rich, +permeable, well-drained alluvium offering soil conditions of far +greater importance to successful tree growth than the mere exposure +to marine influences. The success that has followed cocoanut growing +in Cochin China, remote from the seaboard, in Annam and up the Ganges +basin one hundred or more miles from the coast, and in our own interior +Province of Laguna, definitely proves that immediate contiguity to +the sea is not essential to success. + +That the cocoanut will grow and thrive upon the immediate seashore, in +common with other plants, is simply an indication of its adaptability +to environment. That it is at a positive disadvantage as a shore plant +may be determined conclusively by anyone who will examine the root +system of a seashore-grown tree upturned by a wash or tidal wave, and +one uprooted from any cause, farther inland. It will be seen that the +root system of the maritime plant is immensely larger than the other, +and that a corresponding amount of energy has been expended in the +search through much inert material to forage for the necessary plant +food which the more favored inland species has found concentrated +within a smaller zone. + +The planting must be made in a thoroughly permeable soil. + +The thick, fleshy roots of the newly upturned palm are loaded with +water, and tell us that an inexhaustible store of this fluid is an +indispensable element of success. If further evidence of this were +required, the testimony of drooping leaves and of crops shrunken +from one-half to two-thirds, throughout the cocoanut districts and +upon our own orchard in Mindanao, as the result of drought, confirm +it and bespeak the necessity of copious water at all times. + +The living tree upon the sea sands further emphasizes this necessity; +for, while its roots are lapped by the tides, it never flags or wilts, +and from this we may gather the added value of a site which can be +irrigated. The careful observer will note that along miles of sea +beach, among hundreds of trees whose roots are either in actual contact +with the incoming waves, or subjected to the subterranean influence of +the sea, there will never be so much as one tree growing in any beach +basin which collects and holds tidal water for even a brief time; +and that, notwithstanding the large number of nuts that must have +found lodgment and favorable germinating influence in such places, +none succeed in growing. From this we may derive the assurance that +the desired water must be in motion and that land near stagnant water, +or marsh land, is unsuitable to the plant. + +It may frequently be observed that trees will be found growing +fairly thriftily upon mounds or hummocks, in places invaded by +flood or other waters which, by reason of backing or damming up, +have become stagnant. An examination of the roots of an overthrown +tree in such a locality will show that all of those in the submerged +zone have perished and rotted away, but that such is the vitality and +recuperative energy of the tree that it has thrown out a new feeding +system in the dryer soil of the mound immediately surrounding the stem, +which has been sufficient to successfully carry on the functions of +nutrition, but altogether ineffective to anchor the tree securely, +or to prevent its prostration before the first heavy gale. + +While this phase of the question will receive more attention when +we come to consider the chemistry of suitable manures, it may be +said that, although analysis of the cocoanut ash derived from +beach-grown nuts shows a larger percentage of those salts that +abound in sea water than those grown inland, yet the equal vigor, +vitality, and fruitfulness of the latter simply confirm the plant's +exceptional adaptability to environment and ability to take up and +decompose, without detriment, the salts of sea or brackish waters. As +a victim to the maritime idea, the writer in 1886 planted, far inland, +several hundred nuts in beds especially devised to reproduce littoral +conditions; shore gravel, sea sand, broken shells, and salt derived +from sea water being used in preparing the seed beds. The starting +growth was unexcelled. Then came a long period of yellowing decline +and almost suspended animation, ultimately followed by a complete +restoration to health and vigor. The early excellent growth was +due to the fact that the first nourishment of the plant is entirely +derived from the endosperm, and careful lifting of the young plants +disclosed the fact that recovery from their moribund condition was, +in every instance, coincident with the time that the roots first +succeeded in working through the unpalatable mess about them into +the outlying good, sweet soil. + +The exposure of the plantation is an important consideration, and +a maritime site should be selected in preference to one far inland, +unless it be on an open, unprotected flat, exposed to the influence +of every breeze or the fiercest gales that blow. + +The structure of the cocoanut seems well fitted to endure winds of +almost any force, and that a remarkably abundant and strong circulation +of air is essential to its best development is well shown by comparing +a tree subjected to it with the wretched, spindling specimen growing +in a sheltered glen or ravine. + +Strong confirmation of this may be found within the artificial +environment of a plant conservatory, where it is feasible to reproduce, +in the minute detail of soil, water, temperature, and humidity, +every essential to its welfare except a good, strong breeze. As a +consequence, the palm languishes and it has long been deemed, on +this account, one of the most rebellious subjects introduced into +palm-house cultivation. + + + +THE SOIL. + +The soils for cocoanut growing are best selected by the process of +exclusion. The study of the root development of the palm will prove +to be an unerring guide to proper soil selection. + +The roots of monocotyledons, to which great division this palm belongs, +are devoid of the well-defined descending axis, which is possessed +by most tree plants, and is often so strongly developed as to permit +of rock cleavage and the withdrawal of food supplies from great depths. + +The cocoanut has no such provision for its support. Its subterranean +parts are simply a mat-like expanse of thick, fleshy, worm-like +growths, devoid of any feeders other than those provided at the +extreme tips of the relatively few roots. These roots are fleshy (not +fibrous) and can not thrive in any soil through which they may not grow +freely in search of sustenance. It then becomes obvious that stiff, +tenacious, or waxy soils, however rich, are wholly unsuitable. All +very heavy lands, or those that break up into solid, impervious lumps, +and, lastly, any land underlaid near the surface with bed rocks or +impervious clays or conglomerates, are naturally excluded. All other +soils, susceptible of proper drainage, may be considered appropriate +to the growth of the palm. Spons (Encyclop.) advocates light, sandy +soils. Simmonds (Trop. Agric.) names nine different varieties suitable +for this purpose, describing each at tedious length, and laying more +or less emphasis upon a sandy mixture. These might all have been +covered by the single word "permeable." + +As a matter of fact every grain of sand in excess of that required to +secure a condition of perfect permeability is a positive disadvantage +and must be paid for by a correspondingly larger area of cultivation +and by future soil amendment. For the rest, the richer and deeper +the soil the less the expense of maintaining soil fertility. + +The preparatory work of establishing an orchard is light, provided +the location is not one demanding the opening of drainage canals, +and on lands of good porosity it involves neither subsoiling nor a +deeper plowing than to effectually cover the sod or any minor weed +growths with which it may be covered. + +It has long been the reprehensible practice of cocoanut growers to +merely dig pits, manure them, set the plants therein, and permit +the intervening lands (except immediately about the trees) to run to +weeds or jungle. + +In the Philippines the native planter has not yet progressed beyond +the pit stage, nor do his subsequent cultural activities include more +than the occasional "boloing" of such weeds as threaten to choke and +exterminate the young plants. + +Fortunately it will not be long till the force and influence of +example are sure to be felt by our own planters. The progressive +German colonist of Kamerun, German East Africa, and the South +Pacific Islands, as well as the French in Congo and Madagascar, +are vigorously practicing conventional, modern orchard methods in +the treatment of their cocoanut groves, and it is amazing to read +of discussions between Ceylon and Indian nut growers as to the best +method of tethering cattle upon cocoanut palms in pasture, so as to +obtain the most benefit from their excreta. + +With an intelligent study of the plant and its characteristics +it is believed that our native planter may put into practical use +the knowledge that the veteran Indian planter has in fifty years +failed to learn or utilize. He will learn that in time the entire +superficies of his orchard will be required by the wide-spreading, +surface-feeding roots of the trees, and that pasture crops of any +kind, grown for any purpose other than soiling or for green manuring, +are prejudicial to future success. He will know that the initial +preparation of all of his orchard and its continuous maintenance in +good cultivation are essential not only to the future welfare of +his trees but as a necessary means in connection with a judicious +intermediate crop rotation. + +Hence the preparatory requirements may be summed up as such preliminary +soil breaking as would be required for a corn crop in similar lands, +succeeded by such superficial plowings and cultivations as would be +required to raise a cotton or any other of the so-called hoed crops. + + + +SEED SELECTION. + +Preliminary to planting the very important question of seed selection +calls for close scrutiny on the planter's part. + +The small native planter is often familiar with the individual +characteristics of his trees. Owners of small estates in Cuyos and +about Zamboanga have pointed out to me trees that have the constant +fruiting habit confirmed, others that will fruit erratically, and +others that flower yet rarely bear fruit. The fruitfulness of the +first class is undoubtedly a result of accidental heredity, for the +planter has in the past made no selection except by chance, nor is the +characteristic in any way due to his cultural system, which consists +in planting the nut and letting nature and heredity do the rest. One +tree in Zamboanga, the owner assured me, had never produced less than +200 nuts annually for fully twenty-three years. Asked as to the bearing +of all of his trees (of which he owned some three hundred), he stated +that from the lot he averaged 20 nuts at a picking, five times a year, +a total of 100 nuts; that the crop of these was very fluctuating, +some years falling to 60 nuts, again running as high as 130. The +especially prized tree did not vary appreciably. In very dry seasons +the nuts shrunk somewhat in size and the copra in weight, but the yield +of nuts never fell below 200, and only once had amounted to 220. He +had raised a great number of seedlings, but it had never occurred to +him to select for planting the nuts from that particular tree. + + + +PLANTING. + +We have pointed out the necessity of selecting seed trees of known good +bearing habits, and equal care should be exercised in selecting those +the nuts of which are well formed and uniform. This precaution will +suggest itself when one observes that some trees have the habit of +producing a few very large nuts and many of very small and irregular +size and shape, and it is obviously to the planter's interest to lend +no assistance to the propagation and transmission of such traits. In +view of what has been previously stated, it is almost superfluous +earnestly to recommend planters to sow no seeds from young trees. The +principle for this contention--that no seed should be selected except +from trees of established, well-known fruiting habits--would seem to +cover the ground effectually. + +The best seed should be selected and picked when perfectly mature and +lowered to the ground. The fall from a lofty tree not infrequently +cracks the inner shell, without giving any external evidence of the +injury. A seed so injured will never sprout and therefore is worthless +for seed purposes. + +Freshly collected seed nuts contain in the husk more moisture than +is required to effect germination, and if planted in this condition, +decay is apt to set in before germination occurs. To avoid this the +natives tie them in pairs, sling them over bamboo poles where they are +exposed to the air but sheltered from the sun, and leave them until +well sprouted. It is, however, more expeditious to pile the nuts up in +small heaps of eight to ten nuts, in partial shade, where the surface +nuts may be sprinkled occasionally to prevent complete drying out. + +Germination is very erratic, sometimes occurring within a month +and sometimes extending over four, five, or more months. When the +young shoot or plumule (see illustration) has fairly thrust its way +through the fibrous husk it is a good practice to go over the heaps +and segregate those that have sprouted, carefully placing them so +that the growing tip be not deformed or distorted by the pressure +of superincumbent nuts. When these sprouts are 30 to 50 cm. high, +and a few roots have thrust through the husk, they are in the best +possible condition for permanent planting. + +First. The original preparation of the land should be good and the +surface tilth at the time of planting irreproachable; i. e., free +from weeds and so mellow that the soil can be closely and properly +pressed around the roots by hand. + +Second. The orchard should be securely protected from the invasion of +cattle, etc. It is sometimes impossible to protect orchards against +entry of these animals. If the success of these precautions can not +be assured, then the nuts had better be grown in a closely protected +nursery until about a year old, when the albumen of the seed will be +completely assimilated and will therefore no longer attract vermin, +and when the larger size of the plant will give it more protection +from stray cattle. + +In either case planting should be made concurrently with the opening of +the rainy monsoon, during which season further field operations will +not be required except when an intermittent, drier period indicates +the advisability of running the cultivator. + +The planting "pit" fetish, in such common use in India, has nothing +to commend it. If stable manures of any kind are available, a good +application at the time of planting will effect wonders in accelerating +the growth of the young plants. + +Where the necessary protection is assured, the young seedling planted +out as above recommended should start at once, without check of any +kind, into vigorous growth. + +The nursery-grown subject receives an unavoidable setback. Its roots +have been more or less mutilated and, as we may not prune the top +sufficiently to compensate for the root injury, it is generally several +months before the equilibrium of top and root is fully restored. In +most cases, by the end of the second year, it will have been far +outstripped in the growing race by the former. + +The history, habits, and characteristics of the cocoanut tree indicate +that it needs a full and free exposure to sun, air, and wind; and, +as it makes a tree, under such circumstances, of wide crown expansion, +these indispensables can not be secured except by very wide planting. + +Conventional recommendations cover all distances, from 5 to 8 meters, +with quincunx (i. e., triangular plantings) urged when the 8-meter +plan is adopted. But the writer has seen too many groves spaced at +this distance in good soil, with interlacing leaves and badly spindled +in the desperate struggle for light, air, and sun, ever to recommend +the quincunx, or any system other than the square, at distances not +less than 9 meters and, in good soils, preferably 9.5 meters. + +The former distance will allow for 123 and the latter 111 trees to +the hectare. They should be lined out with the greatest regularity, so +as to admit at all times of cross plowing and cultivation as desired. + +From this time forward the treatment is one of cultural and manurial +routine. + +Annual plowings should not be dispensed with during the life +of the plantation. These plowings may be relatively shallow, +sufficient to cover under the green manures and crops that are made +an indispensable condition to the continued profitable conduct of +the industry. Nothing is to be gained by the removal of the earliest +flowering spikes. Flowering is the congestion of sap at a special point +which, if the grower could control it, he would wish to direct, in the +case of young plants, to the building up of leaf and wood. Cutting the +inflorescence of the cocoanut results in profuse bleeding and, unless +this be checked by the use of a powerful styptic or otherwise, it is +doubtful if the desired end would be accomplished. The earlier crops +of nuts should all be taken with extension cutters or from ladders. No +shoulders for climbing should be cut in any tree, the stem of which +has not become dense, hard, and woody. Cut when the wood is the least +bit succulent, they become inviting points of attack for borers. + +With these reservations, there is everything to commend the practice +of shouldering the tree, as offering the safest, most expeditious +and economical way of making it possible to climb and secure the +harvest. It is, of course, understood that the cuts should be made +sloping outward, so as not to collect moisture and invite decay, +and no larger than is strictly necessary for the purpose. + + + +MANURING. [5] + +The manuring problem must be met and solved by the best resources at +our command. The writer has had pointed out hundred of trees that, +wholly guiltless of any direct application of manure, have borne +excellent crops for many successive years; but he has also seen +hundreds of others in their very prime, at thirty years, which once +produced a hundred select nuts per year, now producing fluctuating +and uncertain crops of fifteen to thirty inferior fruits. + +Time and again native growers have told me of the large and uniformly +continuous crops of nuts from the trees immediately overshadowing their +dwellings and, although some have attributed this to a sentimental +appreciation and gratitude on the part of the palm at being made one +of the family of the owner, a few were sensible enough to realize +that it came of the opportunity that those particular trees had to +get the manurial benefit of the household sewage and waste. + +Yet, the lesson is still unlearned and, after much diligent inquiry, +I have yet to find a nut grower in the Philippines who at any time +(except at planting) makes direct and systematic application of manure +to his trees. + +In India, Ceylon, the Penang Peninsula, and Cochin China, where the +tree has been cultivated for generations, the most that was ever +attempted until very recently was to throw a little manure in the +hole where the tree was planted, and for all future time to depend +on the inferior, grass-made droppings of a few cattle tethered among +the trees, to compensate for the half million or more nuts that a +hectare of fairly productive trees should yield during their normal +bearing life. + +Upon suitable cocoanut soils--i. e., those that are light and +permeable--common salt is positively injurious. In support of this +contention, I will state that salt in solution will break up and +freely combine with lime, making equally soluble chlorids of lime +which, of course, freely leach out in such a soil and carry down +to unavailable depths these salts, invaluable as necessary bases +to render assimilable most plant foods; and that, on this account, +commercial manures containing large amounts of salt, are always to +be used with much discretion, owing to the danger of impoverishing +the supply of necessary lime in the soil. + +Finally, so injurious is the direct application of salt to the roots +of most plants that the invariable custom of trained planters (who, +for the sake of the potash contained, are compelled to use crude +Stassfurt mineral manures, which contain large quantities of common +salt) is to apply it a very considerable time before the crop is +planted, in order that this deleterious agent should be well leached +and washed away from the immediate field of root activity. + +That the cocoanut is able to take up large quantities of salt may not +be disputed. That the character of its root is such as to enable it to +do so without the injury that would occur to most cultivated plants +I have previously shown, while the history of the cocoanut's inland +career, and the records of agricultural chemistry, both conclusively +point to the fact that its presence is an incident that in no way +contributes to the health, vigor, or fruitfulness of the tree. + +Mr. Cochran's analysis, based upon the unit of 1,000 average nuts, +weighing in the aggregate 3,125 pounds, discloses a drain upon soil +fertility for that number, amounting in round numbers to-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 8 1/4 + Potash 17 + Phosphoric acid 3 + + +Reducing this to crop and area, and taking 60 fruits per annum per tree +as a fair mean for the bearing groves in our cocoanut districts and +on those rare estates where a systematic spacing of about 173 trees +to the hectare has been made, we should have an annual harvest of +10,300 nuts, or, stated in round numbers, 10,000, which will exhaust +each year from the soil a total of-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 82 1/2 + Potash 170 + Phosphoric acid 30 + + +The cocoanut, therefore, while a good feeder, may not be classed with +the most depleting of field crops. + +To make this clear I exhibit, by way of contrast, the drafts made +by a relatively good crop of two notoriously soil-impoverishing +crops--tobacco and corn--and, on the other hand, the drafts made by +an equivalent average cotton crop--a product considered to make but +light drains upon sources of soil fertility. + +A proportionate tobacco crop of 1,000 kilos per hectare will withdraw +from the soil (reduced to the same standard of weights adopted by +Mr. Cochran)-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 168 + Potash 213 + Phosphoric acid 23 + + +An equivalent crop of shelled corn, say, of 125 bushels per hectare, +will withdraw-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 200 + Potash 135 + Phosphoric acid 75 + + +while a relative crop of lint cotton of 237 kilos (700 pounds) per +hectare [6] will only exhaust, in round numbers-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 114 + Potash 70 + Phosphoric acid 30 + + +There is an analogy between these four products that makes them +all comparable, in so far as all are largely surface feeders, and, +as experience shows that there can be no continuing success with +the last three that does not include both cultivation and manuring, +we may use the analogy to infer a like indispensable necessity for +the successful issue of the first. + +Cultivation as a manurial factor should, therefore, not be overlooked, +and all the more strongly does it become emphasized by the very +difficulties that for some years to come must beset the Philippine +planter in the way of procuring direct manures. + +When it comes to the specific application of manures and how to make +the most of our resources, we shall have to turn back to the analysis +of the nut and note that, relatively to other crops, it makes small +demands for nitrogen. At the same time it must not be forgotten that +these chemical determinations only refer to the fruit and that, +with the present incomplete data and lack of investigation of the +constituent parts of root, stem, leaf, and branch, we have nothing +to guide us but what we may infer from the behavior of the plant and +its relationship to plants of long-deferred fruition, whose manurial +wants are well understood. + +It is now the most approved orchard practice to encourage an early +development of leaf and branch by the liberal application of nitrogen, +whose stimulant actions upon growth are conceded as the best. + +In temperate regions, the exigencies of climate exact that this be +done with discretion and care, in order that the unduly stimulated +growths may be fully ripened and matured against the approach of an +inclement season. In the Tropics no such limitations exist, and the +early growth of the tree may be profitably stimulated to the highest +pitch. That this general treatment, as applied to young fruit trees, +is specifically the one indicated in the early life of the cocoanut, +may be quickly learned by him who will observe the avidity with +which the fleshy roots of a young cocoanut will invade, embrace, +and disintegrate a piece of stable manure. + +Notwithstanding lack of chemical analysis, we may not question the +fact that considerable supplies of both potash and phosphoric acid +are withdrawn in the building up of leaf and stem; but these are +found in sufficient quantity in soils of average quality to meet +the early requirements of the plant. It is only when the fruiting +age is reached that demands are made, especially upon the potash, +which the planter is called upon to make good. + +Good cultivation, the application of a generous supply of stimulating +nitrogen during its early career, and the gradual substitution in +later life of manures in which potash and phosphoric acid, particularly +the former, predominate, are necessary. + +How, then, may we best apply the nitrogen requirements of its early +life? Undoubtedly through the application of abundant supplies of +stable manures, press cakes, tankage, or of such fertilizers as furnish +nitrogen in combination with the large volume of humus necessary to +minister to the gross appetite of the plant under consideration. But +the chances are that none of these are available, and the planter +must have recourse to some of the green, nitrogen-gathering manures +that are always at his command. + +He must sow and plow under crops of pease, beans, or other legumes +that will furnish both humus and nitrogen in excess of what they +remove. Incidentally, they will draw heavily upon the potash deposits +of the soil, and they must all be turned back, or, if fed, every +kilo of the resulting manure must be scrupulously returned. He must +pay for the cultivation of the land, for the growing of crops that +he turns back as manure (and that involves further expense for their +growing and plowing under), and, in addition, he must be subject to +such outlay for about seven years before he can begin to realize for +the time and labor expended. + +But there are expedients to which the planter may have recourse +which, if utilized, may return every dollar of cultural outlay. By +the use of a wise rotation he can not