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diff --git a/old/33844.txt b/old/33844.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..457f9ca --- /dev/null +++ b/old/33844.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1948 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Cocoanut, by William S. Lyon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Cocoanut + With reference to its products and cultivation in the Philippines + +Author: William S. Lyon + +Release Date: October 7, 2010 [EBook #33844] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COCOANUT *** + + + + +Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project +Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously +made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + Bureau of Agriculture. + + + Farmer's Bulletin No. 8. + + THE COCOANUT + + With Reference to Its Products and Cultivation + in the Philippines. + + + + By + + WILLIAM S. LYON, + + In charge of Division of Plant Industry. + + + Manila: + Bureau of Public Printing. + 1903. + + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + Page. + + Letter of transmittal 4 + Introduction 5 + History 5 + Botany 6 + Uses 6 + Copra and cocoanut oil 6 + Coir 10 + Tuba 12 + Minor uses 13 + Cultivation 14 + Selection of location 14 + The soil 16 + Seed selection 17 + Planting 18 + Manuring 21 + Irrigation 27 + Harvest 28 + Enemies 28 + Remedies 29 + Renovation of old groves 30 + Conclusion 30 + + + + + +LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. + + +Bureau of Agriculture, + + Manila, June 1, 1903. + +Sir: In responding to numerous inquiries about the cocoanut, its +uses, cultivation, and preparation for market, I have prepared, +by your direction, the accompanying bulletin, which is intended to +cover the general field of the inquiries addressed to this Bureau, +and herewith submit the same, with the recommendation that it be +published as Farmers' Bulletin No. 8. + + + Respectfully, + + Wm. S. Lyon, + In Charge of Division of Plant Industry. + + To Hon. F. Lamson-Scribner, + Chief Bureau of Agriculture, Manila. + + + + + +THE COCOANUT. + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The following pages are written chiefly in the interests of the +planter, but the writer feels that the great agricultural importance +which the cocoanut palm is bound to assume in these Islands is +sufficient to justify the presentation of some of its history and +botany. + +For that part of the bulletin which touches upon the botany of the +cocoanut I am indebted to Don Regino Garcia, associate botanist of the +Forestry Bureau; for that relating to its products and local uses, to +the courtesy of manufacturers in Laguna; and, for the rest, to personal +experience and observations made in Laguna Province and in the southern +Visayan Islands where, as elsewhere in this Archipelago, the cocoanut +may properly be considered a spontaneous and not a cultivated product. + + + + + +HISTORY. + + +The legendary history of the "Prince of Palms," [1] as it has been +called, dates back to a period when the Christian era was young, +and its history is developing day by day in some new and striking +manifestation of its utility or beauty. It seems not unreasonable to +assume that much of the earlier traditionary history of the cocoanut +may have been inspired as much by its inherent beauty as by its +uses. Such traditional proverbs Or folklore as I have gathered in +the Visayas recognize the influence of the beautiful, in so far as +the blessings of the trees only inure to the good; for instance, +"He who is cruel to his beast or his family will only harvest barren +husks from the reproving trees that witness the pusillanimous act;" +and, again, "He who grinds the poor will only grind water instead of +fat oil from the meat." + +To this day the origin of the cocoanut is unknown. De Candolle (Origin +of Cult. Plants, p. 574) recites twelve specific claims pointing to +an Asiatic origin, and a single, but from a scientific standpoint +almost unanswerable, contention for an American derivation. None of +the remaining nineteen species of the genus Cocos are known to exist +elsewhere in the world than on the American continent. His review of +the story results in the nature of a compromise, assigning to our +own Islands and those to the south and west of us the distinction +of having first given birth to the cocoanut, and that thence it was +disseminated east and west by ocean currents. + + + + + +BOTANY. + + +The cocoanut (Cocos nucifera Linn.) is the sole oriental representative +of a tropical genus comprising nineteen species, restricted, with +this single exception, to the New World. + +Its geographical distribution is closely confined to the two +Tropics. [2] + +Not less than nineteen varieties of C. nucifera are described by +Miquel and Rumphius, and all are accepted by Filipino authors. + +Whether all of these varieties are constant enough to deserve +recognition need not be considered here. Many are characterized by +the fruits being distinctly globular, others by fruits of a much +prolonged oval form, still others by having the lower end of the +fruit terminating in a triangular point. + +In the Visayas there is a variety in which the fibrous outer husk +of the nut is sweet and watery, instead of dry and astringent, and +is chewed by the natives like sugar cane. Another variety occurs in +Luzon, known as "Pamocol," the fruit of which seldom exceeds 20 cm. in +diameter. There is also a dwarf variety of the palm, which rarely +exceeds 3 meters in height, and is known to the Tagalogs as "Adiavan." + +These different varieties are strongly marked, and maintain their +characters when reproduced from seed. + + + + + +USES. + + +The cocoanut furnishes two distinct commercial products--the dried +meat of the nut, or copra, and the outer fibrous husk. These products +are so dissimilar that they should be considered separately. + + + +COPRA AND COCOANUT OIL. + +Until very recent years the demand for the "meat" of the cocoanut +or its products was limited to the uses of soap boilers and +confectioners. Probably there is no other plant in the vegetable +kingdom which serves so many and so varied purposes in the domestic +economy of the peoples in whose countries it grows. Within the past +decade chemical science has produced from the cocoanut a series of +food products whose manufacture has revolutionized industry and placed +the business of the manufacturer and of the producer upon a plane of +prosperity never before enjoyed. + +There has also been a great advance in the processes by which the +new oil derivatives are manufactured. The United States took the +initiative with the first recorded commercial factories in 1895. In +1897 the Germans established factories in Mannheim, but it remained +for the French people to bring the industry to its present perfection. + +According to the latest reports of the American consul at Marseilles, +the conversion of cocoanut oil into dietetic compounds was undertaken +in that city in 1900, by Messrs. Rocca, Tassy and de Roux, who in +that year turned out an average of 25 tons per month. During the year +just closed (1902) their average monthly output exceeded 6,000 tons +and, in addition to this, four or five other large factories were +all working together to meet the world's demand for "vegetaline," +"cocoaline," or other products with suggestive names, belonging to +this infant industry. + +These articles are sold at gross price of 18 to 20 cents per kilo to +thrifty Hollandish and Danish merchants, who, at the added cost of a +cent or two, repack them in tins branded "Dairy Butter" and, as such, +ship them to all parts of the civilized world. It was necessary to +disguise the earlier products by subjecting them to trituration with +milk or cream; but so perfect is the present emulsion that the plain +and unadulterated fats now find as ready a market as butter. These +"butters" have so far found their readiest sale in the Tropics. + +The significance of these great discoveries to the cocoanut planter can +not be overestimated, for to none of these purely vegetable fats do the +prejudices attach that so long and seriously have handicapped those +derived from animal margarin or margarin in combination with stearic +acid, while the low fusion point of pure dairy butters necessarily +prohibits their use in the Tropics, outside of points equipped with +refrigerating plants. The field, therefore, is practically without +competition, and the question will no longer be that of finding a +market, but of procuring the millions of tons of copra or oil that +this one industry will annually absorb in the immediate future. + +Cocoanut oil was once used extensively in the manufacture of fine +candles, and is still occasionally in demand for this purpose in the +Philippines, in combination with the vegetable tallow of a species +of Stillingia. It is largely consumed in lamps, made of a tumbler or +drinking glass half filled with water, on top of which float a few +spoonfuls of oil, into which the wick is plunged. In remote barrios it +is still in general use as a street illuminant, and so perfect is its +combustion that under a constant flicker it emits little or no smoke. + +When freshly expressed, the oil is an exceptionally good cooking fat, +and enters largely into the dietary of our own people. The medicinal +uses of the oil are various, and