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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Architecture
+ Gothic and Renaissance
+
+Author: Thomas Roger Smith
+
+Editor: Edward J. Poynter
+
+Release Date: October 3, 2010 [EBook #33837]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Sam W. and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Illustration captions in {curly brackets} have been added by the
+transcriber for the convenience of the reader.
+
+A considerable number of the page references in the index are
+incorrect; however, they have been preserved as printed.
+
+
+
+
+ _ILLUSTRATED TEXT-BOOKS OF ART
+ EDUCATION_
+
+ _EDITED BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A._
+
+
+ ARCHITECTURE
+ GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE
+
+ BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: P. 114
+ THE CERTOSA, NEAR PAVIA. FROM THE CLOISTERS.
+ BEGUN BY MARCO DI CAMPIONE, A.D. 1393.]
+
+
+
+
+ _TEXT-BOOK OF ART EDUCATION, EDITED BY
+ EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A._
+
+
+ ARCHITECTURE
+ GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE
+
+ BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+
+ _Occasional Lecturer on Architecture
+ at University College, London_
+
+
+ [Illustration: {SAINT GEORGE. PANEL FROM THE TOMB
+ OF CARDINAL AMBOISE IN ROUEN CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+
+ NEW YORK
+ SCRIBNER AND WELFORD.
+
+ LONDON
+ SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON
+ CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET
+ 1880
+
+
+
+
+ (_All rights reserved._)
+
+
+ LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR,
+ BREAD STREET HILL, E. C.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {CRETE FROM NOTRE DAME, PARIS.}]
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The history, the features, and the most famous examples of European
+architecture, during a period extending from the rise of the Gothic,
+or pointed, style in the twelfth century to the general depression
+which overtook the Renaissance style at the close of the eighteenth,
+form the subject of this little volume. I have endeavoured to adopt as
+free and simple a mode of treatment as is compatible with the accurate
+statement of at least the outlines of so very technical a subject.
+
+Though it is to be hoped that many professional students of
+architecture will find this hand-book serviceable to them in their
+elementary studies, it has been my principal endeavour to adapt it to
+the requirements of those who are preparing for the professional
+pursuit of the sister arts, and of that large and happily increasing
+number of students who pursue the fine arts as a necessary part of a
+complete liberal education, and who know that a solid and
+comprehensive acquaintance with art, especially if joined to some
+skill in the use of the pencil, the brush, the modelling tool, or the
+etching needle, will open sources of pleasure and interest of the most
+refined description.
+
+The broad facts of all art history; the principles which underlie each
+of the fine arts; and the most precious or most noteworthy examples of
+each, ought to be familiar to every art student, whatever special
+branch he may follow. Beyond these limits I have not attempted to
+carry this account of Gothic and Renaissance architecture; within them
+I have endeavoured to make the work as complete as the space at my
+disposal permitted.
+
+Some portions of the text formed part of two courses of lectures
+delivered before the students of the School of Military Engineering at
+Chatham, and are introduced here by the kind permission of Sir John
+Stokes. Many of the descriptive and critical remarks are transcripts
+of notes made by myself, almost under the shadow of the buildings to
+which they refer. It would, however, have been impossible to give a
+condensed view of so extended a subject had not every part of it been
+treated at much greater length by previous writers. The number and
+variety of the books consulted renders it impossible to make any other
+acknowledgment here than this general recognition of my indebtedness
+to their authors.
+
+ T. R. S.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+ PAGE
+
+ ILLUSTRATED GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS. xv to xxxix
+
+
+ CHAPTER I.
+
+ INTRODUCTION. 1
+
+
+ CHAPTER II.
+
+ THE BUILDINGS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 6
+
+
+ CHAPTER III.
+
+ GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. 21
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV.
+
+ GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND.
+
+ Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls. Towers and
+ Spires. Gables. Piers and Columns 28
+
+
+ CHAPTER V.
+
+ GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND (_continued_).
+
+ Analysis (_continued_). Openings. Roofs. Spires.
+ Ornaments. Stained Glass. Sculpture 45
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI.
+
+ GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN EUROPE.
+
+ 1. FRANCE. Chronological Sketch. Analysis of
+ Buildings. Plans. Walls, Towers and Gables.
+ Columns and Piers. Roofs and Vaults. Openings.
+ Mouldings and Ornaments. Construction and Design 69
+
+ 2. BELGIUM and the NETHERLANDS 87
+
+ 3. SCOTLAND, WALES, and IRELAND 91
+
+
+ CHAPTER VII.
+
+ GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+ 1. GERMANY. Chronological Sketch. Analysis of
+ Buildings. Plans. Walls, Towers and Gables.
+ Roofs and Vaults. Openings. Ornaments.
+ Construction and Design 93
+
+ 2. NORTHERN EUROPE 111
+
+
+ CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.
+
+ 1. ITALY and SICILY. Topographical Sketch.
+ NORTHERN ITALY. CENTRAL ITALY. SOUTHERN
+ ITALY. Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls,
+ Towers, and Columns. Openings and Arches.
+ Roofs and Vaults. Mouldings and Ornaments.
+ Construction and Design 112
+
+ 2. SPAIN. Chronological Sketch 137
+
+ 3. PORTUGAL 142
+
+
+ CHAPTER IX.
+
+ GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+ Principles of Construction and Design. Materials
+ and Construction 143
+
+
+ CHAPTER X.
+
+ RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+ GENERAL VIEW. Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls
+ and Columns. Openings. Construction and Design 154
+
+
+ CHAPTER XI.
+
+ RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.
+
+ FLORENCE. ROME. VENICE, VICENZA, VERONA. MILAN,
+ PAVIA. GENOA, TURIN, NAPLES. Country Villas 165
+
+
+ CHAPTER XII.
+
+ RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+ 1. FRANCE. Chronological Sketch 193
+
+ 2. BELGIUM and the NETHERLANDS 206
+
+ 3. GERMANY 210
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN, SPAIN,
+ AND PORTUGAL.
+
+ 1. ENGLAND. Chronological Sketch 214
+
+ 2. SCOTLAND 227
+
+ 3. SPAIN and PORTUGAL 229
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+ PAGE
+
+ CERTOSA, THE, NEAR PAVIA. FROM THE CLOISTERS Frontispiece
+
+ SAINT GEORGE. PANEL FROM THE TOMB OF CARDINAL
+ AMBOISE IN ROUEN CATHEDRAL Title Page
+
+ GLOSSARY. FORTY ENGRAVINGS OF DETAILS xv to xxxix
+
+ 1. WEST ENTRANCE, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL. (1275.) 5
+
+ 2. GROUND PLAN OF PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL. (1118 to 1193.) 6
+
+ 3. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE NAVE OF SALISBURY CATHEDRAL 7
+
+ 4. CHOIR OF WORCESTER CATHEDRAL. (BEGUN 1224.) 9
+
+ 5. NAVE OF WELLS CATHEDRAL. (1206 to 1242.) 9
+
+ 6. GROUND PLAN OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY 11
+
+ 7. HOUSE OF JAQUES COEUR AT BOURGES. (BEGUN 1443.) 15
+
+ 8. PLAN OF WARWICK CASTLE. (14TH AND 15TH CENTURIES.) 16
+
+ 9. PALACES ON THE GRAND CANAL, VENICE. (14TH CENTURY.) 18
+
+ 10. WELL AT REGENSBURG. (15TH CENTURY.) 20
+
+ 11. GOTHIC ORNAMENT. FROM SENS CATHEDRAL (HEADPIECE) 21
+
+ 12. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. (MOSTLY EARLY ENGLISH.) 35
+
+ 13. ST. PIERRE, CAEN, TOWER AND SPIRE. (SPIRE, 1302.) 37
+
+ 14. HOUSE AT CHESTER. (16TH CENTURY.) 38
+
+ 15. HOUSES AT LISIEUX, FRANCE. (16TH CENTURY.) 41
+
+ 16. LANCET WINDOW. (12TH CENTURY.) 46
+
+ 17. TWO-LIGHT WINDOW. (13TH CENTURY.) 47
+
+ 18. GEOMETRICAL TRACERY. (14TH CENTURY.) 48
+
+ 19. TRIFORIUM ARCADE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY. (1269.) 49
+
+ 20. ROSE WINDOW FROM THE TRANSEPT OF LINCOLN CATHEDRAL 50
+
+ 21. PERPENDICULAR WINDOW 51
+
+ 22. ROOF OF HALL AT ELTHAM PALACE. (15TH CENTURY.) 53
+
+ 23. HENRY VII.'S CHAPEL. (1503-1512.) 57
+
+ 24. SPIRE OF ST. MARY MAGDALENE, WARBOYS, LINCOLNSHIRE 59
+
+ 25. DECORATED SPIRE. ALL SAINTS' CHURCH, OAKHAM 60
+
+ 26. EARLY ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES 62
+
+ 27. ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES MOULDED 62
+
+ 28. DOORWAY, KING'S COLLEGE CHAPEL, CAMBRIDGE. (15TH CENT.) 63
+
+ 29. STAINED GLASS WINDOW FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL 65
+
+ 30. SCULPTURE FROM CHAPTER HOUSE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY 67
+
+ 31. CHURCH AT FONTEVRAULT. (BEGUN 1125.) 70
+
+ 32. DOORWAY AT LOCHES, FRANCE. (1180.) 72
+
+ 33. NOTRE DAME, PARIS, WEST FRONT. (1214.) 74
+
+ 34. PLAN OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL. (1220-1272.) 76
+
+ 35. AMIENS CATHEDRAL, WEST FRONT. (1220-1272.) 78
+
+ 36. PIERS AND SUPERSTRUCTURE, RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. (1211-1240.) 80
+
+ 37. CAPITAL FROM ST. NICHOLAS, BLOIS, FRANCE. (13TH CENTURY.) 84
+
+ 38. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL, INTERIOR. (1225-1537.) 86
+
+ 39. THE TOWN HALL OF MIDDLEBURGH. (1518.) 89
+
+ 40. TOWER AT GHENT. (BEGUN 1183.) 90
+
+ 41. ABBEY CHURCH OF ARNSTEIN. (12TH AND 13TH CENTURIES.) 94
+
+ 42. CHURCH AT ANDERNACH. (EARLY 13TH CENTURY.) 96
+
+ 43. CHURCH OF ST. BARBARA AT KUTTENBERG. EAST END.
+ (1358-1548.) 99
+
+ 44. DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF. SECTION. (1158.) 101
+
+ 45. DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF. (1158.) 102
+
+ 46. COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. GROUND PLAN. (BEGUN 1248.) 104
+
+ 47. WESTERN DOORWAY OF CHURCH AT THANN. (14TH CENTURY.) 106
+
+ 48. CHURCH OF ST. CATHERINE AT OPPENHEIM. (1262 TO 1439.) 107
+
+ 49. ST. SEBALD'S CHURCH AT NUREMBERG. THE BRIDE'S DOORWAY 109
+
+ 50. PALACE OF THE JURISCONSULTS AT CREMONA 117
+
+ 51. CATHEDRAL AT FLORENCE. WITH GIOTTO'S CAMPANILE 121
+
+ 52. CATHEDRAL AT SIENA. WEST FRONT AND CAMPANILE 123
+
+ 53. CATHEDRAL AT ORVIETO. (BEGUN 1290; FACADE, 1310.) 125
+
+ 54. OGIVAL WINDOW-HEAD 129
+
+ 55. TRACERY IN WINDOW-HEAD, FROM VENICE 130
+
+ 56. WINDOW FROM TIVOLI 134
+
+ 57. ITALIAN GOTHIC WINDOW, WITH TRACERY IN HEAD 136
+
+ 58. CATHEDRAL AT TOLEDO. INTERIOR. (BEGUN 1227.) 139
+
+ 59. THE GIRALDA AT SEVILLE. (BEGUN IN 1196; FINISHED
+ IN 1568.) 141
+
+ 60. DOORWAY FROM CHURCH AT BATALHA. (BEGUN 1385.) 151
+
+ 61. STROZZI PALACE AT FLORENCE. (BEGUN 1489.) 169
+
+ 62. PART OF THE LOGGIA DEL CONSIGLIO AT VERONA 171
+
+ 63. THE PANDOLFINI PALACE, FLORENCE. DESIGNED BY RAPHAEL 173
+
+ 64. ST. PETER'S AT ROME. INTERIOR. (1506-1661.) 177
+
+ 65. MONUMENT BY SANSOVINO, IN STA. MARIA DEL POPOLO, ROME 179
+
+ 66. PALAZZO GIRAUD, ROME. BY BRAMANTE. (1506.) 180
+
+ 67. ITALIAN SHELL ORNAMENT 183
+
+ 68. THE CHURCH OF THE REDENTORE, VENICE. (1576.) 185
+
+ 69. CERTOSA NEAR PAVIA. PART OF WEST FRONT. (BEGUN 1473.) 188
+
+ 70. VILLA MEDICI--ON THE PINCIAN HILL NEAR ROME. BY
+ ANNIBALE LIPPI (NOW THE _Academie Francaise_).
+ (A.D. 1540.) 191
+
+ 70A. EARLY RENAISSANCE CORBEL 192
+
+ 71. WINDOW FROM A HOUSE AT ORLEANS. (EARLY 16TH CENTURY.) 195
+
+ 72. CAPITAL FROM THE HOUSE OF FRANCIS I., ORLEANS. (1540.) 197
+
+ 73. PAVILLON RICHELIEU OF THE LOUVRE, PARIS 199
+
+ 74. PART OF THE TUILERIES, PARIS. (BEGUN 1564.) 201
+
+ 75. CAPITAL FROM DELORME'S WORK AT THE LOUVRE 202
+
+ 76. HOTEL DES INVALIDES, PARIS 204
+
+ 77. WINDOW FROM COLMAR. (1575.) 208
+
+ 78. ZEUGHAUS, DANTZIC. (1605.) 209
+
+ 79. COUNCIL-HOUSE AT LEYDEN. (1599.) 211
+
+ 80. QUADRANGLE OF THE CASTLE OF SCHALABURG 213
+
+ 81. HOLLAND HOUSE, KENSINGTON. (1607.) 216
+
+ 82. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, LONDON. (1675-1710.) 220
+
+ 83. HOUSES AT CHESTER. (16TH CENTURY.) 225
+
+ 84. THE ALCAZAR AT TOLEDO. (BEGUN 1568.) 231
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS.
+
+
+ ABACUS.--The upper portion of the capital of a column, upon
+ which the weight to be carried rests.
+
+ AISLE (Lat. _ala_).--The side subdivision in a church;
+ occasionally all the subdivisions, including the nave, are
+ called aisles.
+
+ APSE.--A semicircular or polygonal termination to, or
+ projection from, a church or other public building.
+
+ ARCADE.--A range of arches, supported on piers or columns.
+
+ ARCH.--A construction of wedge-shaped blocks of stone, or of
+ bricks, of a curved outline, and spanning an open space. The
+ principal forms of arch in use are Semicircular;
+ Acutely-pointed, or Lancet; Equilateral, or Less
+ Acutely-pointed; Four-centred, or Depressed Tudor;
+ Three-centred, or Elliptic; Ogival; Segmental; and Stilted.
+ (Figs. _A_ to _F_.)
+
+ ARCHITRAVE.--(1) The stone which in Classic and Renaissance
+ architecture is thrown from one column or pilaster to the
+ next. (2) The moulding which in the same styles is used to
+ ornament the margin of a door or window opening or arch.
+
+ ASHLAR.--Finely-wrought masonry, employed for the facing of
+ a wall of coarser masonry or brick.
+
+ ATTIC (In Renaissance Architecture).--A low upper story,
+ distinctly marked in the architecture of the building,
+ usually surmounting an order; (2) in ordinary building, any
+ story in a roof.
+
+
+ BAILEY (from _vallum_).--The enclosure of the courtyard of a
+ castle.
+
+ BALL-FLOWER.--An ornament representing a globular bud,
+ placed usually in a hollow moulding.
+
+ BALUSTER.--A species of small column, generally of curved
+ outline.
+
+ BALUSTRADE.--A parapet or rail formed of balusters.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _A_.--SEMICIRCULAR ARCH.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _B_.--STILTED ARCH.]
+
+ The Semicircular and the Stilted Semicircular Arch were the
+ only arches in use till the introduction of the Pointed
+ Arch. Throughout the Early English, Decorated, and
+ Perpendicular periods they occur as exceptional features,
+ but they were practically superseded after the close of the
+ 12th cent.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _C_.--EQUILATERAL ARCH.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _D_.--LANCET ARCH.]
+
+ The Lancet Arch was characteristic of the Early English
+ period, is never found earlier, and but rarely occurs later.
+ The Equilateral Arch was the favourite arch of the
+ architects of the geometrical Decorated, but is not
+ unfrequently met with in the early part of the Perpendicular
+ period.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _E_.--OGIVAL ARCH.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _F_.--DEPRESSED TUDOR ARCH.]
+
+ The Depressed (or Four-centred) Tudor Arch is characteristic
+ of the Perpendicular period, and was then constantly
+ employed. The Ogival Arch is occasionally employed late in
+ that period, but was more used by French and Italian
+ architects than by those of Great Britain.
+
+ BAND.--A flat moulding or projecting strip of stone.
+
+ BARREL-VAULTING.--See Waggon-head vaulting.
+
+ BARGE-BOARD (OR VERGE-BOARD).--An inclined and pierced or
+ ornamented board placed along the edge of a roof when it
+ overhangs a gable wall.
+
+ BASE.--(1) The foot of a column; (2) sometimes that of a
+ buttress or wall.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _G_.--BASE OF EARLY ENGLISH SHAFT.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _H_.--BASE OF PERPENDICULAR SHAFT.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _I_.--BASE OF DECORATED SHAFT.]
+
+ BASILICA.--(1) A Roman public hall; (2) an early Christian
+ church, similar to a Roman basilica in disposition.
+
+ BASTION (in Fortification).--A bold projecting mass of
+ building, or earthwork thrown out beyond the general line of
+ a wall.
+
+ BATTLEMENT.--A notched or indented parapet.
+
+ BAY.--One of the compartments in a building which is made up
+ of several repetitions of the same group of features;
+ _e.g._, in a church the space from one column of the nave
+ arcade to the next is a bay.
+
+ BAY-WINDOW.--A window projecting outward from the wall. It
+ may be rectangular or polygonal. It must be built up from
+ the ground. If thrown out above the ground level, a
+ projecting window is called an Oriel. (See Bow window.)
+
+ BEAD.--A small moulding of circular profile.
+
+ BELFRY.--A chamber fitted to receive a peal of bells.
+
+ BELFRY STAGE.--The story of a tower where the belfry occurs.
+ Usually marked by large open arches or windows, to let the
+ sound escape.
+
+ BELL (of a capital).--The body between the necking and the
+ abacus (which see).
+
+ BILLET MOULDING.--A moulding consisting of a group of small
+ blocks separated by spaces about equal to their own length.
+
+ BLIND STORY.--Triforium (which see).
+
+ BOSS.--A projecting mass of carving placed to conceal the
+ intersection of the ribs of a vault, or at the end of a
+ string course which it is desired to stop, or in an
+ analogous situation.
+
+ BOW WINDOW.--Similar to a Bay-window (which see), but
+ circular or segmental.
+
+ BROACH-SPIRE.--A spire springing from a tower without a
+ parapet and with pyramidal features at the feet of its four
+ oblique sides (see Fig. 22) to connect them to the four
+ angles of the tower.
+
+ BROACHEAD (SPIRE).--Formed as above described.
+
+ BUTTRESS.--A projection built up against a wall to create
+ additional strength or furnish support (see Flying
+ Buttress).
+
+ BYZANTINE.--The round-arched Christian architecture of the
+ Eastern Church, which had its origin in Byzantium
+ (Constantinople).
+
+
+ CANOPY.--(1) An ornamented projection over doors, windows,
+ &c.; (2) a covering over niches, tombs, &c.
+
+ CAMPANILE.--The Italian name for a bell-tower.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _J_.--BUTTRESS.]
+
+ CAPITAL.--The head of a column or pilaster (Figs. _L_ to
+ _P_).
+
+ CATHEDRAL.--A church which contains the seat of a bishop;
+ usually a building of the first class.
+
+ CERTOSA.--A monastery (or church) of Carthusian monks.
+
+ CHAMFER.--A slight strip pared off from a sharp angle.
+
+ CHANCEL.--The choir or eastern part of a church.
+
+ CHANTRY CHAPEL.--A chapel connected with a monument or tomb
+ in which masses were to be chanted. This was usually of
+ small size and very rich.
+
+ CHAPEL.--(1) A chamber attached to a church and opening out
+ of it, or formed within it, and in which an altar was
+ placed; (2) a small detached church.
+
+ CHAPTER HOUSE.--The hall of assembly of the chapter (dean
+ and canons) of a cathedral.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _L_.--EARLY NORMAN CAPITAL.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _M_.--EARLY ENGLISH CAPITAL.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _N_.--LATER NORMAN CAPITAL.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _O_.--PERPENDICULAR CAPITAL.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _P_.--EARLY FRENCH CAPITAL.]
+
+ CHATEAU.--The French name for a country mansion.
+
+ CHEVRON.--A zig-zag ornament.
+
+ CHEVET.--The French name for an apse when surrounded by
+ chapels; see the plan of Westminster Abbey (Fig. 6).
+
+ CHOIR.--The part of a church in which the services are
+ celebrated; usually, but not always, the east end or
+ chancel. In a Spanish church the choir is often at the
+ crossing.
+
+ CLERESTORY.--The upper story or row of windows lighting the
+ nave of a Gothic church.
+
+ CLOISTER.--A covered way round a quadrangle of a monastic
+ building.
+
+ CLUSTERED (SHAFTS).--Grouped so as to form a pier of some
+ mass out of several small shafts.
+
+ CORBEL.--A projecting stone (or timber) supporting, or
+ seeming to support, a weight (Fig. _K_).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _K_.--EARLY RENAISSANCE CORBEL.]
+
+ CORBELLING.--A series of mouldings doing the same duty as a
+ corbel; a row of corbels.
+
+ CORBEL TABLE.--A row of corbels supporting an overhanging
+ parapet or cornice.
+
+ CORTILE (Italian).--The internal arcaded quadrangle of a
+ palace, mansion, or public building.
+
+ COLUMN.--A stone or marble post, divided usually into base,
+ shaft, and capital; distinguished from a pier by the shaft
+ being cylindrical or polygonal, and in one, or at most, in
+ few pieces.
+
+ CORNICE.--The projecting and crowning portion of an order
+ (which see) or of a building, or of a stage or story of a
+ building.
+
+ COURSE.--A horizontal layer of stones in the masonry of a
+ building.
+
+ CROCKET.--A tuft of leaves arranged in a formal shape, used
+ to decorate ornamental gables, the ribs of spires, &c.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _Q_.--DECORATED CROCKET.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _R_.--PERPENDICULAR CROCKET.]
+
+ CROSSING.--The intersection (which see) in a church or
+ cathedral.
+
+ CROSS VAULT.--A vault of which the arched surfaces intersect
+ one another, forming a groin (which see).
+
+ CRYPT.--The basement under a church or other building
+ (almost invariably vaulted).
+
+ CUSP.--The projecting point thrown out to form the
+ leaf-shaped forms or foliations in the heads of Gothic
+ windows, and in tracery and panels.
+
+
+ DEC. } The Gothic architecture of the fourteenth century
+ DECORATED. } in England. _Abbreviated_ Dec.
+
+ DETAIL.--The minuter features of a design or building,
+ especially its mouldings and carving.
+
+ DIAPER (Gothic).--An uniform pattern of leaves or flowers
+ carved or painted on the surface of a wall.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _S_.--DIAPER IN SPANDREL, FROM
+ WESTMINSTER ABBEY.]
+
+ DOGTOOTH.--A sharply-pointed ornament in a hollow moulding
+ which is peculiar to Early English Gothic. It somewhat
+ resembles a blunt tooth.
+
+ DORMER WINDOW.--A window pierced through a sloping roof and
+ placed under a small gable or roof of its own.
+
+ DOME.--A cupola or spherical convex roof, ordinarily
+ circular on plan.
+
+ DOMICAL VAULTING.--Vaulting in which a series of small domes
+ are employed; in contradistinction to a waggon-head vault,
+ or an intersecting vault.
+
+ DOUBLE TRACERY.--Two layers of tracery one behind the other
+ and with a clear space between.
+
+
+ E. E. } The Gothic architecture of England in the
+ EARLY ENGLISH. } thirteenth century. _Abbreviated_ E. E.
+
+ EAVES.--The verge or edge of a roof overhanging the wall.
+
+ EAVES-COURSE.--A moulding carrying the eaves.
+
+ ELEVATION.--(1) A geometrical drawing of part of the
+ exterior or interior walls of a building; (2) the
+ architectural treatment of the exterior or interior walls of
+ a building.
+
+ ELIZABETHAN.--The architecture of England in, and for some
+ time after, the reign of Elizabeth.
+
+ EMBATTLED.--Finished with battlements, or in imitation of
+ battlements.
+
+ ENRICHMENTS.--The carved (or coloured) decorations applied
+ to the mouldings or other features of an architectural
+ design. (See Mouldings.)
+
+ ENTABLATURE (in Classic and Renaissance architecture).--The
+ superstructure above the columns where an order is employed.
+ It is divided into the architrave, which rests on the
+ columns, the frieze and the cornice.
+
+
+ FACADE.--The front of a building or of a principal part of a
+ building.
+
+ FAN VAULT.--The vaulting in use in England in the fifteenth
+ century, in which a series of conoids bearing some
+ resemblance to an open fan are employed.
+
+ FILLET.--A small moulding of square flat section.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _T_.--PERPENDICULAR FINIAL.]
+
+ FINIAL.--A formally arranged bunch of foliage or other
+ similar ornament forming the top of a pinnacle, gablet, or
+ other ornamented feature of Gothic architecture.
+
+ FLAMBOYANT STYLE.--The late Gothic architecture of France
+ at the end of the fifteenth century, so called from the
+ occurrence of flame-shaped forms in the tracery.
+
+ FLECHE.--A name adapted from the French. A slender spire,
+ mostly placed on a roof; not often so called if on a tower.
+
+ FLYING BUTTRESS.--A buttress used to steady the upper and
+ inner walls of a vaulted building, placed at some distance
+ from the wall which it supports, and connected with it by an
+ arch.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _U_.--FLYING BUTTRESS.]
+
+ FOIL.--A leaf-shaped form produced by adding cusps to the
+ curved outline of a window head or piece of tracery.
+
+ FOLIATION.--The decoration of an opening, or of tracery by
+ means of foils and cusps.
+
+ FOSSE.--The ditch of a fortress.
+
+ FRANCOIS I. STYLE.--The early Renaissance architecture of
+ France during part of the sixteenth century.
+
+ FRIEZE.--(1) The middle member of a Classic or Renaissance
+ entablature; this was often sculptured and carved; (2) any
+ band of sculptured ornament.
+
+
+ GABLE.--The triangular-shaped wall carrying the end of a
+ roof.
+
+ GABLET.--A small gable (usually ornamental only).
+
+ GALLERY.--(1) An apartment of great length in proportion to
+ its width; (2) a raised floor or stage in a building.
+
+ GARGOYLE.--A projecting waterspout, usually carved in stone,
+ more rarely formed of metal.
+
+ GEOMETRICAL.--The architecture of the earlier part of the
+ decorated period in England.
+
+ GRILLE.--A grating or ornamental railing of metal.
+
+ GROIN.--The curved line which is made by the meeting of the
+ surfaces of two vaults or portions of vaults which
+ intersect.
+
+ GROUP.--An assemblage of shafts or mouldings or other small
+ features intended to produce a combined effect.
+
+ GROUPING.--Combining architectural features as above.
+
+
+ HALL.--(1) The largest room in an ancient English mansion,
+ or a college, &c.; (2) any large and stately apartment.
+
+ HALF TIMBERED CONSTRUCTION.--A mode of building in which a
+ framework of timbers is displayed and the spaces between
+ them are filled in with plaster or tiles.
+
+ HAMMER BEAM ROOF.--A roof peculiar to English architecture
+ of the fifteenth century, deriving its name from the use of
+ a hammer beam (a large bracket projecting from the walls) to
+ partly support the rafters.
+
+ HEAD (of an arch or other opening).--The portion within the
+ curve; whether filled in by masonry or left open, sometimes
+ called a tympanum.
+
+ HIP.--The external angle formed by the meeting of two
+ sloping sides of a roof where there is no gable.
+
+ HOTEL (French).--A town mansion.
+
+
+ IMPOST.--A moulding or other line marking the top of the
+ jambs of an arched opening, and the starting point, or
+ apparent starting point, of the arch.
+
+ INLAY.--A mode of decoration in which coloured materials
+ are laid into sinkings of ornamental shape, cut into the
+ surface to be decorated.
+
+ INTERSECTION (OR CROSSING).--The point in a church where the
+ transepts cross the nave.
+
+ INTERSECTING VAULTS.--Vaults of which the surfaces cut one
+ another.
+
+ INTERPENETRATION.--A German mode of treating mouldings, as
+ though two or more sets of them existed in the same stone
+ and they could pass through (interpenetrate) each other.
+
+
+ JAMB.--The side of a door or window or arch, or other
+ opening.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _V_.--PLAN OF A JAMB AND CENTRAL
+ PIER OF A GOTHIC DOORWAY.]
+
+
+ KEEP.--The tower which formed the stronghold of a mediaeval
+ castle.
+
+ KING POST.--The middle post in the framing of a timber roof.
+
+
+ LANCET ARCH.--The sharply-pointed window-head and arch,
+ characteristic of English Gothic in the thirteenth century.
+
+ LANTERN.--A conspicuous feature rising above a roof or
+ crowning a dome, and intended usually to light a Hall, but
+ often introduced simply as an architectural finish to the
+ whole building.
+
+ LIERNE (rib).--A rib intermediate between the main ribs in
+ Gothic vaulting.
+
+ LIGHT.--One of the divisions of a window of which the entire
+ width is divided by one or more mullions.
+
+ LINTEL.--The stone or beam covering a doorway or other
+ opening not spanned by an arch. Sometimes applied to the
+ architrave of an order.
+
+ LOGGIA (Italian).--An open arcade with a gallery behind.
+
+ LOOP.--Short for loophole. A very narrow slit in the wall of
+ a fortress, serving as a window, or to shoot through.
+
+ LUCARNE.--A spire-light. A small window like a slender
+ dormer window.
+
+
+ MOAT (or Fosse).--The ditch round a fortress or
+ semi-fortified house.
+
+ MOSAIC.--An ornament for pavements, walls, and the surfaces
+ of vaults, formed by cementing together small pieces of
+ coloured material (stone, marble, tile, &c.) so as to
+ produce a pattern or picture.
+
+ MOULDING.--A term applied to all varieties of contour or
+ outline given to the angles, projections, or recesses of the
+ various parts of a building. The object being either to
+ produce an outline satisfactory to the eye; or, more
+ frequently, to obtain a play of light and shade, and to
+ produce the appearance of a line or a series of lines, broad
+ or narrow, and of varying intensity of lightness or shade in
+ the building or some of its features.
+
+ The contour which a moulding would present when cut across
+ in a direction at right angles to its length is called its
+ profile.
+
+ The profile of mouldings varied with each style of
+ architecture and at each period (Figs. _W_ to _Z_). When
+ ornaments are carved out of some of the moulded surfaces the
+ latter are technically termed enriched mouldings. The
+ enrichments in use varied with each style and each period,
+ as the mouldings themselves did.
+
+ MULLION.--The upright bars of stone frequently employed
+ (especially in Gothic architecture) to subdivide one window
+ into two or more lights.
+
+
+ NAVE.--(1) The central avenue of a church or cathedral; (2)
+ the western part of a church as distinguished from the
+ chancel or choir; (3) occasionally, any avenue in the
+ interior of a building which is divided by one or more rows
+ of columns running lengthways is called a nave.
+
+ NECKING (of a column).--The point (usually marked by a
+ fillet or other small projecting moulding) where the shaft
+ ends and the capital begins.
+
+ NEWEL POST.--The stout post at the foot of a staircase from
+ which the balustrade or the handrail starts.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _W_.--ARCH MOULDING. (Gothic, 12th
+ Century.)]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _Y_.--ARCH MOULDING. (Decorated, 14th
+ Century.)]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _Z_.--ARCH MOULDING. (Gothic, 13th
+ Century.)]
+
+ NICHE.--A recess in a wall for a statue, vase, or other
+ upright ornament.
+
+ NORMAN.--The architecture of England from the Norman
+ Conquest till the latter part of the twelfth century.
+
+
+ OGEE.--A moulding or line of part concave and part convex
+ curvature (see Fig. _E_, showing an ogee-shaped arch).
+
+ OGIVAL.--Ogee-shaped (see Fig. 54).
+
+ OPEN TRACERY.--Tracery in which the spaces between the bars
+ are neither closed by slabs of stone nor glazed.
+
+ ORDER.--(1) In Classical and Renaissance architecture a
+ single column or pilaster and its appropriate entablature or
+ superstructure; (2) a series of columns or pilasters with
+ their entablature; (3) an entire decorative system
+ appropriate to the kind of column chosen. In Renaissance
+ architecture there are five orders--the Tuscan, Doric,
+ Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite. Each has its own proper
+ column, and its proper base, shaft, and capital; and its own
+ entablature. The proportions and the degree of enrichment
+ appropriate to each vary. The Tuscan being the sturdiest and
+ plainest, the Composite the most slender and most small, and
+ the others taking place in the succession in which they
+ stand enumerated above. Where more than one order occurs in
+ a building, as constantly happens in Classic and Renaissance
+ buildings, the orders which are the plainest and most sturdy
+ (and have been named first) if employed, are invariably
+ placed below the more slender orders; _e.g._ the Doric is
+ never placed _over_ the Corinthian or the Ionic, but if
+ employed in combination with either of those orders it is
+ always the lowest in position.
+
+ ORIEL.--A window projecting like a bay or bow window, not
+ resting on the ground but thrown out above the ground level
+ and resting on a corbel.
+
+
+ PALLADIAN.--A phase of fully developed Renaissance
+ architecture introduced by the architect Palladio, and
+ largely followed in England as well as in Italy.
+
+ PANEL.--(1) The thinner portions of the framed woodwork of
+ doors and other such joiner's work; (2) all sunk
+ compartments in masonry, ceilings, &c.
+
+ PANELLING.--(1) Woodwork formed of framework containing
+ panels; (2) any decoration formed of a series of sunk
+ compartments.
+
+ PARAPET.--A breastwork or low wall used to protect the
+ gutters and screen the roofs of buildings; also, perhaps
+ primarily, to protect the ramparts of fortifications.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _A A_.--OPEN PARAPET, LATE DECORATED.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _B B_.--BATTLEMENTED PARAPET,
+ PERPENDICULAR.]
+
+ PAVILION.--A strongly marked single block of building; most
+ frequently applied to those blocks in French and other
+ Renaissance buildings that are marked out by high roofs.
+
+ PEDESTAL.--(1) A substructure sometimes placed under a
+ column in Renaissance architecture; (2) a similar
+ substructure intended to carry a statue, vase, or other
+ ornament.
+
+ PEDIMENT.--(1) The gable, where used in Renaissance
+ buildings; (2) an ornamental gable sometimes placed over
+ windows, doors, and other features in Gothic buildings.
+
+ PERP. } The Gothic architecture of the fifteenth century
+ PERPENDICULAR. } in England. _Abbreviated_ Perp.
+
+ PIER.--(1) A mass of walling, either a detached portion of
+ a wall or a distinct structure of masonry, taking the place
+ of a column in the arcade of a church or elsewhere; (2) a
+ group or cluster of shafts substituted for a column.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _C C_.--EARLY ENGLISH PIERS.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _D D_.--LATE DECORATED AND PERPENDICULAR
+ PIERS.]
+
+ PILASTER.--A square column, usually attached to a wall;
+ frequently used in Classic and Renaissance architecture in
+ combination with columns.
+
+ PINNACLE (in Gothic architecture).--A small turret, or
+ ornament, usually with a pointed top, employed to mark the
+ summit of gables, buttresses, and other tall features.
+
+ PITCH.--The degree of slope given to a roof, gable, or
+ pediment.
+
+ PLAN.--(1) A map of the floor of a building, showing the
+ piers, if any, and the walls which inclose and divide it,
+ with the openings in them; (2) the actual arrangement and
+ disposition of the floors, piers, and walls of the building
+ itself.
+
+ PLANE.--The imaginary surface within which a series of
+ mouldings lies, and which coincides with the salient and
+ important points of that series. Mouldings are said to be on
+ an oblique plane when their plane forms an angle less than a
+ right angle with the face of the wall; and in receding
+ planes, when they can be divided into a series of groups of
+ more or less stepped outline, each within and behind the
+ other, and each partly bounded by a plane parallel with the
+ face of the wall.
+
+ PLASTER.--The plastic material, of which the groundwork is
+ lime and sand, used to cover walls internally and to form
+ ceilings. Sometimes employed as a covering to walls
+ externally.
+
+ PLINTH.--The base of a wall or of a column or range of
+ columns.
+
+ PORTAL.--A dignified and important entrance doorway.
+
+ PORTICO.--A range of columns with their entablature (and
+ usually covered by a pediment), marking the entrance to a
+ Renaissance or Classic building.
+
+ PRISMATIC RUSTICATION.--In Elizabethan architecture
+ rusticated masonry with diamond-shaped projections worked on
+ the face of each stone.
+
+ PROFILE.--The contour or outline of mouldings as they would
+ appear if sawn across at right angles to their length.
+
+ PORCH.--A small external structure to protect and ornament
+ the doorway to a building (rarely met with in Renaissance).
+
+
+ QUATREFOIL.--A four-leaved ornament occupying a circle in
+ tracery or a panel.
+
+
+ RAFTERS.--The sloping beams of a roof upon which the
+ covering of the roof rests.
+
+ RAGSTONE.--A coarse stone found in parts of Kent and
+ elsewhere, and used for walling.
+
+ RECEDING PLANES.--(See Plane.)
+
+ RECESS.--A sinking in a building deeper than a mere panel.
+
+ RECESSING.--Forming one or more recesses. Throwing back some
+ part of a building behind the general face.
+
+ RENAISSANCE.--The art of the period of the Classic revival
+ which began in the sixteenth century. In this volume used
+ chiefly to denote the architecture of Europe in that and the
+ succeeding centuries.
