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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Architecture
+       Gothic and Renaissance
+
+Author: Thomas Roger Smith
+
+Editor: Edward J. Poynter
+
+Release Date: October 3, 2010 [EBook #33837]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Sam W. and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Illustration captions in {curly brackets} have been added by the
+transcriber for the convenience of the reader.
+
+A considerable number of the page references in the index are
+incorrect; however, they have been preserved as printed.
+
+
+
+
+            _ILLUSTRATED TEXT-BOOKS OF ART
+                      EDUCATION_
+
+         _EDITED BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A._
+
+
+                     ARCHITECTURE
+                GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE
+
+            BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: P. 114
+      THE CERTOSA, NEAR PAVIA. FROM THE CLOISTERS.
+      BEGUN BY MARCO DI CAMPIONE, A.D. 1393.]
+
+
+
+
+        _TEXT-BOOK OF ART EDUCATION, EDITED BY
+               EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A._
+
+
+                     ARCHITECTURE
+                GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE
+
+            BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+
+         _Occasional Lecturer on Architecture
+            at University College, London_
+
+
+   [Illustration: {SAINT GEORGE. PANEL FROM THE TOMB
+      OF CARDINAL AMBOISE IN ROUEN CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+
+                       NEW YORK
+                SCRIBNER AND WELFORD.
+
+                        LONDON
+      SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON
+          CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET
+                         1880
+
+
+
+
+               (_All rights reserved._)
+
+
+          LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR,
+               BREAD STREET HILL, E. C.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {CR�TE FROM NOTRE DAME, PARIS.}]
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The history, the features, and the most famous examples of European
+architecture, during a period extending from the rise of the Gothic,
+or pointed, style in the twelfth century to the general depression
+which overtook the Renaissance style at the close of the eighteenth,
+form the subject of this little volume. I have endeavoured to adopt as
+free and simple a mode of treatment as is compatible with the accurate
+statement of at least the outlines of so very technical a subject.
+
+Though it is to be hoped that many professional students of
+architecture will find this hand-book serviceable to them in their
+elementary studies, it has been my principal endeavour to adapt it to
+the requirements of those who are preparing for the professional
+pursuit of the sister arts, and of that large and happily increasing
+number of students who pursue the fine arts as a necessary part of a
+complete liberal education, and who know that a solid and
+comprehensive acquaintance with art, especially if joined to some
+skill in the use of the pencil, the brush, the modelling tool, or the
+etching needle, will open sources of pleasure and interest of the most
+refined description.
+
+The broad facts of all art history; the principles which underlie each
+of the fine arts; and the most precious or most noteworthy examples of
+each, ought to be familiar to every art student, whatever special
+branch he may follow. Beyond these limits I have not attempted to
+carry this account of Gothic and Renaissance architecture; within them
+I have endeavoured to make the work as complete as the space at my
+disposal permitted.
+
+Some portions of the text formed part of two courses of lectures
+delivered before the students of the School of Military Engineering at
+Chatham, and are introduced here by the kind permission of Sir John
+Stokes. Many of the descriptive and critical remarks are transcripts
+of notes made by myself, almost under the shadow of the buildings to
+which they refer. It would, however, have been impossible to give a
+condensed view of so extended a subject had not every part of it been
+treated at much greater length by previous writers. The number and
+variety of the books consulted renders it impossible to make any other
+acknowledgment here than this general recognition of my indebtedness
+to their authors.
+
+                                                    T. R. S.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+    ILLUSTRATED GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS.               xv to xxxix
+
+
+    CHAPTER I.
+
+      INTRODUCTION.                                                  1
+
+
+    CHAPTER II.
+
+      THE BUILDINGS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.                              6
+
+
+    CHAPTER III.
+
+      GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.                                          21
+
+
+    CHAPTER IV.
+
+      GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND.
+
+          Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls. Towers and
+            Spires. Gables. Piers and Columns                       28
+
+
+    CHAPTER V.
+
+      GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND (_continued_).
+
+          Analysis (_continued_). Openings. Roofs. Spires.
+            Ornaments. Stained Glass. Sculpture                     45
+
+
+    CHAPTER VI.
+
+      GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN EUROPE.
+
+          1. FRANCE. Chronological Sketch. Analysis of
+            Buildings. Plans. Walls, Towers and Gables.
+            Columns and Piers. Roofs and Vaults. Openings.
+            Mouldings and Ornaments. Construction and Design        69
+
+          2. BELGIUM and the NETHERLANDS                            87
+
+          3. SCOTLAND, WALES, and IRELAND                           91
+
+
+    CHAPTER VII.
+
+      GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+          1. GERMANY. Chronological Sketch. Analysis of
+            Buildings. Plans. Walls, Towers and Gables.
+            Roofs and Vaults. Openings. Ornaments.
+            Construction and Design                                 93
+
+          2. NORTHERN EUROPE                                       111
+
+
+    CHAPTER VIII.
+
+      GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.
+
+          1. ITALY and SICILY. Topographical Sketch.
+            NORTHERN ITALY. CENTRAL ITALY. SOUTHERN
+            ITALY. Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls,
+            Towers, and Columns. Openings and Arches.
+            Roofs and Vaults. Mouldings and Ornaments.
+            Construction and Design                                112
+
+          2. SPAIN. Chronological Sketch                           137
+
+          3. PORTUGAL                                              142
+
+
+    CHAPTER IX.
+
+      GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+          Principles of Construction and Design. Materials
+            and Construction                                       143
+
+
+    CHAPTER X.
+
+      RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+          GENERAL VIEW. Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls
+            and Columns. Openings. Construction and Design         154
+
+
+    CHAPTER XI.
+
+      RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.
+
+          FLORENCE. ROME. VENICE, VICENZA, VERONA. MILAN,
+            PAVIA. GENOA, TURIN, NAPLES. Country Villas            165
+
+
+    CHAPTER XII.
+
+      RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+          1. FRANCE. Chronological Sketch                          193
+
+          2. BELGIUM and the NETHERLANDS                           206
+
+          3. GERMANY                                               210
+
+
+    CHAPTER XIII.
+
+      RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN, SPAIN,
+        AND PORTUGAL.
+
+          1. ENGLAND. Chronological Sketch                         214
+
+          2. SCOTLAND                                              227
+
+          3. SPAIN and PORTUGAL                                    229
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+    CERTOSA, THE, NEAR PAVIA. FROM THE CLOISTERS          Frontispiece
+
+    SAINT GEORGE. PANEL FROM THE TOMB OF CARDINAL
+        AMBOISE IN ROUEN CATHEDRAL                          Title Page
+
+    GLOSSARY. FORTY ENGRAVINGS OF DETAILS                  xv to xxxix
+
+    1. WEST ENTRANCE, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL. (1275.)                   5
+
+    2. GROUND PLAN OF PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL. (1118 to 1193.)        6
+
+    3. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE NAVE OF SALISBURY CATHEDRAL         7
+
+    4. CHOIR OF WORCESTER CATHEDRAL. (BEGUN 1224.)                   9
+
+    5. NAVE OF WELLS CATHEDRAL. (1206 to 1242.)                      9
+
+    6. GROUND PLAN OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY                             11
+
+    7. HOUSE OF JAQUES COEUR AT BOURGES. (BEGUN 1443.)              15
+
+    8. PLAN OF WARWICK CASTLE. (14TH AND 15TH CENTURIES.)           16
+
+    9. PALACES ON THE GRAND CANAL, VENICE. (14TH CENTURY.)          18
+
+    10. WELL AT REGENSBURG. (15TH CENTURY.)                         20
+
+    11. GOTHIC ORNAMENT. FROM SENS CATHEDRAL (HEADPIECE)            21
+
+    12. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. (MOSTLY EARLY ENGLISH.)                  35
+
+    13. ST. PIERRE, CAEN, TOWER AND SPIRE. (SPIRE, 1302.)           37
+
+    14. HOUSE AT CHESTER. (16TH CENTURY.)                           38
+
+    15. HOUSES AT LISIEUX, FRANCE. (16TH CENTURY.)                  41
+
+    16. LANCET WINDOW. (12TH CENTURY.)                              46
+
+    17. TWO-LIGHT WINDOW. (13TH CENTURY.)                           47
+
+    18. GEOMETRICAL TRACERY. (14TH CENTURY.)                        48
+
+    19. TRIFORIUM ARCADE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY. (1269.)                49
+
+    20. ROSE WINDOW FROM THE TRANSEPT OF LINCOLN CATHEDRAL          50
+
+    21. PERPENDICULAR WINDOW                                        51
+
+    22. ROOF OF HALL AT ELTHAM PALACE. (15TH CENTURY.)              53
+
+    23. HENRY VII.'S CHAPEL. (1503-1512.)                           57
+
+    24. SPIRE OF ST. MARY MAGDALENE, WARBOYS, LINCOLNSHIRE          59
+
+    25. DECORATED SPIRE. ALL SAINTS' CHURCH, OAKHAM                 60
+
+    26. EARLY ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES                               62
+
+    27. ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES MOULDED                             62
+
+    28. DOORWAY, KING'S COLLEGE CHAPEL, CAMBRIDGE. (15TH CENT.)     63
+
+    29. STAINED GLASS WINDOW FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL                65
+
+    30. SCULPTURE FROM CHAPTER HOUSE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY             67
+
+    31. CHURCH AT FONTEVRAULT. (BEGUN 1125.)                        70
+
+    32. DOORWAY AT LOCHES, FRANCE. (1180.)                          72
+
+    33. NOTRE DAME, PARIS, WEST FRONT. (1214.)                      74
+
+    34. PLAN OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL. (1220-1272.)                      76
+
+    35. AMIENS CATHEDRAL, WEST FRONT. (1220-1272.)                  78
+
+    36. PIERS AND SUPERSTRUCTURE, RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. (1211-1240.)    80
+
+    37. CAPITAL FROM ST. NICHOLAS, BLOIS, FRANCE. (13TH CENTURY.)   84
+
+    38. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL, INTERIOR. (1225-1537.)                  86
+
+    39. THE TOWN HALL OF MIDDLEBURGH. (1518.)                       89
+
+    40. TOWER AT GHENT. (BEGUN 1183.)                               90
+
+    41. ABBEY CHURCH OF ARNSTEIN. (12TH AND 13TH CENTURIES.)        94
+
+    42. CHURCH AT ANDERNACH. (EARLY 13TH CENTURY.)                  96
+
+    43. CHURCH OF ST. BARBARA AT KUTTENBERG. EAST END.
+        (1358-1548.)                                                99
+
+    44. DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF. SECTION. (1158.)     101
+
+    45. DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF. (1158.)              102
+
+    46. COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. GROUND PLAN. (BEGUN 1248.)              104
+
+    47. WESTERN DOORWAY OF CHURCH AT THANN. (14TH CENTURY.)        106
+
+    48. CHURCH OF ST. CATHERINE AT OPPENHEIM. (1262 TO 1439.)      107
+
+    49. ST. SEBALD'S CHURCH AT NUREMBERG. THE BRIDE'S DOORWAY      109
+
+    50. PALACE OF THE JURISCONSULTS AT CREMONA                     117
+
+    51. CATHEDRAL AT FLORENCE. WITH GIOTTO'S CAMPANILE             121
+
+    52. CATHEDRAL AT SIENA. WEST FRONT AND CAMPANILE               123
+
+    53. CATHEDRAL AT ORVIETO. (BEGUN 1290; FA�ADE, 1310.)          125
+
+    54. OGIVAL WINDOW-HEAD                                         129
+
+    55. TRACERY IN WINDOW-HEAD, FROM VENICE                        130
+
+    56. WINDOW FROM TIVOLI                                         134
+
+    57. ITALIAN GOTHIC WINDOW, WITH TRACERY IN HEAD                136
+
+    58. CATHEDRAL AT TOLEDO. INTERIOR. (BEGUN 1227.)               139
+
+    59. THE GIRALDA AT SEVILLE. (BEGUN IN 1196; FINISHED
+        IN 1568.)                                                  141
+
+    60. DOORWAY FROM CHURCH AT BATALHA. (BEGUN 1385.)              151
+
+    61. STROZZI PALACE AT FLORENCE. (BEGUN 1489.)                  169
+
+    62. PART OF THE LOGGIA DEL CONSIGLIO AT VERONA                 171
+
+    63. THE PANDOLFINI PALACE, FLORENCE. DESIGNED BY RAPHAEL       173
+
+    64. ST. PETER'S AT ROME. INTERIOR. (1506-1661.)                177
+
+    65. MONUMENT BY SANSOVINO, IN STA. MARIA DEL POPOLO, ROME      179
+
+    66. PALAZZO GIRAUD, ROME. BY BRAMANTE. (1506.)                 180
+
+    67. ITALIAN SHELL ORNAMENT                                     183
+
+    68. THE CHURCH OF THE REDENTORE, VENICE. (1576.)               185
+
+    69. CERTOSA NEAR PAVIA. PART OF WEST FRONT. (BEGUN 1473.)      188
+
+    70. VILLA MEDICI--ON THE PINCIAN HILL NEAR ROME. BY
+        ANNIBALE LIPPI (NOW THE _Acad�mie Fran�aise_).
+        (A.D. 1540.)                                               191
+
+    70A. EARLY RENAISSANCE CORBEL                                  192
+
+    71. WINDOW FROM A HOUSE AT ORLEANS. (EARLY 16TH CENTURY.)      195
+
+    72. CAPITAL FROM THE HOUSE OF FRANCIS I., ORLEANS. (1540.)     197
+
+    73. PAVILLON RICHELIEU OF THE LOUVRE, PARIS                    199
+
+    74. PART OF THE TUILERIES, PARIS. (BEGUN 1564.)                201
+
+    75. CAPITAL FROM DELORME'S WORK AT THE LOUVRE                  202
+
+    76. H�TEL DES INVALIDES, PARIS                                 204
+
+    77. WINDOW FROM COLMAR. (1575.)                                208
+
+    78. ZEUGHAUS, DANTZIC. (1605.)                                 209
+
+    79. COUNCIL-HOUSE AT LEYDEN. (1599.)                           211
+
+    80. QUADRANGLE OF THE CASTLE OF SCHALABURG                     213
+
+    81. HOLLAND HOUSE, KENSINGTON. (1607.)                         216
+
+    82. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, LONDON. (1675-1710.)                 220
+
+    83. HOUSES AT CHESTER. (16TH CENTURY.)                         225
+
+    84. THE ALCAZAR AT TOLEDO. (BEGUN 1568.)                       231
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS.
+
+
+    ABACUS.--The upper portion of the capital of a column, upon
+    which the weight to be carried rests.
+
+    AISLE (Lat. _ala_).--The side subdivision in a church;
+    occasionally all the subdivisions, including the nave, are
+    called aisles.
+
+    APSE.--A semicircular or polygonal termination to, or
+    projection from, a church or other public building.
+
+    ARCADE.--A range of arches, supported on piers or columns.
+
+    ARCH.--A construction of wedge-shaped blocks of stone, or of
+    bricks, of a curved outline, and spanning an open space. The
+    principal forms of arch in use are Semicircular;
+    Acutely-pointed, or Lancet; Equilateral, or Less
+    Acutely-pointed; Four-centred, or Depressed Tudor;
+    Three-centred, or Elliptic; Ogival; Segmental; and Stilted.
+    (Figs. _A_ to _F_.)
+
+    ARCHITRAVE.--(1) The stone which in Classic and Renaissance
+    architecture is thrown from one column or pilaster to the
+    next. (2) The moulding which in the same styles is used to
+    ornament the margin of a door or window opening or arch.
+
+    ASHLAR.--Finely-wrought masonry, employed for the facing of
+    a wall of coarser masonry or brick.
+
+    ATTIC (In Renaissance Architecture).--A low upper story,
+    distinctly marked in the architecture of the building,
+    usually surmounting an order; (2) in ordinary building, any
+    story in a roof.
+
+
+    BAILEY (from _vallum_).--The enclosure of the courtyard of a
+    castle.
+
+    BALL-FLOWER.--An ornament representing a globular bud,
+    placed usually in a hollow moulding.
+
+    BALUSTER.--A species of small column, generally of curved
+    outline.
+
+    BALUSTRADE.--A parapet or rail formed of balusters.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _A_.--SEMICIRCULAR ARCH.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _B_.--STILTED ARCH.]
+
+      The Semicircular and the Stilted Semicircular Arch were the
+      only arches in use till the introduction of the Pointed
+      Arch. Throughout the Early English, Decorated, and
+      Perpendicular periods they occur as exceptional features,
+      but they were practically superseded after the close of the
+      12th cent.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _C_.--EQUILATERAL ARCH.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _D_.--LANCET ARCH.]
+
+      The Lancet Arch was characteristic of the Early English
+      period, is never found earlier, and but rarely occurs later.
+      The Equilateral Arch was the favourite arch of the
+      architects of the geometrical Decorated, but is not
+      unfrequently met with in the early part of the Perpendicular
+      period.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _E_.--OGIVAL ARCH.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _F_.--DEPRESSED TUDOR ARCH.]
+
+      The Depressed (or Four-centred) Tudor Arch is characteristic
+      of the Perpendicular period, and was then constantly
+      employed. The Ogival Arch is occasionally employed late in
+      that period, but was more used by French and Italian
+      architects than by those of Great Britain.
+
+    BAND.--A flat moulding or projecting strip of stone.
+
+    BARREL-VAULTING.--See Waggon-head vaulting.
+
+    BARGE-BOARD (OR VERGE-BOARD).--An inclined and pierced or
+    ornamented board placed along the edge of a roof when it
+    overhangs a gable wall.
+
+    BASE.--(1) The foot of a column; (2) sometimes that of a
+    buttress or wall.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _G_.--BASE OF EARLY ENGLISH SHAFT.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _H_.--BASE OF PERPENDICULAR SHAFT.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _I_.--BASE OF DECORATED SHAFT.]
+
+    BASILICA.--(1) A Roman public hall; (2) an early Christian
+    church, similar to a Roman basilica in disposition.
+
+    BASTION (in Fortification).--A bold projecting mass of
+    building, or earthwork thrown out beyond the general line of
+    a wall.
+
+    BATTLEMENT.--A notched or indented parapet.
+
+    BAY.--One of the compartments in a building which is made up
+    of several repetitions of the same group of features;
+    _e.g._, in a church the space from one column of the nave
+    arcade to the next is a bay.
+
+    BAY-WINDOW.--A window projecting outward from the wall. It
+    may be rectangular or polygonal. It must be built up from
+    the ground. If thrown out above the ground level, a
+    projecting window is called an Oriel. (See Bow window.)
+
+    BEAD.--A small moulding of circular profile.
+
+    BELFRY.--A chamber fitted to receive a peal of bells.
+
+    BELFRY STAGE.--The story of a tower where the belfry occurs.
+    Usually marked by large open arches or windows, to let the
+    sound escape.
+
+    BELL (of a capital).--The body between the necking and the
+    abacus (which see).
+
+    BILLET MOULDING.--A moulding consisting of a group of small
+    blocks separated by spaces about equal to their own length.
+
+    BLIND STORY.--Triforium (which see).
+
+    BOSS.--A projecting mass of carving placed to conceal the
+    intersection of the ribs of a vault, or at the end of a
+    string course which it is desired to stop, or in an
+    analogous situation.
+
+    BOW WINDOW.--Similar to a Bay-window (which see), but
+    circular or segmental.
+
+    BROACH-SPIRE.--A spire springing from a tower without a
+    parapet and with pyramidal features at the feet of its four
+    oblique sides (see Fig. 22) to connect them to the four
+    angles of the tower.
+
+    BROACHEAD (SPIRE).--Formed as above described.
+
+    BUTTRESS.--A projection built up against a wall to create
+    additional strength or furnish support (see Flying
+    Buttress).
+
+    BYZANTINE.--The round-arched Christian architecture of the
+    Eastern Church, which had its origin in Byzantium
+    (Constantinople).
+
+
+    CANOPY.--(1) An ornamented projection over doors, windows,
+    &c.; (2) a covering over niches, tombs, &c.
+
+    CAMPANILE.--The Italian name for a bell-tower.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _J_.--BUTTRESS.]
+
+    CAPITAL.--The head of a column or pilaster (Figs. _L_ to
+    _P_).
+
+    CATHEDRAL.--A church which contains the seat of a bishop;
+    usually a building of the first class.
+
+    CERTOSA.--A monastery (or church) of Carthusian monks.
+
+    CHAMFER.--A slight strip pared off from a sharp angle.
+
+    CHANCEL.--The choir or eastern part of a church.
+
+    CHANTRY CHAPEL.--A chapel connected with a monument or tomb
+    in which masses were to be chanted. This was usually of
+    small size and very rich.
+
+    CHAPEL.--(1) A chamber attached to a church and opening out
+    of it, or formed within it, and in which an altar was
+    placed; (2) a small detached church.
+
+    CHAPTER HOUSE.--The hall of assembly of the chapter (dean
+    and canons) of a cathedral.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _L_.--EARLY NORMAN CAPITAL.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _M_.--EARLY ENGLISH CAPITAL.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _N_.--LATER NORMAN CAPITAL.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _O_.--PERPENDICULAR CAPITAL.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _P_.--EARLY FRENCH CAPITAL.]
+
+    CH�TEAU.--The French name for a country mansion.
+
+    CHEVRON.--A zig-zag ornament.
+
+    CHEVET.--The French name for an apse when surrounded by
+    chapels; see the plan of Westminster Abbey (Fig. 6).
+
+    CHOIR.--The part of a church in which the services are
+    celebrated; usually, but not always, the east end or
+    chancel. In a Spanish church the choir is often at the
+    crossing.
+
+    CLERESTORY.--The upper story or row of windows lighting the
+    nave of a Gothic church.
+
+    CLOISTER.--A covered way round a quadrangle of a monastic
+    building.
+
+    CLUSTERED (SHAFTS).--Grouped so as to form a pier of some
+    mass out of several small shafts.
+
+    CORBEL.--A projecting stone (or timber) supporting, or
+    seeming to support, a weight (Fig. _K_).
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _K_.--EARLY RENAISSANCE CORBEL.]
+
+    CORBELLING.--A series of mouldings doing the same duty as a
+    corbel; a row of corbels.
+
+    CORBEL TABLE.--A row of corbels supporting an overhanging
+    parapet or cornice.
+
+    CORTILE (Italian).--The internal arcaded quadrangle of a
+    palace, mansion, or public building.
+
+    COLUMN.--A stone or marble post, divided usually into base,
+    shaft, and capital; distinguished from a pier by the shaft
+    being cylindrical or polygonal, and in one, or at most, in
+    few pieces.
+
+    CORNICE.--The projecting and crowning portion of an order
+    (which see) or of a building, or of a stage or story of a
+    building.
+
+    COURSE.--A horizontal layer of stones in the masonry of a
+    building.
+
+    CROCKET.--A tuft of leaves arranged in a formal shape, used
+    to decorate ornamental gables, the ribs of spires, &c.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _Q_.--DECORATED CROCKET.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _R_.--PERPENDICULAR CROCKET.]
+
+    CROSSING.--The intersection (which see) in a church or
+    cathedral.
+
+    CROSS VAULT.--A vault of which the arched surfaces intersect
+    one another, forming a groin (which see).
+
+    CRYPT.--The basement under a church or other building
+    (almost invariably vaulted).
+
+    CUSP.--The projecting point thrown out to form the
+    leaf-shaped forms or foliations in the heads of Gothic
+    windows, and in tracery and panels.
+
+
+    DEC.       } The Gothic architecture of the fourteenth century
+    DECORATED. }   in England. _Abbreviated_ Dec.
+
+    DETAIL.--The minuter features of a design or building,
+    especially its mouldings and carving.
+
+    DIAPER (Gothic).--An uniform pattern of leaves or flowers
+    carved or painted on the surface of a wall.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _S_.--DIAPER IN SPANDREL, FROM
+          WESTMINSTER ABBEY.]
+
+    DOGTOOTH.--A sharply-pointed ornament in a hollow moulding
+    which is peculiar to Early English Gothic. It somewhat
+    resembles a blunt tooth.
+
+    DORMER WINDOW.--A window pierced through a sloping roof and
+    placed under a small gable or roof of its own.
+
+    DOME.--A cupola or spherical convex roof, ordinarily
+    circular on plan.
+
+    DOMICAL VAULTING.--Vaulting in which a series of small domes
+    are employed; in contradistinction to a waggon-head vault,
+    or an intersecting vault.
+
+    DOUBLE TRACERY.--Two layers of tracery one behind the other
+    and with a clear space between.
+
+
+    E. E.          } The Gothic architecture of England in the
+    EARLY ENGLISH. } thirteenth century. _Abbreviated_ E. E.
+
+    EAVES.--The verge or edge of a roof overhanging the wall.
+
+    EAVES-COURSE.--A moulding carrying the eaves.
+
+    ELEVATION.--(1) A geometrical drawing of part of the
+    exterior or interior walls of a building; (2) the
+    architectural treatment of the exterior or interior walls of
+    a building.
+
+    ELIZABETHAN.--The architecture of England in, and for some
+    time after, the reign of Elizabeth.
+
+    EMBATTLED.--Finished with battlements, or in imitation of
+    battlements.
+
+    ENRICHMENTS.--The carved (or coloured) decorations applied
+    to the mouldings or other features of an architectural
+    design. (See Mouldings.)
+
+    ENTABLATURE (in Classic and Renaissance architecture).--The
+    superstructure above the columns where an order is employed.
+    It is divided into the architrave, which rests on the
+    columns, the frieze and the cornice.
+
+
+    FA�ADE.--The front of a building or of a principal part of a
+    building.
+
+    FAN VAULT.--The vaulting in use in England in the fifteenth
+    century, in which a series of conoids bearing some
+    resemblance to an open fan are employed.
+
+    FILLET.--A small moulding of square flat section.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _T_.--PERPENDICULAR FINIAL.]
+
+    FINIAL.--A formally arranged bunch of foliage or other
+    similar ornament forming the top of a pinnacle, gablet, or
+    other ornamented feature of Gothic architecture.
+
+    FLAMBOYANT STYLE.--The late Gothic architecture of France
+    at the end of the fifteenth century, so called from the
+    occurrence of flame-shaped forms in the tracery.
+
+    FL�CHE.--A name adapted from the French. A slender spire,
+    mostly placed on a roof; not often so called if on a tower.
+
+    FLYING BUTTRESS.--A buttress used to steady the upper and
+    inner walls of a vaulted building, placed at some distance
+    from the wall which it supports, and connected with it by an
+    arch.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _U_.--FLYING BUTTRESS.]
+
+    FOIL.--A leaf-shaped form produced by adding cusps to the
+    curved outline of a window head or piece of tracery.
+
+    FOLIATION.--The decoration of an opening, or of tracery by
+    means of foils and cusps.
+
+    FOSSE.--The ditch of a fortress.
+
+    FRAN�OIS I. STYLE.--The early Renaissance architecture of
+    France during part of the sixteenth century.
+
+    FRIEZE.--(1) The middle member of a Classic or Renaissance
+    entablature; this was often sculptured and carved; (2) any
+    band of sculptured ornament.
+
+
+    GABLE.--The triangular-shaped wall carrying the end of a
+    roof.
+
+    GABLET.--A small gable (usually ornamental only).
+
+    GALLERY.--(1) An apartment of great length in proportion to
+    its width; (2) a raised floor or stage in a building.
+
+    GARGOYLE.--A projecting waterspout, usually carved in stone,
+    more rarely formed of metal.
+
+    GEOMETRICAL.--The architecture of the earlier part of the
+    decorated period in England.
+
+    GRILLE.--A grating or ornamental railing of metal.
+
+    GROIN.--The curved line which is made by the meeting of the
+    surfaces of two vaults or portions of vaults which
+    intersect.
+
+    GROUP.--An assemblage of shafts or mouldings or other small
+    features intended to produce a combined effect.
+
+    GROUPING.--Combining architectural features as above.
+
+
+    HALL.--(1) The largest room in an ancient English mansion,
+    or a college, &c.; (2) any large and stately apartment.
+
+    HALF TIMBERED CONSTRUCTION.--A mode of building in which a
+    framework of timbers is displayed and the spaces between
+    them are filled in with plaster or tiles.
+
+    HAMMER BEAM ROOF.--A roof peculiar to English architecture
+    of the fifteenth century, deriving its name from the use of
+    a hammer beam (a large bracket projecting from the walls) to
+    partly support the rafters.
+
+    HEAD (of an arch or other opening).--The portion within the
+    curve; whether filled in by masonry or left open, sometimes
+    called a tympanum.
+
+    HIP.--The external angle formed by the meeting of two
+    sloping sides of a roof where there is no gable.
+
+    H�TEL (French).--A town mansion.
+
+
+    IMPOST.--A moulding or other line marking the top of the
+    jambs of an arched opening, and the starting point, or
+    apparent starting point, of the arch.
+
+    INLAY.--A mode of decoration in which coloured materials
+    are laid into sinkings of ornamental shape, cut into the
+    surface to be decorated.
+
+    INTERSECTION (OR CROSSING).--The point in a church where the
+    transepts cross the nave.
+
+    INTERSECTING VAULTS.--Vaults of which the surfaces cut one
+    another.
+
+    INTERPENETRATION.--A German mode of treating mouldings, as
+    though two or more sets of them existed in the same stone
+    and they could pass through (interpenetrate) each other.
+
+
+    JAMB.--The side of a door or window or arch, or other
+    opening.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _V_.--PLAN OF A JAMB AND CENTRAL
+          PIER OF A GOTHIC DOORWAY.]
+
+
+    KEEP.--The tower which formed the stronghold of a medi�val
+    castle.
+
+    KING POST.--The middle post in the framing of a timber roof.
+
+
+    LANCET ARCH.--The sharply-pointed window-head and arch,
+    characteristic of English Gothic in the thirteenth century.
+
+    LANTERN.--A conspicuous feature rising above a roof or
+    crowning a dome, and intended usually to light a Hall, but
+    often introduced simply as an architectural finish to the
+    whole building.
+
+    LIERNE (rib).--A rib intermediate between the main ribs in
+    Gothic vaulting.
+
+    LIGHT.--One of the divisions of a window of which the entire
+    width is divided by one or more mullions.
+
+    LINTEL.--The stone or beam covering a doorway or other
+    opening not spanned by an arch. Sometimes applied to the
+    architrave of an order.
+
+    LOGGIA (Italian).--An open arcade with a gallery behind.
+
+    LOOP.--Short for loophole. A very narrow slit in the wall of
+    a fortress, serving as a window, or to shoot through.
+
+    LUCARNE.--A spire-light. A small window like a slender
+    dormer window.
+
+
+    MOAT (or Fosse).--The ditch round a fortress or
+    semi-fortified house.
+
+    MOSAIC.--An ornament for pavements, walls, and the surfaces
+    of vaults, formed by cementing together small pieces of
+    coloured material (stone, marble, tile, &c.) so as to
+    produce a pattern or picture.
+
+    MOULDING.--A term applied to all varieties of contour or
+    outline given to the angles, projections, or recesses of the
+    various parts of a building. The object being either to
+    produce an outline satisfactory to the eye; or, more
+    frequently, to obtain a play of light and shade, and to
+    produce the appearance of a line or a series of lines, broad
+    or narrow, and of varying intensity of lightness or shade in
+    the building or some of its features.
+
+    The contour which a moulding would present when cut across
+    in a direction at right angles to its length is called its
+    profile.
+
+    The profile of mouldings varied with each style of
+    architecture and at each period (Figs. _W_ to _Z_). When
+    ornaments are carved out of some of the moulded surfaces the
+    latter are technically termed enriched mouldings. The
+    enrichments in use varied with each style and each period,
+    as the mouldings themselves did.
+
+    MULLION.--The upright bars of stone frequently employed
+    (especially in Gothic architecture) to subdivide one window
+    into two or more lights.
+
+
+    NAVE.--(1) The central avenue of a church or cathedral; (2)
+    the western part of a church as distinguished from the
+    chancel or choir; (3) occasionally, any avenue in the
+    interior of a building which is divided by one or more rows
+    of columns running lengthways is called a nave.
+
+    NECKING (of a column).--The point (usually marked by a
+    fillet or other small projecting moulding) where the shaft
+    ends and the capital begins.
+
+    NEWEL POST.--The stout post at the foot of a staircase from
+    which the balustrade or the handrail starts.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _W_.--ARCH MOULDING. (Gothic, 12th
+          Century.)]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _Y_.--ARCH MOULDING. (Decorated, 14th
+          Century.)]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _Z_.--ARCH MOULDING. (Gothic, 13th
+          Century.)]
+
+    NICHE.--A recess in a wall for a statue, vase, or other
+    upright ornament.
+
+    NORMAN.--The architecture of England from the Norman
+    Conquest till the latter part of the twelfth century.
+
+
+    OGEE.--A moulding or line of part concave and part convex
+    curvature (see Fig. _E_, showing an ogee-shaped arch).
+
+    OGIVAL.--Ogee-shaped (see Fig. 54).
+
+    OPEN TRACERY.--Tracery in which the spaces between the bars
+    are neither closed by slabs of stone nor glazed.
+
+    ORDER.--(1) In Classical and Renaissance architecture a
+    single column or pilaster and its appropriate entablature or
+    superstructure; (2) a series of columns or pilasters with
+    their entablature; (3) an entire decorative system
+    appropriate to the kind of column chosen. In Renaissance
+    architecture there are five orders--the Tuscan, Doric,
+    Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite. Each has its own proper
+    column, and its proper base, shaft, and capital; and its own
+    entablature. The proportions and the degree of enrichment
+    appropriate to each vary. The Tuscan being the sturdiest and
+    plainest, the Composite the most slender and most small, and
+    the others taking place in the succession in which they
+    stand enumerated above. Where more than one order occurs in
+    a building, as constantly happens in Classic and Renaissance
+    buildings, the orders which are the plainest and most sturdy
+    (and have been named first) if employed, are invariably
+    placed below the more slender orders; _e.g._ the Doric is
+    never placed _over_ the Corinthian or the Ionic, but if
+    employed in combination with either of those orders it is
+    always the lowest in position.
+
+    ORIEL.--A window projecting like a bay or bow window, not
+    resting on the ground but thrown out above the ground level
+    and resting on a corbel.
+
+
+    PALLADIAN.--A phase of fully developed Renaissance
+    architecture introduced by the architect Palladio, and
+    largely followed in England as well as in Italy.
+
+    PANEL.--(1) The thinner portions of the framed woodwork of
+    doors and other such joiner's work; (2) all sunk
+    compartments in masonry, ceilings, &c.
+
+    PANELLING.--(1) Woodwork formed of framework containing
+    panels; (2) any decoration formed of a series of sunk
+    compartments.
+
+    PARAPET.--A breastwork or low wall used to protect the
+    gutters and screen the roofs of buildings; also, perhaps
+    primarily, to protect the ramparts of fortifications.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _A A_.--OPEN PARAPET, LATE DECORATED.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _B B_.--BATTLEMENTED PARAPET,
+          PERPENDICULAR.]
+
+    PAVILION.--A strongly marked single block of building; most
+    frequently applied to those blocks in French and other
+    Renaissance buildings that are marked out by high roofs.
+
+    PEDESTAL.--(1) A substructure sometimes placed under a
+    column in Renaissance architecture; (2) a similar
+    substructure intended to carry a statue, vase, or other
+    ornament.
+
+    PEDIMENT.--(1) The gable, where used in Renaissance
+    buildings; (2) an ornamental gable sometimes placed over
+    windows, doors, and other features in Gothic buildings.
+
+    PERP.          } The Gothic architecture of the fifteenth century
+    PERPENDICULAR. }   in England. _Abbreviated_ Perp.
+
+    PIER.--(1) A mass of walling, either a detached portion of
+    a wall or a distinct structure of masonry, taking the place
+    of a column in the arcade of a church or elsewhere; (2) a
+    group or cluster of shafts substituted for a column.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _C C_.--EARLY ENGLISH PIERS.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _D D_.--LATE DECORATED AND PERPENDICULAR
+          PIERS.]
+
+    PILASTER.--A square column, usually attached to a wall;
+    frequently used in Classic and Renaissance architecture in
+    combination with columns.
+
+    PINNACLE (in Gothic architecture).--A small turret, or
+    ornament, usually with a pointed top, employed to mark the
+    summit of gables, buttresses, and other tall features.
+
+    PITCH.--The degree of slope given to a roof, gable, or
+    pediment.
+
+    PLAN.--(1) A map of the floor of a building, showing the
+    piers, if any, and the walls which inclose and divide it,
+    with the openings in them; (2) the actual arrangement and
+    disposition of the floors, piers, and walls of the building
+    itself.
+
+    PLANE.--The imaginary surface within which a series of
+    mouldings lies, and which coincides with the salient and
+    important points of that series. Mouldings are said to be on
+    an oblique plane when their plane forms an angle less than a
+    right angle with the face of the wall; and in receding
+    planes, when they can be divided into a series of groups of
+    more or less stepped outline, each within and behind the
+    other, and each partly bounded by a plane parallel with the
+    face of the wall.
+
+    PLASTER.--The plastic material, of which the groundwork is
+    lime and sand, used to cover walls internally and to form
+    ceilings. Sometimes employed as a covering to walls
+    externally.
+
+    PLINTH.--The base of a wall or of a column or range of
+    columns.
+
+    PORTAL.--A dignified and important entrance doorway.
+
+    PORTICO.--A range of columns with their entablature (and
+    usually covered by a pediment), marking the entrance to a
+    Renaissance or Classic building.
+
+    PRISMATIC RUSTICATION.--In Elizabethan architecture
+    rusticated masonry with diamond-shaped projections worked on
+    the face of each stone.
+
+    PROFILE.--The contour or outline of mouldings as they would
+    appear if sawn across at right angles to their length.
+
+    PORCH.--A small external structure to protect and ornament
+    the doorway to a building (rarely met with in Renaissance).
+
+
+    QUATREFOIL.--A four-leaved ornament occupying a circle in
+    tracery or a panel.
+
+
+    RAFTERS.--The sloping beams of a roof upon which the
+    covering of the roof rests.
+
+    RAGSTONE.--A coarse stone found in parts of Kent and
+    elsewhere, and used for walling.
+
+    RECEDING PLANES.--(See Plane.)
+
+    RECESS.--A sinking in a building deeper than a mere panel.
+
+    RECESSING.--Forming one or more recesses. Throwing back some
+    part of a building behind the general face.
+
+    RENAISSANCE.--The art of the period of the Classic revival
+    which began in the sixteenth century. In this volume used
+    chiefly to denote the architecture of Europe in that and the
+    succeeding centuries.
+
+    RIB (in Gothic vaulting).--A bar of masonry or moulding
+    projecting beyond the general surface of a vault, to mark
+    its intersections or subdivide its surface, and to add
+    strength.
+
+    RIDGE.--(1) The straight line or ornament which marks the
+    summit of a roof; (2) the line or rib, straight or curved,
+    which marks the summit of a vault.
+
+    ROLL.--A round moulding.
+
+    ROSE WINDOW.--A wheel window (which see).
+
+    RUBBLE.--Rough stonework forming the heart of a masonry
+    wall; sometimes faced with ashlar (which see), sometimes
+    shown.
+
+    RUSTICATION (or RUSTICATED MASONRY).--The sort of ornamental
+    ashlar masonry (chiefly Classic and Renaissance) in which
+    each stone is distinguished by a broad channel all round it,
+    marking the joints.
+
+    RUSTICS.--The individual blocks of stone used in rustication
+    (as described above).
+
+
+    SCREEN.--An internal partition or inclosure cutting off part
+    of a building. At the entrance to the choir of a church
+    screens of beautiful workmanship were used.
+
+    SCROLL MOULDING.--A round roll moulding showing a line along
+    its face (distinctive of decorated Gothic).
+
+    SCROLL WORK.--Ornament showing winding spiral lines like the
+    edge of a scroll of paper (chiefly found in Elizabethan).
+
+    SECTION.--(1) A drawing of a building as it would appear if
+    cut through at some fixed plane. (2) That part of the
+    construction of a building which would be displayed by such
+    a drawing as described above. (3) The profile of a moulding.
+
+    SET-OFF.--A small ledge formed by diminishing the thickness
+    of a wall or pier.
+
+    SEXPARTITE VAULTING.--Where each bay or compartment is
+    divided by its main ribs into six portions.
+
+    SGRAFFITO (Italian).--An ornament produced by scratching
+    lines on the plastered face of a building so as to show a
+    different colour filling up the lines or surfaces scratched
+    away.
+
+    SHAFT.--(1) The middle part of a column between its base and
+    capital. (2) In Gothic, slender columns introduced for
+    ornamental purposes, singly or in clusters.
+
+    SHELL ORNAMENT.--A decoration frequently employed in Italian
+    and French Renaissance, and resembling the interior of a
+    shell.
+
+    SKY-LINE.--The outline which a building will show against
+    the sky.
+
+    SPANDREL.--The triangular (or other shaped) space between
+    the outside of an arch and the mouldings, or surfaces
+    inclosing it or in contact with it. (See Fig. _S_, under
+    Diaper.)
+
+    SPIRE.--The steep and pointed roof of a tower (usually a
+    church tower).
+
+    SPIRE-LIGHT (or LUCARNE).--A dormer window (which see) in a
+    spire.
+
+    SPLAY.--A slope making with the face of a wall an angle less
+    than a right angle.
+
+    STAGE.--One division in the height of any building or
+    portion of a building where horizontal divisions are
+    distinctly marked, _e.g._, the belfry stage of a tower, the
+    division in which the bells are hung.
+
+    STEEPLE.--A tower and spire in combination. Sometimes
+    applied to a tower or spire separately.
+
+    STEPPED GABLE.--A gable in which, instead of a sloping line,
+    the outline is formed by a series of steps.
+
+    STILTED ARCH.--An arch of which the curve does not commence
+    till above the level of the impost (which see).
+
+    STORY.--(1) The portion of a building between one floor and
+    the next; (2) any stage or decidedly marked horizontal
+    compartment of a building, even if not corresponding to an
+    actual story marked by a floor.
+
+    STRAP-WORK (Elizabethan).--An ornament representing
+    strap-like fillets interlaced.
+
+    STRING-COURSE.--A projecting horizontal (or occasionally
+    sloping) band or line of mouldings.
+
+
+    TABERNACLE WORK.--The richly ornamented and carved work with
+    which the smaller and more precious features of a church,
+    _e.g._, the fittings of a choir, were adorned and made
+    conspicuous.
+
+    TERMINAL (or Finial).--The ornamental top of a pinnacle,
+    gable, &c.
+
+    TERRA-COTTA.--A fine kind of brick capable of being highly
+    ornamented, and formed into blocks of some size.
+
+    THRUST.--The pressure exercised laterally by an arch or
+    vault, or by the timbers of a roof on the abutments or
+    supports.
+
+    TIE.--A beam of wood, bar of iron, or similar expedient
+    employed to hold together the feet or sides of an arch,
+    vault, or roof, and so counteract the thrust.
+
+    TORUS.--A large convex moulding.
+
+    TOWER.--A portion of a building rising conspicuously above
+    the general mass, and obviously distinguished by its height
+    from that mass. A detached building of which the height is
+    great, relative to the width and breadth.
+
+    TRACERY (Gothic).--The ornamental stonework formed by the
+    curving and interlacing of bars of stone, and occupying the
+    heads of windows, panels, and other situations where
+    decoration and lightness have to be combined. The simplest
+    and earliest tracery might be described as a combination of
+    openings pierced through the stone head of an arch. Cusping
+    and foliation (which see) are features of tracery. (See
+    Figs. 18, 19, 55, and 57 in the text.)
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _E E_.--PERPENDICULAR WINDOW-HEAD.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _F F_.--LATE PERPENDICULAR WINDOW-HEAD.]
+
+    TRANSEPT.--The arms of a church or cathedral which cross
+    the line of the nave.
+
+    TRANSITION.--The architecture of a period coming between and
+    sharing the characteristics of two distinctly marked styles
+    or phases of architecture, one of which succeeded the other.
+
+    TRANSOM.--A horizontal bar (usually of stone) across a
+    window or panel.
+
+    TREFOIL.--A three-leaved or three-lobed form found
+    constantly in the heads of windows and in other situations
+    where tracery is employed.
+
+    TRIFORIUM (or THOROUGH-FARE).--The story in a large church
+    or cathedral intermediate between the arcade separating the
+    nave and aisles, and the clerestory.
+
+    TUDOR.--The architecture of England during the reigns of the
+    Tudor kings. The use of the term is usually, however,
+    restricted to a period which closes with the end of Henry
+    VIII.'s reign, 1547.
+
+    TURRET.--A small tower, sometimes rising from the ground,
+    but often carried on corbels and commencing near the upper
+    part of the building to which it is an appendage.
+
+    TYMPANUM.--The filling in of the head of an arch, or
+    occasionally of an ornamental gable.
+
+
+    UNDERCUTTING.--A moulding or ornament of which the greater
+    part stands out from the mouldings or surfaces which it
+    adjoins, as though almost or quite detached from them, is
+    said to be undercut.
+
+
+    VAULT.--An arched ceiling to a building, or part of a
+    building, executed in masonry or in some substitute for
+    masonry.
+
+    The vaults of the Norman period were simple barrel- or
+    waggon-headed vaults, and semicircular arches only were used
+    in their construction. With the Gothic period the use of
+    intersecting, and as a result of pointed arches, was
+    introduced into vaulting, and vaults went on increasing in
+    complexity and elaboration till the Tudor period, when
+    fan-vaulting was employed. Our illustrations show some of
+    the steps in the development of Gothic vaults referred to in
+    Chapter V. of the text. No. 1 represents a waggon-head vault
+    with an intersecting vault occupying part of its length. No.
+    2 represents one of the expedients adopted for vaulting an
+    oblong compartment before the pointed arch was introduced.
+    The narrower arch is stilted and the line of the groin is
+    not true. No. 3 represents a similar compartment vaulted
+    without any distortion or irregularity by the help of the
+    pointed arch. No. 4 represents one lay of a sexpartite
+    Gothic vault. No. 5 represents a vault with lierne ribs
+    making a star-shaped pallom on plan, and No. 6 is a somewhat
+    more intricate example of the same class of vault.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _G G_.--VAULTS.]
+
+    Vaults are met with in Renaissance buildings, but they are a
+    less distinctive feature of such buildings than they were in
+    the Gothic period; and in many cases where a vault or a
+    series of vaults would have been employed by a Gothic
+    architect, a Renaissance architect has preferred to make use
+    of a dome or a series of domes. This is called domical
+    vaulting. Examples of it occur occasionally in Gothic work.
+
+
+    WAGGON-HEAD VAULTING, OR BARREL-VAULTING.--A simple form of
+    tunnel-like vaulting, which gets its name from its
+    resemblance to the tilt often seen over large waggons, or to
+    the half of a barrel.
+
+    WAINSCOT.--(1) The panelling often employed to line the
+    walls of a room or building; (2) a finely marked variety of
+    oak imported chiefly from Holland; probably so called
+    because wainscot oak was at one time largely employed for
+    such panelling.
+
+    WEATHERING.--A sloping surface of stone employed to cover
+    the set-off (which see) of a wall or buttress and protect it
+    from the effects of weather.
+
+    WHEEL WINDOW.--A circular window, and usually one in which
+    mullions radiate from a centre towards the circumference
+    like the spokes of a wheel; sometimes called a rose-window.
+
+    WINDOW-HEAD.--For illustrations of the various forms and
+    filling-in of Gothic window-heads, see the words Arch and
+    Tracery.
+
+  [Illustration: {ORNAMENTAL DOLPHIN PATTERN.}]
+
+
+
+
+HEAD AND TAILPIECES.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+    HEADPIECE.--CR�TE FROM NOTRE DAME, PARIS                         1
+
+        "       SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL            6
+
+        "            "           "       SENS CATHEDRAL             21
+
+        "            "           "       WESTMINSTER ABBEY          28
+
+    TAILPIECE.--NORMAN CAPITALS                                     44
+
+    HEADPIECE.--SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY          45
+
+    TAILPIECE.--MISERERE SEAT FROM WELLS CATHEDRAL                  68
+
+    HEADPIECE.--STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL               69
+
+    TAILPIECE.--MISERERE SEAT FROM WELLS CATHEDRAL                  92
+
+        "       ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL                     153
+
+    HEADPIECE.--RENAISSANCE ORNAMENT FROM A FRIEZE                 154
+
+        "       FROM A TERRA-COTTA FRIEZE AT LODI                  165
+
+    TAILPIECE.--FROM A DOOR IN SANTA MARIA, VENICE                 192
+
+    HEADPIECE.--ORNAMENT BY GIULIO ROMANO                          193
+
+        "       FROM A FRIEZE AT VENICE                            235
+
+THE END-PAPERS ARE FROM A TAPESTRY IN HARDWICK HALL.
+
+
+  [Illustration: _The Lily of Florence._]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {CR�TE FROM NOTRE DAME, PARIS.}]
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The architecture generally known as Gothic, but often described as
+Christian Pointed, prevailed throughout Europe to the exclusion of
+every rival for upwards of three centuries; and it is to be met with,
+more or less, during two others. Speaking broadly, it may be said that
+its origin took place in the twelfth century, that the thirteenth was
+the period of its development, the fourteenth that of its perfection,
+and the fifteenth that of its decline; while many examples of its
+employment occur in the sixteenth.
+
+In the following chapters the principal changes in the features of
+buildings which occurred during the progress of the style in England
+will be described. Subsequently, the manner in which the different
+stages of development were reached in different countries will be
+given; for architecture passed through very nearly the same phases in
+all European nations, though not quite simultaneously.
+
+It must be understood that through the whole Gothic period, growth or
+at least change was going on; the transitions from one stage to
+another were only periods of more rapid change than usual. The whole
+process may be illustrated by the progress of a language. If, for
+instance, we compare round-arched architecture in the eleventh century
+to the Anglo-Saxon form of speech of the time of Alfred the Great, and
+the architecture of the twelfth century to the English of Chaucer,
+that of the thirteenth will correspond to the richer language of
+Shakespeare, that of the fourteenth to the highly polished language of
+Addison and Pope, and that of the fifteenth to the English of our own
+day. We can thus obtain an apt parallel to the gradual change and
+growth which went on in architecture; and we shall find that the
+oneness of the language in the former case, and of the architecture in
+the latter, was maintained throughout.
+
+For an account of the Christian round-arched architecture which
+preceded Gothic, the reader is referred to the companion volume in
+this series. Here it will be only necessary briefly to review the
+circumstances which went before the appearance of the pointed styles.
+
+The Roman empire had introduced into Europe some thing like a
+universal architecture, so that the buildings of any Roman colony bore
+a strong resemblance to those of every other colony and of the
+metropolis; varying, of course, in extent and magnificence, but not
+much in design. The architecture of the Dark Ages in Western Europe
+exhibited, so far as is known, the same general similarity. Down to
+the eleventh century the buildings erected (almost exclusively
+churches and monastic buildings) were not large or rich, and were
+heavy in appearance and simple in construction. Their arches were all
+semicircular.
+
+The first rays of light across the gloom of the Dark Ages seem to
+have come from the energy and ability of Charlemagne in the eighth
+century.
+
+In the succeeding century, this activity received a check; an idea
+became generally prevalent that the year one thousand was to see the
+end of the world; men's minds were overshadowed with apprehension; and
+buildings, in common with other undertakings of a permanent nature,
+were but little attempted.
+
+When the millennium came and passed, and left all as it had been, a
+kind of revulsion of feeling was experienced; many important
+undertakings were set on foot, such as during the preceding years it
+had not been thought worth while to prosecute. The eleventh century
+thus became a time of great religious activity; and if the First
+Crusade, which took place 1095, may be taken as one outcome of that
+pious zeal, another can certainly be found in the large and often
+costly churches and monasteries which rose in every part of England,
+France, Germany, Lombardy, and South Italy. Keen rivalry raged among
+the builders of these churches; each one was built larger and finer
+than the previous examples, and the details began to grow elaborate.
+Construction and ornament were in fact advancing and improving, if not
+from year to year, at any rate from decade to decade, so that by the
+commencement of the twelfth century a remarkable development had taken
+place. The ideas of the dimensions of churches then entertained were
+really almost as liberal as during the best period of Gothic
+architecture.
+
+An illustration of this fact is furnished by the rebuilding of
+Westminster Abbey under Edward the Confessor. He pulled down a small
+church which he found standing on the site, in order to erect one
+suitable in size and style to the ideas of the day. The style of his
+cathedral (but not its dimensions) soon became so much out of date
+that Henry III. pulled the buildings down in order to re-erect them of
+the lofty proportions and with the pointed arches which we now see in
+the choir and transepts of the Abbey; but the size remained nearly the
+same, for there is evidence to show that the Confessor's buildings
+must have occupied very nearly, if not quite, as much ground as those
+which succeeded them.
+
+At the beginning of the twelfth century many local peculiarities, some
+of them due to accident, some to the nature and quality of the
+building materials obtainable, some to differences of race, climate,
+and habits, and some to other causes, had begun to make their
+appearance in the buildings of various parts of Europe; and through
+the whole Gothic period such peculiarities were to be met with. Still
+the points of similarity were greater and more numerous than the
+differences; so much so, that by going through the course which Gothic
+architecture ran in one of the countries in which it flourished, it
+will readily be possible to furnish a general outline of the subject
+as a whole; it will then only be requisite to point out the principal
+variations in the practice of other countries. On some grounds France
+would be the most suitable country to select for this purpose, for
+Gothic appeared earlier and flourished more brilliantly in that
+country than in any other; the balance of advantage lies however, when
+writing for English students, in the selection of Great Britain. The
+various phases through which the art passed are well marked in this
+country, they have been fully studied and described, and, what is of
+the greatest importance, English examples are easily accessible to the
+majority of students, while those which cannot be visited may be very
+readily studied from engravings and photographs. English Gothic will
+therefore be first considered; but as a preliminary a few words
+remain to be said describing generally the buildings which have come
+down to us from the Gothic period.
+
+The word Gothic, which was in use in the eighteenth century, and
+probably earlier, was invented at a time when a Goth was synonymous
+with everything that was barbarous; and its use then implied a
+reproach. It denotes, according to Mr. Fergusson, "all the styles
+invented and used by the Western barbarians who overthrew the Roman
+empire, and settled within its limits."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 1.--WEST ENTRANCE, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL, (1275.)
+      (_See Chapter V._)]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE BUILDINGS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
+
+
+By far the most important specimens of Gothic architecture are the
+cathedrals and large churches which were built during the prevalence
+of the style. They were more numerous, larger, and more complete as
+works of art than any other structures, and accordingly they are to be
+considered on every account as the best examples of pointed
+architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--GROUND PLAN OF PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL. (1118
+      to 1193.) A. Nave. B B. Transepts. C. Choir. D D. Aisles.
+      E. Principal Entrance.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE NAVE OF SALISBURY
+      CATHEDRAL. (A.D. 1217).]
+
+The arrangement and construction of a Gothic cathedral were
+customarily as follows:--(See Fig. 2.) The main axis of the building
+was always east and west, the principal entrance being at the west
+end, usually under a grand porch or portal, and the high altar stood
+at the east end. The plan (or main floor) of the building almost
+always displays the form of a cross. The stem of the cross is the part
+from the west entrance to the crossing, and is called the nave. The
+arms of the cross are called transepts, and point respectively north
+and south. Their crossing with the nave is often called the
+intersection. The remaining arm, which prolongs the stem eastwards, is
+ordinarily called the choir, but sometimes the presbytery, and
+sometimes the chancel. All these names really refer to the position of
+the internal fittings of the church, and it is often more accurate
+simply to employ the term eastern arm for this portion of a church.
+
+The nave is flanked by two avenues running parallel to it, narrower
+and lower than itself, called aisles. They are separated from it by
+rows of columns or piers, connected together by arches. Thus the nave
+has an arcade on each side of it, and each aisle has an arcade on one
+side, and a main external wall on the other. The aisle walls are
+usually pierced by windows. The arches of the arcade carry walls which
+rise above the roofs of the aisles, and light the nave. These walls
+are usually subdivided internally into two heights or stories; the
+lower story consists of a series of small arches, to which the name of
+triforium is given. This arcade usually opens into the dark space
+above the ceiling or vault of the aisle, and hence it is sometimes
+called the blind story. The upper story is the range of windows
+already alluded to as lighting the nave, and is called the clerestory.
+Thus a spectator standing in the nave, and looking towards the side
+(Figs. 4 and 5), will see opposite him the main arcade, and over that
+the triforium, and over that the clerestory, crowned by the nave vault
+or roof; and looking through the arches of the nave arcade, he will
+see the side windows of the aisle. Above the clerestory of the nave,
+and the side windows of the aisles, come the vaults or roofs. In some
+instances double aisles (two on each side) have been employed.
+
+The transepts usually consist of well-marked limbs, divided like the
+nave into a centre avenue and two side aisles, and these usually are
+of the same width and height as the nave and its aisles. Sometimes
+there are no transepts; sometimes they do not project beyond the line
+of the walls, but still are marked by their rising above the lower
+height of the nave aisles. Sometimes the transepts have no aisles, or
+an aisle only on one side.[1] On the other hand, it is sometimes
+customary, especially in English examples, to form two pairs of
+transepts. This occurs in Lichfield Cathedral.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--CHOIR OF WORCESTER CATHEDRAL. (BEGUN 1224.)
+      A. Nave Arcade. B. Triforium. C. Clerestory.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--NAVE OF WELLS CATHEDRAL. (1206 TO 1242.)
+      A. Nave Arcade. B. Triforium. C. Clerestory.]
+
+The eastern arm of the cathedral is the part to which most importance
+was attached, and it is usual to mark that importance by greater
+richness, and by a difference in the height of its roof or vault as
+compared with the nave; its floor is always raised. It also has its
+central passage and its aisles; and it has double aisles much more
+frequently than the nave. The eastern termination of the cathedral is
+sometimes semicircular, sometimes polygonal, and when it takes this
+form it is called an apse or an apsidal east end; sometimes it is
+square, the apse being most in use on the Continent, and the square
+east end in England. Attached to some of the side walls of the church
+it is usual to have a series of chapels; these are ordinarily chambers
+partly shut off from the main structure, but opening into it by arched
+openings; each chapel contains an altar. The finest chapel is usually
+one placed on the axis of the cathedral, and east of the east end of
+the main building; this is called, where it exists, the Lady Chapel,
+and was customarily dedicated to the Virgin. Henry VII.'s Chapel at
+Westminster (Fig. 6) furnishes a familiar instance of the lady chapel
+of a great church. Next in importance rank the side chapels which open
+out of the aisles of the apse, when there is one. Westminster Abbey
+furnishes good examples of these also. The eastern wall of the
+transept is a favourite position for chapels. They are less frequently
+added to the nave aisles.
+
+The floor of the eastern arm of the cathedral, as has been pointed
+out, is always raised, so as to be approached by steps; it is inclosed
+by screen work which shuts off the choir, or inclosure for the
+performance of divine service, from the nave. The fittings of this
+part of the building generally include stalls for the clergy and
+choristers and a bishop's throne, and are usually beautiful works of
+art. Tombs, and inclosures connected with them, called chantry
+chapels, are constantly met with in various positions, but most
+frequently in the eastern arm.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--GROUND PLAN OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY.]
+
+Below the raised floor of the choir, and sometimes below other parts
+of the building, there often exists a subterranean vaulted structure
+known as the crypt.
+
+Passing to the exterior of the cathedral, the principal doorway is in
+the western front:[2] usually supplemented by entrances at the ends of
+the transepts, and one or more side entrances to the nave. A porch on
+the north side of the nave is a common feature. The walls are now seen
+to be strengthened by stone piers, called buttresses. Frequently
+arches are thrown from these buttresses to the higher walls of the
+building. The whole arrangement of pier and arch is called a flying
+buttress,[3] and, as will be explained later, is used to steady the
+upper part of the building when a stone vault is employed (see Chap.
+V.). The lofty gables in which the nave and transepts, and the eastern
+arm when square terminate, form prominent features, and are often
+occupied by great windows.
+
+In a complete cathedral, the effect of the exterior is largely due to
+the towers with which it was adorned. The most massive tower was
+ordinarily one which stood, like the central one of Lichfield
+Cathedral, at the crossing of the nave and transepts. Two towers were
+usually intended at the western front of the building, and sometimes
+one, or occasionally two, at the end of each transept. It is rare to
+find a cathedral where the whole of these towers have been even begun,
+much less completed. In many cases only one, in others three, have
+been built. In some instances they have been erected, and have fallen.
+In others they have never been carried up at all. During a large
+portion of the Gothic period it was usual to add to each tower a
+lofty pyramidal roof or spire, and these are still standing in some
+instances, though many of them have disappeared. Occasionally a tower
+was built quite detached from the church to which it belonged.
+
+To cathedrals and abbey churches a group of monastic buildings was
+appended. It will not be necessary to describe these in much detail.
+They were grouped round an open square, surrounded by a vaulted and
+arcaded passage, which is known as the cloister. This was usually
+fitted into the warm and sheltered angle formed by the south side of
+the nave and the south transept, though occasionally the cloister is
+found on the north side of the nave. The most important building
+opening out of the cloister is the chapter-house, frequently a lofty
+and richly-ornamented room, often octagonal, and generally standing
+south of the south transept. The usual arrangement of the monastic
+buildings round and adjoining the cloister varied in details with the
+requirements of the different monastic orders, and the circumstances
+of each individual religious house, but, as in the case of churches,
+the general principles of disposition were fixed early. They are
+embodied in a manuscript plan, dating as far back as the ninth
+century, and found at St. Gall in Switzerland, and never seem to have
+been widely departed from. The monks' dormitory here occupies the
+whole east side of the great cloister, there being no chapter-house.
+It is usually met with as nearly in this position as the transept and
+the chapter-house will permit. The refectory is on the south side of
+the cloister, and has a connected kitchen. The west side of the
+cloister in this instance was occupied by a great cellar. Frequently a
+hospitum, or apartment for entertaining guests, stood here. The north
+side of the cloister was formed by the church.
+
+For the abbot a detached house was provided in the St. Gall plan to
+stand on the north side of the church; and a second superior hospitum
+for his guests. Eastward of the church are placed the infirmary with
+its chapel, and an infirmarer's lodging. The infirmary was commonly
+arranged with a nave and aisles, much like, a small parish church.
+Other detached buildings gave a public school, a school for novices
+with its chapel, and, more remotely placed, granaries, mills, a
+bakehouse, and other offices. A garden and a cemetery formed part of
+the scheme, which corresponds tolerably well with that of many
+monastic buildings remaining in England, as _e.g._, those at
+Fountains' Abbey, Furness Abbey, or Westminster Abbey, so far as they
+can be traced.
+
+Generally speaking the principal buildings in a monastery were long
+and not very wide apartments, with windows on both sides. Frequently
+they were vaulted, and they often had a row of columns down the
+middle. Many are two stories high. Of the dependencies, the kitchen,
+which was often a vaulted apartment with a chimney, and the barn,
+which was often of great size, were the most prominent. They are often
+fine buildings. At Glastonbury very good examples of a monastic barn
+and kitchen can be seen.
+
+Second only in importance to the churches and religious buildings come
+the military and domestic buildings of the Gothic period (Fig. 7).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--HOUSE OF JAQUES COEUR AT BOURGES.
+      (BEGUN 1413.)]
+
+Every dwelling-house of consequence was more or less fortified, at any
+rate during the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries. A lofty
+square tower, called a keep, built to stand a siege, and with a walled
+inclosure at its feet, often protected by a wide ditch (fosse or
+moat), formed the castle of the twelfth century, and in some cases
+(_e.g._ the White Tower of London), this keep was of considerable
+size. The first step in enlargement was to increase the number and
+importance of the buildings which clustered round the keep, and to
+form two inclosures for them, known as an inner and an outer bailey.
+The outer buildings of the Tower of London, though much modernised,
+will give a good idea of what a first class castle grew to be by
+successive additions of this sort. In castles erected near the end of
+the thirteenth century (_e.g._ Conway Castle in North Wales), and
+later, the square form of the keep was abandoned, and many more
+arrangements for the comfort and convenience of the occupants were
+introduced; and the buildings and additions to buildings of the
+fifteenth century took more the shape of a modern dwelling-house,
+partly protected against violence, but by no means strong enough to
+stand a siege. Penshurst may be cited as a good example of this class
+of building.
+
+It will be understood that, unlike the religious buildings which early
+received the form and disposition from which they did not depart
+widely, medi�val domestic buildings exhibit an amount of change in
+which we can readily trace the effects of the gradual settlement of
+this country, the abandonment of habits of petty warfare, the ultimate
+cessation of civil wars, the introduction of gunpowder, the increase
+in wealth and desire for comfort, and last, but not least, the
+confiscation by Henry VIII. of the property of the monastic houses.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--PLAN OF WARWICK CASTLE. (14TH AND FOLLOWING
+      CENTURIES.)]
+
+Warwick Castle, of which we give a plan (Fig. 8), maybe cited as a
+good example of an English castellated mansion of the time of Richard
+II. Below the principal story there is a vaulted basement containing
+the kitchens and many of the offices. On the main floor we find the
+hall, entered as usual at the lower or servants' end, from a porch.
+The upper end gives access to a sitting-room, built immediately
+behind it, and beyond are a drawing-room and state bed-rooms, while
+across a passage are placed the private chapel and a large dining-room
+(a modern addition). Bed-rooms occupy the upper floors of the
+buildings at both ends of the hall.
+
+Perhaps even more interesting as a study than Warwick Castle is Haddon
+Hall, the well-preserved residence of the Duke of Rutland, in
+Derbyshire. The five or six successive enlargements and additions
+which this building has received between the thirteenth and
+seventeenth centuries show the growth of ideas of comfort and even
+luxury in this country.
+
+As it now stands, Haddon Hall contains two internal quadrangles,
+separated from one another by the great hall with its dais, its
+minstrels' gallery, its vast open fire-place, and its traceried
+windows, and by the kitchens, butteries, &c., belonging to it.
+
+The most important apartments are reached from the upper end of the
+hall, and consist of the magnificent ball-room, and a dining-room in
+the usual position, _i.e._ adjoining the hall and opening out of it;
+with, on the upper floor, a drawing-room, and a suite of state
+bed-rooms, occupying the south side of both quadrangles and the east
+end of one. A large range of apartments, added at a late period, and
+many of them finely panelled and lined with tapestry, occupies the
+north side of this building and the northwestern tower. At the
+south-western corner of the building stands a chapel of considerable
+size, and which once seems to have served as a kind of parochial
+church; and a very considerable number of rooms of small size, opening
+out of both quadrangles, would afford shelter, if not comfortable
+lodging, to retainers, servants, and others. The portions built in
+the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries are more or less
+fortified. The ball-room, which is of Elizabethan architecture, opens
+on to a terraced garden, accessible from without by no more violent
+means than climbing over a not very formidable wall. Probably nowhere
+in England, can the growth of domestic architecture be better studied,
+whether we look to the alterations which took place in accommodation
+and arrangement, or to the changes which occurred in the architectural
+treatment of windows, battlements, doorways and other features, than
+at Haddon Hall.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--PALACES ON THE GRAND CANAL, VENICE. (14TH
+      CENTURY.)]
+
+In towns and cities much beautiful domestic architecture is to be
+found in the ordinary dwelling-houses, _e.g._ houses from Chester and
+Lisieux (Figs. 14 and 15); but many specimens have of course perished,
+especially as timber was freely used in their construction.
+Dwelling-houses of a high order of excellence, and of large size, were
+also built during this period. The Gothic palaces of Venice, of which
+many stand on the Grand Canal (Fig. 9), are the best examples of
+these, and the lordly Ducal Palace in that city is perhaps the finest
+secular building which exists of Gothic architecture.
+
+Municipal buildings of great size and beauty are to be found in North
+Italy and Germany, but chiefly in Belgium, where the various
+town-halls of Louvain, Bruges, Ypres, Ghent, Antwerp, Brussels, &c.,
+vie with each other in magnificence and extent.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Many secular buildings also remain to us of which the architecture is
+Gothic. Among these we find public halls and large buildings for
+public purposes--as Westminster Hall, or the Palace of Justice at
+Rouen; hospitals, as that at Milan; or colleges, as King's College,
+Cambridge, with its unrivalled chapel. Many charming minor works,
+such as fountains, wells (Fig. 10), crosses, tombs, monuments, and the
+fittings of the interior of churches, also remain to attest the
+versatility, the power of design, and the cultivated taste of the
+architects of the Gothic period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--WELL AT REGENSBURG. (15TH CENTURY.)]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] As the north transept at Peterborough (Fig. 2).
+
+[2] At E on the plan of Peterborough (Fig. 2).
+
+[3] See Glossary.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.{--SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM SENS CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN.
+
+
+English Gothic architecture has been usually subdivided into three
+periods or stages of advancement, corresponding to those enumerated on
+page 1; the early stage known as Early English, or sometimes as
+Lancet, occupying the thirteenth century and something more; the
+middle stage, known as Decorated, occupying most of the fourteenth
+century; and the latest stage, known as Perpendicular, occupying the
+fifteenth century and part of the sixteenth.
+
+The duration of each of these coincides approximately with the
+century, the transition from each phase to the next taking place
+chiefly in the last quarter of the century. Adding the periods of the
+English types of round arched Architecture, we obtain the following
+table:--
+
+           Up to 1066 or up to middle of 11th century, SAXON.