only maintain his land in a good +productive condition but realize a good biennial crop that will keep +the plantation from being a financial drag. The rotation that occurs +to me as most promising on the average cocoanut lands of these Islands +would be, first, a green manure crop, followed by corn and legumes, +succeeded by cotton, and then back to green manures. + +To make the first green crop effective as a manure, both lime and +potash are essential--the former to make available the nitrogen we +hope to gather, and the potash in order to secure the largest and +quickest growth of the pulse we are to raise for manurial purposes. + +Both these elements are generally in good supply in our cocoanut lands; +but, if there is uncertainty upon this point, both should be supplied, +in some form. Fortunately, the former is cheap and abundant in most +parts of the Archipelago, and, when well slaked, may be freely applied +with benefit, at the rate of a ton or even more to the hectare. + +In default of the mineral potash salts, the grower must seek unleached +wood ashes, either by burning his own unused jungle land to procure +them or by purchasing them from the neighbor who has such land to +burn over. If located on the littoral, he will carefully collect +all the seaweed that is blown in, although in our tropical waters +the huge and abundant marine algæ are mostly lacking. Such as are +found, however, furnish a not inconsiderable amount of potash, and, +in the extremities to which planters remote from commercial centers +are driven, no source is too inconsiderable to be overlooked. + +The first green crop selected will be one known to be of tropical +origin which, with fair soil conditions, will not fail to give a good +yield. He may with safety try any of the native rank-growing beans, +or cowpeas, soja, or velvet beans; or, if these are not procurable, he +has at command everywhere an unstinted seed supply of Cajanus indicus, +or of Clitorea ternatea, which will as well effect the desired end--to +wit, a great volume of humus and a new soil supply of nitrogen. It +remains for the planter to determine if the crop thus grown is to +be plowed under, or if he will use it to still better advantage by +partially feeding it, subject, as previously stated, to an honest +return to the land of all the manure resulting therefrom. + +He may utilize it in any way, even to selling the resulting seed +crop, provided all the remaining brush is turned back to the land +and a portion of the money he receives for the seed be reinvested in +high-grade potash and phosphatic manures. The plantation should now +be in fair condition for a corn crop, and, as a very slight shading +is not prejudicial to the young palms, the corn can be planted close +enough to the trees, leaving only sufficient space to admit of the +free cultivation that both require. + +It must not be forgotten that corn makes the most serious inroads +upon our soil fertility of any of the crops in our rotation, and, +unless by this time the planter is prepared to feed all the grain +produced to fatten swine or cattle, it had better be eliminated from +the rotation and peanuts substituted. In addition to this, he must +still make good whatever drains the corn will have made upon this +element of soil fertility. + +Cropping to corn attacks the cocoanut at a new and vulnerable point, +against which the careful grower must make provision. It will be +remembered that an average corn crop makes very considerable drafts +upon the soil supply of phosphoric acid; but, if the grain is used +for fattening swine, whose manure is much richer in phosphates than +most farm manures, and the latter is restored to the land, serious +soil impoverishment may be averted. + +The next step in our suggested rotation is the cotton crop. Here, +too, limitations are imposed upon the planter who is without abundant +manurial resources to maintain the future integrity of his grove. He +may sell the lint from his cotton, but he can not dispose of it +(as is frequently done here) in the seed. + +If the enterprise be not upon a scale that will justify the equipment +of a mill and the manufacture of the oil, he has no alternative but +to return the seed in lieu of the seed cake, wasteful and extravagant +though such a process be. + +The oil so returned is without manurial value and, if left in the +seed, is so much money wasted. The rational process, of course, +calls for the return of the press cake, either direct or in the form +of manure after it has been fed. With this is also secured the hull, +rich in both the potash and the phosphoric acid [7] which we now know +is so essential to the future welfare of the grove. + +The above rotation is simply suggested as a tentative expedient. + +The ground will now be so shaded that we can not hope to raise more +catch crops for harvesting, although it may be possible during the +dry season to raise a partial stand of pulses, of manure value only; +but, from the fruiting stage on, this becomes a minor consideration. + +This stage of the cultural story brings us once more face to face +with the principle contended for at the beginning of this paper, +namely, that there can be no permanent prosperity in this branch of +horticulture until the crop is so worked up into its ultimate products +that none of the residue of manufacture goes to waste. + +At best the return of these side products is insufficient, and, despite +their careful husbandry, we can not ultimately evade a greater or less +resort to inorganic manures of high cost and difficult procurement. + +The residue from the press cake is rich in nitrogen and humus, which, +in the ever-increasing shade of the grove, will become more and more +difficult to produce there through nitrogen-making agencies; but the +waste from the manufacture of coir and the ashes from the woody shell +will go far toward supplying the needed potash. + +Such a system would, if closely followed, practically restrict the +farmer's ultimate purchases to a small quantity of acid phosphates, +or of bone dust, which, in conjunction with good tillage, should +serve to maintain the grove in a highly productive condition for an +indefinite term of years. + + + +IRRIGATION. + +As an auxiliary manurial agent of definite, well-proven value in this +Archipelago, I will briefly recite some of the benefits that may be +expected to follow occasional irrigation during the dry season. + +It strongly accelerates growth and early maturity. A few irrigated +trees, reputed to be under five years from seed and already bearing +fruit, were shown the writer on the Island of Joló. The growth was +remarkably strong and vigorous, notwithstanding that the water of +irrigation had been applied in such a way that the tree could only +hope to derive a minimum of benefit from its application. It had merely +been turned on from a convenient ditch whenever the soil seemed baked +and dry, at intervals of one to three weeks, as circumstances seemed +to require. + +Irrigation, but always in connection with subsequent cultivation, +may be considered equal to a crop guaranty that is not afforded so +effectually by any purely cultural system. + +Rarely has a better opportunity occurred to demonstrate the +unquestioned benefits that have inured to these few Joló trees from +the use of irrigating waters than the present season of 1902-3. From +many sources reports come to this Bureau of trees failing, or dying +outright, from lack of moisture. While it is true that the present +dry season has had no parallel since 1885-86, and that the rainfall +during the dry season has been less than half the normal, yet it +should not be forgotten that, during the eight months from October to +May, inclusive, the average precipitation on the west coast, at the +latitude of Manila, is only about 460 mm. and that, when the amount +falls below this, the cocoanut is bound to suffer. + +Though it is true that the evil effects of drought may be modified, +if not altogether controlled, by cultivation, the assistance of +irrigation places the cultivator in an impregnable position. If +evidence in support of this statement were called for, it might be +found to-day in the deplorable condition of those groves that have +been permitted to run to pasture, as compared with those in which some +attempts have been made to bolo out the encroaching weeds and grasses. + +It is probably true that, except on very sandy soils, continued surface +irrigation would aggravate the superficial root-developing tendency +of the tree; and to what extent, if any, occasional laceration by +deep shovel tooth cultivation would injure the tree remains to be +seen. There are, however, few economic plants that so quickly repair +root damage as the Palmæ, and, unless the seat of injury extends over +a very large area, it is probable that the resulting injury would be +of no consequence, as compared with the general benefits that would +result from irrigation. + + + + + +HARVEST. + + +Harvest of the crop requires but a brief discussion. The nuts should +be plucked when ripe. The phenomenon of maturity can not be readily +described in print. It frequently is as evident in nuts of a bright +green color as in those of a golden-yellow color, and the recognition +is one of those things that can only be learned by experience. + +The practice, so general in the Seychelles, of allowing the nut to +hang till it falls to the ground is certainly undesirable in these +Islands. On the contrary, the overripe nuts will seldom fall until +dislodged by a storm, and it is no uncommon thing to see nuts that +have sprouted and started to grow upon trees in plantations where the +harvest is left to the action of natural causes. Such nuts, of course, +are entirely worthless for the manufacture of oil or copra, and even +the husk has depreciated in value, the finest coirs, in fact, being +derived only from the fruits that have not attained full ripeness. In +any case, the nuts should be picked and the crop worked up before any +considerable enlargement or swelling of the embryo occurs. From this +time onward physiological changes arise which injuriously affect the +quantity and quality of what is called the meat. + +The heaping up of the nuts for some time after harvest favors some milk +absorption, which seems to facilitate the subsequent easy extraction +of the endosperm. + + + + + +ENEMIES. + + +Outside of certain insects of the order Coleoptera, cocoanuts in +the Philippines are reasonably free from enemies; in some districts, +close to forest-clad areas, the raids of monkeys do some damage. A +tree-nesting rat, which nibbles the young nuts, is also a source of +considerable loss. The rat is best overcome by frequent disturbance of +his quarters. This involves the removal of the dead leaves and thatch +that form constantly about the base of the crown. But the wisdom of +this recommendation will depend entirely upon circumstances. As the +planter may find that rats or the rhinoceros beetle are the lesser +evil, so should he be governed. + +There are localities in the Archipelago where the plague of rats +is unknown and where the beetles abound. In that case it would be +unwise to disturb the leaves which are very tardily deciduous and +do not naturally fall till the wood beneath is hard, mature, and +practically impervious to the attacks of insects. + +Where rats are numerous and insects few, which is the case in some +localities, the dead and dying leaves, among which the rat nests, +may be advantageously cleared away whenever the tree is climbed to +harvest the fruit. + +Among serious insect enemies we have to contend largely with the very +obnoxious black beetle, Oryctes rhinocerus, and, fortunately, to a +lesser extent, with Rhynchoporus ferrugineous (probably the same as +R. ochreatus of Eydoux), while R. pascha, Boehm, and Chalcosma atlas, +Linn., are also said to appear occasionally. + +However different their mode of attack, the general result is the +same, and their presence may surely be detected by the appearance of +deformed or badly misshapen or lacerated leaves. + +The attacks of all species are confined to the growing point and as +far downward as the wood is tender and susceptible to the action of +their powerful mandibles. + +The black beetle makes its attacks when fully mature, eating its way +into the soft tissues and generally selecting the axil of a young +leaf as the point of least resistance. Others simply deposit their +eggs, which hatch out, and the resulting grub is provided with jaws +powerful enough to do the same mischief. Two or three of these grubs, +if undisturbed, are sufficient in time to completely riddle the +growing tip, which then falls over and the tree necessarily dies. + + + + + +REMEDIES. + + +Remedies may be described as preventive and aggressive, and, by an +active campaign of precaution, many subsequent remedial applications +can be avoided. + +Most of the beetles attacking the palm are known to select heaps of +decomposing rubbish and manure as their favorite (if not necessary) +breeding places, and it is obviously of importance to break up and +destroy such; nor can any better or more advantageous way of effecting +this be suggested than by promptly spreading and plowing under all such +accumulations as fast as they are made; or, if this be impracticable, +by forking or turning over or otherwise disturbing the heaps, until +convenient to dispose of them as first suggested. + +A truly preventive and simple remedy, and one that I can commend as a +result of close observation, is the application of a handful or two +of sharp, coarse, clean sand in the axillæ of the young leaves. The +native practice is to mix this with ashes, salt, or tobacco dust; +but it is questionable if the efficacy of the remedy lies so much in +these additions as in the purely mechanical effect of the sand, the +constant attrition of which can not be other than highly objectionable +to the insect while burrowing. + +Of offensive remedies, probing with a stout hooked wire is the only +form of warfare carried on in these Islands; but, as the channel of the +borer is sometimes tortuous and deep, this is not always effective. A +certain, simple, and easily applied remedy may be found in carbon +bisulphid. It could be applied in the holes (which invariably trend +downward) with a small metal syringe. The hole should be sealed +immediately with a pinch of stiff, moist clay. + +It is likely that this remedy and probing with a wire are the only +successful ways of combatting the red beetle, whose grub strikes in +wherever it finds a soft spot; but, for these species which attack +the axils of the leaves, I have great faith in the efficacy of the +"sand cure," and no nut picker should go aloft unprovided with a small +bamboo tube of dry, sifted sand, to protect the bases of recently +expanded leaves. + +In Selangor cocoanut trees now come under the government inspection, +and planters and owners, under penalties, are compelled to destroy +these pests. Mr. L. C. Brown, of Kuala Lampur, in that State, +who writes intelligently on this subject, [8] lays great stress on +the value of clean cultivation in subduing beetles, and repeats a +cultural axiom that never grows old and that will, consequently, +bear reiteration here--that it is rarely anything but the neglected +plantation that suffers, and that the maintenance at all times of a +healthy, vigorous growth is in itself almost a guaranty of immunity +from attacks of these pernicious insects. + +While we, unfortunately, know that this is not in all cases an assured +protection against diseases or insect enemies, it certainly minimizes +the danger and, in itself, is a justification of the high-pressure +cultural treatment advocated throughout the preceding pages. + + + + + +RENOVATION OF OLD GROVES. + + +Material improvement of old plantations may sometimes be effected +and, unless the trees are known to be upward of fifty years old, +generally repays the labor. Marked increase in crop has followed a +heavy thinning out of trees upon the Government cocoanut farm at San +Ramon, Mindanao. The improvement that a freer circulation of air and +abundant sunlight have effected is very marked. Where it can be done, +plowing is also sometimes feasible and should be followed by immediate +crop improvement. The average native plow is not so well adapted for +working over an old or neglected grove as it is for original soil +preparation. It acts more as a subsoiler and will tear and lacerate +more roots than is desirable. A single carabao, or one-horse American +garden plow, is the better implement for this work. Extensive bat guano +deposits are found in Mindoro, Guimarás, and Luzon. Some of them show +richness in nitrogen and, when accessible at a moderate cost, would +be useful in the renovation of old groves, where the shade would be +adverse to the rearing of good crops of nitrogen gatherers. + + + + + +CONCLUSION. + + +1. There are large areas throughout the littoral valleys of the +Archipelago, as yet unexploited, which, in the essentials of soil, +climate, irrigation facilities, and general environment are suitable +for cocoanut growing. + +2. The present conditions present especially flattering attractions +to cocoanut growers capable of undertaking the cultivation upon a +scale of some magnitude. By coöperation, small estates could combine +in the common ownership of machinery, whereby the products of the +grove could be converted into more profitable substances than copra. + +3. The present production of copra (estimated at 278,000 piculs in +1902) is an assurance of a sufficient supply to warrant the erection +of a high-class modern plant for the manufacture of the ultimate (the +"butter") products of the nut. The products of such an enterprise would +be increased by the certainty of a local market in the Philippines for +some part of the output. The average market value of the best grades of +copra in the Marseilles market is $54.40, gold, per English ton. The +jobbing value on January 1 of this year, of the refined products, +were, for each ton of copra: + + + Butter fats $90.00 + Residual soap oils 21.00 + Press cake 5.20 + ------ + Total 116.20 + + +the difference representing the profit per ton, less the cost of +manufacture. + +4. The minimum size of a plantation, on which economical application +of oil and fiber preparing machinery could be made, is 60 hectares. + +5. There is no other horticultural tropical product which may be grown +in these Islands where crop assurance may be so nearly guaranteed, +or natural conditions so nearly controlled by the planter who, +knowing correct principles, has the facilities for applying them. + +6. The natural enemies and diseases of the plant are relatively few, +easily held in check by vigilance and the exercise of competent +business management. + +7. The labor situation is bound more seriously to affect the small +planter, wholly dependent upon hand labor, than the estate conducted +on a large enough scale to justify the employment of modern machinery. + +8. In view of an ever-expanding demand for cocoanut products, and in +the light of the foregoing conclusions, the industry, when prosecuted +upon a considerable scale and subject to the requirements previously +set forth, promises for many years to be one of the most profitable +and desirable enterprises which command the attention of the Filipino +planter. + +The greatest mine of horticultural wealth which is open to the shrewd +planter lies in the heaps of waste and neglected husks that he can +now procure from adjoining estates for the asking and cartage. + +With labor at 1 peso per diem and at the present price of potash and +phosphoric acid, all the husks in excess of 300 per diem which could +be hauled would be clear profit. The ashes of these, when burned and +applied to the old grove, would have an immediate and revivifying +influence. + +Many trees in an old plantation have ceased to bear. Whether this is +due to exhaustion from old age or from soil exhaustion is immaterial; +each should be eradicated and the time-honored custom of replanting +a fresh tree in its place abandoned. These renewals are difficult +enough in any fruit or nut orchard where the scientific cultural +conditions have been of the best. Renewals in a cocoanut grove, +unless the vacant space is abnormally large and can be subjected to +some years of soil improvement, are unprofitable. + +There is a wide range of opinion as to the bearing life of a cocoanut +tree. It is said to vary from thirty to one hundred and thirty +years. Grown more than forty, or possibly fifty years old, the writer +would hesitate to undertake the improvement or renewal of the grove. + +Palms, unlike exogenous trees, afford no evidence by which their +age may be determined. In general, with advanced years, come great +height and great attenuation. In the open, and where fully exposed +to atmospheric influences, these form an approximate criterion of +age. The so-called annular scars, marking the earlier attachments of +leaves, furnish no clue to age. + + + + + +NOTES + + +[1] "The Prince of Palms," Treloar. + +[2] The cocoanut palm has been reared as far north as Indian River, +Florida, latitude 28° N., but has not proven a profitable commercial +venture. + +[3] Quoted in "Watts's Dict.," II, 456. + +[4] Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 1902. + +[5] Throughout this paper the writer uses this word in preference to +"fertilizing" even when speaking of so-called "commercial fertilizers." + +[6] Farmers' Bulletin 114, United States Department of Agriculture. + +[7] Conn. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1897, Part II. + +[8] Ag. Bull. Fed. Malay States, February, 1903. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Cocoanut, by William S. 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+} +body, a.hidden +{ +color: black; +} +.titlePage +{ +color: #001FA4; +font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; +} +h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6, .pseudoh1, .pseudoh2, .pseudoh3, .pseudoh4 +{ +color: #001FA4; +font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; +} +p.byline +{ +font-style: italic; +margin-bottom: 2em; +} +.figureHead, .noteref, .pseudonoteref, .marginnote, p.legend, .versenum, .stage +{ +color: #001FA4; +} +.rightnote, .pagenum, .linenum, .pagenum a +{ +color: #AAAAAA; +} +a.hidden:hover, a.noteref:hover +{ +color: red; +} +p.dropcap:first-letter +{ +color: #001FA4; +font-weight: bold; +} +sub, sup +{ +line-height: 0; +} +.pagenum, .linenum +{ +speak: none; +} +</style> + +<style type="text/css"> +.xd20e84width +{ +width:461px; +} +.xd20e409width +{ +width:593px; +} +.xd20e443width +{ +width:321px; +} +.xd20e467width +{ +width:318px; +} +.xd20e608width +{ +width:670px; +} +.xd20e652width +{ +width:485px; +} +.xd20e715 +{ +margin:0px auto; display:table; +} +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Cocoanut, by William S. Lyon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Cocoanut + With reference to its products and cultivation in the Philippines + +Author: William S. Lyon + +Release Date: October 7, 2010 [EBook #33844] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COCOANUT *** + + + + +Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project +Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously +made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + +<div class="front"> +<div class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<p class="firstpar"></p> +<div class="figure xd20e84width"><img src="images/titlepage.png" alt= +"Original Title Page." width="461" height="720"></div> +</div> +<div class="titlePage"> +<div class="docImprint">Bureau of Agriculture.</div> +<div class="docTitle"> +<div class="seriesTitle">Farmer’s Bulletin No. 8.</div> +<div class="mainTitle">The Cocoanut</div> +<div class="subTitle">With Reference to Its Products and Cultivation in +the Philippines.</div> +</div> +<div class="byline">By<br> +<span class="docAuthor">William S. Lyon,</span><br> +In charge of Division of Plant Industry.</div> +<div class="docImprint">Manila:<br> +Bureau of Public Printing.<br> +<span class="docDate">1903.</span></div> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e115" href="#xd20e115" name= +"xd20e115">3</a>]</span></p> +<div id="toc" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Contents.</h2> +<ul> +<li> <span class="tocPagenum">Page.</span></li> +<li><a href="#transmittal">Letter of transmittal</a> + <span class="tocPagenum">4</span></li> +<li><a href="#intro">Introduction</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">5</span></li> +<li><a href="#history">History</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">5</span></li> +<li><a href="#botany">Botany</a> <span class= +"tocPagenum">6</span></li> +<li><a href="#uses">Uses</a> <span class= +"tocPagenum">6</span> +<ul> +<li><a href="#copra">Copra and cocoanut oil</a> + <span class="tocPagenum">6</span></li> +<li><a href="#coir">Coir</a> <span class= +"tocPagenum">10</span></li> +<li><a href="#tuba">Tuba</a> <span class= +"tocPagenum">12</span></li> +<li><a href="#minor">Minor uses</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">13</span></li> +</ul> +</li> +<li><a href="#cultivation">Cultivation</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">14</span> +<ul> +<li><a href="#location">Selection of location</a> + <span class="tocPagenum">14</span></li> +<li><a href="#soil">The soil</a> <span class= +"tocPagenum">16</span></li> +<li><a href="#seed">Seed selection</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">17</span></li> +<li><a href="#planting">Planting</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">18</span></li> +<li><a href="#manuring">Manuring</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">21</span></li> +<li><a href="#irrigation">Irrigation</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">27</span></li> +</ul> +</li> +<li><a href="#harvest">Harvest</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">28</span></li> +<li><a href="#enemies">Enemies</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">28</span></li> +<li><a href="#remedies">Remedies</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">29</span></li> +<li><a href="#renovation">Renovation of old groves</a> + <span class="tocPagenum">30</span></li> +<li><a href="#conclusion">Conclusion</a> +<span class="tocPagenum">30</span></li> +</ul> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e265" href="#xd20e265" name= +"xd20e265">4</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div id="transmittal" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Letter of Transmittal.</h2> +<p class="firstpar salute"><span class="sc">Bureau of +Agriculture</span>,</p> +<p class="dateline"><i>Manila, June 1, 1903</i>.</p> +<p><span class="sc">Sir</span>: In responding to numerous inquiries +about the cocoanut, its uses, cultivation, and preparation for market, +I have prepared, by your direction, the accompanying bulletin, which is +intended to cover the general field of the inquiries addressed to this +Bureau, and herewith submit the same, with the recommendation that it +be published as Farmers’ Bulletin No. 8.