in the past it has been strongly +advocated for the cure of eczema, burns, as a vermifuge, and even +as a substitute for cod-liver oil in phthisis. Its medicinal virtues +are now generally discredited, except as a restorative agent in the +loss of hair resulting from debilitating fevers. Its value in this +direction may be surmised from the splendid heads of hair possessed +by the Filipino women, who generally use the oil as a hair dressing. + +Cocoanut oil is derived from the fleshy albumen or meat of the ripe +fruit, either fresh or dried. The thoroughly dried meat is variously +known as copra, coprax, and copraz. The exportation of copra is +detrimental to the best interests of the planter, tending to enrich +the manufacturer and impoverish the grower. The practice, however, +is so firmly established that the writer can only record a probably +futile protest against its continuance. + +The causes which for a long time will favor the exportation of copra +instead of oil in this Archipelago may be briefly stated as follows: + +(1) An oil-milling plant, constructed with due regard to economy of +labor and the production of the best quality of oil, would involve +an outlay of capital of $2,500, gold, and upward, according to +capacity. The production of copra requires the labor of the planter's +hands only. + +(2) The oil packages must be well-made barrels, casks, or metallic +receptacles. The initial cost of the packages is consequently great, +their return from distant ports impracticable, and their sale value +in the market of delivery is not sufficient to offset the capital +locked up in an unproductive form. On the other hand, copra may be +sold or shipped in boxes, bags, sacks, and bales, or it may even be +stored in bulk in the ship's hold. + +(3) When land transportation has to be considered, the lack of good +roads still further impedes the oil maker. He can not change the +size and weight of his packages from day to day to meet the varying +passability of the trail. On the other hand, packages of copra may +be adjusted to meet all emergencies, and the planter can thus take +advantage of the market conditions which may be denied to the oil +maker. + +(4) Perhaps the most serious difficulty the oil maker has to contend +with is the continuous discouragement he encounters from the agent +of foreign factories, who buys in the open market and, bidding up to +nearly the full oil value of the copra, finds an ample manufacturer's +profit paid by the press cake, so valuable abroad, but, unfortunately, +practically without sale or value here. The residue from the mill may +be utilized both for food and for manure by the oil maker who is a +tree owner and who maintains cattle. For either of these purposes +its value rates closely up to cotton-seed cake, and the time is +not remote when it will be recognized in the Philippines as far +too valuable a product to be permitted to be removed from the farm +excepting at a price which will permit of the purchase at a less +figure of an equivalent in manure. So active are the copra-buying +agents in controlling this important branch of the industry, that +they refuse to buy the press cake at any price, with the result that, +in two instances known to the writer, they have forced the closure +of oil-milling plants and driven the oil maker back to his copra. + +Many copra-making plants in India and Ceylon are now supplied with +decorticating, breaking, and evaporating machinery. The process +employed in this Archipelago consists in first stripping the ripe +fruit of the outer fibrous husk. This is effected by means of a stout, +steel spearhead, whose shaft or shank is embedded firmly in the soil +to such a depth that the spear point projects above the ground rather +less than waist high. The operator then holds the nut in his hands +and strikes it upon the spear point, gives it a downward, rotary +twist, and thus, with apparent ease, quickly removes the husk. An +average operator will husk 1,000 nuts per day, and records have been +made of a clean up of as many as 3,000 per day. The work, however, +is exceedingly hard, and involves great dexterity and wrist strength. + +Another man now takes up the nut and with a bolo strikes it a smart +blow in the middle, dividing it into two almost equal parts. These +parts are spread out and exposed to the sun for a few hours, or such +time as may be necessary to cause the fleshy albumen to contract and +shrink away from the hard outer shell, so that the meat may be easily +detached with the fingers. + +Weather permitting, the meat thus secured is sun dried for a day +and then subjected to the heat of a slow fire for several hours. In +some countries this drying is now effected by hot-air driers, and a +very white and valuable product secured; but in the Philippines the +universal practice is to spread out the copra upon what may be called +a bamboo grill, over a smoky fire made of the shells and husks, just +sufficient heat being maintained not to set fire to the bamboo. The +halves, when dried, are broken by hand into still smaller irregular +fragments, and subjected to one or two days of sun bath. By this time +the moisture has been so thoroughly expelled that the copra is now +ready to be sacked or baled and stored away for shipment or use. + +All modern cocoanut-oil mills are supplied with a decorticator armed +with revolving discs that tear or cut through the husk longitudinally, +freeing the nut from its outer covering and leaving the latter in +the best possible condition for the subsequent extraction of its +fiber. This decorticator is fed from a hopper and is made of a size +and capacity to husk from 500 to 1,000 nuts per hour. + +Rasping and grinding machinery of many patterns and makes, for +reducing the meat to a pulp, is used in India, Ceylon, and China; +and, although far more expeditious, offers no improvements, so far +as concerns the condition to which the meats are reduced, over the +methods followed in the Philippines. Here the fleshy halves of the +meat are held by hand against a rapidly revolving, half-spherical +knife blade which scrapes and shaves the flesh down to a fine degree +of comminution. The resulting mass is then macerated in a little water +and placed in bags and subjected to pressure, and the milky juice which +flows therefrom is collected in receivers placed below. This is now +drawn off into boilers and cooked until the clear oil is concentrated +upon the surface. The oil is then skimmed off and is ready for market. + +The process outlined above is very wasteful. The processes I have seen +in operation are very inadequate, and I estimate that, not less than +10 per cent of the oil goes to loss in the press cake. This is a loss +that does not occur in establishments equipped with the best hydraulic +presses. It is true that very heavy pressure carries through much +coloring matter not withdrawn by the primitive native mill, and that +the oil is consequently darker, and sooner undergoes decomposition; +but modern mills are now supplied with filtration plants through +which this objection is practically overcome. + +The principles of the above process are daily reproduced in thousands +of Filipino homes, where the hand rasping of the nut, the expression +of the milky juice through coarse cloth, its subsequent boiling down +in an open pan, and the final skimming off of the oil are in common +practice. Notwithstanding the cheapness of labor, it is only by +employing a mill well equipped with decorticating, rasping, hydraulic +crushing, and steam-boiling machinery, and with facilities to convert +the residue to feeding or other uses, that one may hopefully enter +the field of oil manufacture in these Islands in competition with +copra buyers. + + + +COIR. + +The fiber of the cocoanut husk, or coir, as it is commercially known, +has never yet been utilized in this Archipelago, excepting occasionally +for local consumption. + +Second in value only to the copra, this product has been allowed to +go to waste. The rejected husks are thrown together in immense heaps, +which are finally burned and the ashes, exceedingly rich in potash +and phosphoric acid, are left to blow away. + +As the commercial value of the fiber is greater than the manurial +value of the salts therein, it is economy to utilize the fiber and +purchase potash and phosphoric acid when needed to enrich the soil. + +Highly improved and inexpensive power machinery for the complete and +easy extraction of the fibers of the husk, either wet or dry, is now +rapidly superseding the tedious hand process once in such general +use. Good patterns of machinery are shown in the "husk-crushing mill" +(fig. 1) and in the "fiber extractor" (fig. 2). The first breaks, +crushes, and flattens out the husks by means of powerful, fluted metal +rollers and, in the second the broken husks are fed over a revolving +drum set with teeth especially devised for tearing out the fiber from +the entire mass. Finally, it is fed into one of the many forms of +"willowing" machines, which reduces the mass to clean fiber, which +is now ready for grading, baling, and shipment. The residual dust +and waste from this operation may be used as an absorbent for liquid +manures, and ultimately returned to the plantation. The yield of fiber +varies from 12 to 25 quintals of coir and 4 to 7 quintals of brush +fiber per 10,000 average husks. In the Philippines the nuts yield +a large amount of fiber and a relatively small percentage of chaff +and dust. With improved machinery and careful handling, 18 quintals +of spinning coir and 5 quintals of bristle fiber from every 10,000 +husks is a fair estimate of the product. + +As the cost of manufacture is generally rated at one-half the selling +price, and as we must add a further charge of 20 per cent to cover +freight and commission, we have resulting from the sale of the 23 +quintals, or 2,300 kilos, at L16 per English ton, a balance of L11 +11s. per hectare. + +But there are other considerations which should not be overlooked. The +husks of 10,000 cocoanuts will withdraw from the land 61.5 kilos of +potash and 3 kilos of phosphoric acid, and the restoration of the full +amount is called for to compensate for the growing wants of the tree, +in addition to that withdrawn by the crop. The necessary fertilizers +are worth, approximately, 5 1/2d. per kilo, making a further reduction +of L1 8s. and leaving as a net profit L10 3s., or, reduced to American +money, nearly $50, gold, per hectare. + +The machines above referred to will cost $800, gold, and $1,200 +additional will purchase and house the power necessary to operate +them. Such a plant will work up 1,000 nuts a day, and handle in a +year the output of a grove of 30 hectares. With the addition of two +or more fiber extractors the capacity of the plant may be doubled +without material expense, and it should rather more than pay its +entire cost in one year. + + + +TUBA. + +Tuba is the fresh or mildly fermented sap drawn from the inflorescence +of the cocoanut. + +There are no figures or data of any kind available as a basis for an +estimate as to the importance of this product, but its extent may be +inferred from the fact that the outlying groves about Cebu, Iloilo, +and the larger Visayan towns are practically devoted to the production +of tuba, and not to the manufacture of copra. + +Tuba is collected from the unexpanded blossoms as soon as they have +fairly pushed through the subtending bracts. To prevent any lateral +expansion, the flowers are tied with strips of the green leaf blade +and then, with a sharp knife, an inch or two of the extreme tip is +removed. The whole flower cluster is now gently pulled forward until +it arches downward. In a day or two the sap begins to drip and is then +caught in a short joint of bamboo, properly secured for the purpose. + +As a healthy tree develops at least one or more flowering racemes +every month, and the flow of sap extends frequently over a period of +two or more months, it is not uncommon to see a number of tubes in +use upon one tree. + +The workmen usually visits the tree twice daily to collect the +liquor drawn during the preceding twelve hours in the larger tube, +which he carries upon his back. He slices daily a thin shaving from +the tip of the flower, in order that the wound may be kept open and +bleeding. This process is kept up until nearly all of the flower +cluster has been cut away, or until the sap ceases to flow. + +More than a liter a day is sometimes drawn from one tree, and 5 +hectoliters is considered a fair annual average from a good bearing +tree. + +In its fresh state tuba has a sweetish, slightly astringent taste; +but, as the vessels in which it is collected are rarely cleansed, +they become traps for many varieties of insects, etc., and it is, +therefore, not a very acceptable beverage to a delicate stomach. When +purified by a mild fermentation it is far more palatable. + +A secondary fermentation of tuba results in vinegar, and on this +account, chiefly, so much space has been devoted to this feature of +the industry. The vinegar so produced is of good strength and color, of +the highest keeping qualities, and of unrivaled flavor. Its excellence +is so pronounced that upon its inherent merits it would readily find +sale in the world's markets; and, although the local demand for the +tuba now exceeds the production, its conversion into vinegar will +probably prove the more profitable industry in the future. + +Spirits are distilled and in some places sugar is still made from the +flower sap; and, while the importance of these great staples may not +be overlooked, their commercial value as products of this tree are +relatively insignificant. + + + +MINOR USES. + +In addition to eighty-three utilities described by Mr. Pereira, +[3] it is in very common use in the Philippines for: + +1. Cocoanut cream. The freshly ground fruit, reduced to a pulp and +strained, is consumed in that form or made into cakes with rice. It +makes a delicious and nutritious food. According to Dr. W. J. Gies, +in experiments lately published, [4] its nutritive value is due to +35.4 per cent of oil, about 10 per cent of carbohydrates, and 3 per +cent of protein. The amount of cellulose (fibrous matter) is only 3 +per cent, and its digestibility is easy when the mass, by grating, +is reduced to a fine degree of comminution. + +2. The "milk" or water is used sparingly as a beverage. It is also +fermented and converted into inferior vinegar. + +3. The hard shell is used as fuel. When calcined, it produces a black, +lustrous substance, used for dyeing leather. + +4. The same shell, aside from many uses quoted by Pereira, is used +here for every conceivable form of cup, ladle, scoop, and spoon. + +5. From the tough midrib of the leaf, strong and beautiful baskets of +many designs are made, also excellent and durable brooms, and from +the part where the midrib coalesces with the petiole pot-cleaning +brushes are made. + +6. The roots are sometimes used for chewing, as a substitute for +Areca. They also furnish red dyestuff and with one end finely +subdivided may be used in making toothbrushes. + +7. The leaves and midribs, when burned, furnish an ash so rich in +potash that it may be used alone in water as a substitute for soap +or when a powerful detergent is required. + +8. The fiber of the husk is used extensively by the natives for +calking boats. + +9. The milk is used in the preparation of a native dish of rice, +known as "casi." It is an excellent and highly prized dietary article, +prepared with rice or in combination with chicken or locusts. + +10. The oil, melted with resins, is an effective and lasting covering +for anything desired to be protected from the ravages of white ants. + +11. The timber is used to bridge streams and bog holes, and the slowly +decaying leaves to fill them up and render them temporarily passable. + +12. The fiber is used in cordage and rope making, but to a far less +extent here than in India. + +Its further uses are, in general, those current in the Orient. Briefly +summed up, its timber is employed in every form of house construction; +its foliage in making mats, sacks, and thatches; its fruit in curry +and sweetmeats; its oil for medicine, cookery, and illumination; +its various juices in the manufacture of wines, spirits, sugar, and +vinegar; while not to overlook a final and not inconsiderable Filipino +product, the splinters of the midrib are used in making toothpicks. + + + + + +CULTIVATION. + + +SELECTION OF LOCATION. + +In the selection of a site for a cocoanut grove it is best to select +land near the seashore and not extending inland more than 2 or 3 +miles. Within this narrow zone there is commonly a deposit of rich, +permeable, well-drained alluvium offering soil conditions of far +greater importance to successful tree growth than the mere exposure +to marine influences. The success that has followed cocoanut growing +in Cochin China, remote from the seaboard, in Annam and up the Ganges +basin one hundred or more miles from the coast, and in our own interior +Province of Laguna, definitely proves that immediate contiguity to +the sea is not essential to success. + +That the cocoanut will grow and thrive upon the immediate seashore, in +common with other plants, is simply an indication of its adaptability +to environment. That it is at a positive disadvantage as a shore plant +may be determined conclusively by anyone who will examine the root +system of a seashore-grown tree upturned by a wash or tidal wave, and +one uprooted from any cause, farther inland. It will be seen that the +root system of the maritime plant is immensely larger than the other, +and that a corresponding amount of energy has been expended in the +search through much inert material to forage for the necessary plant +food which the more favored inland species has found concentrated +within a smaller zone. + +The planting must be made in a thoroughly permeable soil. + +The thick, fleshy roots of the newly upturned palm are loaded with +water, and tell us that an inexhaustible store of this fluid is an +indispensable element of success. If further evidence of this were +required, the testimony of drooping leaves and of crops shrunken +from one-half to two-thirds, throughout the cocoanut districts and +upon our own orchard in Mindanao, as the result of drought, confirm +it and bespeak the necessity of copious water at all times. + +The living tree upon the sea sands further emphasizes this necessity; +for, while its roots are lapped by the tides, it never flags or wilts, +and from this we may gather the added value of a site which can be +irrigated. The careful observer will note that along miles of sea +beach, among hundreds of trees whose roots are either in actual contact +with the incoming waves, or subjected to