+    A.D. 1066 to 1189 or up to end of    12th    "     NORMAN.
+    A.D. 1189 to 1307 or up to end of    13th    "     EARLY ENGLISH.
+    A.D. 1307 to 1377 or up to end of    14th    "     DECORATED.
+    A.D. 1377 to 1546 or up to middle of 16th    "     PERPENDICULAR.
+
+The term "Early English" (short for Early English Gothic) applied to
+English thirteenth-century architecture explains itself.
+
+The term "Lancet" sometimes applied to the Early English style, is
+derived from the shape of the ordinary window-heads, which resemble
+the point of a lancet in outline (Fig. 16). Whatever term be adopted,
+it is necessary to remark that a wide difference exists between the
+earlier and the late examples of this period. It will suffice for our
+purposes if, when speaking of the fully-developed style of the late
+examples, we refer to it as Advanced Early English.
+
+The architecture of the fourteenth century is called "Decorated," from
+the great increase of ornament, especially in window tracery and
+carved enrichments.
+
+The architecture of the fifteenth century is called "Perpendicular,"
+from the free use made of perpendicular lines, both in general
+features and in ornaments, especially in the tracery of the windows
+and the panelling with which walls are ornamented.[4]
+
+The following condensed list, partly from Morant,[5] of the most
+striking peculiarities of each period, may be found useful for
+reference, and is on that account placed here, notwithstanding that it
+contains many technical words, for the meaning of which the student
+must consult the Glossary which forms part of this volume.
+
+    ANGLO-SAXON--(Prior to the Norman Conquest).--
+
+    Rude work and rough material; walls mostly of rubble or
+    ragstone with ashlar at the angles in long and short courses
+    alternately; openings with round or triangular heads,
+    sometimes divided by a rude baluster. Piers plain, square,
+    and narrow. Windows splayed externally and internally. Rude
+    square blocks of stone in place of capitals and bases.
+    Mouldings generally semi-cylindrical and coarsely chiselled.
+    Corners of buildings square without buttresses.
+
+
+    NORMAN.  William I.  A.D. 1066.
+             William II.  "   1087.
+             Henry I.     "   1100.
+             Stephen      "   1135.
+             Henry II.    "   1154 to 1189.
+
+    Arches semicircular, occasionally stilted; at first plain,
+    afterwards enriched with chevron or other mouldings; and
+    frequent repetition of same ornament on each stone. Piers
+    low and massive, cylindrical, square, polygonal, or composed
+    of clustered shafts, often ornamented with spiral bands and
+    mouldings. Windows generally narrow and splayed internally
+    only; sometimes double and divided by a shaft. Walls
+    sometimes a series of arcades, a few pierced as windows, the
+    rest left blank. Doorways deeply recessed and richly
+    ornamented with bands of mouldings. Doors often square
+    headed, but under arches the head of the arch filled with
+    carving. Capitals carved in outline, often grotesquely
+    sculptured with devices of animals and leaves. Abacus
+    square, lower edge moulded. Bases much resembling the
+    classic orders. The mouldings at first imperfectly formed.
+    Pedestals of piers square. Buttresses plain, with broad
+    faces and small projections. Parapets plain with projecting
+    corbel table under.
+
+    Plain mouldings consist of chamfers, round or pointed rolls
+    at edges, divided from plain face by shallow channels.
+    Enriched mouldings--the chevrons or zig-zag, the billet
+    square or round, the cable, the lozenge, the chain, nail
+    heads, and others. Niches with figures over doorways. Roofs
+    of moderately high pitch, and open to the frame; timbers
+    chiefly king-post trusses. Towers square and massive--those
+    of late date richly adorned with arcades. Openings in towers
+    often beautifully grouped. Vaulting waggon-headed, and
+    simple intersecting vaults of semicircular outline.
+
+    Towards the close of the style in reign of Henry II.,
+    details of transitional character begin to appear. Pointed
+    arch with Norman pier. Arcades of intersecting semicircular
+    arches. Norman abacus blended with Early English foliage in
+    capitals.
+
+
+    EARLY ENGLISH.  Richard I. A.D. 1189 _Transition._
+                    John        "   1199.
+                    Henry III.  "   1216.
+                    Edward I.   "   1272 to 1307.
+
+    General proportions more slender, and height of walls,
+    columns, &c., greater. Arches pointed, generally lancet;
+    often richly moulded. Triforium arches and arcades open with
+    trefoiled heads. Piers slender, composed of a central
+    circular shaft surrounded by several smaller ones, almost or
+    quite detached; generally with horizontal bands. In small
+    buildings plain polygonal and circular piers are used.
+    Capitals concave in outline, moulded, or carved with
+    conventional foliage delicately executed and arranged
+    vertically. The abacus always undercut. Detached shafts
+    often of Purbeck marble. Base a deep hollow between two
+    rounds. Windows at first long, narrow, and deeply splayed
+    internally, the glass within a few inches of outer face of
+    wall; later in the style less acute, divided by mullions,
+    enriched with cusped circles in the head, often of three or
+    more lights, the centre light being the highest. Doorways
+    often deeply recessed and enriched with slender shafts and
+    elaborate mouldings. Shafts detached. Buttresses about equal
+    in projection to width, with but one set-off, or without
+    any. Buttresses at angles always in pairs. Mouldings bold
+    and deeply undercut, consisting chiefly of round mouldings
+    sometimes pointed or with a fillett, separated by deep
+    hollows. Great depth of moulded surface generally arranged
+    on rectangular planes. Hollows of irregular curve sometimes
+    filled with dogtooth ornament or with foliage. Roofs of
+    high pitch, timbers plain, and where there is no vault open.
+
+    Early in the style finials were plain bunches of leaves;
+    towards the close beautifully carved finials and crockets
+    with carved foliage of conventional character were
+    introduced. Flat surfaces often richly diapered. Spires
+    broached. Vaulting pointed with diagonal and main ribs only;
+    ridge ribs not introduced till late in the style; bosses at
+    intersection of ribs.
+
+
+    DECORATED.  Edward II.  A.D. 1307.
+                Edward III.  "   1377 to 1379.
+
+    Proportions less lofty than in the previous style. Arches
+    mostly inclosing an equilateral angle, the mouldings often
+    continued down the pier. Windows large, and divided into two
+    or more lights by mullions. Tracery in the head, at first
+    composed geometrical forms, later of flowing character.
+    Clerestory windows generally small. Diamond shaped piers
+    with shafts engaged. Capitals with scroll moulding on under
+    side of abacus, with elegant foliage arranged horizontally.
+    Doors frequently without shafts, the arch moulding running
+    down the jambs. Rich doorways and windows often surrounded
+    with triangular and ogee-shaped canopies. Buttresses in
+    stages variously ornamented. Parapet pierced with
+    quatrefoils and flowing tracery. Niches panelled and with
+    projecting canopies. Spires lofty; the broach rarely used,
+    parapets and angle pinnacles take the place of it. Roofs of
+    moderate pitch open to the framing. Mouldings bold and
+    finely proportioned, generally in groups, the groups
+    separated from each other by hollows, composed of segments
+    of circles. Deep hollows, now generally confined to inner
+    angles. Mouldings varying in size and kind, arranged on
+    diagonal as well as rectangular planes, often ornamented
+    with ball flower. Foliage chiefly of ivy, oak, and vine
+    leaves; natural, also conventional. Rich crockets, finials,
+    and pinnacles. Vaulting with intermediate ribs, ridge ribs,
+    and late in the style lierne ribs, and bosses.
+
+
+    PERPENDICULAR.  Richard II.  A.D. 1377. (_Transition._)
+                    Henry IV.     "   1399.
+                    Henry V.      "   1413.
+                    Henry VI.     "   1422.
+                    Edward IV.    "   1461.
+                    Edward V.     "   1483.
+                    Richard III.  "   1483.
+
+    TUDOR.          Henry VII.    "   1485.
+                    Henry VIII.   "   1509 to 1546.
+
+    Arches at first inclosing an equilateral triangle,
+    afterwards obtusely pointed and struck from four centres.
+    Piers generally oblong; longitudinal direction north and
+    south. Mouldings continued from base through arch. Capitals
+    with mouldings large, angular, and few, with abacus and bell
+    imperfectly defined. Foliage of conventional character,
+    shallow, and square in outline. Bases polygonal. Windows
+    where lofty divided into stories by transoms. The mullions
+    often continued perpendicularly into the head. Canopies of
+    ogee character enriched with crockets. Doors generally with
+    square label over arch, the spandrels filled with ornament.
+    Buttresses with bold projection often ending in finials.
+    Flying buttresses pierced with tracery. Walls profusely
+    ornamented with panelling. Parapets embattled and panelled.
+    Open timber roofs of moderate pitch, of elaborate
+    construction, often with hammer beams, richly ornamented
+    with moulded timbers, carved figures of angels and with
+    pierced tracery in spandrels. Roofs sometimes of very flat
+    pitch. Lofty clerestories. Mouldings large, coarse, and with
+    wide and shallow hollows and hard wiry edges, meagre in
+    appearance and wanting in minute and delicate detail,
+    generally arranged on diagonal planes. Early in the style
+    the mouldings partake of decorated character.
+
+    In the Tudor period depressed four-centered arch prevails;
+    transoms of windows battlemented. Tudor flower, rose,
+    portcullis, and fleur-de-lis common ornaments. Crockets and
+    pinnacles much projected. Roofs of low pitch.
+
+    Vaulting. Fan vaulting, with tracery and pendants
+    elaborately carved.
+
+Other modes of distinguishing the periods of English Gothic have been
+proposed by writers of authority. The division given above is that of
+Rickman, and is generally adopted. A more minute subdivision and a
+different set of names were proposed by Sharpe as follows:--
+
+    ROMANESQUE.  Saxon         A.D.      to 1066.
+                 Norman         "   1066 to 1145.
+    GOTHIC.      Transitional   "   1145 to 1190.
+                 Lancet         "   1190 to 1245.
+                 Geometrical    "   1245 to 1315.
+                 Curvilinear    "   1315 to 1360.
+                 Rectilinear    "   1360 to 1550.
+
+Of the new names proposed by Mr. Sharpe "transitional" explains
+itself; and "geometrical, curvilinear, and rectilinear" refer to the
+characters of the window tracery at the different periods which they
+denote.[6]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The history of English Gothic proper may be said to begin with the
+reign of Henry II., coinciding very nearly with the commencement of
+the period named by Mr. Sharpe transitional (1145 to 1190), when
+Norman architecture was changing into Gothic. This history we propose
+now to consider somewhat in detail, dividing the buildings in the
+simplest possible way, namely, into floors, walls, columns, roofs,
+openings, and ornaments. After this we shall have to consider the mode
+in which materials were used by the builders of the Gothic period,
+_i.e._ the construction of the buildings; and the general artistic
+principles which guided their architects, _i.e._ the design of the
+buildings.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It may be useful to students in and near London to give Sir G. Gilbert
+Scott's list of striking London examples[7] of Gothic architecture
+(with the omission of such examples as are more antiquarian than
+architectural in their interest):--
+
+    _Norman_ (temp. Conquest).--The Keep and Chapel of the Tower
+    of London.
+
+    _Advanced Norman._--Chapel of St. Catherine, Westminster
+    Abbey; St. Bartholomew's Priory, Smithfield.
+
+    _Transitional._--The round part of the Temple Church.
+
+    _Early English._--Eastern part of the Temple Church; Choir
+    and Lady Chapel of St. Mary Overy, Southwark; Chapel of
+    Lambeth Palace.
+
+    _Advanced Early English_ (passing to decorated).--Eastern
+    part of Westminster Abbey generally and its Chapter House.
+
+    _Early Decorated._--Choir of Westminster, (but this has been
+    much influenced by the design of the earlier parts
+    adjacent); Chapel of St. Etheldreda, Ely Place, Holborn.
+
+    _Late Decorated._--The three bays of the Cloister at
+    Westminster opposite the entrance to Chapter House; Crypt of
+    St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster; Dutch Church, Austin
+    Friars.
+
+    _Early Perpendicular._--South and West walks of the
+    Cloister, Westminster; Westminster Hall.
+
+    _Advanced Perpendicular (Tudor period)._--Henry VII.'s
+    Chapel; Double Cloister of St. Stephen's, Westminster.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] The abbreviations, E. E., Dec., and Perp., will be employed to
+denote these three periods.
+
+[5] _Notes on English Architecture, Costumes, Monuments, &c._
+_Privately printed._ Quoted here with the author's permission.
+
+[6] See examples in Chapter V. and in Glossary.
+
+[7] Address to Conference of Architects, _Builder_, June 24, 1876.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY.}]
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.--ENGLAND.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.--FLOOR, WALLS, TOWERS, GABLES, COLUMNS.
+
+_Floor, or Plan._
+
+The excellences or defects of a building are more due to the shape and
+size of its floor and, incidentally, of the walls and columns or piers
+which inclose and subdivide its floor than to anything else whatever.
+A map of the floor and walls (usually showing also the position of the
+doors and windows), is known as a plan, but by a pardonable figure of
+speech the plan of a building is often understood to mean the shape
+and size and arrangement of its floor and walls themselves, instead of
+simply the drawing representing them. It is in this sense that the
+word plan will be used in this volume.
+
+The plan of a Gothic Cathedral has been described, and it has been
+already remarked that before the Gothic period had commenced the
+dimensions of great churches had been very much increased. The
+generally received disposition of the parts of a church had indeed
+been already settled or nearly so. There were consequently few
+radical alterations in church plans during the Gothic period. One,
+however, took place in England in the abandonment of the apse.
+
+At first the apsidal east end, common in the Norman times, was
+retained. For example, it is found at Canterbury, where the choir and
+transept are transitional, having been begun soon after 1174 and
+completed about 1184; but the eastern end of Chichester, which belongs
+to the same period (the transition), displays the square east end, and
+this termination was almost invariably preferred in our country after
+the twelfth century.
+
+A great amount of regularity marks the plans of those great churches
+which had vaulted roofs, as will be readily understood when it is
+remembered that the vaults were divided into equal and similar
+compartments, and that the points of support had to be placed with
+corresponding regularity. Where, however, some controlling cause of
+this nature was not at work much picturesque irregularity prevailed in
+the planning of English Gothic buildings of all periods. The plans of
+our Cathedrals are noted for their great length in proportion to their
+width, for the considerable length given to the transepts, and for the
+occurrence in many cases (_e.g._ Salisbury, thirteenth century) of a
+second transept. The principal alterations which took place in plan as
+time went on originated in the desire to concentrate material as much
+as possible on points of support, leaving the walls between them thin
+and the openings wide, and in the use of flying buttresses, the feet
+of which occupy a considerable space outside the main walls of the
+church. The plans of piers and columns also underwent the alterations
+which will be presently described.[8]
+
+Buildings of a circular shape on plan are very rare, but octagonal
+ones are not uncommon. The finest chapter-houses attached to our
+Cathedrals are octagons, with a central pier to carry the vaulting. On
+the whole, play of shape on plan was less cultivated in England than
+in some continental countries.
+
+The plans of domestic buildings are usually simple, but grew more
+elaborate and extensive as time went on. The cloister with
+dwelling-rooms and common-rooms entered from its walk, formed the
+model on which colleges, hospitals, and alms-houses were planned. The
+castle, already described, was the residence of the wealthy during the
+earlier part of the Gothic period, and when, in the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries, houses which were rather dwellings than
+fortresses began to be erected, the hall, with a large bay window and
+a raised floor or dais at one end and a mighty open fire-place, was
+always the most conspicuous feature in the plan. Towards the close of
+the Gothic period the plan of a great dwelling, such as Warwick Castle
+(Fig. 8), began to show many of the features which distinguish a
+mansion of the present day.
+
+In various parts of the country remains of magnificent Gothic
+dwelling-houses of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries exist, and
+long before the close of the perpendicular period we had such mansions
+as Penshurst and Hever, such palaces as Windsor and Wells, such
+castellated dwellings as Warwick and Haddon, differing in many
+respects but all agreeing in the possession of a great central hall.
+Buildings for public purposes also often took the form of a great
+hall. Westminster Hall may be cited as the finest example of such a
+structure, not only in England but in Europe.
+
+The student who desires to obtain anything beyond the most
+superficial acquaintance with architecture must endeavour to obtain
+enough familiarity with ground plans, to be able to sketch, measure,
+and lay down a plan to scale and to _read_ one. The plan shows to the
+experienced architect the nature, arrangement, and qualities of a
+building better than any other drawing, and a better memorandum of a
+building is preserved if a fairly correct sketch of its plan, or of
+the plan of important parts of it, is preserved than if written notes
+are alone relied upon.
+
+
+_Walls._
+
+The walls of Gothic buildings are generally of stone; brick being the
+exception. They were in the transitional and Early English times
+extremely thick, and became thinner afterwards. All sorts of
+ornamental masonry were introduced into them, so that diapers,[9]
+bands, arcades, mouldings, and inlaid patterns are all to be met with
+occasionally, especially in districts where building materials of
+varied colours, or easy to work, are plentiful. In the perpendicular
+period the walls were systematically covered with panelling closely
+resembling the tracery of the windows (_e.g._, Henry VII.'s Chapel at
+Westminster).
+
+The wall of a building ordinarily requires some kind of base and some
+kind of top. The base or plinth in English Gothic buildings was
+usually well marked and bold, especially in the perpendicular period,
+and it is seldom absent. The eaves of the roof in some cases overhang
+the walls, resting on a simple stone band, called an eaves-course, and
+constitute the crowning feature. In many instances, however, the
+eaves are concealed behind a parapet[10] which is often carried on a
+moulded cornice or on corbels. This, in the E. E. period, was usually
+very simple. In the Dec. it was panelled with ornamental panels, and
+often made very beautiful. In the Perp. it was frequently battlemented
+as well as panelled.
+
+A distinguishing feature of Gothic walls is the buttress. It existed,
+but only in the form of a flat pier of very slight projection in
+Norman, as in almost all Romanesque buildings, but in the Gothic
+period it became developed.
+
+The buttress, like many of the peculiarities of Gothic architecture,
+originated in the use of stone vaults and the need for strong piers at
+these points, upon which the thrust and weight of those vaults were
+concentrated. The use of very large openings, for wide windows full of
+stained glass also made it increasingly necessary in the Dec. and
+Perp. periods to fortify the walls at regular points.
+
+A buttress[10] is, in fact, a piece of wall set athwart the main wall,
+usually projecting considerably at the base and diminished by
+successive reductions of its mass as it approaches the top, and so
+placed as to counteract the thrust of some arch or vault inside. It
+had great artistic value; in the feeble and level light of our
+Northern climate it casts bold shadows and catches bright lights, and
+so adds greatly to the architectural effect of the exterior. In the
+E. E. the buttress was simple and ordinarily projected about its own
+width. In the Dec. it obtained much more projection, was constructed
+with several diminutions (technically called weatherings), and was
+considerably ornamented. In the Perp. it was frequently enriched by
+panelling. The buttresses in the Dec. period are often set diagonally
+at the corner of a building or tower. In the E. E. period this was
+never done.
+
+The flying buttress[11] is one of the most conspicuous features of the
+exterior of those Gothic buildings which possessed elaborate stone
+vaults. It was a contrivance for providing an abutment to
+counterbalance the outward pressure of the vault covering the highest
+and central parts of the building in cases where that vault rested
+upon and abutted against walls which themselves were carried by
+arches, and were virtually internal walls, so that no buttress could
+be carried up from the ground to steady them.
+
+A pier of masonry, sometimes standing alone, sometimes thrown out from
+the aisle wall opposite the point to be propped, formed the solid part
+of this buttress; it was carried to the requisite height and a flying
+arch spanning the whole width of the aisles was thrown across from it
+to the wall at the point whence the vault sprung. The pier itself was
+in many cases loaded by an enormous pinnacle, so that its weight might
+combine with the pressure transmitted along the slope of the flying
+arch to give a resultant which should fall within the base of the
+buttress. The back of such an arch was generally used as a water
+channel.
+
+The forest of flying buttresses round many French cathedrals produces
+an almost bewildering effect, as, for instance, at the east end of
+Notre Dame;--our English specimens, at Westminster Abbey for example,
+are comparatively simple.
+
+
+_Towers._
+
+The gable and the tower are developments of the walls of the building.
+Gothic is _par excellence_ the style of towers. Many towers were
+built detached from all other buildings, but no great Gothic building
+is complete without one main tower and some subordinate ones.
+
+In the E. E. style church towers were often crowned by low spires,
+becoming more lofty as the style advanced. In the Dec. style lofty
+spires were almost universal. In the Perp. the tower rarely has a
+visible roof.[12]
+
+The artistic value of towers in giving unity coupled with variety to a
+group of buildings can hardly be exaggerated.
+
+The positions which towers occupy are various. They produce the
+greatest effect when central, _i.e._ placed over the crossing of the
+nave and transepts. Lichfield, Chichester, and Salisbury may be
+referred to as examples of cathedrals with towers in this position and
+surmounted by spires. Canterbury, York, Lincoln, and Gloucester are
+specimens of the effectiveness of the tower similarly placed, but
+without a spire (Fig. 12). At Wells a fine central octagon occupies
+the crossing, and is remarkable for the skill with which it is fitted
+to the nave and aisles internally. Next to central towers rank a pair
+of towers at the western end of the building. These exist at Lichfield
+with their spires; they exist (square-topped) at Lincoln, and (though
+carried up since the Gothic period) at Westminster.[13] Many churches
+have a single tower in this position (Fig. 13).
+
+The obvious purpose of a tower, beyond its serviceableness as a
+feature of the building and as a landmark, is to lift up a belfry high
+into the air: accordingly, almost without exception, church and
+cathedral towers are designed with a large upper story, pierced by
+openings of great size and height called the belfry stage; and the
+whole artistic treatment of the tower is subordinate to this feature.
+It is also very often the case that a turret to contain a spiral
+staircase which may afford the means of access to the upper part of
+the tower, forms a prominent feature of its whole height, especially
+in the Dec. and Perp. periods.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. (MOSTLY EARLY ENGLISH.)]
+
+In domestic and monastic buildings, low towers were frequently
+employed with excellent effect. Many castles retained the Norman keep,
+or square strong tower, which had served as the nucleus round which
+other buildings had afterwards clustered; but where during the Gothic
+period a castle was built, or rebuilt, without such a keep, one or
+more towers, often of great beauty, were always added. Examples
+abound; good ones will be found in the Edwardian castles in Wales (end
+of thirteenth century), as for example at Conway and Caernarvon.
+
+
+_Gables._
+
+The gable forms a distinctive Gothic feature. The gables crowned those
+parts of a great church in which the skill of the architect was
+directed to producing a regular composition, often called a front, or
+a fa�ade. The west fronts of Cathedrals were the most important
+architectural designs of this sort, and with them we may include the
+ends of the transepts and the east fronts.
+
+The same parts of parish churches are often excellent compositions.
+The gable of the nave always formed the central feature of the main
+front. This was flanked by the gables, or half-gables, of the aisles
+where there were no towers, or by the lower portions of the towers. As
+a rule the centre and sides of the fa�ade are separated by buttresses,
+or some other mode of marking a vertical division, and the composition
+is also divided by bands of mouldings or otherwise, horizontally into
+storeys. Some of the horizontal divisions are often strongly marked,
+especially in the lower part of the building, where in early examples
+there is sometimes in addition to the plinth, or base of the wall, an
+arcade or a band of sculpture running across the entire front (_e.g._
+east front of Lincoln Cathedral). The central gable is always occupied
+by a large window--or in early buildings a group of windows--sometimes
+two storeys in height. A great side window usually occurs at the end
+of each aisle. Below these great windows are introduced, at any rate
+in west fronts, the doorways, which, even in the finest English
+examples, are comparatively small. The gable also contains as a rule
+one or more windows often circular which light the space above the
+vaults.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--ST. PIERRE, CAEN, TOWER AND SPIRE. (SPIRE,
+      1302.)]
+
+Part of the art in arranging such a composition is to combine and yet
+contrast its horizontal and vertical elements. The horizontal lines,
+or features, are those which serve to bind the whole together, and the
+vertical ones are those which give that upward tendency which is the
+great charm and peculiar characteristic of Gothic architecture. It is
+essential for the masses of solid masonry and the openings to be
+properly contrasted and proportioned to each other, and here, as in
+every part of a building, such ornaments and ornamental features as
+are introduced must be designed to contribute to the enrichment of the
+building as a whole, so that no part shall be conspicuous either by
+inharmonious treatment, undue plainness, or excessive enrichment.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--HOUSE AT CHESTER. (16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+During the transition the gable became steeper in pitch than the
+comparatively moderate slope of Norman times. In the E. E. it was
+acutely pointed, in the Dec. the usual slope was that of the two sides
+of an equilateral triangle: in the Perp. it became extremely flat and
+ceased to be so marked a feature as it had formerly been. In domestic
+buildings the gable was employed in the most effective manner, and
+town dwelling-houses were almost invariably built their gable ends to
+the street (Fig. 14).
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A very effective form of wall was frequently made use of in
+dwelling-houses. This consisted of a sturdy framework of stout timbers
+exposed to view, with the spaces between them filled in with plaster.
+Of this work, which is known as half-timbered work, many beautiful
+specimens remain dating from the fifteenth and following centuries
+(Figs. 14 and 15), and a few of earlier date. In those parts of
+England where tiles are manufactured such framework was often covered
+by tiles instead of being filled in with plastering. In half-timbered
+houses, the fire-places and chimneys, and sometimes also the basement
+storeys, are usually of brickwork or masonry; so are the side walls in
+the case of houses in streets. It was usual in such buildings to cause
+the upper storeys to overhang the lower ones.
+
+
+_Columns and Piers._
+
+The columns and piers of a building virtually form portions of its
+walls, so far as aiding to support the weight of the roof is
+concerned, and are appropriately considered in connection with them.
+In Gothic architecture very little use is made of columns on the
+outside of a building, and the porticoes and external rows of columns
+proper to the classic styles are quite unknown. On the other hand the
+series of piers, or columns, from which spring the arches which
+separate the central avenues of nave, transepts and choir from the
+aisles, are among the most prominent features in every church. These
+piers varied in each century.[14]
+
+The Norman piers had been frequently circular or polygonal, but
+sometimes nearly square, and usually of enormous mass. Thus, at Durham
+(Norman), oblong piers of about eleven feet in diameter occur
+alternately with round ones of about seven feet. In transitional
+examples columns of more slender proportions were employed either (as
+in the choir of Canterbury) as single shafts or collected into groups.
+Where grouping took place it was intended that each shaft of the group
+should be seen to support some definite feature of the superincumbent
+structure, as where a separate group of mouldings springs from each
+shaft in a doorway, and this principle was very steadily adhered to
+during the greater part of the Gothic period.[14]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--HOUSES AT LISIEUX, FRANCE. (16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+Through the E. E. period groups of shafts are generally employed; they
+are often formed of detached shafts clustering round a central one,
+and held together at intervals by bands or belts of masonry, and
+generally the entire group is nearly circular on plan. In the
+succeeding century (Dec. period) the piers also take the form of
+groups of shafts, but they are generally carved out of one block of
+stone, and the ordinary arrangement of the pier is on a lozenge-shaped
+plan. In the Perp., the piers retain the same general character, but
+are slenderer, and the shafts have often shrunk to nothing more than
+reedy mouldings.
+
+The column is often employed in Transitional and E. E. churches as a
+substitute for piers carrying arches. In every period small columns
+are freely used as ornamental features. They are constantly met with,
+for example, in the jambs of doorways and of windows.
+
+Every column is divided naturally into three parts, its base, or foot;
+its shaft, which forms the main body; and its capital, or head. Each
+of these went through a series of modifications. Part of the base
+usually consisted of a flat stone larger than the diameter of the
+column, sometimes called a plinth, and upon this stood the moulded
+base which gradually diminished to the size of the shaft. This plain
+stone was in E. E. often square, and in that case the corner spaces
+which were not covered by the mouldings of the base were often
+occupied by an elegantly carved leaf. In Dec. and Perp. buildings the
+lower part of the base was often polygonal, and frequently moulded so
+as to make it into a pedestal.[15]
+
+The proportions of shafts varied extraordinarily; they were, as a
+rule, extremely slender when their purpose was purely decorative, and
+comparatively sturdy when they really served to carry a weight.
+
+The capital of the column has been perhaps the most conspicuous
+feature in the architecture of every age and every country, and it is
+one of the features which a student may make use of as an indication
+of date and style of buildings, very much as the botanist employs the
+flower as an index to the genus and species of plants. The capital
+almost invariably starts from a ring, called the neck of the column.
+This serves to mark the end of the shaft and the commencement of the
+capital. Above this follows what is commonly called the bell,--the
+main portion of the capital, which is that part upon which the skill
+of the carver and the taste of the designer can be most freely
+expended, and on the top of the bell is placed the abacus, a flat
+block of stone upon the upper surface of which is built the
+superstructure or is laid the beam or block which the column has to
+support. The shape and ornaments given to the abacus are often of
+considerable importance as indications of the position in
+architectural history which the building in which it occurs should
+occupy.
+
+The Norman capital differed to some extent from the Romanesque
+capitals of other parts of Europe. It was commonly of a heavy,
+strong-looking shape, and is often appropriately called the cushion
+capital. In its simpler forms the cushion capital is nothing but a
+cubical block of stone with its lower corners rounded off to make it
+fit the circular shaft on which it is placed, and with a slab by way
+of abacus placed upon it. In later Norman and transitional work the
+faces of this block and the edges of the abacus are often richly
+moulded. By degrees, however, as the transition to E. E. approached, a
+new sort of capital[16] was introduced, having the outline of the bell
+hollow instead of convex. The square faces of the Norman capital of
+course disappeared, and the square abacus soon (at least in this
+country) became circular, involving no small loss of vigour in the
+appearance of the work. The bell of this capital was often decorated
+with rich mouldings, and had finely-designed and characteristic
+foliage, which almost always seemed to grow up the capital, and
+represented a conventional kind of leaf easily recognised when once
+seen.
+
+In the Dec. period the capitals have, as a rule, fewer and less
+elaborate mouldings; the foliage is often very beautifully carved in
+imitation of natural leaves, and wreathed round the capital instead of
+growing up it. In the Perp. this feature is in every way less ornate,
+the mouldings are plainer, and the foliage, often absent, is, when it
+occurs, conventional and stiff. Polygonal capitals are common in this
+period.
+
+  [Illustration: _Later Norman Capital._]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[8] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Pier_.
+
+[9] For illustration consult the Glossary.
+
+[10] For illustrations consult the Glossary.
+
+[11] For illustration consult the Glossary under _Flying buttress_.
+
+[12] For remarks on Spires, see Chap. V.
+
+[13] York, Lichfield, and Lincoln, are the cathedrals distinguished by
+the possession of three towers.
+
+[14] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Pier_.
+
+[15] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Base_.
+
+[16] For illustrations consult the Glossary.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY.}]
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.--ENGLAND.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS (_continued_)--OPENINGS, ROOFS, SPIRES,
+ORNAMENTS, STAINED GLASS, SCULPTURE.
+
+_Openings and Arches._
+
+The openings (_i.e._ doors and windows) in the walls of English Gothic
+buildings are occasionally covered by flat heads or lintels, but this
+is exceptional; ordinarily they have arched heads. The shape of the
+arch varies at all periods. Architects always felt themselves free to
+adopt any shape which best met the requirements of any special case;
+but at each period there was one shape of arch which it was customary
+to use.
+
+In the first transitional period (end of twelfth century) semicircular
+and pointed arches are both met with, and are often both employed in
+the same part of the same building. The mouldings and enrichments
+which are common in Norman work are usually still in use. In the E. E.
+period the doorways are almost invariably rather acutely pointed, the
+arched heads are enriched by a large mass of rich mouldings, and the
+jambs[17] have usually a series of small columns, each of which is
+intended to carry a portion of the entire group of mouldings. Large
+doorways are often subdivided into two, and frequently approached by
+porches. A most beautiful example occurs in the splendid west entrance
+to Ely Cathedral. Other examples will be found at Lichfield (Fig. 1)
+and Salisbury. It was not uncommon to cover doorways with a lintel,
+the whole being under an archway; this left a space above the head of
+the door which was occupied by carving often of great beauty.
+Ornamental gables are often formed over the entrances of churches, and
+are richly sculptured; but though beautiful, these features rarely
+attained magnificence. The most remarkable entrance to an English
+cathedral is the west portal of Peterborough--a composition of lofty
+and richly moulded arches built in front of the original west wall. A
+portal on a smaller scale, but added in the same manner adorns the
+west front of Wells. As a less exceptional example we may refer to the
+entrance to Westminster Abbey at the end of the north transept (now
+under restoration), which must have been a noble example of an E. E.
+portal when in its perfect state.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--LANCET WINDOW. (12TH CENTURY.)]
+
+The windows in this style were almost always long, narrow, and with a
+pointed head resembling the blade of a lancet (Fig. 16). The glass is
+generally near the outside face of the wall, and the sides of the
+opening are splayed towards the inside. It was very customary to place
+these lancet windows in groups. The best known group is the celebrated
+one of "the five sisters," five lofty single lights, occupying the
+eastern end of one of the transepts of York Minster. A common
+arrangement in designing such a group was to make the central light
+the highest, and to graduate the height of the others. It after a time
+became customary to render the opening more ornamental by adding
+pointed projections called cusps. By these the shape of the head of
+the opening was turned into a form resembling a trefoil leaf.
+Sometimes two cusps were added on each side. The head is, in the
+former case, said to be trefoiled--in the latter, cinqfoiled.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--TWO-LIGHT WINDOW. (13TH CENTURY.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--GEOMETRICAL TRACERY. (14TH CENTURY.)]
+
+When two windows were placed close together it began to be customary
+to include them under one outer arch, and after a time to pierce the
+solid head between them with a circle, which frequently was cusped,
+forming often a quatrefoil (Fig. 17). This completed the idea of a
+group, and was rapidly followed by ornamental treatment. Three, four,
+five, or more windows (which in such a position are often termed
+lights) were often placed under one arch, the head of which was filled
+by a more or less rich group of circles; mouldings were added, and
+thus rose the system of decoration for window-heads known as tracery.
+So long as the tracery preserves the simple character of piercings
+through a flat stone, filling the space between the window heads, it
+is known as plate tracery. The thinning down of the blank space to a
+comparatively narrow surface went on, and by and by the use of
+mouldings caused that plain surface to resemble bars of stone bent
+into a circular form: this was called bar tracery, and it is in this
+form that tracery is chiefly employed in England (Fig. 18).
+Westminster Abbey is full of exquisite examples of E. E.
+window-tracery (temp. Henry III.); as, for example, in the windows of
+the choir, the great circular windows (technically termed
+rose-windows) at the ends of the transepts, the windows of the
+chapter-house. Last, but not least, the splendid arcade which forms
+the triforium is filled with tracery similar in every respect to the
+best window tracery of the period (Fig. 19).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--THE TRIFORIUM ARCADE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
+      (1269.)]
+
+In the decorated style of the fourteenth century tracery was developed
+till it reached a great pitch of perfection and intricacy. In the
+earlier half of the century none save regular geometrical forms, made
+up of circles and segments of circles, occur; in other words, the
+whole design of the most elaborate window could be drawn with the
+compasses, and a curve of contrary flexure rarely occurred. In the
+latest half of that period flowing lines are introduced into the
+tracery, and very much alter its character (Fig. 20). The cusping
+throughout is bolder than in the E. E. period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--ROSE WINDOW FROM THE TRANSEPT OF LINCOLN
+      CATHEDRAL. (1342-1347.)]
+
+In perpendicular windows spaces of enormous size are occupied by the
+mullions and tracery. Horizontal bars, called transoms, are now for
+the first time introduced, and the upright bars or mullions form with
+them a kind of stone grating; but below each transom a series of small
+stone arches forms heads to the lights below that transom, and a minor
+mullion often springs from the head of each of these arches, so that
+as the window increases in height, the number of its lights increases.
+The character of the cusping changed again, the cusps becoming
+club-headed in their form (Fig. 21).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--PERPENDICULAR WINDOW.]
+
+Arches in the great arcades of churches, or in the smaller arcades of
+cloisters, or used as decorations to the surface of the walls, were
+made acute, obtuse, or segmental, to suit the duty they had to
+perform; but when there was nothing to dictate any special shape, the
+arch of the E. E. period was by preference acute[18] and of lofty
+proportions, and that of the Dec. less lofty, and its head equilateral
+(_i.e._ described so that if the ends of the base of an equilateral
+triangle touch the two points from which it springs, the apex of the
+angle shall touch the point of the arch). In the Perp. period the four
+centred depressed arch, sometimes called the Tudor arch, was
+introduced, and though it did not entirely supersede the equilateral
+arch, yet its employment became at last all but universal, and it is
+one of the especially characteristic features of the Tudor period.
+
+
+_Roofs and Vaults._
+
+The external and the internal covering of a building are very often
+not the same; the outer covering is then usually called a roof--the
+other, a vault or ceiling. In not a few Gothic buildings, however,
+they were the same; such buildings had what are known as open
+roofs--_i.e._ roofs in which the whole of the timber framing of which
+they are constructed is open to view from the interior right up to the
+tiles or lead. Very few open roofs of E. E. character are now
+remaining, but a good many parish churches retain roofs of the Dec.,
+and more of the Perp. period. The roof of Westminster Hall (Perp.,
+erected 1397) shows how fine an architectural object such a roof may
+become. The roof of the hall of Eltham Palace (Fig. 22) is another
+good example. Wooden ceilings, often very rich, are not uncommon,
+especially in the churches of Norfolk and Suffolk, but greater
+interest attaches to the stone vaults with which the majority of
+Gothic buildings were erected, than to any other description of
+covering to the interiors of buildings.
+
+The vault was a feature rarely absent from important churches, and the
+structural requirements of the Gothic vault were among the most
+influential of the elements which determined both the plan and the
+section of a medi�val church. There was a regular growth in Gothic
+vaults. Those of the thirteenth century are comparatively simple;
+those of the fourteenth are much richer and more elaborate, and often
+involve very great structural difficulties. Those of the fifteenth are
+more systematic, and consequently more simple in principle than the
+ones which preceded them, but are such marvels of workmanship, and so
+enriched by an infinity of parts, that they astonish the beholder,
+and it appears, till the secret is known, impossible to imagine how
+they can be made to stand.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--ROOF OF HALL AT ELTHAM PALACE. (15TH
+      CENTURY.)]
+
+It has been held by some very good authorities that the pointed arch
+was first introduced into Gothic architecture to solve difficulties
+which presented themselves in the vaulting. In all probability the
+desire to give to everything, arches included, a more lofty appearance
+and more slender proportions may have had as much to do with the
+adoption of the pointed arch as any structural considerations, but
+there can be no doubt that it was used for structural arches from the
+very first, even when window heads and wall arcades were semicircular,
+and that the introduction of it cleared the way for the use of stone
+vaults of large span to a wonderful extent. It is not easy to explain
+this without being more technical than is perhaps desirable in the
+present volume, but the subject is one of too much importance for it
+to be possible to avoid making the attempt.
+
+Churches, it will be recollected, were commonly built with a wide nave
+and narrower aisles, and it was in the Norman period customary to
+vault the aisles and cover the nave with a ceiling. There was no
+difficulty in so spacing the distances apart of the piers of the main
+arcade that the compartments (usually termed bays) of the aisle should
+be square on plan; and it was quite possible, without doing more than
+the Romans had done, to vault each bay of the aisles with a
+semicircular intersecting vault (_i.e._ one which has the appearance
+of a semicircular or waggon-head vault, intersected by another vault
+of the same outline and height). This produced a simple series of what
+are called groined or cross vaults, which allowed height to be given
+to the window heads of the aisle and to the arcades between the aisles
+and nave.
+
+After a time it was desired to vault the nave also, and to adopt for
+it an intersecting vault, so that the heads of the windows of the
+clerestory might be raised above the springing line of the vault, but
+so long as the arches remained semicircular, this was very difficult
+to accomplish.
+
+The Romans would probably have contented themselves with employing a
+barrel vault and piercing it to the extent required by short lateral
+vaults, but the result would have been an irregular, weak, curved line
+at each intersection with the main vault; and the aisle vaults having
+made the pleasing effect of a perfectly regular intersection familiar,
+this expedient does not seem to have found favour, at any rate in
+England.
+
+Other expedients were however tried, and with curious results. It was
+for example attempted to vault the nave with a cross vault, embracing
+two bays of the arcade to one of the vault, but the wall space so
+gained was particularly ill suited to the clerestory windows, as may
+be seen by examining the nave of St. Stephen's at Caen. In short, if
+the vaulting compartment were as wide as the nave one way, but only as
+wide as the aisle the other way, and semicircular arches alone were
+employed, a satisfactory result seemed to be unattainable.
+
+In the search for some means of so vaulting a bay of oblong plan that
+the arches should spring all at one level, and the groins or lines of
+intersection should cross one another in the centre of the ceiling,
+the idea either arose or was suggested that the curve of the smaller
+span should be a pointed instead of a semicircular arch.
+
+The moment this was tried all difficulty vanished, and groined (_i.e._
+intersecting) vaults, covering compartments of any proportions became
+easy to design and simple to construct, for if the vault which spanned
+the narrow way of the compartment were acutely pointed, and that
+which spanned it the wide way were either semicircular or
+flatly-pointed, it became easy to arrange that the startings of both
+vaults should be at the same level, and that they should rise to the
+same height, which is the condition essential to the production of a
+satisfactory intersection.
+
+Scott enumerates not fewer than fourteen varieties of medi�val
+vaults[19] and points out that specimens of thirteen are to be found
+at Westminster. Without such minute detail we may select some
+well-known varieties:--(1) The plain waggon-head vault, as at the
+Chapel of the Tower; (2) in advanced Norman works, cross-vaults formed
+by two intersecting semicircular vaults, the diagonal line being
+called a groin. (3) The earliest transitional and E. E. vaults,
+pointed and with transverse and diagonal ribs, and bosses at the
+intersection of ribs, _e.g._, in the aisles and the early part of the
+cloisters at Westminster. (4) In the advanced part of the E. E.
+period, the addition of a rib at the ridge, as seen in the presbytery
+and transepts at Westminster. (5) At the time of the transition to
+Dec. (_temp._ Ed. 1.) additional ribs began to be introduced between
+the diagonal and the transverse ribs. (6) As the Dec. period advanced
+other ribs, called _liernes_, were introduced, running in various
+directions over the surface of the vault, making star-like figures on
+the vault. (7) The vault of the early Perp., which is similar to the
+last, but more complicated and approaching No. 8, _e.g._, Abbot
+Islip's chapel. (8) Lastly, the distinctive vault of the advanced or
+Tudor Perp., is the fan-tracery vault of which Henry VII.'s Chapel
+roof is the climax. The vaulting surfaces in these are portions of
+hollow conoids, and are covered by a net-work of fine ribs, connected
+together by bands of cusping (Fig. 23).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--HENRY VII.'S CHAPEL. (1503-1512.)]
+
+In Scott's enumeration the vaults of octagons and irregular
+compartments, and such varieties as the one called sexpartite, find a
+place; here they have been intentionally excluded. Many of them are
+works of the greatest skill and beauty, especially the vaults of
+octagonal chapter houses springing from one centre pier (_e.g._,
+Chapter Houses at Worcester, Westminster, Wells, and Salisbury).
+
+Externally, the roofs of buildings became very steep in the thirteenth
+century; they were not quite so steep in the fourteenth, and in the
+fifteenth they were frequently almost flat. They were always relied
+upon to add to the effectiveness of a building, and were enriched
+sometimes by variegated tiles or other covering, sometimes by the
+introduction of small windows, known as dormer windows, each with its
+own gablet and its little roof, and sometimes by the addition of a
+steep sided roof in the shape of a lantern or a "fl�che" on the ridge,
+or a pyramidal covering to some projecting octagon or turret.
+
+All these have their value in breaking up the sky-line of the
+building, and adding interest and beauty to it. Still more striking,
+however, in its effect on the sky-line was the spire, a feature to
+which great attention was paid in English architecture.
+
+
+_Spires._
+
+The early square towers of Romanesque churches were sometimes
+surmounted by pyramidal roofs of low pitch. We have probably none now
+remaining, but we have some examples of large pinnacles, crowned with
+pyramids, which show what the shape must have been. They were square
+in plan and somewhat steep in slope.
+
+The spire was developed early in the E. E. period. It was octagonal
+in plan, and the four sides which coincided with the faces of the
+tower rose direct from the walls above a slightly masked eaves course.
+The four oblique sides are connected to the tower by a feature called
+a broach, which may be described as part of a blunt pyramid. The
+broach-spire (Fig. 24) is to be met with in many parts of England, but
+especially in Northamptonshire. The chief ornaments of an E. E. spire
+consist in small windows (called spire-lights or lucarnes) each
+surmounted by its gablet.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--EARLY ENGLISH SPIRE. CHURCH OF ST. MARY
+      MAGDALENE, WARBOYS, LINCOLNSHIRE.]
+
+In the Dec. period it was common to finish the tower by a parapet, and
+to start the spire behind the parapet, sometimes with a broach, often
+without. Pinnacles were frequently added at the corners of the tower,
+and an arch, like that of a flying buttress, was sometimes thrown
+across from the pinnacle to the spire. Spire-lights occur as before,
+and the surface of the spire is often enriched by bands of ornament at
+intervals. The general proportions of the spire were more slender than
+before, and the rib, which generally ran up each angle, was often
+enriched by crockets, _i.e._ tufts of leaves arranged in a formal
+shape (Fig. 25).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--DECORATED SPIRE. ALL SAINTS' CHURCH, OAKHAM,
+      RUTLANDSHIRE.]
+
+Towers were frequently intended to stand without spires in the Perp.
+period, and are often finished by four effective angle-pinnacles and
+a cornice with battlements. Where spires occur in this period they
+resemble those of the Dec. period.
+
+Spires end usually in a boss or finial, surmounted by a weathercock.
+Ordinary roofs were usually finished by ornamental cresting, and their
+summits were marked by finials,[20] frequently of exquisite
+workmanship.
+
+
+_Ornaments._
+
+We now come to ornaments, including mouldings, carving, and colour,
+and here we are landed upon a mass of details which it would be
+impossible to pursue far. Mouldings play a prominent part in Gothic
+architecture, and from the first to the last they varied so constantly
+that their profiles and grouping may be constantly made use of as a
+kind of architectural calendar, to point out the time, to within a few
+years, when the building in which they occur was erected.
+
+A moulding is the architect's means of drawing a line on his building.
+If he desires to mark on the exterior the position of an internal
+floor, or in any other way to suggest a division into storeys, a
+moulded string-course is introduced. If he wishes to add richness and
+play of light and shade to the sides of an important arch, he
+introduces a series of mouldings, the profile of which has been
+designed to form lights and shadows such as will answer his purpose.
+If again he desires to throw out a projection and to give the idea of
+its being properly supported, he places under his projection a corbel
+of mouldings which are of strong as well as pleasing form, so as to
+convey to the eye the notion of support. Mouldings, it can be
+understood, differ in both size and profile, according to the purpose
+which they are required to serve, the distance from the spectator at
+which they are fixed, and the material out of which they are formed.
+In the Gothic periods they also differed according to the date at
+which they were executed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--EARLY ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES MOULDED.]
+
+The first step towards the Gothic system of mouldings was taken by the
+Romanesque architects when the idea of building arches in thick walls,
+not only one within the others, but also in planes receding back from
+the face of the wall one behind as well as within another, was formed
+and carried out, and when a corresponding recessed arrangement of the
+jamb of the arch was made (Fig. 26). The next step was the addition of
+some simple moulding to the advancing angle of each rim of such a
+series of arches either forming a bead (Fig. 27) or a chamfer.
+
+In the transitional part of the twelfth century and the E. E. period
+this process went on till at last, though the separate receding arches
+still continued to exist, the mouldings[21] into which they were cut
+became so numerous and elaborate as to render it often difficult to
+detect the subordination or division into distinct planes which really
+remained.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--DOORWAY, KING'S COLLEGE CHAPEL, CAMBRIDGE.
+      (15TH CENTURY.)]
+
+This passion for elaborate mouldings, often extraordinarily undercut,
+reached its climax in the thirteenth century, the E. E. period. In the
+Dec. period, while almost everything else became more elaborate,
+mouldings grew more simple, yet hardly less beautiful. In the Perp.
+period they were not only further simplified, but often impoverished,
+being usually shallow, formal, and stiff.[22]
+
+Ornaments abounded, and included not only enrichments in the shape of
+carved foliage and figures, statuary, mosaics, and so forth, but
+ornamental features, such as canopies, pinnacles, arcades, and
+recesses (Fig. 28).
+
+In each period these are distinct in design from all that went before
+or came after, and thus to catch the spirit of any one Gothic period
+aright, it is not enough to fix the general shapes of the arches and
+proportions of the piers but every feature, every moulding, and every
+ornament must be wrought in the true spirit of the work, or the result
+will be marred.
+
+
+_Stained Glass._
+
+Ornamental materials and every sort of decorative art, such as mosaic,
+enamel, metal work and inlays, were freely employed to add beauty in
+appropriate positions; but there was one ornament, the crowning
+invention of the Gothic artists, which largely influenced the design
+of the finest buildings, and which reflected a glory on them such as
+nothing else can approach: this was stained glass.
+
+So much of the old glass has perished, and so little modern glass is
+even passable, that this praise may seem overcharged to those who have
+never seen any of the best specimens still left. We have in the choir
+at Canterbury a remnant of the finest sort of glass which England
+possesses. Some good fragments remain at Westminster, though not very
+many; but to judge of the effect of glass at its best, the student
+should visit La Sainte Chapelle at Paris, or the Cathedrals of
+Chartres, Le Mans, Bourges, or Rheims, and he will find in these
+buildings effects in colour which are nothing less than gorgeous in
+their brilliancy, richness, and harmony.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--STAINED GLASS WINDOW FROM CHARTRES
+      CATHEDRAL.]
+
+The peculiar excellence of stained glass as compared with every other
+sort of decoration, is that it is luminous. To some extent
+fresco-painting may claim a sort of brightness; mosaic when executed
+in polished materials possesses brilliancy; but in stained glass the
+light which comes streaming in through the window itself gives
+radiance, while the quality of the glass determines the colour, and
+thus we obtain a glowing, lustre of colour which can only be compared
+to the beauty of gems. In order properly to fill their place as
+decorations, stained-glass windows must be something quite different
+from transparent pictures, and the scenes they represent must not
+detach themselves too violently from the general ground. The most
+perfect effect is produced by such windows as those at Canterbury or
+Chartres (Fig. 29), which recall a cluster of jewels rather than a
+picture.
+
+
+_Coloured Decoration._
+
+Colour was also freely introduced by the lavish employment of coloured
+materials where they were to be had, and by painting the interiors
+with bright pigments. We meet with traces of rich colour on many parts
+of ancient buildings, where we should hardly dare to put it now, and
+we cannot doubt that painted decoration was constantly made use of
+with the happiest effect.
+
+
+_Sculpture._
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 30.--SCULPTURE FROM THE ENTRANCE TO THE CHAPTER
+      HOUSE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY. (1250.)]
+
+The last, perhaps the noblest ornament, is sculpture. The Gothic
+architects were alive to its value, and in all their best works
+statues abounded; often conventional to the last degree; sometimes to
+our eyes uncouth, but always the best which those who carved them
+could do at the time; always sure to contribute to architectural
+effect; never without a picturesque power, sometimes rising to grace
+and even grandeur, and sometimes sinking to grotesque ugliness.
+Whatever the quality of the sculpture was, it was always there, and
+added life to the whole. Monsters gaped and grinned from the
+water-spouts, little figures or strange animals twisted in and out of
+the foliage at angles and bosses and corbels. Stately effigies
+occupied dignified niches, in places of honour; and in the mouldings
+and tympanum of the head of a doorway there was often carved a whole
+host of figures representing heaven, earth, and hell, with a rude
+force and a native eloquence that have not lost their power to the
+present day.
+
+In the positions where modest ornamentation was required, as for
+example the capitals of shafts, the hollows of groups of mouldings,
+and the bosses of vaulting, carving of the most finished execution and
+masterly design constantly occurs. Speaking roughly, this was chiefly
+conventional in the E. E. period, chiefly natural in the Dec. and
+mixed, but with perhaps a preference for the conventional in the Perp.
+Examples abound, but both for beauty and accessibility we can refer to
+no better example than the carving which enriches the entrance to the
+Chapter House of Westminster Abbey (Fig. 30).
+
+  [Illustration: _Miserere Seat from Wells Cathedral._]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[17] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Jamb_.
+
+[18] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Arch_.
+
+[19] Address to the Conference of Architects. Reported in the
+_Builder_ of 24th June, 1876. Outlines illustrating some of these
+varieties of vault will be found in the Glossary under _Vault_.
+
+[20] See Glossary.
+
+[21] For illustrations consult the Glossary.
+
+[22] For further illustrations see the Glossary.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN EUROPE.
+
+
+FRANCE.--CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
+
+The architecture of France during the Middle Ages throws much light
+upon the history of the country. The features in which it differs from
+the work done in England at the same period can, many of them, be
+directly traced to differences in the social, political, or religious
+situation of the two nations at the time. For example, we find England
+in the eleventh and twelfth centuries in the hands of the Normans, a
+newly-conquered country under uniform administration; and accordingly
+few local variations occur in the architecture of our Norman period.
+The twelfth-century work, at Durham or Peterborough for instance,
+differs but little from that at Gloucester or Winchester. In France
+the case is different. That country was divided into a series of
+semi-independent provinces, whose inhabitants differed, not only in
+the leaders whom they followed, but in speech, race, and customs. As
+might be expected, the buildings of each province presented an aspect
+different in many respects from those of every other; and we may as
+well add that these peculiarities did not die out with the end of the
+round-arched period of architecture, but lingered far into the pointed
+period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 31.--CHURCH AT FONTEVRAULT. (BEGUN 1125.)]
+
+The south of France was occupied by people speaking what are now known
+as the Romance dialects, and some writers have adopted the name as
+descriptive of the peculiarities of the architecture of these
+districts. The Romance provinces clung tenaciously to their early
+forms of art, so that pointed architecture was not established in the
+south of France till half a century, and in some places nearly a whole
+century, later than in the north.
+
+On the other hand, the Frankish part of the country was the cradle of
+Gothic. The transition from round to pointed architecture first took
+place in the royal domain, of which Paris was the centre, and it may
+be assumed that the new style was already existing when in 1140 Abbot
+Suger laid the foundations of the choir of the church of St. Denis,
+about forty years before the commencement of the eastern arm of our
+own Canterbury.
+
+De Caumont, who in his "Ab�c�daire" did for French architecture
+somewhat the same work of analysis and scientific arrangement which
+Rickman performed for English, has adopted the following
+classification:--
+
+                           { Primitive.          } 5th to 10th
+                           { _Primordiale._      }  century.
+                           {                     }
+                           { Second.             } End of 10th to
+  Romanesque Architecture. { _Secondaire._       }  commencement of
+  _Architecture Romane._   {                     }  12th century.
+                           {                     }
+                           { Third or Transition }
+                           { _Tertiaire ou de_   } 12th century.
+                           { _Transition._       }
+
+                           { First.              }
+                           { _Primitive._        } 13th century.
+                           {                     }
+  Pointed Architecture.    { Second.             }
+  _Architecture ogivale._  { _Secondaire._       } 14th century.
+                           {                     }
+                           { Third.              }
+                           { _Tertiaire._        } 15th century.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--DOORWAY AT LOCHES, FRANCE. (1180.)]
+
+The transitional architecture of France is no exception to the rule
+that the art of a period of change is full of interest. Much of it has
+disappeared, but examples remain in the eastern part of the cathedral
+of St. Denis already referred to, in portions of the cathedrals of
+Noyon and Sens, the west front of Chartres, the church of St.
+Germain des Pr�s at Paris, and elsewhere. We here often find the
+pointed arch employed for the most important parts of the structure,
+while the round arch is still retained in the window and door-heads,
+and in decorative arcades, as shown in our illustrations of a section
+of the church at Fontevrault (Fig. 31), and of a doorway at Loches
+(Fig. 32).
+
+The first pointed architecture of the thirteenth century in France
+differs considerably from the early English of this country. The
+arches are usually less acute, and the windows not so tall in
+proportion to their width. The mouldings employed are few and simple
+compared with the many and intricate English ones. Large round columns
+are much used in place of our complicated groups of small shafts for
+the piers of the nave; and the abacus of the capital remains square.
+An air of breadth and dignity prevails in the buildings of this date
+to which the simple details, noble proportions, and great size largely
+contribute. The western front of Notre Dame, Paris (Fig. 33), dates
+from the early years of this century, the interior being much of it a
+little earlier. The well-known cathedrals of Chartres, Rheims, Laon,
+and later in the style, Amiens, and Beauvais, may be taken as grand
+examples of French first pointed. To these may be added the very
+graceful Sainte Chapelle of Paris, the choir and part of the nave of
+the cathedral at Rouen, the church of St. Etienne at Caen, and the
+cathedrals of Coutances, Lisieux, Le Mans, and Bourges. This list of
+churches could be almost indefinitely extended, and many monastic
+buildings, and not a few domestic and military ones, might be added.
+Among the most conspicuous of these may be named the monastic fortress
+at Mont St. Michel, probably the most picturesque structure in
+France, the remarkable fortifications of Carcassonne, and the lordly
+castle of Cou�y.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--NOTRE DAME, PARIS, WEST FRONT. (1214.)]
+
+The second pointed, or fourteenth century Gothic of France, bears more
+resemblance to contemporary English Gothic than the work of the
+centuries preceding or following. Large windows for stained glass,
+with rich geometrical tracery prevailed, and much the same sort of
+ornamental treatment as in England was adopted in richly decorated
+buildings. Specimens of the work of this century occur everywhere in
+the shape of additions to the great churches and cathedrals which had
+been left unfinished from the previous century, and also of side
+chapels which it became customary to add to the aisles of churches.
+The great and well-known abbey of St. Ouen at Rouen is one of the few
+first-class churches which can be named as begun and almost entirely
+completed in this century. The tower and spire of the church of St.
+Pierre at Caen (Fig. 13) are very well-known and beautiful specimens
+of this period.
+
+French fifteenth century architecture, or third pointed, is far from
+being so dignified or so scientific as English perpendicular, and
+differs from it considerably. Exuberant richness in decoration was the
+rage, and shows itself both in sculpture, tracery, and general design.
+Much of the later work of this period has received the name of
+flamboyant, because of the flame-like shapes into which the tracery of
+the heads of windows was thrown. In flamboyant buildings we often meet
+with art which, though certainly over-florid, is brilliant, rich, and
+full of true feeling for decoration.
+
+In this century, secular and domestic buildings attained more
+prominence than at any previous periods. Some of them are among the
+best works which this period produced. Familiar examples will be found
+in the noble Palais de Justice at Rouen, and the H�tel de
+Bourgtherould in the same city; in parts of the great ch�teau at
+Blois, the splendid ch�teau of Pierrefonds, and the H�tels de Ville of
+Oudenarde and Caen.
+
+
+FRANCE.--ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+_Plan._
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--PLAN OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL. (1220-1272.)]
+
+The plans of French cathedrals and other buildings conform in general
+to the description of Gothic plans given in Chapter II., but they have
+of course certain distinctive peculiarities (Fig. 34). The cathedrals
+are as a rule much broader in proportion to their length than English
+ones. Double aisles frequently occur, and not infrequently an added
+range of side chapels fringes each of the main side walls, so that the
+interior of one of these vast buildings presents, in addition to the
+main vista along the nave, many delightful cross views of great
+extent. The transepts are also much less strongly marked than our
+English examples. There are even some great cathedrals (_e.g._,
+Bourges) without transepts; and where they exist it is common to find
+that, as in the case of Notre Dame de Paris, they do not project
+beyond the line of the side walls, so that, although fairly
+well-marked in the exterior and interior of the building, they add
+nothing to its floor-space. The eastern end of a French cathedral (and
+indeed of French churches generally, with very few exceptions) is
+terminated in an apse. When, as is frequently the case, this apse is
+encircled by a ring of chapels, with flying buttresses on several
+stages rising from among them, the whole arrangement is called a
+_chevet_, and very striking and busy is the appearance which it
+presents.
+
+
+_Walls, Towers, and Gables._
+
+The walls are rarely built of any other material than stone, and much
+splendid masonry is to be found in France. Low towers are often to be
+met with, and so are projecting staircase turrets of polygonal or
+circular forms. The fa�ades of cathedrals, including ends of transepts
+as well as west fronts, are most striking, and often magnificently
+enriched. It is an interesting study to examine a series of these
+fronts, each a little more advanced than the last, as for example
+Notre Dame (Fig. 33), the transept at Rouen, Amiens (Fig. 35), and
+Rheims, and to note how the horizontal bands and other level
+features grow less and less conspicuous, while the vertical ones are
+more and more strongly marked; showing an increasing desire, not only
+to make the buildings lofty, but to suppress everything which might
+interfere with their looking as high as possible.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35.--AMIENS CATHEDRAL, WEST FRONT. (1220-1272.)]
+
+
+_Columns and Piers._
+
+The column is a greater favourite than the pier in France, as has
+already been said. Sometimes, where the supports of the main arcade
+are really piers, they are built like circular shafts of large size;
+and even when they have no capital (as was the case in third-pointed
+examples), these piers still retain much of the air of solid strength
+which belongs to the column, and which the French architects appear to
+have valued highly. In cases where a series of mouldings has to be
+carried--as for example when the main arcade of a building is richly
+moulded--English architects would usually have provided a distinct
+shaft for each little group (or as Willis named them order), into
+which the whole can be subdivided. In France, at any rate during the
+earlier periods, the whole series of mouldings would spring from the
+square unbroken abacus of a single large column, to which perhaps one
+shaft, or as in our illustration (Fig. 36) four shafts, would be
+attached which would be carried up to the springing of the nave vault,
+at which point the same treatment would be repeated, though on a
+smaller scale, with the moulded ribs of that vault.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--PIERS AND SUPERSTRUCTURE, RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.
+      (1211-1240.)
+          _i._ Springing of main ribs of the vault.
+          _h._ String-course below the clerestory.
+          _a b._ Triforium arcade.
+          _g._ String-course below the triform.
+          B. Main arcade separating the nave from the aisles.
+          A and N. Shafts attached to pier and supporting portions
+            of the superstructure.]
+
+A peculiarity of some districts of southern France is the suppression
+of the external buttress; the buttresses are in fact built within the
+church walls instead of outside, and masonry enough is added to make
+each into a separating wall which divides side chapels. Some large
+churches, _e.g._, the cathedral at Alby, in Southern France, consist
+of a wide nave buttressed in this way, and having side chapels between
+the buttresses, but without side aisles.
+
+The plans of the secular, military, and domestic buildings of France
+also present many interesting peculiarities, but not such as it is
+possible to review within the narrow limits of this chapter.
+
+
+_Roofs and Vaults._
+
+The peculiarly English feature of an open roof is hardly ever met with
+in any shape: yet though stone vaults are almost universal, they are
+rarely equal in scientific skill to the best of those in our own
+country. In transitional examples, many very singular instances of the
+expedients employed before the pointed vault was fully developed can
+be found. In some of the central and southern districts, domes, or at
+least domical vaults, were employed. (See the section of Fontevrault,
+Fig. 31). The dome came in from Byzantium. It was introduced in
+Perigord, where the very curious and remarkable church of St. Front
+(begun early in the eleventh century) was built. This is to all
+intents a Byzantine church. It is an almost exact copy in plan and
+construction of St. Mark's at Venice, a church designed and built by
+Eastern architects, and it is roofed by a series of domes, a
+peculiarity which is as distinctive of Byzantine (_i.e._, Eastern
+early Christian), as the vaulted roof is of Romanesque (or Western
+early Christian) architecture. Artists from Constantinople itself
+probably visited France, and from this centre a not inconsiderable
+influence extended itself in various directions, and led to the use of
+many Byzantine features both of design and ornament.
+
+As features in the exterior of their buildings, the roofs have been
+in every period valued by the French architects; they are almost
+always steep, striking, and ornamented. All appropriate modes of
+giving prominence and adding ornament to a roof have been very fully
+developed in French Gothic architecture, and the roofs of semicircular
+and circular apses, staircase towers, &c., may be almost looked upon
+as typical.[23]
+
+
+_Openings._
+
+The treatment of openings gives occasion for one of the most strongly
+marked points of contrast between French and English Gothic
+architecture. With us the great windows are unquestionably the
+prominent features, but with the French the doors are most elaborated.
+This result is reached not so much by any lowering of the quality of
+the treatment bestowed upon the windows, but by the greatly increased
+importance given to doorways.
+
+The great portals of Notre Dame at Paris (Fig. 33), Rheims, or Amiens
+(Fig. 35), and the grand porches of Chartres may be named as the
+finest examples, and are probably the most magnificent single features
+which Gothic Art produced in any age or any country; but in its degree
+the western portal of every great church is usually an object upon
+which the best resources of the architect have been freely lavished.
+The wall is built very thick so that enormous jambs, carrying a vast
+moulded arch, can be employed. The head of the door is filled with
+sculpture, which is also lavishly used in the sides and arch, and over
+the whole rises an ornamental gable, frequently profusely adorned with
+tracery and sculpture, its sides being richly decorated by crockets
+or similar ornaments, and crowned by a sculptured terminal or finial.
+
+The windows in the earliest periods are simpler than in our E. E., as
+well as of less slender proportions. In the second and third periods
+they are full of rich tracery, and are made lofty and wide to receive
+the magnificent stained glass with which it was intended to fill them,
+and which many churches retain. Circular windows, sometimes called
+wheel-windows, often occupy the gables, and are many of them very fine
+compositions.
+
+
+_Mouldings and Ornaments._
+
+The mouldings of the French first pointed are usually larger than our
+own. Compared with ours they are also fewer, simpler, and designed to
+produce more breadth of effect. This may partly result from their
+originating in a sunshiny country where effects of shade are easily
+obtained. In the second and third periods they more nearly resemble
+those in use in England at the corresponding times.
+
+The carving is very characteristic and very beautiful. In the
+transition and first pointed a cluster of stalks, ending in a tuft of
+foliage or flowers, is constantly employed, especially in capitals.
+The use of this in England is rare; and, on the other hand, foliage
+like E. E. conventional foliage is rare in France. In the second
+pointed, natural foliage is admirably rendered (Fig. 37). In the third
+a somewhat conventional kind of foliage, very luxuriant in its
+apparent growth, is constantly met with.
+
+This carving is at every stage accompanied by figure-sculpture of the
+finest character. Heads of animals, statues, groups of figures, and
+has reliefs are freely employed, but always with the greatest
+judgment, so that their introduction adds richness to the very point
+in the whole composition where it is most needed. In every part of
+France, and in every period of Gothic architecture, good specimens of
+sculpture abound. Easily accessible illustrations will be found in the
+west entrance and south transept front of Rouen Cathedral, the porches
+and portals at Chartres, the choir inclosure of Notre Dame at Paris,
+and the richly sculptured inclosure of the choir of Amiens Cathedral.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--CAPITAL FROM ST. NICHOLAS, BLOIS, FRANCE.
+      (13TH CENTURY.)]
+
+Stained glass has been more than once referred to. It is to be found
+in its greatest perfection in France, as for example in La Sainte
+Chapelle at Paris, and the cathedrals of Le Mans, Bourges, Chartres,
+and Rheims. All that has been said in the introductory chapter on
+this, the crowning ornament of Gothic architecture, and on its
+influence upon window design, and through that, upon the whole
+structure of the best churches, is to the full as applicable to French
+examples. Coloured decoration was also frequently employed in the
+interior of churches and other buildings, and is constantly to be met
+with in French buildings, both secular and religious. In most cases,
+however, it is less easy to appreciate this than the stained glass,
+for, as it is now to be seen, the colours are either faded and
+darkened by time and smoke, or else restored, not always with the
+exactness that could be desired.
+
+
+_Construction and Design._
+
+The construction of the great buildings of the middle ages in France
+is an interesting subject of study, but necessarily a thoroughly
+technical one. Great sagacity in designing the masonry, carpentry,
+joinery, and metal-work; and trained skill in the carrying out the
+designs, have left their traces everywhere; and while the construction
+of the earlier castles and of the simple churches shows a solidity but
+little inferior to that of the Romans themselves, the most elaborate
+works, such for example as the choir at Beauvais (Fig. 38), can hardly
+be surpassed as specimens of skill and daring, careful forethought,
+and bold execution.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL, INTERIOR. (1225-1537.)]
+
+Design, in France, pursued the general principles of Gothic
+architecture to their logical conclusions with the most uncompromising
+consistency. Perhaps the most distinctive peculiarity in French
+cathedrals is a love of abstract beauty, and a strong preference for
+breadth, regularity, dignity, and symmetry wherever they come into
+competition with picturesqueness and irregular grouping. There is, it
+is true, plenty of the picturesque element in French medi�val art; but
+if we take the finest buildings, and those in which the greatest
+effort would be made to secure the qualities which were considered the
+greatest and most desirable, we shall find very strong evidences of a
+conviction that beauty was to be attained by regularity and order,
+rather than by unsymmetrical and irregular treatment.
+
+
+BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+Belgium is a country rich in remains of Gothic architecture. Its art
+was influenced so largely by its neighbourhood to France, that it will
+not be necessary to attempt anything like a chronological arrangement
+of its buildings. Fine churches exist in its principal cities, but
+they cannot be said to form a series differing widely from the
+churches of France, with which they were contemporary, and where they
+differ the advantage is generally on the side of the French originals.