</p> +<p class="salute">Respectfully,</p> +<p class="signed"><span class="sc">Wm. S. Lyon</span>,</p> +<p class="signed"><i>In Charge of Division of Plant Industry</i>.</p> +<p class="signed">To Hon. <span class="sc">F. +Lamson-Scribner</span>,</p> +<p class="signed"><i>Chief Bureau of Agriculture, Manila</i>. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e300" href="#xd20e300" name= +"xd20e300">5</a>]</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="body"> +<div id="intro" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="super">The Cocoanut.</h2> +<h2 class="main">Introduction.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">The following pages are written chiefly in the +interests of the planter, but the writer feels that the great +agricultural importance which the cocoanut palm is bound to assume in +these Islands is sufficient to justify the presentation of some of its +history and botany.</p> +<p>For that part of the bulletin which touches upon the botany of the +cocoanut I am indebted to Don Regino Garcia, associate botanist of the +Forestry Bureau; for that relating to its products and local uses, to +the courtesy of manufacturers in Laguna; and, for the rest, to personal +experience and observations made in Laguna Province and in the southern +Visayan Islands where, as elsewhere in this Archipelago, the cocoanut +may properly be considered a spontaneous and not a cultivated +product.</p> +</div> +<div id="history" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">History.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">The legendary history of the “Prince of +Palms,”<a class="noteref" id="xd20e316src" href="#xd20e316" name= +"xd20e316src">1</a> as it has been called, dates back to a period when +the Christian era was young, and its history is developing day by day +in some new and striking manifestation of its utility or beauty. It +seems not unreasonable to assume that much of the earlier traditionary +history of the cocoanut may have been inspired as much by its inherent +beauty as by its uses. Such traditional proverbs Or folklore as I have +gathered in the Visayas recognize the influence of the beautiful, in so +far as the blessings of the trees only inure to the good; for instance, +“He who is cruel to his beast or his family will only harvest +barren husks from the reproving trees that witness the pusillanimous +act;” and, again, “He who grinds the poor will only grind +water instead of fat oil from the meat.”</p> +<p>To this day the origin of the cocoanut is unknown. De Candolle +(Origin of Cult. Plants, p. 574) recites twelve specific claims +pointing to an Asiatic origin, and a single, but from a scientific +standpoint almost unanswerable, contention for an American derivation. +None of the remaining nineteen species of the genus Cocos are known to +exist elsewhere in the world than on the American continent. His review +of the story results in the nature of a compromise, assigning to our +own Islands and those to the south and west of us the distinction of +having first given birth to the cocoanut, and that thence it was +disseminated east and west by ocean currents. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e321" href="#xd20e321" name= +"xd20e321">6</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e316" href="#xd20e316src" name="xd20e316">1</a></span> “The +Prince of Palms,” Treloar.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="botany" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Botany.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">The cocoanut (<i>Cocos nucifera</i> Linn.) is the +sole oriental representative of a tropical genus comprising nineteen +species, restricted, with this single exception, to the New World.</p> +<p>Its geographical distribution is closely confined to the two +Tropics.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e332src" href="#xd20e332" name= +"xd20e332src">1</a></p> +<p>Not less than nineteen <span class="corr" id="xd20e337" title= +"Source: variesties">varieties</span> of <i>C. nucifera</i> are +described by Miquel and Rumphius, and all are accepted by Filipino +authors.</p> +<p>Whether all of these varieties are constant enough to deserve +recognition need not be considered here. Many are characterized by the +fruits being distinctly globular, others by fruits of a much prolonged +oval form, still others by having <span class="corr" id="xd20e345" +title="Source: the the">the</span> lower end of the fruit terminating +in a triangular point.</p> +<p>In the Visayas there is a variety in which the fibrous outer husk of +the nut is sweet and watery, instead of dry and astringent, and is +chewed by the natives like sugar cane. Another variety occurs in Luzon, +known as “Pamocol,” the fruit of which seldom exceeds 20 +cm. in diameter. There is also a dwarf variety of the palm, which +rarely exceeds 3 meters in height, and is known to the Tagalogs as +“Adiavan.”</p> +<p>These different varieties are strongly marked, and maintain their +characters when reproduced from seed.</p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e332" href="#xd20e332src" name="xd20e332">1</a></span> The +cocoanut palm has been reared as far north as Indian River, Florida, +latitude 28° N., but has not proven a profitable commercial +venture.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="uses" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Uses.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">The cocoanut furnishes two distinct commercial +products—the dried meat of the nut, or copra, and the outer +fibrous husk. These products are so dissimilar that they should be +considered separately.</p> +<div class="div2" id="copra"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Copra and Cocoanut Oil.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">Until very recent years the demand for the +“meat” of the cocoanut or its products was limited to the +uses of soap boilers and confectioners. Probably there is no other +plant in the vegetable kingdom which serves so many and so varied +purposes in the domestic economy of the peoples in whose countries it +grows. Within the past decade chemical science has produced from the +cocoanut a series of food products whose manufacture has revolutionized +industry and placed the business of the manufacturer and of the +producer upon a plane of prosperity never before enjoyed.</p> +<p>There has also been a great advance in the processes by which the +new oil derivatives are manufactured. The United States took the +initiative with the first recorded commercial factories in 1895. In +1897 the Germans established factories in Mannheim, but it remained for +the French people to bring the industry to its present perfection. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e364" href="#xd20e364" name= +"xd20e364">7</a>]</span></p> +<p>According to the latest reports of the American consul at +Marseilles, the conversion of cocoanut oil into dietetic compounds was +undertaken in that city in 1900, by Messrs. Rocca, Tassy and de Roux, +who in that year turned out an average of 25 tons per month. During the +year just closed (1902) their average monthly output exceeded 6,000 +tons and, in addition to this, four or five other large factories were +all working together to meet the world’s demand for +“vegetaline,” “cocoaline,” or other products +with suggestive names, belonging to this infant industry.</p> +<p>These articles are sold at gross price of 18 to 20 cents per kilo to +thrifty Hollandish and Danish merchants, who, at the added cost of a +cent or two, repack them in tins branded “Dairy Butter” +and, as such, ship them <span class="corr" id="xd20e372" title= +"Not in source">to</span> all parts of the civilized world. It was +necessary to disguise the earlier products by subjecting them to +trituration with milk or cream; but so perfect is the present emulsion +that the plain and unadulterated fats now find as ready a market as +butter. These “butters” have so far found their readiest +sale in the Tropics.</p> +<p>The significance of these great discoveries to the cocoanut planter +can not be overestimated, for to none of these purely vegetable fats do +the prejudices attach that so long and seriously have handicapped those +derived from animal margarin or margarin in combination with stearic +acid, while the low fusion point of pure dairy butters necessarily +prohibits their use in the Tropics, outside of points equipped with +refrigerating plants. The field, therefore, is practically without +competition, and the question will no longer be that of finding a +market, but of procuring the millions of tons of copra or oil that this +one industry will annually absorb in the immediate future.</p> +<p>Cocoanut oil was once used extensively in the manufacture of fine +candles, and is still occasionally in demand for this purpose in the +Philippines, in combination with the vegetable tallow of a species of +<i>Stillingia</i>. It is largely consumed in lamps, made of a tumbler +or drinking glass half filled with water, on top of which float a few +spoonfuls of oil, into which the wick is plunged. In remote barrios it +is still in general use as a street illuminant, and so perfect is its +combustion that under a constant flicker it emits little or no +smoke.</p> +<p>When freshly expressed, the oil is an exceptionally good cooking +fat, and enters largely into the dietary of our own people. The +medicinal uses of the oil are various, and in the past it has been +strongly advocated for the cure of eczema, burns, as a vermifuge, and +even as a substitute for cod-liver oil in phthisis. Its medicinal +virtues are now generally discredited, except as a restorative agent in +the loss of hair resulting from debilitating fevers. Its value in this +direction may be surmised from the splendid heads of hair possessed by +the Filipino women, who generally use the oil as a hair dressing.</p> +<p>Cocoanut oil is derived from the fleshy albumen or meat of the ripe +fruit, either fresh or dried. The thoroughly dried meat is variously +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e386" href="#xd20e386" name= +"xd20e386">8</a>]</span>known as <i>copra</i>, <i>coprax</i>, and +<i>copraz</i>. The exportation of copra is detrimental to the best +interests of the planter, tending to enrich the manufacturer and +impoverish the grower. The practice, however, is so firmly established +that the writer can only record a probably futile protest against its +continuance.</p> +<p>The causes which for a long time will favor the exportation of copra +instead of oil in this Archipelago may be briefly stated as +follows:</p> +<p>(1) An oil-milling plant, constructed with due regard to economy of +labor and the production of the best quality of oil, would involve an +outlay of capital of $2,500, gold, and upward, according to capacity. +The production of copra requires the labor of the planter’s hands +only.</p> +<p>(2) The oil packages must be well-made barrels, casks, or metallic +receptacles. The initial cost of the packages is consequently great, +their return from distant ports impracticable, and their sale value in +the market of delivery is not sufficient to offset the capital locked +up in an unproductive form. On the other hand, copra may be sold or +shipped in boxes, bags, sacks, and bales, or it may even be stored in +bulk in the ship’s hold.</p> +<p>(3) When land transportation has to be considered, the lack of good +roads still further impedes the oil maker. He can not change the size +and weight of his packages from day to day to meet the varying +passability of the trail. On the other hand, packages of copra may be +adjusted to meet all emergencies, and the planter can thus take +advantage of the market conditions which may be denied to the oil +maker.</p> +<p>(4) Perhaps the most serious difficulty the oil maker has to contend +with is the continuous discouragement he encounters from the agent of +foreign factories, who buys in the open market and, bidding up to +nearly the full oil value of the copra, finds an ample +manufacturer’s profit paid by the press cake, so valuable abroad, +but, unfortunately, practically without sale or value here. The residue +from the mill may be utilized both for food and for manure by the oil +maker who is a tree owner and who maintains cattle. For either of these +purposes its value rates closely up to cotton-seed cake, and the time +is not remote when it will be recognized in the Philippines as far too +valuable a product to be permitted to be removed from the farm +excepting at a price which will permit of the purchase at a less figure +of an equivalent in manure. So active are the copra-buying agents in +controlling this important branch of the industry, that they refuse to +buy the press cake at any price, with the result that, in two instances +known to the writer, they have forced the closure of oil-milling plants +and driven the oil maker back to his copra.</p> +<div class="figure xd20e409width"><img src="images/p008.jpg" alt= +"A young cocoanut tree." width="593" height="715"> +<p class="figureHead">A young cocoanut tree.</p> +</div> +<p>Many copra-making plants in India and Ceylon are now supplied with +decorticating, breaking, and evaporating machinery. The process +employed in this Archipelago consists in first stripping the ripe fruit +of the outer fibrous husk. This is effected by means of a stout, steel +spearhead, whose shaft or shank is embedded firmly in the soil to such +a depth <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e415" href="#xd20e415" name= +"xd20e415">11</a>]</span>that the spear point projects above the ground +rather less than waist high. The operator then holds the nut in his +hands and strikes it upon the spear point, gives it a downward, rotary +twist, and thus, with apparent ease, quickly removes the husk. An +average operator will husk 1,000 nuts per day, and records have been +made of a clean up of as many as 3,000 per day. The work, however, is +exceedingly hard, and involves great dexterity and wrist strength.</p> +<p>Another man now takes up the nut and with a bolo strikes it a smart +blow in the middle, dividing it into two almost equal parts. These +parts are spread out and exposed to the sun for a few hours, or such +time as may be necessary to cause the fleshy albumen to contract and +shrink away from the hard outer shell, so that the meat may be easily +detached with the fingers.</p> +<p>Weather permitting, the meat thus secured is sun dried for a day and +then subjected to the heat of a slow fire for several hours. In some +countries this drying is now effected by hot-air driers, and a very +white and valuable product secured; but in the Philippines the +universal practice is to spread out the copra upon what may be called a +bamboo grill, over a smoky fire made of the shells and husks, just +sufficient heat being maintained not to set fire to the bamboo. The +halves, when dried, are broken by hand into still smaller irregular +fragments, and subjected to one or two days of sun bath. By this time +the moisture has been so thoroughly expelled that the copra is now +ready to be sacked or baled and stored away for shipment or use.</p> +<p>All modern cocoanut-oil mills are supplied with a decorticator armed +with revolving discs that tear or cut through the husk longitudinally, +freeing the nut from its outer covering and leaving the latter in the +best possible condition for the subsequent extraction of its fiber. +This decorticator is fed from a hopper and is made of a size and +capacity to husk from 500 to 1,000 nuts per hour.</p> +<p>Rasping and grinding machinery of many patterns and makes, for +reducing the meat to a pulp, is used in India, Ceylon, and China; and, +although far more expeditious, offers no improvements, so far as +concerns the condition to which the meats are reduced, over the methods +followed in the Philippines. Here the fleshy halves of the meat are +held by hand against a rapidly revolving, half-spherical knife blade +which scrapes and shaves the flesh down to a fine degree of +comminution. The resulting mass is then macerated in a little water and +placed in bags and subjected to pressure, and the milky juice which +flows therefrom is collected in receivers placed below. This is now +drawn off into boilers and cooked until the clear oil is concentrated +upon the surface. The oil is then skimmed off and is ready for +market.</p> +<p>The process outlined above is very wasteful<span class="corr" id= +"xd20e427" title="Not in source">.</span> The processes I have seen in +operation are very inadequate, and I estimate that, not less than 10 +per <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e430" href="#xd20e430" name= +"xd20e430">12</a>]</span>cent of the oil goes to loss in the press +cake. This is a loss that does not occur in establishments equipped +with the best hydraulic presses. It is true that very heavy pressure +carries through much coloring matter not withdrawn by the primitive +native mill, and that the oil is consequently darker, and sooner +undergoes decomposition; but modern mills are now supplied with +filtration plants through which this objection is practically +overcome.</p> +<p>The principles of the above process are daily reproduced in +thousands of Filipino homes, where the hand rasping of the nut, the +expression of the milky juice through coarse cloth, its subsequent +boiling down in an open pan, and the final skimming off of the oil are +in <span class="corr" id="xd20e434" title="Source: comon">common</span> +practice. Notwithstanding the cheapness of labor, it is only by +employing a mill well equipped with decorticating, rasping, hydraulic +crushing, and steam-boiling machinery, and with facilities to convert +the residue to feeding or other uses, that one may hopefully enter the +field of oil manufacture in these Islands in competition with copra +buyers.</p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="coir"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Coir.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">The fiber of the cocoanut husk, or coir, as it is +commercially known, has never yet been utilized in this Archipelago, +excepting occasionally for local consumption.</p> +<div class="figure xd20e443width" id="p010"><img src="images/p010.jpg" +alt="Fig. 1.—Cocoanut husk-crushing mill." width="321" height= +"254"> +<p class="figureHead"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>—Cocoanut +husk-crushing mill.</p> +</div> +<p>Second in value only to the copra, this product has been allowed to +go to waste. The rejected husks are thrown together in immense heaps, +which are finally burned and the ashes, exceedingly rich in potash and +phosphoric acid, are left to blow away.</p> +<p>As the commercial value of the fiber is greater than the manurial +value of the salts therein, it is economy to utilize the fiber and +purchase potash and phosphoric acid when needed to enrich the soil.</p> +<p>Highly improved and inexpensive power machinery for the complete and +easy extraction of the fibers of the husk, either wet or dry, is now +rapidly superseding the tedious hand process once in such general use. +Good <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e455" href="#xd20e455" name= +"xd20e455">13</a>]</span>patterns of machinery are shown in the +“husk-crushing mill<span class="corr" id="xd20e457" title= +"Not in source">”</span> (<a href="#p010">fig. 1</a>) and in the +“fiber extractor” (<a href="#p011">fig. 2</a>). The first +breaks, crushes, and flattens out the husks by means of powerful, +fluted metal rollers and, in the second the broken husks are fed over a +revolving drum set with teeth especially devised for tearing out the +fiber from the entire mass. Finally, it is fed into one of the many +forms of “willowing” machines, which reduces the mass to +clean fiber, which is now ready for grading, baling, and shipment. The +residual dust and waste from this operation may be used as an absorbent +for liquid manures, and ultimately returned to the plantation. The +yield of fiber varies from 12 to 25 quintals of coir and 4 to 7 +quintals of brush fiber per 10,000 average husks. In the Philippines +the nuts yield a large amount of fiber and a relatively small +percentage of chaff and dust. With improved machinery and careful +handling, 18 quintals of spinning coir and 5 quintals of bristle fiber +from every 10,000 husks is a fair estimate of the product.</p> +<div class="figure xd20e467width" id="p011"><img src="images/p011.jpg" +alt="Fig. 2.—Cocoanut fiber-extracting machine." width="318" +height="301"> +<p class="figureHead"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>—Cocoanut +fiber-extracting machine.</p> +</div> +<p>As the cost of manufacture is generally rated at one-half the +selling price, and as we must add a further charge of 20 per cent to +cover freight and commission, we have resulting from the sale of the 23 +quintals, or 2,300 kilos, at £16 per English ton, a balance of +£11 11s. per hectare.</p> +<p>But there are other considerations which should not be overlooked. +The husks of 10,000 cocoanuts will withdraw from the land 61.5 kilos of +potash and 3 kilos of phosphoric acid, and the restoration of the full +amount is called for to compensate for the growing wants of the tree, +in addition to that withdrawn by the crop. The necessary fertilizers +are worth, approximately, 5½d. per kilo, making a further +reduction of £1 8s. and leaving as a net profit £10 3s., +or, reduced to American money, nearly $50, gold, per hectare.</p> +<p>The machines above referred to will cost $800, gold, and $1,200 +additional will purchase and house the power necessary to operate them. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e479" href="#xd20e479" name= +"xd20e479">14</a>]</span>Such a plant will work up 1,000 nuts a day, +and handle in a year the output of a grove of 30 hectares. With the +addition of two or more fiber extractors the capacity of the plant may +be doubled without material expense, and it should rather more than pay +its entire cost in one year.</p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="tuba"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Tuba.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">Tuba is the fresh or mildly fermented sap drawn +from the inflorescence of the cocoanut.</p> +<p>There are no figures or data of any kind available as a basis for an +estimate as to the importance of this product, but its extent may be +inferred from the fact that the outlying groves about Cebu, Iloilo, and +the larger Visayan towns are practically devoted to the production of +tuba, and not to the manufacture of copra.</p> +<p>Tuba is collected from the unexpanded blossoms as soon as they have +fairly pushed through the subtending bracts. To prevent any lateral +expansion, the flowers are tied with strips of the green leaf blade and +then, with a sharp knife, an inch or two of the extreme tip is removed. +The whole flower cluster is now gently pulled forward until it arches +downward. In a day or two the sap begins to drip and is then caught in +a short joint of bamboo, properly secured for the purpose.</p> +<p>As a healthy tree <span class="corr" id="xd20e492" title= +"Source: developes">develops</span> at least one or more flowering +racemes every month, and the flow of sap extends frequently over a +period of two or more months, it is not uncommon <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e495" title="Not in source">to</span> see a number of tubes in use +upon one tree.</p> +<p>The workmen usually visits the tree twice daily to collect +<span class="corr" id="xd20e500" title="Source: the the">the</span> +liquor drawn during the preceding twelve hours in the larger tube, +which he carries upon his back. He slices daily a thin shaving from the +tip of the flower, in order that the wound may be kept open and +bleeding. This process is kept up until nearly all of the flower +cluster has been cut away, or until the sap ceases to flow.</p> +<p>More than a liter a day is sometimes drawn from one tree, and 5 +hectoliters is considered a fair annual average from a good bearing +tree.</p> +<p>In its fresh state tuba has a sweetish, slightly astringent taste; +but, as the vessels in which it is collected are rarely cleansed, they +become traps for many varieties of insects, etc., and it is, therefore, +not a very acceptable beverage to a delicate stomach. When purified by +a mild fermentation it is far more palatable.</p> +<p>A secondary fermentation of tuba results in vinegar, and on this +account, chiefly, so much space has been devoted to this feature of the +industry. The vinegar so produced is of good strength and color, of the +highest keeping qualities, and of unrivaled flavor. Its excellence is +so pronounced that upon its inherent merits it would readily find sale +in the world’s markets; and, although the local demand for the +tuba now exceeds the production, its conversion into vinegar will +probably prove the more profitable industry in the future. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e509" href="#xd20e509" name= +"xd20e509">15</a>]</span></p> +<p>Spirits are distilled and in some places sugar is still made from +the flower sap; and, while the importance of these great staples may +not be overlooked, their commercial value as products of this tree are +relatively insignificant.</p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="minor"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Minor Uses.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">In addition to eighty-three utilities described by +Mr. Pereira,<a class="noteref" id="xd20e517src" href="#xd20e517" name= +"xd20e517src">1</a> it is in very common use in the Philippines +for:</p> +<p>1. Cocoanut cream. The freshly ground fruit, reduced to a pulp and +strained, is consumed in that form or made into cakes with rice. It +makes a delicious and nutritious food. According to Dr. W. J. Gies, in +experiments lately published,<a class="noteref" id="xd20e522src" href= +"#xd20e522" name="xd20e522src">2</a> its nutritive value is due to 35.4 +per cent of oil, about 10 per cent of carbohydrates, and 3 per cent of +protein. The amount of cellulose (fibrous matter) is only 3 per cent, +and its digestibility is easy when the mass, by grating, is reduced to +a fine degree of comminution.</p> +<p>2. The “milk” or water is used sparingly as a beverage. +It is also fermented and converted into inferior vinegar.</p> +<p>3. The hard shell is used as fuel. When calcined, it produces a +black, lustrous substance, used for dyeing leather.</p> +<p>4. The same shell, aside from many uses quoted by Pereira, is used +here for every conceivable form of cup, ladle, scoop, and spoon.</p> +<p>5. From the tough midrib of the leaf, strong and beautiful baskets +of many designs are made, also excellent and durable brooms, and from +the part where the midrib coalesces with the petiole pot-cleaning +brushes are made.</p> +<p>6. The roots are sometimes used for chewing, as a substitute for +Areca. They also furnish red dyestuff and with one end finely +subdivided may be used in making toothbrushes.</p> +<p>7. The leaves and midribs, when burned, furnish an ash so rich in +potash that it may be used alone in water as a substitute for soap or +when a powerful detergent is required.