+
+ RIB (in Gothic vaulting).--A bar of masonry or moulding
+ projecting beyond the general surface of a vault, to mark
+ its intersections or subdivide its surface, and to add
+ strength.
+
+ RIDGE.--(1) The straight line or ornament which marks the
+ summit of a roof; (2) the line or rib, straight or curved,
+ which marks the summit of a vault.
+
+ ROLL.--A round moulding.
+
+ ROSE WINDOW.--A wheel window (which see).
+
+ RUBBLE.--Rough stonework forming the heart of a masonry
+ wall; sometimes faced with ashlar (which see), sometimes
+ shown.
+
+ RUSTICATION (or RUSTICATED MASONRY).--The sort of ornamental
+ ashlar masonry (chiefly Classic and Renaissance) in which
+ each stone is distinguished by a broad channel all round it,
+ marking the joints.
+
+ RUSTICS.--The individual blocks of stone used in rustication
+ (as described above).
+
+
+ SCREEN.--An internal partition or inclosure cutting off part
+ of a building. At the entrance to the choir of a church
+ screens of beautiful workmanship were used.
+
+ SCROLL MOULDING.--A round roll moulding showing a line along
+ its face (distinctive of decorated Gothic).
+
+ SCROLL WORK.--Ornament showing winding spiral lines like the
+ edge of a scroll of paper (chiefly found in Elizabethan).
+
+ SECTION.--(1) A drawing of a building as it would appear if
+ cut through at some fixed plane. (2) That part of the
+ construction of a building which would be displayed by such
+ a drawing as described above. (3) The profile of a moulding.
+
+ SET-OFF.--A small ledge formed by diminishing the thickness
+ of a wall or pier.
+
+ SEXPARTITE VAULTING.--Where each bay or compartment is
+ divided by its main ribs into six portions.
+
+ SGRAFFITO (Italian).--An ornament produced by scratching
+ lines on the plastered face of a building so as to show a
+ different colour filling up the lines or surfaces scratched
+ away.
+
+ SHAFT.--(1) The middle part of a column between its base and
+ capital. (2) In Gothic, slender columns introduced for
+ ornamental purposes, singly or in clusters.
+
+ SHELL ORNAMENT.--A decoration frequently employed in Italian
+ and French Renaissance, and resembling the interior of a
+ shell.
+
+ SKY-LINE.--The outline which a building will show against
+ the sky.
+
+ SPANDREL.--The triangular (or other shaped) space between
+ the outside of an arch and the mouldings, or surfaces
+ inclosing it or in contact with it. (See Fig. _S_, under
+ Diaper.)
+
+ SPIRE.--The steep and pointed roof of a tower (usually a
+ church tower).
+
+ SPIRE-LIGHT (or LUCARNE).--A dormer window (which see) in a
+ spire.
+
+ SPLAY.--A slope making with the face of a wall an angle less
+ than a right angle.
+
+ STAGE.--One division in the height of any building or
+ portion of a building where horizontal divisions are
+ distinctly marked, _e.g._, the belfry stage of a tower, the
+ division in which the bells are hung.
+
+ STEEPLE.--A tower and spire in combination. Sometimes
+ applied to a tower or spire separately.
+
+ STEPPED GABLE.--A gable in which, instead of a sloping line,
+ the outline is formed by a series of steps.
+
+ STILTED ARCH.--An arch of which the curve does not commence
+ till above the level of the impost (which see).
+
+ STORY.--(1) The portion of a building between one floor and
+ the next; (2) any stage or decidedly marked horizontal
+ compartment of a building, even if not corresponding to an
+ actual story marked by a floor.
+
+ STRAP-WORK (Elizabethan).--An ornament representing
+ strap-like fillets interlaced.
+
+ STRING-COURSE.--A projecting horizontal (or occasionally
+ sloping) band or line of mouldings.
+
+
+ TABERNACLE WORK.--The richly ornamented and carved work with
+ which the smaller and more precious features of a church,
+ _e.g._, the fittings of a choir, were adorned and made
+ conspicuous.
+
+ TERMINAL (or Finial).--The ornamental top of a pinnacle,
+ gable, &c.
+
+ TERRA-COTTA.--A fine kind of brick capable of being highly
+ ornamented, and formed into blocks of some size.
+
+ THRUST.--The pressure exercised laterally by an arch or
+ vault, or by the timbers of a roof on the abutments or
+ supports.
+
+ TIE.--A beam of wood, bar of iron, or similar expedient
+ employed to hold together the feet or sides of an arch,
+ vault, or roof, and so counteract the thrust.
+
+ TORUS.--A large convex moulding.
+
+ TOWER.--A portion of a building rising conspicuously above
+ the general mass, and obviously distinguished by its height
+ from that mass. A detached building of which the height is
+ great, relative to the width and breadth.
+
+ TRACERY (Gothic).--The ornamental stonework formed by the
+ curving and interlacing of bars of stone, and occupying the
+ heads of windows, panels, and other situations where
+ decoration and lightness have to be combined. The simplest
+ and earliest tracery might be described as a combination of
+ openings pierced through the stone head of an arch. Cusping
+ and foliation (which see) are features of tracery. (See
+ Figs. 18, 19, 55, and 57 in the text.)
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _E E_.--PERPENDICULAR WINDOW-HEAD.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _F F_.--LATE PERPENDICULAR WINDOW-HEAD.]
+
+ TRANSEPT.--The arms of a church or cathedral which cross
+ the line of the nave.
+
+ TRANSITION.--The architecture of a period coming between and
+ sharing the characteristics of two distinctly marked styles
+ or phases of architecture, one of which succeeded the other.
+
+ TRANSOM.--A horizontal bar (usually of stone) across a
+ window or panel.
+
+ TREFOIL.--A three-leaved or three-lobed form found
+ constantly in the heads of windows and in other situations
+ where tracery is employed.
+
+ TRIFORIUM (or THOROUGH-FARE).--The story in a large church
+ or cathedral intermediate between the arcade separating the
+ nave and aisles, and the clerestory.
+
+ TUDOR.--The architecture of England during the reigns of the
+ Tudor kings. The use of the term is usually, however,
+ restricted to a period which closes with the end of Henry
+ VIII.'s reign, 1547.
+
+ TURRET.--A small tower, sometimes rising from the ground,
+ but often carried on corbels and commencing near the upper
+ part of the building to which it is an appendage.
+
+ TYMPANUM.--The filling in of the head of an arch, or
+ occasionally of an ornamental gable.
+
+
+ UNDERCUTTING.--A moulding or ornament of which the greater
+ part stands out from the mouldings or surfaces which it
+ adjoins, as though almost or quite detached from them, is
+ said to be undercut.
+
+
+ VAULT.--An arched ceiling to a building, or part of a
+ building, executed in masonry or in some substitute for
+ masonry.
+
+ The vaults of the Norman period were simple barrel- or
+ waggon-headed vaults, and semicircular arches only were used
+ in their construction. With the Gothic period the use of
+ intersecting, and as a result of pointed arches, was
+ introduced into vaulting, and vaults went on increasing in
+ complexity and elaboration till the Tudor period, when
+ fan-vaulting was employed. Our illustrations show some of
+ the steps in the development of Gothic vaults referred to in
+ Chapter V. of the text. No. 1 represents a waggon-head vault
+ with an intersecting vault occupying part of its length. No.
+ 2 represents one of the expedients adopted for vaulting an
+ oblong compartment before the pointed arch was introduced.
+ The narrower arch is stilted and the line of the groin is
+ not true. No. 3 represents a similar compartment vaulted
+ without any distortion or irregularity by the help of the
+ pointed arch. No. 4 represents one lay of a sexpartite
+ Gothic vault. No. 5 represents a vault with lierne ribs
+ making a star-shaped pallom on plan, and No. 6 is a somewhat
+ more intricate example of the same class of vault.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. _G G_.--VAULTS.]
+
+ Vaults are met with in Renaissance buildings, but they are a
+ less distinctive feature of such buildings than they were in
+ the Gothic period; and in many cases where a vault or a
+ series of vaults would have been employed by a Gothic
+ architect, a Renaissance architect has preferred to make use
+ of a dome or a series of domes. This is called domical
+ vaulting. Examples of it occur occasionally in Gothic work.
+
+
+ WAGGON-HEAD VAULTING, OR BARREL-VAULTING.--A simple form of
+ tunnel-like vaulting, which gets its name from its
+ resemblance to the tilt often seen over large waggons, or to
+ the half of a barrel.
+
+ WAINSCOT.--(1) The panelling often employed to line the
+ walls of a room or building; (2) a finely marked variety of
+ oak imported chiefly from Holland; probably so called
+ because wainscot oak was at one time largely employed for
+ such panelling.
+
+ WEATHERING.--A sloping surface of stone employed to cover
+ the set-off (which see) of a wall or buttress and protect it
+ from the effects of weather.
+
+ WHEEL WINDOW.--A circular window, and usually one in which
+ mullions radiate from a centre towards the circumference
+ like the spokes of a wheel; sometimes called a rose-window.
+
+ WINDOW-HEAD.--For illustrations of the various forms and
+ filling-in of Gothic window-heads, see the words Arch and
+ Tracery.
+
+ [Illustration: {ORNAMENTAL DOLPHIN PATTERN.}]
+
+
+
+
+HEAD AND TAILPIECES.
+
+
+ PAGE
+
+ HEADPIECE.--CRETE FROM NOTRE DAME, PARIS 1
+
+ " SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL 6
+
+ " " " SENS CATHEDRAL 21
+
+ " " " WESTMINSTER ABBEY 28
+
+ TAILPIECE.--NORMAN CAPITALS 44
+
+ HEADPIECE.--SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY 45
+
+ TAILPIECE.--MISERERE SEAT FROM WELLS CATHEDRAL 68
+
+ HEADPIECE.--STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL 69
+
+ TAILPIECE.--MISERERE SEAT FROM WELLS CATHEDRAL 92
+
+ " ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL 153
+
+ HEADPIECE.--RENAISSANCE ORNAMENT FROM A FRIEZE 154
+
+ " FROM A TERRA-COTTA FRIEZE AT LODI 165
+
+ TAILPIECE.--FROM A DOOR IN SANTA MARIA, VENICE 192
+
+ HEADPIECE.--ORNAMENT BY GIULIO ROMANO 193
+
+ " FROM A FRIEZE AT VENICE 235
+
+THE END-PAPERS ARE FROM A TAPESTRY IN HARDWICK HALL.
+
+
+ [Illustration: _The Lily of Florence._]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {CRETE FROM NOTRE DAME, PARIS.}]
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The architecture generally known as Gothic, but often described as
+Christian Pointed, prevailed throughout Europe to the exclusion of
+every rival for upwards of three centuries; and it is to be met with,
+more or less, during two others. Speaking broadly, it may be said that
+its origin took place in the twelfth century, that the thirteenth was
+the period of its development, the fourteenth that of its perfection,
+and the fifteenth that of its decline; while many examples of its
+employment occur in the sixteenth.
+
+In the following chapters the principal changes in the features of
+buildings which occurred during the progress of the style in England
+will be described. Subsequently, the manner in which the different
+stages of development were reached in different countries will be
+given; for architecture passed through very nearly the same phases in
+all European nations, though not quite simultaneously.
+
+It must be understood that through the whole Gothic period, growth or
+at least change was going on; the transitions from one stage to
+another were only periods of more rapid change than usual. The whole
+process may be illustrated by the progress of a language. If, for
+instance, we compare round-arched architecture in the eleventh century
+to the Anglo-Saxon form of speech of the time of Alfred the Great, and
+the architecture of the twelfth century to the English of Chaucer,
+that of the thirteenth will correspond to the richer language of
+Shakespeare, that of the fourteenth to the highly polished language of
+Addison and Pope, and that of the fifteenth to the English of our own
+day. We can thus obtain an apt parallel to the gradual change and
+growth which went on in architecture; and we shall find that the
+oneness of the language in the former case, and of the architecture in
+the latter, was maintained throughout.
+
+For an account of the Christian round-arched architecture which
+preceded Gothic, the reader is referred to the companion volume in
+this series. Here it will be only necessary briefly to review the
+circumstances which went before the appearance of the pointed styles.
+
+The Roman empire had introduced into Europe some thing like a
+universal architecture, so that the buildings of any Roman colony bore
+a strong resemblance to those of every other colony and of the
+metropolis; varying, of course, in extent and magnificence, but not
+much in design. The architecture of the Dark Ages in Western Europe
+exhibited, so far as is known, the same general similarity. Down to
+the eleventh century the buildings erected (almost exclusively
+churches and monastic buildings) were not large or rich, and were
+heavy in appearance and simple in construction. Their arches were all
+semicircular.
+
+The first rays of light across the gloom of the Dark Ages seem to
+have come from the energy and ability of Charlemagne in the eighth
+century.
+
+In the succeeding century, this activity received a check; an idea
+became generally prevalent that the year one thousand was to see the
+end of the world; men's minds were overshadowed with apprehension; and
+buildings, in common with other undertakings of a permanent nature,
+were but little attempted.
+
+When the millennium came and passed, and left all as it had been, a
+kind of revulsion of feeling was experienced; many important
+undertakings were set on foot, such as during the preceding years it
+had not been thought worth while to prosecute. The eleventh century
+thus became a time of great religious activity; and if the First
+Crusade, which took place 1095, may be taken as one outcome of that
+pious zeal, another can certainly be found in the large and often
+costly churches and monasteries which rose in every part of England,
+France, Germany, Lombardy, and South Italy. Keen rivalry raged among
+the builders of these churches; each one was built larger and finer
+than the previous examples, and the details began to grow elaborate.
+Construction and ornament were in fact advancing and improving, if not
+from year to year, at any rate from decade to decade, so that by the
+commencement of the twelfth century a remarkable development had taken
+place. The ideas of the dimensions of churches then entertained were
+really almost as liberal as during the best period of Gothic
+architecture.
+
+An illustration of this fact is furnished by the rebuilding of
+Westminster Abbey under Edward the Confessor. He pulled down a small
+church which he found standing on the site, in order to erect one
+suitable in size and style to the ideas of the day. The style of his
+cathedral (but not its dimensions) soon became so much out of date
+that Henry III. pulled the buildings down in order to re-erect them of
+the lofty proportions and with the pointed arches which we now see in
+the choir and transepts of the Abbey; but the size remained nearly the
+same, for there is evidence to show that the Confessor's buildings
+must have occupied very nearly, if not quite, as much ground as those
+which succeeded them.
+
+At the beginning of the twelfth century many local peculiarities, some
+of them due to accident, some to the nature and quality of the
+building materials obtainable, some to differences of race, climate,
+and habits, and some to other causes, had begun to make their
+appearance in the buildings of various parts of Europe; and through
+the whole Gothic period such peculiarities were to be met with. Still
+the points of similarity were greater and more numerous than the
+differences; so much so, that by going through the course which Gothic
+architecture ran in one of the countries in which it flourished, it
+will readily be possible to furnish a general outline of the subject
+as a whole; it will then only be requisite to point out the principal
+variations in the practice of other countries. On some grounds France
+would be the most suitable country to select for this purpose, for
+Gothic appeared earlier and flourished more brilliantly in that
+country than in any other; the balance of advantage lies however, when
+writing for English students, in the selection of Great Britain. The
+various phases through which the art passed are well marked in this
+country, they have been fully studied and described, and, what is of
+the greatest importance, English examples are easily accessible to the
+majority of students, while those which cannot be visited may be very
+readily studied from engravings and photographs. English Gothic will
+therefore be first considered; but as a preliminary a few words
+remain to be said describing generally the buildings which have come
+down to us from the Gothic period.
+
+The word Gothic, which was in use in the eighteenth century, and
+probably earlier, was invented at a time when a Goth was synonymous
+with everything that was barbarous; and its use then implied a
+reproach. It denotes, according to Mr. Fergusson, "all the styles
+invented and used by the Western barbarians who overthrew the Roman
+empire, and settled within its limits."
+
+ [Illustration: FIG 1.--WEST ENTRANCE, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL, (1275.)
+ (_See Chapter V._)]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE BUILDINGS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
+
+
+By far the most important specimens of Gothic architecture are the
+cathedrals and large churches which were built during the prevalence
+of the style. They were more numerous, larger, and more complete as
+works of art than any other structures, and accordingly they are to be
+considered on every account as the best examples of pointed
+architecture.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 2.--GROUND PLAN OF PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL. (1118
+ to 1193.) A. Nave. B B. Transepts. C. Choir. D D. Aisles.
+ E. Principal Entrance.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 3.--TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE NAVE OF SALISBURY
+ CATHEDRAL. (A.D. 1217).]
+
+The arrangement and construction of a Gothic cathedral were
+customarily as follows:--(See Fig. 2.) The main axis of the building
+was always east and west, the principal entrance being at the west
+end, usually under a grand porch or portal, and the high altar stood
+at the east end. The plan (or main floor) of the building almost
+always displays the form of a cross. The stem of the cross is the part
+from the west entrance to the crossing, and is called the nave. The
+arms of the cross are called transepts, and point respectively north
+and south. Their crossing with the nave is often called the
+intersection. The remaining arm, which prolongs the stem eastwards, is
+ordinarily called the choir, but sometimes the presbytery, and
+sometimes the chancel. All these names really refer to the position of
+the internal fittings of the church, and it is often more accurate
+simply to employ the term eastern arm for this portion of a church.
+
+The nave is flanked by two avenues running parallel to it, narrower
+and lower than itself, called aisles. They are separated from it by
+rows of columns or piers, connected together by arches. Thus the nave
+has an arcade on each side of it, and each aisle has an arcade on one
+side, and a main external wall on the other. The aisle walls are
+usually pierced by windows. The arches of the arcade carry walls which
+rise above the roofs of the aisles, and light the nave. These walls
+are usually subdivided internally into two heights or stories; the
+lower story consists of a series of small arches, to which the name of
+triforium is given. This arcade usually opens into the dark space
+above the ceiling or vault of the aisle, and hence it is sometimes
+called the blind story. The upper story is the range of windows
+already alluded to as lighting the nave, and is called the clerestory.
+Thus a spectator standing in the nave, and looking towards the side
+(Figs. 4 and 5), will see opposite him the main arcade, and over that
+the triforium, and over that the clerestory, crowned by the nave vault
+or roof; and looking through the arches of the nave arcade, he will
+see the side windows of the aisle. Above the clerestory of the nave,
+and the side windows of the aisles, come the vaults or roofs. In some
+instances double aisles (two on each side) have been employed.
+
+The transepts usually consist of well-marked limbs, divided like the
+nave into a centre avenue and two side aisles, and these usually are
+of the same width and height as the nave and its aisles. Sometimes
+there are no transepts; sometimes they do not project beyond the line
+of the walls, but still are marked by their rising above the lower
+height of the nave aisles. Sometimes the transepts have no aisles, or
+an aisle only on one side.[1] On the other hand, it is sometimes
+customary, especially in English examples, to form two pairs of
+transepts. This occurs in Lichfield Cathedral.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 4.--CHOIR OF WORCESTER CATHEDRAL. (BEGUN 1224.)
+ A. Nave Arcade. B. Triforium. C. Clerestory.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 5.--NAVE OF WELLS CATHEDRAL. (1206 TO 1242.)
+ A. Nave Arcade. B. Triforium. C. Clerestory.]
+
+The eastern arm of the cathedral is the part to which most importance
+was attached, and it is usual to mark that importance by greater
+richness, and by a difference in the height of its roof or vault as
+compared with the nave; its floor is always raised. It also has its
+central passage and its aisles; and it has double aisles much more
+frequently than the nave. The eastern termination of the cathedral is
+sometimes semicircular, sometimes polygonal, and when it takes this
+form it is called an apse or an apsidal east end; sometimes it is
+square, the apse being most in use on the Continent, and the square
+east end in England. Attached to some of the side walls of the church
+it is usual to have a series of chapels; these are ordinarily chambers
+partly shut off from the main structure, but opening into it by arched
+openings; each chapel contains an altar. The finest chapel is usually
+one placed on the axis of the cathedral, and east of the east end of
+the main building; this is called, where it exists, the Lady Chapel,
+and was customarily dedicated to the Virgin. Henry VII.'s Chapel at
+Westminster (Fig. 6) furnishes a familiar instance of the lady chapel
+of a great church. Next in importance rank the side chapels which open
+out of the aisles of the apse, when there is one. Westminster Abbey
+furnishes good examples of these also. The eastern wall of the
+transept is a favourite position for chapels. They are less frequently
+added to the nave aisles.
+
+The floor of the eastern arm of the cathedral, as has been pointed
+out, is always raised, so as to be approached by steps; it is inclosed
+by screen work which shuts off the choir, or inclosure for the
+performance of divine service, from the nave. The fittings of this
+part of the building generally include stalls for the clergy and
+choristers and a bishop's throne, and are usually beautiful works of
+art. Tombs, and inclosures connected with them, called chantry
+chapels, are constantly met with in various positions, but most
+frequently in the eastern arm.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 6.--GROUND PLAN OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY.]
+
+Below the raised floor of the choir, and sometimes below other parts
+of the building, there often exists a subterranean vaulted structure
+known as the crypt.
+
+Passing to the exterior of the cathedral, the principal doorway is in
+the western front:[2] usually supplemented by entrances at the ends of
+the transepts, and one or more side entrances to the nave. A porch on
+the north side of the nave is a common feature. The walls are now seen
+to be strengthened by stone piers, called buttresses. Frequently
+arches are thrown from these buttresses to the higher walls of the
+building. The whole arrangement of pier and arch is called a flying
+buttress,[3] and, as will be explained later, is used to steady the
+upper part of the building when a stone vault is employed (see Chap.
+V.). The lofty gables in which the nave and transepts, and the eastern
+arm when square terminate, form prominent features, and are often
+occupied by great windows.
+
+In a complete cathedral, the effect of the exterior is largely due to
+the towers with which it was adorned. The most massive tower was
+ordinarily one which stood, like the central one of Lichfield
+Cathedral, at the crossing of the nave and transepts. Two towers were
+usually intended at the western front of the building, and sometimes
+one, or occasionally two, at the end of each transept. It is rare to
+find a cathedral where the whole of these towers have been even begun,
+much less completed. In many cases only one, in others three, have
+been built. In some instances they have been erected, and have fallen.
+In others they have never been carried up at all. During a large
+portion of the Gothic period it was usual to add to each tower a
+lofty pyramidal roof or spire, and these are still standing in some
+instances, though many of them have disappeared. Occasionally a tower
+was built quite detached from the church to which it belonged.
+
+To cathedrals and abbey churches a group of monastic buildings was
+appended. It will not be necessary to describe these in much detail.
+They were grouped round an open square, surrounded by a vaulted and
+arcaded passage, which is known as the cloister. This was usually
+fitted into the warm and sheltered angle formed by the south side of
+the nave and the south transept, though occasionally the cloister is
+found on the north side of the nave. The most important building
+opening out of the cloister is the chapter-house, frequently a lofty
+and richly-ornamented room, often octagonal, and generally standing
+south of the south transept. The usual arrangement of the monastic
+buildings round and adjoining the cloister varied in details with the
+requirements of the different monastic orders, and the circumstances
+of each individual religious house, but, as in the case of churches,
+the general principles of disposition were fixed early. They are
+embodied in a manuscript plan, dating as far back as the ninth
+century, and found at St. Gall in Switzerland, and never seem to have
+been widely departed from. The monks' dormitory here occupies the
+whole east side of the great cloister, there being no chapter-house.
+It is usually met with as nearly in this position as the transept and
+the chapter-house will permit. The refectory is on the south side of
+the cloister, and has a connected kitchen. The west side of the
+cloister in this instance was occupied by a great cellar. Frequently a
+hospitum, or apartment for entertaining guests, stood here. The north
+side of the cloister was formed by the church.
+
+For the abbot a detached house was provided in the St. Gall plan to
+stand on the north side of the church; and a second superior hospitum
+for his guests. Eastward of the church are placed the infirmary with
+its chapel, and an infirmarer's lodging. The infirmary was commonly
+arranged with a nave and aisles, much like, a small parish church.
+Other detached buildings gave a public school, a school for novices
+with its chapel, and, more remotely placed, granaries, mills, a
+bakehouse, and other offices. A garden and a cemetery formed part of
+the scheme, which corresponds tolerably well with that of many
+monastic buildings remaining in England, as _e.g._, those at
+Fountains' Abbey, Furness Abbey, or Westminster Abbey, so far as they
+can be traced.
+
+Generally speaking the principal buildings in a monastery were long
+and not very wide apartments, with windows on both sides. Frequently
+they were vaulted, and they often had a row of columns down the
+middle. Many are two stories high. Of the dependencies, the kitchen,
+which was often a vaulted apartment with a chimney, and the barn,
+which was often of great size, were the most prominent. They are often
+fine buildings. At Glastonbury very good examples of a monastic barn
+and kitchen can be seen.
+
+Second only in importance to the churches and religious buildings come
+the military and domestic buildings of the Gothic period (Fig. 7).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 7.--HOUSE OF JAQUES COEUR AT BOURGES.
+ (BEGUN 1413.)]
+
+Every dwelling-house of consequence was more or less fortified, at any
+rate during the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries. A lofty
+square tower, called a keep, built to stand a siege, and with a walled
+inclosure at its feet, often protected by a wide ditch (fosse or
+moat), formed the castle of the twelfth century, and in some cases
+(_e.g._ the White Tower of London), this keep was of considerable
+size. The first step in enlargement was to increase the number and
+importance of the buildings which clustered round the keep, and to
+form two inclosures for them, known as an inner and an outer bailey.
+The outer buildings of the Tower of London, though much modernised,
+will give a good idea of what a first class castle grew to be by
+successive additions of this sort. In castles erected near the end of
+the thirteenth century (_e.g._ Conway Castle in North Wales), and
+later, the square form of the keep was abandoned, and many more
+arrangements for the comfort and convenience of the occupants were
+introduced; and the buildings and additions to buildings of the
+fifteenth century took more the shape of a modern dwelling-house,
+partly protected against violence, but by no means strong enough to
+stand a siege. Penshurst may be cited as a good example of this class
+of building.
+
+It will be understood that, unlike the religious buildings which early
+received the form and disposition from which they did not depart
+widely, mediaeval domestic buildings exhibit an amount of change in
+which we can readily trace the effects of the gradual settlement of
+this country, the abandonment of habits of petty warfare, the ultimate
+cessation of civil wars, the introduction of gunpowder, the increase
+in wealth and desire for comfort, and last, but not least, the
+confiscation by Henry VIII. of the property of the monastic houses.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 8.--PLAN OF WARWICK CASTLE. (14TH AND FOLLOWING
+ CENTURIES.)]
+
+Warwick Castle, of which we give a plan (Fig. 8), maybe cited as a
+good example of an English castellated mansion of the time of Richard
+II. Below the principal story there is a vaulted basement containing
+the kitchens and many of the offices. On the main floor we find the
+hall, entered as usual at the lower or servants' end, from a porch.
+The upper end gives access to a sitting-room, built immediately
+behind it, and beyond are a drawing-room and state bed-rooms, while
+across a passage are placed the private chapel and a large dining-room
+(a modern addition). Bed-rooms occupy the upper floors of the
+buildings at both ends of the hall.
+
+Perhaps even more interesting as a study than Warwick Castle is Haddon
+Hall, the well-preserved residence of the Duke of Rutland, in
+Derbyshire. The five or six successive enlargements and additions
+which this building has received between the thirteenth and
+seventeenth centuries show the growth of ideas of comfort and even
+luxury in this country.
+
+As it now stands, Haddon Hall contains two internal quadrangles,
+separated from one another by the great hall with its dais, its
+minstrels' gallery, its vast open fire-place, and its traceried
+windows, and by the kitchens, butteries, &c., belonging to it.
+
+The most important apartments are reached from the upper end of the
+hall, and consist of the magnificent ball-room, and a dining-room in
+the usual position, _i.e._ adjoining the hall and opening out of it;
+with, on the upper floor, a drawing-room, and a suite of state
+bed-rooms, occupying the south side of both quadrangles and the east
+end of one. A large range of apartments, added at a late period, and
+many of them finely panelled and lined with tapestry, occupies the
+north side of this building and the northwestern tower. At the
+south-western corner of the building stands a chapel of considerable
+size, and which once seems to have served as a kind of parochial
+church; and a very considerable number of rooms of small size, opening
+out of both quadrangles, would afford shelter, if not comfortable
+lodging, to retainers, servants, and others. The portions built in
+the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries are more or less
+fortified. The ball-room, which is of Elizabethan architecture, opens
+on to a terraced garden, accessible from without by no more violent
+means than climbing over a not very formidable wall. Probably nowhere
+in England, can the growth of domestic architecture be better studied,
+whether we look to the alterations which took place in accommodation
+and arrangement, or to the changes which occurred in the architectural
+treatment of windows, battlements, doorways and other features, than
+at Haddon Hall.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 9.--PALACES ON THE GRAND CANAL, VENICE. (14TH
+ CENTURY.)]
+
+In towns and cities much beautiful domestic architecture is to be
+found in the ordinary dwelling-houses, _e.g._ houses from Chester and
+Lisieux (Figs. 14 and 15); but many specimens have of course perished,
+especially as timber was freely used in their construction.
+Dwelling-houses of a high order of excellence, and of large size, were
+also built during this period. The Gothic palaces of Venice, of which
+many stand on the Grand Canal (Fig. 9), are the best examples of
+these, and the lordly Ducal Palace in that city is perhaps the finest
+secular building which exists of Gothic architecture.
+
+Municipal buildings of great size and beauty are to be found in North
+Italy and Germany, but chiefly in Belgium, where the various
+town-halls of Louvain, Bruges, Ypres, Ghent, Antwerp, Brussels, &c.,
+vie with each other in magnificence and extent.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Many secular buildings also remain to us of which the architecture is
+Gothic. Among these we find public halls and large buildings for
+public purposes--as Westminster Hall, or the Palace of Justice at
+Rouen; hospitals, as that at Milan; or colleges, as King's College,
+Cambridge, with its unrivalled chapel. Many charming minor works,
+such as fountains, wells (Fig. 10), crosses, tombs, monuments, and the
+fittings of the interior of churches, also remain to attest the
+versatility, the power of design, and the cultivated taste of the
+architects of the Gothic period.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 10.--WELL AT REGENSBURG. (15TH CENTURY.)]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] As the north transept at Peterborough (Fig. 2).
+
+[2] At E on the plan of Peterborough (Fig. 2).
+
+[3] See Glossary.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 11.{--SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM SENS CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN.
+
+
+English Gothic architecture has been usually subdivided into three
+periods or stages of advancement, corresponding to those enumerated on
+page 1; the early stage known as Early English, or sometimes as
+Lancet, occupying the thirteenth century and something more; the
+middle stage, known as Decorated, occupying most of the fourteenth
+century; and the latest stage, known as Perpendicular, occupying the
+fifteenth century and part of the sixteenth.
+
+The duration of each of these coincides approximately with the
+century, the transition from each phase to the next taking place
+chiefly in the last quarter of the century. Adding the periods of the
+English types of round arched Architecture, we obtain the following
+table:--
+
+ Up to 1066 or up to middle of 11th century, SAXON.
+ A.D. 1066 to 1189 or up to end of 12th " NORMAN.
+ A.D. 1189 to 1307 or up to end of 13th " EARLY ENGLISH.
+ A.D. 1307 to 1377 or up to end of 14th " DECORATED.
+ A.D. 1377 to 1546 or up to middle of 16th " PERPENDICULAR.
+
+The term "Early English" (short for Early English Gothic) applied to
+English thirteenth-century architecture explains itself.
+
+The term "Lancet" sometimes applied to the Early English style, is
+derived from the shape of the ordinary window-heads, which resemble
+the point of a lancet in outline (Fig. 16). Whatever term be adopted,
+it is necessary to remark that a wide difference exists between the
+earlier and the late examples of this period. It will suffice for our
+purposes if, when speaking of the fully-developed style of the late
+examples, we refer to it as Advanced Early English.
+
+The architecture of the fourteenth century is called "Decorated," from
+the great increase of ornament, especially in window tracery and
+carved enrichments.
+
+The architecture of the fifteenth century is called "Perpendicular,"
+from the free use made of perpendicular lines, both in general
+features and in ornaments, especially in the tracery of the windows
+and the panelling with which walls are ornamented.[4]
+
+The following condensed list, partly from Morant,[5] of the most
+striking peculiarities of each period, may be found useful for
+reference, and is on that account placed here, notwithstanding that it
+contains many technical words, for the meaning of which the student
+must consult the Glossary which forms part of this volume.
+
+ ANGLO-SAXON--(Prior to the Norman Conquest).--
+
+ Rude work and rough material; walls mostly of rubble or
+ ragstone with ashlar at the angles in long and short courses
+ alternately; openings with round or triangular heads,
+ sometimes divided by a rude baluster. Piers plain, square,
+ and narrow. Windows splayed externally and internally. Rude
+ square blocks of stone in place of capitals and bases.
+ Mouldings generally semi-cylindrical and coarsely chiselled.
+ Corners of buildings square without buttresses.
+
+
+ NORMAN. William I. A.D. 1066.
+ William II. " 1087.
+ Henry I. " 1100.
+ Stephen " 1135.
+ Henry II. " 1154 to 1189.
+
+ Arches semicircular, occasionally stilted; at first plain,
+ afterwards enriched with chevron or other mouldings; and
+ frequent repetition of same ornament on each stone. Piers
+ low and massive, cylindrical, square, polygonal, or composed
+ of clustered shafts, often ornamented with spiral bands and
+ mouldings. Windows generally narrow and splayed internally
+ only; sometimes double and divided by a shaft. Walls
+ sometimes a series of arcades, a few pierced as windows, the
+ rest left blank. Doorways deeply recessed and richly
+ ornamented with bands of mouldings. Doors often square
+ headed, but under arches the head of the arch filled with
+ carving. Capitals carved in outline, often grotesquely
+ sculptured with devices of animals and leaves. Abacus
+ square, lower edge moulded. Bases much resembling the
+ classic orders. The mouldings at first imperfectly formed.
+ Pedestals of piers square. Buttresses plain, with broad
+ faces and small projections. Parapets plain with projecting
+ corbel table under.
+
+ Plain mouldings consist of chamfers, round or pointed rolls
+ at edges, divided from plain face by shallow channels.
+ Enriched mouldings--the chevrons or zig-zag, the billet
+ square or round, the cable, the lozenge, the chain, nail
+ heads, and others. Niches with figures over doorways. Roofs
+ of moderately high pitch, and open to the frame; timbers
+ chiefly king-post trusses. Towers square and massive--those
+ of late date richly adorned with arcades. Openings in towers
+ often beautifully grouped. Vaulting waggon-headed, and
+ simple intersecting vaults of semicircular outline.
+
+ Towards the close of the style in reign of Henry II.,
+ details of transitional character begin to appear. Pointed
+ arch with Norman pier. Arcades of intersecting semicircular
+ arches. Norman abacus blended with Early English foliage in
+ capitals.
+
+
+ EARLY ENGLISH. Richard I. A.D. 1189 _Transition._
+ John " 1199.
+ Henry III. " 1216.
+ Edward I. " 1272 to 1307.
+
+ General proportions more slender, and height of walls,
+ columns, &c., greater. Arches pointed, generally lancet;
+ often richly moulded. Triforium arches and arcades open with
+ trefoiled heads. Piers slender, composed of a central
+ circular shaft surrounded by several smaller ones, almost or
+ quite detached; generally with horizontal bands. In small
+ buildings plain polygonal and circular piers are used.
+ Capitals concave in outline, moulded, or carved with
+ conventional foliage delicately executed and arranged
+ vertically. The abacus always undercut. Detached shafts
+ often of Purbeck marble. Base a deep hollow between two
+ rounds. Windows at first long, narrow, and deeply splayed
+ internally, the glass within a few inches of outer face of
+ wall; later in the style less acute, divided by mullions,
+ enriched with cusped circles in the head, often of three or
+ more lights, the centre light being the highest. Doorways
+ often deeply recessed and enriched with slender shafts and
+ elaborate mouldings. Shafts detached. Buttresses about equal
+ in projection to width, with but one set-off, or without
+ any. Buttresses at angles always in pairs. Mouldings bold
+ and deeply undercut, consisting chiefly of round mouldings
+ sometimes pointed or with a fillett, separated by deep
+ hollows. Great depth of moulded surface generally arranged
+ on rectangular planes. Hollows of irregular curve sometimes
+ filled with dogtooth ornament or with foliage. Roofs of
+ high pitch, timbers plain, and where there is no vault open.
+
+ Early in the style finials were plain bunches of leaves;
+ towards the close beautifully carved finials and crockets
+ with carved foliage of conventional character were
+ introduced. Flat surfaces often richly diapered. Spires
+ broached. Vaulting pointed with diagonal and main ribs only;
+ ridge ribs not introduced till late in the style; bosses at
+ intersection of ribs.
+
+
+ DECORATED. Edward II. A.D. 1307.
+ Edward III. " 1377 to 1379.
+
+ Proportions less lofty than in the previous style. Arches
+ mostly inclosing an equilateral angle, the mouldings often
+ continued down the pier. Windows large, and divided into two
+ or more lights by mullions. Tracery in the head, at first
+ composed geometrical forms, later of flowing character.
+ Clerestory windows generally small. Diamond shaped piers
+ with shafts engaged. Capitals with scroll moulding on under
+ side of abacus, with elegant foliage arranged horizontally.
+ Doors frequently without shafts, the arch moulding running
+ down the jambs. Rich doorways and windows often surrounded
+ with triangular and ogee-shaped canopies. Buttresses in
+ stages variously ornamented. Parapet pierced with
+ quatrefoils and flowing tracery. Niches panelled and with
+ projecting canopies. Spires lofty; the broach rarely used,
+ parapets and angle pinnacles take the place of it. Roofs of
+ moderate pitch open to the framing. Mouldings bold and
+ finely proportioned, generally in groups, the groups
+ separated from each other by hollows, composed of segments
+ of circles. Deep hollows, now generally confined to inner
+ angles. Mouldings varying in size and kind, arranged on
+ diagonal as well as rectangular planes, often ornamented
+ with ball flower. Foliage chiefly of ivy, oak, and vine
+ leaves; natural, also conventional. Rich crockets, finials,
+ and pinnacles. Vaulting with intermediate ribs, ridge ribs,
+ and late in the style lierne ribs, and bosses.
+
+
+ PERPENDICULAR. Richard II. A.D. 1377. (_Transition._)
+ Henry IV. " 1399.
+ Henry V. " 1413.
+ Henry VI. " 1422.