+
+The principal cathedral of the Low Countries, that at Antwerp, is a
+building remarkable for its great width (having seven aisles), and for
+the wonderful picturesqueness of its interior. The exterior, which is
+unfinished, is also very effective, with its one lofty spire. The
+other cathedrals of note include those of Tournay, Brussels, Mechlin,
+Louvain, Li�ge, and Ghent. Belgium also possesses a great number of
+large parochial churches.
+
+When we turn to secular buildings we find the Belgian architecture of
+the middle ages taking a leading position. The free cities of Belgium
+acquired municipal privileges at an early date, and accumulated great
+wealth. Accordingly we find town halls, trade halls, belfries,
+warehouses, and excellent private dwelling-houses in abundance. The
+cloth hall at Ypres has been repeatedly illustrated and referred to as
+an example of a grand and effective building for trade purposes; it
+is of thirteenth-century architecture and of great size, its centre
+marked by a massive lofty tower; and its angles carrying slight
+turrets; but in other respects it depends for its effectiveness solely
+on its repetition of similar features. Examples of the same kind of
+architecture exist at Louvain and Ghent.
+
+The Town Halls of Brussels, Louvain, Bruges, Mechlin, Ghent,
+Oudenarde, and Ypres, are all buildings claiming attention. They were
+most of them in progress during the fifteenth century, and are fine,
+but florid examples of late Gothic. Some one or two at least of the
+town halls were begun and partly carried out in the fourteenth
+century; on the other hand, the H�tel de Ville at Oudenarde, was begun
+as late as the beginning of the sixteenth; so were the Exchange at
+Antwerp (destroyed by fire and rebuilt not long since) and some other
+well-known structures: their architecture, though certainly Gothic, is
+debased in style.
+
+The general aspect of these famous buildings was noble and bold in
+mass, and rich in ornament. Our illustration (Fig. 39) shows the Town
+Hall of Middleburgh in Holland; one which is less famous and of
+smaller dimensions than those enumerated above, but equally
+characteristic.
+
+The main building usually consisted of a long unbroken block
+surmounted by a high-pitched roof, and usually occupied one side of a
+public place. The side of the building presents several storeys,
+filled by rows of fine windows, though in some cases the lowest storey
+is occupied by an open arcade. The steep roof, usually crowded with
+dormer windows, carries up the eye to a lofty ridge, and from the
+centre of it rises the lofty tower which forms so conspicuous a
+feature in most of these buildings. In the Town Hall at Bruges the
+tower is comparatively simple, though of a mass and height that are
+truly imposing; but in Brussels, Ypres, and other examples, it is a
+richly ornamented composition on which every resource of the mason and
+the carver has been lavished. Our illustration (Fig. 40) shows the
+well-known tower at Ghent.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--THE TOWN HALL OF MIDDLEBURGH. (1518.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 40.--TOWER AT GHENT. (BEGUN 1183.)]
+
+The gable ends of the great roof are often adorned by pinnacles and
+other ornaments; but they rarely come prominently into view, as it is
+invariably the long side of the building which is considered to be the
+principal front.
+
+
+SCOTLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND.
+
+In Scotland good but simple examples of early work (transition from
+Romanesque to E. E.) occur, as for example, at Jedburgh and Kelso,
+Dryburgh and Leuchars abbey churches. A very interesting and in many
+respects unique cathedral of the thirteenth century, with later
+additions, exists at Glasgow. It is a building of much beauty, with
+good tracery, and the crypt offers a perfect study of various and
+often graceful modes of forming groined vaults. The Cathedral of Elgin
+(thirteenth century), an admirable Edwardian building, now in ruins,
+and the Abbey at Melrose, also ruined, of fourteenth century
+architecture (begun 1322), are both excellent specimens of the art of
+the periods to which they belong, and bear a close resemblance to what
+was being done in England at the same time. The famous tower of St.
+Giles's Cathedral, Edinburgh, and the Chapel at Roslyn, of the
+fifteenth century, on the other hand, are of thoroughly un-English
+character, resembling in this respect much of the Scotch architecture
+of the succeeding centuries; Roslyn is ascribed by Mr. Fergusson to a
+Spanish or Portuguese architect, with great probability.
+
+Other abbey churches and remains of architectural work exist at
+Dumblane, Arbroath, Dunkeld, and in many other localities; and
+Holyrood Palace, still retains part of its elegant early
+fourteenth-century chapel.
+
+Of secular and domestic work Linlithgow is a fair specimen, but of
+late date. Most of the castles and castellated mansions of Scotland
+belong indeed to a later time than the Gothic period, though there is
+a strong infusion of Gothic feeling in the very picturesque style in
+which they are designed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Wales is distinguished for the splendid series of castles to which
+allusion has been made in a previous chapter. They were erected at the
+best time of English Gothic architecture (Edward I.) under English
+direction, and are finely designed and solidly built. Wales can also
+boast the interesting Cathedrals of Chester, Llandaff, St. David's,
+and some smaller churches, but in every case there is little to
+distinguish them from contemporary English work.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Ireland is more remarkable for antiquities of a date anterior to the
+beginning of the Gothic period than for works belonging to it. A
+certain amount of graceful and simple domestic work, however, exists
+there; and in addition to the cathedrals of Kildare, Cashel, and
+Dublin, numerous monastic buildings, not as a rule large or ambitious,
+but often graceful and picturesque, are scattered about.
+
+  [Illustration: _Miserere Seat in Wells Cathedral._]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[23] For an example of these see the house of Jaques Coeur (Fig. 7).
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY.}]
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+
+GERMANY.--CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
+
+The architecture of Germany, from the twelfth to the sixteenth
+centuries, can be divided into an early, a middle, and a late period,
+with tolerable distinctness. Of these, the early period possesses the
+greatest interest, and the peculiarities of its buildings are the most
+marked and most beautiful. In the middle period, German Gothic bore a
+very close general resemblance to the Gothic of the same time in
+France; and, as a rule, such points of difference as exist are not in
+favour of the German work. Late Gothic work in Germany is very
+fantastic and unattractive.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 41.--ABBEY CHURCH OF ARNSTEIN. (12TH AND 13TH
+      CENTURIES.)]
+
+Through the twelfth, and part of the thirteenth centuries, the
+architects of Germany pursued a course parallel with that followed in
+France and in England, but without adopting the pointed arch. They
+developed the simple and rude Romanesque architecture which prevailed
+throughout Europe in the tenth and eleventh centuries, and which they
+learnt originally from Byzantine artists who fled from their own
+country during the reign of the iconoclasts; and they not only carried
+it to a point of elaboration which was abreast of the art of our best
+Norman architecture, but went on further in the same course; for
+while the French and ourselves were adopting lancet windows and
+pointed arches, they continued to employ the round-headed window and
+the semicircular arch in buildings which in their size, richness,
+loftiness, and general style, correspond with early Gothic examples in
+other countries. This early German architecture has been sometimes
+called fully developed Romanesque, and sometimes round-arched Gothic,
+and both terms may be applied to it without impropriety, for it
+partakes of the qualities implied by each. The Church of the Holy
+Apostles at Cologne, and those of St. Martin and St. Maria in
+Capitolo, in the same city, may be referred to as among the best works
+of this class. Each of these has an eastern apse, and also an apsidal
+termination to each transept. The Apostles' church has a low octagon
+at the crossing, and its sky-line is further broken up by western and
+eastern towers, the latter of comparatively small size and octagonal;
+and under the eaves of the roof occurs an arcade of small arches.
+
+A view of the Abbey Church of Arnstein (Fig. 41) illustrates some of
+the features of these transitional churches. It will be noticed that
+though there is no transept, there are no less than four towers, two
+octagonal, and two square, and that the apse is a strongly developed
+feature.
+
+In the church at Andernach, of which we give an illustration (Fig.
+42), the same arrangement, namely, that of four towers, two to the
+west, and two to the east, may be noticed; but there is not the same
+degree of difference between the towers, and the result is less happy.
+This example, like the last, has no central feature, and in both the
+arcade under the eaves of the roof is conspicuous only by its absence.
+It does, however, occur on the western towers at Andernach.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 42.--CHURCH AT ANDERNACH. (EARLY 13TH CENTURY.)]
+
+The pointed arch, when adopted in Germany, was in all probability
+borrowed from France, as the general aspect of German churches of
+pointed architecture seems to prove. The greatest Gothic cathedral of
+Germany, Cologne Cathedral, was not commenced till about the year
+1275, and its choir was probably completed during the first quarter of
+the fourteenth century. This cathedral, one of the largest in Europe,
+is also one of the grandest efforts of medi�val architecture, and it
+closely resembles French examples of the same period, both in its
+general treatment, and in the detail of its features. The plan of
+Cologne Cathedral (Fig. 46) is one of the most regular and symmetrical
+which has come down to us from the middle ages. The works were carried
+on slowly after the choir was consecrated, but without any deviation
+from the original plan, though some alteration in style and details
+crept in. In our own day the works have been resumed and vigorously
+pushed on towards completion; and, the original drawings having been
+preserved, the two western towers, the front, and other portions have
+been carried on in accordance with them. Cologne, accordingly,
+presents the almost unique spectacle of a great Gothic church, erected
+without deviation from its original plan, and completed in the style
+in which it was begun. It is fair to add that though splendid in the
+extreme, this cathedral has far less charm, and less of that peculiar
+quality of mystery and vitality than many, we might say most, of the
+great cathedrals of Europe.
+
+The plan consists of a nave of eight bays, two of which form a kind of
+vestibule, and five avenues, _i.e._ two aisles on each side; transepts
+of four bays each, with single aisles; and a choir of four bays and an
+apse, the double aisle of the nave being continued and carried down
+the choir. That part of the outer aisle which sweeps round the apse
+has been formed into a series of seven polygonal chapels, thus gaining
+a complete _chevet_.[24] Over the crossing there is a comparatively
+slender spire, and at the west end stand two massive towers terminated
+by a pair of lofty and elaborate spires, of open tracery, and enriched
+by crockets, finials, and much ornamentation. The cathedral is built
+of stone, without much variation in colour; it is vaulted throughout,
+and a forest of flying buttresses surrounds it on all sides. The
+beauty of the tracery, the magnificent boldness of the scale of the
+whole building, and its orderly regularity, are very imposing, and
+give it a high rank among the greatest works of European architecture;
+but it is almost too majestic to be lovely, and somewhat cold and
+uninteresting from its uniform colour, and perhaps from its great
+regularity.
+
+Strasburg Cathedral--not so large as Cologne--has been built at
+various times; the nave and west front are the work of the best Gothic
+period. This building has a nave and single aisles, short transepts,
+and a short apsidal choir. There is great richness in much of the
+work; double tracery, _i.e._ a second layer, so to speak, of tracery,
+is here employed in the windows, and extended beyond them, but the
+effect is not happy. The front was designed to receive two open
+tracery spires, but only one of them has been erected. It is amazingly
+intricate and rich, the workmanship is very astonishing, but the
+artistic effect is not half so good as that of many plain stone
+spires.
+
+Another important German church famous for an open spire is the
+cathedral at Friburg. Here only one tower, standing at the middle of
+the west front, was ever intended, and partly because the composition
+is complete as proposed, and partly because the design of the tracery
+in the spire itself is more telling, this building forms a more
+effective object than Strasburg, though by no means so lofty or so
+grandiose.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 43.--CHURCH OF ST. BARBARA AT KUTTENBERG. EAST
+      END. (1358-1548.)]
+
+The Cathedral of St. Stephen at Vienna is a large and exceedingly rich
+church. In this building the side aisles are carried to almost the
+same height as the centre avenue--an arrangement not infrequent in
+German churches having little save novelty to recommend it, and by
+which the triforium, and, as a rule, the clerestory disappear, and the
+church is lighted solely by large side windows. The three avenues are
+covered by one wide roof, which makes a vast and rather clumsy display
+externally. A lofty tower, surmounted by a fine and elaborate spire of
+open tracery, stands on one side of the church--an unusual
+position--and an unfinished companion tower is begun on the
+corresponding side. Great churches and cathedrals are to be found in
+many of the cities of Germany, but their salient points are, as a
+rule, similar to those of the examples which have been already
+described.
+
+The incomplete Church of St. Barbara at Kuttenberg, in Bohemia, is one
+of somewhat exceptional design. It has double aisles, but the side
+walls for the greater part of the length of the church rest upon the
+arcade dividing the two aisles, instead of that separating the centre
+avenue from the side one; and a vault over the inner side aisle forms
+in effect a kind of balcony or gallery in the nave. The illustration
+(Fig. 43) which we give of the exterior does not of course indicate
+this peculiarity, but it shows a very good example of a German
+adaptation of the French _chevet_, and may be considered as a specimen
+of German pointed architecture at its ripest stage. The church is
+vaulted, as might be inferred from the forest of flying buttresses;
+and the vaulting displays some resemblance to our English fan-vaulting
+in general idea.
+
+German churches include some specimens of unusual disposition or form,
+as for example the Church of St. Gereon at Cologne, with an oval
+choir, and one or two double churches, one of the most curious being
+the one at Schwartz-Rheindorff, of which we give a section and view.
+(Figs. 44, 45.)
+
+In their doorways and porches the German architects are often very
+happy. Our illustration (Fig. 47) of one of the portals of the church
+at Thann may be taken as giving a good idea of the amount of rich
+ornament often concentrated here: it displays a wealth of decorative
+sculpture, which was one of the great merits of the German architects.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 44.--DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF.
+      SECTION. (1158.)]
+
+The latest development of Gothic in Germany, of which the Church of
+St. Catherine at Oppenheim (Fig. 48) is a specimen, was marked (just
+as late French was by flamboyant tracery, and late English by
+fan-vaulting) by a peculiarity in the treatment of mouldings by which
+they were robbed of almost all their grace and beauty, while the
+execution of them became a kind of masonic puzzle. Two or more groups
+of mouldings were supposed to coexist in the same stone, and sometimes
+a part of one group, sometimes a part of the other group, became
+visible at the surface. The name given to this eccentric development
+is interpenetration.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 45.--DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF.
+      (A.D. 1158.)]
+
+Secular architecture in Germany, though not carried to such a pitch of
+perfection as in Belgium, was by no means overlooked; but the examples
+are not numerous. In some of the older cities, such as Prague,
+Nuremberg, and Frankfort, much picturesque domestic architecture
+abounds, most of it of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and even
+later, and all full of piquancy and beauty. In North Germany, where
+there is a large tract of country in which building stone is scarce, a
+style of brick architecture was developed, which was applied to all
+sorts of purposes with great success. The most remarkable of these
+brick buildings are the large dwelling-houses, with fa�ades ornamented
+by brick tracery and panelling, to be found in Eastern Prussia,
+together with some town halls and similar buildings.
+
+
+GERMANY.--ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+_Plan._
+
+The points of difference between German and French Gothic are not so
+numerous as to render a very minute analysis of the Gothic of Germany
+requisite in order to make them clear.
+
+The plans of German churches usually show internal piers; and columns
+occur but rarely. The churches have nave and aisles, transepts and
+apsidal choir; but they are peculiar from the frequent use of apses at
+the ends of the transepts, and also from the occurrence, in not a few
+instances, of an apse at the west end of the nave as well as at the
+east end of the choir. They are almost invariably vaulted.
+
+As the style advanced, large churches were constantly planned with
+double aisles, and the western apse disappeared. Some German church
+plans, notably those of Cologne Cathedral (Fig. 46) and the great
+church of St. Lawrence at Nuremberg, are fine specimens of regularity
+of disposition, though full of many parts.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 46.--COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. GROUND PLAN. (BEGUN
+      1248.)]
+
+
+_Walls, Towers, and Gables._
+
+The German architects delighted in towers with pointed roofs, and in a
+multiplicity of them. A highly characteristic feature is a tower of
+great mass, but often extremely low, covering the crossing. The
+Cathedral at Mayence shows a fine example of this feature, which was
+often not more than a low octagon. Western towers, square on plan, are
+common, and small towers, frequently octagonal, are often employed to
+flank the choir or in combination with the transepts. These in early
+examples, are always surmounted by high roofs; in late ones, by stone
+spires, often of rich open tracery. A very characteristic feature of
+the round arched Gothic churches is an arcade of small arches
+immediately below the eaves of the roof and opening into the space
+above the vaults (Fig. 45). This is rarely wanting in churches built
+previous to the time when the French type was followed implicitly.
+
+The gables are seldom such fine compositions as in France, or even in
+Italy; but in domestic and secular buildings many striking gabled
+fronts occur, the gable being often stepped in outline and full of
+windows.
+
+
+_Roofs and Vaults._
+
+Vaults are universal in the great churches, and German vaulting has
+some special peculiarities, but they are such as hardly come within
+the scope of this hand-book. Roofs, however, are so conspicuous that
+in any general account of German architecture attention must be paid
+to them. They were from very early times steep in pitch and
+picturesque in outline, and are evidently much relied upon as giving
+play to the sky-line. Indeed, for variety of form and piquancy of
+detail the German roofs are the most successful of the middle ages.
+The spires, as will have been easily gathered from the descriptions of
+those at Strasburg, Cologne, &c., became extremely elaborate, and were
+constructed in many cases entirely of open tracery.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 47.--WESTERN DOORWAY OF CHURCH AT THANN. (14TH
+      CENTURY.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 48.--CHURCH OF ST. CATHERINE AT OPPENHEIM. (1262
+      TO 1439.)]
+
+
+_Openings._
+
+Openings are, on the whole, treated very much as the French treated
+them. A good example is the western doorway at Thann (Fig. 47); but
+the use of double tracery in the windows in late examples is
+characteristic. Sometimes a partial screen of outside tracery is
+employed in other features besides windows, as may be seen by the very
+elegant doorway of St. Sebald's Church at Nuremberg, which we have
+illustrated (Fig. 49).
+
+
+_Ornaments._
+
+The ornaments of German Gothic are often profuse, but rarely quite
+happy. Sculpture, often of a high class, carving of every sort,
+tracery, and panelling, are largely employed; but with a hardness and
+a tendency to cover all surfaces with a profusion of weak imitations
+of tracery that disfigures much of the masonry. The tracery became
+towards the latter part of the time intricate and unmeaning, and the
+interpenetrating mouldings already described, though of course
+intended to be ornamental, are more perplexing and confusing than
+pleasing: the carving exaggerates the natural markings of the foliage
+represented, and being thin, and very boldly undercut, resembles
+leaves beaten out in metal, rather than foliage happily and easily
+imitated in stone, which is what good architectural carving should be.
+
+The use of coloured building materials and of inlays and mosaics does
+not prevail to any great extent in Germany, though stained glass is
+often to be found and coloured wall decoration occasionally.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 49.--ST. SEBALD'S CHURCH AT NUREMBERG. THE
+      BRIDE'S DOORWAY. (1303-1377.)]
+
+
+_Construction and Design._
+
+The marked peculiarities of construction by which the German Gothic
+buildings are most distinguished, are the prevalent high-pitched
+roofs, the vaulting with aisle vaults carried to the same height as in
+the centre, and the employment in certain districts of brick to the
+exclusion of stone, all of which have been already referred to. In a
+great part of that large portion of Europe, which is included under
+the name of Germany, the materials and modes of construction adopted
+during the middle ages, bear a close resemblance to those in general
+use in France and England.
+
+Some of the characteristics of German Gothic design have been already
+alluded to. The German architects display an exuberant fancy, a great
+love of the picturesque, and even the grotesque, and a strong
+predilection for creating artificial difficulties in order to enjoy
+the pleasure of surmounting them. Their work is full of unrest; they
+attach small value to the artistic quality of breadth, and destroy the
+value of the plain surfaces of their buildings as contrasts to the
+openings, by cutting them up by mouldings and enrichments of various
+sorts. The sculpture introduced is, as a rule, naturalistic rather
+than conventional. The capitals of piers and columns are often fine
+specimens of effective carving, while the delicate and ornamental
+details of the tabernacle work with which church furniture is
+enriched, are unsurpassed in elaboration, and often of rare beauty.
+The churches of Nuremberg are specially distinguished for the richness
+and number of their sculptured fittings. There is, moreover, in some
+of the best German buildings a rugged grandeur which approaches the
+sublime; and in the humbler ones a large amount of picturesque and
+thoroughly successful architecture.
+
+In the smaller objects upon which the art of the architect was often
+employed the Germans were frequently happy. Public fountains, such for
+example as the one illustrated in Chapter II. (Fig. 10), are to be met
+within the streets of many towns, and rarely fail to please by their
+simple, graceful, and often quaint design. Crosses, monuments, and
+individual features in domestic buildings, such _e.g._ as bay windows,
+frequently show a very skilful and picturesque treatment and happy
+enrichment.
+
+
+NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+Gothic architecture closely resembling German work may be found in
+Switzerland, Norway and Sweden, and Denmark; but there are few very
+conspicuous buildings, and not enough variety to form a distinct
+style. In Norway and Sweden curious and picturesque buildings exist,
+erected solely of timber, and both there and in Switzerland many of
+the traditions of the Gothic period have been handed down to our own
+day with comparatively little change, in the pleasing and often highly
+enriched timber buildings which are to be met with in considerable
+numbers in those countries.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[24] See p. 77 for an explanation of _chevet._
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM SENS CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.
+
+
+ITALY AND SICILY.--TOPOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
+
+Gothic architecture in Italy may be considered as a foreign
+importation. The Italians, it is true, displayed their natural taste
+and artistic instinct in their use of the style, and a large number of
+their works possess, as we shall see, strongly-marked characteristics
+and much charm; but it is impossible to avoid the feeling that the
+architects were working in a style not thoroughly congenial to their
+instincts nor to the traditions they had inherited from classical
+times; and not entirely in harmony with the requirements of the
+climate and the nature of their building materials.
+
+Italian Gothic may be conveniently considered geographically, dividing
+the buildings into three groups, the first and most important
+containing the architecture of Northern Italy (Lombardy, Venetia, and
+the neighbourhood), the second that of Central Italy (Tuscany, &c.),
+the third that of the south and of Sicily--a classification which will
+suit the subject better than the chronological arrangement which has
+been our guide in examining the art of other countries; for the
+variations occasioned by development as time went on are less strongly
+marked in Italy than elsewhere.
+
+
+_Northern Italy._
+
+Lombardy in the Romanesque period was thoroughly under German
+influence, and the buildings remaining to us from the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries bear a close resemblance to those erected north of
+the Alps at the same date. The twelfth century Lombard churches again
+are specimens of round-arched Gothic, just as truly as those on the
+banks of the Rhine. Many of them are also peculiar as being erected
+chiefly in brickwork; the great alluvial plain of Lombardy being
+deficient in building-stone. St. Michele at Pavia, a well-known church
+of this date, may be cited as a good example. This is a vaulted
+church, with an apsidal east end and transepts. The round arch is
+employed in this building, but the general proportions and treatment
+are essentially Gothic. A striking campanile (bell tower) belongs to
+the church, and is a good specimen of a feature very frequently met
+with in Lombardy; the tower here (and usually) is square, and rises by
+successive stages, but with only few and small openings or ornaments,
+to a considerable height. There are no buttresses, no diminution of
+bulk, no staircase turrets. At the summit is an open belfry-stage,
+with large semicircular-headed arches, crowned by a cornice and a
+low-pitched conical roof.[25]
+
+In the same city a good example of an Italian Gothic church, erected
+after the pointed arch had been introduced, may be found in the church
+of Sta. Maria del Carmine. The west front of this church is but
+clumsy in general design. Its width is divided into five compartments
+by flat buttresses. The gables are crowned by a deep and heavy cornice
+of moulded brick and the openings are grouped with but little skill.
+Individually, however, the features of this front are very beautiful,
+and the great wheel-window, full of tracery, and the two-light windows
+flanking it, may be quoted as remarkable specimens of the ornamental
+elaboration which can be accomplished in brickwork.
+
+The campanile of this church, like the one just described, is a plain
+square tower. It rises by successive stages, each taller than the
+last, each stage being marked by a rich brick cornice. The
+belfry-stage has on each face a three-light window, with a traceried
+head, and above the cornice the square tower is finished by a tall
+conical roof, circular on plan, an arrangement not unfrequently met
+with.
+
+The Certosa, the great Carthusian Church and Monastery near Pavia,[26]
+best known by the elaborate marble front added in a different style
+about a century after the erection of the main building, is a good
+example of a highly-enriched church, with dependencies, built in
+brickwork, and possessing most of the distinctive peculiarities of a
+great Gothic church, except the general use of the pointed arch. It
+was begun in 1396, and is consistent in its exterior architecture, the
+front excepted, though it took a long time to build. Attached to it
+are two cloisters, of which the arches are semicircular, and the
+enrichments, of wonderful beauty, are modelled in terra-cotta.
+
+This church resembles the great German round-arched Gothic churches on
+the Rhine in many of its features. Its plan includes a nave, with
+aisles and side chapels, transepts and a choir. The eastern arm and
+the transepts are each ornamented by an apse, somewhat smaller than
+would be met with in a German church; but as a compensation each of
+these three arms has two side apses, as well as the one at the end.
+The exterior possesses the German arcade of little arches immediately
+under the eaves of the roof; it is marked by the same multiplicity of
+small towers, each with its own steep roof; and it possesses the same
+striking central feature, internally a small dome, externally a kind
+of light pyramidal structure, ornamented by small arcades rising tier
+above tier, and ending in a central pointed roof.
+
+The finest Gothic cathedral in North Italy, if dimensions, general
+effectiveness, and beauty of material be the test, is that of Milan.
+This building is disfigured by a west front in a totally inappropriate
+style, but apart from this it is virtually a German church of the
+first class, erected entirely in white marble, and covered with a
+profusion of decoration. Its dimensions show that, with the exception
+of Seville, this was the largest of all the Gothic cathedrals of
+Europe. It has double aisles, transepts, and a polygonal apse. At the
+crossing of the nave and transepts a low dome rises, covered by a
+conical roof, and surmounted by an elegant marble spire.
+
+The structure is vaulted throughout, and each of the great piers which
+carry the nave arcade is surmounted by a mass of niches and tabernacle
+work, occupied by statues--a splendid substitute for ordinary
+capitals. The interior effect of Milan Cathedral is grand and full of
+beauty. The exterior, though much of its power is destroyed by the
+weakly-designed ornament with which all the surfaces of the walls are
+covered, is endowed with a wonderful charm. This building was
+commenced in the year 1385, and consecrated in the year 1418. The
+details of the window-tracery, pinnacles, &c. (but not the statues
+which are of Italian character), correspond very closely to those of
+German buildings erected at the same period (close of the fourteenth
+century).
+
+Milan possesses, among other examples of pointed architecture, one
+secular building, the Great Hospital, well known for its Gothic
+fa�ade. This hospital was founded in 1456, and most of it is of later
+date and of renaissance character; the street front of two storeys in
+height, with pointed arches, is very rich. The church of Chiaravalle,
+near Milan, which has been more than once illustrated and described,
+ought not to be passed unnoticed, on account of the beauty of its
+fully developed central dome. It was built in the early part of the
+thirteenth century (1221).
+
+Almost all the great cities of North Italy possess striking Gothic
+buildings. Genoa, for instance, can boast of her cathedral, with a
+front in alternate courses of black and white marble, dating from
+about the year 1300, and full of beauty; the details bearing much
+resemblance to the best Western Gothic work. Passing eastward, Verona
+possesses a wealth of Gothic work in the well-known tombs of the
+Scaligers, the churches of Sta. Anastasia, San Zenone, and several
+minor churches and campaniles; and at Como, Bergamo, Vicenza, Padua,
+Treviso, Cremona, Bologna, and many other cities and towns, good
+churches of pointed architecture are to be found.
+
+Our illustration (Fig. 50) of the ancient Palace of the Jurisconsults
+at Cremona, is a good specimen of the secular architecture of North
+Italy. Originally the lower storey was a loggia, or open arcaded
+storey, but the arches have been built up. Telling, simple, and
+graceful, this building owes its effect chiefly to its well-designed
+openings and a characteristic brick cornice. It is entirely without
+buttresses, has no spreading base, no gables, and no visible roof:
+some of these features would have been present had it been designed
+and erected north of the Alps.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 50.--THE PALACE OF THE JURISCONSULTS AT
+      CREMONA.]
+
+Venice is the city in the whole of North Italy where Gothic
+architecture has had freest scope and has achieved the greatest
+success, not, however, in ecclesiastical, but in secular buildings.
+The great Cathedral of St. Mark, perhaps the most wonderful church in
+Europe, certainly the foremost in Italy, is a Byzantine building, and
+though it has received some additions in Gothic times, does not fairly
+come within the scope of this volume; and the Gothic churches of
+Venice are not very numerous nor, with the exception of the fine brick
+church of the Frari, extremely remarkable. On the banks of the Grand
+Canal and its tributaries, however, stand not a few Gothic palaces of
+noble design (see Fig. 9, p. 18), while the Ducal Palace itself alone
+is sufficient to confer a reputation upon the city which it adorns.
+
+The Ducal Palace at Venice is a large rectangular block of buildings
+erected round a vast quadrangle. Of its exterior two sides only are
+visible from a distance, one being the sea front looking over the
+lagoon, and the other the land front directed towards the piazzetta.
+Rather less than one half the height of each front is occupied by two
+storeys of arcades; the lower storey bold, simple, and vigorous; the
+upper storey lighter, and ending in a mass of bold tracery. Above this
+open work, and resting upon it, rises the external wall of the palace,
+faced with marble in alternate slabs of rose-colour and white, pierced
+by a few large pointed windows and crowned by an open parapet. Few
+buildings are so familiar, even to untravelled persons, as this fine
+work, which owes its great charm to the extent, beauty, and mingled
+solidity and grace of its arcades, and to the fine sculpture by which
+the capitals from which they spring are enriched.
+
+The Gothic palaces are almost invariably remarkable for the skill with
+which the openings in their fronts are arranged and designed. It was
+not necessary to render any other part of the exterior specially
+architectural, as the palaces stand side by side like houses in a
+modern street, as can be seen from our illustration (Fig. 9). In
+almost all cases a large proportion of the openings are grouped
+together in the centre of the front, and the sides are left
+comparatively plain and strong-looking, the composition presenting a
+centre and two wings. By this simple expedient each portion of the
+composition is made to add emphasis to the other, and a powerful but
+not inharmonious contrast between the open centre and the solid sides
+is called into existence. The earliest Gothic buildings in point of
+date are often the most delicate and graceful, and this rule holds
+good in the Gothic palaces of Venice; yet one of the later palaces,
+the Ca' d'Oro, must be at least named on account of the splendid
+richness of its marble front--of which, however, only the centre and
+one wing is built--and the beauty of the ornament lavishly employed
+upon it.
+
+The balconies, angle windows, and other minor features with which the
+Venetian Gothic palaces abound, are among the most graceful features
+of the architecture of Italy.
+
+
+_Central Italy._
+
+Those towns of Central Italy (by which is meant Tuscany and the former
+States of the Church), in which the best Gothic buildings are to be
+found, are Pisa, Lucca, Florence, Siena, Orvieto, and Perugia. As a
+general rule the Gothic work in this district is more developed and
+more lavishly enriched than that in Lombardy.
+
+In Pisa, the Cathedral and the Campanile (the famous leaning tower)
+belong to the late Romanesque style, but the Baptistry, an elegant
+circular building, has a good deal of Gothic ornament in its upper
+storeys, and may be fairly classed as a transitional building. The
+most charming and thoroughly characteristic work of Gothic
+architecture in Pisa is, however, a small gem of a chapel, the church
+of Sta. Maria della Spina. It displays exquisite ornament, and,
+notwithstanding much false construction, the beauty of its details, of
+its sculpture, and of the marble of which it is built, invest it with
+a great charm.
+
+Pisan Gothic is remarkable as being associated with the name of a
+family of highly gifted sculptors and architects, the Pisani, of whom
+Nicola Pisano was the earliest and greatest artist; he was followed by
+his descendants Giovanni, Nino, and Andrea. With the Pisani and Giotto
+the series of the known names of architects of great buildings may be
+said to begin.
+
+Florence, the most important of the cities we have named, is
+distinguished by a cathedral built in the early part of the fourteenth
+century, and one of the grandest in Italy. It has very few columns,
+and its walls and vaults are of great height. The walls are adorned
+externally with inlays in coloured marble, and the windows have
+stained glass--a rarity in Italy; but its lofty dome, added after the
+completion of the rest of the building, is its chief feature. This was
+always intended, but the pointed octagonal dome actually erected by
+Brunelleschi, between the years 1420 and 1444, though it harmonises
+fairly well with the general lines of the building, and forms, as can
+be seen from our illustration (Fig. 51), a striking object in all
+distant views of the city, is probably very different from what was
+originally intended. Near the cathedral stand the Baptistry, famous
+for the possession of the finest gates in the world, and the Campanile
+of Giotto. This tower is built, or at least faced, entirely with
+marble; and when it is stated that its height is not far short of that
+of the Victoria Tower of our Houses of Parliament, though of slenderer
+proportions, it will be seen that it is magnificently liberal in its
+general scheme. The tower is covered with panels of variously coloured
+marbles from base to summit, and enriched by fine sculpture. The
+angles are strengthened by slightly projecting piers. The windows are
+comparatively small till the highest or belfry stage is reached, and
+here each face of the tower is pierced by a magnificent three-light
+window. A deep and elaborate cornice now crowns the whole, but it was
+originally designed to add a high-pitched roof or a spire as a
+terminal.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 51.--THE CATHEDRAL AT FLORENCE. WITH GIOTTO'S
+      CAMPANILE. (BEGUN, 1298; DOME, 1420-1444; CAMPANILE BEGUN,
+      1324.)]
+
+Our illustration (Fig. 52) shows the west front and campanile of the
+Cathedral at Siena, an exceedingly good specimen of the beauties and
+peculiarities of the style. This building was commenced in 1243. The
+plan is simple but singular, for the central feature is a six-sided
+dome, at the crossing of the nave and transepts; and some ingenuity
+has been spent in fitting this figure to the arches of the main
+avenues of the building. The interior is rich and effective; the
+exterior, as can be seen by the illustration, is covered with
+ornament, and the front is the richest and probably the best designed
+of all the cathedral fronts of Central Italy. The strongly-marked
+horizontal lines of cornices, arcades, &c., the moulded gables, the
+great wheel-window set in a square panel, and the use of marble of
+various colours, are all points to note. So is the employment of the
+semicircular arch for the doorways of this thoroughly Gothic building.
+The campanile is a good example of that feature, except that instead
+of the rich window which usually occupies the belfry stage, or highest
+storey, two storeys of small lights have been formed. The
+introduction of angle turrets is not very usual, and it here supplies
+a deficiency which makes itself felt in other campaniles, where the
+junction of tower and spire is not always happy.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 52.--CATHEDRAL AT SIENA. WEST FRONT AND
+      CAMPANILE. (FA�ADE BEGUN 1284.)]
+
+Gothic churches of importance can be found in many of the cities and
+towns of Central Italy. None are more remarkable than the singular
+double church of St. Francis at Assisi, with its wealth of mural
+paintings and stained glass, and the cathedral at Orvieto (Fig. 53)
+with its splendid front.
+
+In Rome, so rich in specimens of the architecture of many styles and
+times, Gothic could find no footing; the one solitary church which can
+be claimed as Gothic may be taken as an exception. And south of the
+Capital there lies a considerable tract of country, containing few if
+any examples of the style we are considering.
+
+
+_Southern Italy._
+
+Southern Italy is conveniently grouped with Sicily, but the mainland
+is deficient in examples of Gothic buildings. The old towns of Apulia
+indeed, such as Bari, Bitonto and Brindisi, possess an architecture
+which the few who have had an opportunity of examining, declare to be
+surpassingly rich in its decoration, but it is for the most part
+Romanesque.
+
+The Gothic work remaining in and about Naples is most of it extremely
+florid, and often rich, but seldom possesses the grace and charm of
+that which exists further north.
+
+Sicily shows the picturesquely mixed results of a complication of
+agencies which have not affected the mainland, and is accordingly an
+interesting field for architectural study. The island was first under
+Byzantine influence; was next occupied and held by the Saracens; and
+was later seized and for some time retained by the Normans.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 53.--THE CATHEDRAL AT ORVIETO. (BEGUN 1290;
+      FA�ADE, 1310.)]
+
+The most striking early Gothic building in Sicily is the richly
+adorned cathedral of Monreale, commenced in the twelfth century. Here
+very simple pointed arches are made use of, as the entire surface of
+the interior is covered with mosaic pictures of Norman origin. The
+small Capella Palatina in Palermo itself is of the same simple and
+early architectural character, and adorned with equally magnificent
+mosaics. In these buildings the splendour of the colouring is only
+equalled by the vigorous and often pathetic power with which the
+stories of sacred history are embodied in these mosaics. The cathedral
+of Cefalu is a building bearing a general resemblance to that at
+Monreale, but not enriched in the same manner.
+
+Of the fourteenth century are the richly ornamented cathedral of
+Palermo and that of Messina. The latter has been so much altered as to
+have lost a good deal of its interest; but at Palermo there is much
+that is striking and almost unique. This building has little in common
+with the works of northern or central Italy, and not much more
+alliance with the Gothic of North Europe. It is richly panelled and
+decorated, but its most striking feature is its bold arcaded portal.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+_Plan._
+
+The plans of Italian churches are simple, compared with those of the
+northern and western architects. As a rule they are also moderate in
+size, and they bear a close resemblance to those of the early basilica
+churches from which they are directly descended. Though the apse is
+all but universal, the French _chevet_, with its crown of clustering
+chapels, was not adopted in Italy. There is very much in common
+between the churches of Lombardy and those of Germany, but the German
+western apse and the apsidal ends to the transept do not occur. The
+spaces between the piers of the main arcade are greater than in French
+or English examples, so that there are fewer piers, and the vaults are
+of wider span. In the churches founded by the great preaching orders,
+the division into nave and aisle does not take place, and the church
+consists of nothing but a large hall for the congregation, with a
+chancel for the choir.
+
+In monastic, secular, and domestic building a general squareness and
+simplicity of plan prevails, and where an internal arcaded quadrangle
+can be made use of (_e.g._ in the cloister of a monastery), it is
+almost always relied upon to add effect. The famous external arcade at
+the Ducal Palace, Venice, was nowhere repeated, though simpler
+external arcades occur frequently; but it is so splendid as to form,
+itself alone a feature in Italian planning.
+
+The arrangements of the mansions and palaces found in the great cities
+were a good deal influenced by the circumstance that it was customary,
+in order to secure as much cool air as possible, to devote one of the
+upper floors to the purpose of a suite of reception rooms; to this was
+given the name of _piano nobile_.
+
+
+_Walls, Towers, Columns._
+
+Walls are usually thick and stand unbuttressed, and rarely have such
+slopes and diminutions of apparent thickness towards their upper part
+as are not uncommon in England. Base mouldings are not universal. The
+cornice, on the other hand, is far more cared for, and is made much
+more conspicuous than with us. In the brick buildings especially it
+attains great development. Above the cornice a kind of ornamental
+parapet, bearing some resemblance to battlements, is common. The
+strikingly peculiar use of materials of different colours in alternate
+courses, or in panels, to decorate the wall surfaces, has already been
+referred to. It is very characteristic of the style.
+
+The campanile or bell-tower of an Italian church is a feature very
+different from western towers. It is never placed over the crossing of
+nave and aisles and rarely forms an essential part of the church,
+often being quite detached and not seldom placed at an angle with the
+walls of the main building. Such towers are not unfrequently appended
+to palaces, and are sometimes (_e.g._ at Venice) erected alone. Some
+of the Italian cities were also remarkable for strong towers erected
+in the city itself as fortresses by the heads of influential families.
+Many of these are still standing in Bologna. The smaller towers in
+which northern architects took so much delight are almost unknown in
+Italy, though on a few of the great churches of the north (_e.g._ the
+Certosa at Pavia, and St. Antonio at Padua) they are to be found.
+
+The use of constructive columns is general; piers are by no means
+unknown, but fine shafts of marble meet the eye frequently in Italian
+churches. The constant use of the column for decorative purposes is a
+marked characteristic. Not only is it employed where French and
+English architects used it, as in the jambs of doorways, but it
+constantly replaces the mullion in traceried windows. It is employed
+as an ornament at the angles of buildings to take off the harshness of
+a sharp corner, and it is introduced in many unexpected and often
+picturesque situations. Twisted, knotted, and otherwise carved and
+ornamental shafts are not unfrequently made use of in columns that
+serve purely decorative purposes.
+
+
+_Openings and Arches._
+
+The constructive arches in Italian Gothic buildings are, as a rule,
+pointed, but it is remarkable that at every period round and pointed
+arches are indiscriminately employed for doors and windows, both being
+constantly met with in the same building.
+
+The naves of Italian churches rarely show the division into three,
+common in the north. The triforium is almost invariably absent, and
+the clerestory is often reduced to a series of small round windows,
+sufficient to admit the moderate light which, in a very bright
+climate, is grateful in the interior of such a building as a church;
+but they are far less effective features than our own well-marked
+clerestory windows.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 54.--OGIVAL WINDOW-HEAD.]
+
+The doorways are often very beautiful, and are frequently sheltered by
+projecting porches of extreme elegance and lightness. The window
+openings are, as a rule, cusped. An ogee-shaped arch (Fig. 54) is
+constantly in use in window-heads, especially at Venice, and much
+graceful design is lavished on the arched openings of domestic and
+secular buildings. A great deal of the tracery employed is plate
+tracery.[27] The tracery in terra-cotta has already been referred to.
+In the large windows of the principal apartments and other similar
+positions of the palaces in Venice and Vicenza, a sort of tracery not
+met with in other countries is freely employed. The openings are
+square-headed, and are divided into separate lights by small columns;
+the heads of these lights are ogee-shaped, and the spaces between them
+and the horizontal lintel are filled in with circles, richly
+quatrefoiled or otherwise cusped (Fig. 55). The upper arcade of the
+Ducal Palace at Venice offers the best known and finest example of
+this class of tracery.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 55.--TRACERY, FROM VENICE.]
+
+
+_Roofs and Vaults._
+
+The vaulting of Italian churches is always simple, and the bays, as
+has been pointed out, are usually wider than those of the northern
+Gothic churches. Frequently there are no ribs of any sort to the
+groins of the vaults. A characteristic feature of Italian Gothic is
+the central dome. It is rarely very large or overpowering, and in the
+one instance of a magnificent dome--the Cathedral at Florence, the
+feature, though intended from the first, was added after the Gothic
+period had closed. Still many churches have a modest dome, and it
+frequently forms a striking feature in the interior, while in some
+northern instances (_e.g._ at the Certosa at Pavia, or at Chiaravalle)
+it is treated like a many storeyed pyramid and becomes an external
+feature of importance. At Sant' Antonio at Padua there are five domes.
+
+The churches of the preaching orders are some of them covered by
+timber ceilings, not perfectly flat but having an outline made up of
+hollow curves of rather flat sweep. The great halls at Padua and
+Vicenza displayed a vast wooden curved ceiling resembling the hull of
+a ship turned upside down.
+
+The ordinary church roof is of flat pitch and frequently concealed
+behind a parapet. Dormer windows, crestings, and other similar
+features, by the use of which northern architects enriched their
+roofs, are hardly ever employed by Italian architects.
+
+
+_Mouldings and Ornaments._
+
+Ornament is almost instinctively understood by the Italians, and their
+mastery of it is well shown in their architecture. The carving of
+spandrels, capitals, and other ornaments, and the sculpture of the
+heads and statues introduced is full of power and beauty. The famous
+capitals of the lower arcade of the Ducal Palace may be quoted as
+illustrations.
+
+The employment of coloured materials is carried so far as sometimes to
+startle an eye trained to the sombreness of English architecture, but
+a great deal of the beauty of this style is derived from colour, and
+much of the comparative simplicity and scarcity of mouldings is due to
+the desire to leave large unbroken surfaces for marble linings,
+mosaics or fresco painting. Mouldings, where they are introduced,
+differ from northern mouldings in being flatter and far less bold,
+their enrichments are chiefly confined to dentils, notches, and small
+and simple ornaments. Stained glass is not so often seen as in France,
+but is to be met with, as, for example, in the fine church of San
+Petronio at Bologna, and in Sta. Maria Novella, and in the Cathedral
+at Florence. At Florence the stained glass has a character of its own
+both in colour and style of treatment. It is not too much to say that
+every kind of decoration which can be employed to add beauty to a
+building may be found at its best in Italy. In the churches much of
+the finest furniture, such as stall-work, screens, altar frontals,
+will be found in profusion; and the church porches and the mural
+monuments should be especially studied on account of the singular
+elegance with which they are usually designed.
+
+
+_Construction and Design._
+
+The material employed for the external and internal face of the walls
+in a very large proportion of the buildings mentioned in this chapter
+is marble. This is sometimes used in blocks as stone is with us, but
+more frequently in the form of thin slabs as a facing upon masonry or
+brickwork. In Lombardy, where brick is the natural building material,
+most of the walls are not only built but faced with brick; and the
+ornamental features, including tracery, are often executed in
+ornamental brickwork, or in what is known as terra-cotta (_i.e._
+bricks or blocks of brick clay of fine quality, moulded or otherwise
+ornamented and burnt like bricks). Stone was less commonly employed as
+a building material in Italy during the Gothic period, than in other
+countries of Europe. The surfaces of the vaults, and the surfaces of
+the internal walls were often covered with mosaics, or with paintings
+in fresco. Vaulting is frequently met with, but it is generally simple
+in character, the flat external roof over it is commonly covered with
+tiles or metal, while the apparent gable frequently rises more
+sharply than the actual roof. The Italians seem never to have
+cordially welcomed the Gothic principle of resisting the thrust of
+vaults or arches by a counter-thrust, or by the weight of a buttress.
+The buttress is almost unknown in Italian Gothic, and as a rule an
+iron tie is introduced at the feet of such arches as would in France
+or Germany have been buttressed. This expedient is, of course,
+economical, but to northern eyes it appears strange and out of place.
+The Italians, however, take no pains to conceal it, and many of their
+lighter works, such as canopies over tombs, porches, &c., would fall
+to pieces at once were the iron ties removed.
+
+Open timber roofs in the English fashion are unknown; but the wooden
+ceilings already alluded to are found in San Zeno at Verona, and the
+Eremitani at Padua. A kind of open roof of large span, carried by
+curved ribs and tied by iron ties, covers the great hall of the
+Basilica at Vicenza, and the very similar hall at Padua. The ribs of
+these roofs are built up of many thicknesses of material bolted
+together.
+
+The design of Italian Gothic buildings presents many peculiarities,
+some of which are due to the materials made use of. For example, where
+brick and terra-cotta are alone employed, wide moulded cornices of no
+great projection, and broad masses of enriched moulding encircling
+arches are easily executed, and they are accordingly constantly to be
+found; but bold mouldings, with deep hollows, similar to those of
+Early English arches, could not be constructed of these materials, and
+are not attempted. These peculiarities will be found in the Town Hall
+at Cremona, of which an illustration (Fig. 50) has already been given.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56.--WINDOW FROM TIVOLI.]
+
+Where marble is used, the peculiar fineness of its surface, upon which
+the bright Italian sun makes the smallest moulding effective,
+combined with the fact that the material, being costly, is often used
+in thin slabs, has given occasion to extreme flatness of treatment,
+and to the use of modes of enrichment which do not require much depth
+of material. Our illustration of a window from the Piazza S. Croce at
+Tivoli, shows these peculiarities extremely well (Fig. 56), and also
+illustrates the strong predilection which the Italian architects
+retained throughout the Gothic period for squareness and for
+horizontal lines. The whole ornamental treatment is here square; the
+window rests on a strongly-moulded horizontal sill, and is surrounded
+by flatly-carved enrichment, making a square panel of the entire
+feature. Even in the richly-decorated window (Fig. 57), which is in
+its pointed outline more truly Gothic than the Tivoli example, much of
+the same quality can be traced. The arch and jamb are richly moulded,
+but the whole mass of mouldings is flat, and the flat cuspings of the
+tracery, elaborately carved though it be, more resemble the cusps of
+early Western Gothic, executed at a time when tracery was beginning
+its career, than work belonging to the period of full maturity to
+which this feature, as a whole, undoubtedly belongs.
+
+Where marbles were plentiful enough to be built into the fabric, the
+national love of colour gave rise to the use of black and white--or
+sometimes red and white--alternate courses, already mentioned. The
+effect of this striped masonry may be partly judged of from the
+illustration of the cathedral at Siena (Fig. 52), where it is employed
+to a considerable extent. A finer method of surface decoration, less
+simple, however, and perhaps less frequently practised, was open to
+the Italian architect, in the use of panels of various coloured
+marbles. A beautiful example of the employment of this expedient
+exists in Giotto's campanile at Florence (Fig. 51).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 57.--ITALIAN GOTHIC WINDOW, WITH TRACERY
+      IN THE HEAD. (13TH CENTURY.)]
+
+The flatness of the roofs, which the Italians never abandoned, was
+always found difficult to reconcile with the Gothic tendency to height
+and steepness. In many cases, the sharp pitched gables which the
+buildings display, are only masks, and do not truly denote the pitch
+of the roofs behind them. In other instances the walls finish with a
+horizontal parapet, plain or ornamental, quite concealing the roof. In
+the roofs of their campaniles, however, the Gothic architects of Italy
+were usually happy; they almost always adopted a steep conical
+terminal, with or without pinnacles, which is very telling against
+the sky; even if its junction with the tower is at times clumsy.
+
+The brightness of southern suns prevented the adoption of the great
+windows, adapted to masses of stained glass, which were the ambition
+of northern architects in the fourteenth century; and the tenacity
+with which a love for squareness of effect and for strongly-marked
+horizontal lines of various sorts retained its hold, tended to keep
+Italian Gothic buildings essentially different from those of northern
+nations; but the love of colour, the command of precious materials,
+and of fine sculpture, the passion for beauty and for a decorative
+richness, and the artistic taste of the Italians, display themselves
+in these buildings in a hundred ways: all this lends to them a charm
+such as few works of the middle ages existing elsewhere can surpass.
+
+
+SPAIN.--CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
+
+An early, middle, and late period can be distinguished in dealing with
+Spanish Gothic. The first period reaches to the first quarter of the
+thirteenth century, the second occupies the remainder of the
+thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries, the third completes the
+fifteenth and runs on into part of the sixteenth.
+
+The early style is one of much purity and dignity, and is developed
+directly from the Romanesque of the country. The cathedral of St. Iago
+di Compostella, a fine cruciform church of round-arched Gothic, with a
+magnificent western portal,[28] recalling the great lateral porches at
+Chartres, is an early and fine example. Like other churches of the
+type in Spain, it is far plainer inside than out, but it is vaulted
+throughout.
+
+The cathedral of Zamora, and those of Tarragona and Salamanca must
+also be referred to. In each of these, the most thoroughly Spanish
+feature is a dome, occupying the crossing of the nave and transepts,
+and apparently better developed than those in early German churches or
+in Italian ones. It is called in Spanish the _cimborio_. This feature
+was constructed so as to consist of an inner dome, decorated by ribs
+thrown over the central space, and carried by pendentives; having
+above it a separate outer dome somewhat higher and often richly
+decorated. This feature unfortunately disappeared when the French
+designs of the thirteenth century began to be the rage. A peculiarity
+of plan, however, which was retained throughout the whole Gothic
+period in Spain, is to be found in the early churches; it consists of
+an inclosure for the choir quite in the body of the church, and often
+west of the transepts,--in such a position, in fact, as the choir at
+Westminster Abbey occupies. A third peculiarity is the addition of an
+outer aisle, not unlike the arcade of a cloister, to the side walls of
+the churches, possibly with a view of protecting them from heat.
+
+With the thirteenth century a strong passion for churches, closely
+resembling those being erected in France at the same time, set in, as
+has just been remarked. Accordingly the cathedrals of Toledo, Burgos,
+and Leon, approach very closely to French types. Toledo is very large,
+five aisled, and with a vast chevet. Its exterior is unfinished, but
+the dignity of its fine interior may be well understood from the
+illustration (Fig. 58) here given. Burgos is not so ambitious in size
+as Toledo, but has a florid exterior of late architecture with two
+lofty, open-traceried spires, like Strasburg and other German
+examples. Leon is remarkable for its lofty clerestory. Spanish Gothic
+may be said to have culminated in the vast cathedral at Seville
+(begun 1401), claiming to be of greater extent than any Gothic
+cathedral in the world, larger, therefore, than Milan or Cologne. It
+stands on the site of a mosque, and has never been completed
+externally. The interior is very imposing and rich, but when it is
+stated that it was not completed till 1520, it may be readily
+understood that many of the details are very late, and far from the
+purity of earlier examples.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 58.--THE CATHEDRAL AT TOLEDO. INTERIOR.
+      (BEGUN 1227.)]
+
+In the fourteenth century an innovation, of which French architects
+immediately north of the Pyrenees were also availing themselves, found
+favour in Barcelona. The great buttresses by which the thrust of the
+vaults was met were brought inside the boundary walls of the church,
+and were made to serve as division walls between a series of side
+chapels. Both here and at Manresa and Gerona, cathedrals were built,
+resembling in construction that at Alby, in Southern France; in these
+this arrangement was carried a step further, and the side aisles were
+suppressed, leaving the whole nave to consist of a very bold vaulted
+hall, fringed by a series of side chapels, which were separated from
+each other by the buttresses which supported the main vault. These
+large vaults, however, when bare of decoration, as most of the Spanish
+vaults are, appear bald and poor in effect, though they are grand
+objects structurally.
+
+The Gothic work of the latest period in Spain became extraordinarily
+florid in its details, especially in the variety introduced into the
+ribs of the vaulting and the enrichments generally. The great
+cathedrals of Segovia and Salamanca were neither of them begun till
+the sixteenth century had already well set in. They are the two
+principal examples of this florid Gothic.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 59.--THE GIRALDA AT SEVILLE. (BEGUN IN 1196.
+      FINISHED IN 1538).]
+
+It will not be forgotten that the country we are now considering was
+fully occupied by the Moors, and that they left in Southern Spain
+buildings of great merit. A certain number of Christian churches exist
+built in a style which has been called Moresco, as being a kind of
+fusion of Moorish and Gothic. The towers of these churches bear a
+close resemblance to the Saracenic towers of which the beautiful
+bell-tower, called the Giralda, at Seville (Fig. 59) is the type; with
+this and similar examples in the country it is not surprising that at
+Toledo, Saragoza, and other places, towers of the same character
+should be erected as parts of churches in which the architecture
+throughout is as much Saracenic as Christian.
+
+To many of these great churches, cloisters, and monastic buildings,
+which are often both extensive and of a high order of architectural
+excellence, are attached. The secular buildings, of Spain in the
+Gothic period are, on the other hand, neither numerous nor remarkable.
+
+
+PORTUGAL.
+
+The architecture of Portugal has been very little investigated. The
+great church at Batalha[29] is probably the most important in the
+country. This building, though interesting in plan, is more remarkable
+for a lavish amount of florid ornament, of which our illustration
+(Fig. 60) may furnish some idea, than for really fine architecture.
+The conventual church at Belem, near Lisbon, a work of the beginning
+of the sixteenth century, and equally florid, is another of the small
+number of specimens of Portuguese Gothic of which descriptions or
+illustrations have been published.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[25] An illustration of such a campanile will be found in that
+belonging to the Cathedral of Siena (Fig. 52).
+
+[26] See Frontispiece.
+
+[27] For an explanation of this term, see _ante_, Chapter V., page 48.
+
+[28] A cast of this portal is at the South Kensington Museum.
+
+[29] See _Sculptures of the Monastery at Batalha_, published by the
+Arundel Society.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {CR�TE FROM NOTRE DAME, PARIS.}]
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN.
+
+_Materials and Construction._
+
+The Gothic architects adhered, at any rate till the fifteenth century,
+to the use of very small stones in their masonry. In many buildings of
+large size it is hard to find any stone heavier than two men can lift.
+Bad roads and the absence of good mechanical means of hoisting and
+moving big blocks led to this.
+
+The mortar, though good, is not equal to the Roman. As a rule in each
+period mortar joints are thick. They are finest in the fifteenth
+century.
+
+The masonry of all important features of the building is always good;
+it is often a perfect marvel of dexterity and skill as well as of
+beauty.
+
+The arts of workers in other materials, such as carpenters, joiners,
+smiths, and plumbers were carried to great perfection during the
+Gothic period.
+
+The appropriate ornamental treatment which each material is best
+fitted to receive was invariably given to it, and forms appropriate
+to one material were very rarely copied in others. For example,
+whenever wrought iron, a material which can be beaten and welded, or
+rivetted, was employed, those ornamental forms were selected into
+which hot iron can with ease be beaten, and such groups of those forms
+were designed as can be obtained by welding or by rivetting them
+together.
+
+Wood, on the other hand, cannot be bent with ease, but can be readily
+cut, drilled with holes, notched and carved; accordingly, where wood
+had to be treated ornamentally, we only find such forms as the drill,
+the chisel, the saw, or the gouge readily and naturally leave behind
+them.
+
+Again, the mode into which wood can be best framed together was
+carefully considered from a constructional point of view, and medi�val
+joiners' work is always first so designed as to reduce the damage from
+shrinkage to the smallest amount possible; and the pieces of which it
+is composed are then appropriately ornamented, moulded, or carved.
+
+Stone is now always, at least in this country, worked by being first
+squared and then worked-down or "sunk" from the squared faces to the
+mouldings required, and this procedure seems to have been common,
+though not quite universal, in the Middle Ages. Consequently we
+usually find the whole of the external mouldings with which the
+doorways and arcades of important buildings were enriched, designed so
+as to be easily formed out of stones having squared faces, or, to use
+the technical phrase, to be "sunk" from the squared blocks.
+
+The character of sculpture in wood differs from that in stone, the
+material being harder, more capable of standing alone; so in stone we
+find more breadth, in wood finer lines and more elaboration.
+
+In a word, no material was employed in simulating another (or with
+the rarest exceptions), and when any ornament was to be executed in
+one place in one material and in another place in a different one,
+such alterations were always made in the treatment as corresponded to
+the different qualities of the two materials.
+
+The arch was introduced whenever possible, and the structure of a
+great Gothic building presents the strongest possible contrast to that
+of a Greek building.
+
+In the Greek temple there was no pressure that was not vertical and
+met by a vertical support, wall, or column, and no support that was
+not vastly in excess of the dimensions actually required to do the
+work.
+
+A great Gothic building attains stability through the balanced
+counterpoise of a vast series of pressures, oblique, perpendicular, or
+horizontal, so arranged as to counteract each other. The vault was
+kept from spreading by the flying buttress, the thrust of the arcade
+was resisted by massive walls, and so on throughout.
+
+The equilibrium thus obtained was sometimes so ticklish that a storm
+of wind, a trifling settlement, or a slight concussion sufficed to
+occasion a disaster; and many of the daring feats of the masons of the
+Middle Ages are lost to us, because they dared a little too much and
+the entire structure collapsed. This happened more often in the middle
+period of the style than in the earliest, but during the whole Gothic
+period there is a constant uniform tendency in one direction: thinner
+walls, wider arches, loftier vaults, slenderer buttresses, slighter
+piers, confront us at every step, and we need only compare some Norman
+structure (such as Durham), with a perpendicular (such as Henry VII.'s
+Chapel), to see how vast a change took place in this respect.
+
+
+_The Principles of Gothic Design._
+
+All the germs of Gothic architecture exist in the Romanesque of the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries, and became developed as the passion
+for more slender proportions, greater lightness, and loftiness of
+effect, and more delicate enrichment became marked. It is quite true
+that the pointed arch is universally recognised as, so to speak, the
+badge of Gothic, even to the extent of having suggested the title of
+Christian pointed architecture, by which it is often called. But the
+pointed arch must be regarded rather as a token that the series of
+changes, which, starting from the heavy if majestic Romanesque of such
+a cathedral as Peterborough, culminated in the gracefulness of
+Salisbury or Lincoln, was far advanced towards completion, than as
+really essential to their perfection. Many of the examples of the
+transition period exhibit the round arch blended with the pointed
+(_e.g._ the nave of St. David's Cathedral or the Choir of Canterbury),
+and when we come to consider German architecture we shall find that
+the adoption of the pointed arch was postponed till long after the
+development of all, or almost all, the other features of the Gothic
+style; so as to place beyond question the existence, in that country
+at least, of "round arched Gothic." Some of the best authorities have
+indeed proposed to employ this title as a designation for much, if not
+all, the round arched architecture of the west of Europe, but Scott,
+Sharpe, and other authorities class medi�val art down to the middle of
+the twelfth century under the general head of Romanesque, a course
+which has been adopted in this volume.
+
+The proportions of Gothic buildings were well studied, their forms
+were always lofty, their gables sharp, and their general composition
+more or less pyramidal. Remarkable numerical relations between the
+dimensions of the different parts of a great Gothic cathedral can be
+discovered upon careful examination in most, if not all instances, and
+there can be little doubt that a system of geometrical proportions ran
+through the earlier design, and that much of the harmony and beauty
+which the buildings present is traceable to this fact. Independent of
+this the skill with which subordinate features and important ones are
+fitted to their respective positions, both by their dimensions and by
+their relative elaboration or plainness, forms a complete system of
+proportion, making use of the word in its broadest sense; and the
+results are extremely happy.
+
+Apparent size was imparted to almost every Gothic building by the
+smallness, great number, and variety of its features, and by the small
+size of the stones employed. The effect of strength is generally,
+though not perhaps so uniformly, also obtained, and dignity, beauty,
+and harmony are rarely wanting.
+
+Symmetry, though not altogether overlooked, has but a slender hold
+upon Gothic architects. It is far more observed in the interior than
+in the exterior of the buildings; but it must be remembered that
+symmetry formed the basis of many designs which, owing to the
+execution having been carried on through a long series of years and by
+different hands, came to be varied from the original intentions. Thus,
+for example, Chartres is a cathedral with two western towers. One of
+these was carried up and its spire completed in the twelfth century.
+The companion spire was not added till the end of the fifteenth, when
+men's ideas as to the proportions, shape, ornaments, and details of a
+spire had altered entirely;--the later architect did not value
+symmetry enough to think himself bound to adhere either to the design
+or to the height of the earlier spire, so we have in this great
+fa�ade two similar flanking towers but spires entirely unlike. What
+happened at Chartres happened elsewhere. The original design of
+buildings was in the main symmetrical, but it was never considered
+that symmetry was a matter so important as to require that much
+sacrifice should be made to preserve it.
+
+On the other hand the subordination of a multitude of small features
+to one dominant one enters largely into the design of every good
+Gothic building; with the result that if the great governing feature
+or mass has been carried out in its entirety, almost any feature, no
+matter how irregular or unsymmetrical, may be safely introduced, and
+will only add picturesqueness and piquancy to the design. This is more
+or less a leading principle of Gothic design. A building with no
+irregularities, none of those charming additions which add individual
+character to Gothic churches, and none of the isolated features which
+the principle of subordination permits the architect to employ, has
+missed one of the chief qualities of the style. It is here that
+unskilled architects mostly fail when they attempt Gothic designs;
+they either hold on to symmetry as though they were designing a Greek
+temple, and they are unaware that the spirit of the style in which
+they are trying to work not only permits, but requires some irregular
+features; or if they do not fall into this error they are overtaken by
+the opposite one, and omit to make their irregular features
+subordinate to the general effect of the whole, an error less serious
+in its effects than the other, but still destructive of anything like
+the highest qualities in a building.
+
+Repetition, like symmetry, is recognised by Gothic architecture, but
+not adhered to in a rigid way. No buildings gain more from the
+repetition of parts than Gothic churches and cathedrals; the series of
+pillars or piers and arches inside, the series of buttresses and
+windows outside, add scale to the general effect. But so long as it
+was in the main a series of features which broadly resembled one
+another, the Gothic architect was satisfied, and did not feel bound to
+exact repetition.
+
+We are often, for example, surprised to find in the columns of a
+church an octagonal one alternating with a circular one, and almost
+invariably, if a series of capitals be examined, each will be
+discovered to differ from the others to some extent. In one bay of a
+church there may be a two-light window, and in the next a three-light
+window, and so on.
+
+This we find in buildings erected at one time and under one architect.
+Where, however, a building begun at one period was continued at
+another (and this, it must be remembered, was the rule, not the
+exception, with all large Gothic buildings), the architect, while
+usually repeating the same features, with the same general forms,
+invariably followed his own predilections as to detail. There is a
+very good example of this in Westminster Abbey, in the western bays of
+the nave, which were built years later than the eastern bays. They
+are, to a superficial observer, identical, being of the same height
+and width and shape of arch, but nearly every detail differs.
+
+Disclosure, rather than concealment, was a principle of Gothic design.
+This was demonstrated long ago by Pugin, and many of his followers
+pushed the doctrine to such extremes, that they held--and some of them
+still hold--that no building is really Gothic in which any part,
+either of its construction or arrangement, is not obviously visible
+inside and out.
+
+This is, however, carrying the principle too far. It is sufficient to
+say that the interior disposition of every Gothic building was as
+much as possible disclosed by the exterior. Thus, in a secular
+building, where there is a large room, there usually was a large
+window; when a lofty apartment occurs, its roof was generally
+proportionately high; where a staircase rises, we usually can detect
+it by a sloping row of little windows following the line of the stair,
+or by a turret roof.
+
+The mode in which the thrust of vaults is counterpoised is, as has
+been shown, frankly displayed by the Gothic architects, and as a rule,
+every portion of the structure is freely exhibited. It grows out of
+this, that when an ornamental feature is desired, it is not
+constructed purely for ornament, as the Romans added the columns and
+cornices of the orders to the outside of their massive walls purely as
+an architectural screen; but some requisite, of the building is taken
+and ornamented, and in some cases elaborated. Thus the belfry grew
+into the enormous bell tower; the tower roof grew into the spire; the
+extra weight required on flying buttresses grew into the ornamental
+pinnacle; and the window head grew into tracery.
+
+There were, however, some exceptions. The walls were still constantly
+faced with finer masonry than in the heart, and though some are
+unwilling to admit the fact, were often plastered outside as well as
+in; and what is more remarkable, no other sign of the vault appeared
+outside the building than the buttresses required to sustain it.
+
+The external gable conforms to the shape of the roof which covered the
+vault, but the vault, perhaps the most remarkable and characteristic
+feature of the whole building, does not betray its presence by any
+external line or mark corresponding to its position and shape in the
+interior of the building. Notwithstanding these and some other
+exceptions, frank disclosure must be reckoned one of the main
+principles of Gothic architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 60.--DOORWAY FROM CHURCH AT BATALHA.
+      (BEGUN 1385.)]
+
+Elaboration and simplicity were both so well known to the Gothic
+architect that it is difficult to say that either of these qualities
+belongs exclusively to his work. But he was rarely simple when he had
+the opportunity of being elaborate, and simplicity was perhaps rather
+forced upon him by the circumstances under which he worked, by rude
+materials, scanty funds, and lack of skilled workmen, than freely
+chosen. Many of the great works of the Gothic period are as elaborate
+as they could be made (Fig. 60), and yet, when simplicity had to be
+the order of the day, no architecture has lent it such a grace as
+Gothic.
+
+The last pair of qualities is similarity and contrast. What has been
+said about repetition has anticipated the remarks called for by these
+qualities, so far as to point out that even where the arrangement of
+the building dictated the repetition of similar features, a general
+resemblance, and not an exact similarity, was considered sufficient.
+In the composition of masses of building, contrast and not similarity
+was the ruling principle. Even in the interiors of great churches
+which, as a rule, are far more regular than the exteriors, the
+contrast between the comparative plainness of the nave and the
+richness of the choir was an essential element of design.
+
+External design in Gothic buildings depends almost entirely upon
+contrast for its power of charming the eye, and it is this
+circumstance which has left the successive generations of men who
+toiled at our great Gothic cathedrals so free to follow the bent of
+their own taste in their additions, rather than that of their
+forerunners.
+
+But setting aside the irregularities due to the caprice of various
+builders, and the constant changes which took place in detail through
+the Gothic period, it is to contrast that we must trace most of the
+surprising effects attained by the architecture of the Middle Ages.
+The rich tracery was made richer by contrast with plain walls, the
+loftiest towers appeared higher from their contrast with the long
+level lines of roofs and parapets.
+
+It is, in truth, one of the principal marks of the decadence which
+began in the fifteenth century that the principle of contrast was, to
+a considerable extent, abandoned, at least in the details of the
+buildings if not in their great masses. Walls were at that time
+panelled in imitation of the tracery of the adjoining windows, and no
+longer acted as a foil to them by their solid plainness; long rows of
+pinnacles, all exactly alike, followed the line of the parapets, and a
+repetition of absolutely identical features became the rule for the
+first time in the history of Gothic art.
+
+There can be no doubt that had this modification run its natural
+course unchecked and undisturbed by the change in taste which abruptly
+brought the Gothic period to a close, it must have resulted in the
+deterioration of the art.
+
+  [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {RENAISSANCE ORNAMENT FROM A FRIEZE.}]
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+GENERAL VIEW.