the subterranean influence of +the sea, there will never be so much as one tree growing in any beach +basin which collects and holds tidal water for even a brief time; +and that, notwithstanding the large number of nuts that must have +found lodgment and favorable germinating influence in such places, +none succeed in growing. From this we may derive the assurance that +the desired water must be in motion and that land near stagnant water, +or marsh land, is unsuitable to the plant. + +It may frequently be observed that trees will be found growing +fairly thriftily upon mounds or hummocks, in places invaded by +flood or other waters which, by reason of backing or damming up, +have become stagnant. An examination of the roots of an overthrown +tree in such a locality will show that all of those in the submerged +zone have perished and rotted away, but that such is the vitality and +recuperative energy of the tree that it has thrown out a new feeding +system in the dryer soil of the mound immediately surrounding the stem, +which has been sufficient to successfully carry on the functions of +nutrition, but altogether ineffective to anchor the tree securely, +or to prevent its prostration before the first heavy gale. + +While this phase of the question will receive more attention when +we come to consider the chemistry of suitable manures, it may be +said that, although analysis of the cocoanut ash derived from +beach-grown nuts shows a larger percentage of those salts that +abound in sea water than those grown inland, yet the equal vigor, +vitality, and fruitfulness of the latter simply confirm the plant's +exceptional adaptability to environment and ability to take up and +decompose, without detriment, the salts of sea or brackish waters. As +a victim to the maritime idea, the writer in 1886 planted, far inland, +several hundred nuts in beds especially devised to reproduce littoral +conditions; shore gravel, sea sand, broken shells, and salt derived +from sea water being used in preparing the seed beds. The starting +growth was unexcelled. Then came a long period of yellowing decline +and almost suspended animation, ultimately followed by a complete +restoration to health and vigor. The early excellent growth was +due to the fact that the first nourishment of the plant is entirely +derived from the endosperm, and careful lifting of the young plants +disclosed the fact that recovery from their moribund condition was, +in every instance, coincident with the time that the roots first +succeeded in working through the unpalatable mess about them into +the outlying good, sweet soil. + +The exposure of the plantation is an important consideration, and +a maritime site should be selected in preference to one far inland, +unless it be on an open, unprotected flat, exposed to the influence +of every breeze or the fiercest gales that blow. + +The structure of the cocoanut seems well fitted to endure winds of +almost any force, and that a remarkably abundant and strong circulation +of air is essential to its best development is well shown by comparing +a tree subjected to it with the wretched, spindling specimen growing +in a sheltered glen or ravine. + +Strong confirmation of this may be found within the artificial +environment of a plant conservatory, where it is feasible to reproduce, +in the minute detail of soil, water, temperature, and humidity, +every essential to its welfare except a good, strong breeze. As a +consequence, the palm languishes and it has long been deemed, on +this account, one of the most rebellious subjects introduced into +palm-house cultivation. + + + +THE SOIL. + +The soils for cocoanut growing are best selected by the process of +exclusion. The study of the root development of the palm will prove +to be an unerring guide to proper soil selection. + +The roots of monocotyledons, to which great division this palm belongs, +are devoid of the well-defined descending axis, which is possessed +by most tree plants, and is often so strongly developed as to permit +of rock cleavage and the withdrawal of food supplies from great depths. + +The cocoanut has no such provision for its support. Its subterranean +parts are simply a mat-like expanse of thick, fleshy, worm-like +growths, devoid of any feeders other than those provided at the +extreme tips of the relatively few roots. These roots are fleshy (not +fibrous) and can not thrive in any soil through which they may not grow +freely in search of sustenance. It then becomes obvious that stiff, +tenacious, or waxy soils, however rich, are wholly unsuitable. All +very heavy lands, or those that break up into solid, impervious lumps, +and, lastly, any land underlaid near the surface with bed rocks or +impervious clays or conglomerates, are naturally excluded. All other +soils, susceptible of proper drainage, may be considered appropriate +to the growth of the palm. Spons (Encyclop.) advocates light, sandy +soils. Simmonds (Trop. Agric.) names nine different varieties suitable +for this purpose, describing each at tedious length, and laying more +or less emphasis upon a sandy mixture. These might all have been +covered by the single word "permeable." + +As a matter of fact every grain of sand in excess of that required to +secure a condition of perfect permeability is a positive disadvantage +and must be paid for by a correspondingly larger area of cultivation +and by future soil amendment. For the rest, the richer and deeper +the soil the less the expense of maintaining soil fertility. + +The preparatory work of establishing an orchard is light, provided +the location is not one demanding the opening of drainage canals, +and on lands of good porosity it involves neither subsoiling nor a +deeper plowing than to effectually cover the sod or any minor weed +growths with which it may be covered. + +It has long been the reprehensible practice of cocoanut growers to +merely dig pits, manure them, set the plants therein, and permit +the intervening lands (except immediately about the trees) to run to +weeds or jungle. + +In the Philippines the native planter has not yet progressed beyond +the pit stage, nor do his subsequent cultural activities include more +than the occasional "boloing" of such weeds as threaten to choke and +exterminate the young plants. + +Fortunately it will not be long till the force and influence of +example are sure to be felt by our own planters. The progressive +German colonist of Kamerun, German East Africa, and the South +Pacific Islands, as well as the French in Congo and Madagascar, +are vigorously practicing conventional, modern orchard methods in +the treatment of their cocoanut groves, and it is amazing to read +of discussions between Ceylon and Indian nut growers as to the best +method of tethering cattle upon cocoanut palms in pasture, so as to +obtain the most benefit from their excreta. + +With an intelligent study of the plant and its characteristics +it is believed that our native planter may put into practical use +the knowledge that the veteran Indian planter has in fifty years +failed to learn or utilize. He will learn that in time the entire +superficies of his orchard will be required by the wide-spreading, +surface-feeding roots of the trees, and that pasture crops of any +kind, grown for any purpose other than soiling or for green manuring, +are prejudicial to future success. He will know that the initial +preparation of all of his orchard and its continuous maintenance in +good cultivation are essential not only to the future welfare of +his trees but as a necessary means in connection with a judicious +intermediate crop rotation. + +Hence the preparatory requirements may be summed up as such preliminary +soil breaking as would be required for a corn crop in similar lands, +succeeded by such superficial plowings and cultivations as would be +required to raise a cotton or any other of the so-called hoed crops. + + + +SEED SELECTION. + +Preliminary to planting the very important question of seed selection +calls for close scrutiny on the planter's part. + +The small native planter is often familiar with the individual +characteristics of his trees. Owners of small estates in Cuyos and +about Zamboanga have pointed out to me trees that have the constant +fruiting habit confirmed, others that will fruit erratically, and +others that flower yet rarely bear fruit. The fruitfulness of the +first class is undoubtedly a result of accidental heredity, for the +planter has in the past made no selection except by chance, nor is the +characteristic in any way due to his cultural system, which consists +in planting the nut and letting nature and heredity do the rest. One +tree in Zamboanga, the owner assured me, had never produced less than +200 nuts annually for fully twenty-three years. Asked as to the bearing +of all of his trees (of which he owned some three hundred), he stated +that from the lot he averaged 20 nuts at a picking, five times a year, +a total of 100 nuts; that the crop of these was very fluctuating, +some years falling to 60 nuts, again running as high as 130. The +especially prized tree did not vary appreciably. In very dry seasons +the nuts shrunk somewhat in size and the copra in weight, but the yield +of nuts never fell below 200, and only once had amounted to 220. He +had raised a great number of seedlings, but it had never occurred to +him to select for planting the nuts from that particular