+ Edward IV. " 1461.
+ Edward V. " 1483.
+ Richard III. " 1483.
+
+ TUDOR. Henry VII. " 1485.
+ Henry VIII. " 1509 to 1546.
+
+ Arches at first inclosing an equilateral triangle,
+ afterwards obtusely pointed and struck from four centres.
+ Piers generally oblong; longitudinal direction north and
+ south. Mouldings continued from base through arch. Capitals
+ with mouldings large, angular, and few, with abacus and bell
+ imperfectly defined. Foliage of conventional character,
+ shallow, and square in outline. Bases polygonal. Windows
+ where lofty divided into stories by transoms. The mullions
+ often continued perpendicularly into the head. Canopies of
+ ogee character enriched with crockets. Doors generally with
+ square label over arch, the spandrels filled with ornament.
+ Buttresses with bold projection often ending in finials.
+ Flying buttresses pierced with tracery. Walls profusely
+ ornamented with panelling. Parapets embattled and panelled.
+ Open timber roofs of moderate pitch, of elaborate
+ construction, often with hammer beams, richly ornamented
+ with moulded timbers, carved figures of angels and with
+ pierced tracery in spandrels. Roofs sometimes of very flat
+ pitch. Lofty clerestories. Mouldings large, coarse, and with
+ wide and shallow hollows and hard wiry edges, meagre in
+ appearance and wanting in minute and delicate detail,
+ generally arranged on diagonal planes. Early in the style
+ the mouldings partake of decorated character.
+
+ In the Tudor period depressed four-centered arch prevails;
+ transoms of windows battlemented. Tudor flower, rose,
+ portcullis, and fleur-de-lis common ornaments. Crockets and
+ pinnacles much projected. Roofs of low pitch.
+
+ Vaulting. Fan vaulting, with tracery and pendants
+ elaborately carved.
+
+Other modes of distinguishing the periods of English Gothic have been
+proposed by writers of authority. The division given above is that of
+Rickman, and is generally adopted. A more minute subdivision and a
+different set of names were proposed by Sharpe as follows:--
+
+ ROMANESQUE. Saxon A.D. to 1066.
+ Norman " 1066 to 1145.
+ GOTHIC. Transitional " 1145 to 1190.
+ Lancet " 1190 to 1245.
+ Geometrical " 1245 to 1315.
+ Curvilinear " 1315 to 1360.
+ Rectilinear " 1360 to 1550.
+
+Of the new names proposed by Mr. Sharpe "transitional" explains
+itself; and "geometrical, curvilinear, and rectilinear" refer to the
+characters of the window tracery at the different periods which they
+denote.[6]
+
+ * * * * *
+
+The history of English Gothic proper may be said to begin with the
+reign of Henry II., coinciding very nearly with the commencement of
+the period named by Mr. Sharpe transitional (1145 to 1190), when
+Norman architecture was changing into Gothic. This history we propose
+now to consider somewhat in detail, dividing the buildings in the
+simplest possible way, namely, into floors, walls, columns, roofs,
+openings, and ornaments. After this we shall have to consider the mode
+in which materials were used by the builders of the Gothic period,
+_i.e._ the construction of the buildings; and the general artistic
+principles which guided their architects, _i.e._ the design of the
+buildings.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+It may be useful to students in and near London to give Sir G. Gilbert
+Scott's list of striking London examples[7] of Gothic architecture
+(with the omission of such examples as are more antiquarian than
+architectural in their interest):--
+
+ _Norman_ (temp. Conquest).--The Keep and Chapel of the Tower
+ of London.
+
+ _Advanced Norman._--Chapel of St. Catherine, Westminster
+ Abbey; St. Bartholomew's Priory, Smithfield.
+
+ _Transitional._--The round part of the Temple Church.
+
+ _Early English._--Eastern part of the Temple Church; Choir
+ and Lady Chapel of St. Mary Overy, Southwark; Chapel of
+ Lambeth Palace.
+
+ _Advanced Early English_ (passing to decorated).--Eastern
+ part of Westminster Abbey generally and its Chapter House.
+
+ _Early Decorated._--Choir of Westminster, (but this has been
+ much influenced by the design of the earlier parts
+ adjacent); Chapel of St. Etheldreda, Ely Place, Holborn.
+
+ _Late Decorated._--The three bays of the Cloister at
+ Westminster opposite the entrance to Chapter House; Crypt of
+ St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster; Dutch Church, Austin
+ Friars.
+
+ _Early Perpendicular._--South and West walks of the
+ Cloister, Westminster; Westminster Hall.
+
+ _Advanced Perpendicular (Tudor period)._--Henry VII.'s
+ Chapel; Double Cloister of St. Stephen's, Westminster.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] The abbreviations, E. E., Dec., and Perp., will be employed to
+denote these three periods.
+
+[5] _Notes on English Architecture, Costumes, Monuments, &c._
+_Privately printed._ Quoted here with the author's permission.
+
+[6] See examples in Chapter V. and in Glossary.
+
+[7] Address to Conference of Architects, _Builder_, June 24, 1876.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY.}]
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.--ENGLAND.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.--FLOOR, WALLS, TOWERS, GABLES, COLUMNS.
+
+_Floor, or Plan._
+
+The excellences or defects of a building are more due to the shape and
+size of its floor and, incidentally, of the walls and columns or piers
+which inclose and subdivide its floor than to anything else whatever.
+A map of the floor and walls (usually showing also the position of the
+doors and windows), is known as a plan, but by a pardonable figure of
+speech the plan of a building is often understood to mean the shape
+and size and arrangement of its floor and walls themselves, instead of
+simply the drawing representing them. It is in this sense that the
+word plan will be used in this volume.
+
+The plan of a Gothic Cathedral has been described, and it has been
+already remarked that before the Gothic period had commenced the
+dimensions of great churches had been very much increased. The
+generally received disposition of the parts of a church had indeed
+been already settled or nearly so. There were consequently few
+radical alterations in church plans during the Gothic period. One,
+however, took place in England in the abandonment of the apse.
+
+At first the apsidal east end, common in the Norman times, was
+retained. For example, it is found at Canterbury, where the choir and
+transept are transitional, having been begun soon after 1174 and
+completed about 1184; but the eastern end of Chichester, which belongs
+to the same period (the transition), displays the square east end, and
+this termination was almost invariably preferred in our country after
+the twelfth century.
+
+A great amount of regularity marks the plans of those great churches
+which had vaulted roofs, as will be readily understood when it is
+remembered that the vaults were divided into equal and similar
+compartments, and that the points of support had to be placed with
+corresponding regularity. Where, however, some controlling cause of
+this nature was not at work much picturesque irregularity prevailed in
+the planning of English Gothic buildings of all periods. The plans of
+our Cathedrals are noted for their great length in proportion to their
+width, for the considerable length given to the transepts, and for the
+occurrence in many cases (_e.g._ Salisbury, thirteenth century) of a
+second transept. The principal alterations which took place in plan as
+time went on originated in the desire to concentrate material as much
+as possible on points of support, leaving the walls between them thin
+and the openings wide, and in the use of flying buttresses, the feet
+of which occupy a considerable space outside the main walls of the
+church. The plans of piers and columns also underwent the alterations
+which will be presently described.[8]
+
+Buildings of a circular shape on plan are very rare, but octagonal
+ones are not uncommon. The finest chapter-houses attached to our
+Cathedrals are octagons, with a central pier to carry the vaulting. On
+the whole, play of shape on plan was less cultivated in England than
+in some continental countries.
+
+The plans of domestic buildings are usually simple, but grew more
+elaborate and extensive as time went on. The cloister with
+dwelling-rooms and common-rooms entered from its walk, formed the
+model on which colleges, hospitals, and alms-houses were planned. The
+castle, already described, was the residence of the wealthy during the
+earlier part of the Gothic period, and when, in the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries, houses which were rather dwellings than
+fortresses began to be erected, the hall, with a large bay window and
+a raised floor or dais at one end and a mighty open fire-place, was
+always the most conspicuous feature in the plan. Towards the close of
+the Gothic period the plan of a great dwelling, such as Warwick Castle
+(Fig. 8), began to show many of the features which distinguish a
+mansion of the present day.
+
+In various parts of the country remains of magnificent Gothic
+dwelling-houses of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries exist, and
+long before the close of the perpendicular period we had such mansions
+as Penshurst and Hever, such palaces as Windsor and Wells, such
+castellated dwellings as Warwick and Haddon, differing in many
+respects but all agreeing in the possession of a great central hall.
+Buildings for public purposes also often took the form of a great
+hall. Westminster Hall may be cited as the finest example of such a
+structure, not only in England but in Europe.
+
+The student who desires to obtain anything beyond the most
+superficial acquaintance with architecture must endeavour to obtain
+enough familiarity with ground plans, to be able to sketch, measure,
+and lay down a plan to scale and to _read_ one. The plan shows to the
+experienced architect the nature, arrangement, and qualities of a
+building better than any other drawing, and a better memorandum of a
+building is preserved if a fairly correct sketch of its plan, or of
+the plan of important parts of it, is preserved than if written notes
+are alone relied upon.
+
+
+_Walls._
+
+The walls of Gothic buildings are generally of stone; brick being the
+exception. They were in the transitional and Early English times
+extremely thick, and became thinner afterwards. All sorts of
+ornamental masonry were introduced into them, so that diapers,[9]
+bands, arcades, mouldings, and inlaid patterns are all to be met with
+occasionally, especially in districts where building materials of
+varied colours, or easy to work, are plentiful. In the perpendicular
+period the walls were systematically covered with panelling closely
+resembling the tracery of the windows (_e.g._, Henry VII.'s Chapel at
+Westminster).
+
+The wall of a building ordinarily requires some kind of base and some
+kind of top. The base or plinth in English Gothic buildings was
+usually well marked and bold, especially in the perpendicular period,
+and it is seldom absent. The eaves of the roof in some cases overhang
+the walls, resting on a simple stone band, called an eaves-course, and
+constitute the crowning feature. In many instances, however, the
+eaves are concealed behind a parapet[10] which is often carried on a
+moulded cornice or on corbels. This, in the E. E. period, was usually
+very simple. In the Dec. it was panelled with ornamental panels, and
+often made very beautiful. In the Perp. it was frequently battlemented
+as well as panelled.
+
+A distinguishing feature of Gothic walls is the buttress. It existed,
+but only in the form of a flat pier of very slight projection in
+Norman, as in almost all Romanesque buildings, but in the Gothic
+period it became developed.
+
+The buttress, like many of the peculiarities of Gothic architecture,
+originated in the use of stone vaults and the need for strong piers at
+these points, upon which the thrust and weight of those vaults were
+concentrated. The use of very large openings, for wide windows full of
+stained glass also made it increasingly necessary in the Dec. and
+Perp. periods to fortify the walls at regular points.
+
+A buttress[10] is, in fact, a piece of wall set athwart the main wall,
+usually projecting considerably at the base and diminished by
+successive reductions of its mass as it approaches the top, and so
+placed as to counteract the thrust of some arch or vault inside. It
+had great artistic value; in the feeble and level light of our
+Northern climate it casts bold shadows and catches bright lights, and
+so adds greatly to the architectural effect of the exterior. In the
+E. E. the buttress was simple and ordinarily projected about its own
+width. In the Dec. it obtained much more projection, was constructed
+with several diminutions (technically called weatherings), and was
+considerably ornamented. In the Perp. it was frequently enriched by
+panelling. The buttresses in the Dec. period are often set diagonally
+at the corner of a building or tower. In the E. E. period this was
+never done.
+
+The flying buttress[11] is one of the most conspicuous features of the
+exterior of those Gothic buildings which possessed elaborate stone
+vaults. It was a contrivance for providing an abutment to
+counterbalance the outward pressure of the vault covering the highest
+and central parts of the building in cases where that vault rested
+upon and abutted against walls which themselves were carried by
+arches, and were virtually internal walls, so that no buttress could
+be carried up from the ground to steady them.
+
+A pier of masonry, sometimes standing alone, sometimes thrown out from
+the aisle wall opposite the point to be propped, formed the solid part
+of this buttress; it was carried to the requisite height and a flying
+arch spanning the whole width of the aisles was thrown across from it
+to the wall at the point whence the vault sprung. The pier itself was
+in many cases loaded by an enormous pinnacle, so that its weight might
+combine with the pressure transmitted along the slope of the flying
+arch to give a resultant which should fall within the base of the
+buttress. The back of such an arch was generally used as a water
+channel.
+
+The forest of flying buttresses round many French cathedrals produces
+an almost bewildering effect, as, for instance, at the east end of
+Notre Dame;--our English specimens, at Westminster Abbey for example,
+are comparatively simple.
+
+
+_Towers._
+
+The gable and the tower are developments of the walls of the building.
+Gothic is _par excellence_ the style of towers. Many towers were
+built detached from all other buildings, but no great Gothic building
+is complete without one main tower and some subordinate ones.
+
+In the E. E. style church towers were often crowned by low spires,
+becoming more lofty as the style advanced. In the Dec. style lofty
+spires were almost universal. In the Perp. the tower rarely has a
+visible roof.[12]
+
+The artistic value of towers in giving unity coupled with variety to a
+group of buildings can hardly be exaggerated.
+
+The positions which towers occupy are various. They produce the
+greatest effect when central, _i.e._ placed over the crossing of the
+nave and transepts. Lichfield, Chichester, and Salisbury may be
+referred to as examples of cathedrals with towers in this position and
+surmounted by spires. Canterbury, York, Lincoln, and Gloucester are
+specimens of the effectiveness of the tower similarly placed, but
+without a spire (Fig. 12). At Wells a fine central octagon occupies
+the crossing, and is remarkable for the skill with which it is fitted
+to the nave and aisles internally. Next to central towers rank a pair
+of towers at the western end of the building. These exist at Lichfield
+with their spires; they exist (square-topped) at Lincoln, and (though
+carried up since the Gothic period) at Westminster.[13] Many churches
+have a single tower in this position (Fig. 13).
+
+The obvious purpose of a tower, beyond its serviceableness as a
+feature of the building and as a landmark, is to lift up a belfry high
+into the air: accordingly, almost without exception, church and
+cathedral towers are designed with a large upper story, pierced by
+openings of great size and height called the belfry stage; and the
+whole artistic treatment of the tower is subordinate to this feature.
+It is also very often the case that a turret to contain a spiral
+staircase which may afford the means of access to the upper part of
+the tower, forms a prominent feature of its whole height, especially
+in the Dec. and Perp. periods.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 12.--LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. (MOSTLY EARLY ENGLISH.)]
+
+In domestic and monastic buildings, low towers were frequently
+employed with excellent effect. Many castles retained the Norman keep,
+or square strong tower, which had served as the nucleus round which
+other buildings had afterwards clustered; but where during the Gothic
+period a castle was built, or rebuilt, without such a keep, one or
+more towers, often of great beauty, were always added. Examples
+abound; good ones will be found in the Edwardian castles in Wales (end
+of thirteenth century), as for example at Conway and Caernarvon.
+
+
+_Gables._
+
+The gable forms a distinctive Gothic feature. The gables crowned those
+parts of a great church in which the skill of the architect was
+directed to producing a regular composition, often called a front, or
+a facade. The west fronts of Cathedrals were the most important
+architectural designs of this sort, and with them we may include the
+ends of the transepts and the east fronts.
+
+The same parts of parish churches are often excellent compositions.
+The gable of the nave always formed the central feature of the main
+front. This was flanked by the gables, or half-gables, of the aisles
+where there were no towers, or by the lower portions of the towers. As
+a rule the centre and sides of the facade are separated by buttresses,
+or some other mode of marking a vertical division, and the composition
+is also divided by bands of mouldings or otherwise, horizontally into
+storeys. Some of the horizontal divisions are often strongly marked,
+especially in the lower part of the building, where in early examples
+there is sometimes in addition to the plinth, or base of the wall, an
+arcade or a band of sculpture running across the entire front (_e.g._
+east front of Lincoln Cathedral). The central gable is always occupied
+by a large window--or in early buildings a group of windows--sometimes
+two storeys in height. A great side window usually occurs at the end
+of each aisle. Below these great windows are introduced, at any rate
+in west fronts, the doorways, which, even in the finest English
+examples, are comparatively small. The gable also contains as a rule
+one or more windows often circular which light the space above the
+vaults.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 13.--ST. PIERRE, CAEN, TOWER AND SPIRE. (SPIRE,
+ 1302.)]
+
+Part of the art in arranging such a composition is to combine and yet
+contrast its horizontal and vertical elements. The horizontal lines,
+or features, are those which serve to bind the whole together, and the
+vertical ones are those which give that upward tendency which is the
+great charm and peculiar characteristic of Gothic architecture. It is
+essential for the masses of solid masonry and the openings to be
+properly contrasted and proportioned to each other, and here, as in
+every part of a building, such ornaments and ornamental features as
+are introduced must be designed to contribute to the enrichment of the
+building as a whole, so that no part shall be conspicuous either by
+inharmonious treatment, undue plainness, or excessive enrichment.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 14.--HOUSE AT CHESTER. (16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+During the transition the gable became steeper in pitch than the
+comparatively moderate slope of Norman times. In the E. E. it was
+acutely pointed, in the Dec. the usual slope was that of the two sides
+of an equilateral triangle: in the Perp. it became extremely flat and
+ceased to be so marked a feature as it had formerly been. In domestic
+buildings the gable was employed in the most effective manner, and
+town dwelling-houses were almost invariably built their gable ends to
+the street (Fig. 14).
+
+ * * * * *
+
+A very effective form of wall was frequently made use of in
+dwelling-houses. This consisted of a sturdy framework of stout timbers
+exposed to view, with the spaces between them filled in with plaster.
+Of this work, which is known as half-timbered work, many beautiful
+specimens remain dating from the fifteenth and following centuries
+(Figs. 14 and 15), and a few of earlier date. In those parts of
+England where tiles are manufactured such framework was often covered
+by tiles instead of being filled in with plastering. In half-timbered
+houses, the fire-places and chimneys, and sometimes also the basement
+storeys, are usually of brickwork or masonry; so are the side walls in
+the case of houses in streets. It was usual in such buildings to cause
+the upper storeys to overhang the lower ones.
+
+
+_Columns and Piers._
+
+The columns and piers of a building virtually form portions of its
+walls, so far as aiding to support the weight of the roof is
+concerned, and are appropriately considered in connection with them.
+In Gothic architecture very little use is made of columns on the
+outside of a building, and the porticoes and external rows of columns
+proper to the classic styles are quite unknown. On the other hand the
+series of piers, or columns, from which spring the arches which
+separate the central avenues of nave, transepts and choir from the
+aisles, are among the most prominent features in every church. These
+piers varied in each century.[14]
+
+The Norman piers had been frequently circular or polygonal, but
+sometimes nearly square, and usually of enormous mass. Thus, at Durham
+(Norman), oblong piers of about eleven feet in diameter occur
+alternately with round ones of about seven feet. In transitional
+examples columns of more slender proportions were employed either (as
+in the choir of Canterbury) as single shafts or collected into groups.
+Where grouping took place it was intended that each shaft of the group
+should be seen to support some definite feature of the superincumbent
+structure, as where a separate group of mouldings springs from each
+shaft in a doorway, and this principle was very steadily adhered to
+during the greater part of the Gothic period.[14]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 15.--HOUSES AT LISIEUX, FRANCE. (16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+Through the E. E. period groups of shafts are generally employed; they
+are often formed of detached shafts clustering round a central one,
+and held together at intervals by bands or belts of masonry, and
+generally the entire group is nearly circular on plan. In the
+succeeding century (Dec. period) the piers also take the form of
+groups of shafts, but they are generally carved out of one block of
+stone, and the ordinary arrangement of the pier is on a lozenge-shaped
+plan. In the Perp., the piers retain the same general character, but
+are slenderer, and the shafts have often shrunk to nothing more than
+reedy mouldings.
+
+The column is often employed in Transitional and E. E. churches as a
+substitute for piers carrying arches. In every period small columns
+are freely used as ornamental features. They are constantly met with,
+for example, in the jambs of doorways and of windows.
+
+Every column is divided naturally into three parts, its base, or foot;
+its shaft, which forms the main body; and its capital, or head. Each
+of these went through a series of modifications. Part of the base
+usually consisted of a flat stone larger than the diameter of the
+column, sometimes called a plinth, and upon this stood the moulded
+base which gradually diminished to the size of the shaft. This plain
+stone was in E. E. often square, and in that case the corner spaces
+which were not covered by the mouldings of the base were often
+occupied by an elegantly carved leaf. In Dec. and Perp. buildings the
+lower part of the base was often polygonal, and frequently moulded so
+as to make it into a pedestal.[15]
+
+The proportions of shafts varied extraordinarily; they were, as a
+rule, extremely slender when their purpose was purely decorative, and
+comparatively sturdy when they really served to carry a weight.
+
+The capital of the column has been perhaps the most conspicuous
+feature in the architecture of every age and every country, and it is
+one of the features which a student may make use of as an indication
+of date and style of buildings, very much as the botanist employs the
+flower as an index to the genus and species of plants. The capital
+almost invariably starts from a ring, called the neck of the column.
+This serves to mark the end of the shaft and the commencement of the
+capital. Above this follows what is commonly called the bell,--the
+main portion of the capital, which is that part upon which the skill
+of the carver and the taste of the designer can be most freely
+expended, and on the top of the bell is placed the abacus, a flat
+block of stone upon the upper surface of which is built the
+superstructure or is laid the beam or block which the column has to
+support. The shape and ornaments given to the abacus are often of
+considerable importance as indications of the position in
+architectural history which the building in which it occurs should
+occupy.
+
+The Norman capital differed to some extent from the Romanesque
+capitals of other parts of Europe. It was commonly of a heavy,
+strong-looking shape, and is often appropriately called the cushion
+capital. In its simpler forms the cushion capital is nothing but a
+cubical block of stone with its lower corners rounded off to make it
+fit the circular shaft on which it is placed, and with a slab by way
+of abacus placed upon it. In later Norman and transitional work the
+faces of this block and the edges of the abacus are often richly
+moulded. By degrees, however, as the transition to E. E. approached, a
+new sort of capital[16] was introduced, having the outline of the bell
+hollow instead of convex. The square faces of the Norman capital of
+course disappeared, and the square abacus soon (at least in this
+country) became circular, involving no small loss of vigour in the
+appearance of the work. The bell of this capital was often decorated
+with rich mouldings, and had finely-designed and characteristic
+foliage, which almost always seemed to grow up the capital, and
+represented a conventional kind of leaf easily recognised when once
+seen.
+
+In the Dec. period the capitals have, as a rule, fewer and less
+elaborate mouldings; the foliage is often very beautifully carved in
+imitation of natural leaves, and wreathed round the capital instead of
+growing up it. In the Perp. this feature is in every way less ornate,
+the mouldings are plainer, and the foliage, often absent, is, when it
+occurs, conventional and stiff. Polygonal capitals are common in this
+period.
+
+ [Illustration: _Later Norman Capital._]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[8] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Pier_.
+
+[9] For illustration consult the Glossary.
+
+[10] For illustrations consult the Glossary.
+
+[11] For illustration consult the Glossary under _Flying buttress_.
+
+[12] For remarks on Spires, see Chap. V.
+
+[13] York, Lichfield, and Lincoln, are the cathedrals distinguished by
+the possession of three towers.
+
+[14] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Pier_.
+
+[15] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Base_.
+
+[16] For illustrations consult the Glossary.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY.}]
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.--ENGLAND.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS (_continued_)--OPENINGS, ROOFS, SPIRES,
+ORNAMENTS, STAINED GLASS, SCULPTURE.
+
+_Openings and Arches._
+
+The openings (_i.e._ doors and windows) in the walls of English Gothic
+buildings are occasionally covered by flat heads or lintels, but this
+is exceptional; ordinarily they have arched heads. The shape of the
+arch varies at all periods. Architects always felt themselves free to
+adopt any shape which best met the requirements of any special case;
+but at each period there was one shape of arch which it was customary
+to use.
+
+In the first transitional period (end of twelfth century) semicircular
+and pointed arches are both met with, and are often both employed in
+the same part of the same building. The mouldings and enrichments
+which are common in Norman work are usually still in use. In the E. E.
+period the doorways are almost invariably rather acutely pointed, the
+arched heads are enriched by a large mass of rich mouldings, and the
+jambs[17] have usually a series of small columns, each of which is
+intended to carry a portion of the entire group of mouldings. Large
+doorways are often subdivided into two, and frequently approached by
+porches. A most beautiful example occurs in the splendid west entrance
+to Ely Cathedral. Other examples will be found at Lichfield (Fig. 1)
+and Salisbury. It was not uncommon to cover doorways with a lintel,
+the whole being under an archway; this left a space above the head of
+the door which was occupied by carving often of great beauty.
+Ornamental gables are often formed over the entrances of churches, and
+are richly sculptured; but though beautiful, these features rarely
+attained magnificence. The most remarkable entrance to an English
+cathedral is the west portal of Peterborough--a composition of lofty
+and richly moulded arches built in front of the original west wall. A
+portal on a smaller scale, but added in the same manner adorns the
+west front of Wells. As a less exceptional example we may refer to the
+entrance to Westminster Abbey at the end of the north transept (now
+under restoration), which must have been a noble example of an E. E.
+portal when in its perfect state.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 16.--LANCET WINDOW. (12TH CENTURY.)]
+
+The windows in this style were almost always long, narrow, and with a
+pointed head resembling the blade of a lancet (Fig. 16). The glass is
+generally near the outside face of the wall, and the sides of the
+opening are splayed towards the inside. It was very customary to place
+these lancet windows in groups. The best known group is the celebrated
+one of "the five sisters," five lofty single lights, occupying the
+eastern end of one of the transepts of York Minster. A common
+arrangement in designing such a group was to make the central light
+the highest, and to graduate the height of the others. It after a time
+became customary to render the opening more ornamental by adding
+pointed projections called cusps. By these the shape of the head of
+the opening was turned into a form resembling a trefoil leaf.
+Sometimes two cusps were added on each side. The head is, in the
+former case, said to be trefoiled--in the latter, cinqfoiled.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 17.--TWO-LIGHT WINDOW. (13TH CENTURY.)]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 18.--GEOMETRICAL TRACERY. (14TH CENTURY.)]
+
+When two windows were placed close together it began to be customary
+to include them under one outer arch, and after a time to pierce the
+solid head between them with a circle, which frequently was cusped,
+forming often a quatrefoil (Fig. 17). This completed the idea of a
+group, and was rapidly followed by ornamental treatment. Three, four,
+five, or more windows (which in such a position are often termed
+lights) were often placed under one arch, the head of which was filled
+by a more or less rich group of circles; mouldings were added, and
+thus rose the system of decoration for window-heads known as tracery.
+So long as the tracery preserves the simple character of piercings
+through a flat stone, filling the space between the window heads, it
+is known as plate tracery. The thinning down of the blank space to a
+comparatively narrow surface went on, and by and by the use of
+mouldings caused that plain surface to resemble bars of stone bent
+into a circular form: this was called bar tracery, and it is in this
+form that tracery is chiefly employed in England (Fig. 18).
+Westminster Abbey is full of exquisite examples of E. E.
+window-tracery (temp. Henry III.); as, for example, in the windows of
+the choir, the great circular windows (technically termed
+rose-windows) at the ends of the transepts, the windows of the
+chapter-house. Last, but not least, the splendid arcade which forms
+the triforium is filled with tracery similar in every respect to the
+best window tracery of the period (Fig. 19).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 19.--THE TRIFORIUM ARCADE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
+ (1269.)]
+
+In the decorated style of the fourteenth century tracery was developed
+till it reached a great pitch of perfection and intricacy. In the
+earlier half of the century none save regular geometrical forms, made
+up of circles and segments of circles, occur; in other words, the
+whole design of the most elaborate window could be drawn with the
+compasses, and a curve of contrary flexure rarely occurred. In the
+latest half of that period flowing lines are introduced into the
+tracery, and very much alter its character (Fig. 20). The cusping
+throughout is bolder than in the E. E. period.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 20.--ROSE WINDOW FROM THE TRANSEPT OF LINCOLN
+ CATHEDRAL. (1342-1347.)]
+
+In perpendicular windows spaces of enormous size are occupied by the
+mullions and tracery. Horizontal bars, called transoms, are now for
+the first time introduced, and the upright bars or mullions form with
+them a kind of stone grating; but below each transom a series of small
+stone arches forms heads to the lights below that transom, and a minor
+mullion often springs from the head of each of these arches, so that
+as the window increases in height, the number of its lights increases.
+The character of the cusping changed again, the cusps becoming
+club-headed in their form (Fig. 21).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 21.--PERPENDICULAR WINDOW.]
+
+Arches in the great arcades of churches, or in the smaller arcades of
+cloisters, or used as decorations to the surface of the walls, were
+made acute, obtuse, or segmental, to suit the duty they had to
+perform; but when there was nothing to dictate any special shape, the
+arch of the E. E. period was by preference acute[18] and of lofty
+proportions, and that of the Dec. less lofty, and its head equilateral
+(_i.e._ described so that if the ends of the base of an equilateral
+triangle touch the two points from which it springs, the apex of the
+angle shall touch the point of the arch). In the Perp. period the four
+centred depressed arch, sometimes called the Tudor arch, was
+introduced, and though it did not entirely supersede the equilateral
+arch, yet its employment became at last all but universal, and it is
+one of the especially characteristic features of the Tudor period.
+
+
+_Roofs and Vaults._
+
+The external and the internal covering of a building are very often
+not the same; the outer covering is then usually called a roof--the
+other, a vault or ceiling. In not a few Gothic buildings, however,
+they were the same; such buildings had what are known as open
+roofs--_i.e._ roofs in which the whole of the timber framing of which
+they are constructed is open to view from the interior right up to the
+tiles or lead. Very few open roofs of E. E. character are now
+remaining, but a good many parish churches retain roofs of the Dec.,
+and more of the Perp. period. The roof of Westminster Hall (Perp.,
+erected 1397) shows how fine an architectural object such a roof may
+become. The roof of the hall of Eltham Palace (Fig. 22) is another
+good example. Wooden ceilings, often very rich, are not uncommon,
+especially in the churches of Norfolk and Suffolk, but greater
+interest attaches to the stone vaults with which the majority of
+Gothic buildings were erected, than to any other description of
+covering to the interiors of buildings.
+
+The vault was a feature rarely absent from important churches, and the
+structural requirements of the Gothic vault were among the most
+influential of the elements which determined both the plan and the
+section of a mediaeval church. There was a regular growth in Gothic
+vaults. Those of the thirteenth century are comparatively simple;
+those of the fourteenth are much richer and more elaborate, and often
+involve very great structural difficulties. Those of the fifteenth are
+more systematic, and consequently more simple in principle than the
+ones which preceded them, but are such marvels of workmanship, and so
+enriched by an infinity of parts, that they astonish the beholder,
+and it appears, till the secret is known, impossible to imagine how
+they can be made to stand.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 22.--ROOF OF HALL AT ELTHAM PALACE. (15TH
+ CENTURY.)]
+
+It has been held by some very good authorities that the pointed arch
+was first introduced into Gothic architecture to solve difficulties
+which presented themselves in the vaulting. In all probability the
+desire to give to everything, arches included, a more lofty appearance
+and more slender proportions may have had as much to do with the
+adoption of the pointed arch as any structural considerations, but
+there can be no doubt that it was used for structural arches from the
+very first, even when window heads and wall arcades were semicircular,
+and that the introduction of it cleared the way for the use of stone
+vaults of large span to a wonderful extent. It is not easy to explain
+this without being more technical than is perhaps desirable in the
+present volume, but the subject is one of too much importance for it
+to be possible to avoid making the attempt.
+
+Churches, it will be recollected, were commonly built with a wide nave
+and narrower aisles, and it was in the Norman period customary to
+vault the aisles and cover the nave with a ceiling. There was no
+difficulty in so spacing the distances apart of the piers of the main
+arcade that the compartments (usually termed bays) of the aisle should
+be square on plan; and it was quite possible, without doing more than
+the Romans had done, to vault each bay of the aisles with a
+semicircular intersecting vault (_i.e._ one which has the appearance
+of a semicircular or waggon-head vault, intersected by another vault
+of the same outline and height). This produced a simple series of what
+are called groined or cross vaults, which allowed height to be given
+to the window heads of the aisle and to the arcades between the aisles
+and nave.
+
+After a time it was desired to vault the nave also, and to adopt for
+it an intersecting vault, so that the heads of the windows of the
+clerestory might be raised above the springing line of the vault, but
+so long as the arches remained semicircular, this was very difficult
+to accomplish.
+
+The Romans would probably have contented themselves with employing a
+barrel vault and piercing it to the extent required by short lateral
+vaults, but the result would have been an irregular, weak, curved line
+at each intersection with the main vault; and the aisle vaults having
+made the pleasing effect of a perfectly regular intersection familiar,
+this expedient does not seem to have found favour, at any rate in
+England.
+
+Other expedients were however tried, and with curious results. It was
+for example attempted to vault the nave with a cross vault, embracing
+two bays of the arcade to one of the vault, but the wall space so
+gained was particularly ill suited to the clerestory windows, as may
+be seen by examining the nave of St. Stephen's at Caen. In short, if
+the vaulting compartment were as wide as the nave one way, but only as
+wide as the aisle the other way, and semicircular arches alone were
+employed, a satisfactory result seemed to be unattainable.
+
+In the search for some means of so vaulting a bay of oblong plan that
+the arches should spring all at one level, and the groins or lines of
+intersection should cross one another in the centre of the ceiling,
+the idea either arose or was suggested that the curve of the smaller
+span should be a pointed instead of a semicircular arch.
+
+The moment this was tried all difficulty vanished, and groined (_i.e._
+intersecting) vaults, covering compartments of any proportions became
+easy to design and simple to construct, for if the vault which spanned
+the narrow way of the compartment were acutely pointed, and that
+which spanned it the wide way were either semicircular or
+flatly-pointed, it became easy to arrange that the startings of both
+vaults should be at the same level, and that they should rise to the
+same height, which is the condition essential to the production of a
+satisfactory intersection.
+
+Scott enumerates not fewer than fourteen varieties of mediaeval
+vaults[19] and points out that specimens of thirteen are to be found
+at Westminster. Without such minute detail we may select some
+well-known varieties:--(1) The plain waggon-head vault, as at the
+Chapel of the Tower; (2) in advanced Norman works, cross-vaults formed
+by two intersecting semicircular vaults, the diagonal line being
+called a groin. (3) The earliest transitional and E. E. vaults,
+pointed and with transverse and diagonal ribs, and bosses at the
+intersection of ribs, _e.g._, in the aisles and the early part of the
+cloisters at Westminster. (4) In the advanced part of the E. E.
+period, the addition of a rib at the ridge, as seen in the presbytery
+and transepts at Westminster. (5) At the time of the transition to
+Dec. (_temp._ Ed. 1.) additional ribs began to be introduced between
+the diagonal and the transverse ribs. (6) As the Dec. period advanced
+other ribs, called _liernes_, were introduced, running in various
+directions over the surface of the vault, making star-like figures on
+the vault. (7) The vault of the early Perp., which is similar to the
+last, but more complicated and approaching No. 8, _e.g._, Abbot
+Islip's chapel. (8) Lastly, the distinctive vault of the advanced or
+Tudor Perp., is the fan-tracery vault of which Henry VII.'s Chapel
+roof is the climax. The vaulting surfaces in these are portions of
+hollow conoids, and are covered by a net-work of fine ribs, connected
+together by bands of cusping (Fig. 23).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 23.--HENRY VII.'S CHAPEL. (1503-1512.)]
+
+In Scott's enumeration the vaults of octagons and irregular
+compartments, and such varieties as the one called sexpartite, find a
+place; here they have been intentionally excluded. Many of them are
+works of the greatest skill and beauty, especially the vaults of
+octagonal chapter houses springing from one centre pier (_e.g._,
+Chapter Houses at Worcester, Westminster, Wells, and Salisbury).
+
+Externally, the roofs of buildings became very steep in the thirteenth
+century; they were not quite so steep in the fourteenth, and in the
+fifteenth they were frequently almost flat. They were always relied
+upon to add to the effectiveness of a building, and were enriched
+sometimes by variegated tiles or other covering, sometimes by the
+introduction of small windows, known as dormer windows, each with its
+own gablet and its little roof, and sometimes by the addition of a
+steep sided roof in the shape of a lantern or a "fleche" on the ridge,
+or a pyramidal covering to some projecting octagon or turret.
+
+All these have their value in breaking up the sky-line of the
+building, and adding interest and beauty to it. Still more striking,
+however, in its effect on the sky-line was the spire, a feature to
+which great attention was paid in English architecture.
+
+
+_Spires._
+
+The early square towers of Romanesque churches were sometimes
+surmounted by pyramidal roofs of low pitch. We have probably none now
+remaining, but we have some examples of large pinnacles, crowned with
+pyramids, which show what the shape must have been. They were square
+in plan and somewhat steep in slope.
+
+The spire was developed early in the E. E. period. It was octagonal
+in plan, and the four sides which coincided with the faces of the
+tower rose direct from the walls above a slightly masked eaves course.
+The four oblique sides are connected to the tower by a feature called
+a broach, which may be described as part of a blunt pyramid. The
+broach-spire (Fig. 24) is to be met with in many parts of England, but
+especially in Northamptonshire. The chief ornaments of an E. E. spire
+consist in small windows (called spire-lights or lucarnes) each
+surmounted by its gablet.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 24.--EARLY ENGLISH SPIRE. CHURCH OF ST. MARY
+ MAGDALENE, WARBOYS, LINCOLNSHIRE.]
+
+In the Dec. period it was common to finish the tower by a parapet, and
+to start the spire behind the parapet, sometimes with a broach, often
+without. Pinnacles were frequently added at the corners of the tower,
+and an arch, like that of a flying buttress, was sometimes thrown
+across from the pinnacle to the spire. Spire-lights occur as before,
+and the surface of the spire is often enriched by bands of ornament at
+intervals. The general proportions of the spire were more slender than
+before, and the rib, which generally ran up each angle, was often
+enriched by crockets, _i.e._ tufts of leaves arranged in a formal
+shape (Fig. 25).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 25.--DECORATED SPIRE. ALL SAINTS' CHURCH, OAKHAM,
+ RUTLANDSHIRE.]
+
+Towers were frequently intended to stand without spires in the Perp.
+period, and are often finished by four effective angle-pinnacles and
+a cornice with battlements. Where spires occur in this period they
+resemble those of the Dec. period.