+
+
+Gothic architecture had begun, before the close of the fifteenth
+century, to show marks of decadence, and men's minds and tastes were
+ripening for a change. The change, when it did take place, arose in
+Italy, and was a direct consequence of that burst of modern
+civilisation known as the revival of letters. All the characteristics
+of the middle ages were rapidly thrown off. The strain of old Roman
+blood in the modern Italians asserted itself, and almost at a bound,
+literature and the arts sprang back, like a bow unstrung, into the
+forms they had displayed fifteen hundred years before.
+
+It became the rage to read the choice Greek and Latin authors, and to
+write Latin with a pedantic purity. Can we wonder that in painting, in
+sculpture, and in architecture, men reverted to the form, the style,
+and the decorations of the antique compositions, statues, and
+architectural remains? This was the more easy in Italy, as Gothic art
+had never at any time taken so firm a hold upon Italians as it had
+upon nations north of the Alps.
+
+Though, however, the details and forms employed were all Roman, or
+Gr�co-Roman, they were applied to buildings essentially modern, and
+used with much freedom and spirit. This revival of classic taste in
+art is commonly and appropriately called Renaissance. In Italy it took
+place so rapidly that there was hardly any transition period.
+Brunelleschi, the first great Renaissance architect, began his work as
+early as the middle of the fifteenth century, and his buildings, in
+which classic details of great severity and purity are employed,
+struck, so to speak, a keynote which had been responded to all over
+Italy before the close of the fifteenth century.
+
+To other countries the change spread later, and it found them less
+prepared to welcome it unreservedly. Accordingly, in France, in
+England, and in many parts of Germany, we find a transition period,
+during which buildings were designed in a mixed style. In England, the
+transition lasted almost through the sixteenth century.
+
+As the century went on, a most picturesque and telling style, the
+earlier phases of which are known as Tudor and the later as
+Elizabethan, sprang up in England. It betrays in its mixture of Gothic
+and classic forms great incongruities and even monstrosities; but it
+allows unrestrained play for the fancies, and the best mansions and
+manors of the time, such as Hatfield, Hardwick, Burleigh, Bramshill,
+and Audley End, are unsurpassed in their picturesqueness and romantic
+charm.
+
+The old red-brick, heavily chimneyed, and gabled buildings, with their
+large windows divided by bold mullions and transoms, and their simple
+noble outlines, are familiar to us all, and so are their
+characteristic features. The great hall with its oriel or its bay,
+the fine plastered ceiling, supported by heavy beams of timber; the
+wide oak staircase, with its carved balusters, and ornamented newel
+post, and heavy-moulded handrail; the old wainscoted parlour, with its
+magnificent chimney-piece reaching to the ceiling; these are all
+essentially English features, and are full of vigour and life, as
+indeed the work of every period of transition must almost necessarily
+prove.
+
+The transitional period in France produced exquisite works more
+refined and elegantly treated than ours, but not so vigorous. Its
+manner is known as the Fran�ois Premier (Francis I.) style. No modern
+buildings are more profusely ornamented, and yet not spoilt.
+
+In Germany, the Castle of Heidelberg may be named as a well-known
+specimen of the transition period, a period over which however we must
+not linger. Suffice it to say, that sooner or later the change was
+fully accomplished in every European country, and Renaissance
+architecture, modified as climate, materials, habits, or even caprice
+suggested, yet the same in its essential characteristics, obtained a
+firm footing: this it has succeeded in retaining, though not to the
+exclusion of other styles, for now nearly three centuries.
+
+In Italy, Renaissance churches, great and small--from St. Peter's
+downwards--and magnificent secular buildings, some, like the Vatican
+Palace or the Library of St. Mark at Venice, for public purposes, but
+most for the occupation of the great wealthy and princely families,
+abound in Naples, Rome, Florence, Genoa, Venice, Milan, and indeed
+every great city.
+
+In France, the transition period was succeeded by a time when vast
+undertakings, _e.g._ the H�tel de Ville, the Louvre, the Tuileries,
+Versailles, were carried out in the revived style with the utmost
+magnificence, and were imitated in every part of the country in the
+structures greater or smaller which were then built.
+
+In England, the works of Inigo Jones, and of Wren, are the most famous
+works of the developed style, and to the last-named architect we owe a
+cathedral second to none in Europe for its beauty of outline, and play
+of light and shade. To Germany, and the countries of the north-east
+Europe, and to Spain and Portugal on the south, the style also
+extended with no very great modification, either of its general forms
+or of its details.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+_Plan._
+
+The plan of Renaissance buildings was uniform and symmetrical, and the
+picturesqueness of the Gothic times was abandoned. The plans of
+churches were not widely different from those in use in Italy before
+the revival of classic art took place, but it will be remembered that
+these were by no means so irregular or picturesque at any time as the
+plans of French and English cathedral churches.
+
+In secular architecture, the vast piles erected in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries by Italian, French, and Spanish architects are
+to the last degree orderly in their disposition. They are adapted to a
+great variety of purposes, and they display a varying degree of skill.
+The palaces of Genoa are, on the one hand, among the cleverest
+examples of planning existing; on the other hand, many of the palaces
+in France are weak and poor to the last degree. As a rule the scale of
+the plan is more considerable than in Gothic work. A very large
+building is often not divided into more parts than a small one, or one
+of moderate size. In St. Peter's, for example, there are only four
+bays between the west front and the dome, everything being on a most
+gigantic scale. As a contrast to this principle we may cite the nave
+of the Gothic cathedral at Milan, which is not so long at St. Peter's,
+but has at least thrice as many bays, and looks much larger in
+consequence.
+
+No style affords more room for skill in planning than the Renaissance,
+and in no style is the exercise of such skill more repaid by results.
+
+
+_Walls and Columns._
+
+In the treatment of external walls, the medi�val use of small
+materials, involving many joints for the exterior of walls has quite
+disappeared, and they are universally faced with stone or plaster, and
+are consequently uniformly smooth. Perhaps the principal feature to
+note is the very great use made of that elaborate sort of masonry in
+which the joints of the stones are very carefully channelled or
+otherwise marked, and which is known by the singularly inappropriate
+name of rustic work. The basements of most Italian and French palaces
+are rusticated, and in many cases (as the Pitti Palace, Florence)
+rustic work covers an entire fa�ade.
+
+The Gothic mouldings in receding planes disappear entirely, and the
+classic architrave takes their place. The orders are again revived and
+are used (as the Romans often used them) as purely decorative features
+added for the mere sake of ornament to a wall sufficient without them,
+and are freely piled one upon the other. Palladio (a very influential
+Italian architect) reproduced the use of lofty pilasters running
+through two or even more storeys of the building, and often combined
+one tall order and two short ones in his treatment of the same part
+of the building, a contrivance which in less clever hands than his has
+given rise to the greatest confusion.
+
+The Renaissance architects also revived the late Roman manner of
+employing the column and entablature. They frequently carried on the
+top of a column a little square pier divided up as the architrave and
+frieze proper to the column would be divided, and they surmounted it
+with a cornice which was carried quite round this pier, and from this
+curious compound pedestal an arch will frequently spring. The classic
+portico, with pediments, was constantly employed by them; and small
+pediments over window heads were common. A peculiarity worth mention
+is the introduction in many Italian palaces of a great crowning
+cornice, proportioned not to the size of the columns and of the order
+upon which it rests (if an order be employed), but to the height of
+the whole building. Much fine effect is obtained by means of this
+feature; it is, however, better fitted for sunny Italy than for gloomy
+England, and it is not an unmixed success when repeated in our
+climate.
+
+Towers are less frequently employed than by the Gothic architects, and
+indeed in Italy the sky-line was less thought of at this period than
+it was in the middle ages. In churches, towers sometimes occur,
+nowhere more picturesque than those designed by Sir Christopher Wren
+for many of his London parish churches. The frequent use of the dome
+takes the place of the tower both in churches and secular buildings.
+
+
+_Openings._
+
+Openings are both flat-headed and semicircular, occasionally
+elliptical, but hardly ever pointed. Renaissance buildings may be to
+some extent divided into those which depend for effect upon window
+openings, and those which depend chiefly upon architectural features
+such as cornices, pilasters, and orders. Among the buildings where
+fenestration (or the treatment of windows) is relied upon the palaces
+of Venice stand pre-eminent as compositions admirably designed for
+effect and very successful. In them the openings are massed near the
+centre of the fa�ade, and strong piers are left near the angles, a
+simple expedient when once known, and one inherited from the Gothic
+palaces in that city, but giving remarkable individuality of character
+to this group of buildings.
+
+In roofs, including vaults and domes, we meet with a divergence of
+practice between Italy and France. In Italy low-pitched roofs were the
+rule: the parapet alone often formed the sky-line, and the dome and
+pediment are usually the only telling features of the outline. France,
+on the other hand, revived a most picturesque feature of Gothic days,
+namely, the high-pitched roof, employing it in the shape commonly
+known as the Mansard[30] roof. Nothing adds more to the effectiveness
+of the great French Renaissance buildings than these lofty terminals.
+
+The dome is, however, the glory of this style, as it had been of the
+Roman. It is the one feature by which revived and original classic
+architects retain a clear and defined advantage over Gothic
+architects, who, strange to say, all but abandoned the dome. The
+mouldings and other ornaments of the Renaissance are much the same as
+those of the Roman style, which the Italians revived; their sculptures
+and their mural decorations were all originally drawn from classic
+sources. These, however, attained very great excellence, and it is
+probable that such decorative paintings as Raphael and his scholars
+executed in Rome, at Genoa, at Mantua, and elsewhere, far surpass
+anything which the old Roman decorative artists ever executed.
+
+
+_Construction and Design._
+
+The earlier Renaissance buildings are remarkable for the great use
+which their architects made of carpentry, as the most modern
+structures are for the use of wrought and cast-iron construction. As
+regards carpentry, it is of course true that all the woodwork of the
+classic periods, and much of that done in the Gothic period, has
+perished, either through decay or fire; but making every allowance for
+this, we must still recognise a very great increase in the employment
+of timber as an integral part of large structures. Vaulted roofs for
+example are comparatively rare, and domes, even when the inner dome is
+of brickwork or masonry, have their outer envelope of carpentry. A
+disuse of brick and rough masonry, or rather a constant effort to
+conceal them from view, is a distinctive mark of Renaissance work. The
+Roman method of facing rough walls with fine stone was resorted to in
+the best buildings. In humbler buildings plaster is employed.
+
+Renaissance architects made very free use of plaster. Inside and out
+this material is utilised, not merely to cover surfaces, but to form
+architectural features. Cornices, panels, and enrichments of all kinds
+modelled in plaster are constantly employed in the interior of rooms
+and buildings. On the exterior we constantly find imitations of
+similar architectural features proper to stone executed in plaster and
+simulating stone; a short-sighted practice which cannot be commended,
+and which has only cheapness and convenience in its favour. There can
+be no question of the fact that the features thus executed never
+equal those done in stone in their effectiveness, and are far more
+liable to decay.
+
+Design in Renaissance buildings may be said to be directed towards
+producing a telling result by the effect of the buildings taken as a
+whole, rather than by the intricacy or the beauty of individual parts;
+and herein lies one of the great contrasts between Renaissance and
+Gothic architecture. A Renaissance building which fails to produce an
+impression as a whole is rarely felt to be successful. No better
+example of this can be given than the straggling, unsatisfactory
+Palace of Versailles, magnificent as it is in dimensions and rich in
+treatment. To the production of a homogeneous impression the
+arrangement of plan, the proportion of storeys, the contrasts of voids
+and solids, and above all the outline of the entire building, should
+be devoted.
+
+The general arrangement of buildings is usually strictly symmetrical,
+one half corresponding to the other, and with some well-defined
+feature to mark the centre. Of course in very large buildings this
+does not occur, nor in the nature of things can it often take place in
+the sides of churches; but the individual features of such buildings,
+and all those parts of them which permit of symmetry in their
+arrangement, always display it.
+
+Proportion plays an important part in the design of Renaissance
+buildings. The actual shape of openings, the proportion which they
+bear to voids, the proportion of storeys to one another; and, going
+into details, the proportions which the different features--_e.g._,
+cornice, and the columns supporting it--should bear to one another,
+have to be carefully studied. It is to the possession of a keen sense
+of what makes a pleasing proportion and one satisfactory to the eye,
+that the great architects of Italy owed the greater part of their
+success.
+
+Renaissance architecture is so familiar in its general features, and
+these have been so constantly repeated, that we may not easily
+recognise the great need for skill and taste which exists if they are
+to be designed so as to produce the most refined effect possible. Many
+of the successful buildings of the style owe their excellence to the
+great delicacy and elegance of the mode in which the details have been
+studied, rather than to the vigour and boldness with which the masses
+have been shaped and disposed; and though grandeur is the noblest
+quality of which the style is capable, yet many more opportunities for
+displaying grace and refinement than for attaining grandeur offer
+themselves, and by nothing are the best works of the style so well
+marked out as by the success with which those opportunities have been
+grasped and turned to account.
+
+The concealment both of construction and arrangement is largely
+practised in Renaissance buildings. Behind an exterior wall filled by
+windows of uniform size and equally spaced, rooms large and small,
+corridors, staircases, and other features have to be provided for.
+This is completely in contrast to the Gothic principle of displaying
+frankly on the outside the arrangement of what is within; but it must
+be remembered that art often works most happily and successfully when
+limited by apparently strict and difficult conditions, and these rules
+have not prevented the great architects of the Renaissance from
+accomplishing works where both the exterior and the interior are
+thoroughly successful, and are brought into such happy harmony that
+the difficulties have clearly been no bar to success. There is no
+canon of art violated by such a method, the simple fact being that
+Gothic buildings are designed under one set of conditions and
+Renaissance under another.
+
+It is less easy to defend the use of pilasters and columns large
+enough to appear as though they were the main support of the building,
+for purely decorative purposes; yet here perhaps the fault lies rather
+in the extent to which the practice has been carried, and above all
+the scale upon which it is carried out, than in anything else. Small
+columns are constantly employed in Gothic buildings in positions where
+they serve the �sthetic purpose of conveying a sense of support, but
+where it is impossible for them to carry any weight. The Renaissance
+architects have done the same thing on a large scale, but it must not
+be forgotten that they only revived a Roman practice as part of the
+ancient style to which they reverted, and that they are not
+responsible for originating it.
+
+It will be understood therefore that symmetry, strict uniformity, not
+mere similarity, in features intended to correspond, and constant
+repetition, are leading principles in Renaissance architecture. These
+qualities tend to breadth rather than picturesqueness of effect, and
+to similarity rather than contrast. Simplicity and elaboration are
+both compatible with Renaissance design; the former distinguishes the
+earlier and purer examples of the style, the latter those more recent
+and more grandiose.
+
+It should be observed that in the transition styles, such as our own
+Elizabethan, or the French style of Francis the First, these
+principles of design are mixed up in a very miscellaneous way with
+those followed in the Gothic period. The result is often puzzling and
+inconsistent if we attempt to analyse it with exactness, but rarely
+fails to charm by its picturesque and irregular vividness.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[30] Named after a French architect of the 17th century.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {FROM A TERRA-COTTA FRIEZE AT LODI.}]
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.
+
+
+Renaissance architecture--the architecture of the classic revival--had
+its origin in Italy, and should be first studied in the land of its
+birth. There are more ways than one in which it may be attempted to
+classify Italian Renaissance buildings. The names of conspicuous
+architects are sometimes adopted for this purpose, for now, for the
+first time, we meet with a complete record of the names and
+performances of all architects of note: the men who raised the great
+works of Gothic art are, with a few exceptions, absolutely unknown to
+us. An approximate division into three stages can also be recognised.
+There is an early, a developed, and a late Renaissance, but this is
+very far indeed from being a completely marked series, and was more
+interfered with by local circumstances and by the character and genius
+of individual artists than in Gothic. For this reason a local division
+will be of most service. The best examples exist in the great cities,
+with a few exceptions, and it is almost more useful to group them--as
+the paintings of the Renaissance are also often grouped--by locality
+than in either of the other methods.
+
+
+FLORENCE.
+
+Renaissance architecture first sprang into existence in Florence. Here
+chiefly the works of the early Renaissance are met with, and the names
+of the great Florentine architects are Brunelleschi and Alberti.
+
+Brunelleschi was a citizen of Florence, of very ardent temperament and
+great energy, and a true artist. He was born in 1377, was originally
+trained as a goldsmith and sculptor, but devoted himself to the study
+of architecture, and early set his heart upon being appointed to
+complete the dome of the then unfinished cathedral of Florence, of
+which some account has already been given.
+
+Florence in the fifteenth century was full of artistic life, and the
+revival of learning and arts had then begun to take definite shape.
+The first years of the century found Brunelleschi studying antiquities
+at Rome, to fit himself for the work he desired to undertake. After
+his return to his native city, he ultimately succeeded in the object
+of his ambition; the cathedral was entrusted to him, and he erected
+the large pointed dome with which it is crowned. He also erected two
+large churches in Florence, which, as probably the first important
+buildings designed and built in the new style, possess great interest.
+Santo Spirito, one of these, shows a fully matured system of
+architectural treatment, and though it is quite true that it was a
+revived system, yet the application of it to a modern building,
+different in its purpose and in its design from anything the Romans
+had ever done, is little short of a work of genius.
+
+Santo Spirito has a very simple and beautifully regular plan, and its
+interior has a singular charm and grace: over the crossing is raised
+a low dome. The columns of the arcade are Corinthian columns, and the
+refinement of their detail and proportions strikes the eye at once on
+entering the building. The influence of Brunelleschi, who died in
+1440, was perpetuated by the works and writings of Alberti (born 1398)
+an architect of literary cultivation who wrote a systematic treatise
+which became extremely popular, and helped to form the taste and guide
+the practice of his contemporaries. He lived till near the close of
+the fifteenth century, and erected some buildings of great merit. To
+Alberti we owe the design of the Ruccellai Palace in Florence, a
+building begun in 1460, and which had been preceded by somewhat bolder
+and simpler designs. This is a three storey building, but has
+pilasters carried up the piers between the windows and a regular
+entablature and cornice[31] at each storey. The building is elegant
+and graceful, and though the employment of the orders[32] as its
+decoration gives it a distinctive character, it bears a strong general
+resemblance to the group of which the Strozzi Palace (Fig. 61) may be
+taken as the type.
+
+The earliest Florentine palaces are the Riccardi, which dates from
+1430, and the Pitti of almost the same date; Brunelleschi is said to
+have been consulted in the design of both, but Michelozzo was the
+architect. The distinguishing characteristic of the early palaces in
+this city is solidity, which rises from the fact that they were also
+fortresses. The Pitti, well known for its picture gallery, is a
+building of vast extent, built throughout in very boldly rusticated
+masonry, the joints and projections of the stones being greatly
+exaggerated. The Riccardi, a square block of building, bears a
+considerable resemblance to the Strozzi, but is plainer. It is a most
+dignified building in its effect.
+
+The Strozzi Palace (Fig. 61) was the next great palatial pile erected.
+It was designed by Cronaca, and begun in 1498. Like the Riccardi, it
+is of three storeys, with a bold projecting cornice. The whole wall is
+covered with rusticated masonry; the windows of the lower floor are
+small and square; those of the two upper floors are larger and
+semicircular headed, and with a shaft acting as a mullion, and
+carrying arches which occupy the window head with something like
+tracery. The entrance is by a semicircular headed archway. There is a
+great height of unpierced wall in the lowest storey and above the
+heads of the two upper ranges of windows; and to this and the bold
+overhanging cornice, this building, and those like it, owe much of
+their dignity and impressiveness. An elevation, such as our
+illustration, may convey a fair idea of the good proportion and
+ensemble of the front, but it is difficult without actually seeing the
+buildings to appreciate the effect produced by such palaces as these,
+seen foreshortened in the narrow streets, and with the shadows from
+their bold cornices and well-defined openings intensified by the
+effect of the Italian sun.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 61.--STROZZI PALACE AT FLORENCE. (BEGUN 1489.)]
+
+Many excellent palatial buildings belong to the end of the fifteenth
+century. One among them is attributed to Bramante (who died 1513), a
+Florentine, whom we shall meet with in Rome and elsewhere. The
+Guadagni Palace has an upper storey entirely open, forming a sheltered
+loggia, but it is mentioned here chiefly on account of the
+decorations incised on its walls by the method known as Sgraffito.
+Part of the plain wall is covered in this way with decorative designs,
+which appear as though drawn with a bold line on their surface. An
+example of this decoration will be found in our illustration (Fig.
+62), representing a portion of the Loggia del Consiglio at Verona.
+
+The series of great Florentine palaces closes with a charming example,
+the Pandolfini, designed by the great Raphael, and commenced in
+1520--in other words, in the first quarter of the sixteenth century.
+
+This palace is only one of many instances to be found in Italy of the
+skill in more walks of art than one, of some of the greatest artists.
+Raphael, though best known as a painter, executed works of sculpture
+of great merit, and designed some other buildings besides the one now
+under notice. The Pandolfini Palace (Fig. 63) is small, the main
+building having only four windows in the front and two storeys in
+height, with a low one-storey side building. Its general design has
+been very successfully copied in the Travellers' Club House, Pall
+Mall. On comparing this with any of the previously named designs, it
+will be seen that the semicircular headed windows have disappeared,
+the rusticated masonry is only now retained at the angles, and to
+emphasise the side entrance; and a small order with a little pediment
+(_i.e._ gable) is employed to mark each opening, door or window. In
+short this building belongs not only to another century, but to that
+advanced school of art to which we have given the name of developed
+Italian Renaissance.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 62.--PART OF THE LOGGIA DEL CONSIGLIO AT VERONA.
+      (16TH CENTURY.)
+      Showing the incised decoration known as _Sgraffito_.]
+
+In Florence some of the work of Michelangelo is to be met with. His
+own house is here; so is the famous Medici chapel, a work in which we
+find him displaying power at once as a sculptor and an architect.
+This interior is very fine and very studied both in its proportions
+and its details. The church of the Annunziata, remarkable for a fine
+dome, carried on a drum resting directly on the ground, is the
+foremost Renaissance church in Florence.
+
+The contrast between early and matured Renaissance can indeed be
+better recognised in Florence than in almost any other city. The early
+work, that of Bramante, Brunelleschi, and the architects who drew
+their inspirations from these masters, was delicate and refined. The
+detail was always elegant, the ornament always unobtrusive, and often
+most graceful. Features comparatively small in scale were employed,
+and were set off by the use of plain wall-surface, which was
+unhesitatingly displayed. The classic orders were used in a
+restricted, unobtrusive way, and with pilasters in preference to
+columns; and though probably the architects themselves would have
+repudiated the idea that the Gothic art, which they had cast behind
+them, influenced their practice of revived classic in the remotest
+degree, it is nevertheless true that many of these peculiarities, and
+still more the general quality of the designs, were to a large extent
+those to which the practice of Gothic architecture had led them.
+
+A change which was partly due to a natural desire for progress, was
+helped on by the great attention paid by students of architecture to
+the remains of ancient Roman buildings; but it was the influence
+excited by the powerful genius of Michelangelo, and by the gigantic
+scale and vigorous treatment of his masterpiece, St. Peter's, which was
+the proximate occasion of a revolution in taste and practice, to which,
+the labours, both literary and artistic, of Vignola, and the designs of
+Palladio, gave form and consistency. In the fully-developed, or, as it
+is sometimes called, pure Renaissance of Italy, great use is made of
+the classic orders and pediment, and indeed of all the features which
+the Romans had employed. Plain wall space almost disappears under the
+various architectural features introduced, and all ornaments, details,
+and mouldings become bolder and richer, but often less refined and
+correct in design.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 63.--THE PANDOLFINI PALACE, FLORENCE.
+      DESIGNED BY RAPHAEL. (BEGUN 1520.)]
+
+
+ROME.
+
+Rome, the capital of the country, contains, as was fit, the central
+building of the fully-developed Renaissance, St. Peter's. Bramante,
+the Florentine, was the architect to whom the task of designing a
+cathedral to surpass anything existing in Europe was committed by Pope
+Julius II. at the opening of the sixteenth century. Some such project
+had been entertained, and even begun, fifty years earlier, but the
+enterprise was now started afresh, a new design was made, and the
+first stone was laid by the Pope in 1506. Bramante died in some six or
+seven years, and five or six architects in succession, one of whom was
+Raphael, proceeded with the work, without advancing it rapidly, for
+nearly half a century, during which time the design was modified again
+and again. In 1546 the great Michelangelo was appointed architect, and
+the last eighteen years of his life were spent in carrying on this
+great work. He completed the magnificent dome in all its essential
+parts, and left the church a Greek cross (_i.e._ one which has all its
+four arms equal) on plan, with the dome at the crossing. The boast is
+attributed to him that he would take the dome of the Pantheon and hang
+it in the air; and this he has virtually accomplished in the dome of
+St. Peter's--a work of the greatest beauty of design and boldness of
+construction.
+
+Unfortunately, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, Maderno
+was employed to lengthen the nave. This transformed the plan of the
+cathedral into a Latin cross. The existing portico was built at the
+same time; and in 1661 Bernini added the vast forecourt, lined by
+colonnades, which now forms the approach.
+
+This cathedral, of which the history has been briefly sketched, is the
+largest in the world. As we now see it, it consists of a vast
+vestibule; a nave of four bays with side aisles; a vast square central
+space over which hangs the great dome; transepts and a choir, each of
+one bay and an apse. Outside the great central space, an aisle, not
+quite like the ordinary aisle of a church, exists, and there are two
+side chapels. It can be well understood that if the largest church in
+Christendom is divided into so few parts, these must be themselves of
+colossal dimensions, and the truth is that the piers are masses of
+masonry which can be called nothing else than vast, while the spaces
+spanned by the arches and vaults are prodigious. There is little sense
+of mystery about the interior of the building (Fig. 64), the eye soon
+grasps it as a whole, and hours must be spent in it before an idea of
+its gigantic size is at all taken in. The beauty of the colouring adds
+wonderfully to the effect of St. Peter's upon the spectator, for the
+walls are rich with mosaics and coloured marbles; and the interior,
+the dome especially, with the drum upon which it rests, are decorated
+in colour throughout, with fine effect and in excellent taste. The
+interior is amply lighted, and, though very rich, not over decorated;
+its design is simple and noble in the extreme, and all its parts are
+wonderful in their harmony. The connection between the dome and the
+rest of the building is admirable, and there is a sense of vast space
+when the spectator stands under that soaring vault which belongs to
+no other building in the world.
+
+The exterior is disappointing as long as the building is seen in
+front, for the fa�ade is so lofty and advances so far forward as to
+cut off the view of the lower part of the dome. To have an idea of the
+building as Michelangelo designed it, it is necessary to go round to
+the back; and then, with the height of the drum fully seen and the
+contour of the dome, with all its massy lines of living force,
+carrying the eye with them right up to the elegant lantern that crowns
+the summit, some conception of the hugeness and the symmetry of this
+mountain of art seems to dawn on the mind. But even here it is with
+the utmost difficulty that one can apply any scale to the mass, so
+that the idea which the mind forms of its bulk is continually
+fluctuating.
+
+The history of this building extends over all the period of developed
+Renaissance in Rome, and its list of architects includes all the best
+known names. By the side of it every other church, even St. John
+Lateran, appears insignificant; so that the secular buildings in Rome,
+which are numerous, and some of them excellent, are more worth
+attention than the churches, though not a few of the three hundred
+churches and basilicas of the metropolis of Italy are good examples of
+Renaissance.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 64.--ST. PETER'S AT ROME. INTERIOR. (1506-1661.)]
+
+The altars, tombs, and other architectural or semi-architectural works
+which occur in many of the churches of Rome, are, however, finer works
+of art as a rule than the buildings which they adorn. Such gems are
+not confined to Rome, but are to be found throughout Italy: many of
+them belong to the best period of art. Marble is generally the
+material, and the light as a rule falls on these works in one
+direction only. Under these circumstances the most subtle moulding
+gives a play of light and shade, and the most delicate carving
+produces a richness of effect which cannot be attained in exterior
+architecture, executed for the most part in stone, exposed to the
+weather, and seen by diffused and reflected light. Nothing of this
+sort is finer than the monuments by Sansovino, erected in Sta. Maria
+del Popolo at Rome, one of which we illustrate on a small scale (Fig.
+65). The magnificent altar-piece in Sta. Coronale at Vicenza, in which
+is framed Bellini's picture of the baptism of Christ, is another
+example, on an unusually large scale--fine in style, and covered with
+beautiful ornament.
+
+No secular building exists in Rome so early or so simple as the severe
+Florentine palaces; but Bramante, who belongs to the early period,
+erected there the fine Cancelleria palace; and the Palazzo Giraud
+(Fig. 66). These buildings resemble one another very closely; each
+bears the impress of refined taste, but delicacy has been carried
+almost to timidity. The pilasters and cornices which are employed have
+the very slightest projection, but the large mass of the wall as
+compared with the openings, secures an appearance of solidity, and
+hence of dignity. The interior of the Cancelleria contains an arcaded
+quadrangle (_cortile_) of great beauty. Smaller palaces belonging to
+the same period and of the same refined, but somewhat weak, character
+exist in Rome.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 65.--MONUMENT, BY SANSOVINO, IN STA. MARIA DEL
+      POPOLO, ROME. (15TH CENTURY.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 66.--PALAZZO GIRAUD (NOW TORLONIA), ROME. BY
+      BRAMANTE. (1506.)]
+
+The Vatican Palace is so vast that, like St. Peter's, it took more
+than one generation to complete. To Bramante's time belongs the great
+Belvedere, since much altered, but in its original state an admirable
+work. This palace also can show some remarkable additions by Bernini,
+a much later architect, with much that is not admirable or remarkable
+by other hands. The finest Roman palace is the Farnese, begun by San
+Gallo in 1530, continued by Michelangelo, and completed by Giacomo
+della Porta, each architect having altered the design. This building,
+notwithstanding its chequered history, is a dignified, impressive
+mass. It has only three storeys and a scarcely marked basement, and is
+nearly square, with a large quadrangle in its heart. It is very lofty,
+and has a great height of unpierced wall over each storey of windows,
+and is crowned by a bold and highly-enriched cornice--an unusual thing
+for Rome. In this, and in many palaces built about the same time, the
+windows are ornamented in the same manner as those of the Pandolfini
+Palace at Florence; the use of pilasters instead of columns is
+general; the openings are usually square-headed, circular heads being
+usually confined to arcades and loggie; the angles are marked by
+rustication, and the only cornice is the one that crowns the whole.
+This general character will apply to most of the works of Baldassare
+Peruzzi, Vignola, Sangallo, and Raphael, who were, with Michelangelo,
+the foremost architects in Rome in the sixteenth century. But "the
+works executed by Michelangelo are in a bolder and more pictorial
+style, as are also many productions grafted on the earlier Italian
+manner by a numerous class of succeeding architects. In these is to be
+remarked a greater use of columns, engaged and isolated; stronger but
+less studied details; and a greater use of colonnades, in which
+however the combination with the semicircular arch is still unusual,
+the antique in this respect being followed to a great disadvantage.
+Still there is a nobility, a palatial look about these large mansions
+which is very admirable, and is to be remarked in all the palaces,
+even up to the time of Borromini, _circa_ 1640, by whom all the
+principles and parts of Roman architecture were literally turned
+topsy-turvey. Michelangelo's peculiar style was more thoroughly
+carried out on ecclesiastical buildings, and as practised by his
+successors, exhibits much that is fine, in large masses, boldly
+projecting cornices, three-quarter columns, and noble domes; but it is
+otherwise debased by great misconceptions as to the reasonable
+application of architecture."--M. D. W.
+
+In the seventeenth century a decline set in. The late Renaissance has
+neither the severity of the early, nor the dignified richness of the
+mature time, but is extravagant; though at Rome examples of its
+extreme phase are not common. Maderno, who erected the west front of
+St. Peter's, and Bernini, who added the outer forecourt and also built
+the curiously designed state staircase (the _scala regia_) in the
+Vatican, are the foremost architects. To these must be added
+Borromini. The great Barberini Palace belongs to this century; but
+perhaps its most characteristic works are the fountains, some of them
+with elaborate architectural backgrounds, which ornament many of the
+open places in Rome. Few of the buildings of the eighteenth century in
+Rome, or indeed in Italy generally, claim attention as architectural
+works of a high order of merit.
+
+Before leaving central Italy for the north, it is necessary to mention
+the masterpiece of Vignola--the great Farnese Palace at Caprarola; and
+to add that in every city of importance examples more or less
+admirable of the art of the time were erected.
+
+
+VENICE, VICENZA, AND VERONA.
+
+The next great group of Renaissance buildings is to be found at
+Venice, where the style was adopted with some reluctance, and not
+till far on in the sixteenth century. At first we meet with some
+admixture of Gothic elements; as, for example, in the rebuilding of
+the internal quadrangle of the Ducal Palace. Pointed arches are
+partly employed in this work, which was completed about the middle of
+the sixteenth century. In the earlier palaces--which, it will be
+remembered, are comparatively narrow buildings standing side by side
+on the banks of the canals--the storeys are well marked; the windows
+are round headed with smaller arches within the main ones; the orders
+when introduced are kept subordinate; the windows are grouped
+together in the central portion of the front, as was the case with
+those of the Gothic palaces, and very little use is made of
+rusticated masonry. The Vendramini, Cornaro, and Trevisano Palaces
+conform to this type. To the same period belong one or two fine
+churches, the most famous being San Zacaria, a building with a very
+delicately panelled front, and a semicircular pediment in lieu of a
+gable; here, too, semicircular-headed openings are made use of. In
+many of these churches and other buildings, a beautiful ornament,
+which may be regarded as typical of early Venetian Renaissance, is to
+be found. It is the shell ornament, so called from its resemblance to
+a flat semicircular shell, ribbed from the centre to the
+circumference (Fig. 67).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 67.--ITALIAN SHELL ORNAMENT.]
+
+As time went on the style was matured into one of great richness, not
+to say ostentation, with which the names of Sansovino, Sanmichele,
+Palladio, and Scamozzi are identified as the prominent architects of
+the latter part of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In this
+city of palaces Sansovino, also a very fine sculptor, built the
+celebrated Library of St. Mark, facing the Ducal Palace, which has
+been followed very closely in the design of the Carlton Club, Pall
+Mall. Here, as in the splendid Cornaro Palace, the architect relied
+chiefly upon the columns and entablatures of the orders, combined with
+grand arcades enriched by sculpture, so arranged as to occupy the
+spaces between the columns; almost the whole of the wall-space was so
+taken up, and the basement only was covered with rustication, often
+rough worked, as at the beautiful Palazzo Pompeii, Verona, and the
+Grimani Palace, Venice.
+
+"Sanmichele's works are characterised chiefly by their excellent
+proportions, their carefully studied detail, their strength, and their
+beauty (qualities so difficult to combine). We believe that the
+buildings of this great architect and engineer at Verona are
+pre-eminent in their peculiar style over those of any other artist of
+the sixteenth century. In a different, but no less meritorious, manner
+are the buildings designed by Sansovino; they are characterised by a
+more sculptural and ornamental character; order over order with large
+arched voids in the interspaces of the columns producing a pictorial
+effect which might have led his less gifted followers into a false
+style, but for the example of the celebrated Palladio."--M. D. W.
+
+To the latest time of the Renaissance in Venice belongs the
+picturesque domed church of St. Maria della Salute, conspicuous in
+many views of the Grand Canal, a building which is a work of real
+genius in spite of what is considered its false taste. It dates from
+1632. The architect is Longhena.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 68.--THE CHURCH OF THE REDENTORE, VENICE.
+      (1576.)]
+
+An almost endless series of palaces and houses can be found in Venice,
+all of them rich, but few of great extent, for every foot of space had
+to be won from the sea by laborious engineering. There are some
+features which never fail to present themselves, and which are
+consequences of the conditions under which the structures were
+designed. All rise from the water, and require to admit of gondolas
+coming under the walls; hence there is always a principal central
+entrance with steps in front, but this entrance never has any sort of
+projecting portico or porch, and is never very much larger than the
+other openings in the front. As a straight frontage to the water had
+to be preserved, we hardly ever meet with such a thing as a break or
+projection of any sort; but the Venetian architects have found other
+means of giving interest to their elevations, and it is to the very
+restrictions imposed by circumstances that we owe the great
+originality displayed in their earlier buildings. The churches do not
+usually front directly on to the water; and though they are almost all
+good of their kind, they are far more commonplace than the palaces.
+The system of giving variety to the fa�ade of the secular buildings by
+massing openings near the centre, has been already referred to. Both
+shadow and richness were also aimed at in the employment of projecting
+balconies; in fact the two usually go together, for the great central
+window or group of windows mostly has a large and rich balcony
+belonging to it.
+
+Not far from Venice is Vicenza, and here Palladio, whose best
+buildings in Venice are churches, such, for example, as the Redentore
+(Fig. 68), enjoyed an opportunity of erecting a whole group of
+palaces, the fronts of which are extremely remarkable as designs;
+though, being executed in brick and plastered, they are now falling to
+ruin. There is much variety in them, and while some of them rely upon
+his device of lofty pilasters to include two storeys of the building
+under one storey of architectural treatment, others are handled
+differently. In all a singularly fine feeling for proportion and for
+the appropriate omission as well as introduction of ornament is to be
+detected. The worst defect of these fronts is, however, that they
+appear more like masks than the exteriors of buildings, for there is
+little obvious connection between the features of the exterior and
+anything which we may suppose to exist inside the building. The
+finest architectural work left behind by Palladio in this city are,
+however, the great arcades with which he surrounded the Basilica, a
+vast building of the middle ages already alluded to. These arcades are
+two storeys high, and are rich, yet vigorous; they ornament the great
+structure, the roof of which may be seen rising behind, without
+overpowering it.
+
+
+MILAN AND PAVIA.
+
+In Milan two buildings at least belong to the early Renaissance. These
+are the sacristy of Sta. Maria presso San Satiro, and the eastern
+portion of the church of Sta. Maria delle Grazie; Bramante was the
+architect of both. The last-named work is an addition to an existing
+Gothic church; it is executed in the terra-cotta and brick of
+Lombardy, materials which the Renaissance architects seemed to shun in
+later times, and is full of the most profuse and elegant ornaments.
+The design consists of a dome, treated externally a little like some
+of the Lombard domes of earlier date; and three apses forming choir
+and transepts. It is divided into several stages, and abundantly
+varied in its panelling and arcading, and is full of vigour. By
+Bramante is also the very beautiful arcaded quadrangle of the great
+hospital at Milan, the Gothic front of which has been already noticed.
+There are many Renaissance buildings of later date in Milan, but none
+very remarkable.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 69.--THE CERTOSA NEAR PAVIA. PART OF THE WEST
+      FRONT. (BEGUN BY BORGOGNONE 1473.)]
+
+To the early period belongs the design of the fa�ade of the Certosa
+near Pavia, part of which is shown (Fig. 69). This was begun as early
+as 1473, by Ambrogio Borgognone, and was long in hand. It proceeded on
+the lines settled thus early, and is probably the richest fa�ade
+belonging to any church in Christendom; it is executed entirely in
+marble. Sculpture is employed to adorn every part that is near the
+eye, and especially the portal, which is flanked by pilasters with
+their faces panelled and occupied by splendid _alti relievi_. The
+upper part is enriched by inlays of costly marbles, but the two
+systems of decoration do not thoroughly harmonise; for the upper half
+looks coarse, which it in reality is not, in contrast with the
+delicate richness of the carving near the eye. The great features,
+such as the entrance, the windows, and the angle pinnacles are
+thoroughly good, and an arcade of small arches is twice
+introduced,--once running completely across the front at about half
+its height, and again near the top of the central portion,--with
+excellent effect (see Frontispiece).
+
+
+GENOA, TURIN, AND NAPLES.
+
+Turning now to Genoa we find, as we may in several great cities of
+Italy, that very great success has been achieved by an artist whose
+works are to be seen in no other city, and whose fame is
+proportionally restricted. Just as the power of Luini as a painter can
+only be fully understood at Milan, or that of Giulio Romano at Mantua,
+so the genius of Alessio (1500 to 1572) as an architect can only be
+understood at Genoa. From the designs of this architect were built a
+series of well planned and imposing palaces. These buildings have most
+of them the advantage of fine and roomy sites. The fronts are varied,
+but as a rule consist of a very bold basement, with admirably-treated
+vigorous mouldings, supporting a lighter superstructure, and in one or
+two instances flanked by an open arcade at the wings. The entrance
+gives access, through a vaulted hall, to the cortile, which is usually
+planned and designed in the most effective manner; and in several
+instances the state staircase is so combined with this feature that on
+ascending the first flight the visitor comes to a point of sight for
+which the whole may be said to have been designed, and from which a
+splendid composition of columns and arches is seen. The rooms and
+galleries in these palaces are very fine, and in several instances
+have been beautifully decorated in fresco by Perino del Vaga.
+
+Alessio was also the architect of a large domical church (il
+Carignano) in the same city; but it is far inferior in merit to his
+series of palaces. Genoa also possesses a famous church (the
+Annunziata) of late Renaissance, attributed to Puget (1622-1694). It
+is vaulted, and enriched with marbles, mosaics, and colour to such an
+extent that it may fairly claim to be the most gaudy church in Italy,
+which is unfortunate, as its original undecorated design is fine and
+simple.
+
+Turin in the north, and Naples in the south, are chiefly remarkable
+for examples of the latest and more or less debased Renaissance, and
+we therefore do not propose to illustrate or describe any of the
+buildings in either city.
+
+
+COUNTRY VILLAS.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 70.--VILLA MEDICI--ON THE PINCIAN HILL NEAR
+      ROME. BY ANNIBALE LIPPI (NOW THE _Acad�mie Fran�aise_).
+      (A.D. 1540.)]
+
+As the ancient Roman patrician had his villa, which was his country
+resort, the Italian of the revival followed his example, and, if he
+was wealthy enough, built himself a pleasure house, which he called a
+villa, either in the immediate suburbs of his city, or at some little
+distance away in the country. These buildings occur throughout
+Italy. Many of them are excellent examples of Renaissance
+architecture of a more modest type than that of the palaces. The Villa
+Papa Giulio, built from the designs of Vignola, and the Villa Medici,
+designed by Annibale Lippi, but attributed, for some unknown reason,
+to Michelangelo, may be mentioned as among the most thoroughly
+architectural out of some twenty or more splendid villas in the
+suburbs of Rome alone. Many of these buildings were erected late in
+the Renaissance period, and are better worth attention for their fine
+decorations and the many works of art collected within their walls
+than as architectural studies--but this is not always the case; and as
+they were mostly designed to serve the purpose of elegant museums
+rather than that of country houses as we understand the term, they
+usually possess noble interiors, and exhibit throughout elaborate
+finish, choice materials, and lavish outlay.
+
+  [Illustration: {EARLY RENAISSANCE CORBEL. FROM A DOOR IN SANTA MARIA,
+      VENICE.}]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[31] An entablature is the superstructure which ordinarily is carried
+by a column, and which it is usual to divide into architrave (or
+beam), frieze, and cornice.
+
+[32] An order consists of a column (or pilaster) with its distinctive
+base and capital, its entablature, and the appropriate decorations.
+There are five orders, differing in proportions, in the degree of
+enrichment required, and in the design of the base and capital of the
+column or pilaster, and of the entablature.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {ORNAMENT BY GIULIO ROMANO.}]
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE AND NORTH EUROPE.
+
+
+CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
+
+The revived classic architecture came direct from Italy, and did not
+reach France till it had been well established in the land of its
+origin. It was not however received with the same welcome which hailed
+its appearance in Italy. Gothic architecture had a strong hold on
+France, and accordingly, instead of a sudden change, we meet with a
+period of transition, during which buildings were erected with
+features partly Gothic and partly Renaissance, and on varied
+principles of design.
+
+French Renaissance underwent great fluctuations, and it is less easy
+to divide it into broad periods than to refer, as most French writers
+prefer to do, to the work of each prominent monarch's reign
+separately.
+
+Francis the First (1515-1547) made the architecture of Italy
+fashionable in his kingdom, and his name is borne by the beautiful
+transitional style of his day. This in most cases retains some Gothic
+forms, and the principles of composition are in the main Gothic, but
+the features are mostly of Italian origin, though handled with a
+fineness of detail and a smallness of scale that is not often met
+with, even in early Italian Renaissance. There are few buildings more
+charming in the architecture of any age or country than the best
+specimens of the style of Francis the First, and none that can bear so
+much decoration and yet remain so little overladen by the ornaments
+they carry. The finest example is the Ch�teau of Chambord, a large
+building, nearly square on plan, with round corner towers, capped by
+simple and very steep roofs, at the angles; and having as its central
+feature, a large and lofty mass of towers, windows and arcades,
+surmounted by steep roofs, ending in a kind of huge lantern. The
+windows have mullions and transoms like Gothic windows, but pilasters
+of elegant Renaissance design ornament the walls. The main cornice is
+a kind of compromise between an Italian and a Gothic treatment. Dormer
+windows, high and sharply pointed, but with little pilasters and
+pediments as their ornaments, occur constantly; and the chimneys,
+which are of immense mass and great height, are panelled profusely,
+and almost ostentatiously displayed, especially on the central
+portion. In the interior of the central building is a famous
+staircase; but the main attractions are the bright and animated
+appearance of the whole exterior, and the richness and gracefulness of
+the details.
+
+The same architecture is to be well seen in the north side of the
+famous Ch�teau of Blois--a building parts of which were executed in
+three different periods of French architecture. The exterior of the
+_Fran�ois premier_ part of Blois is irregular, and portions of the
+design are wildly picturesque; on the side which fronts towards the
+quadrangle, the architecture is more symmetrically designed, and
+beauty rather than picturesque effect has been aimed at. An open
+staircase is the part of the quadrangle upon which most care has been
+lavished. Throughout the whole block of buildings the character of
+each individual feature and of every combination of features is
+graceful and _piquant_. The elegance and delicacy of some of the
+carved decoration in the interior is unsurpassed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 71.--WINDOW FROM A HOUSE AT ORLEANS. (EARLY
+      16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+In the valley of the Loire there exist many noblemen's ch�teaux of
+this date, corresponding in general character with Chambord and Blois,
+though on a smaller scale. Of these Ch�nonceaux, fortunate alike in
+its design and its situation, is the most elegant and the best known:
+yet many others exist which approach it closely, such, for example, as
+the Ch�teau de Gaillon--a fragment of which forms part of the �cole
+des Beaux Arts at Paris--the H�tel de Ville of Beaugency, the Ch�teaux
+of Ch�teaudun, Azay-le-Rideau, La Cote, and Uss�; the H�tel d'Anjou at
+Angers, and the house of Agnes Sorel at Orleans.
+
+In the streets of Orleans houses of this date (Fig. 71) are to be
+found, showing the style cleverly adapted to the requirements of town
+dwellings and shops. Several of them also possess courtyards with
+arcades or other architectural features treated with great freedom and
+beauty, for instance, the arcades in the house of _Fran�ois Premier_
+(Fig. 72). An arcade in the courtyard of the Gothic H�tel de
+Bourgtherould at Rouen, is one of the best known examples of the style
+remaining, and instances of it may be met with as far apart as at Caen
+(east end of church of St. Pierre) and Toulouse (parts of St. Sernin).
+
+One Paris church, that of St. Eustache, belonging to this transitional
+period claims mention, since for boldness and completeness it is one
+of the best of any date in that city. St. Eustache is a five-aisled
+church with an apse, transept, and lateral chapels outside the outer
+aisle. It is vaulted throughout, and its plan and structure are those
+of a Gothic church in all respects. Its details are however all
+Renaissance, but not so good as those to be found at Blois, nor so
+appropriately used, yet notwithstanding this it has a singularly
+impressive interior.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 72.--CAPITAL FROM THE HOUSE OF FRANCIS I.,
+      ORLEANS. (1540.)]
+
+Meantime, and alongside the buildings resulting from this fusion of
+styles, others which were almost direct importations from Italy were
+rising; in some cases, if not in all, under the direction of Italian
+architects. Thus on Fontainebleau, which Francis I. erected, three or
+four Italian architects, one of whom was Vignola, were engaged. It may
+or may not have been this connection of the great architect with this
+work which gave him influence in France, but certainly almost the
+whole of the later French Renaissance, or at any rate its good time,
+was marked by a conformity to the practice of Vignola, in whose
+designs we usually find one order of columns or pilasters for each
+storey, rather than to that of Palladio, whose use of tall columns
+equalling in height two or more floors of the building has been
+already noticed.
+
+Designs for the Louvre, the rebuilding of which was commenced in the
+reign of Francis the First (about A.D. 1544), were made by Serlio, an
+Italian; and though Pierre Lescot was the architect of the portion
+built in that reign, it is probable that the design obtained from
+Serlio was in the main followed. The part then finished, which, to a
+certain extent gave the keynote to the whole of this vast building,
+was unquestionably a happy effort, and may be taken to mark the
+establishment of a French version of matured Renaissance architecture.
+The main building has two orders of pilasters with cornices, &c., and
+above them a low attic storey, with short piers: at the angles a
+taller pavilion was introduced, and next the quadrangle arcades are
+introduced between the pilasters. The sculpture, some of it at least,
+is from the chisel of Jean Goujon; it is good and well placed, and the
+whole has an air of dignity and richness. The _Pavillon Richelieu_,
+shewn in our engraving (Fig. 73), was not built till the next century.
+The colossal figures are by Barye.
+
+A little later in date than the early part of the Louvre was the H�tel
+de Ville, built from the designs of Pietro da Cortona, an Italian, and
+said to have been begun in 1549. The building had been greatly
+extended before its recent total destruction by fire, but the central
+part, which was the original portion, was a fine vigorous composition,
+having two lofty pavilions, with high roofs at the extremities, and
+a remarkably rich stone lantern of great height for a central feature.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 73.--PAVILLON RICHELIEU OF THE LOUVRE, PARIS.]
+
+In the reign of Charles IX. the Palace of the Tuileries was commenced
+(1564) for Catherine de M�dicis, from the designs of Philibert
+Delorme. Of this building, that part only which fronted the garden was
+erected at the time. Our illustration (Fig. 74) shows the
+architectural character of a portion of it, and it is easy to detect
+that considerable alterations have by this time been introduced into
+the treatment of the features of Renaissance architecture. The bands
+of rustication passing round the pilasters as well as the walls, the
+broken pediments on the upper storey, surmounted by figures, and
+supported by long carved pilasters, and the shape of the dormer
+windows are all of them quite foreign to Renaissance architecture as
+practised in Italy, and may be looked upon as essentially French
+features. Similar details were employed in the work executed at about
+the same period, by the same and other architects, in other buildings,
+as may be seen by our illustration (Fig. 75) of a portion of Delorme's
+work at the Louvre. In these features, which may be found in the
+Ch�teau d'Anet and other works of the same time, and in the style to
+which they belong, may be seen the direct result of Michelangelo's
+Medici Chapel at Florence, a work which had much more effect on French
+than on Italian architecture. The full development of the architecture
+of Michelangelo (or rather the ornamental portions of it) is to be
+found in French Renaissance, rather than in the works of his own
+successors in Italy.
+
+Much of the late sixteenth century architecture of France was very
+inferior, and the parts of the Louvre and Tuileries which date from
+the reign of Henry IV. are the least satisfactory portions of those
+vast piles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 74.--PART OF THE TUILERIES, PARIS. (BEGUN 1564.)]
+
+Dating from the early part of the seventeenth century, we have the
+Palais Royal built for Richelieu, and the Palace of the Luxembourg, a
+building perhaps more correct and quiet than original or beautiful,
+but against which the reproach of extravagant ornament cannot
+certainly be brought.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 75.--CAPITAL FROM DELORME'S WORK AT THE LOUVRE.
+      (MIDDLE OF 16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+With Louis the Fourteenth (1643 to 1715) came in a great building
+period, of which the most striking memorial is the vast and
+uninteresting Palace of Versailles. The architect was the younger
+Mansard (1647 to 1768), and the vastness of the scale upon which he
+worked only makes his failure to rise to his grand opportunity the
+more conspicuous. The absence of features to diversify the sky-line is
+one of the greatest defects of this building, a defect the less
+excusable as the high-pitched roof of Gothic origin had never been
+abandoned in France. This roof has been employed with great success in
+many buildings of the French Renaissance. Apart from this fault, the
+architectural features of Versailles are so monotonous, weak, and
+uninteresting that the building, though its size may astonish the
+spectator, seldom rouses admiration.
+
+Far better is the eastern block of the Louvre (the portion facing the
+Place du Louvre), though here also we find the absence of high roofs,
+and the consequent monotony of the sky-line--a defect attaching to
+hardly any other portion of the building. Bernini was invited from
+Italy for this work, and there is a curious story in one of Sir
+Christopher Wren's published letters of an interview he had with
+Bernini while the latter was in Paris on this business, and of the
+glimpse which he was allowed to enjoy of the design the Italian had
+made. The building was, however, after all, designed and carried out
+by Perrault, and, though somewhat severe, possesses great beauty and
+much of that dignity in which Versailles is wanting.
+
+The best French work of this epoch to be found in or out of Paris is
+probably the H�tel des Invalides (Fig. 76), with its fine central
+feature. This is crowned by the most striking dome in Paris, one which
+takes rank as second only in Europe to our own St. Paul's, for beauty
+of form and appropriateness of treatment. The two domes are indeed
+somewhat alike in general outline.
+
+The reign of Louis XIV. witnessed a large amount of building
+throughout France, as well as in the metropolis, and to the same
+period we must refer an enormous amount of lavish decoration in the
+interior of buildings, the taste of which is to our eyes painfully
+extravagant. Purer taste on the whole prevailed, if not in the reign
+of Louis XV. certainly in that of Louis XVI., to which period much
+really good decorative work, and some successful architecture belongs.
+The chief building of the latter part of the eighteenth century is the
+Pantheon (Ste. Genevi�ve), the best domed church in France, and one
+which must always take a high rank among Renaissance buildings of any
+age or country. The architect was Soufflot, and his ambition, like
+that of the old Gothic masons, was not only to produce a work of art,
+but a feat of skill; his design accordingly provided a smaller area of
+walls and piers compared with the total floor space than any other
+Renaissance church, or indeed than any great church, except a few of
+the very best specimens of late Gothic construction, such for example
+as King's College Chapel. The result has been that the fabric has not
+been quite stout enough to bear the weight of the dome, and that it
+has required to be tied and propped and strengthened in various ways
+from time to time. The plan of the Pantheon is a Greek cross, with a
+short vestibule, and a noble portico at the west, and a choir
+corresponding to the vestibule on the east. It has a fine central
+dome, which is excellently seen from many points of view externally,
+and forms the principal feature of the very effective interior. Each
+arm of the building is covered by a flat domical vault; a single order
+of pilasters and columns runs quite round the interior of the church
+occupying the entire height of the walls; and the light is admitted in
+a most successful manner by large semicircular windows at the upper
+part of the church, starting above the cornice of the order.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 76.--L'�GLISE DES INVALIDES, PARIS. BY J. H.
+      MANSARD. (BEGUN A.D. 1645.)]
+
+One other work of the eighteenth century challenges the admiration
+of every visitor to Paris and must not be overlooked, because it is at
+once a specimen of architecture and of that skilful if formal
+arrangement of streets and public places in combination with buildings
+which the French have carried so far in the present century. We allude
+to the two blocks of buildings, occupied as government offices, which
+front to the Place de la Concorde and stand at the corner of the Rue
+Royale. They are the work of Gabriel (1710-1782), and are justly
+admired as dignified if a little heavy and uninteresting. As specimens
+of architecture these buildings, with the Pantheon, are enough to
+establish a high character for French art at a time when in most other
+European countries the standard of taste had fallen to a very low
+level.
+
+The h�tels (_i.e._ town mansions) and ch�teaux of the French nobility
+furnish a series of examples, showing the successive styles of almost
+every part of the Renaissance period. The phases of the style,
+subsequent to that of Francis the First, can however, be so well
+illustrated by public buildings in Paris, that it will be hardly
+necessary to go through a list of private residences however
+commanding; but the Ch�teau of Maisons, and the Royal Ch�teau of
+Fontainebleau, may be named as specimens of a class of building which
+shows the capacity of the Renaissance style when freely treated.
+
+Renaissance buildings in France are distinguished by their large
+extent and the ample space which has been in many instances secured in
+connection with them. They are rarely of great height or imposing mass
+like the early Italian palaces. For the most part they are a good deal
+broken up, the surface of the walls is much covered by architectural
+features, not usually on a large scale, so that the impression of
+extent which really belongs to them is intensified by the treatment
+which their architects have adopted.
+
+Orders are frequently introduced and usually correspond with the
+storeys of the building. However this may be the storeys are always
+well marked. The sky-line also is generally picturesque and telling,
+though Versailles and the work of Lescot at the Louvre form an
+exception. Rustication is not much employed, and the vast but simple
+crowning cornices of the Italian palaces are never made use of. Narrow
+fronts like those at Venice, and open arcades or loggias like those of
+Genoa, do not form features of French Renaissance buildings; but on
+the other hand, much richness, and many varieties of treatment which
+the Italians never attempted, were tried, and as a rule successfully,
+in France.
+
+Much good sculpture is employed in external enrichments, and a
+cultivated if often luxuriant taste is always shown. Many of the
+interiors are rich with carving, gilding, and mirrors, but harmonious
+coloured decoration is rare, and the fine and costly mosaics of Italy
+are almost unknown.
+
+
+BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+These countries afford but few examples of Renaissance. The Town Hall
+at Antwerp, an interesting building of the sixteenth century, and the
+Church of St. Anne at Bruges, are the most conspicuous buildings; and
+there are other churches in the style which are characteristic, and
+parts of which are really fine. The interiors of some of the town
+halls display fittings of Renaissance character, often rich and
+fanciful in the extreme, and bearing a general resemblance to French
+work of the same period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 77.--WINDOW FROM COLMAR. (1575.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 78.--ZEUGHAUS, DANTZIC. (1605.)]
+
+
+GERMANY AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+Buildings of pure Renaissance architecture, anterior to the nineteenth
+century, are scarce in Germany, or indeed in North-east Europe; but a
+transitional style, resembling our own Elizabethan, grew up and long
+held its ground, so that many picturesque buildings can be met with,
+of which the design indicates a fusion of the ideas and features of
+Gothic with those of classic art. This architectural style took so
+strong a hold that examples of it may be found throughout the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in almost every northern town.
+
+That part of the Castle of Heidelberg, which was built at the
+beginning of the seventeenth century, may be cited as belonging to
+this German transitional style. The front in this case is regularly
+divided by pilasters of the classic orders, but very irregular in
+their proportions and position. The windows are strongly marked, and
+with carved mullions. Large dormer windows break into the high roof;
+ornaments abound, and the whole presents a curiously blended mixture
+of the regular and the picturesque. Rather earlier in date, and
+perhaps rather more Gothic in their general treatment, are such
+buildings as the great Council Hall at Rothenberg (1572), that at
+Leipzig (1556), the Castle of Stuttgart (1553), with its picturesque
+arcaded quadrangle, or the lofty and elaborate Cloth Hall at
+Brunswick.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 79.--COUNCIL-HOUSE AT LEYDEN. (1599.)]
+
+Examples of similar character abound in the old inns of Germany and
+Switzerland, and many charming features, such as the window from
+Colmar (Fig. 77), dated 1575, which forms one of our illustrations
+could be brought forward. Another development of the same mixed style
+may be illustrated by the Zeug House at Dantzic (1605), of which we
+give the rear elevation (Fig. 78). Not altogether dissimilar from
+these in character is the finely-designed Castle of Fredericksberg at
+Copenhagen, testifying to the wide spread of the phase of architecture
+to which we are calling attention. The date of this building is 1610.
+A richer example, but one little if at all nearer to Italian feeling,
+is the Council House at Leyden, a portion of which we illustrate (Fig.
+79). This building dates from 1599, and bears more resemblance to
+English Elizabethan in its ornaments, than to the architecture of any
+other country.
+
+Simultaneously with these, some buildings made their appearance in
+Germany, which, though still picturesque, showed the dawn of a wish to
+adopt the features of pure Renaissance. The quadrangle of the Castle
+of Schalaburg (Fig. 80), may be taken as a specimen of the adoption of
+Renaissance ideas as well as forms. It is in effect an Italian
+cortile, though more ornate than Italian architects would have made
+it. It was built in the latter part of the sixteenth century, and
+seems to point to a wish to make use of the new style with but little
+admixture of northern ornament or treatment.
+
+When architecture had quite passed through the transition period,
+which fortunately lasted long, the buildings, not only of Germany, but
+of the north generally, became uninteresting and tame; in fact, they
+present so few distinguishing features, that it is not necessary to
+describe or illustrate them. Russia, it is true, contains a few
+striking buildings belonging to the eighteenth century, but most of
+those which we might desire to refer to, were built subsequent to the
+close of that century.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 80.--QUADRANGLE OF THE CASTLE OF SCHALABURG.
+      (LATE 16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE PATTERN.}]
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL.
+
+
+ENGLAND.--CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
+
+In England, as in France and Germany, the introduction of the Italian
+Renaissance was not accomplished without a period of transition. The
+architecture of this period is known as Elizabethan, though it lasted
+long after Elizabeth's reign. Sometimes it is called Tudor; but it is
+more convenient and not unusual to limit the term Tudor to the latest
+phase of English Gothic.
+
+Probably the earliest introduction into any English building of a
+feature derived from the newly-revived classic sources is in the tomb
+of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey. The grille inclosing this is of
+good, though late Gothic design; but when the tomb itself came to be
+set up, for which a contract was made with Torregiano in 1512, it was
+Italian in its details. The earliest examples of Renaissance features
+actually built into a structure, so far as we are aware, is in the
+terra-cotta ornamentation of Layer Marney House in Essex, which it is
+certain was erected prior to 1525. It is however long--surprisingly
+long--after this period before we come upon the traces of a general
+use of Renaissance details. In fact, up to the accession of Elizabeth
+(1558) they appear to have been little employed. It is however said
+that early in her reign the treatises on Renaissance architecture of
+Philibert de l'Orme and Lomazzo were translated from Italian into
+English, and in 1563 John Shute published a book on Italian
+architecture.
+
+John of Padua, an Italian architect, was brought to this country by
+Henry VIII. and practised here; and Theodore Havenius of Cleves was
+employed as architect in the buildings of Caius College, Cambridge
+(1565-1574). These two foreigners undoubtedly played an important part
+in a change of taste which, though not general so early, certainly did
+commence before Elizabeth's death in 1603.
+
+At the two universities, and in many localities throughout England,
+new buildings and enlargements of old ones were carried out during the
+long and prosperous reign of Elizabeth; and the style in which they
+were built will be found to have admitted of very great latitude.
+Where the intention was to obtain an effect of dignity or state, the
+classic principles of composition were more or less followed. The
+buildings at Caius College, Cambridge, Longleat, built between 1567
+and 1579 by John of Padua, Woollaton, built about 1580 by Smithson,
+and Burleigh (built 1577), may be named as instances of this. On the
+other hand where a manorial or only a domestic character was desired,
+the main lines of the building are Gothic, but the details, in either
+case, are partly Gothic and partly modified Renaissance. This
+description will apply to such buildings as Knowle, Penshurst,
+Hardwick, Hatfield, Bramshill, or Holland House (Fig. 81). In the
+introductory chapter some account has been given, in general terms, of
+the features familiar to most and endeared to many, which mark these
+peculiarly English piles of buildings; those remarks may be
+appropriately continued here.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 81.--HOLLAND HOUSE AT KENSINGTON. (1607.)]
+
+The hall of Gothic houses was still retained, but only as one of a
+series of fine apartments. In many cases English mansions had no
+internal quadrangle, and are built as large solid blocks with boldly
+projecting wings. They are often of three storeys in height, the roofs
+are frequently of flat pitch, and in that case are hidden behind a
+parapet which is sometimes of fantastic design. Where the roofs are
+steeper and not concealed the gables are frequently of broken outline.
+Windows are usually very large, and with mullions and transoms, and it
+is to these large openings that Elizabethan interiors owe their bright
+and picturesque effects. Entrances are generally adorned with some
+classic or semi-classic features, often, however, much altered from
+their original model; here balustrades, ornamental recesses, stone
+staircases, and similar formal surroundings are commonly found, and
+are generally arranged with excellent judgment, though often quaint in
+design.
+
+"This style is characterised by a somewhat grotesque application of
+the ancient orders and ornaments, by large and picturesquely-formed
+masses, spacious staircases, broad terraces, galleries of great length
+(at times 100 feet long), orders placed on orders, pyramidal gables
+formed of scroll-work often pierced, large windows divided by mullions
+and transoms, bay windows, pierced parapets, angle turrets, and a love
+of arcades. The principal features in the ornament are pierced
+scroll-work, strap-work, and prismatic rustication, combined with
+boldly-carved foliage (usually conventional) and roughly-formed
+figures."--M. D. W.
+
+Interiors are bright and with ample space; very richly ornamented
+plaster ceilings are common; the walls of main rooms are often lined
+with wainscot panelling, and noble oak staircases are frequent.
+
+In the reign of James I., our first Renaissance architect of mark,
+Inigo Jones (1572-1652) became known. He was a man of taste and
+genius, and had studied in Italy. He executed many works, the designs
+for which were more or less in the style of Palladio. These include
+the addition of a portico to the (then Gothic) cathedral of St.
+Paul's, and a magnificent design for a palace which Charles I. desired
+to build at Whitehall. A fragment of this building, now known as the
+Chapel Royal Whitehall, was erected, and small though it be, has done
+much by its conspicuous position and great beauty, to keep up a
+respect for Inigo Jones's undoubted high attainments as an artist.
+
+More fortunate than Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren (1632-1723) had just
+attained a high position as a young man of science, skill, and
+cultivation, and as the architect of the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford,
+when in 1666 the great fire of London destroyed the Metropolitan
+Cathedral, the parochial churches, the Royal Exchange, the Companies'
+Halls, and an immense mass of private property in London, and created
+an opportunity which made great demands upon the energy, skill, and
+fertility of design of the architect who might attempt to grasp it.
+Fortunately, Wren was equal to the occasion, and he has endowed London
+with a Cathedral which takes rank among the very foremost Renaissance
+buildings in Europe, as well as a magnificent series of parochial
+churches, and other public buildings. It is not pretended that his
+works are free from defects, but there can be no question that
+admitting anything which can be truly said against them, they are
+works of artistic genius, full of fresh and original design, and
+exhibiting rare sagacity in their practical contrivance and
+construction.
+
+St. Paul's stands second only to St. Peter's as a great domical
+cathedral of Renaissance architecture. It falls far short of its great
+rival in actual size and internal effect, and is all but entirely
+devoid of that decoration in which St. Peter's is so rich. On the
+other hand, the exterior of St. Paul's (Fig. 82) is far finer, and as
+the English cathedral had the good fortune to be erected entirely from
+the plans and under the supervision of one architect, it is a building
+consistent with itself throughout, which, as we have seen, is more
+than can be said of St. Peter's.
+
+The plan of St. Paul's is a Latin cross, with well marked transepts, a
+large portico, and two towers at the western entrance; an apse of
+small size forms the end of the eastern arm, and of each of the
+transepts; a great dome covers the crossing; the cathedral has a crypt
+raising the main floor considerably, and its side walls are carried
+high above the aisle roofs so as to hide the clerestory windows from
+sight.
+
+The dome is very cleverly planted on eight piers instead of four at
+the crossing, and is a triple structure; for between the dome seen
+from within, and the much higher dome seen from without, a strong cone
+of brickwork rises which bears the weight of the stone lantern and
+ball and cross that surmount the whole. The skill with which the dome
+is made the central feature of a pyramidal composition whatever be the
+point of view, the great beauty of the circular colonnade immediately
+below the dome, the elegant outline of the western towers, and the
+unusual but successful distribution of the great portico, are among
+the most noteworthy elements which go to make up the charm of this
+very successful exterior.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 82.--ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, LONDON. (1675-1710.)]
+
+Wren may be said to have introduced to Renaissance architecture the
+tower and spire, for though many examples occur in Spain, there is
+reason to suppose that he was before the architects of that country in
+his employment of that feature. He has enriched the City of London
+with a large number of steeples, which are Gothic so far as their
+general idea goes, but thoroughly classic in details, and all more or
+less distinctive. The most famous of these is the one belonging to Bow
+Church; others of note belong to St. Clement Danes and St. Bride,
+Fleet Street.
+
+The interiors of some of these churches, as for example St. Stephen,
+Walbrook, St. Andrew, Holborn, and St. James, Piccadilly, are
+excellent both for their good design and artistic treatment, and for
+their being well contrived and arranged for the special purposes they
+were intended to fill.
+
+Wren's secular works were considerable. The Sheldonian Theatre at
+Oxford, the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, and the theatre of
+the College of Physicians London (long since disused), are a group of
+special buildings each of which was undoubtedly a remarkable and
+successful work. Chelsea and Greenwich hospitals are noteworthy as
+among the first specimens of those great buildings for public purposes
+in which England is now so rich, and which to a certain extent replace
+the monastic establishments of the middle ages. At Chelsea the
+building is simple and dignified. Without lavish outlay, or the use of
+expensive materials, much ornament, or any extraneous features, an
+artistic and telling effect has been produced, such as few hospitals
+or asylums since built have equalled. Greenwich takes a higher level,
+and though Wren's work had the disadvantage of having to be
+accommodated to buildings already erected by another architect, this
+building, with its twin domes, its rich outline, and its noble and
+dignified masses, will always reflect honour upon its designer. The
+view of Greenwich hospital from the river may fairly be said to be
+unique for beauty and picturesqueness. At Greenwich, too, we meet with
+some of that skill in associating buildings and open spaces together
+which is so much more common in France than in this country, and by
+the exercise of which the architecture of a good building can be in so
+many ways set off.