tree. + + + +PLANTING. + +We have pointed out the necessity of selecting seed trees of known good +bearing habits, and equal care should be exercised in selecting those +the nuts of which are well formed and uniform. This precaution will +suggest itself when one observes that some trees have the habit of +producing a few very large nuts and many of very small and irregular +size and shape, and it is obviously to the planter's interest to lend +no assistance to the propagation and transmission of such traits. In +view of what has been previously stated, it is almost superfluous +earnestly to recommend planters to sow no seeds from young trees. The +principle for this contention--that no seed should be selected except +from trees of established, well-known fruiting habits--would seem to +cover the ground effectually. + +The best seed should be selected and picked when perfectly mature and +lowered to the ground. The fall from a lofty tree not infrequently +cracks the inner shell, without giving any external evidence of the +injury. A seed so injured will never sprout and therefore is worthless +for seed purposes. + +Freshly collected seed nuts contain in the husk more moisture than +is required to effect germination, and if planted in this condition, +decay is apt to set in before germination occurs. To avoid this the +natives tie them in pairs, sling them over bamboo poles where they are +exposed to the air but sheltered from the sun, and leave them until +well sprouted. It is, however, more expeditious to pile the nuts up in +small heaps of eight to ten nuts, in partial shade, where the surface +nuts may be sprinkled occasionally to prevent complete drying out. + +Germination is very erratic, sometimes occurring within a month +and sometimes extending over four, five, or more months. When the +young shoot or plumule (see illustration) has fairly thrust its way +through the fibrous husk it is a good practice to go over the heaps +and segregate those that have sprouted, carefully placing them so +that the growing tip be not deformed or distorted by the pressure +of superincumbent nuts. When these sprouts are 30 to 50 cm. high, +and a few roots have thrust through the husk, they are in the best +possible condition for permanent planting. + +First. The original preparation of the land should be good and the +surface tilth at the time of planting irreproachable; i. e., free +from weeds and so mellow that the soil can be closely and properly +pressed around the roots by hand. + +Second. The orchard should be securely protected from the invasion of +cattle, etc. It is sometimes impossible to protect orchards against +entry of these animals. If the success of these precautions can not +be assured, then the nuts had better be grown in a closely protected +nursery until about a year old, when the albumen of the seed will be +completely assimilated and will therefore no longer attract vermin, +and when the larger size of the plant will give it more protection +from stray cattle. + +In either case planting should be made concurrently with the opening of +the rainy monsoon, during which season further field operations will +not be required except when an intermittent, drier period indicates +the advisability of running the cultivator. + +The planting "pit" fetish, in such common use in India, has nothing +to commend it. If stable manures of any kind are available, a good +application at the time of planting will effect wonders in accelerating +the growth of the young plants. + +Where the necessary protection is assured, the young seedling planted +out as above recommended should start at once, without check of any +kind, into vigorous growth. + +The nursery-grown subject receives an unavoidable setback. Its roots +have been more or less mutilated and, as we may not prune the top +sufficiently to compensate for the root injury, it is generally several +months before the equilibrium of top and root is fully restored. In +most cases, by the end of the second year, it will have been far +outstripped in the growing race by the former. + +The history, habits, and characteristics of the cocoanut tree indicate +that it needs a full and free exposure to sun, air, and wind; and, +as it makes a tree, under such circumstances, of wide crown expansion, +these indispensables can not be secured except by very wide planting. + +Conventional recommendations cover all distances, from 5 to 8 meters, +with quincunx (i. e., triangular plantings) urged when the 8-meter +plan is adopted. But the writer has seen too many groves spaced at +this distance in good soil, with interlacing leaves and badly spindled +in the desperate struggle for light, air, and sun, ever to recommend +the quincunx, or any system other than the square, at distances not +less than 9 meters and, in good soils, preferably 9.5 meters. + +The former distance will allow for 123 and the latter 111 trees to +the hectare. They should be lined out with the greatest regularity, so +as to admit at all times of cross plowing and cultivation as desired. + +From this time forward the treatment is one of cultural and manurial +routine. + +Annual plowings should not be dispensed with during the life +of the plantation. These plowings may be relatively shallow, +sufficient to cover under the green manures and crops that are made +an indispensable condition to the continued profitable conduct of +the industry. Nothing is to be gained by the removal of the earliest +flowering spikes. Flowering is the congestion of sap at a special point +which, if the grower could control it, he would wish to direct, in the +case of young plants, to the building up of leaf and wood. Cutting the +inflorescence of the cocoanut results in profuse bleeding and, unless +this be checked by the use of a powerful styptic or otherwise, it is +doubtful if the desired end would be accomplished. The earlier crops +of nuts should all be taken with extension cutters or from ladders. No +shoulders for climbing should be cut in any tree, the stem of which +has not become dense, hard, and woody. Cut when the wood is the least +bit succulent, they become inviting points of attack for borers. + +With these reservations, there is everything to commend the practice +of shouldering the tree, as offering the safest, most expeditious +and economical way of making it possible to climb and secure the +harvest. It is, of course, understood that the cuts should be made +sloping outward, so as not to collect moisture and invite decay, +and no larger than is strictly necessary for the purpose. + + + +MANURING. [5] + +The manuring problem must be met and solved by the best resources at +our command. The writer has had pointed out hundred of trees that, +wholly guiltless of any direct application of manure, have borne +excellent crops for many successive years; but he has also seen +hundreds of others in their very prime, at thirty years, which once +produced a hundred select nuts per year, now producing fluctuating +and uncertain crops of fifteen to thirty inferior fruits. + +Time and again native growers have told me of the large and uniformly +continuous crops of nuts from the trees immediately overshadowing their +dwellings and, although some have attributed this to a sentimental +appreciation and gratitude on the part of the palm at being made one +of the family of the owner, a few were sensible enough to realize +that it came of the opportunity that those particular trees had to +get the manurial benefit of the household sewage and waste. + +Yet, the lesson is still unlearned and, after much diligent inquiry, +I have yet to find a nut grower in the Philippines who at any time +(except at planting) makes direct and systematic application of manure +to his trees. + +In India, Ceylon, the Penang Peninsula, and Cochin China, where the +tree has been cultivated for generations, the most that was ever +attempted until very recently was to throw a little manure in the +hole where the tree was planted, and for all future time to depend +on the inferior, grass-made droppings of a few cattle tethered among +the trees, to compensate for the half million or more nuts that a +hectare of fairly productive trees should yield during their normal +bearing life. + +Upon suitable cocoanut soils--i. e., those that are light and +permeable--common salt is positively injurious. In support of this +contention, I will state that salt in solution will break up and +freely combine with lime, making equally soluble chlorids of lime +which, of course, freely leach out in such a soil and carry down +to unavailable depths these salts, invaluable as necessary bases +to render assimilable most plant foods; and that, on this account, +commercial manures containing large amounts of salt, are always to +be used with much discretion, owing to the danger of impoverishing +the supply of necessary lime in the soil. + +Finally, so injurious is the direct application of salt to the roots +of most plants that the invariable custom of trained planters (who, +for the sake of the potash contained, are compelled to use crude +Stassfurt mineral manures, which contain large quantities of common +salt) is to apply it a very considerable time before the crop is +planted, in order that this deleterious agent should be well leached +and washed away from the immediate field of root activity. + +That the cocoanut is able to take up large quantities of salt may not +be disputed. That