+
+Spires end usually in a boss or finial, surmounted by a weathercock.
+Ordinary roofs were usually finished by ornamental cresting, and their
+summits were marked by finials,[20] frequently of exquisite
+workmanship.
+
+
+_Ornaments._
+
+We now come to ornaments, including mouldings, carving, and colour,
+and here we are landed upon a mass of details which it would be
+impossible to pursue far. Mouldings play a prominent part in Gothic
+architecture, and from the first to the last they varied so constantly
+that their profiles and grouping may be constantly made use of as a
+kind of architectural calendar, to point out the time, to within a few
+years, when the building in which they occur was erected.
+
+A moulding is the architect's means of drawing a line on his building.
+If he desires to mark on the exterior the position of an internal
+floor, or in any other way to suggest a division into storeys, a
+moulded string-course is introduced. If he wishes to add richness and
+play of light and shade to the sides of an important arch, he
+introduces a series of mouldings, the profile of which has been
+designed to form lights and shadows such as will answer his purpose.
+If again he desires to throw out a projection and to give the idea of
+its being properly supported, he places under his projection a corbel
+of mouldings which are of strong as well as pleasing form, so as to
+convey to the eye the notion of support. Mouldings, it can be
+understood, differ in both size and profile, according to the purpose
+which they are required to serve, the distance from the spectator at
+which they are fixed, and the material out of which they are formed.
+In the Gothic periods they also differed according to the date at
+which they were executed.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 26.--EARLY ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES.]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 27.--ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES MOULDED.]
+
+The first step towards the Gothic system of mouldings was taken by the
+Romanesque architects when the idea of building arches in thick walls,
+not only one within the others, but also in planes receding back from
+the face of the wall one behind as well as within another, was formed
+and carried out, and when a corresponding recessed arrangement of the
+jamb of the arch was made (Fig. 26). The next step was the addition of
+some simple moulding to the advancing angle of each rim of such a
+series of arches either forming a bead (Fig. 27) or a chamfer.
+
+In the transitional part of the twelfth century and the E. E. period
+this process went on till at last, though the separate receding arches
+still continued to exist, the mouldings[21] into which they were cut
+became so numerous and elaborate as to render it often difficult to
+detect the subordination or division into distinct planes which really
+remained.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 28.--DOORWAY, KING'S COLLEGE CHAPEL, CAMBRIDGE.
+ (15TH CENTURY.)]
+
+This passion for elaborate mouldings, often extraordinarily undercut,
+reached its climax in the thirteenth century, the E. E. period. In the
+Dec. period, while almost everything else became more elaborate,
+mouldings grew more simple, yet hardly less beautiful. In the Perp.
+period they were not only further simplified, but often impoverished,
+being usually shallow, formal, and stiff.[22]
+
+Ornaments abounded, and included not only enrichments in the shape of
+carved foliage and figures, statuary, mosaics, and so forth, but
+ornamental features, such as canopies, pinnacles, arcades, and
+recesses (Fig. 28).
+
+In each period these are distinct in design from all that went before
+or came after, and thus to catch the spirit of any one Gothic period
+aright, it is not enough to fix the general shapes of the arches and
+proportions of the piers but every feature, every moulding, and every
+ornament must be wrought in the true spirit of the work, or the result
+will be marred.
+
+
+_Stained Glass._
+
+Ornamental materials and every sort of decorative art, such as mosaic,
+enamel, metal work and inlays, were freely employed to add beauty in
+appropriate positions; but there was one ornament, the crowning
+invention of the Gothic artists, which largely influenced the design
+of the finest buildings, and which reflected a glory on them such as
+nothing else can approach: this was stained glass.
+
+So much of the old glass has perished, and so little modern glass is
+even passable, that this praise may seem overcharged to those who have
+never seen any of the best specimens still left. We have in the choir
+at Canterbury a remnant of the finest sort of glass which England
+possesses. Some good fragments remain at Westminster, though not very
+many; but to judge of the effect of glass at its best, the student
+should visit La Sainte Chapelle at Paris, or the Cathedrals of
+Chartres, Le Mans, Bourges, or Rheims, and he will find in these
+buildings effects in colour which are nothing less than gorgeous in
+their brilliancy, richness, and harmony.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 29.--STAINED GLASS WINDOW FROM CHARTRES
+ CATHEDRAL.]
+
+The peculiar excellence of stained glass as compared with every other
+sort of decoration, is that it is luminous. To some extent
+fresco-painting may claim a sort of brightness; mosaic when executed
+in polished materials possesses brilliancy; but in stained glass the
+light which comes streaming in through the window itself gives
+radiance, while the quality of the glass determines the colour, and
+thus we obtain a glowing, lustre of colour which can only be compared
+to the beauty of gems. In order properly to fill their place as
+decorations, stained-glass windows must be something quite different
+from transparent pictures, and the scenes they represent must not
+detach themselves too violently from the general ground. The most
+perfect effect is produced by such windows as those at Canterbury or
+Chartres (Fig. 29), which recall a cluster of jewels rather than a
+picture.
+
+
+_Coloured Decoration._
+
+Colour was also freely introduced by the lavish employment of coloured
+materials where they were to be had, and by painting the interiors
+with bright pigments. We meet with traces of rich colour on many parts
+of ancient buildings, where we should hardly dare to put it now, and
+we cannot doubt that painted decoration was constantly made use of
+with the happiest effect.
+
+
+_Sculpture._
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 30.--SCULPTURE FROM THE ENTRANCE TO THE CHAPTER
+ HOUSE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY. (1250.)]
+
+The last, perhaps the noblest ornament, is sculpture. The Gothic
+architects were alive to its value, and in all their best works
+statues abounded; often conventional to the last degree; sometimes to
+our eyes uncouth, but always the best which those who carved them
+could do at the time; always sure to contribute to architectural
+effect; never without a picturesque power, sometimes rising to grace
+and even grandeur, and sometimes sinking to grotesque ugliness.
+Whatever the quality of the sculpture was, it was always there, and
+added life to the whole. Monsters gaped and grinned from the
+water-spouts, little figures or strange animals twisted in and out of
+the foliage at angles and bosses and corbels. Stately effigies
+occupied dignified niches, in places of honour; and in the mouldings
+and tympanum of the head of a doorway there was often carved a whole
+host of figures representing heaven, earth, and hell, with a rude
+force and a native eloquence that have not lost their power to the
+present day.
+
+In the positions where modest ornamentation was required, as for
+example the capitals of shafts, the hollows of groups of mouldings,
+and the bosses of vaulting, carving of the most finished execution and
+masterly design constantly occurs. Speaking roughly, this was chiefly
+conventional in the E. E. period, chiefly natural in the Dec. and
+mixed, but with perhaps a preference for the conventional in the Perp.
+Examples abound, but both for beauty and accessibility we can refer to
+no better example than the carving which enriches the entrance to the
+Chapter House of Westminster Abbey (Fig. 30).
+
+ [Illustration: _Miserere Seat from Wells Cathedral._]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[17] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Jamb_.
+
+[18] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Arch_.
+
+[19] Address to the Conference of Architects. Reported in the
+_Builder_ of 24th June, 1876. Outlines illustrating some of these
+varieties of vault will be found in the Glossary under _Vault_.
+
+[20] See Glossary.
+
+[21] For illustrations consult the Glossary.
+
+[22] For further illustrations see the Glossary.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN EUROPE.
+
+
+FRANCE.--CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
+
+The architecture of France during the Middle Ages throws much light
+upon the history of the country. The features in which it differs from
+the work done in England at the same period can, many of them, be
+directly traced to differences in the social, political, or religious
+situation of the two nations at the time. For example, we find England
+in the eleventh and twelfth centuries in the hands of the Normans, a
+newly-conquered country under uniform administration; and accordingly
+few local variations occur in the architecture of our Norman period.
+The twelfth-century work, at Durham or Peterborough for instance,
+differs but little from that at Gloucester or Winchester. In France
+the case is different. That country was divided into a series of
+semi-independent provinces, whose inhabitants differed, not only in
+the leaders whom they followed, but in speech, race, and customs. As
+might be expected, the buildings of each province presented an aspect
+different in many respects from those of every other; and we may as
+well add that these peculiarities did not die out with the end of the
+round-arched period of architecture, but lingered far into the pointed
+period.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 31.--CHURCH AT FONTEVRAULT. (BEGUN 1125.)]
+
+The south of France was occupied by people speaking what are now known
+as the Romance dialects, and some writers have adopted the name as
+descriptive of the peculiarities of the architecture of these
+districts. The Romance provinces clung tenaciously to their early
+forms of art, so that pointed architecture was not established in the
+south of France till half a century, and in some places nearly a whole
+century, later than in the north.
+
+On the other hand, the Frankish part of the country was the cradle of
+Gothic. The transition from round to pointed architecture first took
+place in the royal domain, of which Paris was the centre, and it may
+be assumed that the new style was already existing when in 1140 Abbot
+Suger laid the foundations of the choir of the church of St. Denis,
+about forty years before the commencement of the eastern arm of our
+own Canterbury.
+
+De Caumont, who in his "Abecedaire" did for French architecture
+somewhat the same work of analysis and scientific arrangement which
+Rickman performed for English, has adopted the following
+classification:--
+
+ { Primitive. } 5th to 10th
+ { _Primordiale._ } century.
+ { }
+ { Second. } End of 10th to
+ Romanesque Architecture. { _Secondaire._ } commencement of
+ _Architecture Romane._ { } 12th century.
+ { }
+ { Third or Transition }
+ { _Tertiaire ou de_ } 12th century.
+ { _Transition._ }
+
+ { First. }
+ { _Primitive._ } 13th century.
+ { }
+ Pointed Architecture. { Second. }
+ _Architecture ogivale._ { _Secondaire._ } 14th century.
+ { }
+ { Third. }
+ { _Tertiaire._ } 15th century.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 32.--DOORWAY AT LOCHES, FRANCE. (1180.)]
+
+The transitional architecture of France is no exception to the rule
+that the art of a period of change is full of interest. Much of it has
+disappeared, but examples remain in the eastern part of the cathedral
+of St. Denis already referred to, in portions of the cathedrals of
+Noyon and Sens, the west front of Chartres, the church of St.
+Germain des Pres at Paris, and elsewhere. We here often find the
+pointed arch employed for the most important parts of the structure,
+while the round arch is still retained in the window and door-heads,
+and in decorative arcades, as shown in our illustrations of a section
+of the church at Fontevrault (Fig. 31), and of a doorway at Loches
+(Fig. 32).
+
+The first pointed architecture of the thirteenth century in France
+differs considerably from the early English of this country. The
+arches are usually less acute, and the windows not so tall in
+proportion to their width. The mouldings employed are few and simple
+compared with the many and intricate English ones. Large round columns
+are much used in place of our complicated groups of small shafts for
+the piers of the nave; and the abacus of the capital remains square.
+An air of breadth and dignity prevails in the buildings of this date
+to which the simple details, noble proportions, and great size largely
+contribute. The western front of Notre Dame, Paris (Fig. 33), dates
+from the early years of this century, the interior being much of it a
+little earlier. The well-known cathedrals of Chartres, Rheims, Laon,
+and later in the style, Amiens, and Beauvais, may be taken as grand
+examples of French first pointed. To these may be added the very
+graceful Sainte Chapelle of Paris, the choir and part of the nave of
+the cathedral at Rouen, the church of St. Etienne at Caen, and the
+cathedrals of Coutances, Lisieux, Le Mans, and Bourges. This list of
+churches could be almost indefinitely extended, and many monastic
+buildings, and not a few domestic and military ones, might be added.
+Among the most conspicuous of these may be named the monastic fortress
+at Mont St. Michel, probably the most picturesque structure in
+France, the remarkable fortifications of Carcassonne, and the lordly
+castle of Coucy.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 33.--NOTRE DAME, PARIS, WEST FRONT. (1214.)]
+
+The second pointed, or fourteenth century Gothic of France, bears more
+resemblance to contemporary English Gothic than the work of the
+centuries preceding or following. Large windows for stained glass,
+with rich geometrical tracery prevailed, and much the same sort of
+ornamental treatment as in England was adopted in richly decorated
+buildings. Specimens of the work of this century occur everywhere in
+the shape of additions to the great churches and cathedrals which had
+been left unfinished from the previous century, and also of side
+chapels which it became customary to add to the aisles of churches.
+The great and well-known abbey of St. Ouen at Rouen is one of the few
+first-class churches which can be named as begun and almost entirely
+completed in this century. The tower and spire of the church of St.
+Pierre at Caen (Fig. 13) are very well-known and beautiful specimens
+of this period.
+
+French fifteenth century architecture, or third pointed, is far from
+being so dignified or so scientific as English perpendicular, and
+differs from it considerably. Exuberant richness in decoration was the
+rage, and shows itself both in sculpture, tracery, and general design.
+Much of the later work of this period has received the name of
+flamboyant, because of the flame-like shapes into which the tracery of
+the heads of windows was thrown. In flamboyant buildings we often meet
+with art which, though certainly over-florid, is brilliant, rich, and
+full of true feeling for decoration.
+
+In this century, secular and domestic buildings attained more
+prominence than at any previous periods. Some of them are among the
+best works which this period produced. Familiar examples will be found
+in the noble Palais de Justice at Rouen, and the Hotel de
+Bourgtherould in the same city; in parts of the great chateau at
+Blois, the splendid chateau of Pierrefonds, and the Hotels de Ville of
+Oudenarde and Caen.
+
+
+FRANCE.--ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+_Plan._
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 34.--PLAN OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL. (1220-1272.)]
+
+The plans of French cathedrals and other buildings conform in general
+to the description of Gothic plans given in Chapter II., but they have
+of course certain distinctive peculiarities (Fig. 34). The cathedrals
+are as a rule much broader in proportion to their length than English
+ones. Double aisles frequently occur, and not infrequently an added
+range of side chapels fringes each of the main side walls, so that the
+interior of one of these vast buildings presents, in addition to the
+main vista along the nave, many delightful cross views of great
+extent. The transepts are also much less strongly marked than our
+English examples. There are even some great cathedrals (_e.g._,
+Bourges) without transepts; and where they exist it is common to find
+that, as in the case of Notre Dame de Paris, they do not project
+beyond the line of the side walls, so that, although fairly
+well-marked in the exterior and interior of the building, they add
+nothing to its floor-space. The eastern end of a French cathedral (and
+indeed of French churches generally, with very few exceptions) is
+terminated in an apse. When, as is frequently the case, this apse is
+encircled by a ring of chapels, with flying buttresses on several
+stages rising from among them, the whole arrangement is called a
+_chevet_, and very striking and busy is the appearance which it
+presents.
+
+
+_Walls, Towers, and Gables._
+
+The walls are rarely built of any other material than stone, and much
+splendid masonry is to be found in France. Low towers are often to be
+met with, and so are projecting staircase turrets of polygonal or
+circular forms. The facades of cathedrals, including ends of transepts
+as well as west fronts, are most striking, and often magnificently
+enriched. It is an interesting study to examine a series of these
+fronts, each a little more advanced than the last, as for example
+Notre Dame (Fig. 33), the transept at Rouen, Amiens (Fig. 35), and
+Rheims, and to note how the horizontal bands and other level
+features grow less and less conspicuous, while the vertical ones are
+more and more strongly marked; showing an increasing desire, not only
+to make the buildings lofty, but to suppress everything which might
+interfere with their looking as high as possible.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 35.--AMIENS CATHEDRAL, WEST FRONT. (1220-1272.)]
+
+
+_Columns and Piers._
+
+The column is a greater favourite than the pier in France, as has
+already been said. Sometimes, where the supports of the main arcade
+are really piers, they are built like circular shafts of large size;
+and even when they have no capital (as was the case in third-pointed
+examples), these piers still retain much of the air of solid strength
+which belongs to the column, and which the French architects appear to
+have valued highly. In cases where a series of mouldings has to be
+carried--as for example when the main arcade of a building is richly
+moulded--English architects would usually have provided a distinct
+shaft for each little group (or as Willis named them order), into
+which the whole can be subdivided. In France, at any rate during the
+earlier periods, the whole series of mouldings would spring from the
+square unbroken abacus of a single large column, to which perhaps one
+shaft, or as in our illustration (Fig. 36) four shafts, would be
+attached which would be carried up to the springing of the nave vault,
+at which point the same treatment would be repeated, though on a
+smaller scale, with the moulded ribs of that vault.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 36.--PIERS AND SUPERSTRUCTURE, RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.
+ (1211-1240.)
+ _i._ Springing of main ribs of the vault.
+ _h._ String-course below the clerestory.
+ _a b._ Triforium arcade.
+ _g._ String-course below the triform.
+ B. Main arcade separating the nave from the aisles.
+ A and N. Shafts attached to pier and supporting portions
+ of the superstructure.]
+
+A peculiarity of some districts of southern France is the suppression
+of the external buttress; the buttresses are in fact built within the
+church walls instead of outside, and masonry enough is added to make
+each into a separating wall which divides side chapels. Some large
+churches, _e.g._, the cathedral at Alby, in Southern France, consist
+of a wide nave buttressed in this way, and having side chapels between
+the buttresses, but without side aisles.
+
+The plans of the secular, military, and domestic buildings of France
+also present many interesting peculiarities, but not such as it is
+possible to review within the narrow limits of this chapter.
+
+
+_Roofs and Vaults._
+
+The peculiarly English feature of an open roof is hardly ever met with
+in any shape: yet though stone vaults are almost universal, they are
+rarely equal in scientific skill to the best of those in our own
+country. In transitional examples, many very singular instances of the
+expedients employed before the pointed vault was fully developed can
+be found. In some of the central and southern districts, domes, or at
+least domical vaults, were employed. (See the section of Fontevrault,
+Fig. 31). The dome came in from Byzantium. It was introduced in
+Perigord, where the very curious and remarkable church of St. Front
+(begun early in the eleventh century) was built. This is to all
+intents a Byzantine church. It is an almost exact copy in plan and
+construction of St. Mark's at Venice, a church designed and built by
+Eastern architects, and it is roofed by a series of domes, a
+peculiarity which is as distinctive of Byzantine (_i.e._, Eastern
+early Christian), as the vaulted roof is of Romanesque (or Western
+early Christian) architecture. Artists from Constantinople itself
+probably visited France, and from this centre a not inconsiderable
+influence extended itself in various directions, and led to the use of
+many Byzantine features both of design and ornament.
+
+As features in the exterior of their buildings, the roofs have been
+in every period valued by the French architects; they are almost
+always steep, striking, and ornamented. All appropriate modes of
+giving prominence and adding ornament to a roof have been very fully
+developed in French Gothic architecture, and the roofs of semicircular
+and circular apses, staircase towers, &c., may be almost looked upon
+as typical.[23]
+
+
+_Openings._
+
+The treatment of openings gives occasion for one of the most strongly
+marked points of contrast between French and English Gothic
+architecture. With us the great windows are unquestionably the
+prominent features, but with the French the doors are most elaborated.
+This result is reached not so much by any lowering of the quality of
+the treatment bestowed upon the windows, but by the greatly increased
+importance given to doorways.
+
+The great portals of Notre Dame at Paris (Fig. 33), Rheims, or Amiens
+(Fig. 35), and the grand porches of Chartres may be named as the
+finest examples, and are probably the most magnificent single features
+which Gothic Art produced in any age or any country; but in its degree
+the western portal of every great church is usually an object upon
+which the best resources of the architect have been freely lavished.
+The wall is built very thick so that enormous jambs, carrying a vast
+moulded arch, can be employed. The head of the door is filled with
+sculpture, which is also lavishly used in the sides and arch, and over
+the whole rises an ornamental gable, frequently profusely adorned with
+tracery and sculpture, its sides being richly decorated by crockets
+or similar ornaments, and crowned by a sculptured terminal or finial.
+
+The windows in the earliest periods are simpler than in our E. E., as
+well as of less slender proportions. In the second and third periods
+they are full of rich tracery, and are made lofty and wide to receive
+the magnificent stained glass with which it was intended to fill them,
+and which many churches retain. Circular windows, sometimes called
+wheel-windows, often occupy the gables, and are many of them very fine
+compositions.
+
+
+_Mouldings and Ornaments._
+
+The mouldings of the French first pointed are usually larger than our
+own. Compared with ours they are also fewer, simpler, and designed to
+produce more breadth of effect. This may partly result from their
+originating in a sunshiny country where effects of shade are easily
+obtained. In the second and third periods they more nearly resemble
+those in use in England at the corresponding times.
+
+The carving is very characteristic and very beautiful. In the
+transition and first pointed a cluster of stalks, ending in a tuft of
+foliage or flowers, is constantly employed, especially in capitals.
+The use of this in England is rare; and, on the other hand, foliage
+like E. E. conventional foliage is rare in France. In the second
+pointed, natural foliage is admirably rendered (Fig. 37). In the third
+a somewhat conventional kind of foliage, very luxuriant in its
+apparent growth, is constantly met with.
+
+This carving is at every stage accompanied by figure-sculpture of the
+finest character. Heads of animals, statues, groups of figures, and
+has reliefs are freely employed, but always with the greatest
+judgment, so that their introduction adds richness to the very point
+in the whole composition where it is most needed. In every part of
+France, and in every period of Gothic architecture, good specimens of
+sculpture abound. Easily accessible illustrations will be found in the
+west entrance and south transept front of Rouen Cathedral, the porches
+and portals at Chartres, the choir inclosure of Notre Dame at Paris,
+and the richly sculptured inclosure of the choir of Amiens Cathedral.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 37.--CAPITAL FROM ST. NICHOLAS, BLOIS, FRANCE.
+ (13TH CENTURY.)]
+
+Stained glass has been more than once referred to. It is to be found
+in its greatest perfection in France, as for example in La Sainte
+Chapelle at Paris, and the cathedrals of Le Mans, Bourges, Chartres,
+and Rheims. All that has been said in the introductory chapter on
+this, the crowning ornament of Gothic architecture, and on its
+influence upon window design, and through that, upon the whole
+structure of the best churches, is to the full as applicable to French
+examples. Coloured decoration was also frequently employed in the
+interior of churches and other buildings, and is constantly to be met
+with in French buildings, both secular and religious. In most cases,
+however, it is less easy to appreciate this than the stained glass,
+for, as it is now to be seen, the colours are either faded and
+darkened by time and smoke, or else restored, not always with the
+exactness that could be desired.
+
+
+_Construction and Design._
+
+The construction of the great buildings of the middle ages in France
+is an interesting subject of study, but necessarily a thoroughly
+technical one. Great sagacity in designing the masonry, carpentry,
+joinery, and metal-work; and trained skill in the carrying out the
+designs, have left their traces everywhere; and while the construction
+of the earlier castles and of the simple churches shows a solidity but
+little inferior to that of the Romans themselves, the most elaborate
+works, such for example as the choir at Beauvais (Fig. 38), can hardly
+be surpassed as specimens of skill and daring, careful forethought,
+and bold execution.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 38.--BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL, INTERIOR. (1225-1537.)]
+
+Design, in France, pursued the general principles of Gothic
+architecture to their logical conclusions with the most uncompromising
+consistency. Perhaps the most distinctive peculiarity in French
+cathedrals is a love of abstract beauty, and a strong preference for
+breadth, regularity, dignity, and symmetry wherever they come into
+competition with picturesqueness and irregular grouping. There is, it
+is true, plenty of the picturesque element in French mediaeval art; but
+if we take the finest buildings, and those in which the greatest
+effort would be made to secure the qualities which were considered the
+greatest and most desirable, we shall find very strong evidences of a
+conviction that beauty was to be attained by regularity and order,
+rather than by unsymmetrical and irregular treatment.
+
+
+BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+Belgium is a country rich in remains of Gothic architecture. Its art
+was influenced so largely by its neighbourhood to France, that it will
+not be necessary to attempt anything like a chronological arrangement
+of its buildings. Fine churches exist in its principal cities, but
+they cannot be said to form a series differing widely from the
+churches of France, with which they were contemporary, and where they
+differ the advantage is generally on the side of the French originals.
+
+The principal cathedral of the Low Countries, that at Antwerp, is a
+building remarkable for its great width (having seven aisles), and for
+the wonderful picturesqueness of its interior. The exterior, which is
+unfinished, is also very effective, with its one lofty spire. The
+other cathedrals of note include those of Tournay, Brussels, Mechlin,
+Louvain, Liege, and Ghent. Belgium also possesses a great number of
+large parochial churches.
+
+When we turn to secular buildings we find the Belgian architecture of
+the middle ages taking a leading position. The free cities of Belgium
+acquired municipal privileges at an early date, and accumulated great
+wealth. Accordingly we find town halls, trade halls, belfries,
+warehouses, and excellent private dwelling-houses in abundance. The
+cloth hall at Ypres has been repeatedly illustrated and referred to as
+an example of a grand and effective building for trade purposes; it
+is of thirteenth-century architecture and of great size, its centre
+marked by a massive lofty tower; and its angles carrying slight
+turrets; but in other respects it depends for its effectiveness solely
+on its repetition of similar features. Examples of the same kind of
+architecture exist at Louvain and Ghent.
+
+The Town Halls of Brussels, Louvain, Bruges, Mechlin, Ghent,
+Oudenarde, and Ypres, are all buildings claiming attention. They were
+most of them in progress during the fifteenth century, and are fine,
+but florid examples of late Gothic. Some one or two at least of the
+town halls were begun and partly carried out in the fourteenth
+century; on the other hand, the Hotel de Ville at Oudenarde, was begun
+as late as the beginning of the sixteenth; so were the Exchange at
+Antwerp (destroyed by fire and rebuilt not long since) and some other
+well-known structures: their architecture, though certainly Gothic, is
+debased in style.
+
+The general aspect of these famous buildings was noble and bold in
+mass, and rich in ornament. Our illustration (Fig. 39) shows the Town
+Hall of Middleburgh in Holland; one which is less famous and of
+smaller dimensions than those enumerated above, but equally
+characteristic.
+
+The main building usually consisted of a long unbroken block
+surmounted by a high-pitched roof, and usually occupied one side of a
+public place. The side of the building presents several storeys,
+filled by rows of fine windows, though in some cases the lowest storey
+is occupied by an open arcade. The steep roof, usually crowded with
+dormer windows, carries up the eye to a lofty ridge, and from the
+centre of it rises the lofty tower which forms so conspicuous a
+feature in most of these buildings. In the Town Hall at Bruges the
+tower is comparatively simple, though of a mass and height that are
+truly imposing; but in Brussels, Ypres, and other examples, it is a
+richly ornamented composition on which every resource of the mason and
+the carver has been lavished. Our illustration (Fig. 40) shows the
+well-known tower at Ghent.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 39.--THE TOWN HALL OF MIDDLEBURGH. (1518.)]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 40.--TOWER AT GHENT. (BEGUN 1183.)]
+
+The gable ends of the great roof are often adorned by pinnacles and
+other ornaments; but they rarely come prominently into view, as it is
+invariably the long side of the building which is considered to be the
+principal front.
+
+
+SCOTLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND.
+
+In Scotland good but simple examples of early work (transition from
+Romanesque to E. E.) occur, as for example, at Jedburgh and Kelso,
+Dryburgh and Leuchars abbey churches. A very interesting and in many
+respects unique cathedral of the thirteenth century, with later
+additions, exists at Glasgow. It is a building of much beauty, with
+good tracery, and the crypt offers a perfect study of various and
+often graceful modes of forming groined vaults. The Cathedral of Elgin
+(thirteenth century), an admirable Edwardian building, now in ruins,
+and the Abbey at Melrose, also ruined, of fourteenth century
+architecture (begun 1322), are both excellent specimens of the art of
+the periods to which they belong, and bear a close resemblance to what
+was being done in England at the same time. The famous tower of St.
+Giles's Cathedral, Edinburgh, and the Chapel at Roslyn, of the
+fifteenth century, on the other hand, are of thoroughly un-English
+character, resembling in this respect much of the Scotch architecture
+of the succeeding centuries; Roslyn is ascribed by Mr. Fergusson to a
+Spanish or Portuguese architect, with great probability.
+
+Other abbey churches and remains of architectural work exist at
+Dumblane, Arbroath, Dunkeld, and in many other localities; and
+Holyrood Palace, still retains part of its elegant early
+fourteenth-century chapel.
+
+Of secular and domestic work Linlithgow is a fair specimen, but of
+late date. Most of the castles and castellated mansions of Scotland
+belong indeed to a later time than the Gothic period, though there is
+a strong infusion of Gothic feeling in the very picturesque style in
+which they are designed.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Wales is distinguished for the splendid series of castles to which
+allusion has been made in a previous chapter. They were erected at the
+best time of English Gothic architecture (Edward I.) under English
+direction, and are finely designed and solidly built. Wales can also
+boast the interesting Cathedrals of Chester, Llandaff, St. David's,
+and some smaller churches, but in every case there is little to
+distinguish them from contemporary English work.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+Ireland is more remarkable for antiquities of a date anterior to the
+beginning of the Gothic period than for works belonging to it. A
+certain amount of graceful and simple domestic work, however, exists
+there; and in addition to the cathedrals of Kildare, Cashel, and
+Dublin, numerous monastic buildings, not as a rule large or ambitious,
+but often graceful and picturesque, are scattered about.
+
+ [Illustration: _Miserere Seat in Wells Cathedral._]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[23] For an example of these see the house of Jaques Coeur (Fig. 7).
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY.}]
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+
+GERMANY.--CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
+
+The architecture of Germany, from the twelfth to the sixteenth
+centuries, can be divided into an early, a middle, and a late period,
+with tolerable distinctness. Of these, the early period possesses the
+greatest interest, and the peculiarities of its buildings are the most
+marked and most beautiful. In the middle period, German Gothic bore a
+very close general resemblance to the Gothic of the same time in
+France; and, as a rule, such points of difference as exist are not in
+favour of the German work. Late Gothic work in Germany is very
+fantastic and unattractive.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 41.--ABBEY CHURCH OF ARNSTEIN. (12TH AND 13TH
+ CENTURIES.)]
+
+Through the twelfth, and part of the thirteenth centuries, the
+architects of Germany pursued a course parallel with that followed in
+France and in England, but without adopting the pointed arch. They
+developed the simple and rude Romanesque architecture which prevailed
+throughout Europe in the tenth and eleventh centuries, and which they
+learnt originally from Byzantine artists who fled from their own
+country during the reign of the iconoclasts; and they not only carried
+it to a point of elaboration which was abreast of the art of our best
+Norman architecture, but went on further in the same course; for
+while the French and ourselves were adopting lancet windows and
+pointed arches, they continued to employ the round-headed window and
+the semicircular arch in buildings which in their size, richness,
+loftiness, and general style, correspond with early Gothic examples in
+other countries. This early German architecture has been sometimes
+called fully developed Romanesque, and sometimes round-arched Gothic,
+and both terms may be applied to it without impropriety, for it
+partakes of the qualities implied by each. The Church of the Holy
+Apostles at Cologne, and those of St. Martin and St. Maria in
+Capitolo, in the same city, may be referred to as among the best works
+of this class. Each of these has an eastern apse, and also an apsidal
+termination to each transept. The Apostles' church has a low octagon
+at the crossing, and its sky-line is further broken up by western and
+eastern towers, the latter of comparatively small size and octagonal;
+and under the eaves of the roof occurs an arcade of small arches.
+
+A view of the Abbey Church of Arnstein (Fig. 41) illustrates some of
+the features of these transitional churches. It will be noticed that
+though there is no transept, there are no less than four towers, two
+octagonal, and two square, and that the apse is a strongly developed
+feature.
+
+In the church at Andernach, of which we give an illustration (Fig.
+42), the same arrangement, namely, that of four towers, two to the
+west, and two to the east, may be noticed; but there is not the same
+degree of difference between the towers, and the result is less happy.
+This example, like the last, has no central feature, and in both the
+arcade under the eaves of the roof is conspicuous only by its absence.
+It does, however, occur on the western towers at Andernach.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 42.--CHURCH AT ANDERNACH. (EARLY 13TH CENTURY.)]
+
+The pointed arch, when adopted in Germany, was in all probability
+borrowed from France, as the general aspect of German churches of
+pointed architecture seems to prove. The greatest Gothic cathedral of
+Germany, Cologne Cathedral, was not commenced till about the year
+1275, and its choir was probably completed during the first quarter of
+the fourteenth century. This cathedral, one of the largest in Europe,
+is also one of the grandest efforts of mediaeval architecture, and it
+closely resembles French examples of the same period, both in its
+general treatment, and in the detail of its features. The plan of
+Cologne Cathedral (Fig. 46) is one of the most regular and symmetrical
+which has come down to us from the middle ages. The works were carried
+on slowly after the choir was consecrated, but without any deviation
+from the original plan, though some alteration in style and details
+crept in. In our own day the works have been resumed and vigorously
+pushed on towards completion; and, the original drawings having been
+preserved, the two western towers, the front, and other portions have
+been carried on in accordance with them. Cologne, accordingly,
+presents the almost unique spectacle of a great Gothic church, erected
+without deviation from its original plan, and completed in the style
+in which it was begun. It is fair to add that though splendid in the
+extreme, this cathedral has far less charm, and less of that peculiar
+quality of mystery and vitality than many, we might say most, of the
+great cathedrals of Europe.
+
+The plan consists of a nave of eight bays, two of which form a kind of
+vestibule, and five avenues, _i.e._ two aisles on each side; transepts
+of four bays each, with single aisles; and a choir of four bays and an
+apse, the double aisle of the nave being continued and carried down
+the choir. That part of the outer aisle which sweeps round the apse
+has been formed into a series of seven polygonal chapels, thus gaining
+a complete _chevet_.[24] Over the crossing there is a comparatively
+slender spire, and at the west end stand two massive towers terminated
+by a pair of lofty and elaborate spires, of open tracery, and enriched
+by crockets, finials, and much ornamentation. The cathedral is built
+of stone, without much variation in colour; it is vaulted throughout,
+and a forest of flying buttresses surrounds it on all sides. The
+beauty of the tracery, the magnificent boldness of the scale of the
+whole building, and its orderly regularity, are very imposing, and
+give it a high rank among the greatest works of European architecture;
+but it is almost too majestic to be lovely, and somewhat cold and
+uninteresting from its uniform colour, and perhaps from its great
+regularity.
+
+Strasburg Cathedral--not so large as Cologne--has been built at
+various times; the nave and west front are the work of the best Gothic
+period. This building has a nave and single aisles, short transepts,
+and a short apsidal choir. There is great richness in much of the
+work; double tracery, _i.e._ a second layer, so to speak, of tracery,
+is here employed in the windows, and extended beyond them, but the
+effect is not happy. The front was designed to receive two open
+tracery spires, but only one of them has been erected. It is amazingly
+intricate and rich, the workmanship is very astonishing, but the
+artistic effect is not half so good as that of many plain stone
+spires.
+
+Another important German church famous for an open spire is the
+cathedral at Friburg. Here only one tower, standing at the middle of
+the west front, was ever intended, and partly because the composition
+is complete as proposed, and partly because the design of the tracery
+in the spire itself is more telling, this building forms a more
+effective object than Strasburg, though by no means so lofty or so
+grandiose.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 43.--CHURCH OF ST. BARBARA AT KUTTENBERG. EAST
+ END. (1358-1548.)]
+
+The Cathedral of St. Stephen at Vienna is a large and exceedingly rich
+church. In this building the side aisles are carried to almost the
+same height as the centre avenue--an arrangement not infrequent in
+German churches having little save novelty to recommend it, and by
+which the triforium, and, as a rule, the clerestory disappear, and the
+church is lighted solely by large side windows. The three avenues are
+covered by one wide roof, which makes a vast and rather clumsy display
+externally. A lofty tower, surmounted by a fine and elaborate spire of
+open tracery, stands on one side of the church--an unusual
+position--and an unfinished companion tower is begun on the
+corresponding side. Great churches and cathedrals are to be found in
+many of the cities of Germany, but their salient points are, as a
+rule, similar to those of the examples which have been already
+described.
+
+The incomplete Church of St. Barbara at Kuttenberg, in Bohemia, is one
+of somewhat exceptional design. It has double aisles, but the side
+walls for the greater part of the length of the church rest upon the
+arcade dividing the two aisles, instead of that separating the centre
+avenue from the side one; and a vault over the inner side aisle forms
+in effect a kind of balcony or gallery in the nave. The illustration
+(Fig. 43) which we give of the exterior does not of course indicate
+this peculiarity, but it shows a very good example of a German
+adaptation of the French _chevet_, and may be considered as a specimen
+of German pointed architecture at its ripest stage. The church is
+vaulted, as might be inferred from the forest of flying buttresses;
+and the vaulting displays some resemblance to our English fan-vaulting
+in general idea.
+
+German churches include some specimens of unusual disposition or form,
+as for example the Church of St. Gereon at Cologne, with an oval
+choir, and one or two double churches, one of the most curious being
+the one at Schwartz-Rheindorff, of which we give a section and view.
+(Figs. 44, 45.)
+
+In their doorways and porches the German architects are often very
+happy. Our illustration (Fig. 47) of one of the portals of the church
+at Thann may be taken as giving a good idea of the amount of rich
+ornament often concentrated here: it displays a wealth of decorative
+sculpture, which was one of the great merits of the German architects.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 44.--DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF.
+ SECTION. (1158.)]
+
+The latest development of Gothic in Germany, of which the Church of
+St. Catherine at Oppenheim (Fig. 48) is a specimen, was marked (just
+as late French was by flamboyant tracery, and late English by
+fan-vaulting) by a peculiarity in the treatment of mouldings by which
+they were robbed of almost all their grace and beauty, while the
+execution of them became a kind of masonic puzzle. Two or more groups
+of mouldings were supposed to coexist in the same stone, and sometimes
+a part of one group, sometimes a part of the other group, became
+visible at the surface. The name given to this eccentric development
+is interpenetration.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 45.--DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF.
+ (A.D. 1158.)]
+
+Secular architecture in Germany, though not carried to such a pitch of
+perfection as in Belgium, was by no means overlooked; but the examples
+are not numerous. In some of the older cities, such as Prague,
+Nuremberg, and Frankfort, much picturesque domestic architecture
+abounds, most of it of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and even
+later, and all full of piquancy and beauty. In North Germany, where
+there is a large tract of country in which building stone is scarce, a
+style of brick architecture was developed, which was applied to all
+sorts of purposes with great success. The most remarkable of these
+brick buildings are the large dwelling-houses, with facades ornamented
+by brick tracery and panelling, to be found in Eastern Prussia,
+together with some town halls and similar buildings.