+
+Wren, like Inigo Jones, has left behind him a great unexecuted design
+which in many respects is more noble than anything that he actually
+built. This is his earlier design for St. Paul's Cathedral, which he
+planned as a Greek cross, with an ampler dome than the present
+cathedral possesses, but not so lofty. A large model of this design
+exists. Had it been carried out the exterior of the building would
+probably not have appeared so commanding, perhaps not so graceful, as
+it actually is; but the interior would have surpassed all the churches
+of the style in Europe, both by the grandeur of the vast arched space
+under the dome and by the intricacy and beauty of the various vistas
+and combinations of features, for which its admirably-designed plan
+makes provision.
+
+Wren had retired from practice before his death in 1723. His immediate
+successors were Hawksmoor, whose works were heavy and uninteresting,
+and Sir James Vanbrugh. Vanbrugh was a man of genius and has a style
+of his own, "bold, original, and pictorial." His greatest and best
+work is Blenheim, in Oxfordshire, built for the Duke of Marlborough.
+This fine mansion, equal to any French ch�teau in extent and
+magnificence, is planned with much dignity. The entrance front looks
+towards a large space, inclosed right and left by low buildings,
+which prolong the wings of the main block. The angles of the wings and
+the centre are masked by two colonnades of quadrant shape, and the
+central entrance with lofty columns which form a grand portico, is a
+noble composition.
+
+The three garden fronts of Blenheim are all fine, and there is a
+magnificent entrance hall, but the most successful part of the
+interior is the library, a long and lofty gallery, occupying the
+entire flank of the house and treated with the most picturesque
+variety both of plan and ornament.
+
+Vanbrugh also built Castle Howard, Grimesthorpe, Wentworth, King's
+Weston, as well as many other country mansions of more moderate size.
+
+Campbell, Kent, and Gibbs are the best known names next in succession.
+Of these Campbell is most famous as an author, but Gibbs (1674-1754)
+is the architect of two prominent London churches--St. Martin's and
+St. Mary le Strand, in which the general traditions of Wren's manner
+are ably followed. He was the architect of the Radcliffe Library at
+Oxford. Kent (1684-1748) was the architect of Holkham, the Treasury
+Buildings, and the Horse Guards. He was associated with the Earl of
+Burlington, who acquired a high reputation as an amateur architect,
+which the design of Burlington House (now remodelled for the Royal
+Academy), went far to justify. Probably the technical part of this and
+other designs was supplied by Kent.
+
+Sir William Chambers (1726-1796) was the architect of Somerset House,
+a building of no small merit, notwithstanding that it is tame and very
+bare of sculpture. This building is remarkable as one of the few in
+London in which the Italian feature of an interior quadrangle is
+attempted to be reproduced. Chambers wrote a treatise which has
+become a general text-book of revived classical architecture for
+English students. Contemporary with him were the brothers John and
+Robert Adam, who built much, and began to introduce a severity of
+treatment and a fineness of detail which correspond to some extent to
+the French style of Louis XVI. The interior decorations in plaster by
+these architects are of great elegance and often found in old houses
+in London, as in Hanover Square, on the Adelphi Terrace, and
+elsewhere. The list of the eighteenth century architects closes with
+the names of Sir Robert Taylor and the two Dances, one of whom built
+the Mansion House and the other Newgate; and Stuart, who built several
+country mansions, but who is best known for the magnificent work on
+the antiquities of Athens, which he and Revett published together in
+1762, and which went far to create a revolution in public taste; for
+before the close of the century there was a general cry for making
+every building and every ornamental detail purely and solely Greek.
+
+The architects above named, and others of less note were much employed
+during the eighteenth century in the erection of large country houses
+of Italian, usually Palladian design, many of them extremely
+incongruous and unsatisfactory. Here and there a design better than
+the average was obtained, but as a rule these stately but cold
+buildings are very far inferior to the picturesque and home-like
+manors and mansions built during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 83.--HOUSES AT CHESTER. (16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+It is worth notice that the picturesque element, inherited from the
+Gothic architecture of the middle ages, which before the eighteenth
+century had completely vanished from our public buildings, and the
+mansions of the wealthy did not entirely die out of works executed in
+remote places. In the half-timbered manors and farmhouses which
+abound in Lancashire, Cheshire, Shropshire, and Staffordshire, and in
+other minor works, we always find a tinge, sometimes a very full
+colouring, of the picturesque and the irregular; the gables are sharp,
+upper storeys overhang, and the treatment of the timbers is
+thoroughly Gothic (Fig. 83); so are the mouldings, transoms and
+mullions to the windows, and barge boards to the roofs. In the reign
+of James I. a mode of enriching the exteriors of dwelling-houses, as
+well as their ceilings, chimney-pieces, &c., with ornaments modelled
+in plaster came in, and though the remaining specimens are from year
+to year disappearing, yet in some old towns (_e.g._ in Ipswich)
+examples of this sort of treatment (known as Jacobean) still linger.
+
+In Queen Anne's reign a semi-Gothic version of Renaissance
+architecture was practised, to which great attention has been directed
+in the present day. The Queen Anne style is usually carried out in
+brickwork, executed in red bricks and often most admirable in its
+workmanship. Pilasters, cornices, and panels are executed in cut
+bricks, and for arches, niches, and window heads very finely jointed
+bricks are employed. The details are usually Renaissance, but of
+debased character; a crowning cornice of considerable projection under
+a high-pitched hipped roof (_i.e._ one sloping back every way like a
+truncated pyramid) is commonly employed; so also are gables of broken
+outline. Dormer windows rich and picturesque, and high brick chimneys
+are also employed; so are bow windows, often carried on concave
+corbels of a clumsy form. Prominence is given in this style to the
+joiner's work; the windows, which are usually sash windows, are
+heavily moulded and divided into small squares by wooded sash bars.
+The doors have heavily moulded panels, and are often surmounted by
+pediments carried by carved brackets or by pilasters; in the interiors
+the woodwork of staircases such as the balusters, newel posts, and
+handrails is treated in a very effective and well considered way, the
+greater part of the work being turned on the lathe and enriched with
+mouldings extremely well designed for execution in that manner. By
+this style and the modifications of it which were more or less
+practised till they finally died out, the traditional picturesqueness
+of English architecture which it had inherited from the middle ages
+was kept alive, so that it has been handed down, in certain localities
+almost, if not quite, to the present century.
+
+
+SCOTLAND.
+
+The architecture of Scotland during the sixteenth and succeeding
+centuries possesses exceptional interest. It was the case here, as it
+had been in England, that the most important buildings of the time
+were domestic; the erection of churches and monasteries had ceased.
+
+The castles and semi-fortified houses of Scotland form a group apart,
+possessing strongly-marked and well-defined character; they are
+designed in a mixed style in which the Gothic elements predominated
+over the classic ones. But the Scottish domestic Gothic, from which
+the new style was partly derived, had borne little or no resemblance
+to the florid Tudor of England. It was the severe and simple
+architecture of strongholds built with stubborn materials, and on
+rocky sites, where there was little inducement to indulge in
+decoration. Dunstaffnage or Kilchurn Castles may be referred to as
+examples of these plain, gloomy keeps with their stepped gables, small
+loops for windows, and sometimes angle turrets.
+
+The classic elements of the style were not drawn (as had been the case
+in England) direct from Italy, but came from France. The Scotch,
+during their long struggles with the English, became intimately allied
+with the French, and it is therefore not surprising that Scottish
+Baronial architecture should resemble the early Renaissance of French
+ch�teaux very closely. The hardness of the stone in which the Scotch
+masons wrought forbade their attempting the extremely delicate detail
+of the Fran�ois I. ornament, executed as it is in fine, easily-worked
+stone of smooth texture; and the difference in the climate of the two
+countries justified in Scotland a boldness which would have appeared
+exaggerated and extreme in France. Accordingly the style in passing
+from one country to the other has changed its details to no
+inconsiderable extent.
+
+Many castles were erected in the sixteenth and following centuries in
+Scotland, or were enlarged and altered; the most characteristic
+features in almost all of them are short round angle turrets, thrown
+out upon bold corbellings near the upper part of towers and other
+square masses. These are often capped by pointed roofs; and the
+corbels which carry them, and which are always of bold, vigorous
+character, are frequently enriched by a kind of cable ornament, which
+is very distinctive. Towers of circular plan, like bastions, and
+projecting from the general line of the walls, or at the angles,
+constantly occur. They are frequently crowned by conical roofs, but
+sometimes (as at Fyvie Castle) they are made square near the top by
+means of a series of corbels, and finished with gables or otherwise.
+Parapets are in general use, and are almost always battlemented.
+Roofs, when visible, are of steep pitch, and their gables are almost
+always of stepped outline, while dormer windows, frequently of
+fantastic form, are not infrequent. Chimneys are prominent and lofty.
+Windows are square-headed, and, as a rule, small; sometimes they
+retain the Gothic mullions and transom, but in many cases these
+features are absent. Doorways are generally arched, and not often
+highly ornamented.
+
+Cawdor Castle, Glamis Castle, Fyvie Castle, Castle Fraser, the old
+portions of Dunrobin Castle, Tyninghame House, the extremely
+picturesque palace at Falkland, and a considerable part of Stirling
+Castle, may be all quoted as good specimens of this thoroughly
+national style, but it would be easy to name two or three times as
+many buildings nearly, if not quite, equal to these in architectural
+merit.
+
+Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, may be quoted (with part of Holyrood
+Palace) as showing the style of the seventeenth century. Heriot's
+Hospital was built between the years 1628 and 1660. It is built round
+a great quadrangle, and has square towers at the four corners, each
+relieved by small corbelled angle turrets. The entrance displays
+columns and an entablature of debased but not unpleasing Renaissance
+architecture, and the building altogether resembles an English
+Elizabethan or Jacobean building to a greater extent than most
+Scottish designs.
+
+When this picturesque style, which appears indeed to have retained its
+hold for long, at last died out, very little of any artistic value was
+substituted for it. Late in the eighteenth century, it is true, the
+Brothers Adam erected public buildings in Edinburgh and Glasgow, and
+carried out various works of importance in a classic style which has
+certainly some claim to respect; but if correct it was tame and
+uninteresting, and a poor exchange for the vigorous vitality which
+breathes in the works of the architects of the early Renaissance in
+Scotland.
+
+
+SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
+
+In the Spanish peninsula, Renaissance architecture ran through three
+phases, very strongly distinguished from one another, each being
+marked by peculiarities of more than ordinary prominence. The early
+stage, to which the Spaniards give the name of Plateresco, exhibits
+the same sort of fusion of Gothic with classic which we find in France
+and Scotland. The masses are often simple, but the individual features
+are overladen with an extravagant amount of ornament, and, as in
+France, many things which are essentially Gothic, such as pinnacles,
+gargoyles, and parapets, are retained. The Renaissance style was
+introduced at the latter part of the fifteenth century, and a very
+considerable number of buildings to which the description given above
+will apply were erected prior to the middle of the sixteenth. Among
+these may be enumerated the cathedral at Granada, the Hospital of
+Santa Cruz at Toledo (1504-1514), the dome of Burgos Cathedral (1567),
+the Cathedral of Malaga, San Juan della Penitencia at Toledo (1511),
+the fa�ade of the Alcazar at Toledo (1548), the Town Hall (1551), and
+Casa Zaporta (1560) at Zarragoza, and the Town Hall of Seville (1559).
+
+A great number of tombs, staircases, doorways, and other smaller
+single features, executed during this period from the designs of good
+artists, are to be found scattered through the country. "These
+Renaissance monuments exhibit an extraordinary degree of variety in
+their ornaments, which are of the most fantastic nature; an exuberant
+fancy would seem to have sought a vent, especially in the sculptured
+ornament of the style, which though at times crowded, overladen, and
+we must add disfigured by the most grotesque ideas, is very striking
+for its originality and excellent workmanship."--(M. D. W.)
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 84.--THE ALCAZAR AT TOLEDO. (BEGUN 1568.)]
+
+The second phase of Spanish architecture was marked by a plain and
+simple dignity, equally in contrast with the Plateresco which had
+preceded it and with the extravagant style to which it at length gave
+place. The earliest architect who introduced into Spain an
+architectural style founded on the best examples of Italy, was Juan
+Baptista de Toledo. He in the year 1563 commenced the Escurial
+Palace--the Versailles of Spain; but the principal part of the
+building was erected by his more celebrated pupil, Juan de Herrera,
+who carried on the works during the years from 1567 to 1579. This
+building, one of the most extensive palaces in Europe, is noble in its
+external aspect from a distance, thanks to its great extent, its fine
+central dome, and its many towers, but it is disappointing when
+approached. Of the interior the most noteworthy feature is a
+magnificently decorated church, of great size and unusual arrangement;
+and this dignified central feature has raised the Escurial, in spite
+of many faults, to the position of the most famous and probably most
+deservedly admired among the great Renaissance palaces of Europe.
+
+By the same architect numerous buildings were erected, among others
+the beautiful, if somewhat cold, arcaded interior of the Alcazar of
+Toledo (Fig. 84), which may be taken as a fair specimen of the noble
+qualities to be found in his dignified and comparatively simple
+designs. About the middle of the sixteenth century Charles V. erected
+his palace at Granada; but here the architecture is strongly coloured
+by Italian or French examples, and much of the building resembles
+Perrault's work at the Louvre very closely. Herrera and his school
+were probably too severe in taste to suit the fancy of their
+countrymen, for Spanish architecture in the eighteenth century fell a
+victim to debased forms and a fantastic and exaggerated style of
+ornament. Churriguera was the architect who has the credit of having
+introduced this unfortunate third manner, and has lent it his name.
+For a time "Churriguerismo" found general acceptance, and the century
+closed under its influence.
+
+We must not pass over the excellent and varied Renaissance towers and
+steeples of Spain in silence. They are not unlike Wren's spires in
+general idea; they are to be met with in many parts of the country
+attached to the churches, and their variety and picturesqueness
+increase the claim of Spanish architecture to our respect.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The one Renaissance building in Portugal which has been much
+illustrated, and is spoken of in high terms, is the Convent at Mafra,
+a building of the eighteenth century, of great extent and picturesque
+effect. Great skill is shown in dealing with the unwieldy bulk of an
+overgrown establishment which does not yield even to the Escurial in
+point of extent. We are, however, up to the present time without the
+means of forming an opinion upon the nature and value of the
+architecture of Portugal as a whole.
+
+  [Illustration: {ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE PATTERN.}]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {FROM A FRIEZE AT VENICE.}]
+
+INDEX.
+
+_See also CONTENTS at beginning._
+
+
+    Adam, John and Robert, 223.
+
+    Alberti, _Architect_, 167.
+
+    Amiens Cathedral, 76, 78.
+
+    Andernach, Church at, 96.
+
+    Anne, Queen, Style of, 225.
+
+    Arnstein Abbey, 94.
+
+
+    Baptista, _Architect_, 232.
+
+    Batalha, Monastery at, 142, 153.
+
+    Beauvais Cathedral, _Interior_, 86.
+
+    Belgium and Netherlands, _Gothic_, 87.
+
+    ---- _Renaissance_, 206.
+
+    Bernini, _Architect_, 175, 181, 203.
+
+    Blenheim, 221.
+
+    Blois, Ch�teau of, 194.
+
+    Blois, Capital from St. Nicholas, 84.
+
+    Bourges, House of Jaques Coeur, 15.
+
+    Bramante, _Architect_, 168, 174, 180.
+
+    Brunelleschi, _Architect_, 120, 166.
+
+    Buttresses, 32.
+
+
+    Caen, Saint Pierre at, 37.
+
+    Cambridge, King's College, 63.
+
+    Campaniles in Italy, 128.
+
+    Capitals, Gothic, 43.
+
+    Certosa, near Pavia, _frontispiece_, 183.
+
+    Chambers, _Architect_, 222.
+
+    Chambord, Ch�teau of, 194.
+
+    Chartres, Stained glass at, 65, 69.
+
+    Chester, Old Houses at, 38, 224.
+
+    Churriguera, _Architect_, 230.
+
+    Colmar, Window at, 206.
+
+    Cologne Cathedral, 97, 104.
+
+    Columns and Piers, 40.
+
+    Cortona, Pietro da, _Architect_, 198.
+
+    Cremona, Palace at, 117.
+
+
+    Dantzic, Zeughaus at, 203.
+
+    De Caumont. _Ab�c�daire_, 71.
+
+    Decorated style of Architecture, 24.
+
+    Delorme, _Architect_, 200, 214.
+
+    Domestic Buildings, _Gothic_, 14.
+
+
+    Early English Architecture, 24.
+
+    Eltham Palace, Roof of, 53.
+
+    England, Gothic Architecture in, 21.
+
+    ---- Renaissance in, 213.
+
+
+    Florence, Cathedral at, 121.
+
+    ---- Pandolfini Palace, 170, 173.
+
+    ---- Riccardi Palace, 167.
+
+    ---- Strozzi Palace, 169.
+
+    Fontevrault, Church at, 70.
+
+    France, Gothic Architecture in, 69.
+
+    ---- Renaissance in, 193.
+
+    Francis the First of France, 193.
+
+    Friburg Cathedral, 98.
+
+
+    Gables in Gothic Architecture, 36.
+
+    Germany, Gothic Architecture in, 93.
+
+    ---- Renaissance, 209.
+
+    Ghent, Tower at, 90.
+
+    Gibbs, _Architect_, 222.
+
+    Giotto's Campanile at Florence, 120.
+
+    Gothic, The word, 5.
+
+    Goujon, Jean, _Sculptor_, 198.
+
+
+    Haddon Hall, 17.
+
+    Havenius of Cleves, _Architect_, 214.
+
+    Hawksmoor, _Architect_, 221.
+
+    Heidelberg, Castle of, 156, 209.
+
+    Herrera, Juan de, _Architect_, 217.
+
+    Holland House, 215.
+
+
+    Italy, Gothic Architecture in, 112.
+
+    ---- Renaissance in, 165.
+
+
+    John of Padua, _Architect_, 214.
+
+    Jones, Inigo, _Architect_, 217.
+
+
+    Kent, _Architect_, 222.
+
+    Kuttenberg, St. Barbara at, 99.
+
+
+    Lescot, _Architect_, 198.
+
+    Leyden, Council-house at, 210.
+
+    Lichfield Cathedral, West Door, 5.
+
+    Lincoln Cathedral, General view, 35.
+
+    Lippi Annibale, _Architect_, 192.
+
+    Lisieux, Old Houses at, 41.
+
+    Loches, Doorway at, 72.
+
+    London, St. Paul's Cathedral, 218.
+
+
+    Maderno, _Architect_, 175, 181.
+
+    Mafra, Convent at, 232.
+
+    Mansard, _Architect_, 160.
+
+    Michelangelo _as an Architect_, 170, 174.
+
+    Michelozzo, _Architect_, 167.
+
+    Middleburgh, Town Hall at, 89.
+
+    Milan Cathedral, 115.
+
+    Misereres in Wells Cathedral, 68, 92.
+
+    Mouldings, Gothic, 62.
+
+
+    Nuremberg, St. Sebald's at, 109.
+
+
+    Oakham, Decorated Spire of, 60.
+
+    Ogee-shaped arch, 129.
+
+    Oppenheim, St. Catherine at, 107.
+
+    Orleans, Capital from house at, 197.
+
+    Orleans, Window at, 196.
+
+
+    Pavia, Certosa, near, 114, 188.
+
+    Palladio, _Architect_, 172, 184, 187.
+
+    Paris, Cathedral of Notre Dame, 74.
+
+    ---- H�tel des Invalides at, 205.
+
+    ---- Louvre, Capital from, 202.
+
+    ---- Louvre, Pavillon Richelieu, 199.
+
+    ---- Pantheon at, 204.
+
+    ---- Tuileries, by Delorme, 200.
+
+    Perpendicular Architecture, 25.
+
+    Peruzzi, _Architect_, 181.
+
+    Peterborough Cathedral, Plan, 6.
+
+    Pisano, Nicola, _Sculptor_, 120.
+
+    Plateresco, _Spanish_, 230.
+
+    Principles of Gothic Design, 146.
+
+
+    Raphael _as an Architect_, 170.
+
+    Renaissance Architecture, 154.
+
+    Regensburg (Ratisbon), Well at, 20.
+
+    Rheims Cathedral, Piers, 80.
+
+    Rome, Monument in Santa Maria del Popolo, 179.
+
+    Rome, Palazzo Giraud, 178, 180.
+
+    ---- St. Peter's, 174, 177.
+
+    ---- Villa Medici, 191.
+
+
+    Saint Gall Manuscript, The, 13.
+
+    Salisbury Cathedral, Section, 7.
+
+    Saint Iago di Compostella, 137.
+
+    Sangallo, _Architect_, 181.
+
+    Sansovino, _Architect_, 178, 184.
+
+    Scamozzi, _Architect_, 184.
+
+    Scotland, Cawdor Castle, 227.
+
+    ---- Dunrobin Castle, 228.
+
+    ---- Heriot's Hospital, 228.
+
+    Schalaburg, Castle of, 212.
+
+    Schwartz-Rheindorff, Church at, 101.
+
+    Serlio, _Architect_, 198.
+
+    Seville, The Giralda at, 140.
+
+    Siena Cathedral, 123.
+
+    Spain, Gothic Architecture in, 137.
+
+    ---- Renaissance in, 228.
+
+    Spires, 58.
+
+    Stained Glass, 64.
+
+    Strasburg Cathedral, 98.
+
+
+    Thann, Doorway at, 106.
+
+    Tivoli, Window from, 134.
+
+    Toledo, Alcazar at, 232.
+
+    ---- Cathedral, 138.
+
+    Towers and Spires, 33.
+
+    Tracery, Venetian, 130.
+
+    Tudor Architecture, 25.
+
+
+    Vanbrugh, _Architect_, 221.
+
+    Venice, 182.
+
+    Venice, Church of Redentore, 186.
+
+    ---- Ducal Palace at, 118.
+
+    ---- Palaces on Grand Canal, 18.
+
+    Vienna, St. Stephen at, 98.
+
+    Vignola, _Architect_, 172, 181, 182.
+
+
+    Warboys, Early English Spire, 59.
+
+    Warwick Castle, Plan, 16.
+
+    Wells Cathedral, Nave, 9.
+
+    Westminster Abbey, Plan, 11.
+
+    Westminster Abbey, Carving, 67.
+
+    ---- Henry VII.'s Chapel, 57.
+
+    ---- Triforium, 49.
+
+    Windows, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51.
+
+    Window, Italian Gothic, 134, 136.
+
+    Worcester Cathedral, Choir, 9.
+
+    Wren, Sir C., _Architect_, 203, 217, 220.
+
+
+LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR.
+
+
+
+
+_Now in course of Publication._
+
+A NEW SERIES
+
+OF
+
+ILLUSTRATED TEXT-BOOKS
+
+OF
+
+ART EDUCATION,
+
+EDITED BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.
+
+Each volume contains numerous illustrations, and is strongly bound for
+the use of students. Price 5_s._
+
+_To be issued in the following Divisions:--_
+
+
+_PAINTING._
+
+* CLASSIC and ITALIAN. By EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A., and PERCY R. HEAD,
+Lincoln College, Oxford.
+
+GERMAN, FLEMISH, and DUTCH. By H. WILMOT BUXTON, M.A.
+
+FRENCH and SPANISH. By GERARD SMITH, Exeter College, Oxford.
+
+ENGLISH and AMERICAN. By H. WILMOT BUXTON, M.A.
+
+
+_ARCHITECTURE._
+
+CLASSIC and EARLY CHRISTIAN. By T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+
+* GOTHIC and RENAISSANCE. By T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+
+
+_SCULPTURE._
+
+ANTIQUE: EGYPTIAN and GREEK. By GEORGE REDFORD, F.R.C.S.
+
+RENAISSANCE and MODERN. By GEORGE REDFORD, F.R.C.S.
+
+
+_ORNAMENT._
+
+DECORATION IN COLOUR. By GEORGE AITCHISON, M.A.
+
+ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENT. With numerous Illustrations.
+
+* _These Divisions are now ready._
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Minor punctuation errors have been repaired.
+
+Hyphenation and accent usage has been made consistent.
+
+Spelling was made consistent as follows:
+
+    Page xxxvii--Transome amended to Transom--"TRANSOM.--A
+    horizontal bar (usually of stone) ..."
+
+    Page xl--Hardwicke amended to Hardwick--"THE END-PAPERS ARE
+    FROM A TAPESTRY IN HARDWICK HALL."
+
+    Page 198--di amended to da--"... built from the designs of
+    Pietro da Cortona, ..."
+
+    Page 217--transomes amended to transoms--"... and with
+    mullions and transoms, ..."
+
+    Page 217--transomes amended to transoms--"... large windows
+    divided by mullions and transoms, ..."
+
+    Page 224--Cotemporary amended to Contemporary--"Contemporary
+    with him were the brothers John and Robert Adam, ..."
+
+    Page 226--transomes amended to transoms--"... so are the
+    mouldings, transoms and mullions to the windows, ..."
+
+    Page 236--Middleburg amended to Middleburgh--"Middleburgh,
+    Town Hall at, 89."
+
+    Page 236--N�colo amended to Nicola--"Pisano, Nicola,
+    _Sculptor_, 120."
+
+    Page 236--Strassburg amended to Strasburg--"Strasburg
+    Cathedral, 98."
+
+    Page 236--Van Brugh amended to Vanbrugh--"Vanbrugh,
+    _Architect_, 221."
+
+The following amendments have been made:
+
+    Page x--omitted page number added--"3. SCOTLAND, WALES, and
+    IRELAND 91"
+
+    Page xxiv--frize amended to frieze--"... the architrave,
+    which rests on the columns, the frieze and the cornice."
+
+    Page xxiv--The entry for Entablature originally followed
+    Embattled. It has been moved to the correct place in the
+    glossary.
+
+    Page xxv--Styl amended to Style--"FRAN�OIS I. STYLE.--The
+    early Renaissance architecture of France during part of the
+    sixteenth century."
+
+    Page xxvii--Lintol amended to Lintel--"LINTEL.--The stone or
+    beam covering a doorway ..."
+
+    Page 12--arrangment amended to arrangement--"The whole
+    arrangement of pier and arch ..."
+
+    Page 25--ierced amended to pierced--"Parapet pierced with
+    quatrefoils and flowing tracery."
+
+    Page 30--repeated 'and' deleted--"... Gothic dwelling-houses
+    of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries exist, ..."
+
+    Page 36--constrast amended to contrast--"... is to combine
+    and yet contrast its horizontal and vertical elements."
+
+    Page 39--storys amended to storeys--"... and sometimes also
+    the basement storeys, ..."
+
+    Page 46--and amended to end--"... occupying the eastern end
+    of one of the transepts ..."
+
+    Page 82--semi-circula amended to semicircular--"... and the
+    roofs of semicircular and circular apses, ..."
+
+    Page 88--achitecture amended to architecture--"... their
+    architecture, though certainly Gothic, is debased in style."
+
+    Page 114--laboration amended to elaboration--"... remarkable
+    specimens of the ornamental elaboration which can be
+    accomplished in brickwork."
+
+    Page 142--Ths amended to The--"The great church at Batalha
+    ..."
+
+    Page 159--omitted 'the' added before building--"... in his
+    treatment of the same part of the building ..."
+
+    Page 176--repeated 'is' deleted--"... as long as the
+    building is seen in front ..."
+
+    Page 186--builing amended to building--"... lofty pilasters
+    to include two storeys of the building ..."
+
+    Page 194--first amended to First--"...than the best
+    specimens of the style of Francis the First ..."
+
+    Page 226--82 amended to 83--"... the treatment of the timbers
+    is thoroughly Gothic (Fig. 83); ..."
+
+    Page 230--archiect amended to architect--"The earliest
+    architect who introduced into Spain an architectural style
+    ..."
+
+    Page 233--picuresque amended to picturesque--"... a building
+    of the eighteenth century, of great extent and picturesque
+    effect."
+
+    Page 235--page references put into numerical
+    order--"Brunelleschi, _Architect_, 120, 166."
+
+    Page 235--137 amended to 173--"Florence ... ---- Pandolfini
+    Palace, 170, 173."
+
+    Page 235--omitted 7 added--"Haddon Hall, 17."
+
+Illustrations have been moved where necessary so that they are not in
+the middle of a paragraph.
+
+There was an error in the List of Illustrations. The original read:
+
+    66. PALAZZO GIRAUD, ROME. BY BRAMANTE. (1506.) 180
+
+    67. THE CHURCH OF ST. FRANCESCO, AT FERRARA. INTERIOR 183
+
+    68. ITALIAN SHELL ORNAMENT 184
+
+    69. THE CHURCH OF THE REDENTORE, VENICE. (1576.) 186
+
+    70. CERTOSA NEAR PAVIA. PART OF WEST FRONT. (BEGUN 1473.)
+    189
+
+    70A. EARLY RENAISSANCE CORBEL 192
+
+    71. WINDOW FROM A HOUSE AT ORLEANS. (EARLY 16TH CENTURY.)
+    195
+
+The listed Fig. 67 does not appear anywhere in the text. The List of
+Illustrations has been amended to accurately list the figures in the
+main body of the book, by removing the erroneous listing, renumbering
+the figures as necessary, including a previously omitted figure, FIG.
+70.--VILLA MEDICI--ON THE PINCIAN HILL NEAR ROME. BY ANNIBALE LIPPI
+(NOW THE _Acad�mie Fran�aise_). (A.D. 1540.), and amending the page
+numbers.
+
+The advertising material has been moved to the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Architecture
+       Gothic and Renaissance
+
+Author: Thomas Roger Smith
+
+Editor: Edward J. Poynter
+
+Release Date: October 3, 2010 [EBook #33837]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Sam W. and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<p><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+
+<p>A considerable number of the page references in the index are incorrect; however,
+they have been preserved as printed. The transcriber has, as far as possible, linked
+to the correct place in the text.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center padtop lrgfont"><i>ILLUSTRATED TEXT-BOOKS OF ART<br />
+EDUCATION</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>EDITED BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.</i></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 100px;">
+<img src="images/agr001.png" width="100" height="20"
+alt="Decoration" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="center xlrgfont">ARCHITECTURE<br />
+GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE</p>
+
+<p class="center lrgfont">BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 100px;">
+<img src="images/agr001.png" width="100" height="20"
+alt="Decoration" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 424px;">
+<a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a>
+<img src="images/agr002.jpg" width="424" height="600"
+alt="A view from a central courtyard to a high tower" />
+<p class="right">P. <a href="#Page_114">114</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">THE CERTOSA, NEAR PAVIA. From the Cloisters.<br />
+Begun by Marco di Campione, <small>A.D.</small> 1393.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center lrgfont padtop"><i>TEXT-BOOK OF ART EDUCATION, EDITED BY<br />
+EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.</i></p>
+
+
+<h1 class="padtop"><span class="lrgfont">ARCHITECTURE</span><br />
+GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE</h1>
+
+<p class="center padtop lrgfont">BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.</p>
+
+<p class="center smlfont"><i>Occasional Lecturer on Architecture at University College, London</i></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 306px;">
+<a name="tpage" id="tpage"></a>
+<img src="images/agr003.jpg" width="306" height="300"
+alt="St. George. Panel from the tomb of Cardinal Amboise in Rouen Cathedral" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="center">NEW YORK<br />
+SCRIBNER AND WELFORD.</p>
+
+<p class="center">LONDON<br />
+SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, &amp; RIVINGTON<br />
+<span class="smlfont">CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET</span><br />
+1880</p>
+
+
+<p class="center padtop padbase">(<i>All rights reserved.</i>)</p>
+
+
+<p class="center padtop padbase">LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR,<br />
+BREAD STREET HILL, E. C.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/agr004.jpg" width="500" height="183"
+alt="Cr&ecirc;te from Notre Dame, Paris" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE history, the features, and the most famous
+examples of European architecture, during a period
+extending from the rise of the Gothic, or pointed, style
+in the twelfth century to the general depression which
+overtook the Renaissance style at the close of the eighteenth,
+form the subject of this little volume. I have
+endeavoured to adopt as free and simple a mode of treatment
+as is compatible with the accurate statement of at
+least the outlines of so very technical a subject.</p>
+
+<p>Though it is to be hoped that many professional students
+of architecture will find this hand-book serviceable to
+them in their elementary studies, it has been my principal
+endeavour to adapt it to the requirements of those
+who are preparing for the professional pursuit of the
+sister arts, and of that large and happily increasing number
+of students who pursue the fine arts as a necessary part
+of a complete liberal education, and who know that a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>viii]</a></span>
+solid and comprehensive acquaintance with art, especially
+if joined to some skill in the use of the pencil,
+the brush, the modelling tool, or the etching needle, will
+open sources of pleasure and interest of the most refined
+description.</p>
+
+<p>The broad facts of all art history; the principles which
+underlie each of the fine arts; and the most precious or
+most noteworthy examples of each, ought to be familiar
+to every art student, whatever special branch he may
+follow. Beyond these limits I have not attempted to
+carry this account of Gothic and Renaissance architecture;
+within them I have endeavoured to make the work
+as complete as the space at my disposal permitted.</p>
+
+<p>Some portions of the text formed part of two courses
+of lectures delivered before the students of the School
+of Military Engineering at Chatham, and are introduced
+here by the kind permission of Sir John Stokes. Many
+of the descriptive and critical remarks are transcripts of
+notes made by myself, almost under the shadow of the
+buildings to which they refer. It would, however, have
+been impossible to give a condensed view of so extended
+a subject had not every part of it been treated
+at much greater length by previous writers. The number
+and variety of the books consulted renders it impossible
+to make any other acknowledgment here than this general
+recognition of my indebtedness to their authors.</p>
+
+<p class="sig">T. R. S.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>ix]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/agr005.jpg" width="500" height="135"
+alt="Stained glass from Chartres Cathedral" />
+</div>
+
+<h2><a name="contents" id="contents"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="Table of contents">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><small>PAGE</small></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">ILLUSTRATED GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#glossary">xv&nbsp;to&nbsp;xxxix</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER I.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">INTRODUCTION.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap01">1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER II.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">THE BUILDINGS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap02">6</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER III.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap03">21</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls. Towers and Spires. Gables. Piers and Columns</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap04">28</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER V.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND (<i>continued</i>).</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">Analysis (<i>continued</i>). Openings. Roofs. Spires. Ornaments. Stained Glass. Sculpture</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap05">45</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>x]</a></span>CHAPTER VI.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN EUROPE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">1. <span class="smcap">France.</span> Chronological Sketch. Analysis of Buildings.
+Plans. Walls, Towers and Gables. Columns and
+Piers. Roofs and Vaults. Openings. Mouldings and
+Ornaments. Construction and Design</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap06">69</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">2. <span class="smcap">Belgium</span> and the <span class="smcap">Netherlands</span></td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap06a">87</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">3. <span class="smcap">Scotland</span>, <span class="smcap">Wales</span>, and <span class="smcap">Ireland</span></td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap06b">91</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER VII.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN EUROPE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">1. <span class="smcap">Germany.</span> Chronological Sketch. Analysis of Buildings.
+Plans. Walls, Towers and Gables. Roofs and Vaults.
+Openings. Ornaments. Construction and Design</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap07">93</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">2. <span class="smcap">Northern Europe</span></td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap07a">111</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">1. <span class="smcap">Italy</span> and <span class="smcap">Sicily</span>. Topographical Sketch. <span class="smcap">Northern
+Italy.</span> <span class="smcap">Central Italy.</span> <span class="smcap">Southern Italy.</span> Analysis
+of Buildings. Plans. Walls, Towers, and Columns.
+Openings and Arches. Roofs and Vaults. Mouldings
+and Ornaments. Construction and Design</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap08">112</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">2. <span class="smcap">Spain.</span> Chronological Sketch</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap08a">137</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">3. <span class="smcap">Portugal</span></td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap08b">142</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">Principles of Construction and Design. Materials and Construction</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap09">143</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xi]</a></span>CHAPTER X.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind"><span class="smcap">General View.</span> Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls
+and Columns. Openings. Construction and Design</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap10">154</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XI.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind"><span class="smcap">Florence. Rome. Venice, Vicenza, Verona. Milan,
+Pavia. Genoa, Turin, Naples.</span> Country Villas</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap11">165</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XII.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE AND NORTHERN EUROPE.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">1. <span class="smcap">France.</span> Chronological Sketch</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap12">193</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">2. <span class="smcap">Belgium</span> and the <span class="smcap">Netherlands</span></td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap12a">206</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">3. <span class="smcap">Germany</span></td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap12b">210</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIII.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL.</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">1. <span class="smcap">England.</span> Chronological Sketch</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap13">214</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">2. <span class="smcap">Scotland</span></td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap13a">227</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind">3. <span class="smcap">Spain</span> and <span class="smcap">Portugal</span></td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap13b">229</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xii]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/agr006.jpg" width="500" height="124"
+alt="Sculptured ornament from Rheims Cathedral" />
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="List of illustrations">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><small>PAGE</small></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdinlsc" colspan="2">Certosa, The, near Pavia. From the Cloisters</td>
+    <td class="tdrb smcap"><a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdinlsc" colspan="2">Saint George. Panel from the Tomb of Cardinal Amboise in Rouen Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="tdrb smcap"><a href="#tpage">Title&nbsp;Page</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdinlsc" colspan="2">Glossary. Forty Engravings of Details</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#glossary">xv&nbsp;to&nbsp;xxxix</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">1.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">West Entrance, Lichfield Cathedral. (1275.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig01">5</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">2.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Ground Plan of Peterborough Cathedral. (1118 <span class="nosc">to</span> 1193.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig02">6</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">3.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Transverse Section of the Nave of Salisbury Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig03">7</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">4.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Choir of Worcester Cathedral. (Begun 1224.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig04">9</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">5.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Nave of Wells Cathedral. (1206 <span class="nosc">to</span> 1242.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig05">9</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">6.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Ground Plan of Westminster Abbey</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig06">11</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">7.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">House of Jaques C&oelig;ur at Bourges. (Begun 1443.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig07">15</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">8.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Plan of Warwick Castle. (14th and 15th Centuries.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig08">16</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">9.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Palaces on the Grand Canal, Venice. (14th Century.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig09">18</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">10.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Well at Regensburg. (15th Century.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig10">20</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">11.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Gothic Ornament. From Sens Cathedral (Headpiece)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig11">21</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">12.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Lincoln Cathedral. (Mostly Early English.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig12">35</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">13.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">St. Pierre, Caen, Tower and Spire. (Spire, 1302.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig13">37</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">14.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">House at Chester. (16th Century.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig14">38</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">15.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Houses at Lisieux, France. (16th Century.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig15">41</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">16.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Lancet Window. (12th Century.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig16">46</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">17.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Two-light Window. (13th Century.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig17">47</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">18.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Geometrical Tracery. (14th Century.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig18">48</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">19.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Triforium Arcade, Westminster Abbey. (1269.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig19">49</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">20.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Rose Window from the Transept of Lincoln Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig20">50</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">21.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Perpendicular Window</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig21">51</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xiii]</a></span>22.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Roof of Hall at Eltham Palace. (15th Century.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig22">53</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">23.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Henry VII.&rsquo;s Chapel. (1503-1512.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig23">57</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">24.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Spire of St. Mary Magdalene, Warboys, Lincolnshire</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig24">59</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">25.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Decorated Spire. All Saints&rsquo; Church, Oakham</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig25">60</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">26.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Early Arch in Receding Planes</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig26">62</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">27.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Arch in Receding Planes Moulded</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig27">62</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">28.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Doorway, King&rsquo;s College Chapel, Cambridge. (15th Cent.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig28">63</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">29.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Stained Glass Window from Chartres Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig29">65</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">30.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Sculpture from Chapter House, Westminster Abbey</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig30">67</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">31.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Church at Fontevrault. (Begun 1125.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig31">70</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">32.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Doorway at Loches, France. (1180.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig32">72</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">33.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Notre Dame, Paris, West Front. (1214.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig33">74</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">34.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Plan of Amiens Cathedral. (1220-1272.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig34">76</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">35.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Amiens Cathedral, West Front. (1220-1272.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig35">78</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">36.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Piers and Superstructure, Rheims Cathedral. (1211-1240.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig36">80</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">37.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Capital from St. Nicholas, Blois, France. (13th Century.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig37">84</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">38.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Beauvais Cathedral, Interior. (1225-1537.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig38">86</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">39.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">The Town Hall of Middleburgh. (1518.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig39">89</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">40.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Tower at Ghent. (Begun 1183.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig40">90</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">41.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Abbey Church of Arnstein. (12th and 13th Centuries.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig41">94</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">42.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Church at Andernach. (Early 13th Century.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig42">96</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">43.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Church of St. Barbara at Kuttenberg. East End. (1358-1548.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig43">99</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">44.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Double Church at Schwartz-Rheindorff. Section. (1158.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig44">101</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">45.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Double Church at Schwartz-Rheindorff. (1158.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig45">102</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">46.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Cologne Cathedral. Ground Plan. (Begun 1248.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig46">104</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">47.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Western Doorway of Church at Thann. (14th Century.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig47">106</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">48.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Church of St. Catherine at Oppenheim. (1262 <span class="nosc">to</span> 1439.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig48">107</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">49.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">St. Sebald&rsquo;s Church at Nuremberg. The Bride&rsquo;s Doorway</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig49">109</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">50.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Palace of the Jurisconsults at Cremona</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig50">117</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">51.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Cathedral at Florence. With Giotto&rsquo;s Campanile</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig51">121</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">52.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Cathedral at Siena. West Front and Campanile</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig52">123</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">53.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Cathedral at Orvieto. (Begun 1290; Fa&ccedil;ade, 1310.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig53">125</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">54.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Ogival Window-head</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig54">129</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">55.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Tracery in Window-head, from Venice</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig55">130</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xiv]</a></span>56.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Window from Tivoli</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig56">134</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">57.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Italian Gothic Window, with Tracery in Head</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig57">136</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">58.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Cathedral at Toledo. Interior. (Begun 1227.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig58">139</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">59.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">The Giralda at Seville. (Begun in 1196; Finished in 1568.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig59">141</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">60.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Doorway from Church at Batalha. (Begun 1385.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig60">151</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">61.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Strozzi Palace at Florence. (Begun 1489.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig61">169</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">62.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Part of the Loggia del Consiglio at Verona</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig62">171</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">63.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">The Pandolfini Palace, Florence. Designed by Raphael</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig63">173</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">64.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">St. Peter&rsquo;s at Rome. Interior. (1506-1661.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig64">177</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">65.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Monument by Sansovino, in Sta. Maria del Popolo, Rome</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig65">179</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">66.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Palazzo Giraud, Rome. By Bramante. (1506.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig66">180</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">67.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Italian Shell Ornament</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig67">183</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">68.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">The Church of the Redentore, Venice. (1576.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig68">185</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">69.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Certosa near Pavia. Part of West Front. (Begun 1473.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig69">188</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">70.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Villa Medici&mdash;On the Pincian Hill near Rome. By Annibale Lippi (now the
+<span class="nosc"><i>Acad&eacute;mie Fran&ccedil;aise</i></span>). (<small>A.D.</small> 1540.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig70">191</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">70<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Early Renaissance Corbel</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig70a">192</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">71.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Window from a House at Orleans. (Early 16th Century.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig71">195</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">72.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Capital from the House of Francis I., Orleans. (1540.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig72">197</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">73.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Pavillon Richelieu of the Louvre, Paris</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig73">199</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">74.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Part of the Tuileries, Paris. (Begun 1564.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig74">201</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">75.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Capital from Delorme&rsquo;s work at the Louvre</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig75">202</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">76.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">H&ocirc;tel des Invalides, Paris</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig76">204</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">77.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Window from Colmar. (1575.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig77">208</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">78.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Zeughaus, Dantzic. (1605.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig78">209</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">79.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Council-house at Leyden. (1599.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig79">211</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">80.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Quadrangle of the Castle of Schalaburg</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig80">213</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">81.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Holland House, Kensington. (1607.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig81">216</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">82.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">St. Paul&rsquo;s Cathedral, London. (1675-1710.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig82">220</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">83.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Houses at Chester. (16th Century.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig83">225</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">84.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">The Alcazar at Toledo. (Begun 1568.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig84">231</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xv]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/agr005.jpg" width="500" height="135"
+alt="Stained glass from Chartres Cathedral" />
+</div>
+
+<h2><a name="glossary" id="glossary"></a>GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><span class="smcap">Abacus.</span>&mdash;The upper portion of the capital of a column, upon which
+the weight to be carried rests.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Aisle</span> (Lat. <i>ala</i>).&mdash;The side subdivision in a church; occasionally all
+the subdivisions, including the nave, are called aisles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Apse.</span>&mdash;A semicircular or polygonal termination to, or projection
+from, a church or other public building.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Arcade.</span>&mdash;A range of arches, supported on piers or columns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Arch.</span>&mdash;A construction of wedge-shaped blocks of stone, or of bricks,
+of a curved outline, and spanning an open space. The principal
+forms of arch in use are Semicircular; Acutely-pointed, or Lancet;
+Equilateral, or Less Acutely-pointed; Four-centred, or Depressed
+Tudor; Three-centred, or Elliptic; Ogival; Segmental; and
+Stilted. (Figs. <a href="#figa"><i>a</i> to <i>f</i></a>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Architrave.</span>&mdash;(1) The stone which in Classic and Renaissance architecture
+is thrown from one column or pilaster to the next. (2)
+The moulding which in the same styles is used to ornament the
+margin of a door or window opening or arch.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ashlar.</span>&mdash;Finely-wrought masonry, employed for the facing of a wall
+of coarser masonry or brick.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Attic</span> (In Renaissance Architecture).&mdash;A low upper story, distinctly
+marked in the architecture of the building, usually surmounting
+an order; (2) in ordinary building, any story in a roof.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Bailey</span> (from <i>vallum</i>).&mdash;The enclosure of the courtyard of a castle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ball-flower.</span>&mdash;An ornament representing a globular bud, placed
+usually in a hollow moulding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Baluster.</span>&mdash;A species of small column, generally of curved outline.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Balustrade.</span>&mdash;A parapet or rail formed of balusters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xvi]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 286px;">
+<a name="figa" id="figa"></a>
+<img src="images/agr007.png" width="286" height="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>a</i></span>.&mdash;Semicircular Arch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 208px;">
+<a name="figb" id="figb"></a>
+<img src="images/agr008.png" width="208" height="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>b</i></span>.&mdash;Stilted Arch.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>The Semicircular and the Stilted Semicircular Arch were the only arches
+in use till the introduction of the Pointed Arch. Throughout the Early
+English, Decorated, and Perpendicular periods they occur as exceptional
+features, but they were practically superseded after the close of the 12th cent.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 173px;">
+<a name="figc" id="figc"></a>
+<img src="images/agr009.png" width="173" height="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>c</i></span>.&mdash;Equilateral Arch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 188px;">
+<a name="figd" id="figd"></a>
+<img src="images/agr010.png" width="188" height="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>d</i></span>.&mdash;Lancet Arch.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>The Lancet Arch was characteristic of the Early English period, is never
+found earlier, and but rarely occurs later. The Equilateral Arch was the
+favourite arch of the architects of the geometrical Decorated, but is not
+unfrequently met with in the early part of the Perpendicular period.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 214px;">
+<a name="fige" id="fige"></a>
+<img src="images/agr011.png" width="214" height="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>e</i></span>.&mdash;Ogival Arch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 229px;">
+<a name="figf" id="figf"></a>
+<img src="images/agr012.png" width="229" height="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>f</i></span>.&mdash;Depressed Tudor Arch.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>The Depressed (or Four-centred) Tudor Arch is characteristic of the Perpendicular
+period, and was then constantly employed. The Ogival Arch is
+occasionally employed late in that period, but was more used by French and
+Italian architects than by those of Great Britain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xvii]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Band.</span>&mdash;A flat moulding or projecting strip of stone.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Barrel-vaulting.</span>&mdash;See Waggon-head vaulting.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Barge-board (or Verge-board).</span>&mdash;An inclined and pierced or ornamented
+board placed along the edge of a roof when it overhangs
+a gable wall.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Base.</span>&mdash;(1) The foot of a column; (2) sometimes that of a buttress
+or wall.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 172px;">
+<a name="figg" id="figg"></a>
+<img src="images/agr013.png" width="172" height="120" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>g</i></span>.&mdash;Base of Early English Shaft.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 248px;">
+<a name="figh" id="figh"></a>
+<img src="images/agr014.jpg" width="248" height="350" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>h</i></span>.&mdash;Base of Perpendicular Shaft.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 274px;">
+<a name="figi" id="figi"></a>
+<img src="images/agr015.jpg" width="274" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>i</i></span>.&mdash;Base of Decorated Shaft.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Basilica.</span>&mdash;(1) A Roman public hall; (2) an early Christian church,
+similar to a Roman basilica in disposition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xviii]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Bastion</span> (in Fortification).&mdash;A bold projecting mass of building, or
+earthwork thrown out beyond the general line of a wall.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Battlement.</span>&mdash;A notched or indented parapet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bay.</span>&mdash;One of the compartments in a building which is made up of
+several repetitions of the same group of features; <i>e.g.</i>, in a church
+the space from one column of the nave arcade to the next is a
+bay.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bay-window.</span>&mdash;A window projecting outward from the wall. It may
+be rectangular or polygonal. It must be built up from the ground.
+If thrown out above the ground level, a projecting window is
+called an Oriel. (See Bow window.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bead.</span>&mdash;A small moulding of circular profile.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Belfry.</span>&mdash;A chamber fitted to receive a peal of bells.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Belfry Stage.</span>&mdash;The story of a tower where the belfry occurs. Usually
+marked by large open arches or windows, to let the sound escape.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bell</span> (of a capital).&mdash;The body between the necking and the abacus
+(which see).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Billet Moulding.</span>&mdash;A moulding consisting of a group of small
+blocks separated by spaces about equal to their own length.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Blind Story.</span>&mdash;Triforium (which see).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Boss.</span>&mdash;A projecting mass of carving placed to conceal the intersection
+of the ribs of a vault, or at the end of a string course
+which it is desired to stop, or in an analogous situation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bow Window.</span>&mdash;Similar to a Bay-window (which see), but circular or
+segmental.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Broach-spire.</span>&mdash;A spire springing from a tower without a parapet and
+with pyramidal features at the feet of its four oblique sides (see
+Fig. <a href="#fig22">22</a>) to connect them to the four angles of the tower.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Broachead (Spire).</span>&mdash;Formed as above described.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Buttress.</span>&mdash;A projection built up against a wall to create additional
+strength or furnish support (see Flying Buttress).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Byzantine.</span>&mdash;The round-arched Christian architecture of the Eastern
+Church, which had its origin in Byzantium (Constantinople).</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Canopy.</span>&mdash;(1) An ornamented projection over doors, windows, &amp;c.;
+(2) a covering over niches, tombs, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Campanile.</span>&mdash;The Italian name for a bell-tower.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xix]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 154px;">
+<a name="figj" id="figj"></a>
+<img src="images/agr016.jpg" width="154" height="350" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>j</i></span>.&mdash;Buttress.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Capital.</span>&mdash;The head of a column or pilaster (Figs. <a href="#figl"><i>l</i> to <i>p</i></a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cathedral.</span>&mdash;A church which contains the seat of a bishop; usually
+a building of the first class.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Certosa.</span>&mdash;A monastery (or church) of Carthusian monks.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chamfer.</span>&mdash;A slight strip pared off from a sharp angle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chancel.</span>&mdash;The choir or eastern part of a church.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chantry Chapel.</span>&mdash;A chapel connected with a monument or tomb
+in which masses were to be chanted. This was usually of small
+size and very rich.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chapel.</span>&mdash;(1) A chamber attached to a church and opening out of it,
+or formed within it, and in which an altar was placed; (2) a
+small detached church.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chapter House.</span>&mdash;The hall of assembly of the chapter (dean and
+canons) of a cathedral.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xx]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 96px;">
+<a name="figl" id="figl"></a>
+<img src="images/agr017.jpg" width="96" height="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>l</i></span>.&mdash;Early Norman Capital.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 141px;">
+<a name="figm" id="figm"></a>
+<img src="images/agr018.jpg" width="141" height="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>m</i></span>.&mdash;Early English Capital.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 206px;">
+<a name="fign" id="fign"></a>
+<img src="images/agr019.jpg" width="206" height="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>n</i></span>.&mdash;Later Norman Capital.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 220px;">
+<a name="figo" id="figo"></a>
+<img src="images/agr020.jpg" width="220" height="250" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>o</i></span>.&mdash;Perpendicular Capital.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 250px;">
+<a name="figp" id="figp"></a>
+<img src="images/agr021.jpg" width="250" height="350" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>p</i></span>.&mdash;Early French Capital.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxi]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Ch&acirc;teau.</span>&mdash;The French name for a country mansion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chevron.</span>&mdash;A zig-zag ornament.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chevet.</span>&mdash;The French name for an apse when surrounded by chapels;
+see the plan of Westminster Abbey (Fig. <a href="#fig06">6</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Choir.</span>&mdash;The part of a church in which the services are celebrated;
+usually, but not always, the east end or chancel. In a Spanish
+church the choir is often at the crossing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Clerestory.</span>&mdash;The upper story or row of windows lighting the nave of
+a Gothic church.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cloister.</span>&mdash;A covered way round a quadrangle of a monastic building.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Clustered (shafts).</span>&mdash;Grouped so as to form a pier of some mass out
+of several small shafts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Corbel.</span>&mdash;A projecting stone (or timber) supporting, or seeming to
+support, a weight (Fig. <a href="#figk"><i>k</i></a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 250px;">
+<a name="figk" id="figk"></a>
+<img src="images/agr022.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>k</i></span>.&mdash;Early Renaissance Corbel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Corbelling.</span>&mdash;A series of mouldings doing the same duty as a corbel;
+a row of corbels.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Corbel Table.</span>&mdash;A row of corbels supporting an overhanging parapet
+or cornice.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxii]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Cortile</span> (Italian).&mdash;The internal arcaded quadrangle of a palace,
+mansion, or public building.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Column.</span>&mdash;A stone or marble post, divided usually into base, shaft,
+and capital; distinguished from a pier by the shaft being cylindrical
+or polygonal, and in one, or at most, in few pieces.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cornice.</span>&mdash;The projecting and crowning portion of an order (which
+see) or of a building, or of a stage or story of a building.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Course.</span>&mdash;A horizontal layer of stones in the masonry of a building.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Crocket.</span>&mdash;A tuft of leaves arranged in a formal shape, used to decorate
+ornamental gables, the ribs of spires, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 156px;">
+<a name="figq" id="figq"></a>
+<img src="images/agr023.jpg" width="156" height="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>q</i></span>.&mdash;Decorated Crocket.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 179px;">
+<a name="figr" id="figr"></a>
+<img src="images/agr024.jpg" width="179" height="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>r</i></span>.&mdash;Perpendicular Crocket.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Crossing.</span>&mdash;The intersection (which see) in a church or cathedral.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cross Vault.</span>&mdash;A vault of which the arched surfaces intersect one
+another, forming a groin (which see).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Crypt.</span>&mdash;The basement under a church or other building (almost invariably
+vaulted).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cusp.</span>&mdash;The projecting point thrown out to form the leaf-shaped forms
+or foliations in the heads of Gothic windows, and in tracery and
+panels.</p>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Braced items with description">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl brace" rowspan="3">}</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl smcap">Dec.</td>
+    <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">The Gothic architecture of the fourteenth century in England. <i>Abbreviated</i> Dec.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl smcap">Decorated.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Detail.</span>&mdash;The minuter features of a design or building, especially its
+mouldings and carving.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxiii]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Diaper</span> (Gothic).&mdash;An uniform pattern of leaves or flowers carved or
+painted on the surface of a wall.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 398px;">
+<a name="figs" id="figs"></a>
+<img src="images/agr025.png" width="398" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>s</i></span>.&mdash;Diaper in Spandrel, from Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dogtooth.</span>&mdash;A sharply-pointed ornament in a hollow moulding which
+is peculiar to Early English Gothic. It somewhat resembles a
+blunt tooth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dormer Window.</span>&mdash;A window pierced through a sloping roof and
+placed under a small gable or roof of its own.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dome.</span>&mdash;A cupola or spherical convex roof, ordinarily circular on plan.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Domical Vaulting.</span>&mdash;Vaulting in which a series of small domes are
+employed; in contradistinction to a waggon-head vault, or an
+intersecting vault.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxiv]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Double Tracery.</span>&mdash;Two layers of tracery one behind the other and
+with a clear space between.</p>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Braced items with description">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl brace" rowspan="3">}</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">E.&nbsp;E.</td>
+    <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">The Gothic architecture of England in the thirteenth century. <i>Abbreviated</i> E.&nbsp;E.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl smcap">Early English.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Eaves.</span>&mdash;The verge or edge of a roof overhanging the wall.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Eaves-course.</span>&mdash;A moulding carrying the eaves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Elevation.</span>&mdash;(1) A geometrical drawing of part of the exterior or
+interior walls of a building; (2) the architectural treatment of the
+exterior or interior walls of a building.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Elizabethan.</span>&mdash;The architecture of England in, and for some time
+after, the reign of Elizabeth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Embattled.</span>&mdash;Finished with battlements, or in imitation of battlements.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Enrichments.</span>&mdash;The carved (or coloured) decorations applied to the
+mouldings or other features of an architectural design. (See
+Mouldings.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Entablature</span> (in Classic and Renaissance architecture).&mdash;The superstructure
+above the columns where an order is employed. It is
+divided into the architrave, which rests on the columns, the frieze
+and the cornice.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Fa&ccedil;ade.</span>&mdash;The front of a building or of a principal part of a building.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fan Vault.</span>&mdash;The vaulting in use in England in the fifteenth
+century, in which a series of conoids bearing some resemblance to
+an open fan are employed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fillet.</span>&mdash;A small moulding of square flat section.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 108px;">
+<a name="figt" id="figt"></a>
+<img src="images/agr026.jpg" width="108" height="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>t</i></span>.&mdash;Perpendicular Finial.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Finial.</span>&mdash;A formally arranged bunch of foliage or other similar ornament
+forming the top of a pinnacle, gablet, or other ornamented
+feature of Gothic architecture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxv]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Flamboyant Style.</span>&mdash;The late Gothic architecture of France at the
+end of the fifteenth century, so called from the occurrence of
+flame-shaped forms in the tracery.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fl&egrave;che.</span>&mdash;A name adapted from the French. A slender spire, mostly
+placed on a roof; not often so called if on a tower.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Flying Buttress.</span>&mdash;A buttress used to steady the upper and inner
+walls of a vaulted building, placed at some distance from the
+wall which it supports, and connected with it by an arch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 349px;">
+<a name="figu" id="figu"></a>
+<img src="images/agr027.jpg" width="349" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>u</i></span>.&mdash;Flying Buttress.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Foil.</span>&mdash;A leaf-shaped form produced by adding cusps to the curved
+outline of a window head or piece of tracery.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Foliation.</span>&mdash;The decoration of an opening, or of tracery by means of
+foils and cusps.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fosse.</span>&mdash;The ditch of a fortress.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Fran&ccedil;ois I. Style.</span>&mdash;The early Renaissance architecture of France
+during part of the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvi" id="Page_xxvi">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxvi]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Frieze.</span>&mdash;(1) The middle member of a Classic or Renaissance entablature;
+this was often sculptured and carved; (2) any band of
+sculptured ornament.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Gable.</span>&mdash;The triangular-shaped wall carrying the end of a roof.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gablet.</span>&mdash;A small gable (usually ornamental only).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gallery.</span>&mdash;(1) An apartment of great length in proportion to its
+width; (2) a raised floor or stage in a building.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gargoyle.</span>&mdash;A projecting waterspout, usually carved in stone, more
+rarely formed of metal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Geometrical.</span>&mdash;The architecture of the earlier part of the decorated
+period in England.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grille.</span>&mdash;A grating or ornamental railing of metal.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Groin.</span>&mdash;The curved line which is made by the meeting of the surfaces
+of two vaults or portions of vaults which intersect.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Group.</span>&mdash;An assemblage of shafts or mouldings or other small features
+intended to produce a combined effect.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Grouping.</span>&mdash;Combining architectural features as above.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Hall.</span>&mdash;(1) The largest room in an ancient English mansion, or a
+college, &amp;c.; (2) any large and stately apartment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Half Timbered Construction.</span>&mdash;A mode of building in which a
+framework of timbers is displayed and the spaces between them
+are filled in with plaster or tiles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hammer Beam Roof.</span>&mdash;A roof peculiar to English architecture of the
+fifteenth century, deriving its name from the use of a hammer
+beam (a large bracket projecting from the walls) to partly support
+the rafters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Head</span> (of an arch or other opening).&mdash;The portion within the curve;
+whether filled in by masonry or left open, sometimes called a
+tympanum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hip.</span>&mdash;The external angle formed by the meeting of two sloping sides
+of a roof where there is no gable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">H&ocirc;tel</span> (French).&mdash;A town mansion.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Impost.</span>&mdash;A moulding or other line marking the top of the jambs
+of an arched opening, and the starting point, or apparent starting
+point, of the arch.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvii" id="Page_xxvii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxvii]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Inlay.</span>&mdash;A mode of decoration in which coloured materials are laid
+into sinkings of ornamental shape, cut into the surface to be
+decorated.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Intersection (or Crossing).</span>&mdash;The point in a church where the
+transepts cross the nave.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Intersecting Vaults.</span>&mdash;Vaults of which the surfaces cut one another.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Interpenetration.</span>&mdash;A German mode of treating mouldings, as though
+two or more sets of them existed in the same stone and they
+could pass through (interpenetrate) each other.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Jamb.</span>&mdash;The side of a door or window or arch, or other opening.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 356px;">
+<a name="figv" id="figv"></a>
+<img src="images/agr028.png" width="356" height="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>v</i></span>.&mdash;Plan of a Jamb and Central Pier of a Gothic Doorway.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Keep.</span>&mdash;The tower which formed the stronghold of a medi&aelig;val castle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">King Post.</span>&mdash;The middle post in the framing of a timber roof.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Lancet Arch.</span>&mdash;The sharply-pointed window-head and arch, characteristic
+of English Gothic in the thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lantern.</span>&mdash;A conspicuous feature rising above a roof or crowning a
+dome, and intended usually to light a Hall, but often introduced
+simply as an architectural finish to the whole building.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lierne</span> (rib).&mdash;A rib intermediate between the main ribs in Gothic
+vaulting.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Light.</span>&mdash;One of the divisions of a window of which the entire width
+is divided by one or more mullions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lintel.</span>&mdash;The stone or beam covering a doorway or other opening not
+spanned by an arch. Sometimes applied to the architrave of an
+order.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxviii" id="Page_xxviii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxviii]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Loggia</span> (Italian).&mdash;An open arcade with a gallery behind.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Loop.</span>&mdash;Short for loophole. A very narrow slit in the wall of a fortress,
+serving as a window, or to shoot through.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lucarne.</span>&mdash;A spire-light. A small window like a slender dormer
+window.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Moat</span> (or Fosse).&mdash;The ditch round a fortress or semi-fortified house.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mosaic.</span>&mdash;An ornament for pavements, walls, and the surfaces of
+vaults, formed by cementing together small pieces of coloured
+material (stone, marble, tile, &amp;c.) so as to produce a pattern or
+picture.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Moulding.</span>&mdash;A term applied to all varieties of contour or outline given
+to the angles, projections, or recesses of the various parts of a
+building. The object being either to produce an outline satisfactory
+to the eye; or, more frequently, to obtain a play of light
+and shade, and to produce the appearance of a line or a series of
+lines, broad or narrow, and of varying intensity of lightness or
+shade in the building or some of its features.</p>
+
+<p>The contour which a moulding would present when cut across
+in a direction at right angles to its length is called its profile.</p>
+
+<p>The profile of mouldings varied with each style of architecture
+and at each period (Figs. <a href="#figw"><i>w</i> to <i>z</i></a>). When ornaments are carved
+out of some of the moulded surfaces the latter are technically
+termed enriched mouldings. The enrichments in use varied with
+each style and each period, as the mouldings themselves did.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mullion.</span>&mdash;The upright bars of stone frequently employed (especially
+in Gothic architecture) to subdivide one window into two or more
+lights.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Nave.</span>&mdash;(1) The central avenue of a church or cathedral; (2) the
+western part of a church as distinguished from the chancel or
+choir; (3) occasionally, any avenue in the interior of a building
+which is divided by one or more rows of columns running lengthways
+is called a nave.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Necking</span> (of a column).&mdash;The point (usually marked by a fillet or other
+small projecting moulding) where the shaft ends and the capital
+begins.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Newel Post.</span>&mdash;The stout post at the foot of a staircase from which
+the balustrade or the handrail starts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxix" id="Page_xxix">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxix]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 205px;">
+<a name="figw" id="figw"></a>
+<img src="images/agr029.jpg" width="205" height="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>w</i></span>.&mdash;Arch Moulding.
+(<span class="nosc">Gothic, 12th Century.</span>)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 200px;">
+<a name="figy" id="figy"></a>
+<img src="images/agr030.jpg" width="200" height="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>y</i></span>.&mdash;Arch Moulding.
+(<span class="nosc">Decorated, 14th Century.</span>)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 396px;">
+<a name="figz" id="figz"></a>
+<img src="images/agr031.jpg" width="396" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>z</i></span>.&mdash;Arch Moulding. (<span class="nosc">Gothic, 13th Century.</span>)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxx" id="Page_xxx">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxx]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Niche.</span>&mdash;A recess in a wall for a statue, vase, or other upright ornament.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Norman.</span>&mdash;The architecture of England from the Norman Conquest
+till the latter part of the twelfth century.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Ogee.</span>&mdash;A moulding or line of part concave and part convex curvature
+(see Fig. <a href="#fige"><i>e</i></a>, showing an ogee-shaped arch).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ogival.</span>&mdash;Ogee-shaped (see Fig. <a href="#fig54">54</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Open Tracery.</span>&mdash;Tracery in which the spaces between the bars are
+neither closed by slabs of stone nor glazed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Order.</span>&mdash;(1) In Classical and Renaissance architecture a single column
+or pilaster and its appropriate entablature or superstructure; (2) a
+series of columns or pilasters with their entablature; (3) an entire
+decorative system appropriate to the kind of column chosen. In
+Renaissance architecture there are five orders&mdash;the Tuscan, Doric,
+Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite. Each has its own proper
+column, and its proper base, shaft, and capital; and its own entablature.
+The proportions and the degree of enrichment appropriate
+to each vary. The Tuscan being the sturdiest and plainest, the
+Composite the most slender and most small, and the others taking
+place in the succession in which they stand enumerated above.
+Where more than one order occurs in a building, as constantly
+happens in Classic and Renaissance buildings, the orders which
+are the plainest and most sturdy (and have been named first) if
+employed, are invariably placed below the more slender orders;
+<i>e.g.</i> the Doric is never placed <em>over</em> the Corinthian or the Ionic,
+but if employed in combination with either of those orders it is
+always the lowest in position.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Oriel.</span>&mdash;A window projecting like a bay or bow window, not resting
+on the ground but thrown out above the ground level and resting
+on a corbel.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Palladian.</span>&mdash;A phase of fully developed Renaissance architecture
+introduced by the architect Palladio, and largely followed in
+England as well as in Italy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Panel.</span>&mdash;(1) The thinner portions of the framed woodwork of doors
+and other such joiner&rsquo;s work; (2) all sunk compartments in
+masonry, ceilings, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxi" id="Page_xxxi">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxi]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Panelling.</span>&mdash;(1) Woodwork formed of framework containing panels;
+(2) any decoration formed of a series of sunk compartments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Parapet.</span>&mdash;A breastwork or low wall used to protect the gutters and
+screen the roofs of buildings; also, perhaps primarily, to protect
+the ramparts of fortifications.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 248px;">
+<a name="figaa" id="figaa"></a>
+<img src="images/agr032.jpg" width="248" height="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>a a</i></span>.&mdash;Open Parapet, late Decorated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 283px;">
+<a name="figbb" id="figbb"></a>
+<img src="images/agr033.jpg" width="283" height="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>b b</i></span>.&mdash;Battlemented Parapet, Perpendicular.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pavilion.</span>&mdash;A strongly marked single block of building; most frequently
+applied to those blocks in French and other Renaissance
+buildings that are marked out by high roofs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pedestal.</span>&mdash;(1) A substructure sometimes placed under a column in
+Renaissance architecture; (2) a similar substructure intended to
+carry a statue, vase, or other ornament.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pediment.</span>&mdash;(1) The gable, where used in Renaissance buildings; (2)
+an ornamental gable sometimes placed over windows, doors, and
+other features in Gothic buildings.</p>
+
+<table class="vertmarg" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Braced items with description">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl brace" rowspan="3">}</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl smcap">Perp.</td>
+    <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">The Gothic architecture of the fifteenth century in England. <i>Abbreviated</i> Perp.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl smcap">Perpendicular.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxii" id="Page_xxxii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxii]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Pier.</span>&mdash;(1) A mass of walling, either a detached portion of a wall or
+a distinct structure of masonry, taking the place of a column in
+the arcade of a church or elsewhere; (2) a group or cluster of
+shafts substituted for a column.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 367px;">
+<a name="figcc" id="figcc"></a>
+<img src="images/agr034.jpg" width="367" height="300"
+alt="Showing actual, cross-section and plan views" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>c c</i></span>.&mdash;Early English Piers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 454px;">
+<a name="figdd" id="figdd"></a>
+<img src="images/agr035.jpg" width="454" height="200"
+alt="Showing three different cross-sections" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>d d</i></span>.&mdash;Late Decorated and Perpendicular Piers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pilaster.</span>&mdash;A square column, usually attached to a wall; frequently
+used in Classic and Renaissance architecture in combination with
+columns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxiii" id="Page_xxxiii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxiii]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Pinnacle</span> (in Gothic architecture).&mdash;A small turret, or ornament,
+usually with a pointed top, employed to mark the summit of
+gables, buttresses, and other tall features.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pitch.</span>&mdash;The degree of slope given to a roof, gable, or pediment.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plan.</span>&mdash;(1) A map of the floor of a building, showing the piers, if
+any, and the walls which inclose and divide it, with the openings
+in them; (2) the actual arrangement and disposition of the floors,
+piers, and walls of the building itself.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plane.</span>&mdash;The imaginary surface within which a series of mouldings
+lies, and which coincides with the salient and important points
+of that series. Mouldings are said to be on an oblique plane when
+their plane forms an angle less than a right angle with the face
+of the wall; and in receding planes, when they can be divided
+into a series of groups of more or less stepped outline, each within
+and behind the other, and each partly bounded by a plane parallel
+with the face of the wall.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plaster.</span>&mdash;The plastic material, of which the groundwork is lime
+and sand, used to cover walls internally and to form ceilings.