</p> +<p>8. The fiber of the husk is used extensively by the natives for +calking boats.</p> +<p>9. The milk is used in the preparation of a native dish of rice, +known as “casi.” It is an excellent and highly prized +dietary article, prepared with rice or in combination with chicken or +locusts.</p> +<p>10. The oil, melted with resins, is an effective and lasting +covering for anything desired to be protected from the ravages of white +ants.</p> +<p>11. The timber is used to bridge streams and bog holes, and the +slowly decaying leaves to fill them up and render them temporarily +passable.</p> +<p>12. The fiber is used in cordage and rope making, but to a far less +extent here than in India. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e548" +href="#xd20e548" name="xd20e548">16</a>]</span></p> +<p>Its further uses are, in general, those current in the Orient. +Briefly summed up, its timber is employed in every form of house +construction; its foliage in making mats, sacks, and thatches; its +fruit in curry and sweetmeats; its oil for medicine, cookery, and +illumination; its various juices in the manufacture of wines, spirits, +sugar, and vinegar; while not to overlook a final and not +inconsiderable Filipino product, the splinters of the midrib are used +in making toothpicks.</p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e517" href="#xd20e517src" name="xd20e517">1</a></span> Quoted in +“Watts’s Dict.,” II, 456.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e522" href="#xd20e522src" name="xd20e522">2</a></span> Bull. Torr. +Bot. Club, 1902.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="cultivation" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Cultivation.</h2> +<div class="div2" id="location"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Selection of Location.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">In the selection of a site for a cocoanut grove it +is best to select land near the seashore and not extending inland more +than 2 or 3 miles. Within this narrow zone there is commonly a deposit +of rich, permeable, well-drained alluvium offering soil conditions of +far greater importance to successful tree growth than the mere exposure +to marine influences. The success that has followed cocoanut growing in +Cochin China, remote from the seaboard, in Annam and up the Ganges +basin one hundred or more miles from the coast, and in our own interior +Province of Laguna, definitely proves that immediate contiguity to the +sea is not essential to success.</p> +<p>That the cocoanut will grow and thrive upon the immediate seashore, +in common with other plants, is simply an indication of its +<span class="corr" id="xd20e561" title= +"Source: adaptibility">adaptability</span> to environment. That it is +at a positive disadvantage as a shore plant may be determined +conclusively by anyone who will examine the root system of a +seashore-grown tree upturned by a wash or tidal wave, and one uprooted +from any cause, farther inland. It will be seen that the root system of +the maritime plant is immensely larger than the other, and that a +corresponding amount of energy has been expended in the search through +much inert material to forage for the necessary plant food which the +more favored inland species has found concentrated within a smaller +zone.</p> +<p>The planting <i>must</i> be made in a thoroughly permeable soil.</p> +<p>The thick, fleshy roots of the newly upturned palm are loaded with +water, and tell us that an inexhaustible store of this fluid is an +indispensable element of success. If further evidence of this were +required, the testimony of drooping leaves and of crops shrunken from +one-half to two-thirds, throughout the cocoanut districts and upon our +own orchard in Mindanao, as the result of drought, confirm it and +bespeak the necessity of copious water at all times.</p> +<p>The living tree upon the sea sands further emphasizes this +necessity; for, while its roots are lapped by the tides, it never flags +<span class="corr" id="xd20e573" title="Source: or or">or</span> wilts, +and from this we may gather the added value of a site which can be +irrigated. The careful observer will note that along miles of sea +beach, among hundreds of trees whose roots are either in actual contact +with the incoming <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e576" href= +"#xd20e576" name="xd20e576">17</a>]</span>waves, or subjected to the +subterranean influence of the sea, there will never be so much as one +tree growing in any beach basin which collects and holds tidal water +for even a brief time; and that, notwithstanding the large number of +nuts that must have found lodgment and favorable germinating influence +in such places, none succeed in growing. From this we may derive the +assurance that the desired water must be in motion and that land near +stagnant water, or marsh land, is unsuitable to the plant.</p> +<p>It may frequently be observed that trees will be found growing +fairly thriftily upon mounds or hummocks, in places invaded by flood or +other waters which, by reason of backing or damming up, have become +stagnant. An examination of the roots of an overthrown tree in such a +locality will show that all of those in the submerged zone have +perished and rotted away, but that such is the vitality and +recuperative energy of the tree that it has thrown out a new feeding +system in the dryer soil of the mound immediately surrounding the stem, +which has been sufficient to successfully carry on the functions of +nutrition, but altogether ineffective to anchor the tree securely, or +to prevent its prostration before the first heavy gale.</p> +<p>While this phase of the question will receive more attention when we +come to consider the chemistry of suitable manures, it may be said +that, although analysis of the cocoanut ash derived from beach-grown +nuts shows a larger percentage of those salts that abound in sea water +than those grown inland, yet the equal vigor, vitality, and +fruitfulness of the latter simply confirm the plant’s exceptional +adaptability to environment and ability to take up and decompose, +without detriment, the salts of sea or brackish waters. As a victim to +the maritime idea, the writer in 1886 planted, far inland, several +hundred nuts in beds especially devised to reproduce littoral +conditions; shore gravel, sea sand, broken shells, and salt derived +from sea water being used in preparing the seed beds. The starting +growth was unexcelled. Then came a long period of yellowing decline and +almost suspended animation, ultimately followed by a complete +restoration to health and vigor. The early excellent growth was due to +the fact that the first nourishment of the plant is entirely derived +from the endosperm, and careful lifting of the young plants disclosed +the fact that recovery from their moribund condition was, in every +instance, coincident with the time that the roots first succeeded in +working through the unpalatable mess about them into the outlying good, +sweet soil.</p> +<p>The exposure of the plantation is an important consideration, and a +maritime site should be selected in preference to one far inland, +unless it be on an open, unprotected flat, exposed to the influence of +every breeze or the fiercest gales that blow.</p> +<p>The structure of the cocoanut seems well fitted to endure winds of +almost any force, and that a remarkably abundant and strong circulation +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e586" href="#xd20e586" name= +"xd20e586">18</a>]</span>of air is essential to its best development is +well shown by comparing a tree subjected to it with the wretched, +spindling specimen growing in a sheltered glen or ravine.</p> +<p>Strong confirmation of this may be found within the artificial +environment of a plant conservatory, where it is feasible to reproduce, +in the minute detail of soil, water, temperature, and humidity, every +essential to its welfare except a good, strong breeze. As a +consequence, the palm languishes and it has long been deemed, on this +account, one of the most rebellious subjects introduced into palm-house +cultivation.</p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="soil"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">The Soil.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">The soils for cocoanut growing are best selected by +the process of exclusion. The study of the root development of the palm +will prove to be an unerring guide to proper soil selection.</p> +<p>The roots of monocotyledons, to which great division this palm +belongs, are devoid of the well-defined descending axis, which is +possessed by most tree plants, and is often so strongly developed as to +permit of rock cleavage and the withdrawal of food supplies from great +depths.</p> +<p>The cocoanut has no such provision for its support. Its subterranean +parts are simply a mat-like expanse of thick, fleshy, worm-like +growths, devoid of any feeders other than those provided at the extreme +tips of the relatively few roots. These roots are fleshy (not fibrous) +and can not thrive in any soil through which they may not grow freely +in search of sustenance. It then becomes obvious that stiff, tenacious, +or waxy soils, however rich, are wholly unsuitable. All very heavy +lands, or those that break up into solid, impervious lumps, and, +lastly, any land underlaid near the surface with bed rocks or +impervious clays or conglomerates, are naturally excluded. All other +soils, susceptible of proper drainage, may be considered appropriate to +the growth of the palm. Spons (Encyclop.) advocates light, sandy soils. +Simmonds (Trop. Agric.) names nine different varieties suitable for +this purpose, describing each at tedious length, and laying more or +less emphasis upon a sandy mixture. These might all have been covered +by the single word “permeable.”</p> +<p>As a matter of fact every grain of sand in excess of that required +to secure a condition of perfect permeability is a positive +disadvantage and must be paid for by a correspondingly larger area of +cultivation and by future soil amendment. For the rest, the richer and +deeper the soil the less the expense of maintaining soil fertility.</p> +<p>The preparatory work of establishing an orchard is light, provided +the location is not one demanding the opening of drainage canals, and +on lands of good porosity it involves neither subsoiling nor a deeper +plowing than to effectually cover the sod or any minor weed growths +with which it may be covered.</p> +<p>It has long been the reprehensible practice of cocoanut growers to +merely dig pits, manure them, set the plants therein, and permit the +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e605" href="#xd20e605" name= +"xd20e605">21</a>]</span>intervening lands (except immediately about +the trees) to run to weeds or jungle.</p> +<div class="figure xd20e608width"><img src="images/p017.jpg" alt= +"A group of sprouted nuts." width="670" height="541"> +<p class="figureHead">A group of sprouted nuts.</p> +</div> +<p>In the Philippines the native planter has not yet progressed beyond +the pit stage, nor do his subsequent cultural activities include more +than the occasional “boloing” of such weeds as threaten to +choke and exterminate the young plants.</p> +<p>Fortunately it will not be long till the force and influence of +example are sure to be felt by our own planters. The progressive German +colonist of Kamerun, German East Africa, and the South Pacific Islands, +as well as the French in Congo and Madagascar, are vigorously +practicing conventional, modern orchard methods in the treatment of +their cocoanut groves, and it is amazing to read of discussions between +Ceylon and Indian nut growers as to the best method of tethering cattle +upon cocoanut palms in pasture, so as to obtain the most benefit from +their excreta.</p> +<p>With an intelligent study of the plant and its characteristics it is +believed that our native planter may put into practical use the +knowledge that the veteran Indian planter has in fifty years failed to +learn or utilize. He will learn that in time the entire superficies of +his orchard will be required by the wide-spreading, surface-feeding +roots of the trees, and that pasture crops of any kind, grown for any +purpose other than soiling or for green manuring, are prejudicial to +future success. He will know that the initial preparation of all of his +orchard and its continuous maintenance in good cultivation are +essential not only to the future welfare of his trees but as a +necessary means in connection with a judicious intermediate crop +rotation.</p> +<p>Hence the preparatory requirements may be summed up as such +preliminary soil breaking as would be required for a corn crop in +similar lands, succeeded by such superficial plowings and cultivations +as would be required to raise a cotton or any other of the so-called +hoed crops.</p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="seed"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Seed Selection.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">Preliminary to planting the very important question +of <i>seed selection</i> calls for close scrutiny on the +planter’s part.</p> +<p>The small native planter is often familiar with the individual +characteristics of his trees. Owners of small estates in Cuyos and +about Zamboanga have pointed out to me trees that have the constant +fruiting habit confirmed, others that will fruit erratically, and +others that flower yet rarely bear fruit. The fruitfulness of the first +class is undoubtedly a result of accidental heredity, for the planter +has in the past made no selection except by chance, nor is the +characteristic in any way due to his cultural system, which consists in +planting the nut and letting nature and heredity do the rest. One tree +in Zamboanga, the owner assured me, had never produced less than 200 +nuts annually for fully twenty-three years. Asked as to the bearing of +all of his trees (of which he owned <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e631" href="#xd20e631" name="xd20e631">22</a>]</span>some three +hundred), he stated that from the lot he averaged 20 nuts at a picking, +five times a year, a total of 100 nuts; that the crop of these was very +fluctuating, some years falling to 60 nuts, again running as high as +130. The especially prized tree did not vary appreciably. In very dry +seasons the nuts shrunk somewhat in size and the copra in weight, but +the yield of nuts never fell below 200, and only once had amounted to +220. He had raised a great number of seedlings, but it had never +occurred to him to select for planting the nuts from that particular +tree.</p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="planting"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Planting.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">We have pointed out the necessity of selecting seed +trees of known good bearing habits, and equal care should be exercised +in selecting those the nuts of which are well formed and uniform. This +precaution will suggest itself when one observes that some trees have +the habit of producing a few very large nuts and many of very small and +irregular size and shape, and it is obviously to the planter’s +interest to lend no assistance to the propagation and transmission of +such traits. In view of what has been previously stated, it is almost +superfluous earnestly to recommend planters to sow no seeds from young +trees. The principle for this contention—that no seed should be +selected except from trees of established, well-known fruiting +habits—would seem to cover the ground effectually.</p> +<p>The best seed should be selected and picked when perfectly mature +and lowered to the ground. The fall from a lofty tree not infrequently +cracks the inner shell, without giving any external evidence of the +injury. A seed so injured will never sprout and therefore is worthless +for seed purposes.</p> +<p>Freshly collected seed nuts contain in the husk more moisture than +is required to effect germination, and if planted in this condition, +decay is apt to set in before germination occurs. To avoid this the +natives tie them in pairs, sling them over bamboo poles where they are +exposed to the air but sheltered from the sun, and leave them until +well sprouted. It is, however, more expeditious to pile the nuts up in +small heaps of eight to ten nuts, in partial shade, where the surface +nuts may be sprinkled occasionally to prevent complete drying out.</p> +<p>Germination is very erratic, sometimes occurring within a month and +sometimes extending over four, five, or more months. When the young +shoot or plumule (see illustration) has fairly thrust its way through +the fibrous husk it is a good practice to go over the heaps and +segregate those that have sprouted, carefully placing them so that the +growing tip be not deformed or distorted by the pressure of +superincumbent nuts. When these sprouts are 30 to 50 cm. high, and a +few roots have thrust through the husk, <i>they are in the best +possible condition for permanent planting</i>.</p> +<p>First. The original preparation of the land should be good and the +surface tilth at the time of planting irreproachable; i. e., free from +weeds <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e649" href="#xd20e649" name= +"xd20e649">24</a>]</span>and so mellow that the soil can be closely and +properly pressed around the roots by hand.</p> +<div class="figure xd20e652width"><img src="images/p019.jpg" alt= +"Fig 3.—Germination of cocoanut." width="485" height="720"> +<p class="figureHead"><span class="sc">Fig 3</span>.—Germination +of cocoanut.</p> +</div> +<p>Second. The orchard should be securely protected from the invasion +of cattle, etc. It is sometimes impossible to protect orchards against +entry of these animals. If the success of these precautions can not be +assured, then the nuts had better be grown in a closely protected +nursery until about a year old, when the albumen of the seed will be +completely assimilated and will therefore no longer attract vermin, and +when the larger size of the plant will give it more protection from +stray cattle.</p> +<p>In either case planting should be made concurrently with the opening +of the rainy monsoon, during which season further field operations will +not be required except when an intermittent, drier period indicates the +advisability of running the cultivator.</p> +<p>The planting “pit” fetish, in such common use in India, +has nothing to commend it. If stable manures of any kind are available, +a good application at the time of planting will effect wonders in +accelerating the growth of the young plants.</p> +<p>Where the necessary protection is assured, the young seedling +planted out as above recommended should start at once, without check of +any kind, into vigorous growth.</p> +<p>The nursery-grown subject receives an unavoidable setback. Its roots +have been more or less mutilated and, as we may not prune the top +sufficiently to compensate for the root injury, it is generally several +months before the equilibrium of top and root is fully restored. In +most cases, by the end of the second year, it will have been far +outstripped in the growing race by the former.</p> +<p>The history, habits, and characteristics of the cocoanut tree +indicate that it needs a full and free exposure to sun, air, and wind; +and, as it makes a tree, under such circumstances, of wide crown +expansion, these indispensables can not be secured except by very wide +planting.</p> +<p>Conventional recommendations cover all distances, from 5 to 8 +meters, with quincunx (i. e., triangular plantings) urged when the +8-meter plan is adopted. But the writer has seen too many groves spaced +at this distance in good soil, with interlacing leaves and badly +spindled in the desperate struggle for light, air, and sun, ever to +recommend the quincunx, or any system other than the square, at +distances not less than 9 meters and, in good soils, preferably 9.5 +meters.</p> +<p>The former distance will allow for 123 and the latter 111 trees to +the hectare. They should be lined out with the greatest regularity, so +as to admit at all times of cross plowing and cultivation as +desired.</p> +<p>From this time forward the treatment is one of <i>cultural</i> and +<i>manurial</i> routine.</p> +<p>Annual plowings should not be dispensed with during the life of the +plantation. These plowings may be relatively shallow, sufficient to +cover under the green manures and crops that are made an indispensable +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e685" href="#xd20e685" name= +"xd20e685">25</a>]</span>condition to the continued profitable conduct +of the industry. Nothing is to be gained by the removal of the earliest +flowering spikes. Flowering is the congestion of sap at a special point +which, if the grower could control it, he would wish to direct, in the +case of young plants, to the building up of leaf and wood. Cutting the +inflorescence of the cocoanut results in profuse bleeding and, unless +this be checked by the use of a powerful styptic or otherwise, it is +doubtful if the desired end would be accomplished. The earlier crops of +nuts should all be taken with extension cutters or from ladders. No +shoulders for climbing should be cut in any tree, the stem of which has +not become dense, hard, and woody. Cut when the wood is the least bit +succulent, they <span class="corr" id="xd20e687" title= +"Source: becoming">become</span> inviting points of attack for +borers.</p> +<p>With these reservations, there is everything to commend the practice +of shouldering the tree, as offering the safest, most expeditious and +economical way of making it possible to climb and secure the harvest. +It is, of course, understood that the cuts should be made sloping +outward, so as not to collect moisture and invite decay, and no larger +than is strictly necessary for the purpose.</p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="manuring"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Manuring.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e695src" href= +"#xd20e695" name="xd20e695src">1</a></h3> +<p class="firstpar">The manuring problem must be met and solved by the +best resources at our command. The writer has had pointed out hundred +of trees that, wholly guiltless of any direct application of manure, +have borne excellent crops for many successive years; but he has also +seen hundreds of others in their very prime, at thirty years, which +once produced a hundred select nuts per year, now producing fluctuating +and uncertain crops of fifteen to thirty inferior fruits.</p> +<p>Time and again native growers have told me of the large and +uniformly continuous crops of nuts from the trees immediately +overshadowing their dwellings and, although some have attributed this +to a sentimental appreciation and gratitude on the part of the palm at +being made one of the family of the owner, a few were sensible enough +to realize that it came of the opportunity that those particular trees +had to get the manurial benefit of the household sewage and waste.</p> +<p>Yet, the lesson is still unlearned and, after much diligent inquiry, +I have yet to find a nut grower in the Philippines who at any time +(except at planting) makes direct and systematic application of manure +to his trees.</p> +<p>In India, Ceylon, the Penang Peninsula, and Cochin China, where the +tree has been cultivated for generations, the most that was ever +attempted until very recently was to throw a little manure in the hole +where the tree was planted, and for all future time to depend on the +inferior, grass-made <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e705" href= +"#xd20e705" name="xd20e705">26</a>]</span>droppings of a few cattle +tethered among the trees, to compensate for the half million or more +nuts that a hectare of fairly productive trees should yield during +their normal bearing life.</p> +<p>Upon suitable cocoanut soils—i. e., those that are light and +permeable—common salt is positively injurious. In support of this +contention, I will state that salt in solution will break up and freely +combine with lime, making equally soluble chlorids of lime which, of +course, freely leach out in such a soil and carry down to unavailable +depths these salts, invaluable as necessary bases to render assimilable +most plant foods; and that, on this account, commercial manures +containing large amounts of salt, are always to be used with much +discretion, owing to the danger of impoverishing the supply of +necessary lime in the soil.</p> +<p>Finally, so injurious is the direct application of salt to the roots +of most plants that the invariable custom of trained planters (who, for +the sake of the potash contained, are compelled to use crude Stassfurt +mineral manures, which contain large quantities of common salt) is to +apply it a very considerable time before the crop is planted, in order +that this deleterious agent should be well leached and washed away from +the immediate field of root activity.</p> +<p>That the cocoanut is able to take up large quantities of salt may +not be disputed. That the character of its root is such as to enable it +to do so without the injury that would occur to most cultivated plants +I have previously shown, while the history of the cocoanut’s +inland career, and the records of agricultural chemistry, both +conclusively point to the fact that its presence is an incident that in +no way contributes to the health, vigor, or fruitfulness of the +tree.</p> +<p>Mr. Cochran’s analysis, based upon the unit of 1,000 average +nuts, weighing in the aggregate 3,125 pounds, discloses a drain upon +soil fertility for that number, amounting in round numbers +to—</p> +<div class="table xd20e715"> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Pounds.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Nitrogen</td> +<td valign="top">8¼</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Potash</td> +<td valign="top">17</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Phosphoric acid</td> +<td valign="top">3</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p>Reducing this to crop and area, and taking 60 fruits per annum per +tree as a fair mean for the bearing groves in our cocoanut districts +and on those rare estates where a systematic spacing of about 173 trees +to the hectare has been made, we should have an annual harvest of +10,300 nuts, or, stated in round numbers, 10,000, which will exhaust +each year from the soil a total of—</p> +<div class="table xd20e715"> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Pounds.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Nitrogen</td> +<td valign="top">82½</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Potash</td> +<td valign="top">170</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Phosphoric acid</td> +<td valign="top">30</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p>The cocoanut, therefore, while a good feeder, may not be classed +with the most depleting of field crops. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e763" href="#xd20e763" name="xd20e763">27</a>]</span></p> +<p>To make this clear I exhibit, by way of contrast, the drafts made by +a <i>relatively</i> good crop of two notoriously soil-impoverishing +crops—tobacco and corn—and, on the other hand, the drafts +made by an equivalent average cotton crop—a product considered to +make but light drains upon sources of soil fertility.</p> +<p>A proportionate tobacco crop of 1,000 kilos per hectare will +withdraw from the soil (reduced to the same standard of weights adopted +by Mr. Cochran)—</p> +<div class="table xd20e715"> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Pounds.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Nitrogen</td> +<td valign="top">168</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Potash</td> +<td valign="top">213</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Phosphoric acid</td> +<td valign="top">23</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p>An equivalent crop of shelled corn, say, of 125 bushels per hectare, +will withdraw—</p> +<div class="table xd20e715"> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Pounds.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Nitrogen</td> +<td valign="top">200</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Potash</td> +<td valign="top">135</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Phosphoric acid</td> +<td valign="top">75</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p>while a relative crop of lint cotton of 237 kilos (700 pounds) per +hectare<a class="noteref" id="xd20e820src" href="#xd20e820" name= +"xd20e820src">2</a> will only exhaust, in round numbers—</p> +<div class="table xd20e715"> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top"></td> +<td valign="top"><b>Pounds.</b></td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Nitrogen</td> +<td valign="top">114</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Potash</td> +<td valign="top">70</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Phosphoric acid</td> +<td valign="top">30</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p>There is an analogy between these four products that makes them all +comparable, in so far as all are largely surface feeders, and, as +experience shows that there can be no continuing success with the last +three that does not include both cultivation and manuring, we may use +the analogy to infer a like indispensable necessity for the successful +issue of the first.</p> +<p>Cultivation as a manurial factor should, therefore, not be +overlooked, and all the more strongly does it become emphasized by the +very difficulties that for some years to come must beset the Philippine +planter in the way of procuring direct manures.</p> +<p>When it comes to the specific application of manures and how to make +the most of our resources, we shall have to turn back to the analysis +of the nut and note that, relatively to other crops, it makes small +demands for nitrogen. At the same time it must not be forgotten that +these chemical determinations only refer to the fruit and that, with +the present incomplete data and lack of investigation of the +constituent parts of root, stem, leaf, and branch, we have nothing to +guide us but what we may infer from the behavior of the plant and its +relationship to plants of long-deferred fruition, whose manurial wants +are well understood.</p> +<p>It is now the most approved orchard practice to encourage an early +development of leaf and branch by the liberal application of nitrogen, +whose stimulant actions upon growth are conceded as the best. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e853" href="#xd20e853" name= +"xd20e853">28</a>]</span></p> +<p>In temperate regions, the exigencies of climate exact that this be +done with discretion and care, in order that the unduly stimulated +growths may be fully ripened and matured against the approach of an +inclement season. In the Tropics no such limitations exist, and the +early growth of the tree may be profitably stimulated to the highest +pitch. That this general treatment, as applied to young fruit trees, is +specifically the one indicated in the early life of the cocoanut, may +be quickly learned by him who will observe the avidity with which the +fleshy roots of a young cocoanut will invade, embrace, and disintegrate +a piece of stable manure.</p> +<p>Notwithstanding lack of chemical analysis, we may not question the +fact that considerable supplies of both potash and phosphoric acid are +withdrawn in the building up of leaf and stem; but these are found in +sufficient quantity in soils of average quality to meet the early +requirements of the plant. It is only when the fruiting age is reached +that demands are made, especially upon the potash, which the planter is +called upon to make good.</p> +<p>Good cultivation, the application of a generous supply of +stimulating nitrogen during its early career, and the gradual +substitution in later life of manures in which potash and phosphoric +acid, particularly the former, predominate, are necessary.</p> +<p>How, then, may we best apply the nitrogen requirements of its early +life? Undoubtedly through the application of abundant supplies of +stable manures, press cakes, tankage, or of such fertilizers as furnish +nitrogen in combination with the large volume of humus necessary to +minister to the gross appetite of the plant under consideration. But +the chances are that none of these are available, and the planter must +have recourse to some of the green, nitrogen-gathering manures that are +always at his command.</p> +<p>He must sow and plow under crops of pease, beans, or other legumes +that will furnish both humus and nitrogen in excess of what they +remove. Incidentally, they will draw heavily upon the potash deposits +of the soil, and they must all be turned back, or, if fed, every kilo +of the resulting manure must be scrupulously returned. He must pay for +the cultivation of the land, for the growing of crops that he turns +back as manure (and that involves further expense for their growing and +plowing under), and, in addition, he must be subject to such outlay for +about seven years before he can begin to realize for the time and labor +expended.</p> +<p>But there are expedients to which the planter may have recourse +which, if utilized, may return every dollar of cultural outlay. By the +use of a wise rotation he can not only maintain his land in a good +productive condition but realize a good biennial crop that will keep +the plantation from being a financial drag. The rotation that occurs to +me as most promising on the average cocoanut lands of these Islands +would be, first, a green manure crop, followed by corn and legumes, +succeeded by cotton, and then back to green manures. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e867" href="#xd20e867" name= +"xd20e867">29</a>]</span></p> +<p>To make the first green crop effective as a manure, both lime and +potash are essential—the former to make available the nitrogen we +hope to gather, and the potash in order to secure the largest and +quickest growth of the pulse we are to raise for manurial purposes.</p> +<p>Both these elements are generally in good supply in our cocoanut +lands; but, if there is uncertainty upon this point, both should be +supplied, in some form. Fortunately, the former is cheap and abundant +in most parts of the Archipelago, and, when well slaked, may be freely +applied with benefit, at the rate of a ton or even more to the +hectare.</p> +<p>In default of the mineral potash salts, the grower must seek +unleached wood ashes, either by burning his own unused jungle land to +procure them or by purchasing them from the neighbor who has such land +to burn over. If located on the littoral, he will carefully collect all +the seaweed that is blown in, although in our tropical waters the huge +and abundant marine algæ are mostly lacking. Such as are found, +however, furnish a not inconsiderable amount of potash, and, in the +extremities to which planters remote from commercial centers are +driven, no source is too inconsiderable to be overlooked.</p> +<p>The first green crop selected will be one <i>known</i> to be of +tropical origin which, with fair soil conditions, will not fail to give +a good yield. He may with safety try any of the native rank-growing +beans, or cowpeas, soja, or velvet beans; or, if these are not +procurable, he has at command everywhere an unstinted seed supply of +<i>Cajanus indicus</i>, or of <i>Clitorea ternatea</i>, which will as +well effect the desired end—to wit, a great volume of humus and a +new soil supply of nitrogen. It remains for the planter to determine if +the crop thus grown is to be plowed under, or if he will use it to +still better advantage by partially feeding it, subject, as previously +stated, to an honest return to the land of all the manure resulting +therefrom.</p> +<p>He may utilize it in any way, even to selling the resulting seed +crop, provided all the remaining brush is turned back to the land and a +portion of the money he receives for the seed be reinvested in +high-grade potash and phosphatic manures. The plantation should now be +in fair condition for a corn crop, and, as a very slight shading is not +prejudicial to the young palms, the corn can be planted close enough to +the trees, leaving only sufficient space to admit of the free +cultivation that both require.</p> +<p>It must not be forgotten that corn makes the most serious inroads +upon our soil fertility of any of the crops in our rotation, and, +unless by this time the planter is prepared to feed all the grain +produced to fatten swine or cattle, it had better be eliminated from +the rotation and peanuts substituted. In addition to this, he must +still make good whatever drains the corn will have made upon this +element of soil fertility.</p> +<p>Cropping to corn attacks the cocoanut at a new and vulnerable point, +against which the careful grower must make provision. It will be +remembered <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e891" href="#xd20e891" +name="xd20e891">30</a>]</span>that an average corn crop makes very +considerable drafts upon the soil supply of phosphoric acid; but, if +the grain is used for fattening swine, whose manure is much richer in +phosphates than most farm manures, and the latter is restored to the +land, serious soil impoverishment may be averted.</p> +<p>The next step in our suggested rotation is the cotton crop. Here, +too, limitations are imposed upon the planter who is without abundant +manurial resources to maintain the future integrity of his grove. He +may sell the lint from his cotton, but he can not dispose of it (as is +frequently done here) in the seed.</p> +<p>If the enterprise be not upon a scale that will justify the +equipment of a mill and the manufacture of the oil, he has no +alternative but to return the seed in lieu of the seed cake, wasteful +and extravagant though such a process be.</p> +<p>The oil so returned is without manurial value and, if left in the +seed, is so much money wasted. The rational process, of course, calls +for the return of the press cake, either direct or in the form of +manure after it has been fed. With this is also secured the hull, rich +in both the potash and the phosphoric acid<a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e900src" href="#xd20e900" name="xd20e900src">3</a> which we now +know is so essential to the future welfare of the grove.</p> +<p>The above rotation is simply suggested as a tentative expedient.</p> +<p>The ground will now be so shaded that we can not hope to raise more +catch crops for harvesting, although it may be possible during the dry +season to raise a partial stand of pulses, of manure value only; but, +from the fruiting stage on, this becomes a minor consideration.</p> +<p>This stage of the cultural story brings us once more face to face +with the principle contended for at the beginning of this paper, +namely, that there can be no permanent prosperity in this branch of +horticulture until the crop is so worked up into its ultimate products +that none of the residue of manufacture goes to waste.</p> +<p>At best the return of these side products is insufficient, and, +despite their careful husbandry, we can not ultimately evade a greater +or less resort to inorganic manures of high cost and difficult +procurement.</p> +<p>The residue from the press cake is rich in nitrogen and humus, +which, in the ever-increasing shade of the grove, will become more and +more difficult to produce there through nitrogen-making agencies; but +the waste from the manufacture of coir and the ashes from the woody +shell will go far toward supplying the needed potash.</p> +<p>Such a system would, if closely followed, practically restrict the +farmer’s ultimate purchases to a small quantity of acid +phosphates, or of bone dust, which, in conjunction with good tillage, +should serve to maintain the grove in a highly productive condition for +an indefinite term of years. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e915" +href="#xd20e915" name="xd20e915">31</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="div2" id="irrigation"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h3 class="main">Irrigation.</h3> +<p class="firstpar">As an auxiliary manurial agent of definite, +well-proven value in this Archipelago, I will briefly recite some of +the benefits that may be expected to follow occasional irrigation +during the dry season.</p> +<p>It strongly accelerates growth and early maturity. A few irrigated +trees, reputed to be under five years from seed and already bearing +fruit, were shown the writer on the Island of Joló. The growth +was remarkably strong and vigorous, notwithstanding that the water of +irrigation had been applied in such a way that the tree could only hope +to derive a minimum of benefit from its application. It had merely been +turned on from a convenient ditch whenever the soil seemed baked and +dry, at intervals of one to three weeks, as circumstances seemed to +require.</p> +<p>Irrigation, but always in connection with subsequent cultivation, +may be considered equal to a crop guaranty that is not afforded so +effectually by any purely cultural system.</p> +<p>Rarely has a better opportunity occurred to demonstrate the +unquestioned benefits that have inured to these few Joló trees +from the use of irrigating waters than the present season of +1902–3. From many sources reports come to this Bureau of trees +failing, or dying outright, from lack of moisture. While it is true +that the present dry season has had no parallel since 1885–86, +and that the rainfall during the dry season has been less than half the +normal, yet it should not be forgotten that, during the eight months +from October to May, inclusive, the average precipitation on the west +coast, at the latitude of Manila, is only about 460 mm. and that, when +the amount falls below this, the cocoanut is bound to suffer.</p> +<p>Though it is true that the evil effects of drought may be modified, +if not altogether controlled, by cultivation, the assistance of +irrigation places the cultivator in an impregnable position. If +evidence in support of this statement were called for, it might be +found to-day in the deplorable condition of those groves that have been +permitted to run to pasture, as compared with those in which some +attempts have been made to bolo out the encroaching weeds and +grasses.</p> +<p>It is probably true that, except on very sandy soils, continued +surface irrigation would aggravate the superficial root-developing +tendency of the tree; and to what extent, if any, occasional laceration +by deep shovel tooth cultivation would injure the tree remains to be +seen. There are, however, few economic plants that so quickly repair +root damage as the Palmæ, and, unless the seat of injury extends +over a very large area, it is probable that the resulting injury would +be of no consequence, as compared with the <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e931" title="Source: geneal">general</span> benefits that would +result from irrigation. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e934" href= +"#xd20e934" name="xd20e934">32</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e695" href="#xd20e695src" name="xd20e695">1</a></span> Throughout +this paper the writer uses this word in preference to +“fertilizing” even when speaking of so-called +“commercial fertilizers.”</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e820" href="#xd20e820src" name="xd20e820">2</a></span> +Farmers’ Bulletin 114, United States Department of +Agriculture.</p> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e900" href="#xd20e900src" name="xd20e900">3</a></span> Conn. Exp. +Sta. Rep. 1897, Part II.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="harvest" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Harvest.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">Harvest of the crop requires but a brief +discussion. The nuts should be plucked when ripe. The phenomenon of +maturity can not be readily described in print. It frequently is as +evident in nuts of a bright green color as in those of a golden-yellow +color, and the recognition is one of those things that can only be +learned by experience.</p> +<p>The practice, so general in the Seychelles, of allowing the nut to +hang till it falls to the ground is certainly undesirable in these +Islands. On the contrary, the overripe nuts will seldom fall until +dislodged by a storm, and it is no uncommon thing to see nuts that have +sprouted and started to grow upon trees in plantations where the +harvest is left to the action of natural causes. Such nuts, of course, +are entirely worthless for the manufacture of oil or copra, and even +the husk has depreciated in value, the finest coirs, in fact, being +derived only from the fruits that have not attained full ripeness. In +any case, the nuts should be picked and the crop worked up before any +considerable enlargement or swelling of the embryo occurs. From this +time onward physiological changes arise which injuriously affect the +quantity and quality of what is called the meat.</p> +<p>The heaping up of the nuts for some time after harvest favors some +milk absorption, which seems to facilitate the subsequent easy +extraction of the endosperm.</p> +</div> +<div id="enemies" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Enemies.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">Outside of certain insects of the order Coleoptera, +cocoanuts in the Philippines are reasonably free from enemies; in some +districts, close to forest-clad areas, the raids of monkeys do some +damage. A tree-nesting rat, which nibbles the young nuts, is also a +source of considerable loss. The rat is best overcome by frequent +disturbance of his quarters. This involves the removal of the dead +leaves and thatch that form constantly about the base of the crown. But +the wisdom of this recommendation will depend entirely upon +circumstances. As the planter may find that rats or the rhinoceros +beetle are the lesser evil, so should he be governed.</p> +<p>There are localities in the Archipelago where the plague of rats is +unknown and where the beetles abound. In that case it would be unwise +to disturb the leaves which are very tardily deciduous and do not +naturally fall till the wood beneath is hard, mature, and practically +impervious to the attacks of insects.</p> +<p>Where rats are numerous and insects few, which is the case in some +localities, the dead and dying leaves, among which the rat nests, may +be advantageously cleared away whenever the tree is climbed to harvest +the fruit.</p> +<p>Among serious insect enemies we have to contend largely with the +very obnoxious black beetle, <i>Oryctes rhinocerus</i>, and, +fortunately, to a lesser extent, with <i>Rhynchoporus ferrugineous</i> +(probably the same as <i>R. ochreatus</i> <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e964" href="#xd20e964" name="xd20e964">33</a>]</span>of Eydoux), +while <i>R. pascha</i>, Boehm, and <i>Chalcosma atlas</i>, Linn., are +also said to appear occasionally.</p> +<p>However different their mode of attack, the general result is the +same, and their presence may surely be detected by the appearance of +deformed or badly misshapen or lacerated leaves.</p> +<p>The attacks of all species are confined to the growing point and as +far downward as the wood is tender and susceptible to the action of +their powerful mandibles.</p> +<p>The black beetle makes its attacks when fully mature, eating its way +into the soft tissues and generally selecting the axil of a young leaf +as the point of least resistance. Others simply deposit their eggs, +which hatch out, and the resulting grub is provided with jaws powerful +enough to do the same mischief. Two or three of these grubs, if +undisturbed, are sufficient in time to completely riddle the growing +tip, which then falls over and the tree necessarily dies.</p> +</div> +<div id="remedies" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Remedies.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">Remedies may be described as preventive and +aggressive, and, by an active campaign of precaution, many subsequent +remedial applications can be avoided.</p> +<p>Most of the beetles attacking the palm are known to select heaps of +decomposing rubbish and manure as their favorite (if not necessary) +breeding places, and it is obviously of importance to break up and +destroy such; nor can any better or more advantageous way of effecting +this be suggested than by promptly spreading and plowing under all such +accumulations as fast as they are made; or, if this be impracticable, +by forking or turning over or otherwise disturbing the heaps, until +convenient to dispose of them as first suggested.</p> +<p>A truly preventive and simple remedy, and one that I can commend as +a result of close observation, is the application of a handful or two +of sharp, coarse, clean sand in the axillæ of the young leaves. +The native practice is to mix this with ashes, salt, or tobacco dust; +but it is questionable if the efficacy of the remedy lies so much in +these additions as in the purely mechanical effect of the sand, the +constant attrition of which can not be other than highly objectionable +to the insect while burrowing.</p> +<p>Of offensive remedies, probing with a stout hooked wire is the only +form of warfare carried on in these Islands; but, as the channel of the +borer is sometimes tortuous and deep, this is not always effective. A +certain, simple, and easily applied remedy may be found in carbon +bisulphid. It could be applied in the holes (which invariably trend +downward) with a small metal syringe. The hole should be sealed +immediately with a pinch of stiff, moist clay.</p> +<p>It is likely that this remedy and probing with a wire are the only +successful ways of combatting the red beetle, whose grub strikes in +wherever <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e992" href="#xd20e992" name= +"xd20e992">34</a>]</span>it finds a soft spot; but, for these species +which attack the axils of the leaves, I have great faith in the +efficacy of the “sand cure,” and no nut picker should go +aloft unprovided with a small bamboo tube of dry, sifted sand, to +protect the bases of recently expanded leaves.</p> +<p>In Selangor cocoanut trees now come under the government inspection, +and planters and owners, under penalties, are compelled to destroy +these pests. Mr. L. C. Brown, of Kuala Lampur, in that State, who +writes intelligently on this subject,<a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e996src" href="#xd20e996" name="xd20e996src">1</a> lays great +stress on the value of clean cultivation in subduing beetles, and +repeats a cultural axiom that never grows old and that will, +consequently, bear reiteration here—that it is rarely anything +but the neglected plantation that suffers, and that the maintenance at +all times of a healthy, vigorous growth is in itself almost a guaranty +of immunity from attacks of these pernicious insects.</p> +<p>While we, unfortunately, know that this is not in all cases an +assured protection against diseases or insect enemies, it certainly +minimizes the danger and, in itself, is a justification of the +high-pressure cultural treatment advocated throughout the preceding +pages.</p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e996" href="#xd20e996src" name="xd20e996">1</a></span> Ag. Bull. +Fed. Malay States, February, 1903.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div id="renovation" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Renovation of Old Groves.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">Material improvement of old plantations may +sometimes be effected and, unless the trees are known to be upward of +fifty years old, generally repays the labor. Marked increase in crop +has followed a heavy thinning out of trees upon the Government cocoanut +farm at San Ramon, Mindanao. The improvement that a freer circulation +of air and abundant sunlight have effected is very marked. Where it can +be done, plowing is also sometimes feasible and should be followed by +immediate crop improvement. The average native plow is not so well +adapted for working over an old or neglected grove as it is for +original soil preparation. It acts more as a subsoiler and will tear +and lacerate more roots than is desirable. A single carabao, or +one-horse American garden plow, is the better implement for this work. +Extensive bat guano deposits are found in Mindoro, Guimarás, and +Luzon. Some of them show richness in nitrogen and, when accessible at a +moderate cost, would be useful in the renovation of old groves, where +the shade would be adverse to the rearing of good crops of nitrogen +gatherers.</p> +</div> +<div id="conclusion" class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<h2 class="main">Conclusion.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">1. There are large areas throughout the littoral +valleys of the Archipelago, as yet unexploited, which, in the +essentials of soil, climate, irrigation facilities, and general +environment are suitable for cocoanut growing.</p> +<p>2. The present conditions present especially flattering attractions +to cocoanut growers capable of undertaking the cultivation upon a scale +of some magnitude. By coöperation, small estates could combine in +the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1013" href="#xd20e1013" name= +"xd20e1013">35</a>]</span>common ownership of machinery, whereby the +products of the grove could be converted into more profitable +substances than copra.