+
+
+GERMANY.--ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+_Plan._
+
+The points of difference between German and French Gothic are not so
+numerous as to render a very minute analysis of the Gothic of Germany
+requisite in order to make them clear.
+
+The plans of German churches usually show internal piers; and columns
+occur but rarely. The churches have nave and aisles, transepts and
+apsidal choir; but they are peculiar from the frequent use of apses at
+the ends of the transepts, and also from the occurrence, in not a few
+instances, of an apse at the west end of the nave as well as at the
+east end of the choir. They are almost invariably vaulted.
+
+As the style advanced, large churches were constantly planned with
+double aisles, and the western apse disappeared. Some German church
+plans, notably those of Cologne Cathedral (Fig. 46) and the great
+church of St. Lawrence at Nuremberg, are fine specimens of regularity
+of disposition, though full of many parts.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 46.--COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. GROUND PLAN. (BEGUN
+ 1248.)]
+
+
+_Walls, Towers, and Gables._
+
+The German architects delighted in towers with pointed roofs, and in a
+multiplicity of them. A highly characteristic feature is a tower of
+great mass, but often extremely low, covering the crossing. The
+Cathedral at Mayence shows a fine example of this feature, which was
+often not more than a low octagon. Western towers, square on plan, are
+common, and small towers, frequently octagonal, are often employed to
+flank the choir or in combination with the transepts. These in early
+examples, are always surmounted by high roofs; in late ones, by stone
+spires, often of rich open tracery. A very characteristic feature of
+the round arched Gothic churches is an arcade of small arches
+immediately below the eaves of the roof and opening into the space
+above the vaults (Fig. 45). This is rarely wanting in churches built
+previous to the time when the French type was followed implicitly.
+
+The gables are seldom such fine compositions as in France, or even in
+Italy; but in domestic and secular buildings many striking gabled
+fronts occur, the gable being often stepped in outline and full of
+windows.
+
+
+_Roofs and Vaults._
+
+Vaults are universal in the great churches, and German vaulting has
+some special peculiarities, but they are such as hardly come within
+the scope of this hand-book. Roofs, however, are so conspicuous that
+in any general account of German architecture attention must be paid
+to them. They were from very early times steep in pitch and
+picturesque in outline, and are evidently much relied upon as giving
+play to the sky-line. Indeed, for variety of form and piquancy of
+detail the German roofs are the most successful of the middle ages.
+The spires, as will have been easily gathered from the descriptions of
+those at Strasburg, Cologne, &c., became extremely elaborate, and were
+constructed in many cases entirely of open tracery.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 47.--WESTERN DOORWAY OF CHURCH AT THANN. (14TH
+ CENTURY.)]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 48.--CHURCH OF ST. CATHERINE AT OPPENHEIM. (1262
+ TO 1439.)]
+
+
+_Openings._
+
+Openings are, on the whole, treated very much as the French treated
+them. A good example is the western doorway at Thann (Fig. 47); but
+the use of double tracery in the windows in late examples is
+characteristic. Sometimes a partial screen of outside tracery is
+employed in other features besides windows, as may be seen by the very
+elegant doorway of St. Sebald's Church at Nuremberg, which we have
+illustrated (Fig. 49).
+
+
+_Ornaments._
+
+The ornaments of German Gothic are often profuse, but rarely quite
+happy. Sculpture, often of a high class, carving of every sort,
+tracery, and panelling, are largely employed; but with a hardness and
+a tendency to cover all surfaces with a profusion of weak imitations
+of tracery that disfigures much of the masonry. The tracery became
+towards the latter part of the time intricate and unmeaning, and the
+interpenetrating mouldings already described, though of course
+intended to be ornamental, are more perplexing and confusing than
+pleasing: the carving exaggerates the natural markings of the foliage
+represented, and being thin, and very boldly undercut, resembles
+leaves beaten out in metal, rather than foliage happily and easily
+imitated in stone, which is what good architectural carving should be.
+
+The use of coloured building materials and of inlays and mosaics does
+not prevail to any great extent in Germany, though stained glass is
+often to be found and coloured wall decoration occasionally.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 49.--ST. SEBALD'S CHURCH AT NUREMBERG. THE
+ BRIDE'S DOORWAY. (1303-1377.)]
+
+
+_Construction and Design._
+
+The marked peculiarities of construction by which the German Gothic
+buildings are most distinguished, are the prevalent high-pitched
+roofs, the vaulting with aisle vaults carried to the same height as in
+the centre, and the employment in certain districts of brick to the
+exclusion of stone, all of which have been already referred to. In a
+great part of that large portion of Europe, which is included under
+the name of Germany, the materials and modes of construction adopted
+during the middle ages, bear a close resemblance to those in general
+use in France and England.
+
+Some of the characteristics of German Gothic design have been already
+alluded to. The German architects display an exuberant fancy, a great
+love of the picturesque, and even the grotesque, and a strong
+predilection for creating artificial difficulties in order to enjoy
+the pleasure of surmounting them. Their work is full of unrest; they
+attach small value to the artistic quality of breadth, and destroy the
+value of the plain surfaces of their buildings as contrasts to the
+openings, by cutting them up by mouldings and enrichments of various
+sorts. The sculpture introduced is, as a rule, naturalistic rather
+than conventional. The capitals of piers and columns are often fine
+specimens of effective carving, while the delicate and ornamental
+details of the tabernacle work with which church furniture is
+enriched, are unsurpassed in elaboration, and often of rare beauty.
+The churches of Nuremberg are specially distinguished for the richness
+and number of their sculptured fittings. There is, moreover, in some
+of the best German buildings a rugged grandeur which approaches the
+sublime; and in the humbler ones a large amount of picturesque and
+thoroughly successful architecture.
+
+In the smaller objects upon which the art of the architect was often
+employed the Germans were frequently happy. Public fountains, such for
+example as the one illustrated in Chapter II. (Fig. 10), are to be met
+within the streets of many towns, and rarely fail to please by their
+simple, graceful, and often quaint design. Crosses, monuments, and
+individual features in domestic buildings, such _e.g._ as bay windows,
+frequently show a very skilful and picturesque treatment and happy
+enrichment.
+
+
+NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+Gothic architecture closely resembling German work may be found in
+Switzerland, Norway and Sweden, and Denmark; but there are few very
+conspicuous buildings, and not enough variety to form a distinct
+style. In Norway and Sweden curious and picturesque buildings exist,
+erected solely of timber, and both there and in Switzerland many of
+the traditions of the Gothic period have been handed down to our own
+day with comparatively little change, in the pleasing and often highly
+enriched timber buildings which are to be met with in considerable
+numbers in those countries.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[24] See p. 77 for an explanation of _chevet._
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM SENS CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.
+
+
+ITALY AND SICILY.--TOPOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
+
+Gothic architecture in Italy may be considered as a foreign
+importation. The Italians, it is true, displayed their natural taste
+and artistic instinct in their use of the style, and a large number of
+their works possess, as we shall see, strongly-marked characteristics
+and much charm; but it is impossible to avoid the feeling that the
+architects were working in a style not thoroughly congenial to their
+instincts nor to the traditions they had inherited from classical
+times; and not entirely in harmony with the requirements of the
+climate and the nature of their building materials.
+
+Italian Gothic may be conveniently considered geographically, dividing
+the buildings into three groups, the first and most important
+containing the architecture of Northern Italy (Lombardy, Venetia, and
+the neighbourhood), the second that of Central Italy (Tuscany, &c.),
+the third that of the south and of Sicily--a classification which will
+suit the subject better than the chronological arrangement which has
+been our guide in examining the art of other countries; for the
+variations occasioned by development as time went on are less strongly
+marked in Italy than elsewhere.
+
+
+_Northern Italy._
+
+Lombardy in the Romanesque period was thoroughly under German
+influence, and the buildings remaining to us from the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries bear a close resemblance to those erected north of
+the Alps at the same date. The twelfth century Lombard churches again
+are specimens of round-arched Gothic, just as truly as those on the
+banks of the Rhine. Many of them are also peculiar as being erected
+chiefly in brickwork; the great alluvial plain of Lombardy being
+deficient in building-stone. St. Michele at Pavia, a well-known church
+of this date, may be cited as a good example. This is a vaulted
+church, with an apsidal east end and transepts. The round arch is
+employed in this building, but the general proportions and treatment
+are essentially Gothic. A striking campanile (bell tower) belongs to
+the church, and is a good specimen of a feature very frequently met
+with in Lombardy; the tower here (and usually) is square, and rises by
+successive stages, but with only few and small openings or ornaments,
+to a considerable height. There are no buttresses, no diminution of
+bulk, no staircase turrets. At the summit is an open belfry-stage,
+with large semicircular-headed arches, crowned by a cornice and a
+low-pitched conical roof.[25]
+
+In the same city a good example of an Italian Gothic church, erected
+after the pointed arch had been introduced, may be found in the church
+of Sta. Maria del Carmine. The west front of this church is but
+clumsy in general design. Its width is divided into five compartments
+by flat buttresses. The gables are crowned by a deep and heavy cornice
+of moulded brick and the openings are grouped with but little skill.
+Individually, however, the features of this front are very beautiful,
+and the great wheel-window, full of tracery, and the two-light windows
+flanking it, may be quoted as remarkable specimens of the ornamental
+elaboration which can be accomplished in brickwork.
+
+The campanile of this church, like the one just described, is a plain
+square tower. It rises by successive stages, each taller than the
+last, each stage being marked by a rich brick cornice. The
+belfry-stage has on each face a three-light window, with a traceried
+head, and above the cornice the square tower is finished by a tall
+conical roof, circular on plan, an arrangement not unfrequently met
+with.
+
+The Certosa, the great Carthusian Church and Monastery near Pavia,[26]
+best known by the elaborate marble front added in a different style
+about a century after the erection of the main building, is a good
+example of a highly-enriched church, with dependencies, built in
+brickwork, and possessing most of the distinctive peculiarities of a
+great Gothic church, except the general use of the pointed arch. It
+was begun in 1396, and is consistent in its exterior architecture, the
+front excepted, though it took a long time to build. Attached to it
+are two cloisters, of which the arches are semicircular, and the
+enrichments, of wonderful beauty, are modelled in terra-cotta.
+
+This church resembles the great German round-arched Gothic churches on
+the Rhine in many of its features. Its plan includes a nave, with
+aisles and side chapels, transepts and a choir. The eastern arm and
+the transepts are each ornamented by an apse, somewhat smaller than
+would be met with in a German church; but as a compensation each of
+these three arms has two side apses, as well as the one at the end.
+The exterior possesses the German arcade of little arches immediately
+under the eaves of the roof; it is marked by the same multiplicity of
+small towers, each with its own steep roof; and it possesses the same
+striking central feature, internally a small dome, externally a kind
+of light pyramidal structure, ornamented by small arcades rising tier
+above tier, and ending in a central pointed roof.
+
+The finest Gothic cathedral in North Italy, if dimensions, general
+effectiveness, and beauty of material be the test, is that of Milan.
+This building is disfigured by a west front in a totally inappropriate
+style, but apart from this it is virtually a German church of the
+first class, erected entirely in white marble, and covered with a
+profusion of decoration. Its dimensions show that, with the exception
+of Seville, this was the largest of all the Gothic cathedrals of
+Europe. It has double aisles, transepts, and a polygonal apse. At the
+crossing of the nave and transepts a low dome rises, covered by a
+conical roof, and surmounted by an elegant marble spire.
+
+The structure is vaulted throughout, and each of the great piers which
+carry the nave arcade is surmounted by a mass of niches and tabernacle
+work, occupied by statues--a splendid substitute for ordinary
+capitals. The interior effect of Milan Cathedral is grand and full of
+beauty. The exterior, though much of its power is destroyed by the
+weakly-designed ornament with which all the surfaces of the walls are
+covered, is endowed with a wonderful charm. This building was
+commenced in the year 1385, and consecrated in the year 1418. The
+details of the window-tracery, pinnacles, &c. (but not the statues
+which are of Italian character), correspond very closely to those of
+German buildings erected at the same period (close of the fourteenth
+century).
+
+Milan possesses, among other examples of pointed architecture, one
+secular building, the Great Hospital, well known for its Gothic
+facade. This hospital was founded in 1456, and most of it is of later
+date and of renaissance character; the street front of two storeys in
+height, with pointed arches, is very rich. The church of Chiaravalle,
+near Milan, which has been more than once illustrated and described,
+ought not to be passed unnoticed, on account of the beauty of its
+fully developed central dome. It was built in the early part of the
+thirteenth century (1221).
+
+Almost all the great cities of North Italy possess striking Gothic
+buildings. Genoa, for instance, can boast of her cathedral, with a
+front in alternate courses of black and white marble, dating from
+about the year 1300, and full of beauty; the details bearing much
+resemblance to the best Western Gothic work. Passing eastward, Verona
+possesses a wealth of Gothic work in the well-known tombs of the
+Scaligers, the churches of Sta. Anastasia, San Zenone, and several
+minor churches and campaniles; and at Como, Bergamo, Vicenza, Padua,
+Treviso, Cremona, Bologna, and many other cities and towns, good
+churches of pointed architecture are to be found.
+
+Our illustration (Fig. 50) of the ancient Palace of the Jurisconsults
+at Cremona, is a good specimen of the secular architecture of North
+Italy. Originally the lower storey was a loggia, or open arcaded
+storey, but the arches have been built up. Telling, simple, and
+graceful, this building owes its effect chiefly to its well-designed
+openings and a characteristic brick cornice. It is entirely without
+buttresses, has no spreading base, no gables, and no visible roof:
+some of these features would have been present had it been designed
+and erected north of the Alps.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 50.--THE PALACE OF THE JURISCONSULTS AT
+ CREMONA.]
+
+Venice is the city in the whole of North Italy where Gothic
+architecture has had freest scope and has achieved the greatest
+success, not, however, in ecclesiastical, but in secular buildings.
+The great Cathedral of St. Mark, perhaps the most wonderful church in
+Europe, certainly the foremost in Italy, is a Byzantine building, and
+though it has received some additions in Gothic times, does not fairly
+come within the scope of this volume; and the Gothic churches of
+Venice are not very numerous nor, with the exception of the fine brick
+church of the Frari, extremely remarkable. On the banks of the Grand
+Canal and its tributaries, however, stand not a few Gothic palaces of
+noble design (see Fig. 9, p. 18), while the Ducal Palace itself alone
+is sufficient to confer a reputation upon the city which it adorns.
+
+The Ducal Palace at Venice is a large rectangular block of buildings
+erected round a vast quadrangle. Of its exterior two sides only are
+visible from a distance, one being the sea front looking over the
+lagoon, and the other the land front directed towards the piazzetta.
+Rather less than one half the height of each front is occupied by two
+storeys of arcades; the lower storey bold, simple, and vigorous; the
+upper storey lighter, and ending in a mass of bold tracery. Above this
+open work, and resting upon it, rises the external wall of the palace,
+faced with marble in alternate slabs of rose-colour and white, pierced
+by a few large pointed windows and crowned by an open parapet. Few
+buildings are so familiar, even to untravelled persons, as this fine
+work, which owes its great charm to the extent, beauty, and mingled
+solidity and grace of its arcades, and to the fine sculpture by which
+the capitals from which they spring are enriched.
+
+The Gothic palaces are almost invariably remarkable for the skill with
+which the openings in their fronts are arranged and designed. It was
+not necessary to render any other part of the exterior specially
+architectural, as the palaces stand side by side like houses in a
+modern street, as can be seen from our illustration (Fig. 9). In
+almost all cases a large proportion of the openings are grouped
+together in the centre of the front, and the sides are left
+comparatively plain and strong-looking, the composition presenting a
+centre and two wings. By this simple expedient each portion of the
+composition is made to add emphasis to the other, and a powerful but
+not inharmonious contrast between the open centre and the solid sides
+is called into existence. The earliest Gothic buildings in point of
+date are often the most delicate and graceful, and this rule holds
+good in the Gothic palaces of Venice; yet one of the later palaces,
+the Ca' d'Oro, must be at least named on account of the splendid
+richness of its marble front--of which, however, only the centre and
+one wing is built--and the beauty of the ornament lavishly employed
+upon it.
+
+The balconies, angle windows, and other minor features with which the
+Venetian Gothic palaces abound, are among the most graceful features
+of the architecture of Italy.
+
+
+_Central Italy._
+
+Those towns of Central Italy (by which is meant Tuscany and the former
+States of the Church), in which the best Gothic buildings are to be
+found, are Pisa, Lucca, Florence, Siena, Orvieto, and Perugia. As a
+general rule the Gothic work in this district is more developed and
+more lavishly enriched than that in Lombardy.
+
+In Pisa, the Cathedral and the Campanile (the famous leaning tower)
+belong to the late Romanesque style, but the Baptistry, an elegant
+circular building, has a good deal of Gothic ornament in its upper
+storeys, and may be fairly classed as a transitional building. The
+most charming and thoroughly characteristic work of Gothic
+architecture in Pisa is, however, a small gem of a chapel, the church
+of Sta. Maria della Spina. It displays exquisite ornament, and,
+notwithstanding much false construction, the beauty of its details, of
+its sculpture, and of the marble of which it is built, invest it with
+a great charm.
+
+Pisan Gothic is remarkable as being associated with the name of a
+family of highly gifted sculptors and architects, the Pisani, of whom
+Nicola Pisano was the earliest and greatest artist; he was followed by
+his descendants Giovanni, Nino, and Andrea. With the Pisani and Giotto
+the series of the known names of architects of great buildings may be
+said to begin.
+
+Florence, the most important of the cities we have named, is
+distinguished by a cathedral built in the early part of the fourteenth
+century, and one of the grandest in Italy. It has very few columns,
+and its walls and vaults are of great height. The walls are adorned
+externally with inlays in coloured marble, and the windows have
+stained glass--a rarity in Italy; but its lofty dome, added after the
+completion of the rest of the building, is its chief feature. This was
+always intended, but the pointed octagonal dome actually erected by
+Brunelleschi, between the years 1420 and 1444, though it harmonises
+fairly well with the general lines of the building, and forms, as can
+be seen from our illustration (Fig. 51), a striking object in all
+distant views of the city, is probably very different from what was
+originally intended. Near the cathedral stand the Baptistry, famous
+for the possession of the finest gates in the world, and the Campanile
+of Giotto. This tower is built, or at least faced, entirely with
+marble; and when it is stated that its height is not far short of that
+of the Victoria Tower of our Houses of Parliament, though of slenderer
+proportions, it will be seen that it is magnificently liberal in its
+general scheme. The tower is covered with panels of variously coloured
+marbles from base to summit, and enriched by fine sculpture. The
+angles are strengthened by slightly projecting piers. The windows are
+comparatively small till the highest or belfry stage is reached, and
+here each face of the tower is pierced by a magnificent three-light
+window. A deep and elaborate cornice now crowns the whole, but it was
+originally designed to add a high-pitched roof or a spire as a
+terminal.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 51.--THE CATHEDRAL AT FLORENCE. WITH GIOTTO'S
+ CAMPANILE. (BEGUN, 1298; DOME, 1420-1444; CAMPANILE BEGUN,
+ 1324.)]
+
+Our illustration (Fig. 52) shows the west front and campanile of the
+Cathedral at Siena, an exceedingly good specimen of the beauties and
+peculiarities of the style. This building was commenced in 1243. The
+plan is simple but singular, for the central feature is a six-sided
+dome, at the crossing of the nave and transepts; and some ingenuity
+has been spent in fitting this figure to the arches of the main
+avenues of the building. The interior is rich and effective; the
+exterior, as can be seen by the illustration, is covered with
+ornament, and the front is the richest and probably the best designed
+of all the cathedral fronts of Central Italy. The strongly-marked
+horizontal lines of cornices, arcades, &c., the moulded gables, the
+great wheel-window set in a square panel, and the use of marble of
+various colours, are all points to note. So is the employment of the
+semicircular arch for the doorways of this thoroughly Gothic building.
+The campanile is a good example of that feature, except that instead
+of the rich window which usually occupies the belfry stage, or highest
+storey, two storeys of small lights have been formed. The
+introduction of angle turrets is not very usual, and it here supplies
+a deficiency which makes itself felt in other campaniles, where the
+junction of tower and spire is not always happy.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 52.--CATHEDRAL AT SIENA. WEST FRONT AND
+ CAMPANILE. (FACADE BEGUN 1284.)]
+
+Gothic churches of importance can be found in many of the cities and
+towns of Central Italy. None are more remarkable than the singular
+double church of St. Francis at Assisi, with its wealth of mural
+paintings and stained glass, and the cathedral at Orvieto (Fig. 53)
+with its splendid front.
+
+In Rome, so rich in specimens of the architecture of many styles and
+times, Gothic could find no footing; the one solitary church which can
+be claimed as Gothic may be taken as an exception. And south of the
+Capital there lies a considerable tract of country, containing few if
+any examples of the style we are considering.
+
+
+_Southern Italy._
+
+Southern Italy is conveniently grouped with Sicily, but the mainland
+is deficient in examples of Gothic buildings. The old towns of Apulia
+indeed, such as Bari, Bitonto and Brindisi, possess an architecture
+which the few who have had an opportunity of examining, declare to be
+surpassingly rich in its decoration, but it is for the most part
+Romanesque.
+
+The Gothic work remaining in and about Naples is most of it extremely
+florid, and often rich, but seldom possesses the grace and charm of
+that which exists further north.
+
+Sicily shows the picturesquely mixed results of a complication of
+agencies which have not affected the mainland, and is accordingly an
+interesting field for architectural study. The island was first under
+Byzantine influence; was next occupied and held by the Saracens; and
+was later seized and for some time retained by the Normans.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 53.--THE CATHEDRAL AT ORVIETO. (BEGUN 1290;
+ FACADE, 1310.)]
+
+The most striking early Gothic building in Sicily is the richly
+adorned cathedral of Monreale, commenced in the twelfth century. Here
+very simple pointed arches are made use of, as the entire surface of
+the interior is covered with mosaic pictures of Norman origin. The
+small Capella Palatina in Palermo itself is of the same simple and
+early architectural character, and adorned with equally magnificent
+mosaics. In these buildings the splendour of the colouring is only
+equalled by the vigorous and often pathetic power with which the
+stories of sacred history are embodied in these mosaics. The cathedral
+of Cefalu is a building bearing a general resemblance to that at
+Monreale, but not enriched in the same manner.
+
+Of the fourteenth century are the richly ornamented cathedral of
+Palermo and that of Messina. The latter has been so much altered as to
+have lost a good deal of its interest; but at Palermo there is much
+that is striking and almost unique. This building has little in common
+with the works of northern or central Italy, and not much more
+alliance with the Gothic of North Europe. It is richly panelled and
+decorated, but its most striking feature is its bold arcaded portal.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+_Plan._
+
+The plans of Italian churches are simple, compared with those of the
+northern and western architects. As a rule they are also moderate in
+size, and they bear a close resemblance to those of the early basilica
+churches from which they are directly descended. Though the apse is
+all but universal, the French _chevet_, with its crown of clustering
+chapels, was not adopted in Italy. There is very much in common
+between the churches of Lombardy and those of Germany, but the German
+western apse and the apsidal ends to the transept do not occur. The
+spaces between the piers of the main arcade are greater than in French
+or English examples, so that there are fewer piers, and the vaults are
+of wider span. In the churches founded by the great preaching orders,
+the division into nave and aisle does not take place, and the church
+consists of nothing but a large hall for the congregation, with a
+chancel for the choir.
+
+In monastic, secular, and domestic building a general squareness and
+simplicity of plan prevails, and where an internal arcaded quadrangle
+can be made use of (_e.g._ in the cloister of a monastery), it is
+almost always relied upon to add effect. The famous external arcade at
+the Ducal Palace, Venice, was nowhere repeated, though simpler
+external arcades occur frequently; but it is so splendid as to form,
+itself alone a feature in Italian planning.
+
+The arrangements of the mansions and palaces found in the great cities
+were a good deal influenced by the circumstance that it was customary,
+in order to secure as much cool air as possible, to devote one of the
+upper floors to the purpose of a suite of reception rooms; to this was
+given the name of _piano nobile_.
+
+
+_Walls, Towers, Columns._
+
+Walls are usually thick and stand unbuttressed, and rarely have such
+slopes and diminutions of apparent thickness towards their upper part
+as are not uncommon in England. Base mouldings are not universal. The
+cornice, on the other hand, is far more cared for, and is made much
+more conspicuous than with us. In the brick buildings especially it
+attains great development. Above the cornice a kind of ornamental
+parapet, bearing some resemblance to battlements, is common. The
+strikingly peculiar use of materials of different colours in alternate
+courses, or in panels, to decorate the wall surfaces, has already been
+referred to. It is very characteristic of the style.
+
+The campanile or bell-tower of an Italian church is a feature very
+different from western towers. It is never placed over the crossing of
+nave and aisles and rarely forms an essential part of the church,
+often being quite detached and not seldom placed at an angle with the
+walls of the main building. Such towers are not unfrequently appended
+to palaces, and are sometimes (_e.g._ at Venice) erected alone. Some
+of the Italian cities were also remarkable for strong towers erected
+in the city itself as fortresses by the heads of influential families.
+Many of these are still standing in Bologna. The smaller towers in
+which northern architects took so much delight are almost unknown in
+Italy, though on a few of the great churches of the north (_e.g._ the
+Certosa at Pavia, and St. Antonio at Padua) they are to be found.
+
+The use of constructive columns is general; piers are by no means
+unknown, but fine shafts of marble meet the eye frequently in Italian
+churches. The constant use of the column for decorative purposes is a
+marked characteristic. Not only is it employed where French and
+English architects used it, as in the jambs of doorways, but it
+constantly replaces the mullion in traceried windows. It is employed
+as an ornament at the angles of buildings to take off the harshness of
+a sharp corner, and it is introduced in many unexpected and often
+picturesque situations. Twisted, knotted, and otherwise carved and
+ornamental shafts are not unfrequently made use of in columns that
+serve purely decorative purposes.
+
+
+_Openings and Arches._
+
+The constructive arches in Italian Gothic buildings are, as a rule,
+pointed, but it is remarkable that at every period round and pointed
+arches are indiscriminately employed for doors and windows, both being
+constantly met with in the same building.
+
+The naves of Italian churches rarely show the division into three,
+common in the north. The triforium is almost invariably absent, and
+the clerestory is often reduced to a series of small round windows,
+sufficient to admit the moderate light which, in a very bright
+climate, is grateful in the interior of such a building as a church;
+but they are far less effective features than our own well-marked
+clerestory windows.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 54.--OGIVAL WINDOW-HEAD.]
+
+The doorways are often very beautiful, and are frequently sheltered by
+projecting porches of extreme elegance and lightness. The window
+openings are, as a rule, cusped. An ogee-shaped arch (Fig. 54) is
+constantly in use in window-heads, especially at Venice, and much
+graceful design is lavished on the arched openings of domestic and
+secular buildings. A great deal of the tracery employed is plate
+tracery.[27] The tracery in terra-cotta has already been referred to.
+In the large windows of the principal apartments and other similar
+positions of the palaces in Venice and Vicenza, a sort of tracery not
+met with in other countries is freely employed. The openings are
+square-headed, and are divided into separate lights by small columns;
+the heads of these lights are ogee-shaped, and the spaces between them
+and the horizontal lintel are filled in with circles, richly
+quatrefoiled or otherwise cusped (Fig. 55). The upper arcade of the
+Ducal Palace at Venice offers the best known and finest example of
+this class of tracery.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 55.--TRACERY, FROM VENICE.]
+
+
+_Roofs and Vaults._
+
+The vaulting of Italian churches is always simple, and the bays, as
+has been pointed out, are usually wider than those of the northern
+Gothic churches. Frequently there are no ribs of any sort to the
+groins of the vaults. A characteristic feature of Italian Gothic is
+the central dome. It is rarely very large or overpowering, and in the
+one instance of a magnificent dome--the Cathedral at Florence, the
+feature, though intended from the first, was added after the Gothic
+period had closed. Still many churches have a modest dome, and it
+frequently forms a striking feature in the interior, while in some
+northern instances (_e.g._ at the Certosa at Pavia, or at Chiaravalle)
+it is treated like a many storeyed pyramid and becomes an external
+feature of importance. At Sant' Antonio at Padua there are five domes.
+
+The churches of the preaching orders are some of them covered by
+timber ceilings, not perfectly flat but having an outline made up of
+hollow curves of rather flat sweep. The great halls at Padua and
+Vicenza displayed a vast wooden curved ceiling resembling the hull of
+a ship turned upside down.
+
+The ordinary church roof is of flat pitch and frequently concealed
+behind a parapet. Dormer windows, crestings, and other similar
+features, by the use of which northern architects enriched their
+roofs, are hardly ever employed by Italian architects.
+
+
+_Mouldings and Ornaments._
+
+Ornament is almost instinctively understood by the Italians, and their
+mastery of it is well shown in their architecture. The carving of
+spandrels, capitals, and other ornaments, and the sculpture of the
+heads and statues introduced is full of power and beauty. The famous
+capitals of the lower arcade of the Ducal Palace may be quoted as
+illustrations.
+
+The employment of coloured materials is carried so far as sometimes to
+startle an eye trained to the sombreness of English architecture, but
+a great deal of the beauty of this style is derived from colour, and
+much of the comparative simplicity and scarcity of mouldings is due to
+the desire to leave large unbroken surfaces for marble linings,
+mosaics or fresco painting. Mouldings, where they are introduced,
+differ from northern mouldings in being flatter and far less bold,
+their enrichments are chiefly confined to dentils, notches, and small
+and simple ornaments. Stained glass is not so often seen as in France,
+but is to be met with, as, for example, in the fine church of San
+Petronio at Bologna, and in Sta. Maria Novella, and in the Cathedral
+at Florence. At Florence the stained glass has a character of its own
+both in colour and style of treatment. It is not too much to say that
+every kind of decoration which can be employed to add beauty to a
+building may be found at its best in Italy. In the churches much of
+the finest furniture, such as stall-work, screens, altar frontals,
+will be found in profusion; and the church porches and the mural
+monuments should be especially studied on account of the singular
+elegance with which they are usually designed.
+
+
+_Construction and Design._
+
+The material employed for the external and internal face of the walls
+in a very large proportion of the buildings mentioned in this chapter
+is marble. This is sometimes used in blocks as stone is with us, but
+more frequently in the form of thin slabs as a facing upon masonry or
+brickwork. In Lombardy, where brick is the natural building material,
+most of the walls are not only built but faced with brick; and the
+ornamental features, including tracery, are often executed in
+ornamental brickwork, or in what is known as terra-cotta (_i.e._
+bricks or blocks of brick clay of fine quality, moulded or otherwise
+ornamented and burnt like bricks). Stone was less commonly employed as
+a building material in Italy during the Gothic period, than in other
+countries of Europe. The surfaces of the vaults, and the surfaces of
+the internal walls were often covered with mosaics, or with paintings
+in fresco. Vaulting is frequently met with, but it is generally simple
+in character, the flat external roof over it is commonly covered with
+tiles or metal, while the apparent gable frequently rises more
+sharply than the actual roof. The Italians seem never to have
+cordially welcomed the Gothic principle of resisting the thrust of
+vaults or arches by a counter-thrust, or by the weight of a buttress.
+The buttress is almost unknown in Italian Gothic, and as a rule an
+iron tie is introduced at the feet of such arches as would in France
+or Germany have been buttressed. This expedient is, of course,
+economical, but to northern eyes it appears strange and out of place.
+The Italians, however, take no pains to conceal it, and many of their
+lighter works, such as canopies over tombs, porches, &c., would fall
+to pieces at once were the iron ties removed.
+
+Open timber roofs in the English fashion are unknown; but the wooden
+ceilings already alluded to are found in San Zeno at Verona, and the
+Eremitani at Padua. A kind of open roof of large span, carried by
+curved ribs and tied by iron ties, covers the great hall of the
+Basilica at Vicenza, and the very similar hall at Padua. The ribs of
+these roofs are built up of many thicknesses of material bolted
+together.
+
+The design of Italian Gothic buildings presents many peculiarities,
+some of which are due to the materials made use of. For example, where
+brick and terra-cotta are alone employed, wide moulded cornices of no
+great projection, and broad masses of enriched moulding encircling
+arches are easily executed, and they are accordingly constantly to be
+found; but bold mouldings, with deep hollows, similar to those of
+Early English arches, could not be constructed of these materials, and
+are not attempted. These peculiarities will be found in the Town Hall
+at Cremona, of which an illustration (Fig. 50) has already been given.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 56.--WINDOW FROM TIVOLI.]
+
+Where marble is used, the peculiar fineness of its surface, upon which
+the bright Italian sun makes the smallest moulding effective,
+combined with the fact that the material, being costly, is often used
+in thin slabs, has given occasion to extreme flatness of treatment,
+and to the use of modes of enrichment which do not require much depth
+of material. Our illustration of a window from the Piazza S. Croce at
+Tivoli, shows these peculiarities extremely well (Fig. 56), and also
+illustrates the strong predilection which the Italian architects
+retained throughout the Gothic period for squareness and for
+horizontal lines. The whole ornamental treatment is here square; the
+window rests on a strongly-moulded horizontal sill, and is surrounded
+by flatly-carved enrichment, making a square panel of the entire
+feature. Even in the richly-decorated window (Fig. 57), which is in
+its pointed outline more truly Gothic than the Tivoli example, much of
+the same quality can be traced. The arch and jamb are richly moulded,
+but the whole mass of mouldings is flat, and the flat cuspings of the
+tracery, elaborately carved though it be, more resemble the cusps of
+early Western Gothic, executed at a time when tracery was beginning
+its career, than work belonging to the period of full maturity to
+which this feature, as a whole, undoubtedly belongs.
+
+Where marbles were plentiful enough to be built into the fabric, the
+national love of colour gave rise to the use of black and white--or
+sometimes red and white--alternate courses, already mentioned. The
+effect of this striped masonry may be partly judged of from the
+illustration of the cathedral at Siena (Fig. 52), where it is employed
+to a considerable extent. A finer method of surface decoration, less
+simple, however, and perhaps less frequently practised, was open to
+the Italian architect, in the use of panels of various coloured
+marbles. A beautiful example of the employment of this expedient
+exists in Giotto's campanile at Florence (Fig. 51).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 57.--ITALIAN GOTHIC WINDOW, WITH TRACERY
+ IN THE HEAD. (13TH CENTURY.)]
+
+The flatness of the roofs, which the Italians never abandoned, was
+always found difficult to reconcile with the Gothic tendency to height
+and steepness. In many cases, the sharp pitched gables which the
+buildings display, are only masks, and do not truly denote the pitch
+of the roofs behind them. In other instances the walls finish with a
+horizontal parapet, plain or ornamental, quite concealing the roof. In
+the roofs of their campaniles, however, the Gothic architects of Italy
+were usually happy; they almost always adopted a steep conical
+terminal, with or without pinnacles, which is very telling against
+the sky; even if its junction with the tower is at times clumsy.
+
+The brightness of southern suns prevented the adoption of the great
+windows, adapted to masses of stained glass, which were the ambition
+of northern architects in the fourteenth century; and the tenacity
+with which a love for squareness of effect and for strongly-marked
+horizontal lines of various sorts retained its hold, tended to keep
+Italian Gothic buildings essentially different from those of northern
+nations; but the love of colour, the command of precious materials,
+and of fine sculpture, the passion for beauty and for a decorative
+richness, and the artistic taste of the Italians, display themselves
+in these buildings in a hundred ways: all this lends to them a charm
+such as few works of the middle ages existing elsewhere can surpass.
+
+
+SPAIN.--CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
+
+An early, middle, and late period can be distinguished in dealing with
+Spanish Gothic. The first period reaches to the first quarter of the
+thirteenth century, the second occupies the remainder of the
+thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries, the third completes the
+fifteenth and runs on into part of the sixteenth.
+
+The early style is one of much purity and dignity, and is developed
+directly from the Romanesque of the country. The cathedral of St. Iago
+di Compostella, a fine cruciform church of round-arched Gothic, with a
+magnificent western portal,[28] recalling the great lateral porches at
+Chartres, is an early and fine example. Like other churches of the
+type in Spain, it is far plainer inside than out, but it is vaulted
+throughout.
+
+The cathedral of Zamora, and those of Tarragona and Salamanca must
+also be referred to. In each of these, the most thoroughly Spanish
+feature is a dome, occupying the crossing of the nave and transepts,
+and apparently better developed than those in early German churches or
+in Italian ones. It is called in Spanish the _cimborio_. This feature
+was constructed so as to consist of an inner dome, decorated by ribs
+thrown over the central space, and carried by pendentives; having
+above it a separate outer dome somewhat higher and often richly
+decorated. This feature unfortunately disappeared when the French
+designs of the thirteenth century began to be the rage. A peculiarity
+of plan, however, which was retained throughout the whole Gothic
+period in Spain, is to be found in the early churches; it consists of
+an inclosure for the choir quite in the body of the church, and often
+west of the transepts,--in such a position, in fact, as the choir at
+Westminster Abbey occupies. A third peculiarity is the addition of an
+outer aisle, not unlike the arcade of a cloister, to the side walls of
+the churches, possibly with a view of protecting them from heat.
+
+With the thirteenth century a strong passion for churches, closely
+resembling those being erected in France at the same time, set in, as
+has just been remarked. Accordingly the cathedrals of Toledo, Burgos,
+and Leon, approach very closely to French types. Toledo is very large,
+five aisled, and with a vast chevet. Its exterior is unfinished, but
+the dignity of its fine interior may be well understood from the
+illustration (Fig. 58) here given. Burgos is not so ambitious in size
+as Toledo, but has a florid exterior of late architecture with two
+lofty, open-traceried spires, like Strasburg and other German
+examples. Leon is remarkable for its lofty clerestory. Spanish Gothic
+may be said to have culminated in the vast cathedral at Seville
+(begun 1401), claiming to be of greater extent than any Gothic
+cathedral in the world, larger, therefore, than Milan or Cologne. It
+stands on the site of a mosque, and has never been completed
+externally. The interior is very imposing and rich, but when it is
+stated that it was not completed till 1520, it may be readily
+understood that many of the details are very late, and far from the
+purity of earlier examples.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 58.--THE CATHEDRAL AT TOLEDO. INTERIOR.
+ (BEGUN 1227.)]