the character of its root is such as to enable it to +do so without the injury that would occur to most cultivated plants +I have previously shown, while the history of the cocoanut's inland +career, and the records of agricultural chemistry, both conclusively +point to the fact that its presence is an incident that in no way +contributes to the health, vigor, or fruitfulness of the tree. + +Mr. Cochran's analysis, based upon the unit of 1,000 average nuts, +weighing in the aggregate 3,125 pounds, discloses a drain upon soil +fertility for that number, amounting in round numbers to-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 8 1/4 + Potash 17 + Phosphoric acid 3 + + +Reducing this to crop and area, and taking 60 fruits per annum per tree +as a fair mean for the bearing groves in our cocoanut districts and +on those rare estates where a systematic spacing of about 173 trees +to the hectare has been made, we should have an annual harvest of +10,300 nuts, or, stated in round numbers, 10,000, which will exhaust +each year from the soil a total of-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 82 1/2 + Potash 170 + Phosphoric acid 30 + + +The cocoanut, therefore, while a good feeder, may not be classed with +the most depleting of field crops. + +To make this clear I exhibit, by way of contrast, the drafts made +by a relatively good crop of two notoriously soil-impoverishing +crops--tobacco and corn--and, on the other hand, the drafts made by +an equivalent average cotton crop--a product considered to make but +light drains upon sources of soil fertility. + +A proportionate tobacco crop of 1,000 kilos per hectare will withdraw +from the soil (reduced to the same standard of weights adopted by +Mr. Cochran)-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 168 + Potash 213 + Phosphoric acid 23 + + +An equivalent crop of shelled corn, say, of 125 bushels per hectare, +will withdraw-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 200 + Potash 135 + Phosphoric acid 75 + + +while a relative crop of lint cotton of 237 kilos (700 pounds) per +hectare [6] will only exhaust, in round numbers-- + + + Pounds. + + Nitrogen 114 + Potash 70 + Phosphoric acid 30 + + +There is an analogy between these four products that makes them +all comparable, in so far as all are largely surface feeders, and, +as experience shows that there can be no continuing success with +the last three that does not include both cultivation and manuring, +we may use the analogy to infer a like indispensable necessity for +the successful issue of the first. + +Cultivation as a manurial factor should, therefore, not be overlooked, +and all the more strongly does it become emphasized by the very +difficulties that for some years to come must beset the Philippine +planter in the way of procuring direct manures. + +When it comes to the specific application of manures and how to make +the most of our resources, we shall have to turn back to the analysis +of the nut and note that, relatively to other crops, it makes small +demands for nitrogen. At the same time it must not be forgotten that +these chemical determinations only refer to the fruit and that, +with the present incomplete data and lack of investigation of the +constituent parts of root, stem, leaf, and branch, we have nothing +to guide us but what we may infer from the behavior of the plant and +its relationship to plants of long-deferred fruition, whose manurial +wants are well understood. + +It is now the most approved orchard practice to encourage an early +development of leaf and branch by the liberal application of nitrogen, +whose stimulant actions upon growth are conceded as the best. + +In temperate regions, the exigencies of climate exact that this be +done with discretion and care, in order that the unduly stimulated +growths may be fully ripened and matured against the approach of an +inclement season. In the Tropics no such limitations exist, and the +early growth of the tree may be profitably stimulated to the highest +pitch. That this general treatment, as applied to young fruit trees, +is specifically the one indicated in the early life of the cocoanut, +may be quickly learned by him who will observe the avidity with +which the fleshy roots of a young cocoanut will invade, embrace, +and disintegrate a piece of stable manure. + +Notwithstanding lack of chemical analysis, we may not question the +fact that considerable supplies of both potash and phosphoric acid +are withdrawn in the building up of leaf and stem; but these are +found in sufficient quantity in soils of average quality to meet +the early requirements of the plant. It is only when the fruiting +age is reached that demands are made, especially upon the potash, +which the planter is called upon to make good. + +Good cultivation, the application of a generous supply of stimulating +nitrogen during its early career, and the gradual substitution in +later life of manures in which potash and phosphoric acid, particularly +the former, predominate, are necessary. + +How, then, may we best apply the nitrogen requirements of its early +life? Undoubtedly through the application of abundant supplies of +stable manures, press cakes, tankage, or of such fertilizers as furnish +nitrogen in combination with the large volume of humus necessary to +minister to the gross appetite of the plant under consideration. But +the chances are that none of these are available, and the planter +must have recourse to some of the green, nitrogen-gathering manures +that are always at his command. + +He must sow and plow under crops of pease, beans, or other legumes +that will furnish both humus and nitrogen in excess of what they +remove. Incidentally, they will draw heavily upon the potash deposits +of the soil, and they must all be turned back, or, if fed, every +kilo of the resulting manure must be scrupulously returned. He must +pay for the cultivation of the land, for the growing of crops that +he turns back as manure (and that involves further expense for their +growing and plowing under), and, in addition, he must be subject to +such outlay for about seven years before he can begin to realize for +the time and labor expended. + +But there are expedients to which the planter may have recourse +which, if utilized, may return every dollar of cultural outlay. By +the use of a wise rotation he can not only maintain his land in a good +productive condition but realize a good biennial crop that will keep +the plantation from being a financial drag. The rotation that occurs +to me as most promising on the average cocoanut lands of these Islands +would be, first, a green manure crop, followed by corn and legumes, +succeeded by cotton, and then back to green manures. + +To make the first green crop effective as a manure, both lime and +potash are essential--the former to make available the nitrogen we +hope to gather, and the potash in order to secure the largest and +quickest growth of the pulse we are to raise for manurial purposes. + +Both these elements are generally in good supply in our cocoanut lands; +but, if there is uncertainty upon this point, both should be supplied, +in some form. Fortunately, the former is cheap and abundant in most +parts of the Archipelago, and, when well slaked, may be freely applied +with benefit, at the rate of a ton or even more to the hectare. + +In default of the mineral potash salts, the grower must seek unleached +wood ashes, either by burning his own unused jungle land to procure +them or by purchasing them from the neighbor who has such land to +burn over. If located on the littoral, he will carefully collect +all the seaweed that is blown in, although in our tropical waters +the huge and abundant marine algae are mostly lacking. Such as are +found, however, furnish a not inconsiderable amount of potash, and, +in the extremities to which planters remote from commercial centers +are driven, no source is too inconsiderable to be overlooked. + +The first green crop selected will be one known to be of tropical +origin which, with fair soil conditions, will not fail to give a good +yield. He may with safety try any of the native rank-growing beans, +or cowpeas, soja, or velvet beans; or, if these are not procurable, he +has at command everywhere an unstinted seed supply of Cajanus indicus, +or of Clitorea ternatea, which will as well effect the desired end--to +wit, a great volume of humus and a new soil supply of nitrogen. It +remains for the planter to determine if the crop thus grown is to +be plowed under, or if he will use it to still better advantage by +partially feeding it, subject, as previously stated, to an honest +return to the land of all the manure resulting therefrom. + +He may utilize it in any way, even to selling the resulting seed +crop, provided all the remaining brush is turned back to the land +and a portion of the money he receives for the seed be reinvested in +high-grade potash and phosphatic manures. The plantation should now +be in fair condition for a corn crop, and, as a very slight shading +is not prejudicial to the young palms, the corn can be planted close +enough to the trees, leaving only sufficient space to admit of the +free cultivation that both require. + +It must not be forgotten that corn makes the most serious inroads +upon our soil fertility of any of the crops in our rotation, and, +unless by this time the planter is prepared to feed all the