+Sometimes employed as a covering to walls externally.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Plinth.</span>&mdash;The base of a wall or of a column or range of columns.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Portal.</span>&mdash;A dignified and important entrance doorway.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Portico.</span>&mdash;A range of columns with their entablature (and usually
+covered by a pediment), marking the entrance to a Renaissance or
+Classic building.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Prismatic Rustication.</span>&mdash;In Elizabethan architecture rusticated
+masonry with diamond-shaped projections worked on the face
+of each stone.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Profile.</span>&mdash;The contour or outline of mouldings as they would appear
+if sawn across at right angles to their length.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Porch.</span>&mdash;A small external structure to protect and ornament the doorway
+to a building (rarely met with in Renaissance).</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Quatrefoil.</span>&mdash;A four-leaved ornament occupying a circle in tracery
+or a panel.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Rafters.</span>&mdash;The sloping beams of a roof upon which the covering of
+the roof rests.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ragstone.</span>&mdash;A coarse stone found in parts of Kent and elsewhere, and
+used for walling.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Receding Planes.</span>&mdash;(See Plane.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxiv" id="Page_xxxiv">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxiv]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Recess.</span>&mdash;A sinking in a building deeper than a mere panel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Recessing.</span>&mdash;Forming one or more recesses. Throwing back some
+part of a building behind the general face.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Renaissance.</span>&mdash;The art of the period of the Classic revival which
+began in the sixteenth century. In this volume used chiefly
+to denote the architecture of Europe in that and the succeeding
+centuries.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rib</span> (in Gothic vaulting).&mdash;A bar of masonry or moulding projecting
+beyond the general surface of a vault, to mark its intersections or
+subdivide its surface, and to add strength.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ridge.</span>&mdash;(1) The straight line or ornament which marks the summit
+of a roof; (2) the line or rib, straight or curved, which marks the
+summit of a vault.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Roll.</span>&mdash;A round moulding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rose Window.</span>&mdash;A wheel window (which see).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rubble.</span>&mdash;Rough stonework forming the heart of a masonry wall;
+sometimes faced with ashlar (which see), sometimes shown.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rustication</span> (or <span class="smcap">Rusticated Masonry</span>).&mdash;The sort of ornamental
+ashlar masonry (chiefly Classic and Renaissance) in which each
+stone is distinguished by a broad channel all round it, marking
+the joints.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rustics.</span>&mdash;The individual blocks of stone used in rustication (as
+described above).</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Screen.</span>&mdash;An internal partition or inclosure cutting off part of a
+building. At the entrance to the choir of a church screens of
+beautiful workmanship were used.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Scroll Moulding.</span>&mdash;A round roll moulding showing a line along its
+face (distinctive of decorated Gothic).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Scroll Work.</span>&mdash;Ornament showing winding spiral lines like the edge
+of a scroll of paper (chiefly found in Elizabethan).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Section.</span>&mdash;(1) A drawing of a building as it would appear if cut
+through at some fixed plane. (2) That part of the construction of
+a building which would be displayed by such a drawing as
+described above. (3) The profile of a moulding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Set-off.</span>&mdash;A small ledge formed by diminishing the thickness of a
+wall or pier.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sexpartite Vaulting.</span>&mdash;Where each bay or compartment is divided
+by its main ribs into six portions.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxv" id="Page_xxxv">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxv]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Sgraffito</span> (Italian).&mdash;An ornament produced by scratching lines on
+the plastered face of a building so as to show a different colour
+filling up the lines or surfaces scratched away.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shaft.</span>&mdash;(1) The middle part of a column between its base and capital.
+(2) In Gothic, slender columns introduced for ornamental
+purposes, singly or in clusters.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shell Ornament.</span>&mdash;A decoration frequently employed in Italian and
+French Renaissance, and resembling the interior of a shell.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sky-line.</span>&mdash;The outline which a building will show against the sky.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Spandrel.</span>&mdash;The triangular (or other shaped) space between the outside
+of an arch and the mouldings, or surfaces inclosing it or in
+contact with it. (See Fig. <a href="#figs"><i>s</i></a>, under Diaper.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Spire.</span>&mdash;The steep and pointed roof of a tower (usually a church
+tower).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Spire-light</span> (or <span class="smcap">Lucarne</span>).&mdash;A dormer window (which see) in a spire.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Splay.</span>&mdash;A slope making with the face of a wall an angle less than a
+right angle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stage.</span>&mdash;One division in the height of any building or portion of a
+building where horizontal divisions are distinctly marked, <i>e.g.</i>, the
+belfry stage of a tower, the division in which the bells are hung.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Steeple.</span>&mdash;A tower and spire in combination. Sometimes applied to
+a tower or spire separately.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stepped Gable.</span>&mdash;A gable in which, instead of a sloping line, the outline
+is formed by a series of steps.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Stilted Arch.</span>&mdash;An arch of which the curve does not commence till
+above the level of the impost (which see).</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Story.</span>&mdash;(1) The portion of a building between one floor and the
+next; (2) any stage or decidedly marked horizontal compartment
+of a building, even if not corresponding to an actual story marked
+by a floor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Strap-work</span> (Elizabethan).&mdash;An ornament representing strap-like
+fillets interlaced.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">String-course.</span>&mdash;A projecting horizontal (or occasionally sloping)
+band or line of mouldings.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Tabernacle Work.</span>&mdash;The richly ornamented and carved work with
+which the smaller and more precious features of a church, <i>e.g.</i>, the
+fittings of a choir, were adorned and made conspicuous.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Terminal</span> (or Finial).&mdash;The ornamental top of a pinnacle, gable, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxvi" id="Page_xxxvi">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxvi]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Terra-cotta.</span>&mdash;A fine kind of brick capable of being highly ornamented,
+and formed into blocks of some size.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Thrust.</span>&mdash;The pressure exercised laterally by an arch or vault, or by
+the timbers of a roof on the abutments or supports.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tie.</span>&mdash;A beam of wood, bar of iron, or similar expedient employed to
+hold together the feet or sides of an arch, vault, or roof, and so
+counteract the thrust.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Torus.</span>&mdash;A large convex moulding.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tower.</span>&mdash;A portion of a building rising conspicuously above the general
+mass, and obviously distinguished by its height from that mass.
+A detached building of which the height is great, relative to the
+width and breadth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tracery</span> (Gothic).&mdash;The ornamental stonework formed by the curving
+and interlacing of bars of stone, and occupying the heads of
+windows, panels, and other situations where decoration and lightness
+have to be combined. The simplest and earliest tracery might
+be described as a combination of openings pierced through the stone
+head of an arch. Cusping and foliation (which see) are features of
+tracery. (See Figs. <a href="#fig18">18</a>, <a href="#fig19">19</a>,
+<a href="#fig55">55</a>, and <a href="#fig57">57</a> in the text.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 270px;">
+<a name="figee" id="figee"></a>
+<img src="images/agr036.jpg" width="270" height="350" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>e e</i></span>.&mdash;Perpendicular Window-head.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 164px;">
+<a name="figff" id="figff"></a>
+<img src="images/agr037.jpg" width="164" height="250" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>f f</i></span>.&mdash;Late Perpendicular Window-head.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxvii" id="Page_xxxvii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxvii]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap">Transept.</span>&mdash;The arms of a church or cathedral which cross the line of
+the nave.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Transition.</span>&mdash;The architecture of a period coming between and sharing
+the characteristics of two distinctly marked styles or phases of
+architecture, one of which succeeded the other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Transom.</span>&mdash;A horizontal bar (usually of stone) across a window or
+panel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Trefoil.</span>&mdash;A three-leaved or three-lobed form found constantly in
+the heads of windows and in other situations where tracery is
+employed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Triforium</span> (or <span class="smcap">Thorough-fare</span>).&mdash;The story in a large church or
+cathedral intermediate between the arcade separating the nave and
+aisles, and the clerestory.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tudor.</span>&mdash;The architecture of England during the reigns of the Tudor
+kings. The use of the term is usually, however, restricted to a
+period which closes with the end of Henry VIII.&rsquo;s reign, 1547.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Turret.</span>&mdash;A small tower, sometimes rising from the ground, but often
+carried on corbels and commencing near the upper part of the
+building to which it is an appendage.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Tympanum.</span>&mdash;The filling in of the head of an arch, or occasionally of
+an ornamental gable.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Undercutting.</span>&mdash;A moulding or ornament of which the greater part
+stands out from the mouldings or surfaces which it adjoins, as
+though almost or quite detached from them, is said to be undercut.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Vault.</span>&mdash;An arched ceiling to a building, or part of a building, executed
+in masonry or in some substitute for masonry.</p>
+
+<p>The vaults of the Norman period were simple barrel-&nbsp;or waggon-headed
+vaults, and semicircular arches only were used in their
+construction. With the Gothic period the use of intersecting,
+and as a result of pointed arches, was introduced into vaulting,
+and vaults went on increasing in complexity and elaboration till
+the Tudor period, when fan-vaulting was employed. Our illustrations
+show some of the steps in the development of Gothic
+vaults referred to in Chapter <a href="#chap05">V.</a> of the text. No. 1 represents a
+waggon-head vault with an intersecting vault occupying part of
+its length. No. 2 represents one of the expedients adopted for
+vaulting an oblong compartment before the pointed arch was introduced.
+The narrower arch is stilted and the line of the groin
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxviii" id="Page_xxxviii"><!-- original location of Fig. g g --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxix" id="Page_xxxix">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxix]</a></span>
+is not true. No. 3 represents a similar compartment vaulted
+without any distortion or irregularity by the help of the pointed
+arch. No. 4 represents one lay of a sexpartite Gothic vault.
+No. 5 represents a vault with lierne ribs making a star-shaped
+pallom on plan, and No. 6 is a somewhat more intricate example
+of the same class of vault.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 426px;">
+<a name="figgg" id="figgg"></a>
+<img src="images/agr038.png" width="426" height="600"
+alt="Six different types of vaults" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>g g</i></span>.&mdash;Vaults.</p>
+
+<p>Vaults are met with in Renaissance buildings, but they are a less
+distinctive feature of such buildings than they were in the Gothic
+period; and in many cases where a vault or a series of vaults would
+have been employed by a Gothic architect, a Renaissance architect
+has preferred to make use of a dome or a series of domes. This
+is called domical vaulting. Examples of it occur occasionally in
+Gothic work.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Waggon-head Vaulting, or Barrel-Vaulting.</span>&mdash;A simple form
+of tunnel-like vaulting, which gets its name from its resemblance
+to the tilt often seen over large waggons, or to the half of a barrel.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wainscot.</span>&mdash;(1) The panelling often employed to line the walls of a
+room or building; (2) a finely marked variety of oak imported
+chiefly from Holland; probably so called because wainscot oak
+was at one time largely employed for such panelling.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Weathering.</span>&mdash;A sloping surface of stone employed to cover the set-off
+(which see) of a wall or buttress and protect it from the effects
+of weather.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Wheel Window.</span>&mdash;A circular window, and usually one in which
+mullions radiate from a centre towards the circumference like the
+spokes of a wheel; sometimes called a rose-window.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Window-head.</span>&mdash;For illustrations of the various forms and filling-in
+of Gothic window-heads, see the words Arch and Tracery.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 216px;">
+<img src="images/agr039.jpg" width="216" height="100"
+alt="Ornamental dolphin pattern" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xl" id="Page_xl">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xl]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>HEAD AND TAILPIECES.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="List of head and tailpiece illustrations">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><small>PAGE</small></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrsc">Headpiece.&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Cr&ecirc;te from Notre Dame, Paris</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head01">1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Sculptured Ornament from Rheims Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head02">6</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc"><span class="space1">&rdquo;</span> <span class="space2">&rdquo;</span> Sens Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig11">21</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc"><span class="space1">&rdquo;</span> <span class="space2">&rdquo;</span> Westminster Abbey</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head03">28</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrsc">Tailpiece.&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Norman Capitals</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#tail01">44</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrsc">Headpiece.&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Sculptured Ornament from Westminster Abbey</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head04">45</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrsc">Tailpiece.&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Miserere Seat from Wells Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#tail02">68</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrsc">Headpiece.&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Stained Glass from Chartres Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head05">69</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrsc">Tailpiece.&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Miserere Seat from Wells Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#tail03">92</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Ornament from Rheims Cathedral</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#tail04">153</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrsc">Headpiece.&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Renaissance Ornament from a Frieze</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head06">154</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">From a terra-cotta Frieze at Lodi</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head07">165</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrsc">Tailpiece.&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">From a Door in Santa Maria, Venice</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig70a">192</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrsc">Headpiece.&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Ornament by Giulio Romano</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head08">193</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">From a Frieze at Venice</td>
+    <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head09">235</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center smcap">The <a href="#endpaper">End-papers</a> are from a Tapestry in Hardwick Hall.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/agr040.jpg" width="200" height="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption nosc"><i>The Lily of Florence.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>1]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="head01" id="head01"></a>
+<img src="images/agr004.jpg" width="500" height="183"
+alt="Cr&ecirc;te from Notre Dame, Paris" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center xlrgfont padtop padbase">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.</p>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="chap01" id="chap01"></a>CHAPTER I.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="vsmlfont">INTRODUCTION.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE architecture generally known as Gothic, but often
+described as Christian Pointed, prevailed throughout
+Europe to the exclusion of every rival for upwards
+of three centuries; and it is to be met with, more or less,
+during two others. Speaking broadly, it may be said
+that its origin took place in the twelfth century, that
+the thirteenth was the period of its development, the
+fourteenth that of its perfection, and the fifteenth that
+of its decline; while many examples of its employment
+occur in the sixteenth.</p>
+
+<p>In the following chapters the principal changes in the
+features of buildings which occurred during the progress
+of the style in England will be described. Subsequently,
+the manner in which the different stages of development
+were reached in different countries will be given; for
+architecture passed through very nearly the same phases
+in all European nations, though not quite simultaneously.</p>
+
+<p>It must be understood that through the whole Gothic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>2]</a></span>
+period, growth or at least change was going on; the
+transitions from one stage to another were only periods of
+more rapid change than usual. The whole process may be
+illustrated by the progress of a language. If, for instance, we
+compare round-arched architecture in the eleventh century
+to the Anglo-Saxon form of speech of the time of Alfred
+the Great, and the architecture of the twelfth century to
+the English of Chaucer, that of the thirteenth will correspond
+to the richer language of Shakespeare, that of the
+fourteenth to the highly polished language of Addison and
+Pope, and that of the fifteenth to the English of our own
+day. We can thus obtain an apt parallel to the gradual
+change and growth which went on in architecture; and
+we shall find that the oneness of the language in the
+former case, and of the architecture in the latter, was
+maintained throughout.</p>
+
+<p>For an account of the Christian round-arched architecture
+which preceded Gothic, the reader is referred to the
+companion volume in this series. Here it will be only
+necessary briefly to review the circumstances which went
+before the appearance of the pointed styles.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman empire had introduced into Europe some
+thing like a universal architecture, so that the buildings
+of any Roman colony bore a strong resemblance to those
+of every other colony and of the metropolis; varying, of
+course, in extent and magnificence, but not much in design.
+The architecture of the Dark Ages in Western Europe
+exhibited, so far as is known, the same general similarity.
+Down to the eleventh century the buildings erected (almost
+exclusively churches and monastic buildings) were not
+large or rich, and were heavy in appearance and simple
+in construction. Their arches were all semicircular.</p>
+
+<p>The first rays of light across the gloom of the Dark
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>3]</a></span>
+Ages seem to have come from the energy and ability of
+Charlemagne in the eighth century.</p>
+
+<p>In the succeeding century, this activity received a
+check; an idea became generally prevalent that the year
+one thousand was to see the end of the world; men&rsquo;s minds
+were overshadowed with apprehension; and buildings, in
+common with other undertakings of a permanent nature,
+were but little attempted.</p>
+
+<p>When the millennium came and passed, and left all as it
+had been, a kind of revulsion of feeling was experienced;
+many important undertakings were set on foot, such as
+during the preceding years it had not been thought
+worth while to prosecute. The eleventh century thus
+became a time of great religious activity; and if the First
+Crusade, which took place 1095, may be taken as one
+outcome of that pious zeal, another can certainly be found
+in the large and often costly churches and monasteries
+which rose in every part of England, France, Germany,
+Lombardy, and South Italy. Keen rivalry raged among
+the builders of these churches; each one was built larger
+and finer than the previous examples, and the details began
+to grow elaborate. Construction and ornament were in
+fact advancing and improving, if not from year to year,
+at any rate from decade to decade, so that by the commencement
+of the twelfth century a remarkable development
+had taken place. The ideas of the dimensions of
+churches then entertained were really almost as liberal as
+during the best period of Gothic architecture.</p>
+
+<p>An illustration of this fact is furnished by the rebuilding
+of Westminster Abbey under Edward the Confessor. He
+pulled down a small church which he found standing on
+the site, in order to erect one suitable in size and style to
+the ideas of the day. The style of his cathedral (but not its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>4]</a></span>
+dimensions) soon became so much out of date that Henry III.
+pulled the buildings down in order to re-erect them of the
+lofty proportions and with the pointed arches which we now
+see in the choir and transepts of the Abbey; but the size
+remained nearly the same, for there is evidence to show that
+the Confessor&rsquo;s buildings must have occupied very nearly, if
+not quite, as much ground as those which succeeded them.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the twelfth century many local
+peculiarities, some of them due to accident, some to the
+nature and quality of the building materials obtainable,
+some to differences of race, climate, and habits, and some
+to other causes, had begun to make their appearance in the
+buildings of various parts of Europe; and through the
+whole Gothic period such peculiarities were to be met
+with. Still the points of similarity were greater and more
+numerous than the differences; so much so, that by going
+through the course which Gothic architecture ran in one
+of the countries in which it flourished, it will readily be
+possible to furnish a general outline of the subject as a
+whole; it will then only be requisite to point out the
+principal variations in the practice of other countries. On
+some grounds France would be the most suitable country
+to select for this purpose, for Gothic appeared earlier and
+flourished more brilliantly in that country than in any
+other; the balance of advantage lies however, when writing
+for English students, in the selection of Great Britain.
+The various phases through which the art passed are well
+marked in this country, they have been fully studied and
+described, and, what is of the greatest importance, English
+examples are easily accessible to the majority of students,
+while those which cannot be visited may be very readily
+studied from engravings and photographs. English Gothic
+will therefore be first considered; but as a preliminary a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>5]</a></span>
+few words remain to be said describing generally the buildings
+which have come down to us from the Gothic period.</p>
+
+<p>The word Gothic, which was in use in the eighteenth
+century, and probably earlier, was invented at a time when
+a Goth was synonymous with everything that was barbarous;
+and its use then implied a reproach. It denotes,
+according to Mr. Fergusson, &ldquo;all the styles invented and
+used by the Western barbarians who overthrew the Roman
+empire, and settled within its limits.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 407px;">
+<a name="fig01" id="fig01"></a>
+<img src="images/agr041.jpg" width="407" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig 1.&mdash;West Entrance, Lichfield Cathedral, (1275.)
+(<span class="nosc"><i>See Chapter <a href="#chap05">V.</a></i></span>)</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>6]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="head02" id="head02"></a>
+<img src="images/agr006.jpg" width="500" height="124"
+alt="Sculptured ornament from Rheims Cathedral" />
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="chap02" id="chap02"></a>CHAPTER II.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="vsmlfont">THE BUILDINGS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">B</span>Y far the most important specimens of Gothic architecture
+are the cathedrals and large churches which were
+built during the prevalence of the style. They were more
+numerous, larger, and more complete as works of art than
+any other structures, and accordingly they are to be considered
+on every account as the best examples of pointed
+architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 598px;">
+<a name="fig02" id="fig02"></a>
+<img src="images/agr042.jpg" width="598" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Ground Plan of Peterborough Cathedral. (1118 <span class="nosc">to</span> 1193.)<br />
+<span class="nosc"><small>A.</small> Nave. <small>B B.</small> Transepts. <small>C.</small> Choir. <small>D D.</small> Aisles. <small>E.</small> Principal Entrance.</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 389px;">
+<a name="fig03" id="fig03"></a>
+<img src="images/agr043.jpg" width="389" height="450" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 3.&mdash;Transverse Section of the Nave of Salisbury Cathedral.
+(<small>A.D.</small> 1217).</p>
+
+<p>The arrangement and construction of a Gothic cathedral
+were customarily as follows:&mdash;(See Fig. <a href="#fig02">2</a>.) The main
+axis of the building was always east and west, the principal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>7]</a></span>
+entrance being at the west end, usually under a grand porch
+or portal, and the high altar stood at the east end. The plan
+(or main floor) of the building almost always displays the
+form of a cross. The stem of the cross is the part from the
+west entrance to the crossing, and is called the nave. The
+arms of the cross are called transepts, and point respectively
+north and south. Their crossing with the nave is often
+called the intersection. The remaining arm, which prolongs
+the stem eastwards, is ordinarily called the choir, but
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>8]</a></span>
+sometimes the presbytery, and sometimes the chancel. All these
+names really refer to the position of the internal fittings
+of the church, and it is often more accurate simply to
+employ the term eastern arm for this portion of a church.</p>
+
+<p>The nave is flanked by two avenues running parallel to
+it, narrower and lower than itself, called aisles. They are
+separated from it by rows of columns or piers, connected
+together by arches. Thus the nave has an arcade on
+each side of it, and each aisle has an arcade on one
+side, and a main external wall on the other. The aisle
+walls are usually pierced by windows. The arches of the
+arcade carry walls which rise above the roofs of the aisles,
+and light the nave. These walls are usually subdivided
+internally into two heights or stories; the lower story
+consists of a series of small arches, to which the name of
+triforium is given. This arcade usually opens into the dark
+space above the ceiling or vault of the aisle, and hence it is
+sometimes called the blind story. The upper story is the
+range of windows already alluded to as lighting the nave,
+and is called the clerestory. Thus a spectator standing
+in the nave, and looking towards the side (Figs. <a href="#fig04">4</a> and <a href="#fig05">5</a>),
+will see opposite him the main arcade, and over that the
+triforium, and over that the clerestory, crowned by the nave
+vault or roof; and looking through the arches of the nave
+arcade, he will see the side windows of the aisle. Above
+the clerestory of the nave, and the side windows of the
+aisles, come the vaults or roofs. In some instances double
+aisles (two on each side) have been employed.</p>
+
+<p>The transepts usually consist of well-marked limbs,
+divided like the nave into a centre avenue and two side
+aisles, and these usually are of the same width and height
+as the nave and its aisles. Sometimes there are no transepts;
+sometimes they do not project beyond the line of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>9]</a></span>
+walls, but still are marked by their rising above the lower
+height of the nave aisles. Sometimes the transepts have no
+aisles, or an aisle only on one side.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> On the other hand, it
+is sometimes customary, especially in English examples,
+to form two pairs of transepts. This occurs in Lichfield
+Cathedral.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 208px;">
+<a name="fig04" id="fig04"></a>
+<img src="images/agr044.jpg" width="208" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;Choir of Worcester
+Cathedral. (Begun 1224.)<br />
+<span class="nosc"><small>A.</small> Nave Arcade. <small>B.</small> Triforium. <small>C.</small> Clerestory.</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 232px;">
+<a name="fig05" id="fig05"></a>
+<img src="images/agr045.jpg" width="232" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 5.&mdash;Nave of Wells Cathedral.
+(1206 to 1242.)<br />
+<span class="nosc"><small>A.</small> Nave Arcade. <small>B.</small> Triforium. <small>C.</small> Clerestory.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>10]</a></span>
+The eastern arm of the cathedral is the part to which
+most importance was attached, and it is usual to mark
+that importance by greater richness, and by a difference in
+the height of its roof or vault as compared with the nave;
+its floor is always raised. It also has its central passage
+and its aisles; and it has double aisles much more frequently
+than the nave. The eastern termination of the cathedral
+is sometimes semicircular, sometimes polygonal, and when
+it takes this form it is called an apse or an apsidal east
+end; sometimes it is square, the apse being most in use
+on the Continent, and the square east end in England.
+Attached to some of the side walls of the church it is
+usual to have a series of chapels; these are ordinarily
+chambers partly shut off from the main structure, but
+opening into it by arched openings; each chapel contains
+an altar. The finest chapel is usually one placed on the
+axis of the cathedral, and east of the east end of the main
+building; this is called, where it exists, the Lady Chapel,
+and was customarily dedicated to the Virgin. Henry VII.&rsquo;s
+Chapel at Westminster (Fig. <a href="#fig06">6</a>) furnishes a familiar instance
+of the lady chapel of a great church. Next in importance
+rank the side chapels which open out of the aisles of the
+apse, when there is one. Westminster Abbey furnishes
+good examples of these also. The eastern wall of the
+transept is a favourite position for chapels. They are
+less frequently added to the nave aisles.</p>
+
+<p>The floor of the eastern arm of the cathedral, as has
+been pointed out, is always raised, so as to be approached
+by steps; it is inclosed by screen work which shuts off
+the choir, or inclosure for the performance of divine service,
+from the nave. The fittings of this part of the building
+generally include stalls for the clergy and choristers
+and a bishop&rsquo;s throne, and are usually beautiful works of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"><!-- original location of Fig. 6 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>12]</a></span>
+art. Tombs, and inclosures connected with them, called
+chantry chapels, are constantly met with in various
+positions, but most frequently in the eastern arm.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 305px;">
+<a name="fig06" id="fig06"></a>
+<img src="images/agr046.jpg" width="305" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 6.&mdash;Ground Plan of Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>Below the raised floor of the choir, and sometimes below
+other parts of the building, there often exists a subterranean
+vaulted structure known as the crypt.</p>
+
+<p>Passing to the exterior of the cathedral, the principal
+doorway is in the western front:<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> usually supplemented by
+entrances at the ends of the transepts, and one or more
+side entrances to the nave. A porch on the north side of
+the nave is a common feature. The walls are now seen to
+be strengthened by stone piers, called buttresses. Frequently
+arches are thrown from these buttresses to the
+higher walls of the building. The whole arrangement of
+pier and arch is called a flying buttress,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and, as will be
+explained later, is used to steady the upper part of the
+building when a stone vault is employed (see Chap. <a href="#chap05">V.</a>).
+The lofty gables in which the nave and transepts, and
+the eastern arm when square terminate, form prominent
+features, and are often occupied by great windows.</p>
+
+<p>In a complete cathedral, the effect of the exterior is
+largely due to the towers with which it was adorned. The
+most massive tower was ordinarily one which stood, like
+the central one of Lichfield Cathedral, at the crossing of
+the nave and transepts. Two towers were usually intended
+at the western front of the building, and sometimes one, or
+occasionally two, at the end of each transept. It is rare to
+find a cathedral where the whole of these towers have been
+even begun, much less completed. In many cases only one,
+in others three, have been built. In some instances they
+have been erected, and have fallen. In others they have
+never been carried up at all. During a large portion of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>13]</a></span>
+the Gothic period it was usual to add to each tower a lofty
+pyramidal roof or spire, and these are still standing in
+some instances, though many of them have disappeared.
+Occasionally a tower was built quite detached from the
+church to which it belonged.</p>
+
+<p>To cathedrals and abbey churches a group of monastic
+buildings was appended. It will not be necessary to describe
+these in much detail. They were grouped round an
+open square, surrounded by a vaulted and arcaded passage,
+which is known as the cloister. This was usually fitted
+into the warm and sheltered angle formed by the south
+side of the nave and the south transept, though occasionally
+the cloister is found on the north side of the nave.
+The most important building opening out of the cloister is
+the chapter-house, frequently a lofty and richly-ornamented
+room, often octagonal, and generally standing south of the
+south transept. The usual arrangement of the monastic
+buildings round and adjoining the cloister varied in details
+with the requirements of the different monastic orders, and
+the circumstances of each individual religious house, but,
+as in the case of churches, the general principles of disposition
+were fixed early. They are embodied in a manuscript
+plan, dating as far back as the ninth century, and found at
+St. Gall in Switzerland, and never seem to have been widely
+departed from. The monks&rsquo; dormitory here occupies the
+whole east side of the great cloister, there being no
+chapter-house. It is usually met with as nearly in this
+position as the transept and the chapter-house will permit.
+The refectory is on the south side of the cloister, and has
+a connected kitchen. The west side of the cloister in this
+instance was occupied by a great cellar. Frequently a
+hospitum, or apartment for entertaining guests, stood here.
+The north side of the cloister was formed by the church.</p>
+
+<p>For the abbot a detached house was provided in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>14]</a></span>
+St. Gall plan to stand on the north side of the church; and
+a second superior hospitum for his guests. Eastward of
+the church are placed the infirmary with its chapel, and
+an infirmarer&rsquo;s lodging. The infirmary was commonly
+arranged with a nave and aisles, much like, a small parish
+church. Other detached buildings gave a public school, a
+school for novices with its chapel, and, more remotely
+placed, granaries, mills, a bakehouse, and other offices. A
+garden and a cemetery formed part of the scheme, which
+corresponds tolerably well with that of many monastic
+buildings remaining in England, as <i>e.g.</i>, those at Fountains&rsquo;
+Abbey, Furness Abbey, or Westminster Abbey, so far as
+they can be traced.</p>
+
+<p>Generally speaking the principal buildings in a monastery
+were long and not very wide apartments, with windows on
+both sides. Frequently they were vaulted, and they often
+had a row of columns down the middle. Many are two
+stories high. Of the dependencies, the kitchen, which was
+often a vaulted apartment with a chimney, and the
+barn, which was often of great size, were the most prominent.
+They are often fine buildings. At Glastonbury very
+good examples of a monastic barn and kitchen can be seen.</p>
+
+<p>Second only in importance to the churches and religious
+buildings come the military and domestic buildings of the
+Gothic period (Fig. <a href="#fig07">7</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 479px;">
+<a name="fig07" id="fig07"></a>
+<img src="images/agr047.jpg" width="479" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 7.&mdash;House of Jaques C&oelig;ur at Bourges. (Begun 1413.)</p>
+
+<p>Every dwelling-house of consequence was more or less
+fortified, at any rate during the twelfth, thirteenth, and
+fourteenth centuries. A lofty square tower, called a keep,
+built to stand a siege, and with a walled inclosure at its
+feet, often protected by a wide ditch (fosse or moat),
+formed the castle of the twelfth century, and in some cases
+(<i>e.g.</i> the White Tower of London), this keep was of considerable
+size. The first step in enlargement was to
+increase the number and importance of the buildings which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>15]</a></span>
+clustered round the keep, and to form two inclosures for
+them, known as an inner and an outer bailey. The
+outer buildings of the Tower of London, though much
+modernised, will give a good idea of what a first class
+castle grew to be by successive additions of this sort. In
+castles erected near the end of the thirteenth century
+(<i>e.g.</i> Conway Castle in North Wales), and later, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>16]</a></span>
+square form of the keep was abandoned, and many more
+arrangements for the comfort and convenience of the
+occupants were introduced; and the buildings and additions
+to buildings of the fifteenth century took more the
+shape of a modern dwelling-house, partly protected against
+violence, but by no means strong enough to stand a siege.
+Penshurst may be cited as a good example of this class of
+building.</p>
+
+<p>It will be understood that, unlike the religious buildings
+which early received the form and disposition from which
+they did not depart widely, medi&aelig;val domestic buildings
+exhibit an amount of change in which we can readily trace
+the effects of the gradual settlement of this country, the
+abandonment of habits of petty warfare, the ultimate
+cessation of civil wars, the introduction of gunpowder, the
+increase in wealth and desire for comfort, and last, but
+not least, the confiscation by Henry VIII. of the property
+of the monastic houses.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 510px;">
+<a name="fig08" id="fig08"></a>
+<img src="images/agr048.jpg" width="510" height="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 8.&mdash;Plan of Warwick Castle. (14th and following Centuries.)</p>
+
+<p>Warwick Castle, of which we give a plan (Fig. <a href="#fig08">8</a>), maybe
+cited as a good example of an English castellated mansion
+of the time of Richard II. Below the principal story there
+is a vaulted basement containing the kitchens and many of
+the offices. On the main floor we find the hall, entered as
+usual at the lower or servants&rsquo; end, from a porch. The upper
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>17]</a></span>
+end gives access to a sitting-room, built immediately behind
+it, and beyond are a drawing-room and state bed-rooms,
+while across a passage are placed the private chapel and
+a large dining-room (a modern addition). Bed-rooms
+occupy the upper floors of the buildings at both ends of
+the hall.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps even more interesting as a study than Warwick
+Castle is Haddon Hall, the well-preserved residence of the
+Duke of Rutland, in Derbyshire. The five or six successive
+enlargements and additions which this building has
+received between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries
+show the growth of ideas of comfort and even luxury in
+this country.</p>
+
+<p>As it now stands, Haddon Hall contains two internal
+quadrangles, separated from one another by the great hall
+with its dais, its minstrels&rsquo; gallery, its vast open fire-place,
+and its traceried windows, and by the kitchens, butteries,
+&amp;c., belonging to it.</p>
+
+<p>The most important apartments are reached from the
+upper end of the hall, and consist of the magnificent ball-room,
+and a dining-room in the usual position, <i>i.e.</i> adjoining
+the hall and opening out of it; with, on the upper floor, a
+drawing-room, and a suite of state bed-rooms, occupying
+the south side of both quadrangles and the east end of
+one. A large range of apartments, added at a late period,
+and many of them finely panelled and lined with tapestry,
+occupies the north side of this building and the northwestern
+tower. At the south-western corner of the building
+stands a chapel of considerable size, and which once
+seems to have served as a kind of parochial church; and a
+very considerable number of rooms of small size, opening
+out of both quadrangles, would afford shelter, if not comfortable
+lodging, to retainers, servants, and others. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"><!-- original location of Fig. 9 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>19]</a></span>
+portions built in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth
+centuries are more or less fortified. The ball-room, which is
+of Elizabethan architecture, opens on to a terraced garden,
+accessible from without by no more violent means than
+climbing over a not very formidable wall. Probably
+nowhere in England, can the growth of domestic architecture
+be better studied, whether we look to the alterations
+which took place in accommodation and arrangement, or to
+the changes which occurred in the architectural treatment
+of windows, battlements, doorways and other features,
+than at Haddon Hall.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 387px;">
+<a name="fig09" id="fig09"></a>
+<img src="images/agr049.jpg" width="387" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 9.&mdash;Palaces on the Grand Canal, Venice. (14th Century.)</p>
+
+<p>In towns and cities much beautiful domestic architecture
+is to be found in the ordinary dwelling-houses,
+<i>e.g.</i> houses from Chester and Lisieux (Figs. <a href="#fig14">14</a> and <a href="#fig15">15</a>); but
+many specimens have of course perished, especially as timber
+was freely used in their construction. Dwelling-houses of a
+high order of excellence, and of large size, were also built
+during this period. The Gothic palaces of Venice, of which
+many stand on the Grand Canal (Fig. <a href="#fig09">9</a>), are the best
+examples of these, and the lordly Ducal Palace in that
+city is perhaps the finest secular building which exists
+of Gothic architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Municipal buildings of great size and beauty are to be
+found in North Italy and Germany, but chiefly in
+Belgium, where the various town-halls of Louvain,
+Bruges, Ypres, Ghent, Antwerp, Brussels, &amp;c., vie with
+each other in magnificence and extent.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Many secular buildings also remain to us of which the
+architecture is Gothic. Among these we find public halls
+and large buildings for public purposes&mdash;as Westminster
+Hall, or the Palace of Justice at Rouen; hospitals, as
+that at Milan; or colleges, as King&rsquo;s College, Cambridge,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>20]</a></span>
+with its unrivalled chapel. Many charming minor works,
+such as fountains, wells (Fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a>), crosses, tombs, monuments,
+and the fittings of the interior of churches, also
+remain to attest the versatility, the power of design, and
+the cultivated taste of the architects of the Gothic period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 353px;">
+<a name="fig10" id="fig10"></a>
+<img src="images/agr050.jpg" width="353" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 10.&mdash;Well at Regensburg. (15th Century.)</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
+As the north transept at Peterborough (Fig. <a href="#fig02">2</a>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
+At <span class="smcap">E</span> on the plan of Peterborough (Fig. <a href="#fig02">2</a>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
+See <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>21]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig11" id="fig11"></a>
+<img src="images/agr051.jpg" width="500" height="228"
+alt="Sculptured ornament from Sens Cathedral" />
+<p class="right smcap"><b>Fig. 11.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="chap03" id="chap03"></a>CHAPTER III.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="vsmlfont">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">E</span>NGLISH Gothic architecture has been usually subdivided
+into three periods or stages of advancement,
+corresponding to those enumerated on page <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; the
+early stage known as Early English, or sometimes as
+Lancet, occupying the thirteenth century and something
+more; the middle stage, known as Decorated, occupying
+most of the fourteenth century; and the latest stage,
+known as Perpendicular, occupying the fifteenth century
+and part of the sixteenth.</p>
+
+<p>The duration of each of these coincides approximately
+with the century, the transition from each phase to the
+next taking place chiefly in the last quarter of the century.
+Adding the periods of the English types of round arched
+Architecture, we obtain the following table:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Periods of English types of round arched architecture">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">Up to 1066 or up to middle of 11th century,</td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Saxon.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt"><small>A.D.</small> 1066 to 1189 or up to end of 12th <span class="space3">&rdquo;</span></td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Norman.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt"><small>A.D.</small> 1189 to 1307 or up to end of 13th <span class="space3">&rdquo;</span></td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Early English.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt"><small>A.D.</small> 1307 to 1377 or up to end of 14th <span class="space3">&rdquo;</span></td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Decorated.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt"><small>A.D.</small> 1377 to 1546 or up to middle of 16th <span class="space3">&rdquo;</span></td>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Perpendicular.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>22]</a></span>
+The term &ldquo;Early English&rdquo; (short for Early English
+Gothic) applied to English thirteenth-century architecture
+explains itself.</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;Lancet&rdquo; sometimes applied to the Early
+English style, is derived from the shape of the ordinary
+window-heads, which resemble the point of a lancet in outline
+(Fig. <a href="#fig16">16</a>). Whatever term be adopted, it is necessary
+to remark that a wide difference exists between the earlier
+and the late examples of this period. It will suffice for our
+purposes if, when speaking of the fully-developed style of
+the late examples, we refer to it as Advanced Early English.</p>
+
+<p>The architecture of the fourteenth century is called
+&ldquo;Decorated,&rdquo; from the great increase of ornament, especially
+in window tracery and carved enrichments.</p>
+
+<p>The architecture of the fifteenth century is called
+&ldquo;Perpendicular,&rdquo; from the free use made of perpendicular
+lines, both in general features and in ornaments, especially
+in the tracery of the windows and the panelling with
+which walls are ornamented.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>The following condensed list, partly from Morant,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> of the
+most striking peculiarities of each period, may be found
+useful for reference, and is on that account placed here,
+notwithstanding that it contains many technical words,
+for the meaning of which the student must consult the
+<a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> which forms part of this volume.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Anglo-Saxon</span>&mdash;(Prior to the Norman Conquest).&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Rude work and rough material; walls mostly of rubble or ragstone
+with ashlar at the angles in long and short courses alternately;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>23]</a></span>
+openings with round or triangular heads, sometimes divided by a rude
+baluster. Piers plain, square, and narrow. Windows splayed externally
+and internally. Rude square blocks of stone in place of capitals
+and bases. Mouldings generally semi-cylindrical and coarsely chiselled.
+Corners of buildings square without buttresses.</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Norman period monarchs">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Norman.</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">William I.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc"><small>A.D.</small></td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1066.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">William II.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1087.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Henry I.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1100.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Stephen</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1135.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Henry II.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1154 to 1189.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Arches semicircular, occasionally stilted; at first plain, afterwards
+enriched with chevron or other mouldings; and frequent repetition of
+same ornament on each stone. Piers low and massive, cylindrical,
+square, polygonal, or composed of clustered shafts, often ornamented
+with spiral bands and mouldings. Windows generally narrow and
+splayed internally only; sometimes double and divided by a shaft.
+Walls sometimes a series of arcades, a few pierced as windows, the rest
+left blank. Doorways deeply recessed and richly ornamented with
+bands of mouldings. Doors often square headed, but under arches the
+head of the arch filled with carving. Capitals carved in outline, often
+grotesquely sculptured with devices of animals and leaves. Abacus
+square, lower edge moulded. Bases much resembling the classic orders.
+The mouldings at first imperfectly formed. Pedestals of piers square.
+Buttresses plain, with broad faces and small projections. Parapets plain
+with projecting corbel table under.</p>
+
+<p>Plain mouldings consist of chamfers, round or pointed rolls at
+edges, divided from plain face by shallow channels. Enriched
+mouldings&mdash;the chevrons or zig-zag, the billet square or round, the
+cable, the lozenge, the chain, nail heads, and others. Niches with
+figures over doorways. Roofs of moderately high pitch, and open
+to the frame; timbers chiefly king-post trusses. Towers square and
+massive&mdash;those of late date richly adorned with arcades. Openings in
+towers often beautifully grouped. Vaulting waggon-headed, and simple
+intersecting vaults of semicircular outline.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the style in reign of Henry II., details of
+transitional character begin to appear. Pointed arch with Norman
+pier. Arcades of intersecting semicircular arches. Norman abacus
+blended with Early English foliage in capitals.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>24]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Early English period monarchs">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Early English.</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Richard I.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc"><small>A.D.</small></td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1189 <i>Transition.</i></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">John</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1199.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Henry III.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1216.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Edward I.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1272 to 1307.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>General proportions more slender, and height of walls, columns, &amp;c.,
+greater. Arches pointed, generally lancet; often richly moulded.
+Triforium arches and arcades open with trefoiled heads. Piers slender,
+composed of a central circular shaft surrounded by several smaller ones,
+almost or quite detached; generally with horizontal bands. In small
+buildings plain polygonal and circular piers are used. Capitals concave
+in outline, moulded, or carved with conventional foliage delicately
+executed and arranged vertically. The abacus always undercut.
+Detached shafts often of Purbeck marble. Base a deep hollow between
+two rounds. Windows at first long, narrow, and deeply splayed
+internally, the glass within a few inches of outer face of wall; later
+in the style less acute, divided by mullions, enriched with cusped
+circles in the head, often of three or more lights, the centre light being
+the highest. Doorways often deeply recessed and enriched with slender
+shafts and elaborate mouldings. Shafts detached. Buttresses about
+equal in projection to width, with but one set-off, or without any.
+Buttresses at angles always in pairs. Mouldings bold and deeply undercut,
+consisting chiefly of round mouldings sometimes pointed or with
+a fillett, separated by deep hollows. Great depth of moulded surface
+generally arranged on rectangular planes. Hollows of irregular curve
+sometimes filled with dogtooth ornament or with foliage. Roofs of
+high pitch, timbers plain, and where there is no vault open.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the style finials were plain bunches of leaves; towards the
+close beautifully carved finials and crockets with carved foliage of conventional
+character were introduced. Flat surfaces often richly diapered.
+Spires broached. Vaulting pointed with diagonal and main
+ribs only; ridge ribs not introduced till late in the style; bosses at
+intersection of ribs.</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Decorated period monarchs">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Decorated.</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Edward II.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc"><small>A.D.</small></td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1307.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Edward III.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1377 to 1379.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Proportions less lofty than in the previous style. Arches mostly
+inclosing an equilateral angle, the mouldings often continued down the
+pier. Windows large, and divided into two or more lights by mullions.
+Tracery in the head, at first composed geometrical forms, later of
+flowing character. Clerestory windows generally small. Diamond
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>25]</a></span>
+shaped piers with shafts engaged. Capitals with scroll moulding on
+under side of abacus, with elegant foliage arranged horizontally.
+Doors frequently without shafts, the arch moulding running down the
+jambs. Rich doorways and windows often surrounded with triangular
+and ogee-shaped canopies. Buttresses in stages variously ornamented.
+Parapet pierced with quatrefoils and flowing tracery. Niches panelled
+and with projecting canopies. Spires lofty; the broach rarely used,
+parapets and angle pinnacles take the place of it. Roofs of moderate
+pitch open to the framing. Mouldings bold and finely proportioned,
+generally in groups, the groups separated from each other by hollows,
+composed of segments of circles. Deep hollows, now generally confined
+to inner angles. Mouldings varying in size and kind, arranged
+on diagonal as well as rectangular planes, often ornamented with
+ball flower. Foliage chiefly of ivy, oak, and vine leaves; natural,
+also conventional. Rich crockets, finials, and pinnacles. Vaulting
+with intermediate ribs, ridge ribs, and late in the style lierne ribs, and
+bosses.</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Perpendicular and Tudor period monarchs">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Perpendicular.</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Richard II.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc"><small>A.D.</small></td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1377. (<i>Transition.</i>)</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Henry IV.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1399.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Henry V.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1413.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Henry VI.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1422.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Edward IV.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1461.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Edward V.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1483.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Richard III.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1483.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Tudor.</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Henry VII.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1485.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Henry VIII.</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">1509 to 1546.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Arches at first inclosing an equilateral triangle, afterwards obtusely
+pointed and struck from four centres. Piers generally oblong; longitudinal
+direction north and south. Mouldings continued from base
+through arch. Capitals with mouldings large, angular, and few, with
+abacus and bell imperfectly defined. Foliage of conventional character,
+shallow, and square in outline. Bases polygonal. Windows where
+lofty divided into stories by transoms. The mullions often continued
+perpendicularly into the head. Canopies of ogee character enriched
+with crockets. Doors generally with square label over arch, the
+spandrels filled with ornament. Buttresses with bold projection often
+ending in finials. Flying buttresses pierced with tracery. Walls
+profusely ornamented with panelling. Parapets embattled and panelled.
+Open timber roofs of moderate pitch, of elaborate construction, often
+with hammer beams, richly ornamented with moulded timbers, carved
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>26]</a></span>
+figures of angels and with pierced tracery in spandrels. Roofs sometimes
+of very flat pitch. Lofty clerestories. Mouldings large, coarse,
+and with wide and shallow hollows and hard wiry edges, meagre in
+appearance and wanting in minute and delicate detail, generally
+arranged on diagonal planes. Early in the style the mouldings partake
+of decorated character.</p>
+
+<p>In the Tudor period depressed four-centered arch prevails; transoms
+of windows battlemented. Tudor flower, rose, portcullis, and fleur-de-lis
+common ornaments. Crockets and pinnacles much projected.
+Roofs of low pitch.</p>
+
+<p>Vaulting. Fan vaulting, with tracery and pendants elaborately
+carved.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other modes of distinguishing the periods of English
+Gothic have been proposed by writers of authority. The
+division given above is that of Rickman, and is generally
+adopted. A more minute subdivision and a different set
+of names were proposed by Sharpe as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Sharpe's division of periods for Romanesque and Gothic">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Romanesque.</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Saxon</td>
+    <td class="tdspc"><small>A.D.</small></td>
+    <td class="tdrt">to 1066.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Norman</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">1066 to 1145.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlsc">Gothic.</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Transitional</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">1145 to 1190.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Lancet</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">1190 to 1245.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Geometrical</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">1245 to 1315.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Curvilinear</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">1315 to 1360.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Rectilinear</td>
+    <td class="tdspc">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">1360 to 1550.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of the new names proposed by Mr. Sharpe &ldquo;transitional&rdquo;
+explains itself; and &ldquo;geometrical, curvilinear,
+and rectilinear&rdquo; refer to the characters of the window
+tracery at the different periods which they denote.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">The history of English Gothic proper may be said to
+begin with the reign of Henry II., coinciding very nearly
+with the commencement of the period named by Mr. Sharpe
+transitional (1145 to 1190), when Norman architecture
+was changing into Gothic. This history we propose now to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>27]</a></span>
+consider somewhat in detail, dividing the buildings in the
+simplest possible way, namely, into floors, walls, columns,
+roofs, openings, and ornaments. After this we shall have
+to consider the mode in which materials were used by the
+builders of the Gothic period, <i>i.e.</i> the construction of the
+buildings; and the general artistic principles which guided
+their architects, <i>i.e.</i> the design of the buildings.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">It may be useful to students in and near London to give
+Sir G. Gilbert Scott&rsquo;s list of striking London examples<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> of
+Gothic architecture (with the omission of such examples as
+are more antiquarian than architectural in their interest):&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><i>Norman</i> (temp. Conquest).&mdash;The Keep and Chapel of the Tower of
+London.</p>
+
+<p><i>Advanced Norman.</i>&mdash;Chapel of St. Catherine, Westminster Abbey;
+St. Bartholomew&rsquo;s Priory, Smithfield.</p>
+
+<p><i>Transitional.</i>&mdash;The round part of the Temple Church.</p>
+
+<p><i>Early English.</i>&mdash;Eastern part of the Temple Church; Choir and
+Lady Chapel of St. Mary Overy, Southwark; Chapel of Lambeth
+Palace.</p>
+
+<p><i>Advanced Early English</i> (passing to decorated).&mdash;Eastern part of
+Westminster Abbey generally and its Chapter House.</p>
+
+<p><i>Early Decorated.</i>&mdash;Choir of Westminster, (but this has been much
+influenced by the design of the earlier parts adjacent); Chapel of St.
+Etheldreda, Ely Place, Holborn.</p>
+
+<p><i>Late Decorated.</i>&mdash;The three bays of the Cloister at Westminster
+opposite the entrance to Chapter House; Crypt of St. Stephen&rsquo;s
+Chapel, Westminster; Dutch Church, Austin Friars.</p>
+
+<p><i>Early Perpendicular.</i>&mdash;South and West walks of the Cloister, Westminster;
+Westminster Hall.</p>
+
+<p><i>Advanced Perpendicular (Tudor period).</i>&mdash;Henry VII.&rsquo;s Chapel;
+Double Cloister of St. Stephen&rsquo;s, Westminster.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
+The abbreviations, E.&nbsp;E., Dec., and Perp., will be employed to
+denote these three periods.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
+<i>Notes on English Architecture, Costumes, Monuments, &amp;c.</i> <i>Privately
+printed.</i> Quoted here with the author&rsquo;s permission.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
+See examples in Chapter <a href="#chap05">V.</a> and in <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>
+Address to Conference of Architects, <i>Builder</i>, June 24, 1876.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>28]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="head03" id="head03"></a>
+<img src="images/agr052.jpg" width="500" height="226"
+alt="Sculptured ornament from Westminster Abbey" />
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="chap04" id="chap04"></a>CHAPTER IV.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="vsmlfont">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.&mdash;ENGLAND.</span></h2>
+
+
+<h3>ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.&mdash;FLOOR, WALLS, TOWERS, GABLES,
+COLUMNS.</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Floor, or Plan.</i></h4>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE excellences or defects of a building are more due
+to the shape and size of its floor and, incidentally,
+of the walls and columns or piers which inclose and subdivide
+its floor than to anything else whatever. A map of
+the floor and walls (usually showing also the position of the
+doors and windows), is known as a plan, but by a pardonable
+figure of speech the plan of a building is often understood
+to mean the shape and size and arrangement of its
+floor and walls themselves, instead of simply the drawing
+representing them. It is in this sense that the word plan
+will be used in this volume.</p>
+
+<p>The plan of a Gothic Cathedral has been described, and
+it has been already remarked that before the Gothic period
+had commenced the dimensions of great churches had been
+very much increased. The generally received disposition
+of the parts of a church had indeed been already settled
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>29]</a></span>
+or nearly so. There were consequently few radical alterations
+in church plans during the Gothic period. One, however,
+took place in England in the abandonment of the
+apse.</p>
+
+<p>At first the apsidal east end, common in the Norman times,
+was retained. For example, it is found at Canterbury,
+where the choir and transept are transitional, having been
+begun soon after 1174 and completed about 1184; but the
+eastern end of Chichester, which belongs to the same period
+(the transition), displays the square east end, and this
+termination was almost invariably preferred in our country
+after the twelfth century.</p>
+
+<p>A great amount of regularity marks the plans of those
+great churches which had vaulted roofs, as will be readily
+understood when it is remembered that the vaults were
+divided into equal and similar compartments, and that the
+points of support had to be placed with corresponding regularity.
+Where, however, some controlling cause of this
+nature was not at work much picturesque irregularity prevailed
+in the planning of English Gothic buildings of all
+periods. The plans of our Cathedrals are noted for their
+great length in proportion to their width, for the considerable
+length given to the transepts, and for the occurrence in
+many cases (<i>e.g.</i> Salisbury, thirteenth century) of a second
+transept. The principal alterations which took place in
+plan as time went on originated in the desire to concentrate
+material as much as possible on points of support,
+leaving the walls between them thin and the openings
+wide, and in the use of flying buttresses, the feet of which
+occupy a considerable space outside the main walls of the
+church. The plans of piers and columns also underwent
+the alterations which will be presently described.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>30]</a></span>
+Buildings of a circular shape on plan are very rare, but
+octagonal ones are not uncommon. The finest chapter-houses
+attached to our Cathedrals are octagons, with a
+central pier to carry the vaulting. On the whole, play of
+shape on plan was less cultivated in England than in some
+continental countries.</p>
+
+<p>The plans of domestic buildings are usually simple, but
+grew more elaborate and extensive as time went on. The
+cloister with dwelling-rooms and common-rooms entered
+from its walk, formed the model on which colleges, hospitals,
+and alms-houses were planned. The castle, already
+described, was the residence of the wealthy during the
+earlier part of the Gothic period, and when, in the fourteenth
+and fifteenth centuries, houses which were rather
+dwellings than fortresses began to be erected, the hall,
+with a large bay window and a raised floor or dais at
+one end and a mighty open fire-place, was always the most
+conspicuous feature in the plan. Towards the close of the
+Gothic period the plan of a great dwelling, such as
+Warwick Castle (Fig. <a href="#fig08">8</a>), began to show many of
+the features which distinguish a mansion of the present
+day.</p>
+
+<p>In various parts of the country remains of magnificent
+Gothic dwelling-houses of the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries exist, and long before the close of the perpendicular
+period we had such mansions as Penshurst and
+Hever, such palaces as Windsor and Wells, such castellated
+dwellings as Warwick and Haddon, differing in many
+respects but all agreeing in the possession of a great central
+hall. Buildings for public purposes also often took the
+form of a great hall. Westminster Hall may be cited as
+the finest example of such a structure, not only in England
+but in Europe.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>31]</a></span>
+The student who desires to obtain anything beyond the
+most superficial acquaintance with architecture must endeavour
+to obtain enough familiarity with ground plans, to
+be able to sketch, measure, and lay down a plan to scale
+and to <em>read</em> one. The plan shows to the experienced
+architect the nature, arrangement, and qualities of a building
+better than any other drawing, and a better memorandum
+of a building is preserved if a fairly correct sketch
+of its plan, or of the plan of important parts of it, is
+preserved than if written notes are alone relied upon.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Walls.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The walls of Gothic buildings are generally of stone;
+brick being the exception. They were in the transitional
+and Early English times extremely thick, and became
+thinner afterwards. All sorts of ornamental masonry were
+introduced into them, so that diapers,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> bands, arcades,
+mouldings, and inlaid patterns are all to be met with
+occasionally, especially in districts where building materials
+of varied colours, or easy to work, are plentiful. In the
+perpendicular period the walls were systematically covered
+with panelling closely resembling the tracery of the
+windows (<i>e.g.</i>, Henry VII.&rsquo;s Chapel at Westminster).</p>
+
+<p>The wall of a building ordinarily requires some kind of
+base and some kind of top. The base or plinth in English
+Gothic buildings was usually well marked and bold, especially
+in the perpendicular period, and it is seldom absent.
+The eaves of the roof in some cases overhang the walls,
+resting on a simple stone band, called an eaves-course,
+and constitute the crowning feature. In many instances,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>32]</a></span>
+however, the eaves are concealed behind a parapet<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> which
+is often carried on a moulded cornice or on corbels. This,
+in the E.&nbsp;E. period, was usually very simple. In the Dec.
+it was panelled with ornamental panels, and often made
+very beautiful. In the Perp. it was frequently battlemented
+as well as panelled.</p>
+
+<p>A distinguishing feature of Gothic walls is the buttress.
+It existed, but only in the form of a flat pier of very slight
+projection in Norman, as in almost all Romanesque buildings,
+but in the Gothic period it became developed.</p>
+
+<p>The buttress, like many of the peculiarities of Gothic
+architecture, originated in the use of stone vaults and the
+need for strong piers at these points, upon which the
+thrust and weight of those vaults were concentrated. The
+use of very large openings, for wide windows full of
+stained glass also made it increasingly necessary in the
+Dec. and Perp. periods to fortify the walls at regular
+points.</p>
+
+<p>A buttress<a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> is, in fact, a piece of wall set athwart the
+main wall, usually projecting considerably at the base and
+diminished by successive reductions of its mass as it approaches
+the top, and so placed as to counteract the thrust
+of some arch or vault inside. It had great artistic value;
+in the feeble and level light of our Northern climate it
+casts bold shadows and catches bright lights, and so adds
+greatly to the architectural effect of the exterior. In the
+E.&nbsp;E. the buttress was simple and ordinarily projected
+about its own width. In the Dec. it obtained much more
+projection, was constructed with several diminutions (technically
+called weatherings), and was considerably ornamented.
+In the Perp. it was frequently enriched by
+panelling. The buttresses in the Dec. period are often set
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>33]</a></span>
+diagonally at the corner of a building or tower. In the
+E.&nbsp;E. period this was never done.</p>
+
+<p>The flying buttress<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> is one of the most conspicuous
+features of the exterior of those Gothic buildings which
+possessed elaborate stone vaults. It was a contrivance for
+providing an abutment to counterbalance the outward pressure
+of the vault covering the highest and central parts
+of the building in cases where that vault rested upon and
+abutted against walls which themselves were carried by
+arches, and were virtually internal walls, so that no buttress
+could be carried up from the ground to steady them.</p>
+
+<p>A pier of masonry, sometimes standing alone, sometimes
+thrown out from the aisle wall opposite the point to be
+propped, formed the solid part of this buttress; it was
+carried to the requisite height and a flying arch spanning
+the whole width of the aisles was thrown across from it
+to the wall at the point whence the vault sprung. The
+pier itself was in many cases loaded by an enormous
+pinnacle, so that its weight might combine with the pressure
+transmitted along the slope of the flying arch to give
+a resultant which should fall within the base of the
+buttress. The back of such an arch was generally used as
+a water channel.</p>
+
+<p>The forest of flying buttresses round many French
+cathedrals produces an almost bewildering effect, as, for
+instance, at the east end of Notre Dame;&mdash;our English
+specimens, at Westminster Abbey for example, are
+comparatively simple.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Towers.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The gable and the tower are developments of the
+walls of the building. Gothic is <i>par excellence</i> the style
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>34]</a></span>
+of towers. Many towers were built detached from all
+other buildings, but no great Gothic building is complete
+without one main tower and some subordinate ones.</p>
+
+<p>In the E.&nbsp;E. style church towers were often crowned by
+low spires, becoming more lofty as the style advanced. In
+the Dec. style lofty spires were almost universal. In the
+Perp. the tower rarely has a visible roof.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+<p>The artistic value of towers in giving unity coupled
+with variety to a group of buildings can hardly be
+exaggerated.</p>
+
+<p>The positions which towers occupy are various. They
+produce the greatest effect when central, <i>i.e.</i> placed over
+the crossing of the nave and transepts. Lichfield, Chichester,
+and Salisbury may be referred to as examples of cathedrals
+with towers in this position and surmounted by spires.
+Canterbury, York, Lincoln, and Gloucester are specimens
+of the effectiveness of the tower similarly placed, but without
+a spire (Fig. <a href="#fig12">12</a>). At Wells a fine central octagon
+occupies the crossing, and is remarkable for the skill with
+which it is fitted to the nave and aisles internally. Next
+to central towers rank a pair of towers at the western end
+of the building. These exist at Lichfield with their spires;
+they exist (square-topped) at Lincoln, and (though carried
+up since the Gothic period) at Westminster.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> Many
+churches have a single tower in this position (Fig. <a href="#fig13">13</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The obvious purpose of a tower, beyond its serviceableness
+as a feature of the building and as a landmark, is to
+lift up a belfry high into the air: accordingly, almost
+without exception, church and cathedral towers are designed
+with a large upper story, pierced by openings of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>35]</a></span>
+great size and height called the belfry stage; and the
+whole artistic treatment of the tower is subordinate to
+this feature. It is also very often the case that a turret to
+contain a spiral staircase which may afford the means of
+access to the upper part of the tower, forms a prominent
+feature of its whole height, especially in the Dec. and
+Perp. periods.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 345px;">
+<a name="fig12" id="fig12"></a>
+<img src="images/agr053.jpg" width="345" height="250" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 12.&mdash;Lincoln Cathedral. (Mostly Early English.)</p>
+
+<p>In domestic and monastic buildings, low towers were
+frequently employed with excellent effect. Many castles
+retained the Norman keep, or square strong tower, which
+had served as the nucleus round which other buildings had
+afterwards clustered; but where during the Gothic period
+a castle was built, or rebuilt, without such a keep, one or
+more towers, often of great beauty, were always added.
+Examples abound; good ones will be found in the
+Edwardian castles in Wales (end of thirteenth century), as
+for example at Conway and Caernarvon.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>36]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Gables.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The gable forms a distinctive Gothic feature. The gables
+crowned those parts of a great church in which the skill
+of the architect was directed to producing a regular composition,
+often called a front, or a fa&ccedil;ade. The west
+fronts of Cathedrals were the most important architectural
+designs of this sort, and with them we may include the
+ends of the transepts and the east fronts.</p>
+
+<p>The same parts of parish churches are often excellent
+compositions. The gable of the nave always formed the
+central feature of the main front. This was flanked by the
+gables, or half-gables, of the aisles where there were no
+towers, or by the lower portions of the towers. As a rule
+the centre and sides of the fa&ccedil;ade are separated by buttresses,
+or some other mode of marking a vertical division,
+and the composition is also divided by bands of mouldings
+or otherwise, horizontally into storeys. Some of the
+horizontal divisions are often strongly marked, especially
+in the lower part of the building, where in early examples
+there is sometimes in addition to the plinth, or base of the
+wall, an arcade or a band of sculpture running across the
+entire front (<i>e.g.</i> east front of Lincoln Cathedral). The
+central gable is always occupied by a large window&mdash;or in
+early buildings a group of windows&mdash;sometimes two storeys
+in height. A great side window usually occurs at the end
+of each aisle. Below these great windows are introduced,
+at any rate in west fronts, the doorways, which, even in the
+finest English examples, are comparatively small. The
+gable also contains as a rule one or more windows often
+circular which light the space above the vaults.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 358px;">
+<a name="fig13" id="fig13"></a>
+<img src="images/agr054.jpg" width="358" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 13.&mdash;St. Pierre, Caen, Tower and Spire. (Spire, 1302.)</p>
+
+<p>Part of the art in arranging such a composition is to combine
+and yet contrast its horizontal and vertical elements.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"><!-- original location of Fig. 13 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>38]</a></span>
+The horizontal lines, or features, are those which serve to
+bind the whole together, and the vertical ones are those
+which give that upward tendency which is the great charm
+and peculiar characteristic of Gothic architecture. It is
+essential for the masses of solid masonry and the openings
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>39]</a></span>
+to be properly contrasted and proportioned to each other,
+and here, as in every part of a building, such ornaments
+and ornamental features as are introduced must be designed
+to contribute to the enrichment of the building
+as a whole, so that no part shall be conspicuous either
+by inharmonious treatment, undue plainness, or excessive
+enrichment.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 296px;">
+<a name="fig14" id="fig14"></a>
+<img src="images/agr055.jpg" width="296" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 14.&mdash;House at Chester. (16th Century.)</p>
+
+<p>During the transition the gable became steeper in pitch
+than the comparatively moderate slope of Norman times.
+In the E.&nbsp;E. it was acutely pointed, in the Dec. the usual
+slope was that of the two sides of an equilateral triangle:
+in the Perp. it became extremely flat and ceased to be so
+marked a feature as it had formerly been. In domestic buildings
+the gable was employed in the most effective manner,
+and town dwelling-houses were almost invariably built
+their gable ends to the street (Fig. <a href="#fig14">14</a>).</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">A very effective form of wall was frequently made use of
+in dwelling-houses. This consisted of a sturdy framework
+of stout timbers exposed to view, with the spaces between
+them filled in with plaster. Of this work, which is known
+as half-timbered work, many beautiful specimens remain
+dating from the fifteenth and following centuries (Figs. <a href="#fig14">14</a>
+and <a href="#fig15">15</a>), and a few of earlier date. In those parts of England
+where tiles are manufactured such framework was often
+covered by tiles instead of being filled in with plastering.
+In half-timbered houses, the fire-places and chimneys, and
+sometimes also the basement storeys, are usually of brickwork
+or masonry; so are the side walls in the case of
+houses in streets. It was usual in such buildings to cause
+the upper storeys to overhang the lower ones.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>40]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Columns and Piers.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The columns and piers of a building virtually form
+portions of its walls, so far as aiding to support the weight
+of the roof is concerned, and are appropriately considered
+in connection with them. In Gothic architecture very
+little use is made of columns on the outside of a building,
+and the porticoes and external rows of columns proper to
+the classic styles are quite unknown. On the other
+hand the series of piers, or columns, from which spring
+the arches which separate the central avenues of nave,
+transepts and choir from the aisles, are among the most
+prominent features in every church. These piers varied
+in each century.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Norman piers had been frequently circular or
+polygonal, but sometimes nearly square, and usually of
+enormous mass. Thus, at Durham (Norman), oblong piers
+of about eleven feet in diameter occur alternately with
+round ones of about seven feet. In transitional examples
+columns of more slender proportions were employed either
+(as in the choir of Canterbury) as single shafts or collected
+into groups. Where grouping took place it was
+intended that each shaft of the group should be seen to
+support some definite feature of the superincumbent structure,
+as where a separate group of mouldings springs
+from each shaft in a doorway, and this principle was
+very steadily adhered to during the greater part of the
+Gothic period.<a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 404px;">
+<a name="fig15" id="fig15"></a>
+<img src="images/agr056.jpg" width="404" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 15.&mdash;Houses at Lisieux, France. (16th Century.)</p>
+
+<p>Through the E.&nbsp;E. period groups of shafts are generally
+employed; they are often formed of detached shafts
+clustering round a central one, and held together at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"><!-- original location of Fig. 15 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>42]</a></span>
+intervals by bands or belts of masonry, and generally the
+entire group is nearly circular on plan. In the succeeding
+century (Dec. period) the piers also take the form of
+groups of shafts, but they are generally carved out of one
+block of stone, and the ordinary arrangement of the pier
+is on a lozenge-shaped plan. In the Perp., the piers retain
+the same general character, but are slenderer, and the shafts
+have often shrunk to nothing more than reedy mouldings.</p>
+
+<p>The column is often employed in Transitional and E.&nbsp;E.