+
+In the fourteenth century an innovation, of which French architects
+immediately north of the Pyrenees were also availing themselves, found
+favour in Barcelona. The great buttresses by which the thrust of the
+vaults was met were brought inside the boundary walls of the church,
+and were made to serve as division walls between a series of side
+chapels. Both here and at Manresa and Gerona, cathedrals were built,
+resembling in construction that at Alby, in Southern France; in these
+this arrangement was carried a step further, and the side aisles were
+suppressed, leaving the whole nave to consist of a very bold vaulted
+hall, fringed by a series of side chapels, which were separated from
+each other by the buttresses which supported the main vault. These
+large vaults, however, when bare of decoration, as most of the Spanish
+vaults are, appear bald and poor in effect, though they are grand
+objects structurally.
+
+The Gothic work of the latest period in Spain became extraordinarily
+florid in its details, especially in the variety introduced into the
+ribs of the vaulting and the enrichments generally. The great
+cathedrals of Segovia and Salamanca were neither of them begun till
+the sixteenth century had already well set in. They are the two
+principal examples of this florid Gothic.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 59.--THE GIRALDA AT SEVILLE. (BEGUN IN 1196.
+ FINISHED IN 1538).]
+
+It will not be forgotten that the country we are now considering was
+fully occupied by the Moors, and that they left in Southern Spain
+buildings of great merit. A certain number of Christian churches exist
+built in a style which has been called Moresco, as being a kind of
+fusion of Moorish and Gothic. The towers of these churches bear a
+close resemblance to the Saracenic towers of which the beautiful
+bell-tower, called the Giralda, at Seville (Fig. 59) is the type; with
+this and similar examples in the country it is not surprising that at
+Toledo, Saragoza, and other places, towers of the same character
+should be erected as parts of churches in which the architecture
+throughout is as much Saracenic as Christian.
+
+To many of these great churches, cloisters, and monastic buildings,
+which are often both extensive and of a high order of architectural
+excellence, are attached. The secular buildings, of Spain in the
+Gothic period are, on the other hand, neither numerous nor remarkable.
+
+
+PORTUGAL.
+
+The architecture of Portugal has been very little investigated. The
+great church at Batalha[29] is probably the most important in the
+country. This building, though interesting in plan, is more remarkable
+for a lavish amount of florid ornament, of which our illustration
+(Fig. 60) may furnish some idea, than for really fine architecture.
+The conventual church at Belem, near Lisbon, a work of the beginning
+of the sixteenth century, and equally florid, is another of the small
+number of specimens of Portuguese Gothic of which descriptions or
+illustrations have been published.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[25] An illustration of such a campanile will be found in that
+belonging to the Cathedral of Siena (Fig. 52).
+
+[26] See Frontispiece.
+
+[27] For an explanation of this term, see _ante_, Chapter V., page 48.
+
+[28] A cast of this portal is at the South Kensington Museum.
+
+[29] See _Sculptures of the Monastery at Batalha_, published by the
+Arundel Society.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {CRETE FROM NOTRE DAME, PARIS.}]
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN.
+
+_Materials and Construction._
+
+The Gothic architects adhered, at any rate till the fifteenth century,
+to the use of very small stones in their masonry. In many buildings of
+large size it is hard to find any stone heavier than two men can lift.
+Bad roads and the absence of good mechanical means of hoisting and
+moving big blocks led to this.
+
+The mortar, though good, is not equal to the Roman. As a rule in each
+period mortar joints are thick. They are finest in the fifteenth
+century.
+
+The masonry of all important features of the building is always good;
+it is often a perfect marvel of dexterity and skill as well as of
+beauty.
+
+The arts of workers in other materials, such as carpenters, joiners,
+smiths, and plumbers were carried to great perfection during the
+Gothic period.
+
+The appropriate ornamental treatment which each material is best
+fitted to receive was invariably given to it, and forms appropriate
+to one material were very rarely copied in others. For example,
+whenever wrought iron, a material which can be beaten and welded, or
+rivetted, was employed, those ornamental forms were selected into
+which hot iron can with ease be beaten, and such groups of those forms
+were designed as can be obtained by welding or by rivetting them
+together.
+
+Wood, on the other hand, cannot be bent with ease, but can be readily
+cut, drilled with holes, notched and carved; accordingly, where wood
+had to be treated ornamentally, we only find such forms as the drill,
+the chisel, the saw, or the gouge readily and naturally leave behind
+them.
+
+Again, the mode into which wood can be best framed together was
+carefully considered from a constructional point of view, and mediaeval
+joiners' work is always first so designed as to reduce the damage from
+shrinkage to the smallest amount possible; and the pieces of which it
+is composed are then appropriately ornamented, moulded, or carved.
+
+Stone is now always, at least in this country, worked by being first
+squared and then worked-down or "sunk" from the squared faces to the
+mouldings required, and this procedure seems to have been common,
+though not quite universal, in the Middle Ages. Consequently we
+usually find the whole of the external mouldings with which the
+doorways and arcades of important buildings were enriched, designed so
+as to be easily formed out of stones having squared faces, or, to use
+the technical phrase, to be "sunk" from the squared blocks.
+
+The character of sculpture in wood differs from that in stone, the
+material being harder, more capable of standing alone; so in stone we
+find more breadth, in wood finer lines and more elaboration.
+
+In a word, no material was employed in simulating another (or with
+the rarest exceptions), and when any ornament was to be executed in
+one place in one material and in another place in a different one,
+such alterations were always made in the treatment as corresponded to
+the different qualities of the two materials.
+
+The arch was introduced whenever possible, and the structure of a
+great Gothic building presents the strongest possible contrast to that
+of a Greek building.
+
+In the Greek temple there was no pressure that was not vertical and
+met by a vertical support, wall, or column, and no support that was
+not vastly in excess of the dimensions actually required to do the
+work.
+
+A great Gothic building attains stability through the balanced
+counterpoise of a vast series of pressures, oblique, perpendicular, or
+horizontal, so arranged as to counteract each other. The vault was
+kept from spreading by the flying buttress, the thrust of the arcade
+was resisted by massive walls, and so on throughout.
+
+The equilibrium thus obtained was sometimes so ticklish that a storm
+of wind, a trifling settlement, or a slight concussion sufficed to
+occasion a disaster; and many of the daring feats of the masons of the
+Middle Ages are lost to us, because they dared a little too much and
+the entire structure collapsed. This happened more often in the middle
+period of the style than in the earliest, but during the whole Gothic
+period there is a constant uniform tendency in one direction: thinner
+walls, wider arches, loftier vaults, slenderer buttresses, slighter
+piers, confront us at every step, and we need only compare some Norman
+structure (such as Durham), with a perpendicular (such as Henry VII.'s
+Chapel), to see how vast a change took place in this respect.
+
+
+_The Principles of Gothic Design._
+
+All the germs of Gothic architecture exist in the Romanesque of the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries, and became developed as the passion
+for more slender proportions, greater lightness, and loftiness of
+effect, and more delicate enrichment became marked. It is quite true
+that the pointed arch is universally recognised as, so to speak, the
+badge of Gothic, even to the extent of having suggested the title of
+Christian pointed architecture, by which it is often called. But the
+pointed arch must be regarded rather as a token that the series of
+changes, which, starting from the heavy if majestic Romanesque of such
+a cathedral as Peterborough, culminated in the gracefulness of
+Salisbury or Lincoln, was far advanced towards completion, than as
+really essential to their perfection. Many of the examples of the
+transition period exhibit the round arch blended with the pointed
+(_e.g._ the nave of St. David's Cathedral or the Choir of Canterbury),
+and when we come to consider German architecture we shall find that
+the adoption of the pointed arch was postponed till long after the
+development of all, or almost all, the other features of the Gothic
+style; so as to place beyond question the existence, in that country
+at least, of "round arched Gothic." Some of the best authorities have
+indeed proposed to employ this title as a designation for much, if not
+all, the round arched architecture of the west of Europe, but Scott,
+Sharpe, and other authorities class mediaeval art down to the middle of
+the twelfth century under the general head of Romanesque, a course
+which has been adopted in this volume.
+
+The proportions of Gothic buildings were well studied, their forms
+were always lofty, their gables sharp, and their general composition
+more or less pyramidal. Remarkable numerical relations between the
+dimensions of the different parts of a great Gothic cathedral can be
+discovered upon careful examination in most, if not all instances, and
+there can be little doubt that a system of geometrical proportions ran
+through the earlier design, and that much of the harmony and beauty
+which the buildings present is traceable to this fact. Independent of
+this the skill with which subordinate features and important ones are
+fitted to their respective positions, both by their dimensions and by
+their relative elaboration or plainness, forms a complete system of
+proportion, making use of the word in its broadest sense; and the
+results are extremely happy.
+
+Apparent size was imparted to almost every Gothic building by the
+smallness, great number, and variety of its features, and by the small
+size of the stones employed. The effect of strength is generally,
+though not perhaps so uniformly, also obtained, and dignity, beauty,
+and harmony are rarely wanting.
+
+Symmetry, though not altogether overlooked, has but a slender hold
+upon Gothic architects. It is far more observed in the interior than
+in the exterior of the buildings; but it must be remembered that
+symmetry formed the basis of many designs which, owing to the
+execution having been carried on through a long series of years and by
+different hands, came to be varied from the original intentions. Thus,
+for example, Chartres is a cathedral with two western towers. One of
+these was carried up and its spire completed in the twelfth century.
+The companion spire was not added till the end of the fifteenth, when
+men's ideas as to the proportions, shape, ornaments, and details of a
+spire had altered entirely;--the later architect did not value
+symmetry enough to think himself bound to adhere either to the design
+or to the height of the earlier spire, so we have in this great
+facade two similar flanking towers but spires entirely unlike. What
+happened at Chartres happened elsewhere. The original design of
+buildings was in the main symmetrical, but it was never considered
+that symmetry was a matter so important as to require that much
+sacrifice should be made to preserve it.
+
+On the other hand the subordination of a multitude of small features
+to one dominant one enters largely into the design of every good
+Gothic building; with the result that if the great governing feature
+or mass has been carried out in its entirety, almost any feature, no
+matter how irregular or unsymmetrical, may be safely introduced, and
+will only add picturesqueness and piquancy to the design. This is more
+or less a leading principle of Gothic design. A building with no
+irregularities, none of those charming additions which add individual
+character to Gothic churches, and none of the isolated features which
+the principle of subordination permits the architect to employ, has
+missed one of the chief qualities of the style. It is here that
+unskilled architects mostly fail when they attempt Gothic designs;
+they either hold on to symmetry as though they were designing a Greek
+temple, and they are unaware that the spirit of the style in which
+they are trying to work not only permits, but requires some irregular
+features; or if they do not fall into this error they are overtaken by
+the opposite one, and omit to make their irregular features
+subordinate to the general effect of the whole, an error less serious
+in its effects than the other, but still destructive of anything like
+the highest qualities in a building.
+
+Repetition, like symmetry, is recognised by Gothic architecture, but
+not adhered to in a rigid way. No buildings gain more from the
+repetition of parts than Gothic churches and cathedrals; the series of
+pillars or piers and arches inside, the series of buttresses and
+windows outside, add scale to the general effect. But so long as it
+was in the main a series of features which broadly resembled one
+another, the Gothic architect was satisfied, and did not feel bound to
+exact repetition.
+
+We are often, for example, surprised to find in the columns of a
+church an octagonal one alternating with a circular one, and almost
+invariably, if a series of capitals be examined, each will be
+discovered to differ from the others to some extent. In one bay of a
+church there may be a two-light window, and in the next a three-light
+window, and so on.
+
+This we find in buildings erected at one time and under one architect.
+Where, however, a building begun at one period was continued at
+another (and this, it must be remembered, was the rule, not the
+exception, with all large Gothic buildings), the architect, while
+usually repeating the same features, with the same general forms,
+invariably followed his own predilections as to detail. There is a
+very good example of this in Westminster Abbey, in the western bays of
+the nave, which were built years later than the eastern bays. They
+are, to a superficial observer, identical, being of the same height
+and width and shape of arch, but nearly every detail differs.
+
+Disclosure, rather than concealment, was a principle of Gothic design.
+This was demonstrated long ago by Pugin, and many of his followers
+pushed the doctrine to such extremes, that they held--and some of them
+still hold--that no building is really Gothic in which any part,
+either of its construction or arrangement, is not obviously visible
+inside and out.
+
+This is, however, carrying the principle too far. It is sufficient to
+say that the interior disposition of every Gothic building was as
+much as possible disclosed by the exterior. Thus, in a secular
+building, where there is a large room, there usually was a large
+window; when a lofty apartment occurs, its roof was generally
+proportionately high; where a staircase rises, we usually can detect
+it by a sloping row of little windows following the line of the stair,
+or by a turret roof.
+
+The mode in which the thrust of vaults is counterpoised is, as has
+been shown, frankly displayed by the Gothic architects, and as a rule,
+every portion of the structure is freely exhibited. It grows out of
+this, that when an ornamental feature is desired, it is not
+constructed purely for ornament, as the Romans added the columns and
+cornices of the orders to the outside of their massive walls purely as
+an architectural screen; but some requisite, of the building is taken
+and ornamented, and in some cases elaborated. Thus the belfry grew
+into the enormous bell tower; the tower roof grew into the spire; the
+extra weight required on flying buttresses grew into the ornamental
+pinnacle; and the window head grew into tracery.
+
+There were, however, some exceptions. The walls were still constantly
+faced with finer masonry than in the heart, and though some are
+unwilling to admit the fact, were often plastered outside as well as
+in; and what is more remarkable, no other sign of the vault appeared
+outside the building than the buttresses required to sustain it.
+
+The external gable conforms to the shape of the roof which covered the
+vault, but the vault, perhaps the most remarkable and characteristic
+feature of the whole building, does not betray its presence by any
+external line or mark corresponding to its position and shape in the
+interior of the building. Notwithstanding these and some other
+exceptions, frank disclosure must be reckoned one of the main
+principles of Gothic architecture.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 60.--DOORWAY FROM CHURCH AT BATALHA.
+ (BEGUN 1385.)]
+
+Elaboration and simplicity were both so well known to the Gothic
+architect that it is difficult to say that either of these qualities
+belongs exclusively to his work. But he was rarely simple when he had
+the opportunity of being elaborate, and simplicity was perhaps rather
+forced upon him by the circumstances under which he worked, by rude
+materials, scanty funds, and lack of skilled workmen, than freely
+chosen. Many of the great works of the Gothic period are as elaborate
+as they could be made (Fig. 60), and yet, when simplicity had to be
+the order of the day, no architecture has lent it such a grace as
+Gothic.
+
+The last pair of qualities is similarity and contrast. What has been
+said about repetition has anticipated the remarks called for by these
+qualities, so far as to point out that even where the arrangement of
+the building dictated the repetition of similar features, a general
+resemblance, and not an exact similarity, was considered sufficient.
+In the composition of masses of building, contrast and not similarity
+was the ruling principle. Even in the interiors of great churches
+which, as a rule, are far more regular than the exteriors, the
+contrast between the comparative plainness of the nave and the
+richness of the choir was an essential element of design.
+
+External design in Gothic buildings depends almost entirely upon
+contrast for its power of charming the eye, and it is this
+circumstance which has left the successive generations of men who
+toiled at our great Gothic cathedrals so free to follow the bent of
+their own taste in their additions, rather than that of their
+forerunners.
+
+But setting aside the irregularities due to the caprice of various
+builders, and the constant changes which took place in detail through
+the Gothic period, it is to contrast that we must trace most of the
+surprising effects attained by the architecture of the Middle Ages.
+The rich tracery was made richer by contrast with plain walls, the
+loftiest towers appeared higher from their contrast with the long
+level lines of roofs and parapets.
+
+It is, in truth, one of the principal marks of the decadence which
+began in the fifteenth century that the principle of contrast was, to
+a considerable extent, abandoned, at least in the details of the
+buildings if not in their great masses. Walls were at that time
+panelled in imitation of the tracery of the adjoining windows, and no
+longer acted as a foil to them by their solid plainness; long rows of
+pinnacles, all exactly alike, followed the line of the parapets, and a
+repetition of absolutely identical features became the rule for the
+first time in the history of Gothic art.
+
+There can be no doubt that had this modification run its natural
+course unchecked and undisturbed by the change in taste which abruptly
+brought the Gothic period to a close, it must have resulted in the
+deterioration of the art.
+
+ [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {RENAISSANCE ORNAMENT FROM A FRIEZE.}]
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+GENERAL VIEW.
+
+
+Gothic architecture had begun, before the close of the fifteenth
+century, to show marks of decadence, and men's minds and tastes were
+ripening for a change. The change, when it did take place, arose in
+Italy, and was a direct consequence of that burst of modern
+civilisation known as the revival of letters. All the characteristics
+of the middle ages were rapidly thrown off. The strain of old Roman
+blood in the modern Italians asserted itself, and almost at a bound,
+literature and the arts sprang back, like a bow unstrung, into the
+forms they had displayed fifteen hundred years before.
+
+It became the rage to read the choice Greek and Latin authors, and to
+write Latin with a pedantic purity. Can we wonder that in painting, in
+sculpture, and in architecture, men reverted to the form, the style,
+and the decorations of the antique compositions, statues, and
+architectural remains? This was the more easy in Italy, as Gothic art
+had never at any time taken so firm a hold upon Italians as it had
+upon nations north of the Alps.
+
+Though, however, the details and forms employed were all Roman, or
+Graeco-Roman, they were applied to buildings essentially modern, and
+used with much freedom and spirit. This revival of classic taste in
+art is commonly and appropriately called Renaissance. In Italy it took
+place so rapidly that there was hardly any transition period.
+Brunelleschi, the first great Renaissance architect, began his work as
+early as the middle of the fifteenth century, and his buildings, in
+which classic details of great severity and purity are employed,
+struck, so to speak, a keynote which had been responded to all over
+Italy before the close of the fifteenth century.
+
+To other countries the change spread later, and it found them less
+prepared to welcome it unreservedly. Accordingly, in France, in
+England, and in many parts of Germany, we find a transition period,
+during which buildings were designed in a mixed style. In England, the
+transition lasted almost through the sixteenth century.
+
+As the century went on, a most picturesque and telling style, the
+earlier phases of which are known as Tudor and the later as
+Elizabethan, sprang up in England. It betrays in its mixture of Gothic
+and classic forms great incongruities and even monstrosities; but it
+allows unrestrained play for the fancies, and the best mansions and
+manors of the time, such as Hatfield, Hardwick, Burleigh, Bramshill,
+and Audley End, are unsurpassed in their picturesqueness and romantic
+charm.
+
+The old red-brick, heavily chimneyed, and gabled buildings, with their
+large windows divided by bold mullions and transoms, and their simple
+noble outlines, are familiar to us all, and so are their
+characteristic features. The great hall with its oriel or its bay,
+the fine plastered ceiling, supported by heavy beams of timber; the
+wide oak staircase, with its carved balusters, and ornamented newel
+post, and heavy-moulded handrail; the old wainscoted parlour, with its
+magnificent chimney-piece reaching to the ceiling; these are all
+essentially English features, and are full of vigour and life, as
+indeed the work of every period of transition must almost necessarily
+prove.
+
+The transitional period in France produced exquisite works more
+refined and elegantly treated than ours, but not so vigorous. Its
+manner is known as the Francois Premier (Francis I.) style. No modern
+buildings are more profusely ornamented, and yet not spoilt.
+
+In Germany, the Castle of Heidelberg may be named as a well-known
+specimen of the transition period, a period over which however we must
+not linger. Suffice it to say, that sooner or later the change was
+fully accomplished in every European country, and Renaissance
+architecture, modified as climate, materials, habits, or even caprice
+suggested, yet the same in its essential characteristics, obtained a
+firm footing: this it has succeeded in retaining, though not to the
+exclusion of other styles, for now nearly three centuries.
+
+In Italy, Renaissance churches, great and small--from St. Peter's
+downwards--and magnificent secular buildings, some, like the Vatican
+Palace or the Library of St. Mark at Venice, for public purposes, but
+most for the occupation of the great wealthy and princely families,
+abound in Naples, Rome, Florence, Genoa, Venice, Milan, and indeed
+every great city.
+
+In France, the transition period was succeeded by a time when vast
+undertakings, _e.g._ the Hotel de Ville, the Louvre, the Tuileries,
+Versailles, were carried out in the revived style with the utmost
+magnificence, and were imitated in every part of the country in the
+structures greater or smaller which were then built.
+
+In England, the works of Inigo Jones, and of Wren, are the most famous
+works of the developed style, and to the last-named architect we owe a
+cathedral second to none in Europe for its beauty of outline, and play
+of light and shade. To Germany, and the countries of the north-east
+Europe, and to Spain and Portugal on the south, the style also
+extended with no very great modification, either of its general forms
+or of its details.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+_Plan._
+
+The plan of Renaissance buildings was uniform and symmetrical, and the
+picturesqueness of the Gothic times was abandoned. The plans of
+churches were not widely different from those in use in Italy before
+the revival of classic art took place, but it will be remembered that
+these were by no means so irregular or picturesque at any time as the
+plans of French and English cathedral churches.
+
+In secular architecture, the vast piles erected in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries by Italian, French, and Spanish architects are
+to the last degree orderly in their disposition. They are adapted to a
+great variety of purposes, and they display a varying degree of skill.
+The palaces of Genoa are, on the one hand, among the cleverest
+examples of planning existing; on the other hand, many of the palaces
+in France are weak and poor to the last degree. As a rule the scale of
+the plan is more considerable than in Gothic work. A very large
+building is often not divided into more parts than a small one, or one
+of moderate size. In St. Peter's, for example, there are only four
+bays between the west front and the dome, everything being on a most
+gigantic scale. As a contrast to this principle we may cite the nave
+of the Gothic cathedral at Milan, which is not so long at St. Peter's,
+but has at least thrice as many bays, and looks much larger in
+consequence.
+
+No style affords more room for skill in planning than the Renaissance,
+and in no style is the exercise of such skill more repaid by results.
+
+
+_Walls and Columns._
+
+In the treatment of external walls, the mediaeval use of small
+materials, involving many joints for the exterior of walls has quite
+disappeared, and they are universally faced with stone or plaster, and
+are consequently uniformly smooth. Perhaps the principal feature to
+note is the very great use made of that elaborate sort of masonry in
+which the joints of the stones are very carefully channelled or
+otherwise marked, and which is known by the singularly inappropriate
+name of rustic work. The basements of most Italian and French palaces
+are rusticated, and in many cases (as the Pitti Palace, Florence)
+rustic work covers an entire facade.
+
+The Gothic mouldings in receding planes disappear entirely, and the
+classic architrave takes their place. The orders are again revived and
+are used (as the Romans often used them) as purely decorative features
+added for the mere sake of ornament to a wall sufficient without them,
+and are freely piled one upon the other. Palladio (a very influential
+Italian architect) reproduced the use of lofty pilasters running
+through two or even more storeys of the building, and often combined
+one tall order and two short ones in his treatment of the same part
+of the building, a contrivance which in less clever hands than his has
+given rise to the greatest confusion.
+
+The Renaissance architects also revived the late Roman manner of
+employing the column and entablature. They frequently carried on the
+top of a column a little square pier divided up as the architrave and
+frieze proper to the column would be divided, and they surmounted it
+with a cornice which was carried quite round this pier, and from this
+curious compound pedestal an arch will frequently spring. The classic
+portico, with pediments, was constantly employed by them; and small
+pediments over window heads were common. A peculiarity worth mention
+is the introduction in many Italian palaces of a great crowning
+cornice, proportioned not to the size of the columns and of the order
+upon which it rests (if an order be employed), but to the height of
+the whole building. Much fine effect is obtained by means of this
+feature; it is, however, better fitted for sunny Italy than for gloomy
+England, and it is not an unmixed success when repeated in our
+climate.
+
+Towers are less frequently employed than by the Gothic architects, and
+indeed in Italy the sky-line was less thought of at this period than
+it was in the middle ages. In churches, towers sometimes occur,
+nowhere more picturesque than those designed by Sir Christopher Wren
+for many of his London parish churches. The frequent use of the dome
+takes the place of the tower both in churches and secular buildings.
+
+
+_Openings._
+
+Openings are both flat-headed and semicircular, occasionally
+elliptical, but hardly ever pointed. Renaissance buildings may be to
+some extent divided into those which depend for effect upon window
+openings, and those which depend chiefly upon architectural features
+such as cornices, pilasters, and orders. Among the buildings where
+fenestration (or the treatment of windows) is relied upon the palaces
+of Venice stand pre-eminent as compositions admirably designed for
+effect and very successful. In them the openings are massed near the
+centre of the facade, and strong piers are left near the angles, a
+simple expedient when once known, and one inherited from the Gothic
+palaces in that city, but giving remarkable individuality of character
+to this group of buildings.
+
+In roofs, including vaults and domes, we meet with a divergence of
+practice between Italy and France. In Italy low-pitched roofs were the
+rule: the parapet alone often formed the sky-line, and the dome and
+pediment are usually the only telling features of the outline. France,
+on the other hand, revived a most picturesque feature of Gothic days,
+namely, the high-pitched roof, employing it in the shape commonly
+known as the Mansard[30] roof. Nothing adds more to the effectiveness
+of the great French Renaissance buildings than these lofty terminals.
+
+The dome is, however, the glory of this style, as it had been of the
+Roman. It is the one feature by which revived and original classic
+architects retain a clear and defined advantage over Gothic
+architects, who, strange to say, all but abandoned the dome. The
+mouldings and other ornaments of the Renaissance are much the same as
+those of the Roman style, which the Italians revived; their sculptures
+and their mural decorations were all originally drawn from classic
+sources. These, however, attained very great excellence, and it is
+probable that such decorative paintings as Raphael and his scholars
+executed in Rome, at Genoa, at Mantua, and elsewhere, far surpass
+anything which the old Roman decorative artists ever executed.
+
+
+_Construction and Design._
+
+The earlier Renaissance buildings are remarkable for the great use
+which their architects made of carpentry, as the most modern
+structures are for the use of wrought and cast-iron construction. As
+regards carpentry, it is of course true that all the woodwork of the
+classic periods, and much of that done in the Gothic period, has
+perished, either through decay or fire; but making every allowance for
+this, we must still recognise a very great increase in the employment
+of timber as an integral part of large structures. Vaulted roofs for
+example are comparatively rare, and domes, even when the inner dome is
+of brickwork or masonry, have their outer envelope of carpentry. A
+disuse of brick and rough masonry, or rather a constant effort to
+conceal them from view, is a distinctive mark of Renaissance work. The
+Roman method of facing rough walls with fine stone was resorted to in
+the best buildings. In humbler buildings plaster is employed.
+
+Renaissance architects made very free use of plaster. Inside and out
+this material is utilised, not merely to cover surfaces, but to form
+architectural features. Cornices, panels, and enrichments of all kinds
+modelled in plaster are constantly employed in the interior of rooms
+and buildings. On the exterior we constantly find imitations of
+similar architectural features proper to stone executed in plaster and
+simulating stone; a short-sighted practice which cannot be commended,
+and which has only cheapness and convenience in its favour. There can
+be no question of the fact that the features thus executed never
+equal those done in stone in their effectiveness, and are far more
+liable to decay.
+
+Design in Renaissance buildings may be said to be directed towards
+producing a telling result by the effect of the buildings taken as a
+whole, rather than by the intricacy or the beauty of individual parts;
+and herein lies one of the great contrasts between Renaissance and
+Gothic architecture. A Renaissance building which fails to produce an
+impression as a whole is rarely felt to be successful. No better
+example of this can be given than the straggling, unsatisfactory
+Palace of Versailles, magnificent as it is in dimensions and rich in
+treatment. To the production of a homogeneous impression the
+arrangement of plan, the proportion of storeys, the contrasts of voids
+and solids, and above all the outline of the entire building, should
+be devoted.
+
+The general arrangement of buildings is usually strictly symmetrical,
+one half corresponding to the other, and with some well-defined
+feature to mark the centre. Of course in very large buildings this
+does not occur, nor in the nature of things can it often take place in
+the sides of churches; but the individual features of such buildings,
+and all those parts of them which permit of symmetry in their
+arrangement, always display it.
+
+Proportion plays an important part in the design of Renaissance
+buildings. The actual shape of openings, the proportion which they
+bear to voids, the proportion of storeys to one another; and, going
+into details, the proportions which the different features--_e.g._,
+cornice, and the columns supporting it--should bear to one another,
+have to be carefully studied. It is to the possession of a keen sense
+of what makes a pleasing proportion and one satisfactory to the eye,
+that the great architects of Italy owed the greater part of their
+success.
+
+Renaissance architecture is so familiar in its general features, and
+these have been so constantly repeated, that we may not easily
+recognise the great need for skill and taste which exists if they are
+to be designed so as to produce the most refined effect possible. Many
+of the successful buildings of the style owe their excellence to the
+great delicacy and elegance of the mode in which the details have been
+studied, rather than to the vigour and boldness with which the masses
+have been shaped and disposed; and though grandeur is the noblest
+quality of which the style is capable, yet many more opportunities for
+displaying grace and refinement than for attaining grandeur offer
+themselves, and by nothing are the best works of the style so well
+marked out as by the success with which those opportunities have been
+grasped and turned to account.
+
+The concealment both of construction and arrangement is largely
+practised in Renaissance buildings. Behind an exterior wall filled by
+windows of uniform size and equally spaced, rooms large and small,
+corridors, staircases, and other features have to be provided for.
+This is completely in contrast to the Gothic principle of displaying
+frankly on the outside the arrangement of what is within; but it must
+be remembered that art often works most happily and successfully when
+limited by apparently strict and difficult conditions, and these rules
+have not prevented the great architects of the Renaissance from
+accomplishing works where both the exterior and the interior are
+thoroughly successful, and are brought into such happy harmony that
+the difficulties have clearly been no bar to success. There is no
+canon of art violated by such a method, the simple fact being that
+Gothic buildings are designed under one set of conditions and
+Renaissance under another.
+
+It is less easy to defend the use of pilasters and columns large
+enough to appear as though they were the main support of the building,
+for purely decorative purposes; yet here perhaps the fault lies rather
+in the extent to which the practice has been carried, and above all
+the scale upon which it is carried out, than in anything else. Small
+columns are constantly employed in Gothic buildings in positions where
+they serve the aesthetic purpose of conveying a sense of support, but
+where it is impossible for them to carry any weight. The Renaissance
+architects have done the same thing on a large scale, but it must not
+be forgotten that they only revived a Roman practice as part of the
+ancient style to which they reverted, and that they are not
+responsible for originating it.
+
+It will be understood therefore that symmetry, strict uniformity, not
+mere similarity, in features intended to correspond, and constant
+repetition, are leading principles in Renaissance architecture. These
+qualities tend to breadth rather than picturesqueness of effect, and
+to similarity rather than contrast. Simplicity and elaboration are
+both compatible with Renaissance design; the former distinguishes the
+earlier and purer examples of the style, the latter those more recent
+and more grandiose.
+
+It should be observed that in the transition styles, such as our own
+Elizabethan, or the French style of Francis the First, these
+principles of design are mixed up in a very miscellaneous way with
+those followed in the Gothic period. The result is often puzzling and
+inconsistent if we attempt to analyse it with exactness, but rarely
+fails to charm by its picturesque and irregular vividness.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[30] Named after a French architect of the 17th century.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {FROM A TERRA-COTTA FRIEZE AT LODI.}]
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.
+
+
+Renaissance architecture--the architecture of the classic revival--had
+its origin in Italy, and should be first studied in the land of its
+birth. There are more ways than one in which it may be attempted to
+classify Italian Renaissance buildings. The names of conspicuous
+architects are sometimes adopted for this purpose, for now, for the
+first time, we meet with a complete record of the names and
+performances of all architects of note: the men who raised the great
+works of Gothic art are, with a few exceptions, absolutely unknown to
+us. An approximate division into three stages can also be recognised.
+There is an early, a developed, and a late Renaissance, but this is
+very far indeed from being a completely marked series, and was more
+interfered with by local circumstances and by the character and genius
+of individual artists than in Gothic. For this reason a local division
+will be of most service. The best examples exist in the great cities,
+with a few exceptions, and it is almost more useful to group them--as
+the paintings of the Renaissance are also often grouped--by locality
+than in either of the other methods.
+
+
+FLORENCE.
+
+Renaissance architecture first sprang into existence in Florence. Here
+chiefly the works of the early Renaissance are met with, and the names
+of the great Florentine architects are Brunelleschi and Alberti.
+
+Brunelleschi was a citizen of Florence, of very ardent temperament and
+great energy, and a true artist. He was born in 1377, was originally
+trained as a goldsmith and sculptor, but devoted himself to the study
+of architecture, and early set his heart upon being appointed to
+complete the dome of the then unfinished cathedral of Florence, of
+which some account has already been given.
+
+Florence in the fifteenth century was full of artistic life, and the
+revival of learning and arts had then begun to take definite shape.
+The first years of the century found Brunelleschi studying antiquities
+at Rome, to fit himself for the work he desired to undertake. After
+his return to his native city, he ultimately succeeded in the object
+of his ambition; the cathedral was entrusted to him, and he erected
+the large pointed dome with which it is crowned. He also erected two
+large churches in Florence, which, as probably the first important
+buildings designed and built in the new style, possess great interest.
+Santo Spirito, one of these, shows a fully matured system of
+architectural treatment, and though it is quite true that it was a
+revived system, yet the application of it to a modern building,
+different in its purpose and in its design from anything the Romans
+had ever done, is little short of a work of genius.
+
+Santo Spirito has a very simple and beautifully regular plan, and its
+interior has a singular charm and grace: over the crossing is raised
+a low dome. The columns of the arcade are Corinthian columns, and the
+refinement of their detail and proportions strikes the eye at once on
+entering the building. The influence of Brunelleschi, who died in
+1440, was perpetuated by the works and writings of Alberti (born 1398)
+an architect of literary cultivation who wrote a systematic treatise
+which became extremely popular, and helped to form the taste and guide
+the practice of his contemporaries. He lived till near the close of
+the fifteenth century, and erected some buildings of great merit. To
+Alberti we owe the design of the Ruccellai Palace in Florence, a
+building begun in 1460, and which had been preceded by somewhat bolder
+and simpler designs. This is a three storey building, but has
+pilasters carried up the piers between the windows and a regular
+entablature and cornice[31] at each storey. The building is elegant
+and graceful, and though the employment of the orders[32] as its
+decoration gives it a distinctive character, it bears a strong general
+resemblance to the group of which the Strozzi Palace (Fig. 61) may be
+taken as the type.
+
+The earliest Florentine palaces are the Riccardi, which dates from
+1430, and the Pitti of almost the same date; Brunelleschi is said to
+have been consulted in the design of both, but Michelozzo was the
+architect. The distinguishing characteristic of the early palaces in
+this city is solidity, which rises from the fact that they were also
+fortresses. The Pitti, well known for its picture gallery, is a
+building of vast extent, built throughout in very boldly rusticated
+masonry, the joints and projections of the stones being greatly
+exaggerated. The Riccardi, a square block of building, bears a
+considerable resemblance to the Strozzi, but is plainer. It is a most
+dignified building in its effect.
+
+The Strozzi Palace (Fig. 61) was the next great palatial pile erected.
+It was designed by Cronaca, and begun in 1498. Like the Riccardi, it
+is of three storeys, with a bold projecting cornice. The whole wall is
+covered with rusticated masonry; the windows of the lower floor are
+small and square; those of the two upper floors are larger and
+semicircular headed, and with a shaft acting as a mullion, and
+carrying arches which occupy the window head with something like
+tracery. The entrance is by a semicircular headed archway. There is a
+great height of unpierced wall in the lowest storey and above the
+heads of the two upper ranges of windows; and to this and the bold
+overhanging cornice, this building, and those like it, owe much of
+their dignity and impressiveness. An elevation, such as our
+illustration, may convey a fair idea of the good proportion and
+ensemble of the front, but it is difficult without actually seeing the
+buildings to appreciate the effect produced by such palaces as these,
+seen foreshortened in the narrow streets, and with the shadows from
+their bold cornices and well-defined openings intensified by the
+effect of the Italian sun.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 61.--STROZZI PALACE AT FLORENCE. (BEGUN 1489.)]
+
+Many excellent palatial buildings belong to the end of the fifteenth
+century. One among them is attributed to Bramante (who died 1513), a
+Florentine, whom we shall meet with in Rome and elsewhere. The
+Guadagni Palace has an upper storey entirely open, forming a sheltered
+loggia, but it is mentioned here chiefly on account of the
+decorations incised on its walls by the method known as Sgraffito.
+Part of the plain wall is covered in this way with decorative designs,
+which appear as though drawn with a bold line on their surface. An
+example of this decoration will be found in our illustration (Fig.
+62), representing a portion of the Loggia del Consiglio at Verona.
+
+The series of great Florentine palaces closes with a charming example,
+the Pandolfini, designed by the great Raphael, and commenced in
+1520--in other words, in the first quarter of the sixteenth century.
+
+This palace is only one of many instances to be found in Italy of the
+skill in more walks of art than one, of some of the greatest artists.
+Raphael, though best known as a painter, executed works of sculpture
+of great merit, and designed some other buildings besides the one now
+under notice. The Pandolfini Palace (Fig. 63) is small, the main
+building having only four windows in the front and two storeys in
+height, with a low one-storey side building. Its general design has
+been very successfully copied in the Travellers' Club House, Pall
+Mall. On comparing this with any of the previously named designs, it
+will be seen that the semicircular headed windows have disappeared,
+the rusticated masonry is only now retained at the angles, and to
+emphasise the side entrance; and a small order with a little pediment
+(_i.e._ gable) is employed to mark each opening, door or window. In
+short this building belongs not only to another century, but to that
+advanced school of art to which we have given the name of developed
+Italian Renaissance.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 62.--PART OF THE LOGGIA DEL CONSIGLIO AT VERONA.
+ (16TH CENTURY.)
+ Showing the incised decoration known as _Sgraffito_.]
+
+In Florence some of the work of Michelangelo is to be met with. His
+own house is here; so is the famous Medici chapel, a work in which we
+find him displaying power at once as a sculptor and an architect.
+This interior is very fine and very studied both in its proportions
+and its details. The church of the Annunziata, remarkable for a fine
+dome, carried on a drum resting directly on the ground, is the
+foremost Renaissance church in Florence.