grain +produced to fatten swine or cattle, it had better be eliminated from +the rotation and peanuts substituted. In addition to this, he must +still make good whatever drains the corn will have made upon this +element of soil fertility. + +Cropping to corn attacks the cocoanut at a new and vulnerable point, +against which the careful grower must make provision. It will be +remembered that an average corn crop makes very considerable drafts +upon the soil supply of phosphoric acid; but, if the grain is used +for fattening swine, whose manure is much richer in phosphates than +most farm manures, and the latter is restored to the land, serious +soil impoverishment may be averted. + +The next step in our suggested rotation is the cotton crop. Here, +too, limitations are imposed upon the planter who is without abundant +manurial resources to maintain the future integrity of his grove. He +may sell the lint from his cotton, but he can not dispose of it +(as is frequently done here) in the seed. + +If the enterprise be not upon a scale that will justify the equipment +of a mill and the manufacture of the oil, he has no alternative but +to return the seed in lieu of the seed cake, wasteful and extravagant +though such a process be. + +The oil so returned is without manurial value and, if left in the +seed, is so much money wasted. The rational process, of course, +calls for the return of the press cake, either direct or in the form +of manure after it has been fed. With this is also secured the hull, +rich in both the potash and the phosphoric acid [7] which we now know +is so essential to the future welfare of the grove. + +The above rotation is simply suggested as a tentative expedient. + +The ground will now be so shaded that we can not hope to raise more +catch crops for harvesting, although it may be possible during the +dry season to raise a partial stand of pulses, of manure value only; +but, from the fruiting stage on, this becomes a minor consideration. + +This stage of the cultural story brings us once more face to face +with the principle contended for at the beginning of this paper, +namely, that there can be no permanent prosperity in this branch of +horticulture until the crop is so worked up into its ultimate products +that none of the residue of manufacture goes to waste. + +At best the return of these side products is insufficient, and, despite +their careful husbandry, we can not ultimately evade a greater or less +resort to inorganic manures of high cost and difficult procurement. + +The residue from the press cake is rich in nitrogen and humus, which, +in the ever-increasing shade of the grove, will become more and more +difficult to produce there through nitrogen-making agencies; but the +waste from the manufacture of coir and the ashes from the woody shell +will go far toward supplying the needed potash. + +Such a system would, if closely followed, practically restrict the +farmer's ultimate purchases to a small quantity of acid phosphates, +or of bone dust, which, in conjunction with good tillage, should +serve to maintain the grove in a highly productive condition for an +indefinite term of years. + + + +IRRIGATION. + +As an auxiliary manurial agent of definite, well-proven value in this +Archipelago, I will briefly recite some of the benefits that may be +expected to follow occasional irrigation during the dry season. + +It strongly accelerates growth and early maturity. A few irrigated +trees, reputed to be under five years from seed and already bearing +fruit, were shown the writer on the Island of Jolo. The growth was +remarkably strong and vigorous, notwithstanding that the water of +irrigation had been applied in such a way that the tree could only +hope to derive a minimum of benefit from its application. It had merely +been turned on from a convenient ditch whenever the soil seemed baked +and dry, at intervals of one to three weeks, as circumstances seemed +to require. + +Irrigation, but always in connection with subsequent cultivation, +may be considered equal to a crop guaranty that is not afforded so +effectually by any purely cultural system. + +Rarely has a better opportunity occurred to demonstrate the +unquestioned benefits that have inured to these few Jolo trees from +the use of irrigating waters than the present season of 1902-3. From +many sources reports come to this Bureau of trees failing, or dying +outright, from lack of moisture. While it is true that the present +dry season has had no parallel since 1885-86, and that the rainfall +during the dry season has been less than half the normal, yet it +should not be forgotten that, during the eight months from October to +May, inclusive, the average precipitation on the west coast, at the +latitude of Manila, is only about 460 mm. and that, when the amount +falls below this, the cocoanut is bound to suffer. + +Though it is true that the evil effects of drought may be modified, +if not altogether controlled, by cultivation, the assistance of +irrigation places the cultivator in an impregnable position. If +evidence in support of this statement were called for, it might be +found to-day in the deplorable condition of those groves that have +been permitted to run to pasture, as compared with those in which some +attempts have been made to bolo out the encroaching weeds and grasses. + +It is probably true that, except on very sandy soils, continued surface +irrigation would aggravate the superficial root-developing tendency +of the tree; and to what extent, if any, occasional laceration by +deep shovel tooth cultivation would injure the tree remains to be +seen. There are, however, few economic plants that so quickly repair +root damage as the Palmae, and, unless the seat of injury extends over +a very large area, it is probable that the resulting injury would be +of no consequence, as compared with the general benefits that would +result from irrigation. + + + + + +HARVEST. + + +Harvest of the crop requires but a brief discussion. The nuts should +be plucked when ripe. The phenomenon of maturity can not be readily +described in print. It frequently is as evident in nuts of a bright +green color as in those of a golden-yellow color, and the recognition +is one of those things that can only be learned by experience. + +The practice, so general in the Seychelles, of allowing the nut to +hang till it falls to the ground is certainly undesirable in these +Islands. On the contrary, the overripe nuts will seldom fall until +dislodged by a storm, and it is no uncommon thing to see nuts that +have sprouted and started to grow upon trees in plantations where the +harvest is left to the action of natural causes. Such nuts, of course, +are entirely worthless for the manufacture of oil or copra, and even +the husk has depreciated in value, the finest coirs, in fact, being +derived only from the fruits that have not attained full ripeness. In +any case, the nuts should be picked and the crop worked up before any +considerable enlargement or swelling of the embryo occurs. From this +time onward physiological changes arise which injuriously affect the +quantity and quality of what is called the meat. + +The heaping up of the nuts for some time after harvest favors some milk +absorption, which seems to facilitate the subsequent easy extraction +of the endosperm. + + + + + +ENEMIES. + + +Outside of certain insects of the order Coleoptera, cocoanuts in +the Philippines are reasonably free from enemies; in some districts, +close to forest-clad areas, the raids of monkeys do some damage. A +tree-nesting rat, which nibbles the young nuts, is also a source of +considerable loss. The rat is best overcome by frequent disturbance of +his quarters. This involves the removal of the dead leaves and thatch +that form constantly about the base of the crown. But the wisdom of +this recommendation will depend entirely upon circumstances. As the +planter may find that rats or the rhinoceros beetle are the lesser +evil, so should he be governed. + +There are localities in the Archipelago where the plague of rats +is unknown and where the beetles abound. In that case it would be +unwise to disturb the leaves which are very tardily deciduous and +do not naturally fall till the wood beneath is hard, mature, and +practically impervious to the attacks of insects. + +Where rats are numerous and insects few, which is the case in some +localities, the dead and dying leaves, among which the rat nests, +may be advantageously cleared away whenever the tree is climbed to +harvest the fruit. + +Among serious insect enemies we have to contend largely with the very +obnoxious black beetle, Oryctes rhinocerus, and, fortunately, to a +lesser extent, with Rhynchoporus ferrugineous (probably the same as +R. ochreatus of Eydoux), while R. pascha, Boehm, and Chalcosma atlas, +Linn., are also said to appear occasionally. + +However different their mode of attack, the general result is the +same, and their presence may surely be detected by the appearance of +deformed or badly misshapen or lacerated leaves. + +The attacks of all species are confined to the growing point and as +far downward as the wood is tender and susceptible to the action of +their powerful mandibles. + +The black beetle makes its attacks when fully mature, eating its way +into the soft tissues and generally selecting the axil of a young +leaf as the point of least resistance. Others simply deposit their +eggs, which hatch out, and the resulting grub is provided with jaws +powerful enough to do the same mischief. Two or three of these grubs, +if undisturbed, are sufficient in time to completely riddle the +growing tip, which then falls over and the tree necessarily dies. + + + + + +REMEDIES. + + +Remedies may be described as preventive and aggressive, and, by an +active campaign of precaution, many subsequent remedial applications +can be avoided. + +Most of the beetles attacking the palm are known to select heaps of +decomposing rubbish and manure as their favorite (if not necessary) +breeding places, and it is obviously of importance to break up and +destroy such; nor can any better or more advantageous way of effecting +this be suggested than by promptly spreading and plowing under all such +accumulations as fast as they are made; or, if this be impracticable, +by forking or turning over or otherwise disturbing the heaps, until +convenient to dispose of them as first suggested. + +A truly preventive and simple remedy, and one that I can commend as a +result of close observation, is the application of a handful or two +of sharp, coarse, clean sand in the axillae of the young leaves. The +native practice is to mix this with ashes, salt, or tobacco dust; +but it is questionable if the efficacy of the remedy lies so much in +these additions as in the purely mechanical effect of the sand, the +constant attrition of which can not be other than highly objectionable +to the insect while burrowing. + +Of offensive remedies, probing with a stout hooked wire is the only +form of warfare carried on in these Islands; but, as the channel of the +borer is sometimes tortuous and deep, this is not always effective. A +certain, simple, and easily applied remedy may be found in carbon +bisulphid. It could be applied in the holes (which invariably trend +downward) with a small metal syringe. The hole should be sealed +immediately with a pinch of stiff, moist clay. + +It is likely that this remedy and probing with a wire are the only +successful ways of combatting the red beetle, whose grub strikes in +wherever it finds a soft spot; but, for these species which attack +the axils of the leaves, I have great faith in the efficacy of the +"sand cure," and no nut picker should go aloft unprovided with a small +bamboo tube of dry, sifted sand, to protect the bases of recently +expanded leaves. + +In Selangor cocoanut trees now come under the government inspection, +and planters and owners, under penalties, are compelled to destroy +these pests. Mr. L. C. Brown, of Kuala Lampur, in that State, +who writes intelligently on this subject, [8] lays great stress on +the value of clean cultivation in subduing beetles, and repeats a +cultural axiom that never grows old and that will, consequently, +bear reiteration here--that it is rarely anything but the neglected +plantation that suffers, and that the maintenance at all times of a +healthy, vigorous growth is in itself almost a guaranty of immunity +from attacks of these pernicious insects. + +While we, unfortunately, know that this is not in all cases an assured +protection against diseases or insect enemies, it certainly minimizes +the danger and, in itself, is a justification of the high-pressure +cultural treatment advocated throughout the preceding pages. + + + + + +RENOVATION OF OLD GROVES. + + +Material improvement of old plantations may sometimes be effected +and, unless the trees are known to be upward of fifty years old, +generally repays the labor. Marked increase in crop has followed a +heavy thinning out of trees upon the Government cocoanut farm at San +Ramon, Mindanao. The improvement that a freer circulation of air and +abundant sunlight have effected is very marked. Where it can be done, +plowing is also sometimes feasible and should be followed by immediate +crop improvement. The average native plow is not so well adapted for +working over an old or neglected grove as it is for original soil +preparation. It acts more as a subsoiler and will tear and lacerate +more roots than is desirable. A single carabao, or one-horse American +garden plow, is the better implement for this work. Extensive bat guano +deposits are found in Mindoro, Guimaras, and Luzon. Some of them show +richness in nitrogen and, when accessible at a moderate cost, would +be useful in the renovation of old groves, where the shade would be +adverse to the rearing of good crops of nitrogen gatherers. + + + + + +CONCLUSION. + + +1. There are large areas throughout the littoral valleys of the +Archipelago, as yet unexploited, which, in the essentials of soil, +climate, irrigation facilities, and general environment are suitable +for cocoanut growing. + +2. The present conditions present especially flattering attractions +to cocoanut growers capable of undertaking the cultivation upon a +scale of some magnitude. By cooperation, small estates could combine +in the common ownership of machinery, whereby the products of the +grove could be converted into more profitable substances than copra. + +3. The present production of copra (estimated at 278,000 piculs in +1902) is an assurance of a sufficient supply to warrant the erection +of a high-class modern plant for the manufacture of the ultimate (the +"butter") products of the nut. The products of such an enterprise would +be increased by the certainty of a local market in the Philippines for +some part of the output. The average market value of the best grades of +copra in the Marseilles market is $54.40, gold, per English ton. The +jobbing value on January 1 of this year, of the refined products, +were, for each ton of copra: + + + Butter fats $90.00 + Residual soap oils 21.00 + Press cake 5.20 + ------ + Total 116.20 + + +the difference representing the profit per ton, less the cost of +manufacture. + +4. The minimum size of a plantation, on which economical application +of oil and fiber preparing machinery could be made, is 60 hectares. + +5. There is no other horticultural tropical product which may be grown +in these Islands where crop assurance may be so nearly guaranteed, +or natural conditions so nearly controlled by the planter who, +knowing correct principles, has the facilities for applying them. + +6. The natural enemies and diseases of the plant are relatively few, +easily held in check by vigilance and the exercise of competent +business management. + +7. The labor situation is bound more seriously to affect the small +planter, wholly dependent upon hand labor, than the estate conducted +on a large enough scale to justify the employment of modern machinery. + +8. In view of an ever-expanding demand for cocoanut products, and in +the light of the foregoing conclusions, the industry, when prosecuted +upon a considerable scale and subject to the requirements previously +set forth, promises for many years to be one of the most profitable +and desirable enterprises which command the attention of the Filipino +planter. + +The greatest mine of horticultural wealth which is open to the shrewd +planter lies in the heaps of waste and neglected husks that he can +now procure from adjoining estates for the asking and cartage. + +With labor at 1 peso per diem and at the present price of potash and +phosphoric acid, all the husks in excess of 300 per diem which could +be hauled would be clear profit. The ashes of these, when burned and +applied to the old grove, would have an immediate and revivifying +influence. + +Many trees in an old plantation have ceased to bear. Whether this is +due to exhaustion from old age or from soil exhaustion is immaterial; +each should be eradicated and the time-honored custom of replanting +a fresh tree in its place abandoned. These renewals are difficult +enough in any fruit or nut orchard where the scientific cultural +conditions have been of the best. Renewals in a cocoanut grove, +unless the vacant space is abnormally large and can be subjected to +some years of soil improvement, are unprofitable. + +There is a wide range of opinion as to the bearing life of a cocoanut +tree. It is said to vary from thirty to one hundred and thirty +years. Grown more than forty, or possibly fifty years old, the writer +would hesitate to undertake the improvement or renewal of the grove. + +Palms, unlike exogenous trees, afford no evidence by which their +age may be determined. In general, with advanced years, come great +height and great attenuation. In the open, and where fully exposed +to atmospheric influences, these form an approximate criterion of +age. The so-called annular scars, marking the earlier attachments of +leaves, furnish no clue to age. + + + + + +NOTES + + +[1] "The Prince of Palms," Treloar. + +[2] The cocoanut palm has been reared as far north as Indian River, +Florida, latitude 28 deg. N., but has not proven a profitable commercial +venture. + +[3] Quoted in "Watts's Dict.," II, 456. + +[4] Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 1902. + +[5] Throughout this paper the writer uses this word in preference to +"fertilizing" even when speaking of so-called "commercial fertilizers." + +[6] Farmers' Bulletin 114, United States Department of Agriculture. + +[7] Conn. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1897, Part II. + +[8] Ag. Bull. Fed. Malay States, February, 1903. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Cocoanut, by William S. 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