+churches as a substitute for piers carrying arches. In
+every period small columns are freely used as ornamental
+features. They are constantly met with, for example, in
+the jambs of doorways and of windows.</p>
+
+<p>Every column is divided naturally into three parts, its
+base, or foot; its shaft, which forms the main body; and
+its capital, or head. Each of these went through a series of
+modifications. Part of the base usually consisted of a flat
+stone larger than the diameter of the column, sometimes
+called a plinth, and upon this stood the moulded base
+which gradually diminished to the size of the shaft. This
+plain stone was in E.&nbsp;E. often square, and in that case the
+corner spaces which were not covered by the mouldings
+of the base were often occupied by an elegantly carved
+leaf. In Dec. and Perp. buildings the lower part of the
+base was often polygonal, and frequently moulded so as
+to make it into a pedestal.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
+
+<p>The proportions of shafts varied extraordinarily; they
+were, as a rule, extremely slender when their purpose was
+purely decorative, and comparatively sturdy when they
+really served to carry a weight.</p>
+
+<p>The capital of the column has been perhaps the most
+conspicuous feature in the architecture of every age and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>43]</a></span>
+every country, and it is one of the features which a student
+may make use of as an indication of date and style of
+buildings, very much as the botanist employs the flower as
+an index to the genus and species of plants. The capital
+almost invariably starts from a ring, called the neck of
+the column. This serves to mark the end of the shaft and
+the commencement of the capital. Above this follows
+what is commonly called the bell,&mdash;the main portion of the
+capital, which is that part upon which the skill of the
+carver and the taste of the designer can be most freely
+expended, and on the top of the bell is placed the abacus,
+a flat block of stone upon the upper surface of which is
+built the superstructure or is laid the beam or block which
+the column has to support. The shape and ornaments
+given to the abacus are often of considerable importance
+as indications of the position in architectural history which
+the building in which it occurs should occupy.</p>
+
+<p>The Norman capital differed to some extent from
+the Romanesque capitals of other parts of Europe. It was
+commonly of a heavy, strong-looking shape, and is often
+appropriately called the cushion capital. In its simpler
+forms the cushion capital is nothing but a cubical block
+of stone with its lower corners rounded off to make it fit
+the circular shaft on which it is placed, and with a slab by
+way of abacus placed upon it. In later Norman and
+transitional work the faces of this block and the edges of
+the abacus are often richly moulded. By degrees, however,
+as the transition to E.&nbsp;E. approached, a new sort of
+capital<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> was introduced, having the outline of the bell
+hollow instead of convex. The square faces of the Norman
+capital of course disappeared, and the square abacus soon
+(at least in this country) became circular, involving no small
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>44]</a></span>
+loss of vigour in the appearance of the work. The bell of
+this capital was often decorated with rich mouldings, and
+had finely-designed and characteristic foliage, which almost
+always seemed to grow up the capital, and represented a
+conventional kind of leaf easily recognised when once
+seen.</p>
+
+<p>In the Dec. period the capitals have, as a rule, fewer and
+less elaborate mouldings; the foliage is often very beautifully
+carved in imitation of natural leaves, and wreathed
+round the capital instead of growing up it. In the Perp.
+this feature is in every way less ornate, the mouldings
+are plainer, and the foliage, often absent, is, when it occurs,
+conventional and stiff. Polygonal capitals are common in
+this period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 274px;">
+<a name="tail01" id="tail01"></a>
+<img src="images/agr057.jpg" width="274" height="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption nosc"><i>Later Norman Capital.</i></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>
+For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> under <i>Pier</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>
+For illustration consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>
+For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>
+For illustration consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> under <i>Flying buttress</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>
+For remarks on Spires, see Chap. <a href="#chap05">V.</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a>
+York, Lichfield, and Lincoln, are the cathedrals distinguished by
+the possession of three towers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>
+For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> under <i>Pier</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a>
+For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> under <i>Base</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a>
+For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>45]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="head04" id="head04"></a>
+<img src="images/agr058.jpg" width="500" height="114"
+alt="Sculptured ornament from Westminster Abbey" />
+</div>
+
+<h2><a name="chap05" id="chap05"></a>CHAPTER V.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="vsmlfont">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.&mdash;ENGLAND.</span></h2>
+
+
+<h3>ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS (<i>continued</i>)&mdash;OPENINGS, ROOFS,
+SPIRES, ORNAMENTS, STAINED GLASS, SCULPTURE.</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Openings and Arches.</i></h4>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE openings (<i>i.e.</i> doors and windows) in the walls of
+English Gothic buildings are occasionally covered
+by flat heads or lintels, but this is exceptional; ordinarily
+they have arched heads. The shape of the arch varies at
+all periods. Architects always felt themselves free to
+adopt any shape which best met the requirements of
+any special case; but at each period there was one shape
+of arch which it was customary to use.</p>
+
+<p>In the first transitional period (end of twelfth century)
+semicircular and pointed arches are both met with, and
+are often both employed in the same part of the same
+building. The mouldings and enrichments which are
+common in Norman work are usually still in use. In the
+E.&nbsp;E. period the doorways are almost invariably rather
+acutely pointed, the arched heads are enriched by a large
+mass of rich mouldings, and the jambs<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> have usually a
+series of small columns, each of which is intended to carry
+a portion of the entire group of mouldings. Large doorways
+are often subdivided into two, and frequently approached
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>46]</a></span>
+by porches. A most beautiful example occurs in the
+splendid west entrance to Ely Cathedral. Other examples
+will be found at Lichfield (Fig. <a href="#fig01">1</a>) and Salisbury. It was
+not uncommon to cover doorways with a lintel, the whole
+being under an archway; this left a space above the head
+of the door which was occupied by carving often of great
+beauty. Ornamental gables are often formed over the entrances
+of churches, and are richly sculptured; but though
+beautiful, these features rarely attained magnificence.
+The most remarkable entrance to an English cathedral is
+the west portal of Peterborough&mdash;a composition of lofty
+and richly moulded arches built
+in front of the original west wall.
+A portal on a smaller scale, but
+added in the same manner adorns
+the west front of Wells. As a
+less exceptional example we may
+refer to the entrance to Westminster
+Abbey at the end of the
+north transept (now under restoration),
+which must have been a
+noble example of an E.&nbsp;E. portal
+when in its perfect state.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 148px;">
+<a name="fig16" id="fig16"></a>
+<img src="images/agr059.jpg" width="148" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 16.&mdash;Lancet Window. (12th Century.)</p>
+
+<p>The windows in this style were
+almost always long, narrow, and
+with a pointed head resembling
+the blade of a lancet (Fig. <a href="#fig16">16</a>).
+The glass is generally near the
+outside face of the wall, and the sides of the opening are
+splayed towards the inside. It was very customary to
+place these lancet windows in groups. The best known group
+is the celebrated one of &ldquo;the five sisters,&rdquo; five lofty single
+lights, occupying the eastern end of one of the transepts of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>47]</a></span>
+York Minster. A common arrangement in designing such
+a group was to make the central light the highest, and
+to graduate the height of the others. It after a time became
+customary to render the opening more ornamental
+by adding pointed projections called cusps. By these the
+shape of the head of the opening was turned into a form
+resembling a trefoil leaf. Sometimes two cusps were
+added on each side. The head is, in the former case, said
+to be trefoiled&mdash;in the latter, cinqfoiled.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 202px;">
+<a name="fig17" id="fig17"></a>
+<img src="images/agr060.jpg" width="202" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 17.&mdash;Two-light Window. (13th Century.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 236px;">
+<a name="fig18" id="fig18"></a>
+<img src="images/agr061.jpg" width="236" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 18.&mdash;Geometrical Tracery. (14th Century.)</p>
+
+<p>When two windows were placed close together it began
+to be customary to include them under one outer arch, and
+after a time to pierce the solid head between them with
+a circle, which frequently was cusped, forming often a
+quatrefoil (Fig. <a href="#fig17">17</a>). This completed the idea of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>48]</a></span>
+group, and was rapidly followed by ornamental treatment.
+Three, four, five, or more windows (which in such a position
+are often termed lights) were often placed under one
+arch, the head of which was filled by a more or less rich
+group of circles; mouldings were added, and thus rose the
+system of decoration for window-heads known as tracery.
+So long as the tracery preserves the simple character of
+piercings through a flat stone, filling the space between the
+window heads, it is known as plate tracery. The thinning
+down of the blank space to a comparatively narrow
+surface went on, and by and by the use of mouldings
+caused that plain surface to resemble bars of stone bent
+into a circular form: this was called bar tracery, and it is
+in this form that tracery is chiefly employed in England
+(Fig. <a href="#fig18">18</a>). Westminster Abbey is full of exquisite examples
+of E.&nbsp;E. window-tracery (temp. Henry III.); as,
+for example, in the windows of the choir, the great
+circular windows (technically termed rose-windows) at
+the ends of the transepts, the windows of the chapter-house.
+Last, but not least, the splendid arcade which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>49]</a></span>
+forms the triforium is filled with tracery similar in every
+respect to the best window tracery of the period (Fig. <a href="#fig19">19</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 368px;">
+<a name="fig19" id="fig19"></a>
+<img src="images/agr062.jpg" width="368" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 19.&mdash;The Triforium Arcade, Westminster Abbey. (1269.)</p>
+
+<p>In the decorated style of the fourteenth century tracery
+was developed till it reached a great pitch of perfection
+and intricacy. In the earlier half of the century none
+save regular geometrical forms, made up of circles and segments
+of circles, occur; in other words, the whole design
+of the most elaborate window could be drawn with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>50]</a></span>
+compasses, and a curve of contrary flexure rarely occurred.
+In the latest half of that period flowing lines are introduced
+into the tracery, and very much alter its character
+(Fig. <a href="#fig20">20</a>). The cusping throughout is bolder than in the
+E.&nbsp;E. period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 299px;">
+<a name="fig20" id="fig20"></a>
+<img src="images/agr063.jpg" width="299" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 20.&mdash;Rose Window from the Transept of Lincoln Cathedral. (1342-1347.)</p>
+
+<p>In perpendicular windows spaces of enormous size
+are occupied by the mullions and tracery. Horizontal
+bars, called transoms, are now for the first time introduced,
+and the upright bars or mullions form with them
+a kind of stone grating; but below each transom a series
+of small stone arches forms heads to the lights below that
+transom, and a minor mullion often springs from the head
+of each of these arches, so that as the window increases in
+height, the number of its lights increases. The character
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>51]</a></span>
+of the cusping changed again, the cusps becoming club-headed
+in their form (Fig. <a href="#fig21">21</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 230px;">
+<a name="fig21" id="fig21"></a>
+<img src="images/agr064.jpg" width="230" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 21.&mdash;Perpendicular Window.</p>
+
+<p>Arches in the great arcades of churches, or in the
+smaller arcades of cloisters, or used as decorations to the
+surface of the walls, were made acute, obtuse, or segmental,
+to suit the duty they had to perform; but when
+there was nothing to dictate any special shape, the arch
+of the E.&nbsp;E. period was by preference acute<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> and of lofty
+proportions, and that of the Dec. less lofty, and its head
+equilateral (<i>i.e.</i> described so that if the ends of the base
+of an equilateral triangle touch the two points from which
+it springs, the apex of the angle shall touch the point of
+the arch). In the Perp. period the four centred depressed
+arch, sometimes called the Tudor arch, was introduced,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>52]</a></span>
+and though it did not entirely supersede the equilateral
+arch, yet its employment became at last all but universal,
+and it is one of the especially characteristic features of the
+Tudor period.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Roofs and Vaults.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The external and the internal covering of a building are
+very often not the same; the outer covering is then usually
+called a roof&mdash;the other, a vault or ceiling. In not a few
+Gothic buildings, however, they were the same; such
+buildings had what are known as open roofs&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> roofs in
+which the whole of the timber framing of which they are
+constructed is open to view from the interior right up to
+the tiles or lead. Very few open roofs of E.&nbsp;E. character
+are now remaining, but a good many parish churches retain
+roofs of the Dec., and more of the Perp. period. The
+roof of Westminster Hall (Perp., erected 1397) shows how
+fine an architectural object such a roof may become. The
+roof of the hall of Eltham Palace (Fig. <a href="#fig22">22</a>) is another good
+example. Wooden ceilings, often very rich, are not uncommon,
+especially in the churches of Norfolk and Suffolk, but
+greater interest attaches to the stone vaults with which
+the majority of Gothic buildings were erected, than to
+any other description of covering to the interiors of
+buildings.</p>
+
+<p>The vault was a feature rarely absent from important
+churches, and the structural requirements of the Gothic
+vault were among the most influential of the elements
+which determined both the plan and the section of a
+medi&aelig;val church. There was a regular growth in Gothic
+vaults. Those of the thirteenth century are comparatively
+simple; those of the fourteenth are much richer and more
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>53]</a></span>
+elaborate, and often involve very great structural difficulties.
+Those of the fifteenth are more systematic, and
+consequently more simple in principle than the ones which
+preceded them, but are such marvels of workmanship, and
+so enriched by an infinity of parts, that they astonish
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>54]</a></span>
+the beholder, and it appears, till the secret is known,
+impossible to imagine how they can be made to stand.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 372px;">
+<a name="fig22" id="fig22"></a>
+<img src="images/agr065.jpg" width="372" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 22.&mdash;Roof of Hall at Eltham Palace. (15th Century.)</p>
+
+<p>It has been held by some very good authorities that the
+pointed arch was first introduced into Gothic architecture
+to solve difficulties which presented themselves in the
+vaulting. In all probability the desire to give to everything,
+arches included, a more lofty appearance and more
+slender proportions may have had as much to do with the
+adoption of the pointed arch as any structural considerations,
+but there can be no doubt that it was used for
+structural arches from the very first, even when window heads
+and wall arcades were semicircular, and that the introduction
+of it cleared the way for the use of stone vaults of
+large span to a wonderful extent. It is not easy to explain
+this without being more technical than is perhaps desirable
+in the present volume, but the subject is one of too much
+importance for it to be possible to avoid making the
+attempt.</p>
+
+<p>Churches, it will be recollected, were commonly built
+with a wide nave and narrower aisles, and it was in the
+Norman period customary to vault the aisles and cover the
+nave with a ceiling. There was no difficulty in so spacing
+the distances apart of the piers of the main arcade that the
+compartments (usually termed bays) of the aisle should be
+square on plan; and it was quite possible, without doing more
+than the Romans had done, to vault each bay of the aisles
+with a semicircular intersecting vault (<i>i.e.</i> one which has the
+appearance of a semicircular or waggon-head vault, intersected
+by another vault of the same outline and height). This
+produced a simple series of what are called groined or cross
+vaults, which allowed height to be given to the window
+heads of the aisle and to the arcades between the aisles
+and nave.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>55]</a></span>
+After a time it was desired to vault the nave also, and
+to adopt for it an intersecting vault, so that the heads of
+the windows of the clerestory might be raised above the
+springing line of the vault, but so long as the arches
+remained semicircular, this was very difficult to accomplish.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans would probably have contented themselves
+with employing a barrel vault and piercing it to the extent
+required by short lateral vaults, but the result would have
+been an irregular, weak, curved line at each intersection
+with the main vault; and the aisle vaults having made the
+pleasing effect of a perfectly regular intersection familiar,
+this expedient does not seem to have found favour, at any
+rate in England.</p>
+
+<p>Other expedients were however tried, and with curious
+results. It was for example attempted to vault the nave
+with a cross vault, embracing two bays of the arcade to
+one of the vault, but the wall space so gained was particularly
+ill suited to the clerestory windows, as may be seen
+by examining the nave of St. Stephen&rsquo;s at Caen. In short,
+if the vaulting compartment were as wide as the nave one
+way, but only as wide as the aisle the other way, and semicircular
+arches alone were employed, a satisfactory result
+seemed to be unattainable.</p>
+
+<p>In the search for some means of so vaulting a bay of
+oblong plan that the arches should spring all at one level,
+and the groins or lines of intersection should cross one
+another in the centre of the ceiling, the idea either arose
+or was suggested that the curve of the smaller span should
+be a pointed instead of a semicircular arch.</p>
+
+<p>The moment this was tried all difficulty vanished, and
+groined (<i>i.e.</i> intersecting) vaults, covering compartments of
+any proportions became easy to design and simple to construct,
+for if the vault which spanned the narrow way of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>56]</a></span>
+the compartment were acutely pointed, and that which
+spanned it the wide way were either semicircular or flatly-pointed,
+it became easy to arrange that the startings of
+both vaults should be at the same level, and that they
+should rise to the same height, which is the condition
+essential to the production of a satisfactory intersection.</p>
+
+<p>Scott enumerates not fewer than fourteen varieties of
+medi&aelig;val vaults<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> and points out that specimens of thirteen
+are to be found at Westminster. Without such minute
+detail we may select some well-known varieties:&mdash;(1)
+The plain waggon-head vault, as at the Chapel of the
+Tower; (2) in advanced Norman works, cross-vaults
+formed by two intersecting semicircular vaults, the
+diagonal line being called a groin. (3) The earliest
+transitional and E.&nbsp;E. vaults, pointed and with transverse
+and diagonal ribs, and bosses at the intersection of ribs,
+<i>e.g.</i>, in the aisles and the early part of the cloisters at
+Westminster. (4) In the advanced part of the E.&nbsp;E.
+period, the addition of a rib at the ridge, as seen in the
+presbytery and transepts at Westminster. (5) At the
+time of the transition to Dec. (<i>temp.</i> Ed. 1.) additional
+ribs began to be introduced between the diagonal and the
+transverse ribs. (6) As the Dec. period advanced other
+ribs, called <em>liernes</em>, were introduced, running in various
+directions over the surface of the vault, making star-like
+figures on the vault. (7) The vault of the early Perp.,
+which is similar to the last, but more complicated and
+approaching No. 8, <i>e.g.</i>, Abbot Islip&rsquo;s chapel. (8) Lastly,
+the distinctive vault of the advanced or Tudor Perp., is
+the fan-tracery vault of which Henry VII.&rsquo;s Chapel roof is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"><!-- original location of Fig. 23 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>58]</a></span>
+the climax. The vaulting surfaces in these are portions
+of hollow conoids, and are covered by a net-work of fine
+ribs, connected together by bands of cusping (Fig. <a href="#fig23">23</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 421px;">
+<a name="fig23" id="fig23"></a>
+<img src="images/agr066.jpg" width="421" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 23.&mdash;Henry VII.&rsquo;s Chapel. (1503-1512.)</p>
+
+<p>In Scott&rsquo;s enumeration the vaults of octagons and irregular
+compartments, and such varieties as the one called
+sexpartite, find a place; here they have been intentionally
+excluded. Many of them are works of the greatest skill
+and beauty, especially the vaults of octagonal chapter
+houses springing from one centre pier (<i>e.g.</i>, Chapter Houses
+at Worcester, Westminster, Wells, and Salisbury).</p>
+
+<p>Externally, the roofs of buildings became very steep in
+the thirteenth century; they were not quite so steep in the
+fourteenth, and in the fifteenth they were frequently
+almost flat. They were always relied upon to add to the
+effectiveness of a building, and were enriched sometimes
+by variegated tiles or other covering, sometimes by the
+introduction of small windows, known as dormer windows,
+each with its own gablet and its little roof, and sometimes
+by the addition of a steep sided roof in the shape of
+a lantern or a &ldquo;fl&egrave;che&rdquo; on the ridge, or a pyramidal covering
+to some projecting octagon or turret.</p>
+
+<p>All these have their value in breaking up the sky-line
+of the building, and adding interest and beauty to it.
+Still more striking, however, in its effect on the sky-line
+was the spire, a feature to which great attention was paid
+in English architecture.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Spires.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The early square towers of Romanesque churches were
+sometimes surmounted by pyramidal roofs of low pitch.
+We have probably none now remaining, but we have some
+examples of large pinnacles, crowned with pyramids, which
+show what the shape must have been. They were square
+in plan and somewhat steep in slope.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>59]</a></span>
+The spire was developed
+early in the E.&nbsp;E.
+period. It was octagonal
+in plan, and the
+four sides which coincided
+with the faces
+of the tower rose direct
+from the walls above
+a slightly masked
+eaves course. The
+four oblique sides are
+connected to the tower
+by a feature called a
+broach, which may be
+described as part of
+a blunt pyramid. The
+broach-spire (Fig. <a href="#fig24">24</a>)
+is to be met with in
+many parts of England,
+but especially
+in Northamptonshire.
+The chief ornaments
+of an E.&nbsp;E. spire
+consist in small windows
+(called spire-lights
+or lucarnes)
+each surmounted by
+its gablet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 228px;">
+<a name="fig24" id="fig24"></a>
+<img src="images/agr067.jpg" width="228" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 24.&mdash;Early English Spire. Church of St.
+Mary Magdalene, Warboys, Lincolnshire.</p>
+
+<p>In the Dec. period
+it was common to
+finish the tower by a
+parapet, and to start
+the spire behind the
+parapet, sometimes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>60]</a></span>
+with a broach, often
+without. Pinnacles
+were frequently
+added at the corners
+of the tower,
+and an arch, like
+that of a flying
+buttress, was
+sometimes thrown
+across from the
+pinnacle to the
+spire. Spire-lights
+occur as before,
+and the surface of
+the spire is often
+enriched by bands
+of ornament at
+intervals. The
+general proportions
+of the spire were
+more slender than
+before, and the rib,
+which generally
+ran up each angle,
+was often enriched
+by crockets, <i>i.e.</i>
+tufts of leaves arranged
+in a formal
+shape (Fig. <a href="#fig25">25</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 238px;">
+<a name="fig25" id="fig25"></a>
+<img src="images/agr068.jpg" width="238" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 25.&mdash;Decorated Spire. All Saints&rsquo; Church,
+Oakham, Rutlandshire.</p>
+
+<p>Towers were frequently
+intended
+to stand without
+spires in the Perp.
+period, and are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>61]</a></span>
+often finished by four effective angle-pinnacles and a
+cornice with battlements. Where spires occur in this
+period they resemble those of the Dec. period.</p>
+
+<p>Spires end usually in a boss or finial, surmounted by a
+weathercock. Ordinary roofs were usually finished by
+ornamental cresting, and their summits were marked by
+finials,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> frequently of exquisite workmanship.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Ornaments.</i></h4>
+
+<p>We now come to ornaments, including mouldings, carving,
+and colour, and here we are landed upon a mass of
+details which it would be impossible to pursue far. Mouldings
+play a prominent part in Gothic architecture, and
+from the first to the last they varied so constantly that
+their profiles and grouping may be constantly made use of
+as a kind of architectural calendar, to point out the time,
+to within a few years, when the building in which they
+occur was erected.</p>
+
+<p>A moulding is the architect&rsquo;s means of drawing a line
+on his building. If he desires to mark on the exterior the
+position of an internal floor, or in any other way to suggest
+a division into storeys, a moulded string-course is
+introduced. If he wishes to add richness and play of
+light and shade to the sides of an important arch, he
+introduces a series of mouldings, the profile of which
+has been designed to form lights and shadows such as
+will answer his purpose. If again he desires to throw
+out a projection and to give the idea of its being properly
+supported, he places under his projection a corbel of
+mouldings which are of strong as well as pleasing form,
+so as to convey to the eye the notion of support. Mouldings,
+it can be understood, differ in both size and profile,
+according to the purpose which they are required to serve,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>62]</a></span>
+the distance from the spectator at which they are fixed,
+and the material out of which they are formed. In the
+Gothic periods they also differed according to the date at
+which they were executed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 208px;">
+<a name="fig26" id="fig26"></a>
+<img src="images/agr069.jpg" width="208" height="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 26.&mdash;Early Arch in Receding
+Planes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 196px;">
+<a name="fig27" id="fig27"></a>
+<img src="images/agr070.jpg" width="196" height="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 27.&mdash;Arch in Receding Planes
+Moulded.</p>
+
+<p>The first step towards the Gothic system of mouldings
+was taken by the Romanesque architects when the idea
+of building arches in thick walls, not only one within the
+others, but also in planes receding back from the face of
+the wall one behind as well as within another, was formed
+and carried out, and when a corresponding recessed arrangement
+of the jamb of the arch was made (Fig. <a href="#fig26">26</a>). The
+next step was the addition of some simple moulding to the
+advancing angle of each rim of such a series of arches
+either forming a bead (Fig. <a href="#fig27">27</a>) or a chamfer.</p>
+
+<p>In the transitional part of the twelfth century and the
+E.&nbsp;E. period this process went on till at last, though
+the separate receding arches still continued to exist, the
+mouldings<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> into which they were cut became so numerous
+and elaborate as to render it often difficult to detect the
+subordination or division into distinct planes which really
+remained.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>63]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 380px;">
+<a name="fig28" id="fig28"></a>
+<img src="images/agr071.jpg" width="380" height="450" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 28.&mdash;Doorway, King&rsquo;s College Chapel, Cambridge. (15th Century.)</p>
+
+<p>This passion for elaborate mouldings, often extraordinarily
+undercut, reached its climax in the thirteenth
+century, the E.&nbsp;E. period. In the Dec. period, while almost
+everything else became more elaborate, mouldings grew
+more simple, yet hardly less beautiful. In the Perp.
+period they were not only further simplified, but often
+impoverished, being usually shallow, formal, and stiff.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>64]</a></span>
+Ornaments abounded, and included not only enrichments
+in the shape of carved foliage and figures, statuary,
+mosaics, and so forth, but ornamental features, such as
+canopies, pinnacles, arcades, and recesses (Fig. <a href="#fig28">28</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In each period these are distinct in design from all that
+went before or came after, and thus to catch the spirit of
+any one Gothic period aright, it is not enough to fix the
+general shapes of the arches and proportions of the piers
+but every feature, every moulding, and every ornament
+must be wrought in the true spirit of the work, or the
+result will be marred.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Stained Glass.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Ornamental materials and every sort of decorative art,
+such as mosaic, enamel, metal work and inlays, were
+freely employed to add beauty in appropriate positions;
+but there was one ornament, the crowning invention of
+the Gothic artists, which largely influenced the design of
+the finest buildings, and which reflected a glory on them
+such as nothing else can approach: this was stained glass.</p>
+
+<p>So much of the old glass has perished, and so little
+modern glass is even passable, that this praise may
+seem overcharged to those who have never seen any
+of the best specimens still left. We have in the choir at
+Canterbury a remnant of the finest sort of glass which
+England possesses. Some good fragments remain at Westminster,
+though not very many; but to judge of the effect
+of glass at its best, the student should visit La Sainte
+Chapelle at Paris, or the Cathedrals of Chartres, Le Mans,
+Bourges, or Rheims, and he will find in these buildings
+effects in colour which are nothing less than gorgeous in
+their brilliancy, richness, and harmony.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>65]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 278px;">
+<a name="fig29" id="fig29"></a>
+<img src="images/agr072.jpg" width="278" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 29.&mdash;Stained Glass Window from Chartres Cathedral.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>66]</a></span>
+The peculiar excellence of stained glass as compared with
+every other sort of decoration, is that it is luminous. To
+some extent fresco-painting may claim a sort of brightness;
+mosaic when executed in polished materials possesses
+brilliancy; but in stained glass the light which comes
+streaming in through the window itself gives radiance,
+while the quality of the glass determines the colour, and
+thus we obtain a glowing, lustre of colour which can only
+be compared to the beauty of gems. In order properly to
+fill their place as decorations, stained-glass windows must be
+something quite different from transparent pictures, and
+the scenes they represent must not detach themselves too
+violently from the general ground. The most perfect effect
+is produced by such windows as those at Canterbury or
+Chartres (Fig. <a href="#fig29">29</a>), which recall a cluster of jewels rather
+than a picture.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Coloured Decoration.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Colour was also freely introduced by the lavish employment
+of coloured materials where they were to be had,
+and by painting the interiors with bright pigments. We
+meet with traces of rich colour on many parts of ancient
+buildings, where we should hardly dare to put it now, and
+we cannot doubt that painted decoration was constantly
+made use of with the happiest effect.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Sculpture.</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 278px;">
+<a name="fig30" id="fig30"></a>
+<img src="images/agr073.jpg" width="278" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 30.&mdash;Sculpture from the Entrance to the Chapter House,
+Westminster Abbey. (1250.)</p>
+
+<p>The last, perhaps the noblest ornament, is sculpture. The
+Gothic architects were alive to its value, and in all their
+best works statues abounded; often conventional to the last
+degree; sometimes to our eyes uncouth, but always the
+best which those who carved them could do at the time;
+always sure to contribute to architectural effect; never
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"><!-- original location of Fig. 30 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>68]</a></span>
+without a picturesque power, sometimes rising to grace
+and even grandeur, and sometimes sinking to grotesque
+ugliness. Whatever the quality of the sculpture was,
+it was always there, and added life to the whole.
+Monsters gaped and grinned from the water-spouts, little
+figures or strange animals twisted in and out of the foliage
+at angles and bosses and corbels. Stately effigies occupied
+dignified niches, in places of honour; and in the mouldings
+and tympanum of the head of a doorway there was
+often carved a whole host of figures representing heaven,
+earth, and hell, with a rude force and a native eloquence
+that have not lost their power to the present day.</p>
+
+<p>In the positions where modest ornamentation was required,
+as for example the capitals of shafts, the hollows
+of groups of mouldings, and the bosses of vaulting, carving
+of the most finished execution and masterly design
+constantly occurs. Speaking roughly, this was chiefly
+conventional in the E.&nbsp;E. period, chiefly natural in the
+Dec. and mixed, but with perhaps a preference for the
+conventional in the Perp. Examples abound, but both
+for beauty and accessibility we can refer to no better
+example than the carving which enriches the entrance
+to the Chapter House of Westminster Abbey (Fig. <a href="#fig30">30</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 388px;">
+<a name="tail02" id="tail02"></a>
+<img src="images/agr074.jpg" width="388" height="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption nosc"><i>Miserere Seat from Wells Cathedral.</i></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a>
+For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> under <i>Jamb</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a>
+For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> under <i>Arch</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a>
+Address to the Conference of Architects. Reported in the <i>Builder</i>
+of 24th June, 1876. Outlines illustrating some of these varieties of
+vault will be found in the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> under <i>Vault</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a>
+See <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a>
+For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a>
+For further illustrations see the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>69]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="head05" id="head05"></a>
+<img src="images/agr005.jpg" width="500" height="135"
+alt="Stained glass from Chartres Cathedral" />
+</div>
+
+<h2><a name="chap06" id="chap06"></a>CHAPTER VI.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="vsmlfont">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN EUROPE.</span></h2>
+
+
+<h3>FRANCE.&mdash;CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.</h3>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE architecture of France during the Middle Ages
+throws much light upon the history of the
+country. The features in which it differs from the work
+done in England at the same period can, many of them,
+be directly traced to differences in the social, political, or
+religious situation of the two nations at the time. For
+example, we find England in the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries in the hands of the Normans, a newly-conquered
+country under uniform administration; and accordingly
+few local variations occur in the architecture of our
+Norman period. The twelfth-century work, at Durham or
+Peterborough for instance, differs but little from that at
+Gloucester or Winchester. In France the case is different.
+That country was divided into a series of semi-independent
+provinces, whose inhabitants differed, not only in the
+leaders whom they followed, but in speech, race, and
+customs. As might be expected, the buildings of each
+province presented an aspect different in many respects
+from those of every other; and we may as well add that
+these peculiarities did not die out with the end of the
+round-arched period of architecture, but lingered far into
+the pointed period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>70]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 436px;">
+<a name="fig31" id="fig31"></a>
+<img src="images/agr075.jpg" width="436" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 31.&mdash;Church at Fontevrault. (Begun 1125.)</p>
+
+<p>The south of France was occupied by people speaking
+what are now known as the Romance dialects, and some
+writers have adopted the name as descriptive of the
+peculiarities of the architecture of these districts. The
+Romance provinces clung tenaciously to their early forms
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>71]</a></span>
+of art, so that pointed architecture was not established in
+the south of France till half a century, and in some places
+nearly a whole century, later than in the north.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the Frankish part of the country
+was the cradle of Gothic. The transition from
+round to pointed architecture first took place in the royal
+domain, of which Paris was the centre, and it may be
+assumed that the new style was already existing when in
+1140 Abbot Suger laid the foundations of the choir of
+the church of St. Denis, about forty years before the
+commencement of the eastern arm of our own Canterbury.</p>
+
+<p>De Caumont, who in his &ldquo;Ab&eacute;c&eacute;daire&rdquo; did for French
+architecture somewhat the same work of analysis and
+scientific arrangement which Rickman performed for
+English, has adopted the following classification:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="De Caumont's classification">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" rowspan="8">Romanesque Architecture.<br /><i>Architecture Romane.</i></td>
+    <td class="tdl bt bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Primitive.</td>
+    <td class="tdl bt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">5th to 10th century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt"><i>Primordiale.</i></td>
+    <td class="tdl br">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Second.</td>
+    <td class="tdl br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">End of 10th to commencement of 12th century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt"><i>Secondaire.</i></td>
+    <td class="tdl br">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Third or Transition&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">12th century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt"><i>Tertiaire ou de Transition.</i></td>
+    <td class="tdl br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="5">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" rowspan="8">Pointed Architecture.<br /><i>Architecture ogivale.</i></td>
+    <td class="tdl bl bt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">First.</td>
+    <td class="tdl br bt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">13th century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt"><i>Primitive.</i></td>
+    <td class="tdl br">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Second.</td>
+    <td class="tdl br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">14th century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt"><i>Secondaire.</i></td>
+    <td class="tdl br">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt">Third.</td>
+    <td class="tdl br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">15th century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl bl bb">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdlt"><i>Tertiaire.</i></td>
+    <td class="tdl br bb">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 484px;">
+<a name="fig32" id="fig32"></a>
+<img src="images/agr076.jpg" width="484" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 32.&mdash;Doorway at Loches, France. (1180.)</p>
+
+<p>The transitional architecture of France is no exception to
+the rule that the art of a period of change is full of interest.
+Much of it has disappeared, but examples remain in the
+eastern part of the cathedral of St. Denis already referred
+to, in portions of the cathedrals of Noyon and Sens, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"><!-- original location of Fig. 32 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>73]</a></span>
+west front of Chartres, the church of St. Germain des Pr&eacute;s
+at Paris, and elsewhere. We here often find the pointed
+arch employed for the most important parts of the
+structure, while the round arch is still retained in the
+window and door-heads, and in decorative arcades, as
+shown in our illustrations of a section of the church
+at Fontevrault (Fig. <a href="#fig31">31</a>), and of a doorway at Loches
+(Fig. <a href="#fig32">32</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The first pointed architecture of the thirteenth century
+in France differs considerably from the early English of
+this country. The arches are usually less acute, and the
+windows not so tall in proportion to their width. The
+mouldings employed are few and simple compared with the
+many and intricate English ones. Large round columns
+are much used in place of our complicated groups of small
+shafts for the piers of the nave; and the abacus of the
+capital remains square. An air of breadth and dignity
+prevails in the buildings of this date to which the simple
+details, noble proportions, and great size largely contribute.
+The western front of Notre Dame, Paris (Fig.
+<a href="#fig33">33</a>), dates from the early years of this century, the interior
+being much of it a little earlier. The well-known
+cathedrals of Chartres, Rheims, Laon, and later in the
+style, Amiens, and Beauvais, may be taken as grand
+examples of French first pointed. To these may be added
+the very graceful Sainte Chapelle of Paris, the choir and
+part of the nave of the cathedral at Rouen, the church
+of St. Etienne at Caen, and the cathedrals of Coutances,
+Lisieux, Le Mans, and Bourges. This list of churches
+could be almost indefinitely extended, and many monastic
+buildings, and not a few domestic and military ones, might
+be added. Among the most conspicuous of these may be
+named the monastic fortress at Mont St. Michel, probably
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"><!-- original location of Fig. 33 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>75]</a></span>
+the most picturesque structure in France, the remarkable
+fortifications of Carcassonne, and the lordly castle of Cou&ccedil;y.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 376px;">
+<a name="fig33" id="fig33"></a>
+<img src="images/agr077.jpg" width="376" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 33.&mdash;Notre Dame, Paris, West Front. (1214.)</p>
+
+<p>The second pointed, or fourteenth century Gothic of
+France, bears more resemblance to contemporary English
+Gothic than the work of the centuries preceding or
+following. Large windows for stained glass, with rich
+geometrical tracery prevailed, and much the same sort of
+ornamental treatment as in England was adopted in richly
+decorated buildings. Specimens of the work of this century
+occur everywhere in the shape of additions to the great
+churches and cathedrals which had been left unfinished
+from the previous century, and also of side chapels which
+it became customary to add to the aisles of churches. The
+great and well-known abbey of St. Ouen at Rouen is one of
+the few first-class churches which can be named as begun
+and almost entirely completed in this century. The tower
+and spire of the church of St. Pierre at Caen (Fig. <a href="#fig13">13</a>) are
+very well-known and beautiful specimens of this period.</p>
+
+<p>French fifteenth century architecture, or third pointed,
+is far from being so dignified or so scientific as English
+perpendicular, and differs from it considerably. Exuberant
+richness in decoration was the rage, and shows itself both
+in sculpture, tracery, and general design. Much of the later
+work of this period has received the name of flamboyant,
+because of the flame-like shapes into which the tracery of
+the heads of windows was thrown. In flamboyant buildings
+we often meet with art which, though certainly over-florid,
+is brilliant, rich, and full of true feeling for decoration.</p>
+
+<p>In this century, secular and domestic buildings attained
+more prominence than at any previous periods. Some of
+them are among the best works which this period produced.
+Familiar examples will be found in the noble
+Palais de Justice at Rouen, and the H&ocirc;tel de Bourgtherould
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>76]</a></span>
+in the same city; in parts of the great ch&acirc;teau at Blois,
+the splendid ch&acirc;teau of Pierrefonds, and the H&ocirc;tels de
+Ville of Oudenarde and Caen.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FRANCE.&mdash;ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Plan.</i></h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 195px;">
+<a name="fig34" id="fig34"></a>
+<img src="images/agr078.jpg" width="195" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 34.&mdash;Plan of Amiens Cathedral. (1220-1272.)</p>
+
+<p>The plans of French cathedrals and other buildings
+conform in general to the description of Gothic plans
+given in Chapter <a href="#chap02">II.</a>, but they have of course certain
+distinctive peculiarities (Fig. <a href="#fig34">34</a>). The cathedrals are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>77]</a></span>
+as a rule much broader in proportion to their length
+than English ones. Double aisles frequently occur, and
+not infrequently an added range of side chapels fringes
+each of the main side walls, so that the interior of
+one of these vast buildings presents, in addition to the
+main vista along the nave, many delightful cross views of
+great extent. The transepts are also much less strongly
+marked than our English examples. There are even some
+great cathedrals (<i>e.g.</i>, Bourges) without transepts; and
+where they exist it is common to find that, as in the case of
+Notre Dame de Paris, they do not project beyond the line
+of the side walls, so that, although fairly well-marked in
+the exterior and interior of the building, they add nothing
+to its floor-space. The eastern end of a French cathedral
+(and indeed of French churches generally, with very few
+exceptions) is terminated in an apse. When, as is frequently
+the case, this apse is encircled by a ring of chapels,
+with flying buttresses on several stages rising from among
+them, the whole arrangement is called a <em>chevet</em>, and very
+striking and busy is the appearance which it presents.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Walls, Towers, and Gables.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The walls are rarely built of any other material than
+stone, and much splendid masonry is to be found in France.
+Low towers are often to be met with, and so are projecting
+staircase turrets of polygonal or circular forms. The
+fa&ccedil;ades of cathedrals, including ends of transepts as
+well as west fronts, are most striking, and often magnificently
+enriched. It is an interesting study to examine
+a series of these fronts, each a little more advanced
+than the last, as for example Notre Dame (Fig. <a href="#fig33">33</a>), the
+transept at Rouen, Amiens (Fig. <a href="#fig35">35</a>), and Rheims, and to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"><!-- original location of Fig. 35 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>79]</a></span>
+note how the horizontal bands and other level features
+grow less and less conspicuous, while the vertical ones
+are more and more strongly marked; showing an increasing
+desire, not only to make the buildings lofty, but to
+suppress everything which might interfere with their
+looking as high as possible.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 467px;">
+<a name="fig35" id="fig35"></a>
+<img src="images/agr079.jpg" width="467" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 35.&mdash;Amiens Cathedral, West Front. (1220-1272.)</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Columns and Piers.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The column is a greater favourite than the pier in
+France, as has already been said. Sometimes, where
+the supports of the main arcade are really piers, they are
+built like circular shafts of large size; and even when they
+have no capital (as was the case in third-pointed examples),
+these piers still retain much of the air of solid strength
+which belongs to the column, and which the French architects
+appear to have valued highly. In cases where a
+series of mouldings has to be carried&mdash;as for example
+when the main arcade of a building is richly moulded&mdash;English
+architects would usually have provided a distinct
+shaft for each little group (or as Willis named them order),
+into which the whole can be subdivided. In France, at
+any rate during the earlier periods, the whole series of
+mouldings would spring from the square unbroken abacus
+of a single large column, to which perhaps one shaft, or as
+in our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig36">36</a>) four shafts, would be attached
+which would be carried up to the springing of the nave
+vault, at which point the same treatment would be repeated,
+though on a smaller scale, with the moulded ribs
+of that vault.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 435px;">
+<a name="fig36" id="fig36"></a>
+<img src="images/agr080.jpg" width="435" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 36.&mdash;Piers and Superstructure, Rheims Cathedral. (1211-1240.)</p>
+
+<p>A peculiarity of some districts of southern France is
+the suppression of the external buttress; the buttresses
+are in fact built within the church walls instead of outside,
+and masonry enough is added to make each into a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"><!-- original location of Fig. 36 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>81]</a></span>
+separating wall which divides side chapels. Some large
+churches, <i>e.g.</i>, the cathedral at Alby, in Southern France,
+consist of a wide nave buttressed in this way, and having
+side chapels between the buttresses, but without side aisles.</p>
+
+<p>The plans of the secular, military, and domestic buildings
+of France also present many interesting peculiarities,
+but not such as it is possible to review within the narrow
+limits of this chapter.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Roofs and Vaults.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The peculiarly English feature of an open roof is hardly
+ever met with in any shape: yet though stone vaults are
+almost universal, they are rarely equal in scientific skill
+to the best of those in our own country. In transitional
+examples, many very singular instances of the expedients
+employed before the pointed vault was fully developed
+can be found. In some of the central and southern districts,
+domes, or at least domical vaults, were employed.
+(See the section of Fontevrault, Fig. <a href="#fig31">31</a>). The dome came
+in from Byzantium. It was introduced in Perigord, where
+the very curious and remarkable church of St. Front
+(begun early in the eleventh century) was built. This is
+to all intents a Byzantine church. It is an almost exact
+copy in plan and construction of St. Mark&rsquo;s at Venice, a
+church designed and built by Eastern architects, and it is
+roofed by a series of domes, a peculiarity which is as distinctive
+of Byzantine (<i>i.e.</i>, Eastern early Christian), as the
+vaulted roof is of Romanesque (or Western early Christian)
+architecture. Artists from Constantinople itself probably
+visited France, and from this centre a not inconsiderable
+influence extended itself in various directions, and led to
+the use of many Byzantine features both of design and
+ornament.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>82]</a></span>
+As features in the exterior of their buildings, the roofs
+have been in every period valued by the French architects;
+they are almost always steep, striking, and ornamented.
+All appropriate modes of giving prominence and adding
+ornament to a roof have been very fully developed in
+French Gothic architecture, and the roofs of semicircular
+and circular apses, staircase towers, &amp;c., may be almost
+looked upon as typical.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Openings.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The treatment of openings gives occasion for one of the
+most strongly marked points of contrast between French
+and English Gothic architecture. With us the great
+windows are unquestionably the prominent features, but
+with the French the doors are most elaborated. This result
+is reached not so much by any lowering of the quality
+of the treatment bestowed upon the windows, but by the
+greatly increased importance given to doorways.</p>
+
+<p>The great portals of Notre Dame at Paris (Fig. <a href="#fig33">33</a>),
+Rheims, or Amiens (Fig. <a href="#fig35">35</a>), and the grand porches of
+Chartres may be named as the finest examples, and
+are probably the most magnificent single features which
+Gothic Art produced in any age or any country;
+but in its degree the western portal of every great
+church is usually an object upon which the best resources
+of the architect have been freely lavished. The wall is
+built very thick so that enormous jambs, carrying a vast
+moulded arch, can be employed. The head of the door is
+filled with sculpture, which is also lavishly used in the
+sides and arch, and over the whole rises an ornamental
+gable, frequently profusely adorned with tracery and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>83]</a></span>
+sculpture, its sides being richly decorated by crockets or
+similar ornaments, and crowned by a sculptured terminal
+or finial.</p>
+
+<p>The windows in the earliest periods are simpler than
+in our E.&nbsp;E., as well as of less slender proportions. In
+the second and third periods they are full of rich tracery,
+and are made lofty and wide to receive the magnificent
+stained glass with which it was intended to fill them, and
+which many churches retain. Circular windows, sometimes
+called wheel-windows, often occupy the gables, and are
+many of them very fine compositions.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Mouldings and Ornaments.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The mouldings of the French first pointed are usually
+larger than our own. Compared with ours they are also
+fewer, simpler, and designed to produce more breadth of
+effect. This may partly result from their originating in a
+sunshiny country where effects of shade are easily obtained.
+In the second and third periods they more nearly resemble
+those in use in England at the corresponding times.</p>
+
+<p>The carving is very characteristic and very beautiful.
+In the transition and first pointed a cluster of stalks, ending
+in a tuft of foliage or flowers, is constantly employed,
+especially in capitals. The use of this in England is rare;
+and, on the other hand, foliage like E.&nbsp;E. conventional
+foliage is rare in France. In the second pointed, natural
+foliage is admirably rendered (Fig. <a href="#fig37">37</a>). In the third a
+somewhat conventional kind of foliage, very luxuriant in
+its apparent growth, is constantly met with.</p>
+
+<p>This carving is at every stage accompanied by figure-sculpture
+of the finest character. Heads of animals, statues,
+groups of figures, and has reliefs are freely employed, but
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>84]</a></span>
+always with the greatest judgment, so that their introduction
+adds richness to the very point in the whole composition
+where it is most needed. In every part of France,
+and in every period of Gothic architecture, good specimens
+of sculpture abound. Easily accessible illustrations will
+be found in the west entrance and south transept front of
+Rouen Cathedral, the porches and portals at Chartres, the
+choir inclosure of Notre Dame at Paris, and the richly
+sculptured inclosure of the choir of Amiens Cathedral.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 183px;">
+<a name="fig37" id="fig37"></a>
+<img src="images/agr081.jpg" width="183" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 37.&mdash;Capital from St. Nicholas, Blois, France.
+(13th Century.)</p>
+
+<p>Stained glass has been more than once referred to. It is
+to be found in its greatest perfection in France, as for
+example in La Sainte Chapelle at Paris, and the cathedrals
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>85]</a></span>
+of Le Mans, Bourges, Chartres, and Rheims. All that has
+been said in the introductory chapter on this, the crowning
+ornament of Gothic architecture, and on its influence upon
+window design, and through that, upon the whole structure
+of the best churches, is to the full as applicable to French
+examples. Coloured decoration was also frequently employed
+in the interior of churches and other buildings, and
+is constantly to be met with in French buildings, both
+secular and religious. In most cases, however, it is less
+easy to appreciate this than the stained glass, for, as it is
+now to be seen, the colours are either faded and darkened
+by time and smoke, or else restored, not always with the
+exactness that could be desired.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Construction and Design.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The construction of the great buildings of the middle
+ages in France is an interesting subject of study, but
+necessarily a thoroughly technical one. Great sagacity
+in designing the masonry, carpentry, joinery, and metal-work;
+and trained skill in the carrying out the designs,
+have left their traces everywhere; and while the construction
+of the earlier castles and of the simple churches
+shows a solidity but little inferior to that of the Romans
+themselves, the most elaborate works, such for example
+as the choir at Beauvais (Fig. <a href="#fig38">38</a>), can hardly be surpassed
+as specimens of skill and daring, careful forethought, and
+bold execution.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 428px;">
+<a name="fig38" id="fig38"></a>
+<img src="images/agr082.jpg" width="428" height="550" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 38.&mdash;Beauvais Cathedral, Interior. (1225-1537.)</p>
+
+<p>Design, in France, pursued the general principles of Gothic
+architecture to their logical conclusions with the most
+uncompromising consistency. Perhaps the most distinctive
+peculiarity in French cathedrals is a love of abstract beauty,
+and a strong preference for breadth, regularity, dignity,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>86]</a></span>
+and symmetry wherever they come into competition with
+picturesqueness and irregular grouping. There is, it is
+true, plenty of the picturesque element in French medi&aelig;val
+art; but if we take the finest buildings, and those in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>87]</a></span>
+which the greatest effort would be made to secure the qualities
+which were considered the greatest and most desirable,
+we shall find very strong evidences of a conviction that
+beauty was to be attained by regularity and order, rather
+than by unsymmetrical and irregular treatment.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="chap06a" id="chap06a"></a>BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS.</h3>
+
+<p>Belgium is a country rich in remains of Gothic architecture.
+Its art was influenced so largely by its neighbourhood
+to France, that it will not be necessary to attempt
+anything like a chronological arrangement of its buildings.
+Fine churches exist in its principal cities, but they cannot
+be said to form a series differing widely from the churches
+of France, with which they were contemporary, and where
+they differ the advantage is generally on the side of the
+French originals.</p>
+
+<p>The principal cathedral of the Low Countries, that at
+Antwerp, is a building remarkable for its great width
+(having seven aisles), and for the wonderful picturesqueness
+of its interior. The exterior, which is unfinished,
+is also very effective, with its one lofty spire. The other
+cathedrals of note include those of Tournay, Brussels,
+Mechlin, Louvain, Li&eacute;ge, and Ghent. Belgium also possesses
+a great number of large parochial churches.</p>
+
+<p>When we turn to secular buildings we find the Belgian
+architecture of the middle ages taking a leading position.
+The free cities of Belgium acquired municipal privileges
+at an early date, and accumulated great wealth. Accordingly
+we find town halls, trade halls, belfries, warehouses,
+and excellent private dwelling-houses in abundance. The
+cloth hall at Ypres has been repeatedly illustrated and
+referred to as an example of a grand and effective building
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>88]</a></span>
+for trade purposes; it is of thirteenth-century architecture
+and of great size, its centre marked by a massive lofty
+tower; and its angles carrying slight turrets; but in other
+respects it depends for its effectiveness solely on its repetition
+of similar features. Examples of the same kind
+of architecture exist at Louvain and Ghent.</p>
+
+<p>The Town Halls of Brussels, Louvain, Bruges, Mechlin,
+Ghent, Oudenarde, and Ypres, are all buildings claiming
+attention. They were most of them in progress during the
+fifteenth century, and are fine, but florid examples of late
+Gothic. Some one or two at least of the town halls were
+begun and partly carried out in the fourteenth century; on
+the other hand, the H&ocirc;tel de Ville at Oudenarde, was
+begun as late as the beginning of the sixteenth; so
+were the Exchange at Antwerp (destroyed by fire and
+rebuilt not long since) and some other well-known
+structures: their architecture, though certainly Gothic, is
+debased in style.</p>
+
+<p>The general aspect of these famous buildings was noble
+and bold in mass, and rich in ornament. Our illustration
+(Fig. <a href="#fig39">39</a>) shows the Town Hall of Middleburgh in Holland;
+one which is less famous and of smaller dimensions than
+those enumerated above, but equally characteristic.</p>
+
+<p>The main building usually consisted of a long unbroken
+block surmounted by a high-pitched roof, and usually occupied
+one side of a public place. The side of the building
+presents several storeys, filled by rows of fine windows,
+though in some cases the lowest storey is occupied by an
+open arcade. The steep roof, usually crowded with dormer
+windows, carries up the eye to a lofty ridge, and from the
+centre of it rises the lofty tower which forms so conspicuous
+a feature in most of these buildings. In the Town Hall
+at Bruges the tower is comparatively simple, though of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"><!-- original location of Fig. 39 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>90]</a></span>
+mass and height that are truly imposing; but in Brussels,
+Ypres, and other examples, it is a richly ornamented composition
+on which every resource of the mason and the
+carver has been lavished. Our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig40">40</a>)
+shows the well-known tower at Ghent.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 398px;">
+<a name="fig39" id="fig39"></a>
+<img src="images/agr083.jpg" width="398" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 39.&mdash;The Town Hall of Middleburgh. (1518.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 330px;">
+<a name="fig40" id="fig40"></a>
+<img src="images/agr084.jpg" width="330" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 40.&mdash;Tower at Ghent. (Begun 1183.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>91]</a></span>
+The gable ends of the great roof are often adorned by
+pinnacles and other ornaments; but they rarely come
+prominently into view, as it is invariably the long side of
+the building which is considered to be the principal front.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="chap06b" id="chap06b"></a>SCOTLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND.</h3>
+
+<p>In Scotland good but simple examples of early work
+(transition from Romanesque to E.&nbsp;E.) occur, as for
+example, at Jedburgh and Kelso, Dryburgh and Leuchars
+abbey churches. A very interesting and in many respects
+unique cathedral of the thirteenth century, with later
+additions, exists at Glasgow. It is a building of much
+beauty, with good tracery, and the crypt offers a perfect
+study of various and often graceful modes of forming
+groined vaults. The Cathedral of Elgin (thirteenth century),
+an admirable Edwardian building, now in ruins, and
+the Abbey at Melrose, also ruined, of fourteenth century
+architecture (begun 1322), are both excellent specimens of
+the art of the periods to which they belong, and bear a
+close resemblance to what was being done in England at
+the same time. The famous tower of St. Giles&rsquo;s Cathedral,
+Edinburgh, and the Chapel at Roslyn, of the fifteenth
+century, on the other hand, are of thoroughly un-English
+character, resembling in this respect much of the Scotch
+architecture of the succeeding centuries; Roslyn is ascribed
+by Mr. Fergusson to a Spanish or Portuguese architect,
+with great probability.</p>
+
+<p>Other abbey churches and remains of architectural work
+exist at Dumblane, Arbroath, Dunkeld, and in many other
+localities; and Holyrood Palace, still retains part of its
+elegant early fourteenth-century chapel.</p>
+
+<p>Of secular and domestic work Linlithgow is a fair
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>92]</a></span>
+specimen, but of late date. Most of the castles and
+castellated mansions of Scotland belong indeed to a later
+time than the Gothic period, though there is a strong infusion
+of Gothic feeling in the very picturesque style in
+which they are designed.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Wales is distinguished for the splendid series of castles
+to which allusion has been made in a previous chapter.
+They were erected at the best time of English Gothic
+architecture (Edward I.) under English direction, and are
+finely designed and solidly built. Wales can also boast
+the interesting Cathedrals of Chester, Llandaff, St. David&rsquo;s,
+and some smaller churches, but in every case there is little
+to distinguish them from contemporary English work.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">Ireland is more remarkable for antiquities of a date
+anterior to the beginning of the Gothic period than for
+works belonging to it. A certain amount of graceful
+and simple domestic work, however, exists there; and in
+addition to the cathedrals of Kildare, Cashel, and Dublin,
+numerous monastic buildings, not as a rule large or
+ambitious, but often graceful and picturesque, are
+scattered about.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 431px;">
+<a name="tail03" id="tail03"></a>
+<img src="images/agr085.jpg" width="431" height="150" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption nosc"><i>Miserere Seat in Wells Cathedral.</i></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a>
+For an example of these see the house of Jaques C&oelig;ur (Fig. <a href="#fig07">7</a>).</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>93]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/agr058.jpg" width="500" height="114"
+alt="Sculptured ornament from Westminster Abbey" />
+</div>
+
+<h2><a name="chap07" id="chap07"></a>CHAPTER VII.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="vsmlfont">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN EUROPE.</span></h2>
+
+
+<h3>GERMANY.&mdash;CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.</h3>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE architecture of Germany, from the twelfth to the
+sixteenth centuries, can be divided into an early, a
+middle, and a late period, with tolerable distinctness. Of
+these, the early period possesses the greatest interest, and the
+peculiarities of its buildings are the most marked and most
+beautiful. In the middle period, German Gothic bore a
+very close general resemblance to the Gothic of the same
+time in France; and, as a rule, such points of difference
+as exist are not in favour of the German work. Late
+Gothic work in Germany is very fantastic and unattractive.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 424px;">
+<a name="fig41" id="fig41"></a>
+<img src="images/agr086.jpg" width="424" height="450" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 41.&mdash;Abbey Church of Arnstein. (12th and 13th Centuries.)</p>
+
+<p>Through the twelfth, and part of the thirteenth centuries,
+the architects of Germany pursued a course parallel
+with that followed in France and in England, but without
+adopting the pointed arch. They developed the
+simple and rude Romanesque architecture which prevailed
+throughout Europe in the tenth and eleventh centuries, and
+which they learnt originally from Byzantine artists who fled
+from their own country during the reign of the iconoclasts;
+and they not only carried it to a point of elaboration which
+was abreast of the art of our best Norman architecture,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>94]</a></span>
+but went on further in the same course; for while the
+French and ourselves were adopting lancet windows and
+pointed arches, they continued to employ the round-headed
+window and the semicircular arch in buildings
+which in their size, richness, loftiness, and general style,
+correspond with early Gothic examples in other countries.
+This early German architecture has been sometimes called
+fully developed Romanesque, and sometimes round-arched
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>95]</a></span>
+Gothic, and both terms may be applied to it without
+impropriety, for it partakes of the qualities implied by each.
+The Church of the Holy Apostles at Cologne, and those
+of St. Martin and St. Maria in Capitolo, in the same city,
+may be referred to as among the best works of this class.
+Each of these has an eastern apse, and also an apsidal termination
+to each transept. The Apostles&rsquo; church has a low
+octagon at the crossing, and its sky-line is further broken
+up by western and eastern towers, the latter of comparatively
+small size and octagonal; and under the eaves of the
+roof occurs an arcade of small arches.</p>
+
+<p>A view of the Abbey Church of Arnstein (Fig. <a href="#fig41">41</a>) illustrates
+some of the features of these transitional churches. It
+will be noticed that though there is no transept, there are
+no less than four towers, two octagonal, and two square,
+and that the apse is a strongly developed feature.</p>
+
+<p>In the church at Andernach, of which we give an illustration
+(Fig. <a href="#fig42">42</a>), the same arrangement, namely, that of
+four towers, two to the west, and two to the east, may
+be noticed; but there is not the same degree of difference
+between the towers, and the result is less happy. This
+example, like the last, has no central feature, and in both
+the arcade under the eaves of the roof is conspicuous only
+by its absence. It does, however, occur on the western
+towers at Andernach.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig42" id="fig42"></a>
+<img src="images/agr087.jpg" width="600" height="418" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 42.&mdash;Church at Andernach. (Early 13th Century.)</p>
+
+<p>The pointed arch, when adopted in Germany, was in all
+probability borrowed from France, as the general aspect
+of German churches of pointed architecture seems to prove.
+The greatest Gothic cathedral of Germany, Cologne
+Cathedral, was not commenced till about the year 1275,
+and its choir was probably completed during the first
+quarter of the fourteenth century. This cathedral, one of
+the largest in Europe, is also one of the grandest efforts of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"><!-- original location of Fig. 42 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>97]</a></span>
+medi&aelig;val architecture, and it closely resembles French examples
+of the same period, both in its general treatment,
+and in the detail of its features. The plan of Cologne
+Cathedral (Fig. <a href="#fig46">46</a>) is one of the most regular and symmetrical
+which has come down to us from the middle
+ages. The works were carried on slowly after the choir
+was consecrated, but without any deviation from the
+original plan, though some alteration in style and details
+crept in. In our own day the works have been resumed
+and vigorously pushed on towards completion; and, the
+original drawings having been preserved, the two western
+towers, the front, and other portions have been carried on in
+accordance with them. Cologne, accordingly, presents the
+almost unique spectacle of a great Gothic church, erected
+without deviation from its original plan, and completed in
+the style in which it was begun. It is fair to add that
+though splendid in the extreme, this cathedral has far less
+charm, and less of that peculiar quality of mystery and
+vitality than many, we might say most, of the great
+cathedrals of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The plan consists of a nave of eight bays, two of which
+form a kind of vestibule, and five avenues, <i>i.e.</i> two aisles
+on each side; transepts of four bays each, with single
+aisles; and a choir of four bays and an apse, the double
+aisle of the nave being continued and carried down the
+choir. That part of the outer aisle which sweeps round
+the apse has been formed into a series of seven polygonal
+chapels, thus gaining a complete <i>chevet</i>.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> Over the crossing
+there is a comparatively slender spire, and at the west end
+stand two massive towers terminated by a pair of lofty
+and elaborate spires, of open tracery, and enriched by
+crockets, finials, and much ornamentation. The cathedral
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>98]</a></span>
+is built of stone, without much variation in colour; it is
+vaulted throughout, and a forest of flying buttresses
+surrounds it on all sides. The beauty of the tracery, the
+magnificent boldness of the scale of the whole building,
+and its orderly regularity, are very imposing, and give it a
+high rank among the greatest works of European architecture;
+but it is almost too majestic to be lovely, and somewhat
+cold and uninteresting from its uniform colour, and
+perhaps from its great regularity.</p>
+
+<p>Strasburg Cathedral&mdash;not so large as Cologne&mdash;has
+been built at various times; the nave and west front are
+the work of the best Gothic period. This building has
+a nave and single aisles, short transepts, and a short
+apsidal choir. There is great richness in much of the
+work; double tracery, <i>i.e.</i> a second layer, so to speak, of
+tracery, is here employed in the windows, and extended
+beyond them, but the effect is not happy. The front was
+designed to receive two open tracery spires, but only one of
+them has been erected. It is amazingly intricate and rich,
+the workmanship is very astonishing, but the artistic effect
+is not half so good as that of many plain stone spires.</p>
+
+<p>Another important German church famous for an open
+spire is the cathedral at Friburg. Here only one tower,
+standing at the middle of the west front, was ever intended,
+and partly because the composition is complete
+as proposed, and partly because the design of the tracery
+in the spire itself is more telling, this building forms a
+more effective object than Strasburg, though by no means
+so lofty or so grandiose.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 396px;">
+<a name="fig43" id="fig43"></a>
+<img src="images/agr088.jpg" width="396" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 43.&mdash;Church of St. Barbara at Kuttenberg. East End. (1358-1548.)</p>
+
+<p>The Cathedral of St. Stephen at Vienna is a large and
+exceedingly rich church. In this building the side aisles
+are carried to almost the same height as the centre avenue&mdash;an
+arrangement not infrequent in German churches
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"><!-- original location of Fig. 43 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>100]</a></span>
+having little save novelty to recommend it, and by which
+the triforium, and, as a rule, the clerestory disappear, and
+the church is lighted solely by large side windows. The
+three avenues are covered by one wide roof, which makes
+a vast and rather clumsy display externally. A lofty
+tower, surmounted by a fine and elaborate spire of open
+tracery, stands on one side of the church&mdash;an unusual
+position&mdash;and an unfinished companion tower is begun on
+the corresponding side. Great churches and cathedrals
+are to be found in many of the cities of Germany, but
+their salient points are, as a rule, similar to those of
+the examples which have been already described.</p>
+
+<p>The incomplete Church of St. Barbara at Kuttenberg, in
+Bohemia, is one of somewhat exceptional design. It has
+double aisles, but the side walls for the greater part of the
+length of the church rest upon the arcade dividing the
+two aisles, instead of that separating the centre avenue from
+the side one; and a vault over the inner side aisle forms
+in effect a kind of balcony or gallery in the nave. The
+illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig43">43</a>) which we give of the exterior does not
+of course indicate this peculiarity, but it shows a very good
+example of a German adaptation of the French <i>chevet</i>, and
+may be considered as a specimen of German pointed architecture
+at its ripest stage. The church is vaulted, as might
+be inferred from the forest of flying buttresses; and the
+vaulting displays some resemblance to our English fan-vaulting
+in general idea.</p>
+
+<p>German churches include some specimens of unusual
+disposition or form, as for example the Church of St. Gereon
+at Cologne, with an oval choir, and one or two double
+churches, one of the most curious being the one at
+Schwartz-Rheindorff, of which we give a section and view.
+(Figs. <a href="#fig44">44</a>, <a href="#fig45">45</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>101]</a></span>
+In their doorways and porches the German architects
+are often very happy. Our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig47">47</a>) of one of
+the portals of the church at Thann may be taken as giving
+a good idea of the amount of rich ornament often concentrated
+here: it displays a wealth of decorative sculpture,
+which was one of the great merits of the German
+architects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 392px;">
+<a name="fig44" id="fig44"></a>
+<img src="images/agr089.jpg" width="392" height="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 44.&mdash;Double Church at Schwartz-Rheindorff. Section. (1158.)</p>
+
+<p>The latest development of Gothic in Germany, of which
+the Church of St. Catherine at Oppenheim (Fig. <a href="#fig48">48</a>) is a
+specimen, was marked (just as late French was by flamboyant
+tracery, and late English by fan-vaulting) by a
+peculiarity in the treatment of mouldings by which they
+were robbed of almost all their grace and beauty, while
+the execution of them became a kind of masonic puzzle.
+Two or more groups of mouldings were supposed to coexist
+in the same stone, and sometimes a part of one
+group, sometimes a part of the other group, became visible
+at the surface. The name given to this eccentric development
+is interpenetration.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 439px;">
+<a name="fig45" id="fig45"></a>
+<img src="images/agr090.jpg" width="439" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 45.&mdash;Double Church at Schwartz-Rheindorff. (<small>A.D.</small> 1158.)</p>
+
+<p>Secular architecture in Germany, though not carried to
+such a pitch of perfection as in Belgium, was by no means
+overlooked; but the examples are not numerous. In some
+of the older cities, such as Prague, Nuremberg, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"><!-- original location of Fig. 45 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>103]</a></span>
+Frankfort, much picturesque domestic architecture abounds,
+most of it of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and
+even later, and all full of piquancy and beauty. In North
+Germany, where there is a large tract of country in which
+building stone is scarce, a style of brick architecture was
+developed, which was applied to all sorts of purposes with
+great success. The most remarkable of these brick buildings
+are the large dwelling-houses, with fa&ccedil;ades ornamented
+by brick tracery and panelling, to be found in Eastern
+Prussia, together with some town halls and similar
+buildings.</p>
+
+
+<h3>GERMANY.&mdash;ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Plan.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The points of difference between German and French
+Gothic are not so numerous as to render a very minute
+analysis of the Gothic of Germany requisite in order to
+make them clear.</p>
+
+<p>The plans of German churches usually show internal
+piers; and columns occur but rarely. The churches have
+nave and aisles, transepts and apsidal choir; but they
+are peculiar from the frequent use of apses at the ends of
+the transepts, and also from the occurrence, in not a few
+instances, of an apse at the west end of the nave as
+well as at the east end of the choir. They are almost
+invariably vaulted.</p>
+
+<p>As the style advanced, large churches were constantly
+planned with double aisles, and the western apse disappeared.
+Some German church plans, notably those of
+Cologne Cathedral (Fig. <a href="#fig46">46</a>) and the great church of St.
+Lawrence at Nuremberg, are fine specimens of regularity
+of disposition, though full of many parts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>104]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 384px;">
+<a name="fig46" id="fig46"></a>
+<img src="images/agr091.jpg" width="384" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 46.&mdash;Cologne Cathedral. Ground Plan. (Begun 1248.)</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>105]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Walls, Towers, and Gables.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The German architects delighted in towers with pointed
+roofs, and in a multiplicity of them. A highly characteristic
+feature is a tower of great mass, but often extremely
+low, covering the crossing. The Cathedral at Mayence
+shows a fine example of this feature, which was often
+not more than a low octagon. Western towers, square on
+plan, are common, and small towers, frequently octagonal,
+are often employed to flank the choir or in combination with
+the transepts. These in early examples, are always surmounted
+by high roofs; in late ones, by stone spires, often
+of rich open tracery. A very characteristic feature of the
+round arched Gothic churches is an arcade of small arches
+immediately below the eaves of the roof and opening into
+the space above the vaults (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a>). This is rarely
+wanting in churches built previous to the time when the
+French type was followed implicitly.</p>
+
+<p>The gables are seldom such fine compositions as in
+France, or even in Italy; but in domestic and secular
+buildings many striking gabled fronts occur, the gable
+being often stepped in outline and full of windows.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Roofs and Vaults.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Vaults are universal in the great churches, and German
+vaulting has some special peculiarities, but they are such
+as hardly come within the scope of this hand-book. Roofs,
+however, are so conspicuous that in any general account of
+German architecture attention must be paid to them. They
+were from very early times steep in pitch and picturesque in
+outline, and are evidently much relied upon as giving play
+to the sky-line. Indeed, for variety of form and piquancy
+of detail the German roofs are the most successful of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"><!-- original location of Fig. 47 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>107]</a></span>
+middle ages. The spires, as will have been easily gathered
+from the descriptions of those at Strasburg, Cologne, &amp;c.,
+became extremely elaborate, and were constructed in many
+cases entirely of open tracery.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 378px;">
+<a name="fig47" id="fig47"></a>
+<img src="images/agr092.jpg" width="378" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 47.&mdash;Western Doorway of Church at Thann. (14th Century.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 480px;">
+<a name="fig48" id="fig48"></a>
+<img src="images/agr093.jpg" width="480" height="550" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 48.&mdash;Church of St. Catherine at Oppenheim. (1262 to 1439.)</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>108]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Openings.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Openings are, on the whole, treated very much as the
+French treated them. A good example is the western doorway
+at Thann (Fig. <a href="#fig47">47</a>); but the use of double tracery in
+the windows in late examples is characteristic. Sometimes
+a partial screen of outside tracery is employed in other
+features besides windows, as may be seen by the very
+elegant doorway of St. Sebald&rsquo;s Church at Nuremberg,
+which we have illustrated (Fig. <a href="#fig49">49</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Ornaments.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The ornaments of German Gothic are often profuse,
+but rarely quite happy. Sculpture, often of a high class,
+carving of every sort, tracery, and panelling, are largely
+employed; but with a hardness and a tendency to cover
+all surfaces with a profusion of weak imitations of
+tracery that disfigures much of the masonry. The tracery
+became towards the latter part of the time intricate and
+unmeaning, and the interpenetrating mouldings already
+described, though of course intended to be ornamental, are
+more perplexing and confusing than pleasing: the carving
+exaggerates the natural markings of the foliage represented,
+and being thin, and very boldly undercut, resembles leaves
+beaten out in metal, rather than foliage happily and easily
+imitated in stone, which is what good architectural carving
+should be.</p>
+
+<p>The use of coloured building materials and of inlays
+and mosaics does not prevail to any great extent in
+Germany, though stained glass is often to be found and
+coloured wall decoration occasionally.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>109]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 406px;">
+<a name="fig49" id="fig49"></a>
+<img src="images/agr094.jpg" width="406" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 49.&mdash;St. Sebald&rsquo;s Church at Nuremberg.