</p> +<p>3. The present production of copra (estimated at 278,000 piculs in +1902) is an assurance of a sufficient supply to warrant the erection of +a high-class modern plant for the manufacture of the ultimate (the +“butter”) products of the nut. The products of such an +enterprise would be increased by the certainty of a local market in the +Philippines for some part of the output. The average market value of +the best grades of copra in the Marseilles market is $54.40, gold, per +English ton. The jobbing value on January 1 of this year, of the +refined products, were, for each ton of copra:</p> +<div class="table xd20e715"> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Butter fats</td> +<td valign="top">$90.00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Residual soap oils</td> +<td valign="top">21.00</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Press cake</td> +<td valign="top">5.20</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Total</td> +<td valign="top" class="sum">116.20</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +<p>the difference representing the profit per ton, less the cost of +manufacture.</p> +<p>4. The minimum size of a plantation, on which economical application +of oil and fiber preparing machinery could be made, is 60 hectares.</p> +<p>5. There is no other horticultural tropical product which may be +grown in these Islands where crop assurance may be so nearly +guaranteed, or natural conditions so nearly controlled by the planter +who, knowing correct principles, has the facilities for applying +them.</p> +<p>6. The natural enemies and diseases of the plant are relatively few, +easily held in check by vigilance and the exercise of competent +business management.</p> +<p>7. The labor situation is bound more seriously to affect the small +planter, wholly dependent upon hand labor, than the estate conducted on +a large enough scale to justify the employment of modern machinery.</p> +<p>8. In view of an ever-expanding demand for cocoanut products, and in +the light of the foregoing conclusions, the industry, when prosecuted +upon a considerable scale and subject to the requirements previously +set forth, promises for many years to be one of the most profitable and +desirable enterprises which command the attention of the Filipino +planter.</p> +<p>The greatest mine of horticultural wealth which is open to the +shrewd planter lies in the heaps of waste and neglected husks that he +can now procure from adjoining estates for the asking and cartage.</p> +<p>With labor at 1 peso per diem and at the present price of potash and +phosphoric acid, all the husks in excess of 300 per diem which could be +hauled would be clear profit. The ashes of these, when burned and +applied to the old grove, would have an immediate and revivifying +influence.</p> +<p>Many trees in an old plantation have ceased to bear. Whether this is +due to exhaustion from old age or from soil exhaustion is immaterial; +each should be eradicated and the time-honored custom of replanting a +fresh tree in its place abandoned. These renewals are difficult enough +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1058" href="#xd20e1058" name= +"xd20e1058">36</a>]</span>in any fruit or nut orchard where the +scientific cultural conditions have been of the best. Renewals in a +cocoanut grove, unless the vacant space is abnormally large and can be +subjected to some years of soil improvement, are unprofitable.</p> +<p>There is a wide range of opinion as to the bearing life of a +cocoanut tree. It is said to vary from thirty to one hundred and thirty +years. Grown more than forty, or possibly fifty years old, the writer +would hesitate to undertake the improvement or renewal of the +grove.</p> +<p>Palms, unlike exogenous trees, afford no evidence by which their age +may be determined. In general, with advanced years, come great height +and great attenuation. In the open, and where fully exposed to +atmospheric influences, these form an approximate criterion of age. The +so-called annular scars, marking the earlier attachments of leaves, +furnish no clue to age.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="back"> +<div class="div1"><span class="pagenum">[<a href= +"#toc">Contents</a>]</span> +<div class="transcribernote"> +<h2 class="main">Colophon</h2> +<h3 class="main">Availability</h3> +<p class="firstpar">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no +cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give +it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License +included with this eBook or online at <a class="exlink" title= +"External link" href= +"http://www.gutenberg.org/">www.gutenberg.org</a>.</p> +<p>This eBook is produced by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team +at <a class="exlink" title="External link" href= +"http://www.pgdp.net/">www.pgdp.net</a>.</p> +<p>Transcribed from scans available at the <a class="exlink" title= +"External link" href= +"http://www.archive.org/details/cocoanutwithrefe00lyonrich">Internet +Archive</a>.</p> +<h3 class="main">Encoding</h3> +<p class="firstpar"></p> +<h3 class="main">Revision History</h3> +<ul> +<li>2010-10-06 Started.</li> +</ul> +<h3 class="main">External References</h3> +<p>This Project Gutenberg eBook contains external references. These +links may not work for you.</p> +<h3 class="main">Corrections</h3> +<p>The following corrections have been applied to the text:</p> +<table width="75%" summary= +"Overview of corrections applied to the text."> +<tr> +<th>Page</th> +<th>Source</th> +<th>Correction</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e337">6</a></td> +<td class="width40">variesties</td> +<td class="width40">varieties</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e345">6</a></td> +<td class="width40">the the</td> +<td class="width40">the</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e372">7</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">to</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e427">11</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e434">12</a></td> +<td class="width40">comon</td> +<td class="width40">common</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e457">13</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">”</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e492">14</a></td> +<td class="width40">developes</td> +<td class="width40">develops</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e495">14</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">to</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e500">14</a></td> +<td class="width40">the the</td> +<td class="width40">the</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e561">16</a></td> +<td class="width40">adaptibility</td> +<td class="width40">adaptability</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e573">16</a></td> +<td class="width40">or or</td> +<td class="width40">or</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e687">25</a></td> +<td class="width40">becoming</td> +<td class="width40">become</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e931">31</a></td> +<td class="width40">geneal</td> +<td class="width40">general</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +</div> +</div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Cocoanut, by William S. 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Lyon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Cocoanut + With reference to its products and cultivation in the Philippines + +Author: William S. Lyon + +Release Date: October 7, 2010 [EBook #33844] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COCOANUT *** + + + + +Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project +Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously +made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + Bureau of Agriculture. + + + Farmer's Bulletin No. 8. + + THE COCOANUT + + With Reference to Its Products and Cultivation + in the Philippines. + + + + By + + WILLIAM S. LYON, + + In charge of Division of Plant Industry. + + + Manila: + Bureau of Public Printing. + 1903. + + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + Page. + + Letter of transmittal 4 + Introduction 5 + History 5 + Botany 6 + Uses 6 + Copra and cocoanut oil 6 + Coir 10 + Tuba 12 + Minor uses 13 + Cultivation 14 + Selection of location 14 + The soil 16 + Seed selection 17 + Planting 18 + Manuring 21 + Irrigation 27 + Harvest 28 + Enemies 28 + Remedies 29 + Renovation of old groves 30 + Conclusion 30 + + + + + +LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. + + +Bureau of Agriculture, + + Manila, June 1, 1903. + +Sir: In responding to numerous inquiries about the cocoanut, its +uses, cultivation, and preparation for market, I have prepared, +by your direction, the accompanying bulletin, which is intended to +cover the general field of the inquiries addressed to this Bureau, +and herewith submit the same, with the recommendation that it be +published as Farmers' Bulletin No. 8. + + + Respectfully, + + Wm. S. Lyon, + In Charge of Division of Plant Industry. + + To Hon. F. Lamson-Scribner, + Chief Bureau of Agriculture, Manila. + + + + + +THE COCOANUT. + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The following pages are written chiefly in the interests of the +planter, but the writer feels that the great agricultural importance +which the cocoanut palm is bound to assume in these Islands is +sufficient to justify the presentation of some of its history and +botany. + +For that part of the bulletin which touches upon the botany of the +cocoanut I am indebted to Don Regino Garcia, associate botanist of the +Forestry Bureau; for that relating to its products and local uses, to +the courtesy of manufacturers in Laguna; and, for the rest, to personal +experience and observations made in Laguna Province and in the southern +Visayan Islands where, as elsewhere in this Archipelago, the cocoanut +may properly be considered a spontaneous and not a cultivated product. + + + + + +HISTORY. + + +The legendary history of the "Prince of Palms," [1] as it has been +called, dates back to a period when the Christian era was young, +and its history is developing day by day in some new and striking +manifestation of its utility or beauty. It seems not unreasonable to +assume that much of the earlier traditionary history of the cocoanut +may have been inspired as much by its inherent beauty as by its +uses. Such traditional proverbs Or folklore as I have gathered in +the Visayas recognize the influence of the beautiful, in so far as +the blessings of the trees only inure to the good; for instance, +"He who is cruel to his beast or his family will only harvest barren +husks from the reproving trees that witness the pusillanimous act;" +and, again, "He who grinds the poor will only grind water instead of +fat oil from the meat." + +To this day the origin of the cocoanut is unknown. De Candolle (Origin +of Cult. Plants, p. 574) recites twelve specific claims pointing to +an Asiatic origin, and a single, but from a scientific standpoint +almost unanswerable, contention for an American derivation. None of +the remaining nineteen species of the genus Cocos are known to exist +elsewhere in the world than on the American continent. His review of +the story results in the nature of a compromise, assigning to our +own Islands and those to the south and west of us the distinction +of having first given birth to the cocoanut, and that thence it was +disseminated east and west by ocean currents. + + + + + +BOTANY. + + +The cocoanut (Cocos nucifera Linn.) is the sole oriental representative +of a tropical genus comprising nineteen species, restricted, with +this single exception, to the New World. + +Its geographical distribution is closely confined to the two +Tropics. [2] + +Not less than nineteen varieties of C. nucifera are described by +Miquel and Rumphius, and all are accepted by Filipino authors. + +Whether all of these varieties are constant enough to deserve +recognition need not be considered here. Many are characterized by +the fruits being distinctly globular, others by fruits of a much +prolonged oval form, still others by having the lower end of the +fruit terminating in a triangular point. + +In the Visayas there is a variety in which the fibrous outer husk +of the nut is sweet and watery, instead of dry and astringent, and +is chewed by the natives like sugar cane. Another variety occurs in +Luzon, known as "Pamocol," the fruit of which seldom exceeds 20 cm. in +diameter. There is also a dwarf variety of the palm, which rarely +exceeds 3 meters in height, and is known to the Tagalogs as "Adiavan." + +These different varieties are strongly marked, and maintain their +characters when reproduced from seed. + + + + + +USES. + + +The cocoanut furnishes two distinct commercial products--the dried +meat of the nut, or copra, and the outer fibrous husk. These products +are so dissimilar that they should be considered separately. + + + +COPRA AND COCOANUT OIL. + +Until very recent years the demand for the "meat" of the cocoanut +or its products was limited to the uses of soap boilers and +confectioners. Probably there is no other plant in the vegetable +kingdom which serves so many and so varied purposes in the domestic +economy of the peoples in whose countries it grows. Within the past +decade chemical science has produced from the cocoanut a series of +food products whose manufacture has revolutionized industry and placed +the business of the manufacturer and of the producer upon a plane of +prosperity never before enjoyed. + +There has also been a great advance in the processes by which the +new oil derivatives are manufactured. The United States took the +initiative with the first recorded commercial factories in 1895. In +1897 the Germans established factories in Mannheim, but it remained +for the French people to bring the industry to its present perfection. + +According to the latest reports of the American consul at Marseilles, +the conversion of cocoanut oil into dietetic compounds was undertaken +in that city in 1900, by Messrs. Rocca, Tassy and de Roux, who in +that year turned out an average of 25 tons per month. During the year +just closed (1902) their average monthly output exceeded 6,000 tons +and, in addition to this, four or five other large factories were +all working together to meet the world's demand for "vegetaline," +"cocoaline," or other products with suggestive names, belonging to +this infant industry. + +These articles are sold at gross price of 18 to 20 cents per kilo to +thrifty Hollandish and Danish merchants, who, at the added cost of a +cent or two, repack them in tins branded "Dairy Butter" and, as such, +ship them to all parts of the civilized world. It was necessary to +disguise the earlier products by subjecting them to trituration with +milk or cream; but so perfect is the present emulsion that the plain +and unadulterated fats now find as ready a market as butter. These +"butters" have so far found their readiest sale in the Tropics. + +The significance of these great discoveries to the cocoanut planter can +not be overestimated, for to none of these purely vegetable fats do the +prejudices attach that so long and seriously have handicapped those +derived from animal margarin or margarin in combination with stearic +acid, while the low fusion point of pure dairy butters necessarily +prohibits their use in the Tropics, outside of points equipped with +refrigerating plants. The field, therefore, is practically without +competition, and the question will no longer be that of finding a +market, but of procuring the millions of tons of copra or oil that +this one industry will annually absorb in the immediate future. + +Cocoanut oil was once used extensively in the manufacture of fine +candles, and is still occasionally in demand for this purpose in the +Philippines, in combination with the vegetable tallow of a species +of Stillingia. It is largely consumed in lamps, made of a tumbler or +drinking glass half filled with water, on top of which float a few +spoonfuls of oil, into which the wick is plunged. In remote barrios it +is still in general use as a street illuminant, and so perfect is its +combustion that under a constant flicker it emits little or no smoke. + +When freshly expressed, the oil is an exceptionally good cooking fat, +and enters largely into the dietary of our own people. The medicinal +uses of the oil are various, and in the past it has been strongly +advocated for the cure of eczema, burns, as a vermifuge, and even +as a substitute for cod-liver oil in phthisis. Its medicinal virtues +are now generally discredited, except as a restorative agent in the +loss of hair resulting from debilitating fevers. Its value in this +direction may be surmised from the splendid heads of hair possessed +by the Filipino women, who generally use the oil as a hair dressing. + +Cocoanut oil is derived from the fleshy albumen or meat of the ripe +fruit, either fresh or dried. The thoroughly dried meat is variously +known as copra, coprax, and copraz. The exportation of copra is +detrimental to the best interests of the planter, tending to enrich +the manufacturer and impoverish the grower. The practice, however, +is so firmly established that the writer can only record a probably +futile protest against its continuance. + +The causes which for a long time will favor the exportation of copra +instead of oil in this Archipelago may be briefly stated as follows: + +(1) An oil-milling plant, constructed with due regard to economy of +labor and the production of the best quality of oil, would involve +an outlay of capital of $2,500, gold, and upward, according to +capacity. The production of copra requires the labor of the planter's +hands only. + +(2) The oil packages must be well-made barrels, casks, or metallic +receptacles. The initial cost of the packages is consequently great, +their return from distant ports impracticable, and their sale value +in the market of delivery is not sufficient to offset the capital +locked up in an unproductive form. On the other hand, copra may be +sold or shipped in boxes, bags, sacks, and bales, or it may even be +stored in bulk in the ship's hold. + +(3) When land transportation has to be considered, the lack of good +roads still further impedes the oil maker. He can not change the +size and weight of his packages from day to day to meet the varying +passability of the trail. On the other hand, packages of copra may +be adjusted to meet all emergencies, and the planter can thus take +advantage of the market conditions which may be denied to the oil +maker. + +(4) Perhaps the most serious difficulty the oil maker has to contend +with is the continuous discouragement he encounters from the agent +of foreign factories, who buys in the open market and, bidding up to +nearly the full oil value of the copra, finds an ample manufacturer's +profit paid by the press cake, so valuable abroad, but, unfortunately, +practically without sale or value here. The residue from the mill may +be utilized both for food and for manure by the oil maker who is a +tree owner and who maintains cattle. For either of these purposes +its value rates closely up to cotton-seed cake, and the time is +not remote when it will be recognized in the Philippines as far +too valuable a product to be permitted to be removed from the farm +excepting at a price which will permit of the purchase at a less +figure of an equivalent in manure. So active are the copra-buying +agents in controlling this important branch of the industry, that +they refuse to buy the press cake at any price, with the result that, +in two instances known to the writer, they have forced the closure +of oil-milling plants and driven the oil maker back to his copra. + +Many copra-making plants in India and Ceylon are now supplied with +decorticating, breaking, and evaporating machinery. The process +employed in this Archipelago consists in first stripping the ripe +fruit of the outer fibrous husk. This is effected by means of a stout, +steel spearhead, whose shaft or shank is embedded firmly in the soil +to such a depth that the spear point projects above the ground rather +less than waist high. The operator then holds the nut in his hands +and strikes it upon the spear point, gives it a downward, rotary +twist, and thus, with apparent ease, quickly removes the husk. An +average operator will husk 1,000 nuts per day, and records have been +made of a clean up of as many as 3,000 per day. The work, however, +is exceedingly hard, and involves great dexterity and wrist strength. + +Another man now takes up the nut and with a bolo strikes it a smart +blow in the middle, dividing it into two almost equal parts. These +parts are spread out and exposed to the sun for a few hours, or such +time as may be necessary to cause the fleshy albumen to contract and +shrink away from the hard outer shell, so that the meat may be easily +detached with the fingers. + +Weather permitting, the meat thus secured is sun dried for a day +and then subjected to the heat of a slow fire for several hours. In +some countries this drying is now effected by hot-air driers, and a +very white and valuable product secured; but in the Philippines the +universal practice is to spread out the copra upon what may be called +a bamboo grill, over a smoky fire made of the shells and husks, just +sufficient heat being maintained not to set fire to the bamboo. The +halves, when dried, are broken by hand into still smaller irregular +fragments, and subjected to one or two days of sun bath. By this time +the moisture has been so thoroughly expelled that the copra is now +ready to be sacked or baled and stored away for shipment or use. + +All modern cocoanut-oil mills are supplied with a decorticator armed +with revolving discs that tear or cut through the husk longitudinally, +freeing the nut from its outer covering and leaving the latter in +the best possible condition for the subsequent extraction of its +fiber. This decorticator is fed from a hopper and is made of a size +and capacity to husk from 500 to 1,000 nuts per hour. + +Rasping and grinding machinery of many patterns and makes, for +reducing the meat to a pulp, is used in India, Ceylon, and China; +and, although far more expeditious, offers no improvements, so far +as concerns the condition to which the meats are reduced, over the +methods followed in the Philippines. Here the fleshy halves of the +meat are held by hand against a rapidly revolving, half-spherical +knife blade which scrapes and shaves the flesh down to a fine degree +of comminution. The resulting mass is then macerated in a little water +and placed in bags and subjected to pressure, and the milky juice which +flows therefrom is collected in receivers placed below. This is now +drawn off into boilers and cooked until the clear oil is concentrated +upon the surface. The oil is then skimmed off and is ready for market. + +The process outlined above is very wasteful. The processes I have seen +in operation are very inadequate, and I estimate that, not less than +10 per cent of the oil goes to loss in the press cake. This is a loss +that does not occur in establishments equipped with the best hydraulic +presses. It is true that very heavy pressure carries through much +coloring matter not withdrawn by the primitive native mill, and that +the oil is consequently darker, and sooner undergoes decomposition; +but modern mills are now supplied with filtration plants through +which this objection is practically overcome. + +The principles of the above process are daily reproduced in thousands +of Filipino homes, where the hand rasping of the nut, the expression +of the milky juice through coarse cloth, its subsequent boiling down +in an open pan, and the final skimming off of the oil are in common +practice. Notwithstanding the cheapness of labor, it is only by +employing a mill well equipped with decorticating, rasping, hydraulic +crushing, and steam-boiling machinery, and with facilities to convert +the residue to feeding or other uses, that one may hopefully enter +the field of oil manufacture in these Islands in competition with +copra buyers. + + + +COIR. + +The fiber of the cocoanut husk, or coir, as it is commercially known, +has never yet been utilized in this Archipelago, excepting occasionally +for local consumption. + +Second in value only to the copra, this product has been allowed to +go to waste. The rejected husks are thrown together in immense heaps, +which are finally burned and the ashes, exceedingly rich in potash +and phosphoric acid, are left to blow away. + +As the commercial value of the fiber is greater than the manurial +value of the salts therein, it is economy to utilize the fiber and +purchase potash and phosphoric acid when needed to enrich the soil. + +Highly improved and inexpensive power machinery for the complete and +easy extraction of the fibers of the husk, either wet or dry, is now +rapidly superseding the tedious hand process once in such general +use. Good patterns of machinery are shown in the "husk-crushing mill" +(fig. 1) and in the "fiber extractor" (fig. 2). The first breaks, +crushes, and flattens out the husks by means of powerful, fluted metal +rollers and, in the second the broken husks are fed over a revolving +drum set with teeth especially devised for tearing out the fiber from +the entire mass. Finally, it is fed into one of the many forms of +"willowing" machines, which reduces the mass to clean fiber, which +is now ready for grading, baling, and shipment. The residual dust +and waste from this operation may be used as an absorbent for liquid +manures, and ultimately returned to the plantation. The yield of fiber +varies from 12 to 25 quintals of coir and 4 to 7 quintals of brush +fiber per 10,000 average husks. In the Philippines the nuts yield +a large amount of fiber and a relatively small percentage of chaff +and dust. With improved machinery and careful handling, 18 quintals +of spinning coir and 5 quintals of bristle fiber from every 10,000 +husks is a fair estimate of the product. + +As the cost of manufacture is generally rated at one-half the selling +price, and as we must add a further charge of 20 per cent to cover +freight and commission, we have resulting from the sale of the 23 +quintals, or 2,300 kilos, at L16 per English ton, a balance of L11 +11s. per hectare. + +But there are other considerations which should not be overlooked. The +husks of 10,000 cocoanuts will withdraw from the land 61.5 kilos of +potash and 3 kilos of phosphoric acid, and the restoration of the full +amount is called for to compensate for the growing wants of the tree, +in addition to that withdrawn by the crop. The necessary fertilizers +are worth, approximately, 5 1/2d. per kilo, making a further reduction +of L1 8s. and leaving as a net profit L10 3s., or, reduced to American +money, nearly $50, gold, per hectare. + +The machines above referred to will cost $800, gold, and $1,200 +additional will purchase and house the power necessary to operate +them. Such a plant will work up 1,000 nuts a day, and handle in a +year the output of a grove of 30 hectares. With the addition of two +or more fiber extractors the capacity of the plant may be doubled +without material expense, and it should rather more than pay its +entire cost in one year. + + + +TUBA. + +Tuba is the fresh or mildly fermented sap drawn from the inflorescence +of the cocoanut. + +There are no figures or data of any kind available as a basis for an +estimate as to the importance of this product, but its extent may be +inferred from the fact that the outlying groves about Cebu, Iloilo, +and the larger Visayan towns are practically devoted to the production +of