+
+The contrast between early and matured Renaissance can indeed be
+better recognised in Florence than in almost any other city. The early
+work, that of Bramante, Brunelleschi, and the architects who drew
+their inspirations from these masters, was delicate and refined. The
+detail was always elegant, the ornament always unobtrusive, and often
+most graceful. Features comparatively small in scale were employed,
+and were set off by the use of plain wall-surface, which was
+unhesitatingly displayed. The classic orders were used in a
+restricted, unobtrusive way, and with pilasters in preference to
+columns; and though probably the architects themselves would have
+repudiated the idea that the Gothic art, which they had cast behind
+them, influenced their practice of revived classic in the remotest
+degree, it is nevertheless true that many of these peculiarities, and
+still more the general quality of the designs, were to a large extent
+those to which the practice of Gothic architecture had led them.
+
+A change which was partly due to a natural desire for progress, was
+helped on by the great attention paid by students of architecture to
+the remains of ancient Roman buildings; but it was the influence
+excited by the powerful genius of Michelangelo, and by the gigantic
+scale and vigorous treatment of his masterpiece, St. Peter's, which was
+the proximate occasion of a revolution in taste and practice, to which,
+the labours, both literary and artistic, of Vignola, and the designs of
+Palladio, gave form and consistency. In the fully-developed, or, as it
+is sometimes called, pure Renaissance of Italy, great use is made of
+the classic orders and pediment, and indeed of all the features which
+the Romans had employed. Plain wall space almost disappears under the
+various architectural features introduced, and all ornaments, details,
+and mouldings become bolder and richer, but often less refined and
+correct in design.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 63.--THE PANDOLFINI PALACE, FLORENCE.
+ DESIGNED BY RAPHAEL. (BEGUN 1520.)]
+
+
+ROME.
+
+Rome, the capital of the country, contains, as was fit, the central
+building of the fully-developed Renaissance, St. Peter's. Bramante,
+the Florentine, was the architect to whom the task of designing a
+cathedral to surpass anything existing in Europe was committed by Pope
+Julius II. at the opening of the sixteenth century. Some such project
+had been entertained, and even begun, fifty years earlier, but the
+enterprise was now started afresh, a new design was made, and the
+first stone was laid by the Pope in 1506. Bramante died in some six or
+seven years, and five or six architects in succession, one of whom was
+Raphael, proceeded with the work, without advancing it rapidly, for
+nearly half a century, during which time the design was modified again
+and again. In 1546 the great Michelangelo was appointed architect, and
+the last eighteen years of his life were spent in carrying on this
+great work. He completed the magnificent dome in all its essential
+parts, and left the church a Greek cross (_i.e._ one which has all its
+four arms equal) on plan, with the dome at the crossing. The boast is
+attributed to him that he would take the dome of the Pantheon and hang
+it in the air; and this he has virtually accomplished in the dome of
+St. Peter's--a work of the greatest beauty of design and boldness of
+construction.
+
+Unfortunately, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, Maderno
+was employed to lengthen the nave. This transformed the plan of the
+cathedral into a Latin cross. The existing portico was built at the
+same time; and in 1661 Bernini added the vast forecourt, lined by
+colonnades, which now forms the approach.
+
+This cathedral, of which the history has been briefly sketched, is the
+largest in the world. As we now see it, it consists of a vast
+vestibule; a nave of four bays with side aisles; a vast square central
+space over which hangs the great dome; transepts and a choir, each of
+one bay and an apse. Outside the great central space, an aisle, not
+quite like the ordinary aisle of a church, exists, and there are two
+side chapels. It can be well understood that if the largest church in
+Christendom is divided into so few parts, these must be themselves of
+colossal dimensions, and the truth is that the piers are masses of
+masonry which can be called nothing else than vast, while the spaces
+spanned by the arches and vaults are prodigious. There is little sense
+of mystery about the interior of the building (Fig. 64), the eye soon
+grasps it as a whole, and hours must be spent in it before an idea of
+its gigantic size is at all taken in. The beauty of the colouring adds
+wonderfully to the effect of St. Peter's upon the spectator, for the
+walls are rich with mosaics and coloured marbles; and the interior,
+the dome especially, with the drum upon which it rests, are decorated
+in colour throughout, with fine effect and in excellent taste. The
+interior is amply lighted, and, though very rich, not over decorated;
+its design is simple and noble in the extreme, and all its parts are
+wonderful in their harmony. The connection between the dome and the
+rest of the building is admirable, and there is a sense of vast space
+when the spectator stands under that soaring vault which belongs to
+no other building in the world.
+
+The exterior is disappointing as long as the building is seen in
+front, for the facade is so lofty and advances so far forward as to
+cut off the view of the lower part of the dome. To have an idea of the
+building as Michelangelo designed it, it is necessary to go round to
+the back; and then, with the height of the drum fully seen and the
+contour of the dome, with all its massy lines of living force,
+carrying the eye with them right up to the elegant lantern that crowns
+the summit, some conception of the hugeness and the symmetry of this
+mountain of art seems to dawn on the mind. But even here it is with
+the utmost difficulty that one can apply any scale to the mass, so
+that the idea which the mind forms of its bulk is continually
+fluctuating.
+
+The history of this building extends over all the period of developed
+Renaissance in Rome, and its list of architects includes all the best
+known names. By the side of it every other church, even St. John
+Lateran, appears insignificant; so that the secular buildings in Rome,
+which are numerous, and some of them excellent, are more worth
+attention than the churches, though not a few of the three hundred
+churches and basilicas of the metropolis of Italy are good examples of
+Renaissance.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 64.--ST. PETER'S AT ROME. INTERIOR. (1506-1661.)]
+
+The altars, tombs, and other architectural or semi-architectural works
+which occur in many of the churches of Rome, are, however, finer works
+of art as a rule than the buildings which they adorn. Such gems are
+not confined to Rome, but are to be found throughout Italy: many of
+them belong to the best period of art. Marble is generally the
+material, and the light as a rule falls on these works in one
+direction only. Under these circumstances the most subtle moulding
+gives a play of light and shade, and the most delicate carving
+produces a richness of effect which cannot be attained in exterior
+architecture, executed for the most part in stone, exposed to the
+weather, and seen by diffused and reflected light. Nothing of this
+sort is finer than the monuments by Sansovino, erected in Sta. Maria
+del Popolo at Rome, one of which we illustrate on a small scale (Fig.
+65). The magnificent altar-piece in Sta. Coronale at Vicenza, in which
+is framed Bellini's picture of the baptism of Christ, is another
+example, on an unusually large scale--fine in style, and covered with
+beautiful ornament.
+
+No secular building exists in Rome so early or so simple as the severe
+Florentine palaces; but Bramante, who belongs to the early period,
+erected there the fine Cancelleria palace; and the Palazzo Giraud
+(Fig. 66). These buildings resemble one another very closely; each
+bears the impress of refined taste, but delicacy has been carried
+almost to timidity. The pilasters and cornices which are employed have
+the very slightest projection, but the large mass of the wall as
+compared with the openings, secures an appearance of solidity, and
+hence of dignity. The interior of the Cancelleria contains an arcaded
+quadrangle (_cortile_) of great beauty. Smaller palaces belonging to
+the same period and of the same refined, but somewhat weak, character
+exist in Rome.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 65.--MONUMENT, BY SANSOVINO, IN STA. MARIA DEL
+ POPOLO, ROME. (15TH CENTURY.)]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 66.--PALAZZO GIRAUD (NOW TORLONIA), ROME. BY
+ BRAMANTE. (1506.)]
+
+The Vatican Palace is so vast that, like St. Peter's, it took more
+than one generation to complete. To Bramante's time belongs the great
+Belvedere, since much altered, but in its original state an admirable
+work. This palace also can show some remarkable additions by Bernini,
+a much later architect, with much that is not admirable or remarkable
+by other hands. The finest Roman palace is the Farnese, begun by San
+Gallo in 1530, continued by Michelangelo, and completed by Giacomo
+della Porta, each architect having altered the design. This building,
+notwithstanding its chequered history, is a dignified, impressive
+mass. It has only three storeys and a scarcely marked basement, and is
+nearly square, with a large quadrangle in its heart. It is very lofty,
+and has a great height of unpierced wall over each storey of windows,
+and is crowned by a bold and highly-enriched cornice--an unusual thing
+for Rome. In this, and in many palaces built about the same time, the
+windows are ornamented in the same manner as those of the Pandolfini
+Palace at Florence; the use of pilasters instead of columns is
+general; the openings are usually square-headed, circular heads being
+usually confined to arcades and loggie; the angles are marked by
+rustication, and the only cornice is the one that crowns the whole.
+This general character will apply to most of the works of Baldassare
+Peruzzi, Vignola, Sangallo, and Raphael, who were, with Michelangelo,
+the foremost architects in Rome in the sixteenth century. But "the
+works executed by Michelangelo are in a bolder and more pictorial
+style, as are also many productions grafted on the earlier Italian
+manner by a numerous class of succeeding architects. In these is to be
+remarked a greater use of columns, engaged and isolated; stronger but
+less studied details; and a greater use of colonnades, in which
+however the combination with the semicircular arch is still unusual,
+the antique in this respect being followed to a great disadvantage.
+Still there is a nobility, a palatial look about these large mansions
+which is very admirable, and is to be remarked in all the palaces,
+even up to the time of Borromini, _circa_ 1640, by whom all the
+principles and parts of Roman architecture were literally turned
+topsy-turvey. Michelangelo's peculiar style was more thoroughly
+carried out on ecclesiastical buildings, and as practised by his
+successors, exhibits much that is fine, in large masses, boldly
+projecting cornices, three-quarter columns, and noble domes; but it is
+otherwise debased by great misconceptions as to the reasonable
+application of architecture."--M. D. W.
+
+In the seventeenth century a decline set in. The late Renaissance has
+neither the severity of the early, nor the dignified richness of the
+mature time, but is extravagant; though at Rome examples of its
+extreme phase are not common. Maderno, who erected the west front of
+St. Peter's, and Bernini, who added the outer forecourt and also built
+the curiously designed state staircase (the _scala regia_) in the
+Vatican, are the foremost architects. To these must be added
+Borromini. The great Barberini Palace belongs to this century; but
+perhaps its most characteristic works are the fountains, some of them
+with elaborate architectural backgrounds, which ornament many of the
+open places in Rome. Few of the buildings of the eighteenth century in
+Rome, or indeed in Italy generally, claim attention as architectural
+works of a high order of merit.
+
+Before leaving central Italy for the north, it is necessary to mention
+the masterpiece of Vignola--the great Farnese Palace at Caprarola; and
+to add that in every city of importance examples more or less
+admirable of the art of the time were erected.
+
+
+VENICE, VICENZA, AND VERONA.
+
+The next great group of Renaissance buildings is to be found at
+Venice, where the style was adopted with some reluctance, and not
+till far on in the sixteenth century. At first we meet with some
+admixture of Gothic elements; as, for example, in the rebuilding of
+the internal quadrangle of the Ducal Palace. Pointed arches are
+partly employed in this work, which was completed about the middle of
+the sixteenth century. In the earlier palaces--which, it will be
+remembered, are comparatively narrow buildings standing side by side
+on the banks of the canals--the storeys are well marked; the windows
+are round headed with smaller arches within the main ones; the orders
+when introduced are kept subordinate; the windows are grouped
+together in the central portion of the front, as was the case with
+those of the Gothic palaces, and very little use is made of
+rusticated masonry. The Vendramini, Cornaro, and Trevisano Palaces
+conform to this type. To the same period belong one or two fine
+churches, the most famous being San Zacaria, a building with a very
+delicately panelled front, and a semicircular pediment in lieu of a
+gable; here, too, semicircular-headed openings are made use of. In
+many of these churches and other buildings, a beautiful ornament,
+which may be regarded as typical of early Venetian Renaissance, is to
+be found. It is the shell ornament, so called from its resemblance to
+a flat semicircular shell, ribbed from the centre to the
+circumference (Fig. 67).
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 67.--ITALIAN SHELL ORNAMENT.]
+
+As time went on the style was matured into one of great richness, not
+to say ostentation, with which the names of Sansovino, Sanmichele,
+Palladio, and Scamozzi are identified as the prominent architects of
+the latter part of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In this
+city of palaces Sansovino, also a very fine sculptor, built the
+celebrated Library of St. Mark, facing the Ducal Palace, which has
+been followed very closely in the design of the Carlton Club, Pall
+Mall. Here, as in the splendid Cornaro Palace, the architect relied
+chiefly upon the columns and entablatures of the orders, combined with
+grand arcades enriched by sculpture, so arranged as to occupy the
+spaces between the columns; almost the whole of the wall-space was so
+taken up, and the basement only was covered with rustication, often
+rough worked, as at the beautiful Palazzo Pompeii, Verona, and the
+Grimani Palace, Venice.
+
+"Sanmichele's works are characterised chiefly by their excellent
+proportions, their carefully studied detail, their strength, and their
+beauty (qualities so difficult to combine). We believe that the
+buildings of this great architect and engineer at Verona are
+pre-eminent in their peculiar style over those of any other artist of
+the sixteenth century. In a different, but no less meritorious, manner
+are the buildings designed by Sansovino; they are characterised by a
+more sculptural and ornamental character; order over order with large
+arched voids in the interspaces of the columns producing a pictorial
+effect which might have led his less gifted followers into a false
+style, but for the example of the celebrated Palladio."--M. D. W.
+
+To the latest time of the Renaissance in Venice belongs the
+picturesque domed church of St. Maria della Salute, conspicuous in
+many views of the Grand Canal, a building which is a work of real
+genius in spite of what is considered its false taste. It dates from
+1632. The architect is Longhena.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 68.--THE CHURCH OF THE REDENTORE, VENICE.
+ (1576.)]
+
+An almost endless series of palaces and houses can be found in Venice,
+all of them rich, but few of great extent, for every foot of space had
+to be won from the sea by laborious engineering. There are some
+features which never fail to present themselves, and which are
+consequences of the conditions under which the structures were
+designed. All rise from the water, and require to admit of gondolas
+coming under the walls; hence there is always a principal central
+entrance with steps in front, but this entrance never has any sort of
+projecting portico or porch, and is never very much larger than the
+other openings in the front. As a straight frontage to the water had
+to be preserved, we hardly ever meet with such a thing as a break or
+projection of any sort; but the Venetian architects have found other
+means of giving interest to their elevations, and it is to the very
+restrictions imposed by circumstances that we owe the great
+originality displayed in their earlier buildings. The churches do not
+usually front directly on to the water; and though they are almost all
+good of their kind, they are far more commonplace than the palaces.
+The system of giving variety to the facade of the secular buildings by
+massing openings near the centre, has been already referred to. Both
+shadow and richness were also aimed at in the employment of projecting
+balconies; in fact the two usually go together, for the great central
+window or group of windows mostly has a large and rich balcony
+belonging to it.
+
+Not far from Venice is Vicenza, and here Palladio, whose best
+buildings in Venice are churches, such, for example, as the Redentore
+(Fig. 68), enjoyed an opportunity of erecting a whole group of
+palaces, the fronts of which are extremely remarkable as designs;
+though, being executed in brick and plastered, they are now falling to
+ruin. There is much variety in them, and while some of them rely upon
+his device of lofty pilasters to include two storeys of the building
+under one storey of architectural treatment, others are handled
+differently. In all a singularly fine feeling for proportion and for
+the appropriate omission as well as introduction of ornament is to be
+detected. The worst defect of these fronts is, however, that they
+appear more like masks than the exteriors of buildings, for there is
+little obvious connection between the features of the exterior and
+anything which we may suppose to exist inside the building. The
+finest architectural work left behind by Palladio in this city are,
+however, the great arcades with which he surrounded the Basilica, a
+vast building of the middle ages already alluded to. These arcades are
+two storeys high, and are rich, yet vigorous; they ornament the great
+structure, the roof of which may be seen rising behind, without
+overpowering it.
+
+
+MILAN AND PAVIA.
+
+In Milan two buildings at least belong to the early Renaissance. These
+are the sacristy of Sta. Maria presso San Satiro, and the eastern
+portion of the church of Sta. Maria delle Grazie; Bramante was the
+architect of both. The last-named work is an addition to an existing
+Gothic church; it is executed in the terra-cotta and brick of
+Lombardy, materials which the Renaissance architects seemed to shun in
+later times, and is full of the most profuse and elegant ornaments.
+The design consists of a dome, treated externally a little like some
+of the Lombard domes of earlier date; and three apses forming choir
+and transepts. It is divided into several stages, and abundantly
+varied in its panelling and arcading, and is full of vigour. By
+Bramante is also the very beautiful arcaded quadrangle of the great
+hospital at Milan, the Gothic front of which has been already noticed.
+There are many Renaissance buildings of later date in Milan, but none
+very remarkable.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 69.--THE CERTOSA NEAR PAVIA. PART OF THE WEST
+ FRONT. (BEGUN BY BORGOGNONE 1473.)]
+
+To the early period belongs the design of the facade of the Certosa
+near Pavia, part of which is shown (Fig. 69). This was begun as early
+as 1473, by Ambrogio Borgognone, and was long in hand. It proceeded on
+the lines settled thus early, and is probably the richest facade
+belonging to any church in Christendom; it is executed entirely in
+marble. Sculpture is employed to adorn every part that is near the
+eye, and especially the portal, which is flanked by pilasters with
+their faces panelled and occupied by splendid _alti relievi_. The
+upper part is enriched by inlays of costly marbles, but the two
+systems of decoration do not thoroughly harmonise; for the upper half
+looks coarse, which it in reality is not, in contrast with the
+delicate richness of the carving near the eye. The great features,
+such as the entrance, the windows, and the angle pinnacles are
+thoroughly good, and an arcade of small arches is twice
+introduced,--once running completely across the front at about half
+its height, and again near the top of the central portion,--with
+excellent effect (see Frontispiece).
+
+
+GENOA, TURIN, AND NAPLES.
+
+Turning now to Genoa we find, as we may in several great cities of
+Italy, that very great success has been achieved by an artist whose
+works are to be seen in no other city, and whose fame is
+proportionally restricted. Just as the power of Luini as a painter can
+only be fully understood at Milan, or that of Giulio Romano at Mantua,
+so the genius of Alessio (1500 to 1572) as an architect can only be
+understood at Genoa. From the designs of this architect were built a
+series of well planned and imposing palaces. These buildings have most
+of them the advantage of fine and roomy sites. The fronts are varied,
+but as a rule consist of a very bold basement, with admirably-treated
+vigorous mouldings, supporting a lighter superstructure, and in one or
+two instances flanked by an open arcade at the wings. The entrance
+gives access, through a vaulted hall, to the cortile, which is usually
+planned and designed in the most effective manner; and in several
+instances the state staircase is so combined with this feature that on
+ascending the first flight the visitor comes to a point of sight for
+which the whole may be said to have been designed, and from which a
+splendid composition of columns and arches is seen. The rooms and
+galleries in these palaces are very fine, and in several instances
+have been beautifully decorated in fresco by Perino del Vaga.
+
+Alessio was also the architect of a large domical church (il
+Carignano) in the same city; but it is far inferior in merit to his
+series of palaces. Genoa also possesses a famous church (the
+Annunziata) of late Renaissance, attributed to Puget (1622-1694). It
+is vaulted, and enriched with marbles, mosaics, and colour to such an
+extent that it may fairly claim to be the most gaudy church in Italy,
+which is unfortunate, as its original undecorated design is fine and
+simple.
+
+Turin in the north, and Naples in the south, are chiefly remarkable
+for examples of the latest and more or less debased Renaissance, and
+we therefore do not propose to illustrate or describe any of the
+buildings in either city.
+
+
+COUNTRY VILLAS.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 70.--VILLA MEDICI--ON THE PINCIAN HILL NEAR
+ ROME. BY ANNIBALE LIPPI (NOW THE _Academie Francaise_).
+ (A.D. 1540.)]
+
+As the ancient Roman patrician had his villa, which was his country
+resort, the Italian of the revival followed his example, and, if he
+was wealthy enough, built himself a pleasure house, which he called a
+villa, either in the immediate suburbs of his city, or at some little
+distance away in the country. These buildings occur throughout
+Italy. Many of them are excellent examples of Renaissance
+architecture of a more modest type than that of the palaces. The Villa
+Papa Giulio, built from the designs of Vignola, and the Villa Medici,
+designed by Annibale Lippi, but attributed, for some unknown reason,
+to Michelangelo, may be mentioned as among the most thoroughly
+architectural out of some twenty or more splendid villas in the
+suburbs of Rome alone. Many of these buildings were erected late in
+the Renaissance period, and are better worth attention for their fine
+decorations and the many works of art collected within their walls
+than as architectural studies--but this is not always the case; and as
+they were mostly designed to serve the purpose of elegant museums
+rather than that of country houses as we understand the term, they
+usually possess noble interiors, and exhibit throughout elaborate
+finish, choice materials, and lavish outlay.
+
+ [Illustration: {EARLY RENAISSANCE CORBEL. FROM A DOOR IN SANTA MARIA,
+ VENICE.}]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[31] An entablature is the superstructure which ordinarily is carried
+by a column, and which it is usual to divide into architrave (or
+beam), frieze, and cornice.
+
+[32] An order consists of a column (or pilaster) with its distinctive
+base and capital, its entablature, and the appropriate decorations.
+There are five orders, differing in proportions, in the degree of
+enrichment required, and in the design of the base and capital of the
+column or pilaster, and of the entablature.
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {ORNAMENT BY GIULIO ROMANO.}]
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE AND NORTH EUROPE.
+
+
+CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
+
+The revived classic architecture came direct from Italy, and did not
+reach France till it had been well established in the land of its
+origin. It was not however received with the same welcome which hailed
+its appearance in Italy. Gothic architecture had a strong hold on
+France, and accordingly, instead of a sudden change, we meet with a
+period of transition, during which buildings were erected with
+features partly Gothic and partly Renaissance, and on varied
+principles of design.
+
+French Renaissance underwent great fluctuations, and it is less easy
+to divide it into broad periods than to refer, as most French writers
+prefer to do, to the work of each prominent monarch's reign
+separately.
+
+Francis the First (1515-1547) made the architecture of Italy
+fashionable in his kingdom, and his name is borne by the beautiful
+transitional style of his day. This in most cases retains some Gothic
+forms, and the principles of composition are in the main Gothic, but
+the features are mostly of Italian origin, though handled with a
+fineness of detail and a smallness of scale that is not often met
+with, even in early Italian Renaissance. There are few buildings more
+charming in the architecture of any age or country than the best
+specimens of the style of Francis the First, and none that can bear so
+much decoration and yet remain so little overladen by the ornaments
+they carry. The finest example is the Chateau of Chambord, a large
+building, nearly square on plan, with round corner towers, capped by
+simple and very steep roofs, at the angles; and having as its central
+feature, a large and lofty mass of towers, windows and arcades,
+surmounted by steep roofs, ending in a kind of huge lantern. The
+windows have mullions and transoms like Gothic windows, but pilasters
+of elegant Renaissance design ornament the walls. The main cornice is
+a kind of compromise between an Italian and a Gothic treatment. Dormer
+windows, high and sharply pointed, but with little pilasters and
+pediments as their ornaments, occur constantly; and the chimneys,
+which are of immense mass and great height, are panelled profusely,
+and almost ostentatiously displayed, especially on the central
+portion. In the interior of the central building is a famous
+staircase; but the main attractions are the bright and animated
+appearance of the whole exterior, and the richness and gracefulness of
+the details.
+
+The same architecture is to be well seen in the north side of the
+famous Chateau of Blois--a building parts of which were executed in
+three different periods of French architecture. The exterior of the
+_Francois premier_ part of Blois is irregular, and portions of the
+design are wildly picturesque; on the side which fronts towards the
+quadrangle, the architecture is more symmetrically designed, and
+beauty rather than picturesque effect has been aimed at. An open
+staircase is the part of the quadrangle upon which most care has been
+lavished. Throughout the whole block of buildings the character of
+each individual feature and of every combination of features is
+graceful and _piquant_. The elegance and delicacy of some of the
+carved decoration in the interior is unsurpassed.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 71.--WINDOW FROM A HOUSE AT ORLEANS. (EARLY
+ 16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+In the valley of the Loire there exist many noblemen's chateaux of
+this date, corresponding in general character with Chambord and Blois,
+though on a smaller scale. Of these Chenonceaux, fortunate alike in
+its design and its situation, is the most elegant and the best known:
+yet many others exist which approach it closely, such, for example, as
+the Chateau de Gaillon--a fragment of which forms part of the Ecole
+des Beaux Arts at Paris--the Hotel de Ville of Beaugency, the Chateaux
+of Chateaudun, Azay-le-Rideau, La Cote, and Usse; the Hotel d'Anjou at
+Angers, and the house of Agnes Sorel at Orleans.
+
+In the streets of Orleans houses of this date (Fig. 71) are to be
+found, showing the style cleverly adapted to the requirements of town
+dwellings and shops. Several of them also possess courtyards with
+arcades or other architectural features treated with great freedom and
+beauty, for instance, the arcades in the house of _Francois Premier_
+(Fig. 72). An arcade in the courtyard of the Gothic Hotel de
+Bourgtherould at Rouen, is one of the best known examples of the style
+remaining, and instances of it may be met with as far apart as at Caen
+(east end of church of St. Pierre) and Toulouse (parts of St. Sernin).
+
+One Paris church, that of St. Eustache, belonging to this transitional
+period claims mention, since for boldness and completeness it is one
+of the best of any date in that city. St. Eustache is a five-aisled
+church with an apse, transept, and lateral chapels outside the outer
+aisle. It is vaulted throughout, and its plan and structure are those
+of a Gothic church in all respects. Its details are however all
+Renaissance, but not so good as those to be found at Blois, nor so
+appropriately used, yet notwithstanding this it has a singularly
+impressive interior.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 72.--CAPITAL FROM THE HOUSE OF FRANCIS I.,
+ ORLEANS. (1540.)]
+
+Meantime, and alongside the buildings resulting from this fusion of
+styles, others which were almost direct importations from Italy were
+rising; in some cases, if not in all, under the direction of Italian
+architects. Thus on Fontainebleau, which Francis I. erected, three or
+four Italian architects, one of whom was Vignola, were engaged. It may
+or may not have been this connection of the great architect with this
+work which gave him influence in France, but certainly almost the
+whole of the later French Renaissance, or at any rate its good time,
+was marked by a conformity to the practice of Vignola, in whose
+designs we usually find one order of columns or pilasters for each
+storey, rather than to that of Palladio, whose use of tall columns
+equalling in height two or more floors of the building has been
+already noticed.
+
+Designs for the Louvre, the rebuilding of which was commenced in the
+reign of Francis the First (about A.D. 1544), were made by Serlio, an
+Italian; and though Pierre Lescot was the architect of the portion
+built in that reign, it is probable that the design obtained from
+Serlio was in the main followed. The part then finished, which, to a
+certain extent gave the keynote to the whole of this vast building,
+was unquestionably a happy effort, and may be taken to mark the
+establishment of a French version of matured Renaissance architecture.
+The main building has two orders of pilasters with cornices, &c., and
+above them a low attic storey, with short piers: at the angles a
+taller pavilion was introduced, and next the quadrangle arcades are
+introduced between the pilasters. The sculpture, some of it at least,
+is from the chisel of Jean Goujon; it is good and well placed, and the
+whole has an air of dignity and richness. The _Pavillon Richelieu_,
+shewn in our engraving (Fig. 73), was not built till the next century.
+The colossal figures are by Barye.
+
+A little later in date than the early part of the Louvre was the Hotel
+de Ville, built from the designs of Pietro da Cortona, an Italian, and
+said to have been begun in 1549. The building had been greatly
+extended before its recent total destruction by fire, but the central
+part, which was the original portion, was a fine vigorous composition,
+having two lofty pavilions, with high roofs at the extremities, and
+a remarkably rich stone lantern of great height for a central feature.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 73.--PAVILLON RICHELIEU OF THE LOUVRE, PARIS.]
+
+In the reign of Charles IX. the Palace of the Tuileries was commenced
+(1564) for Catherine de Medicis, from the designs of Philibert
+Delorme. Of this building, that part only which fronted the garden was
+erected at the time. Our illustration (Fig. 74) shows the
+architectural character of a portion of it, and it is easy to detect
+that considerable alterations have by this time been introduced into
+the treatment of the features of Renaissance architecture. The bands
+of rustication passing round the pilasters as well as the walls, the
+broken pediments on the upper storey, surmounted by figures, and
+supported by long carved pilasters, and the shape of the dormer
+windows are all of them quite foreign to Renaissance architecture as
+practised in Italy, and may be looked upon as essentially French
+features. Similar details were employed in the work executed at about
+the same period, by the same and other architects, in other buildings,
+as may be seen by our illustration (Fig. 75) of a portion of Delorme's
+work at the Louvre. In these features, which may be found in the
+Chateau d'Anet and other works of the same time, and in the style to
+which they belong, may be seen the direct result of Michelangelo's
+Medici Chapel at Florence, a work which had much more effect on French
+than on Italian architecture. The full development of the architecture
+of Michelangelo (or rather the ornamental portions of it) is to be
+found in French Renaissance, rather than in the works of his own
+successors in Italy.
+
+Much of the late sixteenth century architecture of France was very
+inferior, and the parts of the Louvre and Tuileries which date from
+the reign of Henry IV. are the least satisfactory portions of those
+vast piles.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 74.--PART OF THE TUILERIES, PARIS. (BEGUN 1564.)]
+
+Dating from the early part of the seventeenth century, we have the
+Palais Royal built for Richelieu, and the Palace of the Luxembourg, a
+building perhaps more correct and quiet than original or beautiful,
+but against which the reproach of extravagant ornament cannot
+certainly be brought.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 75.--CAPITAL FROM DELORME'S WORK AT THE LOUVRE.
+ (MIDDLE OF 16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+With Louis the Fourteenth (1643 to 1715) came in a great building
+period, of which the most striking memorial is the vast and
+uninteresting Palace of Versailles. The architect was the younger
+Mansard (1647 to 1768), and the vastness of the scale upon which he
+worked only makes his failure to rise to his grand opportunity the
+more conspicuous. The absence of features to diversify the sky-line is
+one of the greatest defects of this building, a defect the less
+excusable as the high-pitched roof of Gothic origin had never been
+abandoned in France. This roof has been employed with great success in
+many buildings of the French Renaissance. Apart from this fault, the
+architectural features of Versailles are so monotonous, weak, and
+uninteresting that the building, though its size may astonish the
+spectator, seldom rouses admiration.
+
+Far better is the eastern block of the Louvre (the portion facing the
+Place du Louvre), though here also we find the absence of high roofs,
+and the consequent monotony of the sky-line--a defect attaching to
+hardly any other portion of the building. Bernini was invited from
+Italy for this work, and there is a curious story in one of Sir
+Christopher Wren's published letters of an interview he had with
+Bernini while the latter was in Paris on this business, and of the
+glimpse which he was allowed to enjoy of the design the Italian had
+made. The building was, however, after all, designed and carried out
+by Perrault, and, though somewhat severe, possesses great beauty and
+much of that dignity in which Versailles is wanting.
+
+The best French work of this epoch to be found in or out of Paris is
+probably the Hotel des Invalides (Fig. 76), with its fine central
+feature. This is crowned by the most striking dome in Paris, one which
+takes rank as second only in Europe to our own St. Paul's, for beauty
+of form and appropriateness of treatment. The two domes are indeed
+somewhat alike in general outline.
+
+The reign of Louis XIV. witnessed a large amount of building
+throughout France, as well as in the metropolis, and to the same
+period we must refer an enormous amount of lavish decoration in the
+interior of buildings, the taste of which is to our eyes painfully
+extravagant. Purer taste on the whole prevailed, if not in the reign
+of Louis XV. certainly in that of Louis XVI., to which period much
+really good decorative work, and some successful architecture belongs.
+The chief building of the latter part of the eighteenth century is the
+Pantheon (Ste. Genevieve), the best domed church in France, and one
+which must always take a high rank among Renaissance buildings of any
+age or country. The architect was Soufflot, and his ambition, like
+that of the old Gothic masons, was not only to produce a work of art,
+but a feat of skill; his design accordingly provided a smaller area of
+walls and piers compared with the total floor space than any other
+Renaissance church, or indeed than any great church, except a few of
+the very best specimens of late Gothic construction, such for example
+as King's College Chapel. The result has been that the fabric has not
+been quite stout enough to bear the weight of the dome, and that it
+has required to be tied and propped and strengthened in various ways
+from time to time. The plan of the Pantheon is a Greek cross, with a
+short vestibule, and a noble portico at the west, and a choir
+corresponding to the vestibule on the east. It has a fine central
+dome, which is excellently seen from many points of view externally,
+and forms the principal feature of the very effective interior. Each
+arm of the building is covered by a flat domical vault; a single order
+of pilasters and columns runs quite round the interior of the church
+occupying the entire height of the walls; and the light is admitted in
+a most successful manner by large semicircular windows at the upper
+part of the church, starting above the cornice of the order.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 76.--L'EGLISE DES INVALIDES, PARIS. BY J. H.
+ MANSARD. (BEGUN A.D. 1645.)]
+
+One other work of the eighteenth century challenges the admiration
+of every visitor to Paris and must not be overlooked, because it is at
+once a specimen of architecture and of that skilful if formal
+arrangement of streets and public places in combination with buildings
+which the French have carried so far in the present century. We allude
+to the two blocks of buildings, occupied as government offices, which
+front to the Place de la Concorde and stand at the corner of the Rue
+Royale. They are the work of Gabriel (1710-1782), and are justly
+admired as dignified if a little heavy and uninteresting. As specimens
+of architecture these buildings, with the Pantheon, are enough to
+establish a high character for French art at a time when in most other
+European countries the standard of taste had fallen to a very low
+level.
+
+The hotels (_i.e._ town mansions) and chateaux of the French nobility
+furnish a series of examples, showing the successive styles of almost
+every part of the Renaissance period. The phases of the style,
+subsequent to that of Francis the First, can however, be so well
+illustrated by public buildings in Paris, that it will be hardly
+necessary to go through a list of private residences however
+commanding; but the Chateau of Maisons, and the Royal Chateau of
+Fontainebleau, may be named as specimens of a class of building which
+shows the capacity of the Renaissance style when freely treated.
+
+Renaissance buildings in France are distinguished by their large
+extent and the ample space which has been in many instances secured in
+connection with them. They are rarely of great height or imposing mass
+like the early Italian palaces. For the most part they are a good deal
+broken up, the surface of the walls is much covered by architectural
+features, not usually on a large scale, so that the impression of
+extent which really belongs to them is intensified by the treatment
+which their architects have adopted.
+
+Orders are frequently introduced and usually correspond with the
+storeys of the building. However this may be the storeys are always
+well marked. The sky-line also is generally picturesque and telling,
+though Versailles and the work of Lescot at the Louvre form an
+exception. Rustication is not much employed, and the vast but simple
+crowning cornices of the Italian palaces are never made use of. Narrow
+fronts like those at Venice, and open arcades or loggias like those of
+Genoa, do not form features of French Renaissance buildings; but on
+the other hand, much richness, and many varieties of treatment which
+the Italians never attempted, were tried, and as a rule successfully,
+in France.
+
+Much good sculpture is employed in external enrichments, and a
+cultivated if often luxuriant taste is always shown. Many of the
+interiors are rich with carving, gilding, and mirrors, but harmonious
+coloured decoration is rare, and the fine and costly mosaics of Italy
+are almost unknown.
+
+
+BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+These countries afford but few examples of Renaissance. The Town Hall
+at Antwerp, an interesting building of the sixteenth century, and the
+Church of St. Anne at Bruges, are the most conspicuous buildings; and
+there are other churches in the style which are characteristic, and
+parts of which are really fine. The interiors of some of the town
+halls display fittings of Renaissance character, often rich and
+fanciful in the extreme, and bearing a general resemblance to French
+work of the same period.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 77.--WINDOW FROM COLMAR. (1575.)]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 78.--ZEUGHAUS, DANTZIC. (1605.)]
+
+
+GERMANY AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+Buildings of pure Renaissance architecture, anterior to the nineteenth
+century, are scarce in Germany, or indeed in North-east Europe; but a
+transitional style, resembling our own Elizabethan, grew up and long
+held its ground, so that many picturesque buildings can be met with,
+of which the design indicates a fusion of the ideas and features of
+Gothic with those of classic art. This architectural style took so
+strong a hold that examples of it may be found throughout the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in almost every northern town.
+
+That part of the Castle of Heidelberg, which was built at the
+beginning of the seventeenth century, may be cited as belonging to
+this German transitional style. The front in this case is regularly
+divided by pilasters of the classic orders, but very irregular in
+their proportions and position. The windows are strongly marked, and
+with carved mullions. Large dormer windows break into the high roof;
+ornaments abound, and the whole presents a curiously blended mixture
+of the regular and the picturesque. Rather earlier in date, and
+perhaps rather more Gothic in their general treatment, are such
+buildings as the great Council Hall at Rothenberg (1572), that at
+Leipzig (1556), the Castle of Stuttgart (1553), with its picturesque
+arcaded quadrangle, or the lofty and elaborate Cloth Hall at
+Brunswick.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 79.--COUNCIL-HOUSE AT LEYDEN. (1599.)]
+
+Examples of similar character abound in the old inns of Germany and
+Switzerland, and many charming features, such as the window from
+Colmar (Fig. 77), dated 1575, which forms one of our illustrations
+could be brought forward. Another development of the same mixed style
+may be illustrated by the Zeug House at Dantzic (1605), of which we
+give the rear elevation (Fig. 78). Not altogether dissimilar from
+these in character is the finely-designed Castle of Fredericksberg at
+Copenhagen, testifying to the wide spread of the phase of architecture
+to which we are calling attention. The date of this building is 1610.
+A richer example, but one little if at all nearer to Italian feeling,
+is the Council House at Leyden, a portion of which we illustrate (Fig.
+79). This building dates from 1599, and bears more resemblance to
+English Elizabethan in its ornaments, than to the architecture of any
+other country.
+
+Simultaneously with these, some buildings made their appearance in
+Germany, which, though still picturesque, showed the dawn of a wish to
+adopt the features of pure Renaissance. The quadrangle of the Castle
+of Schalaburg (Fig. 80), may be taken as a specimen of the adoption of
+Renaissance ideas as well as forms. It is in effect an Italian
+cortile, though more ornate than Italian architects would have made
+it. It was built in the latter part of the sixteenth century, and
+seems to point to a wish to make use of the new style with but little
+admixture of northern ornament or treatment.
+
+When architecture had quite passed through the transition period,
+which fortunately lasted long, the buildings, not only of Germany, but
+of the north generally, became uninteresting and tame; in fact, they
+present so few distinguishing features, that it is not necessary to
+describe or illustrate them. Russia, it is true, contains a few
+striking buildings belonging to the eighteenth century, but most of
+those which we might desire to refer to, were built subsequent to the
+close of that century.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 80.--QUADRANGLE OF THE CASTLE OF SCHALABURG.