tuba, and not to the manufacture of copra. + +Tuba is collected from the unexpanded blossoms as soon as they have +fairly pushed through the subtending bracts. To prevent any lateral +expansion, the flowers are tied with strips of the green leaf blade +and then, with a sharp knife, an inch or two of the extreme tip is +removed. The whole flower cluster is now gently pulled forward until +it arches downward. In a day or two the sap begins to drip and is then +caught in a short joint of bamboo, properly secured for the purpose. + +As a healthy tree develops at least one or more flowering racemes +every month, and the flow of sap extends frequently over a period of +two or more months, it is not uncommon to see a number of tubes in +use upon one tree. + +The workmen usually visits the tree twice daily to collect the +liquor drawn during the preceding twelve hours in the larger tube, +which he carries upon his back. He slices daily a thin shaving from +the tip of the flower, in order that the wound may be kept open and +bleeding. This process is kept up until nearly all of the flower +cluster has been cut away, or until the sap ceases to flow. + +More than a liter a day is sometimes drawn from one tree, and 5 +hectoliters is considered a fair annual average from a good bearing +tree. + +In its fresh state tuba has a sweetish, slightly astringent taste; +but, as the vessels in which it is collected are rarely cleansed, +they become traps for many varieties of insects, etc., and it is, +therefore, not a very acceptable beverage to a delicate stomach. When +purified by a mild fermentation it is far more palatable. + +A secondary fermentation of tuba results in vinegar, and on this +account, chiefly, so much space has been devoted to this feature of +the industry. The vinegar so produced is of good strength and color, of +the highest keeping qualities, and of unrivaled flavor. Its excellence +is so pronounced that upon its inherent merits it would readily find +sale in the world's markets; and, although the local demand for the +tuba now exceeds the production, its conversion into vinegar will +probably prove the more profitable industry in the future. + +Spirits are distilled and in some places sugar is still made from the +flower sap; and, while the importance of these great staples may not +be overlooked, their commercial value as products of this tree are +relatively insignificant. + + + +MINOR USES. + +In addition to eighty-three utilities described by Mr. Pereira, +[3] it is in very common use in the Philippines for: + +1. Cocoanut cream. The freshly ground fruit, reduced to a pulp and +strained, is consumed in that form or made into cakes with rice. It +makes a delicious and nutritious food. According to Dr. W. J. Gies, +in experiments lately published, [4] its nutritive value is due to +35.4 per cent of oil, about 10 per cent of carbohydrates, and 3 per +cent of protein. The amount of cellulose (fibrous matter) is only 3 +per cent, and its digestibility is easy when the mass, by grating, +is reduced to a fine degree of comminution. + +2. The "milk" or water is used sparingly as a beverage. It is also +fermented and converted into inferior vinegar. + +3. The hard shell is used as fuel. When calcined, it produces a black, +lustrous substance, used for dyeing leather. + +4. The same shell, aside from many uses quoted by Pereira, is used +here for every conceivable form of cup, ladle, scoop, and spoon. + +5. From the tough midrib of the leaf, strong and beautiful baskets of +many designs are made, also excellent and durable brooms, and from +the part where the midrib coalesces with the petiole pot-cleaning +brushes are made. + +6. The roots are sometimes used for chewing, as a substitute for +Areca. They also furnish red dyestuff and with one end finely +subdivided may be used in making toothbrushes. + +7. The leaves and midribs, when burned, furnish an ash so rich in +potash that it may be used alone in water as a substitute for soap +or when a powerful detergent is required. + +8. The fiber of the husk is used extensively by the natives for +calking boats. + +9. The milk is used in the preparation of a native dish of rice, +known as "casi." It is an excellent and highly prized dietary article, +prepared with rice or in combination with chicken or locusts. + +10. The oil, melted with resins, is an effective and lasting covering +for anything desired to be protected from the ravages of white ants. + +11. The timber is used to bridge streams and bog holes, and the slowly +decaying leaves to fill them up and render them temporarily passable. + +12. The fiber is used in cordage and rope making, but to a far less +extent here than in India. + +Its further uses are, in general, those current in the Orient. Briefly +summed up, its timber is employed in every form of house construction; +its foliage in making mats, sacks, and thatches; its fruit in curry +and sweetmeats; its oil for medicine, cookery, and illumination; +its various juices in the manufacture of wines, spirits, sugar, and +vinegar; while not to overlook a final and not inconsiderable Filipino +product, the splinters of the midrib are used in making toothpicks. + + + + + +CULTIVATION. + + +SELECTION OF LOCATION. + +In the selection of a site for a cocoanut grove it is best to select +land near the seashore and not extending inland more than 2 or 3 +miles. Within this narrow zone there is commonly a deposit of rich, +permeable, well-drained alluvium offering soil conditions of far +greater importance to successful tree growth than the mere exposure +to marine influences. The success that has followed cocoanut growing +in Cochin China, remote from the seaboard, in Annam and up the Ganges +basin one hundred or more miles from the coast, and in our own interior +Province of Laguna, definitely proves that immediate contiguity to +the sea is not essential to success. + +That the cocoanut will grow and thrive upon the immediate seashore, in +common with other plants, is simply an indication of its adaptability +to environment. That it is at a positive disadvantage as a shore plant +may be determined conclusively by anyone who will examine the root +system of a seashore-grown tree upturned by a wash or tidal wave, and +one uprooted from any cause, farther inland. It will be seen that the +root system of the maritime plant is immensely larger than the other, +and that a corresponding amount of energy has been expended in the +search through much inert material to forage for the necessary plant +food which the more favored inland species has found concentrated +within a smaller zone. + +The planting must be made in a thoroughly permeable soil. + +The thick, fleshy roots of the newly upturned palm are loaded with +water, and tell us that an inexhaustible store of this fluid is an +indispensable element of success. If further evidence of this were +required, the testimony of drooping leaves and of crops shrunken +from one-half to two-thirds, throughout the cocoanut districts and +upon our own orchard in Mindanao, as the result of drought, confirm +it and bespeak the necessity of copious water at all times. + +The living tree upon the sea sands further emphasizes this necessity; +for, while its roots are lapped by the tides, it never flags or wilts, +and from this we may gather the added value of a site which can be +irrigated. The careful observer will note that along miles of sea +beach, among hundreds of trees whose roots are either in actual contact +with the incoming waves, or subjected to the subterranean influence of +the sea, there will never be so much as one tree growing in any beach +basin which collects and holds tidal water for even a brief time; +and that, notwithstanding the large number of nuts that must have +found lodgment and favorable germinating influence in such places, +none succeed in growing. From this we may derive the assurance that +the desired water must be in motion and that land near stagnant water, +or marsh land, is unsuitable to the plant. + +It may frequently be observed that trees will be found growing +fairly thriftily upon mounds or hummocks, in places invaded by +flood or other waters which, by reason of backing or damming up, +have become stagnant. An examination of the roots of an overthrown +tree in such a locality will show that all of those in the submerged +zone have perished and rotted away, but that such is the vitality and +recuperative energy of the tree that it has thrown out a new feeding +system in the dryer soil of the mound immediately surrounding the stem, +which has been sufficient to successfully carry on the functions of +nutrition, but altogether ineffective to anchor the tree securely, +or to prevent its prostration before the first heavy gale. + +While this phase of the question will receive more attention when +we come to consider the chemistry of suitable manures, it may be +said that, although analysis of the cocoanut ash derived from +beach-grown nuts shows a larger percentage of those salts that +abound in sea water than those grown inland, yet the equal vigor, +vitality, and fruitfulness of the latter simply confirm the plant's +exceptional adaptability to environment and ability to take up and +decompose, without detriment, the salts of sea or brackish waters. As +a victim to the maritime idea, the writer in 1886 planted, far inland, +several hundred nuts in beds especially devised to reproduce littoral +conditions; shore gravel, sea sand, broken shells, and salt derived +from sea water being used in preparing the seed beds. The starting +growth was unexcelled. Then came a long period of yellowing decline +and almost suspended animation, ultimately followed by a complete +restoration to health and vigor. The early excellent growth was +due to the fact that the first nourishment of the plant is entirely +derived from the endosperm, and careful lifting of the young plants +disclosed the fact that recovery from their moribund condition was, +in every instance, coincident with the time that the roots first +succeeded in working through the unpalatable mess about them into +the outlying good, sweet soil. + +The exposure of the plantation is an important consideration, and +a maritime site should be selected in preference to one far inland, +unless it be on an open, unprotected flat, exposed to the influence +of every breeze or the fiercest gales that blow. + +The structure of the cocoanut seems well fitted to endure winds of +almost any force, and that a remarkably abundant and strong circulation +of air is essential to its best development is well shown by comparing +a tree subjected to it with the wretched, spindling specimen growing +in a sheltered glen or ravine. + +Strong confirmation of this may be found within the artificial +environment of a plant conservatory, where it is feasible to reproduce, +in the minute detail of soil, water, temperature, and humidity, +every essential to its welfare except a good, strong breeze. As a +consequence, the palm languishes and it has long been deemed, on +this account, one of the most rebellious subjects introduced into +palm-house cultivation. + + + +THE SOIL. + +The soils for cocoanut growing are best selected by the process of +exclusion. The study of the root development of the palm will prove +to be an unerring guide to proper soil selection. + +The roots of monocotyledons, to which great division this palm belongs, +are devoid of the well-defined descending axis, which is possessed +by most tree plants, and is often so strongly developed as to permit +of rock cleavage and the withdrawal of food supplies from great depths. + +The cocoanut has no such provision for its support. Its subterranean +parts are simply a mat-like expanse of thick, fleshy, worm-like +growths, devoid of any feeders other than those provided at the +extreme tips of the relatively few roots. These roots are fleshy (not +fibrous) and can not thrive in any soil through which they may not grow +freely in search of sustenance. It then becomes obvious that stiff, +tenacious, or waxy soils, however rich, are wholly unsuitable. All +very heavy lands, or those that break up into solid, impervious lumps, +and, lastly, any land underlaid near the surface with bed rocks or +impervious clays or conglomerates, are naturally excluded. All other +soils, susceptible of proper drainage, may be considered appropriate +to the growth of the palm. Spons (Encyclop.) advocates light, sandy +soils. Simmonds (Trop. Agric.) names nine different varieties suitable +for this purpose, describing each at tedious length, and laying more +or less emphasis upon a sandy mixture. These might all have been +covered by the single word "permeable." + +As a matter of fact every grain of sand in excess of that required to +secure a condition of perfect permeability is a positive disadvantage +and must be paid for by a correspondingly larger area of cultivation +and by future soil amendment. For the rest, the richer and deeper +the soil the less the expense of maintaining soil fertility. + +The preparatory work of establishing an orchard is light, provided +the location is not one demanding the opening of drainage canals, +and on lands of good porosity it involves neither subsoiling nor a +deeper plowing than to effectually cover the sod or any minor weed +growths with which it may be covered. + +It has long been the reprehensible practice of cocoanut growers to +merely dig pits, manure them, set the plants therein, and permit +the intervening lands (except immediately about the trees) to run to +weeds or jungle. + +In the Philippines the native planter has not yet progressed beyond +the pit stage, nor do his subsequent cultural activities include more +than the occasional "boloing" of such weeds as threaten to choke and +exterminate the young plants. + +Fortunately it will not be long till the force and influence of +example are sure to be felt by our own planters. The progressive +German colonist of Kamerun, German East Africa, and the South +Pacific Islands, as well as the French in Congo and Madagascar, +are vigorously practicing conventional, modern orchard methods in +the treatment of their cocoanut groves, and it is amazing to read +of discussions between Ceylon and Indian nut growers as to the best +method of tethering cattle upon cocoanut palms in pasture, so as to +obtain the most benefit from their excreta. + +With an intelligent study of the plant and its characteristics +it is believed that our native planter may put into practical use +the knowledge that the veteran Indian planter has in fifty years +failed to learn or utilize. He will learn that in time the entire +superficies of his orchard will be required by the wide-spreading, +surface-feeding roots of the trees, and that pasture crops of any +kind, grown for any purpose other than soiling or for green manuring, +are prejudicial to future success. He will know that the initial +preparation of all of his orchard and its continuous maintenance in +good cultivation are essential not only to the future welfare of +his trees but as a necessary means in connection with a judicious +intermediate crop rotation. + +Hence the preparatory requirements may be summed up as such preliminary +soil breaking as would be required for a corn crop in similar lands, +succeeded by such superficial plowings and cultivations as would be +required to raise a cotton or any other of the so-called hoed crops. + + + +SEED SELECTION. + +Preliminary to planting the very important question of seed selection +calls for close scrutiny on the planter's part. + +The small native planter is often familiar with the individual +characteristics of his trees. Owners of small estates in Cuyos and +about Zamboanga have pointed out to me trees that have the constant +fruiting habit confirmed, others that will fruit erratically, and +others that flower yet rarely bear fruit. The fruitfulness of the +first class is undoubtedly a result of accidental heredity, for the +planter has in the past made no selection except by chance, nor is the +characteristic in any way due to his cultural system, which consists +in planting the nut and letting nature and heredity do the rest. One +tree in Zamboanga, the owner assured me, had never produced less than +200 nuts annually for fully twenty-three years. Asked as to the bearing +of all of his trees (of which he owned some three hundred), he stated +that from the lot he averaged 20 nuts at a picking, five times a year, +a total of 100 nuts; that the crop of these was very fluctuating, +some years falling to 60 nuts, again running as high as 130. The +especially prized tree did not vary appreciably. In very dry seasons +the nuts shrunk somewhat in size and the copra in weight, but the yield +of nuts never fell below 200, and only once had amounted to 220. He +had raised a great number of seedlings, but it had never occurred to +him to select for planting the nuts from that particular tree. + + + +PLANTING. + +We have pointed out the necessity of selecting seed trees of known good +bearing habits, and equal care should be exercised in selecting those +the nuts of which are well formed and uniform. This precaution will +suggest itself when one observes that some trees have the habit of +producing a few very large nuts and many of very small and irregular +size and shape, and it is obviously to the planter's interest to lend +no assistance to the propagation and transmission of such traits. In +view of what has been previously stated, it is almost superfluous +earnestly to recommend planters to sow no seeds from young trees. The +principle for this contention--that no seed should be selected except +from trees of established, well-known fruiting habits--would seem to +cover the ground effectually. + +The best seed should be selected and picked when perfectly mature and +lowered to the ground. The fall from a lofty tree not infrequently +cracks the inner shell, without giving any external evidence of the +injury. A seed so injured will never sprout and therefore is worthless +for seed purposes. + +Freshly collected seed nuts contain in the husk more moisture than +is required to effect germination, and if planted in this condition, +decay is apt to set in before germination occurs. To avoid this the +natives tie them in pairs, sling them over bamboo poles where they are +exposed to the air but sheltered from the sun, and leave them until +well sprouted. It is, however, more expeditious to pile the nuts up in +small heaps of eight to ten nuts, in partial shade, where the surface +nuts may be sprinkled occasionally to prevent complete drying out. + +Germination is very erratic, sometimes occurring within a month +and sometimes extending over four, five, or more months. When the +young shoot or plumule (see illustration) has fairly thrust its way +through the fibrous husk it is a good practice to go over the heaps +and segregate those that have sprouted, carefully placing them so +that the growing tip be not deformed or distorted by the pressure +of superincumbent nuts. When these sprouts are 30 to 50 cm. high, +and a few roots have thrust through the husk, they are in the best +possible condition for permanent planting. + +First. The original preparation of the land should be good and the +surface tilth at the time of planting irreproachable; i. e., free +from weeds and so mellow that the soil can be closely and properly +pressed around the roots by hand. + +Second. The orchard should be securely protected from the invasion of +cattle, etc. It is sometimes impossible to protect orchards against +entry of these animals. If the success of these precautions can not +be assured, then the nuts had better be grown in a closely protected +nursery until about a year old, when the albumen of the seed will be +completely assimilated and will therefore no longer attract vermin, +and when the larger size of the plant will give it more protection +from stray cattle. + +In either case planting should be made concurrently with the opening of +the rainy monsoon, during which season further field operations will +not be required except when an intermittent, drier period indicates +the advisability of running the cultivator. + +The planting "pit" fetish, in such common use in India, has nothing +to commend it. If stable manures of any kind are available, a good +application at the time of planting will effect wonders in accelerating +the growth of the young plants. + +Where the necessary protection is assured, the young seedling planted +out as above recommended should start at once, without check of any +kind, into vigorous growth. + +The nursery-grown subject receives an unavoidable setback. Its roots +have been more or less mutilated and, as we may not prune the top +sufficiently to compensate for the root injury, it is generally several +months before the equilibrium of top and root is fully restored. In +most cases, by the end of the second year, it will have been far +outstripped in the growing race by the former. + +The history, habits, and characteristics of the cocoanut tree indicate +that it needs a full and free exposure to sun, air, and wind; and, +as it makes a tree, under such circumstances, of wide crown expansion, +these indispensables can not be secured except by very wide planting. + +Conventional recommendations cover all distances, from 5 to 8 meters, +with quincunx (i. e., triangular plantings) urged when the 8-meter +plan is adopted. But the writer has seen too many groves spaced at +this distance in good soil, with interlacing leaves and badly spindled +in the desperate struggle for light, air, and sun, ever to recommend +the quincunx, or any system other than the square, at distances not +less than 9 meters and, in good soils, preferably 9.5 meters. + +The former distance will allow for 123 and the latter 111 trees to +the hectare. They should be lined out with the greatest regularity, so +as to admit at all times of cross plowing and cultivation as desired. + +From this time forward the treatment is one of cultural and manurial +routine. + +Annual plowings should not be dispensed with during the life +of the plantation. These plowings may be relatively shallow, +sufficient to cover under the green manures and crops that are made +an indispensable condition to the continued profitable conduct of +the industry. Nothing is to be gained by the removal of the earliest +flowering spikes. Flowering is the congestion of sap at a special point +which, if the grower could control it, he would wish to direct, in the +case of young plants, to the building up of leaf and wood. Cutting the +inflorescence of the cocoanut results in profuse bleeding and, unless +this be checked by the use of a powerful styptic or otherwise, it is +doubtful if the desired end would be accomplished. The earlier crops +of nuts should all be taken with extension cutters or from ladders. No +shoulders for climbing should be cut in any tree, the stem of which +has not become dense, hard, and woody. Cut when the wood is the least +bit succulent, they become inviting points of attack for borers. + +With these reservations, there is everything to commend the practice +of shouldering the tree, as offering the safest, most expeditious +and economical way of making it possible to climb and secure the +harvest. It is, of course, understood that the cuts should be made +sloping outward, so as not to collect moisture and invite decay, +and no larger than is strictly necessary for the purpose. + + + +MANURING. [5] + +The manuring problem must be met and solved by the best resources at +our command. The writer has had pointed out hundred of trees that, +wholly guiltless of any direct application of manure, have borne +excellent crops for many successive years; but he has also seen +hundreds of others in their very prime, at thirty years, which once +produced a hundred select nuts per year, now producing fluctuating +and uncertain crops of fifteen to thirty inferior fruits. + +Time and again native growers have told me of the large and uniformly +continuous crops of nuts from the trees immediately overshadowing their +dwellings and, although some have attributed this to a sentimental +appreciation and gratitude on the part of the palm at being made one +of the family of the owner, a few were sensible enough to realize +that it came of the opportunity that those particular trees had to +get the manurial benefit of the household sewage and waste. + +Yet, the lesson is still unlearned and, after much diligent inquiry, +I have yet to find a nut grower in the Philippines who at any time +(except at planting) makes direct and systematic application of manure +to his trees. + +In India, Ceylon, the Penang Peninsula, and Cochin China, where the +tree has been cultivated for generations, the most that was ever +attempted until very recently was to throw a little manure in the +hole where the tree was planted, and for all future time to depend +on the inferior, grass-made droppings of a few cattle tethered among +the trees, to compensate for the half million or more nuts that a +hectare of fairly productive trees should yield during their normal +bearing life. + +Upon suitable cocoanut soils--i. e., those that are light and +permeable--common salt is positively injurious. In support of this +contention, I will state that salt in solution will break up and +freely combine with lime, making equally soluble chlorids of lime +which, of course, freely leach out in such a soil and carry down +to unavailable depths these salts, invaluable as necessary bases +to render assimilable most plant foods; and that, on this account, +commercial manures containing large amounts of salt, are always to +be used with much discretion, owing to the danger of impoverishing +the supply of necessary lime in the soil. + +Finally, so injurious is the direct application of salt to the roots +of most plants that the invariable custom of trained planters (who, +for the sake of the potash contained, are compelled to use crude +Stassfurt mineral manures, which contain large quantities of common +salt) is to apply it a very considerable time before the crop is +planted, in order that this deleterious agent should be well leached +and washed away from the immediate field of root activity. + +That the cocoanut is able to take up large quantities of salt may not +be disputed. That the character of its root is such as to enable it to +do so without the injury that would occur to most cultivated plants +I have previously shown, while the history of the cocoanut's inland +career, and the records of agricultural chemistry, both conclusively +point to the fact that its presence is an incident that in no way +contributes to the health, vigor, or fruitfulness of the tree. + +Mr. Cochran's analysis, based upon the unit of 1,000 average nuts, +weighing in the aggregate 3,125 pounds, discloses a drain upon soil +fertility for that number, amounting in round numbers to-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 8 1/4 + Potash 17 + Phosphoric acid 3 + + +Reducing this to crop and area, and taking 60 fruits per annum per tree +as a fair mean for the bearing groves in our cocoanut districts and +on those rare estates where a systematic spacing of about 173 trees +to the hectare has been made, we should have an annual harvest of +10,300 nuts, or, stated in round numbers, 10,000, which will exhaust +each year from the soil a total of-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 82 1/2 + Potash 170 + Phosphoric acid 30 + + +The cocoanut, therefore, while a good feeder, may not be classed with +the most depleting of field crops. + +To make this clear I exhibit, by way of contrast, the drafts made +by a relatively good crop of two notoriously soil-impoverishing +crops--tobacco and corn--and, on the other hand, the drafts made by +an equivalent average cotton crop--a product considered to make but +light drains upon sources of soil fertility. + +A proportionate tobacco crop of 1,000 kilos per hectare will withdraw +from the soil (reduced to the same standard of weights adopted by +Mr. Cochran)-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 168 + Potash 213 + Phosphoric acid 23 + + +An equivalent crop of shelled corn, say, of 125 bushels per hectare, +will withdraw-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 200 + Potash 135 + Phosphoric acid 75 + + +while a relative crop of lint cotton of 237 kilos (700 pounds) per +hectare [6] will only exhaust, in round numbers-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 114 + Potash 70 + Phosphoric acid 30 + + +There is an analogy between these four products that makes them +all comparable, in so far as all are largely surface feeders, and, +as experience shows that there can be no continuing success with +the last three that does not include both cultivation and manuring, +we may use the analogy to infer a like indispensable necessity for +the successful issue of the first. + +Cultivation as a manurial factor should, therefore, not be overlooked, +and all the more strongly does it become emphasized by the very +difficulties that for some years to come must beset the Philippine +planter in the way of procuring direct manures. + +When it comes to the specific application of manures and how to make +the most of our resources, we shall have to turn back to the analysis +of the nut and note that, relatively to other crops, it makes small +demands for nitrogen. At the same time it must not be forgotten that +these chemical determinations only refer to the fruit and that, +with the present incomplete data and lack of investigation of the +constituent parts of root, stem, leaf, and branch, we have nothing +to guide us but what we may infer from the behavior of the plant and +its relationship to plants of long-deferred fruition, whose manurial +wants are well understood. + +It is now the most approved orchard practice to encourage an early +development of leaf and branch by the liberal application of nitrogen, +whose stimulant actions upon growth are conceded as the best. + +In temperate regions, the exigencies of climate exact that this be +done with discretion and care, in order that the unduly stimulated +growths may be fully ripened and matured against the approach of an +inclement season. In the Tropics no such limitations exist, and the +early growth of the tree may be profitably stimulated to the highest +pitch. That this general treatment, as applied to young fruit trees, +is specifically the one indicated in the early life of the cocoanut, +may be quickly learned by him who will observe the avidity with +which the fleshy roots of a young cocoanut will invade, embrace, +and disintegrate a piece of stable manure. + +Notwithstanding lack of chemical analysis, we may not question the +fact that considerable supplies of both potash and phosphoric acid +are withdrawn in the building up of leaf and stem; but these are +found in sufficient quantity in soils of average quality to meet +the early requirements of the plant. It is only when the fruiting +age is reached that demands are made, especially upon the potash, +which the planter is called upon to make good. + +Good cultivation, the application of a generous supply of stimulating +nitrogen during its early career, and the gradual substitution in +later life of manures in which potash and phosphoric acid, particularly +the former, predominate, are necessary. + +How, then, may we best apply the nitrogen requirements of its early +life? Undoubtedly through the application of abundant supplies of +stable manures, press cakes, tankage, or of such fertilizers as furnish +nitrogen in combination with the large volume of humus necessary to +minister to the gross appetite of the plant under consideration. But +the chances are that none of these are available, and the planter +must have recourse to some of the green, nitrogen-gathering manures +that are always at his command. + +He must sow and plow under crops of pease, beans, or other legumes +that will furnish both humus and nitrogen in excess of what they +remove. Incidentally, they will draw heavily upon the potash deposits +of the soil, and they must all be turned back, or, if fed, every +kilo of the resulting manure must be scrupulously returned. He must +pay for the cultivation of the land, for the growing of crops that +he turns back as manure (and that involves further expense for their +growing and plowing under), and, in addition, he must be subject to +such outlay for about seven years before he can begin to realize for +the time and labor expended. + +But there are expedients to which the planter may have recourse +which, if utilized, may return every dollar of cultural outlay. By +the use of a wise rotation he can not only maintain his land in a good +productive condition but realize a good biennial crop that will keep +the plantation from being a financial drag. The rotation that occurs +to me as most promising on the average cocoanut lands of these Islands +would be, first, a green manure crop, followed by corn and legumes, +succeeded by cotton, and then back to green manures. + +To make the first green crop effective as a manure, both lime and +potash are essential--the former to make available the nitrogen we +hope to gather, and the potash in order to secure the largest and +quickest growth of the pulse we are to raise for manurial purposes. + +Both these elements are generally in good supply in our cocoanut lands; +but, if there is uncertainty upon this point, both should be supplied, +in some form. Fortunately, the former is cheap and abundant in most +parts of the Archipelago, and, when well slaked, may be freely applied +with benefit, at the rate of a ton or even more to the hectare. + +In default of the mineral potash salts, the grower must seek unleached +wood ashes, either by burning his own unused jungle land to procure +them or by purchasing them from the neighbor who has such land to +burn over. If located on the littoral, he will carefully collect +all the seaweed that is blown in, although in our tropical waters +the huge and abundant marine algae are mostly lacking. Such as are +found, however, furnish a not inconsiderable amount of potash, and, +in the extremities to which planters remote from commercial centers +are driven, no source is too inconsiderable to be overlooked. + +The first green crop selected will be one known to be of tropical +origin which, with fair soil conditions, will not fail to give a good +yield. He may with safety try any of the native rank-growing beans, +or cowpeas, soja, or velvet beans; or, if these are not procurable, he +has at command everywhere an unstinted seed supply of Cajanus indicus, +or of Clitorea ternatea, which will as well effect the desired end--to +wit, a great volume of humus and a new soil supply of nitrogen. It +remains for the planter to determine if the crop thus grown is to +be plowed under, or if he will use it to still better advantage by +partially feeding it, subject, as previously stated, to an honest +return to the land of all the manure resulting therefrom. + +He may utilize it in any way, even to selling the resulting seed +crop, provided all the remaining brush is turned back to the land +and a portion of the money he receives for the seed be reinvested in +high-grade potash and phosphatic manures. The plantation should now +be in fair condition for a corn crop, and, as a very slight shading +is not prejudicial to the young palms, the corn can be planted close +enough to the trees, leaving only sufficient space to admit of the +free cultivation that both require. + +It must not be forgotten that corn makes the most serious inroads +upon our soil fertility of any of the crops in our rotation, and, +unless by this time the planter is prepared to feed all the grain +produced to fatten swine or cattle, it had better be eliminated from +the rotation and peanuts substituted. In addition to this, he must +still make good whatever drains the corn will have made upon this +element of soil fertility. + +Cropping to corn attacks the cocoanut at a new and vulnerable point, +against which the careful grower must make provision. It will be +remembered that an average corn crop makes very considerable drafts +upon the soil supply of phosphoric acid; but, if the grain is used +for fattening swine, whose manure is much richer in phosphates than +most farm manures, and the latter is restored to the land, serious +soil impoverishment may be averted. + +The next step in our suggested rotation is the cotton crop. Here, +too, limitations are imposed upon the planter who is without abundant +manurial resources to maintain the future integrity of his grove. He +may sell the lint from his cotton, but he can not dispose of it +(as is frequently done here) in the seed. + +If the enterprise be not upon a scale that will justify the equipment +of a mill and the manufacture of the oil, he has no alternative but +to return the seed in lieu of the seed cake, wasteful and extravagant +though such a process be. + +The oil so returned is without manurial value and, if left in the +seed, is so much money wasted. The rational process, of course, +calls for the return of the press cake, either direct or in the form +of manure after it has been fed. With this is also secured the hull, +rich in both the potash and the phosphoric acid [7] which we now know +is so essential to the future welfare of the grove. + +The above rotation is simply suggested as a tentative expedient. + +The ground will now be so shaded that we can not hope to raise more +catch crops for harvesting, although it may be possible during the +dry season to raise a partial stand of pulses, of manure value only; +but, from the fruiting stage on, this becomes a minor consideration. + +This stage of the cultural story brings us once more face to face +with the principle contended for at the beginning of this paper, +namely, that there can be no permanent prosperity in this branch of +horticulture until the crop is so worked up into its ultimate products +that none of the residue of manufacture goes to waste. + +At best the return of these side products is insufficient, and, despite +their careful husbandry, we can not ultimately evade a greater or less +resort to inorganic manures of high cost and difficult procurement. + +The residue from the press cake is rich in nitrogen and humus, which, +in the ever-increasing shade of the grove, will become more and more +difficult to produce there through nitrogen-making agencies; but the +waste from the manufacture of coir and the ashes from the woody shell +will go far toward supplying the needed potash. + +Such a system would, if closely followed, practically restrict the +farmer's ultimate purchases to a small quantity of acid phosphates, +or of bone dust, which, in conjunction with good tillage, should +serve to maintain the grove in a highly productive condition for an +indefinite term of years. + + + +IRRIGATION. + +As an auxiliary manurial agent of definite, well-proven value in this +Archipelago, I will briefly recite some of the benefits that may be +expected to follow occasional irrigation during the dry season. + +It strongly accelerates growth and early maturity. A few irrigated +trees, reputed to be under five years from seed and already bearing +fruit, were shown the writer on the Island of Jolo. The growth was +remarkably strong and vigorous, notwithstanding that the water of +irrigation had been applied in such a way that the tree could only +hope to derive a minimum of benefit from its application. It had merely +been turned on from a convenient ditch whenever the soil seemed baked +and dry, at intervals of one to three weeks, as circumstances seemed +to require. + +Irrigation, but always in connection with subsequent cultivation, +may be considered equal to a crop guaranty that is not afforded so +effectually by any purely cultural system. + +Rarely has a better opportunity occurred to demonstrate the +unquestioned benefits that have inured to these few Jolo trees from +the use of irrigating waters than the present season of 1902-3. From +many sources reports come to this Bureau of trees failing, or dying +outright, from lack of moisture. While it is true that the present +dry season has had no parallel since 1885-86, and that the rainfall +during the dry season has been less than half the normal, yet it +should not be forgotten that, during the eight months from October to +May, inclusive, the average precipitation on the west coast, at the +latitude of Manila, is only about 460 mm. and that, when the amount +falls below this, the cocoanut is bound to suffer. + +Though it is true that the evil effects of drought may be modified, +if not altogether controlled, by cultivation, the assistance of +irrigation places the cultivator in an impregnable position. If +evidence in support of this statement were called for, it might be +found to-day in the deplorable condition of those groves that have +been permitted to run to pasture, as compared with those in which some +attempts have been made to bolo out the encroaching weeds and grasses. + +It is probably true that, except on very sandy soils, continued surface +irrigation would aggravate the superficial root-developing tendency +of the tree; and to what extent, if any, occasional laceration by +deep shovel tooth cultivation would injure the tree remains to be +seen. There are, however, few economic plants that so quickly repair +root damage as the Palmae, and, unless the seat of injury extends over +a very large area, it is probable that the resulting injury would be +of no consequence, as compared with the general benefits that would +result from irrigation. + + + + + +HARVEST. + + +Harvest of the crop requires but a brief discussion. The nuts should +be plucked when ripe. The phenomenon of maturity can not be readily +described in print. It frequently is as evident in nuts of a bright +green color as in those of a golden-yellow color, and the recognition +is one of those things that can only be learned by experience. + +The practice, so general in the Seychelles, of allowing the nut to +hang till it falls to the ground is certainly undesirable in these +Islands. On the contrary, the overripe nuts will seldom fall until +dislodged by a storm, and it is no uncommon thing to see nuts that +have sprouted and started to grow upon trees in plantations where the +harvest is left to the action of natural causes. Such nuts, of course, +are entirely worthless for the manufacture of oil or copra, and even +the husk has depreciated in value, the finest coirs, in fact, being +derived only from the fruits that have not attained full ripeness. In +any case, the nuts should be picked and the crop worked up before any +considerable enlargement or swelling of the embryo occurs. From this +time onward physiological changes arise which injuriously affect the +quantity and quality of what is called the meat. + +The heaping up of the nuts for some time after harvest favors some milk +absorption, which seems to facilitate the subsequent easy extraction +of the endosperm. + + + + + +ENEMIES. + + +Outside of certain insects of the order Coleoptera, cocoanuts in +the Philippines are reasonably free from enemies; in some districts, +close to forest-clad areas, the raids of monkeys do some damage. A +tree-nesting rat, which nibbles the young nuts, is also a source of +considerable loss. The rat is best overcome by frequent disturbance of +his quarters. This involves the removal of the dead leaves and thatch +that form constantly about the base of the crown. But the wisdom of +this recommendation will depend entirely upon circumstances. As the +planter may find that rats or the rhinoceros beetle are the lesser +evil, so should he be governed. + +There are localities in the Archipelago where the plague of rats +is unknown and where the beetles abound. In that case it would be +unwise to disturb the leaves which are very tardily deciduous and +do not naturally fall till the wood beneath is hard, mature, and +practically impervious to the attacks of insects. + +Where rats are numerous and insects few, which is the case in some +localities, the dead and dying leaves, among which the rat nests, +may be advantageously cleared away whenever the tree is climbed to +harvest the fruit. + +Among serious insect enemies we have to contend largely with the very +obnoxious black beetle, Oryctes rhinocerus, and, fortunately, to a +lesser extent, with Rhynchoporus ferrugineous (probably the same as +R. ochreatus of Eydoux), while R. pascha, Boehm, and Chalcosma atlas, +Linn., are also said to appear occasionally. + +However different their mode of attack, the general result is the +same, and their presence may surely be detected by the appearance of +deformed or badly misshapen or lacerated leaves. + +The attacks of all species are confined to the growing point and as +far downward as the wood is tender and susceptible to the action of +their powerful mandibles. + +The black beetle makes its attacks when fully mature, eating its way +into the soft tissues and generally selecting the axil of a young +leaf as the point of least resistance. Others simply deposit their +eggs, which hatch out, and the resulting grub is provided with jaws +powerful enough to do the same mischief. Two or three of these grubs, +if undisturbed, are sufficient in time to completely riddle the +growing tip, which then falls over and the tree necessarily dies. + + + + + +REMEDIES. + + +Remedies may be described as preventive and aggressive, and, by an +active campaign of precaution, many subsequent remedial applications +can be avoided. + +Most of the beetles attacking the palm are known to select heaps of +decomposing rubbish and manure as their favorite (if not necessary) +breeding places, and it is obviously of importance to break up and +destroy such; nor can any better or more advantageous way of effecting +this be suggested than by promptly spreading and plowing under all such +accumulations as fast as they are made; or, if this be impracticable, +by forking or turning over or otherwise disturbing the heaps, until +convenient to dispose of them as first suggested. + +A truly preventive and simple remedy, and one that I can commend as a +result of close observation, is the application of a handful or two +of sharp, coarse, clean sand in the axillae of the young leaves. The +native practice is to mix this with ashes, salt, or tobacco dust; +but it is questionable if the efficacy of the remedy lies so much in +these additions as in the purely mechanical effect of the sand, the +constant attrition of which can not be other than highly objectionable +to the insect while burrowing. + +Of offensive remedies, probing with a stout hooked wire is the only +form of warfare carried on in these Islands; but, as the channel of the +borer is sometimes tortuous and deep, this is not always effective. A +certain, simple, and easily applied remedy may be found in carbon +bisulphid. It could be applied in the holes (which invariably trend +downward) with a small metal syringe. The hole should be sealed +immediately with a pinch of stiff, moist clay. + +It is likely that this remedy and probing with a wire are the only +successful ways of combatting the red beetle, whose grub strikes in +wherever it finds a soft spot; but, for these species which attack +the axils of the leaves, I have great faith in the efficacy of the +"sand cure," and no nut picker should go aloft unprovided with a small +bamboo tube of dry, sifted sand, to protect the bases of recently +expanded leaves. + +In Selangor cocoanut trees now come under the government inspection, +and planters and owners, under penalties, are compelled to destroy +these pests. Mr. L. C. Brown, of Kuala Lampur, in that State, +who writes intelligently on this subject, [8] lays great stress on +the value of clean cultivation in subduing beetles, and repeats a +cultural axiom that never grows old and that will, consequently, +bear reiteration here--that it is rarely anything but the neglected +plantation that suffers, and that the maintenance at all times of a +healthy, vigorous growth is in itself almost a guaranty of immunity +from attacks of these pernicious insects. + +While we, unfortunately, know that this is not in all cases an assured +protection against diseases or insect enemies, it certainly minimizes +the danger and, in itself, is a justification of the high-pressure +cultural treatment advocated throughout the preceding pages. + + + + + +RENOVATION OF OLD GROVES. + + +Material improvement of old plantations may sometimes be effected +and, unless the trees are known to be upward of fifty years old, +generally repays the labor. Marked increase in crop has followed a +heavy thinning out of trees upon the Government cocoanut farm at San +Ramon, Mindanao. The improvement that a freer circulation of air and +abundant sunlight have effected is very marked. Where it can be done, +plowing is also sometimes feasible and should be followed by immediate +crop improvement. The average native plow is not so well adapted for +working over an old or neglected grove as it is for original soil +preparation. It acts more as a subsoiler and will tear and lacerate +more roots than is desirable. A single carabao, or one-horse American +garden plow, is the better implement for this work. Extensive bat guano +deposits are found in Mindoro, Guimaras, and Luzon. Some of them show +richness in nitrogen and, when accessible at a moderate cost, would +be useful in the renovation of old groves, where the shade would be +adverse to the rearing of good crops of nitrogen gatherers. + + + + + +CONCLUSION. + + +1. There are large areas throughout the littoral valleys of the +Archipelago, as yet unexploited, which, in the essentials of soil, +climate, irrigation facilities, and general environment are suitable +for cocoanut growing. + +2. The present conditions present especially flattering attractions +to cocoanut growers capable of undertaking the cultivation upon a +scale of some magnitude. By cooperation, small estates could combine +in the common ownership of machinery, whereby the products of the +grove could be converted into more profitable substances than copra. + +3. The present production of copra (estimated at 278,000 piculs in +1902) is an assurance of a sufficient supply to warrant the erection +of a high-class modern plant for the manufacture of the ultimate (the +"butter") products of the nut. The products of such an enterprise would +be increased by the certainty of a local market in the Philippines for +some part of the output. The average market value of the best grades of +copra in the Marseilles market is $54.40, gold, per English ton. The +jobbing value on January 1 of this year, of the refined products, +were, for each ton of copra: + + + Butter fats $90.00 + Residual soap oils 21.00 + Press cake 5.20 + ------ + Total 116.20 + + +the difference representing the profit per ton, less the cost of +manufacture. + +4. The minimum size of a plantation, on which economical application +of oil and fiber preparing machinery could be made, is 60 hectares. + +5. There is no other horticultural tropical product which may be grown +in these Islands where crop assurance may be so nearly guaranteed, +or natural conditions so nearly controlled by the planter who, +knowing correct principles, has the facilities for applying them. + +6. The natural enemies and diseases of the plant are relatively few, +easily held in check by vigilance and the exercise of competent +business management. + +7. The labor situation is bound more seriously to affect the small +planter, wholly dependent upon hand labor, than the estate conducted +on a large enough scale to justify the employment of modern machinery. + +8. In view of an ever-expanding demand for cocoanut products, and in +the light of the foregoing conclusions, the industry, when prosecuted +upon a considerable scale and subject to the requirements previously +set forth, promises for many years to be one of the most profitable +and desirable enterprises which command the attention of the Filipino +planter. + +The greatest mine of horticultural wealth which is open to the shrewd +planter lies in the heaps of waste and neglected husks that he can +now procure from adjoining estates for the asking and cartage. + +With labor at 1 peso per diem and at the present price of potash and +phosphoric acid, all the husks in excess of 300 per diem which could +be hauled would be clear profit. The ashes of these, when burned and +applied to the old grove, would have an immediate and revivifying +influence. + +Many trees in an old plantation have ceased to bear. Whether this is +due to exhaustion from old age or from soil exhaustion is immaterial; +each should be eradicated and the time-honored custom of replanting +a fresh tree in its place abandoned. These renewals are difficult +enough in any fruit or nut orchard where the scientific cultural +conditions have been of the best. Renewals in a cocoanut grove, +unless the vacant space is abnormally large and can be subjected to +some years of soil improvement, are unprofitable. + +There is a wide range of opinion as to the bearing life of a cocoanut +tree. It is said to vary from thirty to one hundred and thirty +years. Grown more than forty, or possibly fifty years old, the writer +would hesitate to undertake the improvement or renewal of the grove. + +Palms, unlike exogenous trees, afford no evidence by which their +age may be determined. In general, with advanced years, come great +height and great attenuation. In the open, and where fully exposed +to atmospheric influences, these form an approximate criterion of +age. The so-called annular scars, marking the earlier attachments of +leaves, furnish no clue to age. + + + + + +NOTES + + +[1] "The Prince of Palms," Treloar. + +[2] The cocoanut palm has been reared as far north as Indian River, +Florida, latitude 28 deg. N., but has not proven a profitable commercial +venture. + +[3] Quoted in "Watts's Dict.," II, 456. + +[4] Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 1902. + +[5] Throughout this paper the writer uses this word in preference to +"fertilizing" even when speaking of so-called "commercial fertilizers." + +[6] Farmers' Bulletin 114, United States Department of Agriculture. + +[7] Conn. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1897, Part II. + +[8] Ag. Bull. Fed. Malay States, February, 1903. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Cocoanut, by William S. 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