+ (LATE 16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE PATTERN.}]
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL.
+
+
+ENGLAND.--CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
+
+In England, as in France and Germany, the introduction of the Italian
+Renaissance was not accomplished without a period of transition. The
+architecture of this period is known as Elizabethan, though it lasted
+long after Elizabeth's reign. Sometimes it is called Tudor; but it is
+more convenient and not unusual to limit the term Tudor to the latest
+phase of English Gothic.
+
+Probably the earliest introduction into any English building of a
+feature derived from the newly-revived classic sources is in the tomb
+of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey. The grille inclosing this is of
+good, though late Gothic design; but when the tomb itself came to be
+set up, for which a contract was made with Torregiano in 1512, it was
+Italian in its details. The earliest examples of Renaissance features
+actually built into a structure, so far as we are aware, is in the
+terra-cotta ornamentation of Layer Marney House in Essex, which it is
+certain was erected prior to 1525. It is however long--surprisingly
+long--after this period before we come upon the traces of a general
+use of Renaissance details. In fact, up to the accession of Elizabeth
+(1558) they appear to have been little employed. It is however said
+that early in her reign the treatises on Renaissance architecture of
+Philibert de l'Orme and Lomazzo were translated from Italian into
+English, and in 1563 John Shute published a book on Italian
+architecture.
+
+John of Padua, an Italian architect, was brought to this country by
+Henry VIII. and practised here; and Theodore Havenius of Cleves was
+employed as architect in the buildings of Caius College, Cambridge
+(1565-1574). These two foreigners undoubtedly played an important part
+in a change of taste which, though not general so early, certainly did
+commence before Elizabeth's death in 1603.
+
+At the two universities, and in many localities throughout England,
+new buildings and enlargements of old ones were carried out during the
+long and prosperous reign of Elizabeth; and the style in which they
+were built will be found to have admitted of very great latitude.
+Where the intention was to obtain an effect of dignity or state, the
+classic principles of composition were more or less followed. The
+buildings at Caius College, Cambridge, Longleat, built between 1567
+and 1579 by John of Padua, Woollaton, built about 1580 by Smithson,
+and Burleigh (built 1577), may be named as instances of this. On the
+other hand where a manorial or only a domestic character was desired,
+the main lines of the building are Gothic, but the details, in either
+case, are partly Gothic and partly modified Renaissance. This
+description will apply to such buildings as Knowle, Penshurst,
+Hardwick, Hatfield, Bramshill, or Holland House (Fig. 81). In the
+introductory chapter some account has been given, in general terms, of
+the features familiar to most and endeared to many, which mark these
+peculiarly English piles of buildings; those remarks may be
+appropriately continued here.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 81.--HOLLAND HOUSE AT KENSINGTON. (1607.)]
+
+The hall of Gothic houses was still retained, but only as one of a
+series of fine apartments. In many cases English mansions had no
+internal quadrangle, and are built as large solid blocks with boldly
+projecting wings. They are often of three storeys in height, the roofs
+are frequently of flat pitch, and in that case are hidden behind a
+parapet which is sometimes of fantastic design. Where the roofs are
+steeper and not concealed the gables are frequently of broken outline.
+Windows are usually very large, and with mullions and transoms, and it
+is to these large openings that Elizabethan interiors owe their bright
+and picturesque effects. Entrances are generally adorned with some
+classic or semi-classic features, often, however, much altered from
+their original model; here balustrades, ornamental recesses, stone
+staircases, and similar formal surroundings are commonly found, and
+are generally arranged with excellent judgment, though often quaint in
+design.
+
+"This style is characterised by a somewhat grotesque application of
+the ancient orders and ornaments, by large and picturesquely-formed
+masses, spacious staircases, broad terraces, galleries of great length
+(at times 100 feet long), orders placed on orders, pyramidal gables
+formed of scroll-work often pierced, large windows divided by mullions
+and transoms, bay windows, pierced parapets, angle turrets, and a love
+of arcades. The principal features in the ornament are pierced
+scroll-work, strap-work, and prismatic rustication, combined with
+boldly-carved foliage (usually conventional) and roughly-formed
+figures."--M. D. W.
+
+Interiors are bright and with ample space; very richly ornamented
+plaster ceilings are common; the walls of main rooms are often lined
+with wainscot panelling, and noble oak staircases are frequent.
+
+In the reign of James I., our first Renaissance architect of mark,
+Inigo Jones (1572-1652) became known. He was a man of taste and
+genius, and had studied in Italy. He executed many works, the designs
+for which were more or less in the style of Palladio. These include
+the addition of a portico to the (then Gothic) cathedral of St.
+Paul's, and a magnificent design for a palace which Charles I. desired
+to build at Whitehall. A fragment of this building, now known as the
+Chapel Royal Whitehall, was erected, and small though it be, has done
+much by its conspicuous position and great beauty, to keep up a
+respect for Inigo Jones's undoubted high attainments as an artist.
+
+More fortunate than Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren (1632-1723) had just
+attained a high position as a young man of science, skill, and
+cultivation, and as the architect of the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford,
+when in 1666 the great fire of London destroyed the Metropolitan
+Cathedral, the parochial churches, the Royal Exchange, the Companies'
+Halls, and an immense mass of private property in London, and created
+an opportunity which made great demands upon the energy, skill, and
+fertility of design of the architect who might attempt to grasp it.
+Fortunately, Wren was equal to the occasion, and he has endowed London
+with a Cathedral which takes rank among the very foremost Renaissance
+buildings in Europe, as well as a magnificent series of parochial
+churches, and other public buildings. It is not pretended that his
+works are free from defects, but there can be no question that
+admitting anything which can be truly said against them, they are
+works of artistic genius, full of fresh and original design, and
+exhibiting rare sagacity in their practical contrivance and
+construction.
+
+St. Paul's stands second only to St. Peter's as a great domical
+cathedral of Renaissance architecture. It falls far short of its great
+rival in actual size and internal effect, and is all but entirely
+devoid of that decoration in which St. Peter's is so rich. On the
+other hand, the exterior of St. Paul's (Fig. 82) is far finer, and as
+the English cathedral had the good fortune to be erected entirely from
+the plans and under the supervision of one architect, it is a building
+consistent with itself throughout, which, as we have seen, is more
+than can be said of St. Peter's.
+
+The plan of St. Paul's is a Latin cross, with well marked transepts, a
+large portico, and two towers at the western entrance; an apse of
+small size forms the end of the eastern arm, and of each of the
+transepts; a great dome covers the crossing; the cathedral has a crypt
+raising the main floor considerably, and its side walls are carried
+high above the aisle roofs so as to hide the clerestory windows from
+sight.
+
+The dome is very cleverly planted on eight piers instead of four at
+the crossing, and is a triple structure; for between the dome seen
+from within, and the much higher dome seen from without, a strong cone
+of brickwork rises which bears the weight of the stone lantern and
+ball and cross that surmount the whole. The skill with which the dome
+is made the central feature of a pyramidal composition whatever be the
+point of view, the great beauty of the circular colonnade immediately
+below the dome, the elegant outline of the western towers, and the
+unusual but successful distribution of the great portico, are among
+the most noteworthy elements which go to make up the charm of this
+very successful exterior.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 82.--ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, LONDON. (1675-1710.)]
+
+Wren may be said to have introduced to Renaissance architecture the
+tower and spire, for though many examples occur in Spain, there is
+reason to suppose that he was before the architects of that country in
+his employment of that feature. He has enriched the City of London
+with a large number of steeples, which are Gothic so far as their
+general idea goes, but thoroughly classic in details, and all more or
+less distinctive. The most famous of these is the one belonging to Bow
+Church; others of note belong to St. Clement Danes and St. Bride,
+Fleet Street.
+
+The interiors of some of these churches, as for example St. Stephen,
+Walbrook, St. Andrew, Holborn, and St. James, Piccadilly, are
+excellent both for their good design and artistic treatment, and for
+their being well contrived and arranged for the special purposes they
+were intended to fill.
+
+Wren's secular works were considerable. The Sheldonian Theatre at
+Oxford, the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, and the theatre of
+the College of Physicians London (long since disused), are a group of
+special buildings each of which was undoubtedly a remarkable and
+successful work. Chelsea and Greenwich hospitals are noteworthy as
+among the first specimens of those great buildings for public purposes
+in which England is now so rich, and which to a certain extent replace
+the monastic establishments of the middle ages. At Chelsea the
+building is simple and dignified. Without lavish outlay, or the use of
+expensive materials, much ornament, or any extraneous features, an
+artistic and telling effect has been produced, such as few hospitals
+or asylums since built have equalled. Greenwich takes a higher level,
+and though Wren's work had the disadvantage of having to be
+accommodated to buildings already erected by another architect, this
+building, with its twin domes, its rich outline, and its noble and
+dignified masses, will always reflect honour upon its designer. The
+view of Greenwich hospital from the river may fairly be said to be
+unique for beauty and picturesqueness. At Greenwich, too, we meet with
+some of that skill in associating buildings and open spaces together
+which is so much more common in France than in this country, and by
+the exercise of which the architecture of a good building can be in so
+many ways set off.
+
+Wren, like Inigo Jones, has left behind him a great unexecuted design
+which in many respects is more noble than anything that he actually
+built. This is his earlier design for St. Paul's Cathedral, which he
+planned as a Greek cross, with an ampler dome than the present
+cathedral possesses, but not so lofty. A large model of this design
+exists. Had it been carried out the exterior of the building would
+probably not have appeared so commanding, perhaps not so graceful, as
+it actually is; but the interior would have surpassed all the churches
+of the style in Europe, both by the grandeur of the vast arched space
+under the dome and by the intricacy and beauty of the various vistas
+and combinations of features, for which its admirably-designed plan
+makes provision.
+
+Wren had retired from practice before his death in 1723. His immediate
+successors were Hawksmoor, whose works were heavy and uninteresting,
+and Sir James Vanbrugh. Vanbrugh was a man of genius and has a style
+of his own, "bold, original, and pictorial." His greatest and best
+work is Blenheim, in Oxfordshire, built for the Duke of Marlborough.
+This fine mansion, equal to any French chateau in extent and
+magnificence, is planned with much dignity. The entrance front looks
+towards a large space, inclosed right and left by low buildings,
+which prolong the wings of the main block. The angles of the wings and
+the centre are masked by two colonnades of quadrant shape, and the
+central entrance with lofty columns which form a grand portico, is a
+noble composition.
+
+The three garden fronts of Blenheim are all fine, and there is a
+magnificent entrance hall, but the most successful part of the
+interior is the library, a long and lofty gallery, occupying the
+entire flank of the house and treated with the most picturesque
+variety both of plan and ornament.
+
+Vanbrugh also built Castle Howard, Grimesthorpe, Wentworth, King's
+Weston, as well as many other country mansions of more moderate size.
+
+Campbell, Kent, and Gibbs are the best known names next in succession.
+Of these Campbell is most famous as an author, but Gibbs (1674-1754)
+is the architect of two prominent London churches--St. Martin's and
+St. Mary le Strand, in which the general traditions of Wren's manner
+are ably followed. He was the architect of the Radcliffe Library at
+Oxford. Kent (1684-1748) was the architect of Holkham, the Treasury
+Buildings, and the Horse Guards. He was associated with the Earl of
+Burlington, who acquired a high reputation as an amateur architect,
+which the design of Burlington House (now remodelled for the Royal
+Academy), went far to justify. Probably the technical part of this and
+other designs was supplied by Kent.
+
+Sir William Chambers (1726-1796) was the architect of Somerset House,
+a building of no small merit, notwithstanding that it is tame and very
+bare of sculpture. This building is remarkable as one of the few in
+London in which the Italian feature of an interior quadrangle is
+attempted to be reproduced. Chambers wrote a treatise which has
+become a general text-book of revived classical architecture for
+English students. Contemporary with him were the brothers John and
+Robert Adam, who built much, and began to introduce a severity of
+treatment and a fineness of detail which correspond to some extent to
+the French style of Louis XVI. The interior decorations in plaster by
+these architects are of great elegance and often found in old houses
+in London, as in Hanover Square, on the Adelphi Terrace, and
+elsewhere. The list of the eighteenth century architects closes with
+the names of Sir Robert Taylor and the two Dances, one of whom built
+the Mansion House and the other Newgate; and Stuart, who built several
+country mansions, but who is best known for the magnificent work on
+the antiquities of Athens, which he and Revett published together in
+1762, and which went far to create a revolution in public taste; for
+before the close of the century there was a general cry for making
+every building and every ornamental detail purely and solely Greek.
+
+The architects above named, and others of less note were much employed
+during the eighteenth century in the erection of large country houses
+of Italian, usually Palladian design, many of them extremely
+incongruous and unsatisfactory. Here and there a design better than
+the average was obtained, but as a rule these stately but cold
+buildings are very far inferior to the picturesque and home-like
+manors and mansions built during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 83.--HOUSES AT CHESTER. (16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+It is worth notice that the picturesque element, inherited from the
+Gothic architecture of the middle ages, which before the eighteenth
+century had completely vanished from our public buildings, and the
+mansions of the wealthy did not entirely die out of works executed in
+remote places. In the half-timbered manors and farmhouses which
+abound in Lancashire, Cheshire, Shropshire, and Staffordshire, and in
+other minor works, we always find a tinge, sometimes a very full
+colouring, of the picturesque and the irregular; the gables are sharp,
+upper storeys overhang, and the treatment of the timbers is
+thoroughly Gothic (Fig. 83); so are the mouldings, transoms and
+mullions to the windows, and barge boards to the roofs. In the reign
+of James I. a mode of enriching the exteriors of dwelling-houses, as
+well as their ceilings, chimney-pieces, &c., with ornaments modelled
+in plaster came in, and though the remaining specimens are from year
+to year disappearing, yet in some old towns (_e.g._ in Ipswich)
+examples of this sort of treatment (known as Jacobean) still linger.
+
+In Queen Anne's reign a semi-Gothic version of Renaissance
+architecture was practised, to which great attention has been directed
+in the present day. The Queen Anne style is usually carried out in
+brickwork, executed in red bricks and often most admirable in its
+workmanship. Pilasters, cornices, and panels are executed in cut
+bricks, and for arches, niches, and window heads very finely jointed
+bricks are employed. The details are usually Renaissance, but of
+debased character; a crowning cornice of considerable projection under
+a high-pitched hipped roof (_i.e._ one sloping back every way like a
+truncated pyramid) is commonly employed; so also are gables of broken
+outline. Dormer windows rich and picturesque, and high brick chimneys
+are also employed; so are bow windows, often carried on concave
+corbels of a clumsy form. Prominence is given in this style to the
+joiner's work; the windows, which are usually sash windows, are
+heavily moulded and divided into small squares by wooded sash bars.
+The doors have heavily moulded panels, and are often surmounted by
+pediments carried by carved brackets or by pilasters; in the interiors
+the woodwork of staircases such as the balusters, newel posts, and
+handrails is treated in a very effective and well considered way, the
+greater part of the work being turned on the lathe and enriched with
+mouldings extremely well designed for execution in that manner. By
+this style and the modifications of it which were more or less
+practised till they finally died out, the traditional picturesqueness
+of English architecture which it had inherited from the middle ages
+was kept alive, so that it has been handed down, in certain localities
+almost, if not quite, to the present century.
+
+
+SCOTLAND.
+
+The architecture of Scotland during the sixteenth and succeeding
+centuries possesses exceptional interest. It was the case here, as it
+had been in England, that the most important buildings of the time
+were domestic; the erection of churches and monasteries had ceased.
+
+The castles and semi-fortified houses of Scotland form a group apart,
+possessing strongly-marked and well-defined character; they are
+designed in a mixed style in which the Gothic elements predominated
+over the classic ones. But the Scottish domestic Gothic, from which
+the new style was partly derived, had borne little or no resemblance
+to the florid Tudor of England. It was the severe and simple
+architecture of strongholds built with stubborn materials, and on
+rocky sites, where there was little inducement to indulge in
+decoration. Dunstaffnage or Kilchurn Castles may be referred to as
+examples of these plain, gloomy keeps with their stepped gables, small
+loops for windows, and sometimes angle turrets.
+
+The classic elements of the style were not drawn (as had been the case
+in England) direct from Italy, but came from France. The Scotch,
+during their long struggles with the English, became intimately allied
+with the French, and it is therefore not surprising that Scottish
+Baronial architecture should resemble the early Renaissance of French
+chateaux very closely. The hardness of the stone in which the Scotch
+masons wrought forbade their attempting the extremely delicate detail
+of the Francois I. ornament, executed as it is in fine, easily-worked
+stone of smooth texture; and the difference in the climate of the two
+countries justified in Scotland a boldness which would have appeared
+exaggerated and extreme in France. Accordingly the style in passing
+from one country to the other has changed its details to no
+inconsiderable extent.
+
+Many castles were erected in the sixteenth and following centuries in
+Scotland, or were enlarged and altered; the most characteristic
+features in almost all of them are short round angle turrets, thrown
+out upon bold corbellings near the upper part of towers and other
+square masses. These are often capped by pointed roofs; and the
+corbels which carry them, and which are always of bold, vigorous
+character, are frequently enriched by a kind of cable ornament, which
+is very distinctive. Towers of circular plan, like bastions, and
+projecting from the general line of the walls, or at the angles,
+constantly occur. They are frequently crowned by conical roofs, but
+sometimes (as at Fyvie Castle) they are made square near the top by
+means of a series of corbels, and finished with gables or otherwise.
+Parapets are in general use, and are almost always battlemented.
+Roofs, when visible, are of steep pitch, and their gables are almost
+always of stepped outline, while dormer windows, frequently of
+fantastic form, are not infrequent. Chimneys are prominent and lofty.
+Windows are square-headed, and, as a rule, small; sometimes they
+retain the Gothic mullions and transom, but in many cases these
+features are absent. Doorways are generally arched, and not often
+highly ornamented.
+
+Cawdor Castle, Glamis Castle, Fyvie Castle, Castle Fraser, the old
+portions of Dunrobin Castle, Tyninghame House, the extremely
+picturesque palace at Falkland, and a considerable part of Stirling
+Castle, may be all quoted as good specimens of this thoroughly
+national style, but it would be easy to name two or three times as
+many buildings nearly, if not quite, equal to these in architectural
+merit.
+
+Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, may be quoted (with part of Holyrood
+Palace) as showing the style of the seventeenth century. Heriot's
+Hospital was built between the years 1628 and 1660. It is built round
+a great quadrangle, and has square towers at the four corners, each
+relieved by small corbelled angle turrets. The entrance displays
+columns and an entablature of debased but not unpleasing Renaissance
+architecture, and the building altogether resembles an English
+Elizabethan or Jacobean building to a greater extent than most
+Scottish designs.
+
+When this picturesque style, which appears indeed to have retained its
+hold for long, at last died out, very little of any artistic value was
+substituted for it. Late in the eighteenth century, it is true, the
+Brothers Adam erected public buildings in Edinburgh and Glasgow, and
+carried out various works of importance in a classic style which has
+certainly some claim to respect; but if correct it was tame and
+uninteresting, and a poor exchange for the vigorous vitality which
+breathes in the works of the architects of the early Renaissance in
+Scotland.
+
+
+SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
+
+In the Spanish peninsula, Renaissance architecture ran through three
+phases, very strongly distinguished from one another, each being
+marked by peculiarities of more than ordinary prominence. The early
+stage, to which the Spaniards give the name of Plateresco, exhibits
+the same sort of fusion of Gothic with classic which we find in France
+and Scotland. The masses are often simple, but the individual features
+are overladen with an extravagant amount of ornament, and, as in
+France, many things which are essentially Gothic, such as pinnacles,
+gargoyles, and parapets, are retained. The Renaissance style was
+introduced at the latter part of the fifteenth century, and a very
+considerable number of buildings to which the description given above
+will apply were erected prior to the middle of the sixteenth. Among
+these may be enumerated the cathedral at Granada, the Hospital of
+Santa Cruz at Toledo (1504-1514), the dome of Burgos Cathedral (1567),
+the Cathedral of Malaga, San Juan della Penitencia at Toledo (1511),
+the facade of the Alcazar at Toledo (1548), the Town Hall (1551), and
+Casa Zaporta (1560) at Zarragoza, and the Town Hall of Seville (1559).
+
+A great number of tombs, staircases, doorways, and other smaller
+single features, executed during this period from the designs of good
+artists, are to be found scattered through the country. "These
+Renaissance monuments exhibit an extraordinary degree of variety in
+their ornaments, which are of the most fantastic nature; an exuberant
+fancy would seem to have sought a vent, especially in the sculptured
+ornament of the style, which though at times crowded, overladen, and
+we must add disfigured by the most grotesque ideas, is very striking
+for its originality and excellent workmanship."--(M. D. W.)
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 84.--THE ALCAZAR AT TOLEDO. (BEGUN 1568.)]
+
+The second phase of Spanish architecture was marked by a plain and
+simple dignity, equally in contrast with the Plateresco which had
+preceded it and with the extravagant style to which it at length gave
+place. The earliest architect who introduced into Spain an
+architectural style founded on the best examples of Italy, was Juan
+Baptista de Toledo. He in the year 1563 commenced the Escurial
+Palace--the Versailles of Spain; but the principal part of the
+building was erected by his more celebrated pupil, Juan de Herrera,
+who carried on the works during the years from 1567 to 1579. This
+building, one of the most extensive palaces in Europe, is noble in its
+external aspect from a distance, thanks to its great extent, its fine
+central dome, and its many towers, but it is disappointing when
+approached. Of the interior the most noteworthy feature is a
+magnificently decorated church, of great size and unusual arrangement;
+and this dignified central feature has raised the Escurial, in spite
+of many faults, to the position of the most famous and probably most
+deservedly admired among the great Renaissance palaces of Europe.
+
+By the same architect numerous buildings were erected, among others
+the beautiful, if somewhat cold, arcaded interior of the Alcazar of
+Toledo (Fig. 84), which may be taken as a fair specimen of the noble
+qualities to be found in his dignified and comparatively simple
+designs. About the middle of the sixteenth century Charles V. erected
+his palace at Granada; but here the architecture is strongly coloured
+by Italian or French examples, and much of the building resembles
+Perrault's work at the Louvre very closely. Herrera and his school
+were probably too severe in taste to suit the fancy of their
+countrymen, for Spanish architecture in the eighteenth century fell a
+victim to debased forms and a fantastic and exaggerated style of
+ornament. Churriguera was the architect who has the credit of having
+introduced this unfortunate third manner, and has lent it his name.
+For a time "Churriguerismo" found general acceptance, and the century
+closed under its influence.
+
+We must not pass over the excellent and varied Renaissance towers and
+steeples of Spain in silence. They are not unlike Wren's spires in
+general idea; they are to be met with in many parts of the country
+attached to the churches, and their variety and picturesqueness
+increase the claim of Spanish architecture to our respect.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+The one Renaissance building in Portugal which has been much
+illustrated, and is spoken of in high terms, is the Convent at Mafra,
+a building of the eighteenth century, of great extent and picturesque
+effect. Great skill is shown in dealing with the unwieldy bulk of an
+overgrown establishment which does not yield even to the Escurial in
+point of extent. We are, however, up to the present time without the
+means of forming an opinion upon the nature and value of the
+architecture of Portugal as a whole.
+
+ [Illustration: {ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE PATTERN.}]
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: {FROM A FRIEZE AT VENICE.}]
+
+INDEX.
+
+_See also CONTENTS at beginning._
+
+
+ Adam, John and Robert, 223.
+
+ Alberti, _Architect_, 167.
+
+ Amiens Cathedral, 76, 78.
+
+ Andernach, Church at, 96.
+
+ Anne, Queen, Style of, 225.
+
+ Arnstein Abbey, 94.
+
+
+ Baptista, _Architect_, 232.
+
+ Batalha, Monastery at, 142, 153.
+
+ Beauvais Cathedral, _Interior_, 86.
+
+ Belgium and Netherlands, _Gothic_, 87.
+
+ ---- _Renaissance_, 206.
+
+ Bernini, _Architect_, 175, 181, 203.
+
+ Blenheim, 221.
+
+ Blois, Chateau of, 194.
+
+ Blois, Capital from St. Nicholas, 84.
+
+ Bourges, House of Jaques Coeur, 15.
+
+ Bramante, _Architect_, 168, 174, 180.
+
+ Brunelleschi, _Architect_, 120, 166.
+
+ Buttresses, 32.
+
+
+ Caen, Saint Pierre at, 37.
+
+ Cambridge, King's College, 63.
+
+ Campaniles in Italy, 128.
+
+ Capitals, Gothic, 43.
+
+ Certosa, near Pavia, _frontispiece_, 183.
+
+ Chambers, _Architect_, 222.
+
+ Chambord, Chateau of, 194.
+
+ Chartres, Stained glass at, 65, 69.
+
+ Chester, Old Houses at, 38, 224.
+
+ Churriguera, _Architect_, 230.
+
+ Colmar, Window at, 206.
+
+ Cologne Cathedral, 97, 104.
+
+ Columns and Piers, 40.
+
+ Cortona, Pietro da, _Architect_, 198.
+
+ Cremona, Palace at, 117.
+
+
+ Dantzic, Zeughaus at, 203.
+
+ De Caumont. _Abecedaire_, 71.
+
+ Decorated style of Architecture, 24.
+
+ Delorme, _Architect_, 200, 214.
+
+ Domestic Buildings, _Gothic_, 14.
+
+
+ Early English Architecture, 24.
+
+ Eltham Palace, Roof of, 53.
+
+ England, Gothic Architecture in, 21.
+
+ ---- Renaissance in, 213.
+
+
+ Florence, Cathedral at, 121.
+
+ ---- Pandolfini Palace, 170, 173.
+
+ ---- Riccardi Palace, 167.
+
+ ---- Strozzi Palace, 169.
+
+ Fontevrault, Church at, 70.
+
+ France, Gothic Architecture in, 69.
+
+ ---- Renaissance in, 193.
+
+ Francis the First of France, 193.
+
+ Friburg Cathedral, 98.
+
+
+ Gables in Gothic Architecture, 36.
+
+ Germany, Gothic Architecture in, 93.
+
+ ---- Renaissance, 209.
+
+ Ghent, Tower at, 90.
+
+ Gibbs, _Architect_, 222.
+
+ Giotto's Campanile at Florence, 120.
+
+ Gothic, The word, 5.
+
+ Goujon, Jean, _Sculptor_, 198.
+
+
+ Haddon Hall, 17.
+
+ Havenius of Cleves, _Architect_, 214.
+
+ Hawksmoor, _Architect_, 221.
+
+ Heidelberg, Castle of, 156, 209.
+
+ Herrera, Juan de, _Architect_, 217.
+
+ Holland House, 215.
+
+
+ Italy, Gothic Architecture in, 112.
+
+ ---- Renaissance in, 165.
+
+
+ John of Padua, _Architect_, 214.
+
+ Jones, Inigo, _Architect_, 217.
+
+
+ Kent, _Architect_, 222.
+
+ Kuttenberg, St. Barbara at, 99.
+
+
+ Lescot, _Architect_, 198.
+
+ Leyden, Council-house at, 210.
+
+ Lichfield Cathedral, West Door, 5.
+
+ Lincoln Cathedral, General view, 35.
+
+ Lippi Annibale, _Architect_, 192.
+
+ Lisieux, Old Houses at, 41.
+
+ Loches, Doorway at, 72.
+
+ London, St. Paul's Cathedral, 218.
+
+
+ Maderno, _Architect_, 175, 181.
+
+ Mafra, Convent at, 232.
+
+ Mansard, _Architect_, 160.
+
+ Michelangelo _as an Architect_, 170, 174.
+
+ Michelozzo, _Architect_, 167.
+
+ Middleburgh, Town Hall at, 89.
+
+ Milan Cathedral, 115.
+
+ Misereres in Wells Cathedral, 68, 92.
+
+ Mouldings, Gothic, 62.
+
+
+ Nuremberg, St. Sebald's at, 109.
+
+
+ Oakham, Decorated Spire of, 60.
+
+ Ogee-shaped arch, 129.
+
+ Oppenheim, St. Catherine at, 107.
+
+ Orleans, Capital from house at, 197.
+
+ Orleans, Window at, 196.
+
+
+ Pavia, Certosa, near, 114, 188.
+
+ Palladio, _Architect_, 172, 184, 187.
+
+ Paris, Cathedral of Notre Dame, 74.
+
+ ---- Hotel des Invalides at, 205.
+
+ ---- Louvre, Capital from, 202.
+
+ ---- Louvre, Pavillon Richelieu, 199.
+
+ ---- Pantheon at, 204.
+
+ ---- Tuileries, by Delorme, 200.
+
+ Perpendicular Architecture, 25.
+
+ Peruzzi, _Architect_, 181.
+
+ Peterborough Cathedral, Plan, 6.
+
+ Pisano, Nicola, _Sculptor_, 120.
+
+ Plateresco, _Spanish_, 230.
+
+ Principles of Gothic Design, 146.
+
+
+ Raphael _as an Architect_, 170.
+
+ Renaissance Architecture, 154.
+
+ Regensburg (Ratisbon), Well at, 20.
+
+ Rheims Cathedral, Piers, 80.
+
+ Rome, Monument in Santa Maria del Popolo, 179.
+
+ Rome, Palazzo Giraud, 178, 180.
+
+ ---- St. Peter's, 174, 177.
+
+ ---- Villa Medici, 191.
+
+
+ Saint Gall Manuscript, The, 13.
+
+ Salisbury Cathedral, Section, 7.
+
+ Saint Iago di Compostella, 137.
+
+ Sangallo, _Architect_, 181.
+
+ Sansovino, _Architect_, 178, 184.
+
+ Scamozzi, _Architect_, 184.
+
+ Scotland, Cawdor Castle, 227.
+
+ ---- Dunrobin Castle, 228.
+
+ ---- Heriot's Hospital, 228.
+
+ Schalaburg, Castle of, 212.
+
+ Schwartz-Rheindorff, Church at, 101.
+
+ Serlio, _Architect_, 198.
+
+ Seville, The Giralda at, 140.
+
+ Siena Cathedral, 123.
+
+ Spain, Gothic Architecture in, 137.
+
+ ---- Renaissance in, 228.
+
+ Spires, 58.
+
+ Stained Glass, 64.
+
+ Strasburg Cathedral, 98.
+
+
+ Thann, Doorway at, 106.
+
+ Tivoli, Window from, 134.
+
+ Toledo, Alcazar at, 232.
+
+ ---- Cathedral, 138.
+
+ Towers and Spires, 33.
+
+ Tracery, Venetian, 130.
+
+ Tudor Architecture, 25.
+
+
+ Vanbrugh, _Architect_, 221.
+
+ Venice, 182.
+
+ Venice, Church of Redentore, 186.
+
+ ---- Ducal Palace at, 118.
+
+ ---- Palaces on Grand Canal, 18.
+
+ Vienna, St. Stephen at, 98.
+
+ Vignola, _Architect_, 172, 181, 182.
+
+
+ Warboys, Early English Spire, 59.
+
+ Warwick Castle, Plan, 16.
+
+ Wells Cathedral, Nave, 9.
+
+ Westminster Abbey, Plan, 11.
+
+ Westminster Abbey, Carving, 67.
+
+ ---- Henry VII.'s Chapel, 57.
+
+ ---- Triforium, 49.
+
+ Windows, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51.
+
+ Window, Italian Gothic, 134, 136.
+
+ Worcester Cathedral, Choir, 9.
+
+ Wren, Sir C., _Architect_, 203, 217, 220.
+
+
+LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR.
+
+
+
+
+_Now in course of Publication._
+
+A NEW SERIES
+
+OF
+
+ILLUSTRATED TEXT-BOOKS
+
+OF
+
+ART EDUCATION,
+
+EDITED BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.
+
+Each volume contains numerous illustrations, and is strongly bound for
+the use of students. Price 5_s._
+
+_To be issued in the following Divisions:--_
+
+
+_PAINTING._
+
+* CLASSIC and ITALIAN. By EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A., and PERCY R. HEAD,
+Lincoln College, Oxford.
+
+GERMAN, FLEMISH, and DUTCH. By H. WILMOT BUXTON, M.A.
+
+FRENCH and SPANISH. By GERARD SMITH, Exeter College, Oxford.
+
+ENGLISH and AMERICAN. By H. WILMOT BUXTON, M.A.
+
+
+_ARCHITECTURE._
+
+CLASSIC and EARLY CHRISTIAN. By T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+
+* GOTHIC and RENAISSANCE. By T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+
+
+_SCULPTURE._
+
+ANTIQUE: EGYPTIAN and GREEK. By GEORGE REDFORD, F.R.C.S.
+
+RENAISSANCE and MODERN. By GEORGE REDFORD, F.R.C.S.
+
+
+_ORNAMENT._
+
+DECORATION IN COLOUR. By GEORGE AITCHISON, M.A.
+
+ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENT. With numerous Illustrations.
+
+* _These Divisions are now ready._
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Minor punctuation errors have been repaired.
+
+Hyphenation and accent usage has been made consistent.
+
+Spelling was made consistent as follows:
+
+ Page xxxvii--Transome amended to Transom--"TRANSOM.--A
+ horizontal bar (usually of stone) ..."
+
+ Page xl--Hardwicke amended to Hardwick--"THE END-PAPERS ARE
+ FROM A TAPESTRY IN HARDWICK HALL."
+
+ Page 198--di amended to da--"... built from the designs of
+ Pietro da Cortona, ..."
+
+ Page 217--transomes amended to transoms--"... and with
+ mullions and transoms, ..."
+
+ Page 217--transomes amended to transoms--"... large windows
+ divided by mullions and transoms, ..."
+
+ Page 224--Cotemporary amended to Contemporary--"Contemporary
+ with him were the brothers John and Robert Adam, ..."
+
+ Page 226--transomes amended to transoms--"... so are the
+ mouldings, transoms and mullions to the windows, ..."
+
+ Page 236--Middleburg amended to Middleburgh--"Middleburgh,
+ Town Hall at, 89."
+
+ Page 236--Nicolo amended to Nicola--"Pisano, Nicola,
+ _Sculptor_, 120."
+
+ Page 236--Strassburg amended to Strasburg--"Strasburg
+ Cathedral, 98."
+
+ Page 236--Van Brugh amended to Vanbrugh--"Vanbrugh,
+ _Architect_, 221."
+
+The following amendments have been made:
+
+ Page x--omitted page number added--"3. SCOTLAND, WALES, and
+ IRELAND 91"
+
+ Page xxiv--frize amended to frieze--"... the architrave,
+ which rests on the columns, the frieze and the cornice."
+
+ Page xxiv--The entry for Entablature originally followed
+ Embattled. It has been moved to the correct place in the
+ glossary.
+
+ Page xxv--Styl amended to Style--"FRANCOIS I. STYLE.--The
+ early Renaissance architecture of France during part of the
+ sixteenth century."
+
+ Page xxvii--Lintol amended to Lintel--"LINTEL.--The stone or
+ beam covering a doorway ..."
+
+ Page 12--arrangment amended to arrangement--"The whole
+ arrangement of pier and arch ..."
+
+ Page 25--ierced amended to pierced--"Parapet pierced with
+ quatrefoils and flowing tracery."
+
+ Page 30--repeated 'and' deleted--"... Gothic dwelling-houses
+ of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries exist, ..."
+
+ Page 36--constrast amended to contrast--"... is to combine
+ and yet contrast its horizontal and vertical elements."
+
+ Page 39--storys amended to storeys--"... and sometimes also
+ the basement storeys, ..."
+
+ Page 46--and amended to end--"... occupying the eastern end
+ of one of the transepts ..."
+
+ Page 82--semi-circula amended to semicircular--"... and the
+ roofs of semicircular and circular apses, ..."
+
+ Page 88--achitecture amended to architecture--"... their
+ architecture, though certainly Gothic, is debased in style."
+
+ Page 114--laboration amended to elaboration--"... remarkable
+ specimens of the ornamental elaboration which can be
+ accomplished in brickwork."
+
+ Page 142--Ths amended to The--"The great church at Batalha
+ ..."
+
+ Page 159--omitted 'the' added before building--"... in his
+ treatment of the same part of the building ..."
+
+ Page 176--repeated 'is' deleted--"... as long as the
+ building is seen in front ..."
+
+ Page 186--builing amended to building--"... lofty pilasters
+ to include two storeys of the building ..."
+
+ Page 194--first amended to First--"...than the best
+ specimens of the style of Francis the First ..."
+
+ Page 226--82 amended to 83--"... the treatment of the timbers
+ is thoroughly Gothic (Fig. 83); ..."
+
+ Page 230--archiect amended to architect--"The earliest
+ architect who introduced into Spain an architectural style
+ ..."
+
+ Page 233--picuresque amended to picturesque--"... a building
+ of the eighteenth century, of great extent and picturesque
+ effect."
+
+ Page 235--page references put into numerical
+ order--"Brunelleschi, _Architect_, 120, 166."
+
+ Page 235--137 amended to 173--"Florence ... ---- Pandolfini
+ Palace, 170, 173."
+
+ Page 235--omitted 7 added--"Haddon Hall, 17."
+
+Illustrations have been moved where necessary so that they are not in
+the middle of a paragraph.
+
+There was an error in the List of Illustrations. The original read:
+
+ 66. PALAZZO GIRAUD, ROME. BY BRAMANTE. (1506.) 180
+
+ 67. THE CHURCH OF ST. FRANCESCO, AT FERRARA. INTERIOR 183
+
+ 68. ITALIAN SHELL ORNAMENT 184
+
+ 69. THE CHURCH OF THE REDENTORE, VENICE. (1576.) 186
+
+ 70. CERTOSA NEAR PAVIA. PART OF WEST FRONT. (BEGUN 1473.)
+ 189
+
+ 70A. EARLY RENAISSANCE CORBEL 192
+
+ 71. WINDOW FROM A HOUSE AT ORLEANS. (EARLY 16TH CENTURY.)
+ 195
+
+The listed Fig. 67 does not appear anywhere in the text. The List of
+Illustrations has been amended to accurately list the figures in the
+main body of the book, by removing the erroneous listing, renumbering
+the figures as necessary, including a previously omitted figure, FIG.
+70.--VILLA MEDICI--ON THE PINCIAN HILL NEAR ROME. BY ANNIBALE LIPPI
+(NOW THE _Academie Francaise_). (A.D. 1540.), and amending the page
+numbers.
+
+The advertising material has been moved to the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith
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