+The Bride&rsquo;s Doorway. (1303-1377.)</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>110]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Construction and Design.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The marked peculiarities of construction by which the
+German Gothic buildings are most distinguished, are the
+prevalent high-pitched roofs, the vaulting with aisle
+vaults carried to the same height as in the centre, and
+the employment in certain districts of brick to the exclusion
+of stone, all of which have been already referred
+to. In a great part of that large portion of Europe, which
+is included under the name of Germany, the materials and
+modes of construction adopted during the middle ages,
+bear a close resemblance to those in general use in France
+and England.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the characteristics of German Gothic design
+have been already alluded to. The German architects
+display an exuberant fancy, a great love of the picturesque,
+and even the grotesque, and a strong predilection for
+creating artificial difficulties in order to enjoy the pleasure
+of surmounting them. Their work is full of unrest; they
+attach small value to the artistic quality of breadth, and
+destroy the value of the plain surfaces of their buildings as
+contrasts to the openings, by cutting them up by mouldings
+and enrichments of various sorts. The sculpture introduced
+is, as a rule, naturalistic rather than conventional.
+The capitals of piers and columns are often fine specimens
+of effective carving, while the delicate and ornamental details
+of the tabernacle work with which church furniture is
+enriched, are unsurpassed in elaboration, and often of rare
+beauty. The churches of Nuremberg are specially distinguished
+for the richness and number of their sculptured
+fittings. There is, moreover, in some of the best German
+buildings a rugged grandeur which approaches the sublime;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>111]</a></span>
+and in the humbler ones a large amount of picturesque and
+thoroughly successful architecture.</p>
+
+<p>In the smaller objects upon which the art of the architect
+was often employed the Germans were frequently happy.
+Public fountains, such for example as the one illustrated
+in Chapter <a href="#chap02">II.</a> (Fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a>), are to be met within the streets
+of many towns, and rarely fail to please by their simple,
+graceful, and often quaint design. Crosses, monuments,
+and individual features in domestic buildings, such <i>e.g.</i> as
+bay windows, frequently show a very skilful and picturesque
+treatment and happy enrichment.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="chap07a" id="chap07a"></a>NORTHERN EUROPE.</h3>
+
+<p>Gothic architecture closely resembling German work may
+be found in Switzerland, Norway and Sweden, and Denmark;
+but there are few very conspicuous buildings, and
+not enough variety to form a distinct style. In Norway and
+Sweden curious and picturesque buildings exist, erected
+solely of timber, and both there and in Switzerland many
+of the traditions of the Gothic period have been handed
+down to our own day with comparatively little change, in
+the pleasing and often highly enriched timber buildings
+which are to be met with in considerable numbers in
+those countries.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a>
+See p. <a href="#Page_77">77</a> for an explanation of <i>chevet.</i></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>112]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/agr051.jpg" width="500" height="228"
+alt="Sculptured ornament from Sens Cathedral" />
+</div>
+
+<h2><a name="chap08" id="chap08"></a>CHAPTER VIII.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="vsmlfont">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.</span></h2>
+
+
+<h3>ITALY AND SICILY.&mdash;TOPOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.</h3>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">G</span>OTHIC architecture in Italy may be considered as
+a foreign importation. The Italians, it is true,
+displayed their natural taste and artistic instinct in their
+use of the style, and a large number of their works
+possess, as we shall see, strongly-marked characteristics
+and much charm; but it is impossible to avoid the feeling
+that the architects were working in a style not thoroughly
+congenial to their instincts nor to the traditions they had
+inherited from classical times; and not entirely in harmony
+with the requirements of the climate and the nature of their
+building materials.</p>
+
+<p>Italian Gothic may be conveniently considered geographically,
+dividing the buildings into three groups, the
+first and most important containing the architecture of
+Northern Italy (Lombardy, Venetia, and the neighbourhood),
+the second that of Central Italy (Tuscany, &amp;c.), the
+third that of the south and of Sicily&mdash;a classification which
+will suit the subject better than the chronological arrangement
+which has been our guide in examining the art of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>113]</a></span>
+other countries; for the variations occasioned by development
+as time went on are less strongly marked in Italy
+than elsewhere.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Northern Italy.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Lombardy in the Romanesque period was thoroughly
+under German influence, and the buildings remaining to
+us from the eleventh and twelfth centuries bear a close
+resemblance to those erected north of the Alps at the same
+date. The twelfth century Lombard churches again are specimens
+of round-arched Gothic, just as truly as those on the
+banks of the Rhine. Many of them are also peculiar as
+being erected chiefly in brickwork; the great alluvial plain
+of Lombardy being deficient in building-stone. St. Michele
+at Pavia, a well-known church of this date, may be cited
+as a good example. This is a vaulted church, with an
+apsidal east end and transepts. The round arch is employed
+in this building, but the general proportions and
+treatment are essentially Gothic. A striking campanile
+(bell tower) belongs to the church, and is a good specimen
+of a feature very frequently met with in Lombardy; the
+tower here (and usually) is square, and rises by successive
+stages, but with only few and small openings or ornaments,
+to a considerable height. There are no buttresses, no
+diminution of bulk, no staircase turrets. At the summit
+is an open belfry-stage, with large semicircular-headed
+arches, crowned by a cornice and a low-pitched conical roof.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the same city a good example of an Italian Gothic
+church, erected after the pointed arch had been introduced,
+may be found in the church of Sta. Maria del Carmine.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>114]</a></span>
+The west front of this church is but clumsy in general
+design. Its width is divided into five compartments by flat
+buttresses. The gables are crowned by a deep and heavy
+cornice of moulded brick and the openings are grouped
+with but little skill. Individually, however, the features of
+this front are very beautiful, and the great wheel-window,
+full of tracery, and the two-light windows flanking it,
+may be quoted as remarkable specimens of the ornamental
+elaboration which can be accomplished in brickwork.</p>
+
+<p>The campanile of this church, like the one just described,
+is a plain square tower. It rises by successive stages,
+each taller than the last, each stage being marked by a
+rich brick cornice. The belfry-stage has on each face a
+three-light window, with a traceried head, and above the
+cornice the square tower is finished by a tall conical roof,
+circular on plan, an arrangement not unfrequently met with.</p>
+
+<p>The Certosa, the great Carthusian Church and Monastery
+near Pavia,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> best known by the elaborate marble front
+added in a different style about a century after the erection
+of the main building, is a good example of a highly-enriched
+church, with dependencies, built in brickwork, and possessing
+most of the distinctive peculiarities of a great Gothic
+church, except the general use of the pointed arch. It was
+begun in 1396, and is consistent in its exterior architecture,
+the front excepted, though it took a long time to
+build. Attached to it are two cloisters, of which the
+arches are semicircular, and the enrichments, of wonderful
+beauty, are modelled in terra-cotta.</p>
+
+<p>This church resembles the great German round-arched
+Gothic churches on the Rhine in many of its features.
+Its plan includes a nave, with aisles and side chapels, transepts
+and a choir. The eastern arm and the transepts are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>115]</a></span>
+each ornamented by an apse, somewhat smaller than would
+be met with in a German church; but as a compensation
+each of these three arms has two side apses, as well as the
+one at the end. The exterior possesses the German arcade
+of little arches immediately under the eaves of the roof;
+it is marked by the same multiplicity of small towers, each
+with its own steep roof; and it possesses the same striking
+central feature, internally a small dome, externally a kind
+of light pyramidal structure, ornamented by small arcades
+rising tier above tier, and ending in a central pointed roof.</p>
+
+<p>The finest Gothic cathedral in North Italy, if dimensions,
+general effectiveness, and beauty of material be the
+test, is that of Milan. This building is disfigured by a west
+front in a totally inappropriate style, but apart from this
+it is virtually a German church of the first class, erected
+entirely in white marble, and covered with a profusion of
+decoration. Its dimensions show that, with the exception
+of Seville, this was the largest of all the Gothic cathedrals
+of Europe. It has double aisles, transepts, and a polygonal
+apse. At the crossing of the nave and transepts a low
+dome rises, covered by a conical roof, and surmounted
+by an elegant marble spire.</p>
+
+<p>The structure is vaulted throughout, and each of the
+great piers which carry the nave arcade is surmounted by
+a mass of niches and tabernacle work, occupied by statues&mdash;a
+splendid substitute for ordinary capitals. The interior
+effect of Milan Cathedral is grand and full of beauty.
+The exterior, though much of its power is destroyed by
+the weakly-designed ornament with which all the surfaces
+of the walls are covered, is endowed with a wonderful
+charm. This building was commenced in the year 1385,
+and consecrated in the year 1418. The details of the
+window-tracery, pinnacles, &amp;c. (but not the statues which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>116]</a></span>
+are of Italian character), correspond very closely to those
+of German buildings erected at the same period (close of
+the fourteenth century).</p>
+
+<p>Milan possesses, among other examples of pointed architecture,
+one secular building, the Great Hospital, well
+known for its Gothic fa&ccedil;ade. This hospital was founded
+in 1456, and most of it is of later date and of renaissance
+character; the street front of two storeys in height, with
+pointed arches, is very rich. The church of Chiaravalle,
+near Milan, which has been more than once illustrated and
+described, ought not to be passed unnoticed, on account
+of the beauty of its fully developed central dome. It was
+built in the early part of the thirteenth century (1221).</p>
+
+<p>Almost all the great cities of North Italy possess striking
+Gothic buildings. Genoa, for instance, can boast of her
+cathedral, with a front in alternate courses of black and
+white marble, dating from about the year 1300, and full
+of beauty; the details bearing much resemblance to
+the best Western Gothic work. Passing eastward, Verona
+possesses a wealth of Gothic work in the well-known
+tombs of the Scaligers, the churches of Sta. Anastasia,
+San Zenone, and several minor churches and campaniles;
+and at Como, Bergamo, Vicenza, Padua, Treviso, Cremona,
+Bologna, and many other cities and towns, good churches
+of pointed architecture are to be found.</p>
+
+<p>Our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig50">50</a>) of the ancient Palace of the
+Jurisconsults at Cremona, is a good specimen of the
+secular architecture of North Italy. Originally the lower
+storey was a loggia, or open arcaded storey, but the arches
+have been built up. Telling, simple, and graceful, this
+building owes its effect chiefly to its well-designed openings
+and a characteristic brick cornice. It is entirely without
+buttresses, has no spreading base, no gables, and no visible
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>117]</a></span>
+roof: some of these features would have been present had
+it been designed and erected north of the Alps.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig50" id="fig50"></a>
+<img src="images/agr095.jpg" width="500" height="550" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 50.&mdash;The Palace of the Jurisconsults at Cremona.</p>
+
+<p>Venice is the city in the whole of North Italy where
+Gothic architecture has had freest scope and has achieved
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>118]</a></span>
+the greatest success, not, however, in ecclesiastical, but in
+secular buildings. The great Cathedral of St. Mark, perhaps
+the most wonderful church in Europe, certainly the foremost
+in Italy, is a Byzantine building, and though it has
+received some additions in Gothic times, does not fairly
+come within the scope of this volume; and the Gothic
+churches of Venice are not very numerous nor, with the
+exception of the fine brick church of the Frari, extremely
+remarkable. On the banks of the Grand Canal and its
+tributaries, however, stand not a few Gothic palaces of
+noble design (see Fig. <a href="#fig09">9</a>, p. 18), while the Ducal Palace
+itself alone is sufficient to confer a reputation upon the city
+which it adorns.</p>
+
+<p>The Ducal Palace at Venice is a large rectangular block
+of buildings erected round a vast quadrangle. Of its exterior
+two sides only are visible from a distance, one being the sea
+front looking over the lagoon, and the other the land front
+directed towards the piazzetta. Rather less than one half
+the height of each front is occupied by two storeys of
+arcades; the lower storey bold, simple, and vigorous;
+the upper storey lighter, and ending in a mass of bold
+tracery. Above this open work, and resting upon it, rises
+the external wall of the palace, faced with marble in
+alternate slabs of rose-colour and white, pierced by a few
+large pointed windows and crowned by an open parapet.
+Few buildings are so familiar, even to untravelled persons,
+as this fine work, which owes its great charm to the extent,
+beauty, and mingled solidity and grace of its arcades, and
+to the fine sculpture by which the capitals from which
+they spring are enriched.</p>
+
+<p>The Gothic palaces are almost invariably remarkable for
+the skill with which the openings in their fronts are
+arranged and designed. It was not necessary to render
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>119]</a></span>
+any other part of the exterior specially architectural, as
+the palaces stand side by side like houses in a modern
+street, as can be seen from our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig09">9</a>). In
+almost all cases a large proportion of the openings are
+grouped together in the centre of the front, and the sides
+are left comparatively plain and strong-looking, the composition
+presenting a centre and two wings. By this
+simple expedient each portion of the composition is made
+to add emphasis to the other, and a powerful but not
+inharmonious contrast between the open centre and the
+solid sides is called into existence. The earliest Gothic
+buildings in point of date are often the most delicate and
+graceful, and this rule holds good in the Gothic palaces of
+Venice; yet one of the later palaces, the Ca&rsquo; d&rsquo;Oro, must
+be at least named on account of the splendid richness of
+its marble front&mdash;of which, however, only the centre and
+one wing is built&mdash;and the beauty of the ornament lavishly
+employed upon it.</p>
+
+<p>The balconies, angle windows, and other minor features
+with which the Venetian Gothic palaces abound, are among
+the most graceful features of the architecture of Italy.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Central Italy.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Those towns of Central Italy (by which is meant Tuscany
+and the former States of the Church), in which the best
+Gothic buildings are to be found, are Pisa, Lucca, Florence,
+Siena, Orvieto, and Perugia. As a general rule the Gothic
+work in this district is more developed and more lavishly
+enriched than that in Lombardy.</p>
+
+<p>In Pisa, the Cathedral and the Campanile (the famous
+leaning tower) belong to the late Romanesque style, but
+the Baptistry, an elegant circular building, has a good deal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>120]</a></span>
+of Gothic ornament in its upper storeys, and may be fairly
+classed as a transitional building. The most charming
+and thoroughly characteristic work of Gothic architecture
+in Pisa is, however, a small gem of a chapel, the church
+of Sta. Maria della Spina. It displays exquisite ornament,
+and, notwithstanding much false construction, the beauty
+of its details, of its sculpture, and of the marble of which
+it is built, invest it with a great charm.</p>
+
+<p>Pisan Gothic is remarkable as being associated with the
+name of a family of highly gifted sculptors and architects,
+the Pisani, of whom Nicola Pisano was the earliest and
+greatest artist; he was followed by his descendants
+Giovanni, Nino, and Andrea. With the Pisani and Giotto
+the series of the known names of architects of great
+buildings may be said to begin.</p>
+
+<p>Florence, the most important of the cities we have
+named, is distinguished by a cathedral built in the early
+part of the fourteenth century, and one of the grandest
+in Italy. It has very few columns, and its walls and
+vaults are of great height. The walls are adorned externally
+with inlays in coloured marble, and the windows
+have stained glass&mdash;a rarity in Italy; but its lofty dome,
+added after the completion of the rest of the building,
+is its chief feature. This was always intended, but the
+pointed octagonal dome actually erected by Brunelleschi,
+between the years 1420 and 1444, though it harmonises
+fairly well with the general lines of the building, and
+forms, as can be seen from our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig51">51</a>), a
+striking object in all distant views of the city, is probably
+very different from what was originally intended. Near
+the cathedral stand the Baptistry, famous for the possession
+of the finest gates in the world, and the Campanile
+of Giotto. This tower is built, or at least faced, entirely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"><!-- original location of Fig. 51 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>122]</a></span>
+with marble; and when it is stated that its height is not
+far short of that of the Victoria Tower of our Houses of
+Parliament, though of slenderer proportions, it will be
+seen that it is magnificently liberal in its general scheme.
+The tower is covered with panels of variously coloured
+marbles from base to summit, and enriched by fine sculpture.
+The angles are strengthened by slightly projecting
+piers. The windows are comparatively small till the
+highest or belfry stage is reached, and here each face of
+the tower is pierced by a magnificent three-light window.
+A deep and elaborate cornice now crowns the whole, but
+it was originally designed to add a high-pitched roof or
+a spire as a terminal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig51" id="fig51"></a>
+<img src="images/agr096.jpg" width="600" height="398" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 51.&mdash;The Cathedral at Florence. With Giotto&rsquo;s Campanile. (Begun, 1298; Dome, 1420-1444;
+Campanile begun, 1324.)</p>
+
+<p>Our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig52">52</a>) shows the west front and
+campanile of the Cathedral at Siena, an exceedingly good
+specimen of the beauties and peculiarities of the style.
+This building was commenced in 1243. The plan is simple
+but singular, for the central feature is a six-sided dome,
+at the crossing of the nave and transepts; and some
+ingenuity has been spent in fitting this figure to the arches
+of the main avenues of the building. The interior is rich
+and effective; the exterior, as can be seen by the illustration,
+is covered with ornament, and the front is the richest
+and probably the best designed of all the cathedral fronts
+of Central Italy. The strongly-marked horizontal lines
+of cornices, arcades, &amp;c., the moulded gables, the great
+wheel-window set in a square panel, and the use of marble
+of various colours, are all points to note. So is the
+employment of the semicircular arch for the doorways of
+this thoroughly Gothic building. The campanile is a good
+example of that feature, except that instead of the rich
+window which usually occupies the belfry stage, or highest
+storey, two storeys of small lights have been formed. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"><!-- original location of Fig. 52 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>124]</a></span>
+introduction of angle turrets is not very usual, and it here
+supplies a deficiency which makes itself felt in other
+campaniles, where the junction of tower and spire is not
+always happy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 457px;">
+<a name="fig52" id="fig52"></a>
+<img src="images/agr097.jpg" width="457" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 52.&mdash;Cathedral at Siena. West Front and Campanile.
+(Fa&ccedil;ade begun 1284.)</p>
+
+<p>Gothic churches of importance can be found in many of
+the cities and towns of Central Italy. None are more
+remarkable than the singular double church of St. Francis
+at Assisi, with its wealth of mural paintings and stained
+glass, and the cathedral at Orvieto (Fig. <a href="#fig53">53</a>) with its
+splendid front.</p>
+
+<p>In Rome, so rich in specimens of the architecture of
+many styles and times, Gothic could find no footing;
+the one solitary church which can be claimed as Gothic
+may be taken as an exception. And south of the Capital
+there lies a considerable tract of country, containing few
+if any examples of the style we are considering.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Southern Italy.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Southern Italy is conveniently grouped with Sicily, but
+the mainland is deficient in examples of Gothic buildings.
+The old towns of Apulia indeed, such as Bari, Bitonto and
+Brindisi, possess an architecture which the few who have
+had an opportunity of examining, declare to be surpassingly
+rich in its decoration, but it is for the most part Romanesque.</p>
+
+<p>The Gothic work remaining in and about Naples is most
+of it extremely florid, and often rich, but seldom possesses
+the grace and charm of that which exists further north.</p>
+
+<p>Sicily shows the picturesquely mixed results of a complication
+of agencies which have not affected the mainland,
+and is accordingly an interesting field for architectural
+study. The island was first under Byzantine influence;
+was next occupied and held by the Saracens; and was later
+seized and for some time retained by the Normans.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>125]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 556px;">
+<a name="fig53" id="fig53"></a>
+<img src="images/agr098.jpg" width="556" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 53.&mdash;The Cathedral at Orvieto. (Begun 1290; Fa&ccedil;ade, 1310.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>126]</a></span>
+The most striking early Gothic building in Sicily is the
+richly adorned cathedral of Monreale, commenced in the
+twelfth century. Here very simple pointed arches are
+made use of, as the entire surface of the interior is
+covered with mosaic pictures of Norman origin. The
+small Capella Palatina in Palermo itself is of the same
+simple and early architectural character, and adorned with
+equally magnificent mosaics. In these buildings the
+splendour of the colouring is only equalled by the vigorous
+and often pathetic power with which the stories of sacred
+history are embodied in these mosaics. The cathedral of
+Cefalu is a building bearing a general resemblance to that
+at Monreale, but not enriched in the same manner.</p>
+
+<p>Of the fourteenth century are the richly ornamented
+cathedral of Palermo and that of Messina. The latter
+has been so much altered as to have lost a good deal of its
+interest; but at Palermo there is much that is striking and
+almost unique. This building has little in common with
+the works of northern or central Italy, and not much more
+alliance with the Gothic of North Europe. It is richly
+panelled and decorated, but its most striking feature is
+its bold arcaded portal.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Plan.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The plans of Italian churches are simple, compared with
+those of the northern and western architects. As a rule
+they are also moderate in size, and they bear a close resemblance
+to those of the early basilica churches from
+which they are directly descended. Though the apse is all
+but universal, the French <i>chevet</i>, with its crown of clustering
+chapels, was not adopted in Italy. There is very
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>127]</a></span>
+much in common between the churches of Lombardy and
+those of Germany, but the German western apse and the
+apsidal ends to the transept do not occur. The spaces
+between the piers of the main arcade are greater than in
+French or English examples, so that there are fewer piers,
+and the vaults are of wider span. In the churches
+founded by the great preaching orders, the division into
+nave and aisle does not take place, and the church consists
+of nothing but a large hall for the congregation, with a
+chancel for the choir.</p>
+
+<p>In monastic, secular, and domestic building a general
+squareness and simplicity of plan prevails, and where an
+internal arcaded quadrangle can be made use of (<i>e.g.</i> in
+the cloister of a monastery), it is almost always relied upon
+to add effect. The famous external arcade at the Ducal
+Palace, Venice, was nowhere repeated, though simpler
+external arcades occur frequently; but it is so splendid
+as to form, itself alone a feature in Italian planning.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangements of the mansions and palaces found in
+the great cities were a good deal influenced by the circumstance
+that it was customary, in order to secure as much
+cool air as possible, to devote one of the upper floors to the
+purpose of a suite of reception rooms; to this was given
+the name of <i>piano nobile</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Walls, Towers, Columns.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Walls are usually thick and stand unbuttressed, and
+rarely have such slopes and diminutions of apparent thickness
+towards their upper part as are not uncommon in England.
+Base mouldings are not universal. The cornice, on
+the other hand, is far more cared for, and is made much
+more conspicuous than with us. In the brick buildings
+especially it attains great development. Above the cornice
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>128]</a></span>
+a kind of ornamental parapet, bearing some resemblance
+to battlements, is common. The strikingly peculiar use of
+materials of different colours in alternate courses, or in
+panels, to decorate the wall surfaces, has already been
+referred to. It is very characteristic of the style.</p>
+
+<p>The campanile or bell-tower of an Italian church is
+a feature very different from western towers. It is
+never placed over the crossing of nave and aisles and
+rarely forms an essential part of the church, often being
+quite detached and not seldom placed at an angle with
+the walls of the main building. Such towers are not unfrequently
+appended to palaces, and are sometimes (<i>e.g.</i> at
+Venice) erected alone. Some of the Italian cities were
+also remarkable for strong towers erected in the city
+itself as fortresses by the heads of influential families.
+Many of these are still standing in Bologna. The smaller
+towers in which northern architects took so much delight
+are almost unknown in Italy, though on a few
+of the great churches of the north (<i>e.g.</i> the Certosa at Pavia,
+and St. Antonio at Padua) they are to be found.</p>
+
+<p>The use of constructive columns is general; piers
+are by no means unknown, but fine shafts of marble
+meet the eye frequently in Italian churches. The constant
+use of the column for decorative purposes is a
+marked characteristic. Not only is it employed where
+French and English architects used it, as in the jambs of
+doorways, but it constantly replaces the mullion in traceried
+windows. It is employed as an ornament at the angles of
+buildings to take off the harshness of a sharp corner, and
+it is introduced in many unexpected and often picturesque
+situations. Twisted, knotted, and otherwise carved and
+ornamental shafts are not unfrequently made use of in
+columns that serve purely decorative purposes.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>129]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Openings and Arches.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The constructive arches in Italian Gothic buildings are,
+as a rule, pointed, but it is remarkable that at every period
+round and pointed arches are indiscriminately employed for
+doors and windows, both being constantly met with in the
+same building.</p>
+
+<p>The naves of Italian churches rarely show the division
+into three, common in the north. The triforium
+is almost invariably absent, and the clerestory is often
+reduced to a series of small round windows, sufficient to
+admit the moderate light which, in a very bright climate,
+is grateful in the interior of such a building as a church;
+but they are far less effective features than our own well-marked
+clerestory windows.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 182px;">
+<a name="fig54" id="fig54"></a>
+<img src="images/agr099.jpg" width="182" height="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 54.&mdash;Ogival Window-head.</p>
+
+<p>The doorways are often very beautiful, and are frequently
+sheltered by projecting porches of extreme elegance
+and lightness. The window openings are, as a rule, cusped.
+An ogee-shaped arch (Fig. <a href="#fig54">54</a>) is
+constantly in use in window-heads,
+especially at Venice, and much
+graceful design is lavished on the
+arched openings of domestic and
+secular buildings. A great deal
+of the tracery employed is plate
+tracery.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> The tracery in terra-cotta
+has already been referred to. In
+the large windows of the principal
+apartments and other similar positions
+of the palaces in Venice and Vicenza, a sort of tracery
+not met with in other countries is freely employed. The
+openings are square-headed, and are divided into separate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>130]</a></span>
+lights by small columns; the heads of these lights are
+ogee-shaped, and the spaces between them and the horizontal
+lintel are filled in with circles, richly quatrefoiled
+or otherwise cusped (Fig. <a href="#fig55">55</a>). The upper arcade of the
+Ducal Palace at Venice offers the best known and finest
+example of this class of tracery.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 172px;">
+<a name="fig55" id="fig55"></a>
+<img src="images/agr100.jpg" width="172" height="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 55.&mdash;Tracery, from Venice.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Roofs and Vaults.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The vaulting of Italian churches is always simple, and
+the bays, as has been pointed out, are usually wider than
+those of the northern Gothic churches. Frequently there
+are no ribs of any sort to the groins of the vaults. A
+characteristic feature of Italian Gothic is the central dome.
+It is rarely very large or overpowering, and in the one
+instance of a magnificent dome&mdash;the Cathedral at Florence,
+the feature, though intended from the first, was added
+after the Gothic period had closed. Still many churches
+have a modest dome, and it frequently forms a striking
+feature in the interior, while in some northern instances (<i>e.g.</i>
+at the Certosa at Pavia, or at Chiaravalle) it is treated
+like a many storeyed pyramid and becomes an external
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>131]</a></span>
+feature of importance. At Sant&rsquo; Antonio at Padua there
+are five domes.</p>
+
+<p>The churches of the preaching orders are some of them
+covered by timber ceilings, not perfectly flat but having an
+outline made up of hollow curves of rather flat sweep.
+The great halls at Padua and Vicenza displayed a vast
+wooden curved ceiling resembling the hull of a ship turned
+upside down.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary church roof is of flat pitch and frequently
+concealed behind a parapet. Dormer windows, crestings,
+and other similar features, by the use of which northern
+architects enriched their roofs, are hardly ever employed by
+Italian architects.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Mouldings and Ornaments.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Ornament is almost instinctively understood by the
+Italians, and their mastery of it is well shown in their
+architecture. The carving of spandrels, capitals, and other
+ornaments, and the sculpture of the heads and statues introduced
+is full of power and beauty. The famous capitals
+of the lower arcade of the Ducal Palace may be quoted as
+illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>The employment of coloured materials is carried so far
+as sometimes to startle an eye trained to the sombreness of
+English architecture, but a great deal of the beauty of this
+style is derived from colour, and much of the comparative
+simplicity and scarcity of mouldings is due to the desire
+to leave large unbroken surfaces for marble linings,
+mosaics or fresco painting. Mouldings, where they are
+introduced, differ from northern mouldings in being flatter
+and far less bold, their enrichments are chiefly confined to
+dentils, notches, and small and simple ornaments. Stained
+glass is not so often seen as in France, but is to be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>132]</a></span>
+met with, as, for example, in the fine church of San
+Petronio at Bologna, and in Sta. Maria Novella, and in the
+Cathedral at Florence. At Florence the stained glass has
+a character of its own both in colour and style of treatment.
+It is not too much to say that every kind of
+decoration which can be employed to add beauty to
+a building may be found at its best in Italy. In the
+churches much of the finest furniture, such as stall-work,
+screens, altar frontals, will be found in profusion; and the
+church porches and the mural monuments should be especially
+studied on account of the singular elegance with which
+they are usually designed.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Construction and Design.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The material employed for the external and internal face
+of the walls in a very large proportion of the buildings
+mentioned in this chapter is marble. This is sometimes used
+in blocks as stone is with us, but more frequently in the
+form of thin slabs as a facing upon masonry or brickwork.
+In Lombardy, where brick is the natural building material,
+most of the walls are not only built but faced with brick;
+and the ornamental features, including tracery, are often
+executed in ornamental brickwork, or in what is known as
+terra-cotta (<i>i.e.</i> bricks or blocks of brick clay of fine quality,
+moulded or otherwise ornamented and burnt like bricks).
+Stone was less commonly employed as a building material in
+Italy during the Gothic period, than in other countries of
+Europe. The surfaces of the vaults, and the surfaces of the
+internal walls were often covered with mosaics, or with
+paintings in fresco. Vaulting is frequently met with, but it
+is generally simple in character, the flat external roof over it
+is commonly covered with tiles or metal, while the apparent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>133]</a></span>
+gable frequently rises more sharply than the actual roof.
+The Italians seem never to have cordially welcomed the
+Gothic principle of resisting the thrust of vaults or arches
+by a counter-thrust, or by the weight of a buttress. The
+buttress is almost unknown in Italian Gothic, and as a rule
+an iron tie is introduced at the feet of such arches as would
+in France or Germany have been buttressed. This
+expedient is, of course, economical, but to northern eyes it
+appears strange and out of place. The Italians, however,
+take no pains to conceal it, and many of their lighter works,
+such as canopies over tombs, porches, &amp;c., would fall to
+pieces at once were the iron ties removed.</p>
+
+<p>Open timber roofs in the English fashion are unknown;
+but the wooden ceilings already alluded to are found in
+San Zeno at Verona, and the Eremitani at Padua. A kind
+of open roof of large span, carried by curved ribs and
+tied by iron ties, covers the great hall of the Basilica at
+Vicenza, and the very similar hall at Padua. The ribs of
+these roofs are built up of many thicknesses of material
+bolted together.</p>
+
+<p>The design of Italian Gothic buildings presents many
+peculiarities, some of which are due to the materials made
+use of. For example, where brick and terra-cotta are alone
+employed, wide moulded cornices of no great projection,
+and broad masses of enriched moulding encircling arches
+are easily executed, and they are accordingly constantly to
+be found; but bold mouldings, with deep hollows, similar to
+those of Early English arches, could not be constructed of
+these materials, and are not attempted. These peculiarities
+will be found in the Town Hall at Cremona, of which an
+illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig50">50</a>) has already been given.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 474px;">
+<a name="fig56" id="fig56"></a>
+<img src="images/agr101.jpg" width="474" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 56.&mdash;Window from Tivoli.</p>
+
+<p>Where marble is used, the peculiar fineness of its
+surface, upon which the bright Italian sun makes the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>134]</a></span>
+smallest moulding effective, combined with the fact that
+the material, being costly, is often used in thin slabs, has
+given occasion to extreme flatness of treatment, and to the
+use of modes of enrichment which do not require much
+depth of material. Our illustration of a window from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>135]</a></span>
+Piazza S. Croce at Tivoli, shows these peculiarities extremely
+well (Fig. <a href="#fig56">56</a>), and also illustrates the strong
+predilection which the Italian architects retained throughout
+the Gothic period for squareness and for horizontal
+lines. The whole ornamental treatment is here square;
+the window rests on a strongly-moulded horizontal sill, and
+is surrounded by flatly-carved enrichment, making a
+square panel of the entire feature. Even in the richly-decorated
+window (Fig. <a href="#fig57">57</a>), which is in its pointed outline
+more truly Gothic than the Tivoli example, much of the
+same quality can be traced. The arch and jamb are
+richly moulded, but the whole mass of mouldings is flat,
+and the flat cuspings of the tracery, elaborately carved
+though it be, more resemble the cusps of early Western
+Gothic, executed at a time when tracery was beginning
+its career, than work belonging to the period of full
+maturity to which this feature, as a whole, undoubtedly
+belongs.</p>
+
+<p>Where marbles were plentiful enough to be built into
+the fabric, the national love of colour gave rise to the use
+of black and white&mdash;or sometimes red and white&mdash;alternate
+courses, already mentioned. The effect of this striped
+masonry may be partly judged of from the illustration of
+the cathedral at Siena (Fig. <a href="#fig52">52</a>), where it is employed
+to a considerable extent. A finer method of surface
+decoration, less simple, however, and perhaps less frequently
+practised, was open to the Italian architect, in
+the use of panels of various coloured marbles. A beautiful
+example of the employment of this expedient exists in
+Giotto&rsquo;s campanile at Florence (Fig. <a href="#fig51">51</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 368px;">
+<a name="fig57" id="fig57"></a>
+<img src="images/agr102.jpg" width="368" height="450" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 57.&mdash;Italian Gothic Window, with Tracery in the Head.
+(13th Century.)</p>
+
+<p>The flatness of the roofs, which the Italians never
+abandoned, was always found difficult to reconcile with
+the Gothic tendency to height and steepness. In many
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>136]</a></span>
+cases, the sharp pitched gables which the buildings display,
+are only masks, and do not truly denote the pitch of the
+roofs behind them. In other instances the walls finish with
+a horizontal parapet, plain or ornamental, quite concealing
+the roof. In the roofs of their campaniles, however, the
+Gothic architects of Italy were usually happy; they
+almost always adopted a steep conical terminal, with or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>137]</a></span>
+without pinnacles, which is very telling against the sky;
+even if its junction with the tower is at times clumsy.</p>
+
+<p>The brightness of southern suns prevented the adoption
+of the great windows, adapted to masses of stained glass,
+which were the ambition of northern architects in the
+fourteenth century; and the tenacity with which a love for
+squareness of effect and for strongly-marked horizontal
+lines of various sorts retained its hold, tended to keep
+Italian Gothic buildings essentially different from those of
+northern nations; but the love of colour, the command of
+precious materials, and of fine sculpture, the passion for
+beauty and for a decorative richness, and the artistic taste
+of the Italians, display themselves in these buildings in a
+hundred ways: all this lends to them a charm such as few
+works of the middle ages existing elsewhere can surpass.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="chap08a" id="chap08a"></a>SPAIN.&mdash;CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.</h3>
+
+<p>An early, middle, and late period can be distinguished
+in dealing with Spanish Gothic. The first period reaches
+to the first quarter of the thirteenth century, the second
+occupies the remainder of the thirteenth and the fourteenth
+centuries, the third completes the fifteenth and runs on into
+part of the sixteenth.</p>
+
+<p>The early style is one of much purity and dignity, and is
+developed directly from the Romanesque of the country.
+The cathedral of St. Iago di Compostella, a fine cruciform
+church of round-arched Gothic, with a magnificent western
+portal,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> recalling the great lateral porches at Chartres, is an
+early and fine example. Like other churches of the type
+in Spain, it is far plainer inside than out, but it is vaulted
+throughout.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>138]</a></span>
+The cathedral of Zamora, and those of Tarragona and
+Salamanca must also be referred to. In each of these, the
+most thoroughly Spanish feature is a dome, occupying the
+crossing of the nave and transepts, and apparently better
+developed than those in early German churches or in
+Italian ones. It is called in Spanish the <i>cimborio</i>. This
+feature was constructed so as to consist of an inner dome,
+decorated by ribs thrown over the central space, and carried
+by pendentives; having above it a separate outer dome
+somewhat higher and often richly decorated. This feature
+unfortunately disappeared when the French designs of the
+thirteenth century began to be the rage. A peculiarity of
+plan, however, which was retained throughout the whole
+Gothic period in Spain, is to be found in the early churches;
+it consists of an inclosure for the choir quite in the body
+of the church, and often west of the transepts,&mdash;in such
+a position, in fact, as the choir at Westminster Abbey
+occupies. A third peculiarity is the addition of an outer
+aisle, not unlike the arcade of a cloister, to the side walls
+of the churches, possibly with a view of protecting them
+from heat.</p>
+
+<p>With the thirteenth century a strong passion for churches,
+closely resembling those being erected in France at the
+same time, set in, as has just been remarked. Accordingly
+the cathedrals of Toledo, Burgos, and Leon, approach
+very closely to French types. Toledo is very large, five
+aisled, and with a vast chevet. Its exterior is unfinished,
+but the dignity of its fine interior may be well understood
+from the illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig58">58</a>) here given. Burgos is not so
+ambitious in size as Toledo, but has a florid exterior of late
+architecture with two lofty, open-traceried spires, like Strasburg
+and other German examples. Leon is remarkable for
+its lofty clerestory. Spanish Gothic may be said to have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"><!-- original location of Fig. 58 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>140]</a></span>
+culminated in the vast cathedral at Seville (begun 1401),
+claiming to be of greater extent than any Gothic cathedral
+in the world, larger, therefore, than Milan or Cologne. It
+stands on the site of a mosque, and has never been completed
+externally. The interior is very imposing and rich,
+but when it is stated that it was not completed till 1520,
+it may be readily understood that many of the details are
+very late, and far from the purity of earlier examples.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 395px;">
+<a name="fig58" id="fig58"></a>
+<img src="images/agr103.jpg" width="395" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 58.&mdash;The Cathedral at Toledo. Interior. (Begun 1227.)</p>
+
+<p>In the fourteenth century an innovation, of which French
+architects immediately north of the Pyrenees were also
+availing themselves, found favour in Barcelona. The great
+buttresses by which the thrust of the vaults was met were
+brought inside the boundary walls of the church, and were
+made to serve as division walls between a series of side
+chapels. Both here and at Manresa and Gerona, cathedrals
+were built, resembling in construction that at Alby, in
+Southern France; in these this arrangement was carried a
+step further, and the side aisles were suppressed, leaving
+the whole nave to consist of a very bold vaulted hall,
+fringed by a series of side chapels, which were separated
+from each other by the buttresses which supported the main
+vault. These large vaults, however, when bare of decoration,
+as most of the Spanish vaults are, appear bald and poor
+in effect, though they are grand objects structurally.</p>
+
+<p>The Gothic work of the latest period in Spain became
+extraordinarily florid in its details, especially in the variety
+introduced into the ribs of the vaulting and the enrichments
+generally. The great cathedrals of Segovia and
+Salamanca were neither of them begun till the sixteenth
+century had already well set in. They are the two principal
+examples of this florid Gothic.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 363px;">
+<a name="fig59" id="fig59"></a>
+<img src="images/agr104.jpg" width="363" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 59.&mdash;The Giralda at Seville. (Begun in 1196. Finished in 1538).</p>
+
+<p>It will not be forgotten that the country we are now
+considering was fully occupied by the Moors, and that they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"><!-- original location of Fig. 59 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>142]</a></span>
+left in Southern Spain buildings of great merit. A certain
+number of Christian churches exist built in a style which
+has been called Moresco, as being a kind of fusion of
+Moorish and Gothic. The towers of these churches bear a
+close resemblance to the Saracenic towers of which the
+beautiful bell-tower, called the Giralda, at Seville (Fig. <a href="#fig59">59</a>)
+is the type; with this and similar examples in the country
+it is not surprising that at Toledo, Saragoza, and other
+places, towers of the same character should be erected
+as parts of churches in which the architecture throughout
+is as much Saracenic as Christian.</p>
+
+<p>To many of these great churches, cloisters, and monastic
+buildings, which are often both extensive and of a high
+order of architectural excellence, are attached. The secular
+buildings, of Spain in the Gothic period are, on the other
+hand, neither numerous nor remarkable.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="chap08b" id="chap08b"></a>PORTUGAL.</h3>
+
+<p>The architecture of Portugal has been very little investigated.
+The great church at Batalha<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> is probably the
+most important in the country. This building, though
+interesting in plan, is more remarkable for a lavish amount
+of florid ornament, of which our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig60">60</a>)
+may furnish some idea, than for really fine architecture.
+The conventual church at Belem, near Lisbon, a work of
+the beginning of the sixteenth century, and equally
+florid, is another of the small number of specimens of
+Portuguese Gothic of which descriptions or illustrations
+have been published.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a>
+An illustration of such a campanile will be found in that belonging
+to the Cathedral of Siena (Fig. <a href="#fig52">52</a>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a>
+See <a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a>
+For an explanation of this term, see <i>ante</i>, Chapter <a href="#chap05">V.</a>, page <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a>
+A cast of this portal is at the South Kensington Museum.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a>
+See <i>Sculptures of the Monastery at Batalha</i>, published by the
+Arundel Society.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>143]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/agr004.jpg" width="500" height="183"
+alt="Cr&ecirc;te from Notre Dame, Paris" />
+</div>
+
+<h2><a name="chap09" id="chap09"></a>CHAPTER IX.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="vsmlfont">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.</span></h2>
+
+
+<h3>PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN.</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Materials and Construction.</i></h4>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE Gothic architects adhered, at any rate till the
+fifteenth century, to the use of very small stones in
+their masonry. In many buildings of large size it is hard
+to find any stone heavier than two men can lift. Bad
+roads and the absence of good mechanical means of
+hoisting and moving big blocks led to this.</p>
+
+<p>The mortar, though good, is not equal to the Roman. As
+a rule in each period mortar joints are thick. They are
+finest in the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>The masonry of all important features of the building
+is always good; it is often a perfect marvel of dexterity
+and skill as well as of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The arts of workers in other materials, such as carpenters,
+joiners, smiths, and plumbers were carried to great
+perfection during the Gothic period.</p>
+
+<p>The appropriate ornamental treatment which each material
+is best fitted to receive was invariably given to it,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>144]</a></span>
+and forms appropriate to one material were very rarely
+copied in others. For example, whenever wrought iron, a
+material which can be beaten and welded, or rivetted, was
+employed, those ornamental forms were selected into which
+hot iron can with ease be beaten, and such groups of those
+forms were designed as can be obtained by welding or by
+rivetting them together.</p>
+
+<p>Wood, on the other hand, cannot be bent with ease, but
+can be readily cut, drilled with holes, notched and carved;
+accordingly, where wood had to be treated ornamentally,
+we only find such forms as the drill, the chisel, the saw, or
+the gouge readily and naturally leave behind them.</p>
+
+<p>Again, the mode into which wood can be best framed
+together was carefully considered from a constructional
+point of view, and medi&aelig;val joiners&rsquo; work is always first so
+designed as to reduce the damage from shrinkage to the
+smallest amount possible; and the pieces of which it is
+composed are then appropriately ornamented, moulded, or
+carved.</p>
+
+<p>Stone is now always, at least in this country, worked by
+being first squared and then worked-down or &ldquo;sunk&rdquo;
+from the squared faces to the mouldings required, and this
+procedure seems to have been common, though not quite
+universal, in the Middle Ages. Consequently we usually find
+the whole of the external mouldings with which the doorways
+and arcades of important buildings were enriched,
+designed so as to be easily formed out of stones having
+squared faces, or, to use the technical phrase, to be &ldquo;sunk&rdquo;
+from the squared blocks.</p>
+
+<p>The character of sculpture in wood differs from that in
+stone, the material being harder, more capable of standing
+alone; so in stone we find more breadth, in wood finer lines
+and more elaboration.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>145]</a></span>
+In a word, no material was employed in simulating
+another (or with the rarest exceptions), and when any
+ornament was to be executed in one place in one material
+and in another place in a different one, such alterations
+were always made in the treatment as corresponded to the
+different qualities of the two materials.</p>
+
+<p>The arch was introduced whenever possible, and the
+structure of a great Gothic building presents the strongest
+possible contrast to that of a Greek building.</p>
+
+<p>In the Greek temple there was no pressure that was not
+vertical and met by a vertical support, wall, or column, and
+no support that was not vastly in excess of the dimensions
+actually required to do the work.</p>
+
+<p>A great Gothic building attains stability through the
+balanced counterpoise of a vast series of pressures, oblique,
+perpendicular, or horizontal, so arranged as to counteract
+each other. The vault was kept from spreading by the
+flying buttress, the thrust of the arcade was resisted by
+massive walls, and so on throughout.</p>
+
+<p>The equilibrium thus obtained was sometimes so ticklish
+that a storm of wind, a trifling settlement, or a slight concussion
+sufficed to occasion a disaster; and many of the
+daring feats of the masons of the Middle Ages are lost to
+us, because they dared a little too much and the entire
+structure collapsed. This happened more often in the
+middle period of the style than in the earliest, but during
+the whole Gothic period there is a constant uniform
+tendency in one direction: thinner walls, wider arches,
+loftier vaults, slenderer buttresses, slighter piers, confront
+us at every step, and we need only compare some Norman
+structure (such as Durham), with a perpendicular (such
+as Henry VII.&rsquo;s Chapel), to see how vast a change took
+place in this respect.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>146]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>The Principles of Gothic Design.</i></h4>
+
+<p>All the germs of Gothic architecture exist in the Romanesque
+of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and became
+developed as the passion for more slender proportions,
+greater lightness, and loftiness of effect, and more delicate
+enrichment became marked. It is quite true that the
+pointed arch is universally recognised as, so to speak, the
+badge of Gothic, even to the extent of having suggested the
+title of Christian pointed architecture, by which it is often
+called. But the pointed arch must be regarded rather as a
+token that the series of changes, which, starting from the
+heavy if majestic Romanesque of such a cathedral as Peterborough,
+culminated in the gracefulness of Salisbury or
+Lincoln, was far advanced towards completion, than as really
+essential to their perfection. Many of the examples of
+the transition period exhibit the round arch blended with
+the pointed (<i>e.g.</i> the nave of St. David&rsquo;s Cathedral or the
+Choir of Canterbury), and when we come to consider German
+architecture we shall find that the adoption of the pointed
+arch was postponed till long after the development of all, or
+almost all, the other features of the Gothic style; so as to
+place beyond question the existence, in that country at
+least, of &ldquo;round arched Gothic.&rdquo; Some of the best authorities
+have indeed proposed to employ this title as a designation
+for much, if not all, the round arched architecture
+of the west of Europe, but Scott, Sharpe, and other
+authorities class medi&aelig;val art down to the middle of the
+twelfth century under the general head of Romanesque,
+a course which has been adopted in this volume.</p>
+
+<p>The proportions of Gothic buildings were well studied,
+their forms were always lofty, their gables sharp, and their
+general composition more or less pyramidal. Remarkable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>147]</a></span>
+numerical relations between the dimensions of the different
+parts of a great Gothic cathedral can be discovered upon
+careful examination in most, if not all instances, and there
+can be little doubt that a system of geometrical proportions
+ran through the earlier design, and that much of the
+harmony and beauty which the buildings present is traceable
+to this fact. Independent of this the skill with which
+subordinate features and important ones are fitted to their
+respective positions, both by their dimensions and by their
+relative elaboration or plainness, forms a complete system
+of proportion, making use of the word in its broadest sense;
+and the results are extremely happy.</p>
+
+<p>Apparent size was imparted to almost every Gothic
+building by the smallness, great number, and variety of
+its features, and by the small size of the stones employed.
+The effect of strength is generally, though not perhaps
+so uniformly, also obtained, and dignity, beauty, and
+harmony are rarely wanting.</p>
+
+<p>Symmetry, though not altogether overlooked, has but a
+slender hold upon Gothic architects. It is far more
+observed in the interior than in the exterior of the buildings;
+but it must be remembered that symmetry formed the
+basis of many designs which, owing to the execution having
+been carried on through a long series of years and by
+different hands, came to be varied from the original intentions.
+Thus, for example, Chartres is a cathedral with
+two western towers. One of these was carried up and its
+spire completed in the twelfth century. The companion
+spire was not added till the end of the fifteenth, when
+men&rsquo;s ideas as to the proportions, shape, ornaments, and
+details of a spire had altered entirely;&mdash;the later architect
+did not value symmetry enough to think himself bound to
+adhere either to the design or to the height of the earlier
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>148]</a></span>
+spire, so we have in this great fa&ccedil;ade two similar flanking
+towers but spires entirely unlike. What happened
+at Chartres happened elsewhere. The original design of
+buildings was in the main symmetrical, but it was never
+considered that symmetry was a matter so important as to
+require that much sacrifice should be made to preserve it.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand the subordination of a multitude of
+small features to one dominant one enters largely into the
+design of every good Gothic building; with the result that
+if the great governing feature or mass has been carried out
+in its entirety, almost any feature, no matter how irregular
+or unsymmetrical, may be safely introduced, and will only
+add picturesqueness and piquancy to the design. This is
+more or less a leading principle of Gothic design. A building
+with no irregularities, none of those charming additions
+which add individual character to Gothic churches, and
+none of the isolated features which the principle of subordination
+permits the architect to employ, has missed one
+of the chief qualities of the style. It is here that unskilled
+architects mostly fail when they attempt Gothic designs;
+they either hold on to symmetry as though they were
+designing a Greek temple, and they are unaware that the
+spirit of the style in which they are trying to work not
+only permits, but requires some irregular features; or if
+they do not fall into this error they are overtaken by the
+opposite one, and omit to make their irregular features subordinate
+to the general effect of the whole, an error less
+serious in its effects than the other, but still destructive of
+anything like the highest qualities in a building.</p>
+
+<p>Repetition, like symmetry, is recognised by Gothic
+architecture, but not adhered to in a rigid way. No
+buildings gain more from the repetition of parts than
+Gothic churches and cathedrals; the series of pillars or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>149]</a></span>
+piers and arches inside, the series of buttresses and
+windows outside, add scale to the general effect. But so
+long as it was in the main a series of features which
+broadly resembled one another, the Gothic architect was
+satisfied, and did not feel bound to exact repetition.</p>
+
+<p>We are often, for example, surprised to find in the
+columns of a church an octagonal one alternating with a
+circular one, and almost invariably, if a series of capitals
+be examined, each will be discovered to differ from the
+others to some extent. In one bay of a church there may
+be a two-light window, and in the next a three-light
+window, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>This we find in buildings erected at one time and under
+one architect. Where, however, a building begun at one
+period was continued at another (and this, it must be
+remembered, was the rule, not the exception, with all large
+Gothic buildings), the architect, while usually repeating the
+same features, with the same general forms, invariably
+followed his own predilections as to detail. There is a
+very good example of this in Westminster Abbey, in the
+western bays of the nave, which were built years later
+than the eastern bays. They are, to a superficial observer,
+identical, being of the same height and width and shape
+of arch, but nearly every detail differs.</p>
+
+<p>Disclosure, rather than concealment, was a principle of
+Gothic design. This was demonstrated long ago by Pugin,
+and many of his followers pushed the doctrine to such
+extremes, that they held&mdash;and some of them still hold&mdash;that
+no building is really Gothic in which any part, either
+of its construction or arrangement, is not obviously visible
+inside and out.</p>
+
+<p>This is, however, carrying the principle too far. It is
+sufficient to say that the interior disposition of every Gothic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>150]</a></span>
+building was as much as possible disclosed by the exterior.
+Thus, in a secular building, where there is a large room,
+there usually was a large window; when a lofty apartment
+occurs, its roof was generally proportionately high; where
+a staircase rises, we usually can detect it by a sloping row
+of little windows following the line of the stair, or by a
+turret roof.</p>
+
+<p>The mode in which the thrust of vaults is counterpoised
+is, as has been shown, frankly displayed by the Gothic
+architects, and as a rule, every portion of the structure is
+freely exhibited. It grows out of this, that when an ornamental
+feature is desired, it is not constructed purely for
+ornament, as the Romans added the columns and cornices
+of the orders to the outside of their massive walls purely
+as an architectural screen; but some requisite, of the building
+is taken and ornamented, and in some cases elaborated.
+Thus the belfry grew into the enormous bell tower; the
+tower roof grew into the spire; the extra weight required
+on flying buttresses grew into the ornamental pinnacle;
+and the window head grew into tracery.</p>
+
+<p>There were, however, some exceptions. The walls were
+still constantly faced with finer masonry than in the
+heart, and though some are unwilling to admit the fact,
+were often plastered outside as well as in; and what is
+more remarkable, no other sign of the vault appeared
+outside the building than the buttresses required to
+sustain it.</p>
+
+<p>The external gable conforms to the shape of the roof
+which covered the vault, but the vault, perhaps the most
+remarkable and characteristic feature of the whole building,
+does not betray its presence by any external line or
+mark corresponding to its position and shape in the interior
+of the building. Notwithstanding these and some other
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"><!-- original location of Fig. 60 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>152]</a></span>
+exceptions, frank disclosure must be reckoned one of the
+main principles of Gothic architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 404px;">
+<a name="fig60" id="fig60"></a>
+<img src="images/agr105.jpg" width="404" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 60.&mdash;Doorway from Church at Batalha. (Begun 1385.)</p>
+
+<p>Elaboration and simplicity were both so well known to
+the Gothic architect that it is difficult to say that either
+of these qualities belongs exclusively to his work. But
+he was rarely simple when he had the opportunity of
+being elaborate, and simplicity was perhaps rather forced
+upon him by the circumstances under which he worked, by
+rude materials, scanty funds, and lack of skilled workmen,
+than freely chosen. Many of the great works of the Gothic
+period are as elaborate as they could be made (Fig. <a href="#fig60">60</a>),
+and yet, when simplicity had to be the order of the day,
+no architecture has lent it such a grace as Gothic.</p>
+
+<p>The last pair of qualities is similarity and contrast.
+What has been said about repetition has anticipated the
+remarks called for by these qualities, so far as to point out
+that even where the arrangement of the building dictated
+the repetition of similar features, a general resemblance, and
+not an exact similarity, was considered sufficient. In the
+composition of masses of building, contrast and not similarity
+was the ruling principle. Even in the interiors of
+great churches which, as a rule, are far more regular than
+the exteriors, the contrast between the comparative plainness
+of the nave and the richness of the choir was an
+essential element of design.</p>
+
+<p>External design in Gothic buildings depends almost
+entirely upon contrast for its power of charming the
+eye, and it is this circumstance which has left the successive
+generations of men who toiled at our great Gothic
+cathedrals so free to follow the bent of their own taste
+in their additions, rather than that of their forerunners.</p>
+
+<p>But setting aside the irregularities due to the caprice of
+various builders, and the constant changes which took place
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>153]</a></span>
+in detail through the Gothic period, it is to contrast that
+we must trace most of the surprising effects attained by the
+architecture of the Middle Ages. The rich tracery was
+made richer by contrast with plain walls, the loftiest towers
+appeared higher from their contrast with the long level
+lines of roofs and parapets.</p>
+
+<p>It is, in truth, one of the principal marks of the decadence
+which began in the fifteenth century that the
+principle of contrast was, to a considerable extent, abandoned,
+at least in the details of the buildings if not in
+their great masses. Walls were at that time panelled in
+imitation of the tracery of the adjoining windows, and no
+longer acted as a foil to them by their solid plainness;
+long rows of pinnacles, all exactly alike, followed the line
+of the parapets, and a repetition of absolutely identical
+features became the rule for the first time in the history of
+Gothic art.</p>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt that had this modification run its
+natural course unchecked and undisturbed by the change
+in taste which abruptly brought the Gothic period to a
+close, it must have resulted in the deterioration of the
+art.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 350px;">
+<a name="tail04" id="tail04"></a>
+<img src="images/agr106.jpg" width="350" height="122"
+alt="Sculptured ornament from Rheims Cathedral" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>154]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="head06" id="head06"></a>
+<img src="images/agr107.jpg" width="500" height="146"
+alt="Renaissance ornament from a frieze" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center xlrgfont padtop padbase">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE.</p>
+
+<h2><a name="chap10" id="chap10"></a>CHAPTER X.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="vsmlfont">GENERAL VIEW.</span></h2>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">G</span>OTHIC architecture had begun, before the close of the
+fifteenth century, to show marks of decadence, and
+men&rsquo;s minds and tastes were ripening for a change. The
+change, when it did take place, arose in Italy, and was a direct
+consequence of that burst of modern civilisation known as
+the revival of letters. All the characteristics of the middle
+ages were rapidly thrown off. The strain of old Roman
+blood in the modern Italians asserted itself, and almost at
+a bound, literature and the arts sprang back, like a bow
+unstrung, into the forms they had displayed fifteen hundred
+years before.</p>
+
+<p>It became the rage to read the choice Greek and Latin
+authors, and to write Latin with a pedantic purity. Can
+we wonder that in painting, in sculpture, and in architecture,
+men reverted to the form, the style, and the decorations
+of the antique compositions, statues, and architectural
+remains? This was the more easy in Italy, as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>155]</a></span>
+Gothic art had never at any time taken so firm a hold
+upon Italians as it had upon nations north of the Alps.</p>
+
+<p>Though, however, the details and forms employed were
+all Roman, or Gr&aelig;co-Roman, they were applied to buildings
+essentially modern, and used with much freedom
+and spirit. This revival of classic taste in art is commonly
+and appropriately called Renaissance. In Italy it
+took place so rapidly that there was hardly any transition
+period. Brunelleschi, the first great Renaissance architect,
+began his work as early as the middle of the fifteenth
+century, and his buildings, in which classic details of great
+severity and purity are employed, struck, so to speak, a
+keynote which had been responded to all over Italy before
+the close of the fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>To other countries the change spread later, and it found
+them less prepared to welcome it unreservedly. Accordingly,
+in France, in England, and in many parts of Germany, we
+find a transition period, during which buildings were designed
+in a mixed style. In England, the transition lasted
+almost through the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>As the century went on, a most picturesque and telling
+style, the earlier phases of which are known as Tudor
+and the later as Elizabethan, sprang up in England. It
+betrays in its mixture of Gothic and classic forms great
+incongruities and even monstrosities; but it allows unrestrained
+play for the fancies, and the best mansions
+and manors of the time, such as Hatfield, Hardwick,
+Burleigh, Bramshill, and Audley End, are unsurpassed in
+their picturesqueness and romantic charm.</p>
+
+<p>The old red-brick, heavily chimneyed, and gabled buildings,
+with their large windows divided by bold mullions
+and transoms, and their simple noble outlines, are familiar
+to us all, and so are their characteristic features. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>156]</a></span>
+great hall with its oriel or its bay, the fine plastered ceiling,
+supported by heavy beams of timber; the wide oak
+staircase, with its carved balusters, and ornamented newel
+post, and heavy-moulded handrail; the old wainscoted
+parlour, with its magnificent chimney-piece reaching to
+the ceiling; these are all essentially English features,
+and are full of vigour and life, as indeed the work of
+every period of transition must almost necessarily prove.</p>
+
+<p>The transitional period in France produced exquisite
+works more refined and elegantly treated than ours, but not
+so vigorous. Its manner is known as the Fran&ccedil;ois Premier
+(Francis I.) style. No modern buildings are more profusely
+ornamented, and yet not spoilt.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany, the Castle of Heidelberg may be named
+as a well-known specimen of the transition period, a period
+over which however we must not linger. Suffice it to say,
+that sooner or later the change was fully accomplished in
+every European country, and Renaissance architecture,
+modified as climate, materials, habits, or even caprice suggested,
+yet the same in its essential characteristics, obtained
+a firm footing: this it has succeeded in retaining, though
+not to the exclusion of other styles, for now nearly three
+centuries.</p>
+
+<p>In Italy, Renaissance churches, great and small&mdash;from
+St. Peter&rsquo;s downwards&mdash;and magnificent secular buildings,
+some, like the Vatican Palace or the Library of St. Mark
+at Venice, for public purposes, but most for the occupation
+of the great wealthy and princely families, abound in
+Naples, Rome, Florence, Genoa, Venice, Milan, and indeed
+every great city.</p>
+
+<p>In France, the transition period was succeeded by a
+time when vast undertakings, <i>e.g.</i> the H&ocirc;tel de Ville,
+the Louvre, the Tuileries, Versailles, were carried out
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>157]</a></span>
+in the revived style with the utmost magnificence, and
+were imitated in every part of the country in the structures
+greater or smaller which were then built.</p>
+
+<p>In England, the works of Inigo Jones, and of Wren, are
+the most famous works of the developed style, and to the
+last-named architect we owe a cathedral second to none in
+Europe for its beauty of outline, and play of light and
+shade. To Germany, and the countries of the north-east
+Europe, and to Spain and Portugal on the south, the style
+also extended with no very great modification, either of its
+general forms or of its details.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Plan.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The plan of Renaissance buildings was uniform and
+symmetrical, and the picturesqueness of the Gothic times
+was abandoned. The plans of churches were not widely
+different from those in use in Italy before the revival of
+classic art took place, but it will be remembered that these
+were by no means so irregular or picturesque at any time
+as the plans of French and English cathedral churches.</p>
+
+<p>In secular architecture, the vast piles erected in the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by Italian, French, and
+Spanish architects are to the last degree orderly in their
+disposition. They are adapted to a great variety of purposes,
+and they display a varying degree of skill. The
+palaces of Genoa are, on the one hand, among the cleverest
+examples of planning existing; on the other hand, many
+of the palaces in France are weak and poor to the last degree.
+As a rule the scale of the plan is more considerable than in
+Gothic work. A very large building is often not divided
+into more parts than a small one, or one of moderate size.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>158]</a></span>
+In St. Peter&rsquo;s, for example, there are only four bays between
+the west front and the dome, everything being on a most
+gigantic scale. As a contrast to this principle we may cite
+the nave of the Gothic cathedral at Milan, which is not so
+long at St. Peter&rsquo;s, but has at least thrice as many bays, and
+looks much larger in consequence.</p>
+
+<p>No style affords more room for skill in planning than the
+Renaissance, and in no style is the exercise of such skill
+more repaid by results.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Walls and Columns.</i></h4>
+
+<p>In the treatment of external walls, the medi&aelig;val use
+of small materials, involving many joints for the exterior
+of walls has quite disappeared, and they are universally
+faced with stone or plaster, and are consequently uniformly
+smooth. Perhaps the principal feature to note is the very
+great use made of that elaborate sort of masonry in which
+the joints of the stones are very carefully channelled or
+otherwise marked, and which is known by the singularly
+inappropriate name of rustic work. The basements of
+most Italian and French palaces are rusticated, and in
+many cases (as the Pitti Palace, Florence) rustic work
+covers an entire fa&ccedil;ade.</p>
+
+<p>The Gothic mouldings in receding planes disappear
+entirely, and the classic architrave takes their place. The
+orders are again revived and are used (as the Romans often
+used them) as purely decorative features added for the mere
+sake of ornament to a wall sufficient without them, and are
+freely piled one upon the other. Palladio (a very influential
+Italian architect) reproduced the use of lofty pilasters
+running through two or even more storeys of the building,
+and often combined one tall order and two short ones
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>159]</a></span>
+in his treatment of the same part of the building, a contrivance
+which in less clever hands than his has given rise to
+the greatest confusion.</p>
+
+<p>The Renaissance architects also revived the late
+Roman manner of employing the column and entablature.
+They frequently carried on the top of a column a little
+square pier divided up as the architrave and frieze proper
+to the column would be divided, and they surmounted it
+with a cornice which was carried quite round this pier, and
+from this curious compound pedestal an arch will frequently
+spring. The classic portico, with pediments, was constantly
+employed by them; and small pediments over window heads
+were common. A peculiarity worth mention is the
+introduction in many Italian palaces of a great crowning
+cornice, proportioned not to the size of the columns and of
+the order upon which it rests (if an order be employed),
+but to the height of the whole building. Much fine
+effect is obtained by means of this feature; it is, however,
+better fitted for sunny Italy than for gloomy England, and
+it is not an unmixed success when repeated in our climate.</p>
+
+<p>Towers are less frequently employed than by the Gothic
+architects, and indeed in Italy the sky-line was less thought
+of at this period than it was in the middle ages. In
+churches, towers sometimes occur, nowhere more picturesque
+than those designed by Sir Christopher Wren for many of
+his London parish churches. The frequent use of the dome
+takes the place of the tower both in churches and secular
+buildings.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Openings.</i></h4>
+
+<p>Openings are both flat-headed and semicircular, occasionally
+elliptical, but hardly ever pointed. Renaissance
+buildings may be to some extent divided into those which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>160]</a></span>
+depend for effect upon window openings, and those which
+depend chiefly upon architectural features such as cornices,
+pilasters, and orders. Among the buildings where fenestration
+(or the treatment of windows) is relied upon the
+palaces of Venice stand pre-eminent as compositions
+admirably designed for effect and very successful. In them
+the openings are massed near the centre of the fa&ccedil;ade, and
+strong piers are left near the angles, a simple expedient
+when once known, and one inherited from the Gothic
+palaces in that city, but giving remarkable individuality
+of character to this group of buildings.</p>
+
+<p>In roofs, including vaults and domes, we meet with a
+divergence of practice between Italy and France. In
+Italy low-pitched roofs were the rule: the parapet alone
+often formed the sky-line, and the dome and pediment
+are usually the only telling features of the outline.
+France, on the other hand, revived a most picturesque
+feature of Gothic days, namely, the high-pitched roof, employing
+it in the shape commonly known as the Mansard<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+roof. Nothing adds more to the effectiveness of the great
+French Renaissance buildings than these lofty terminals.</p>
+
+<p>The dome is, however, the glory of this style, as it had
+been of the Roman. It is the one feature by which revived
+and original classic architects retain a clear and defined
+advantage over Gothic architects, who, strange to say, all
+but abandoned the dome. The mouldings and other
+ornaments of the Renaissance are much the same as those
+of the Roman style, which the Italians revived; their
+sculptures and their mural decorations were all originally
+drawn from classic sources. These, however, attained
+very great excellence, and it is probable that such decorative
+paintings as Raphael and his scholars executed in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>161]</a></span>
+Rome, at Genoa, at Mantua, and elsewhere, far surpass
+anything which the old Roman decorative artists ever
+executed.</p>
+
+
+<h4><i>Construction and Design.</i></h4>
+
+<p>The earlier Renaissance buildings are remarkable for
+the great use which their architects made of carpentry,
+as the most modern structures are for the use of wrought
+and cast-iron construction. As regards carpentry, it is of
+course true that all the woodwork of the classic periods,
+and much of that done in the Gothic period, has perished,
+either through decay or fire; but making every allowance
+for this, we must still recognise a very great increase in the
+employment of timber as an integral part of large structures.
+Vaulted roofs for example are comparatively rare,
+and domes, even when the inner dome is of brickwork
+or masonry, have their outer envelope of carpentry. A
+disuse of brick and rough masonry, or rather a constant
+effort to conceal them from view, is a distinctive mark of
+Renaissance work. The Roman method of facing rough
+walls with fine stone was resorted to in the best buildings.
+In humbler buildings plaster is employed.</p>
+
+<p>Renaissance architects made very free use of plaster.
+Inside and out this material is utilised, not merely to
+cover surfaces, but to form architectural features. Cornices,
+panels, and enrichments of all kinds modelled in
+plaster are constantly employed in the interior of rooms
+and buildings. On the exterior we constantly find imitations
+of similar architectural features proper to stone
+executed in plaster and simulating stone; a short-sighted
+practice which cannot be commended, and which has only
+cheapness and convenience in its favour. There can be
+no question of the fact that the features thus executed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>162]</a></span>
+never equal those done in stone in their effectiveness, and
+are far more liable to decay.</p>
+
+<p>Design in Renaissance buildings may be said to be
+directed towards producing a telling result by the effect of
+the buildings taken as a whole, rather than by the intricacy
+or the beauty of individual parts; and herein lies one of the
+great contrasts between Renaissance and Gothic architecture.
+A Renaissance building which fails to produce an
+impression as a whole is rarely felt to be successful. No
+better example of this can be given than the straggling,
+unsatisfactory Palace of Versailles, magnificent as it is in
+dimensions and rich in treatment. To the production of a
+homogeneous impression the arrangement of plan, the proportion
+of storeys, the contrasts of voids and solids, and above
+all the outline of the entire building, should be devoted.</p>
+
+<p>The general arrangement of buildings is usually strictly
+symmetrical, one half corresponding to the other, and with
+some well-defined feature to mark the centre. Of course
+in very large buildings this does not occur, nor in the
+nature of things can it often take place in the sides of
+churches; but the individual features of such buildings,
+and all those parts of them which permit of symmetry in
+their arrangement, always display it.</p>
+
+<p>Proportion plays an important part in the design of
+Renaissance buildings. The actual shape of openings, the
+proportion which they bear to voids, the proportion of
+storeys to one another; and, going into details, the proportions
+which the different features&mdash;<i>e.g.</i>, cornice, and
+the columns supporting it&mdash;should bear to one another,
+have to be carefully studied. It is to the possession of
+a keen sense of what makes a pleasing proportion and
+one satisfactory to the eye, that the great architects
+of Italy owed the greater part of their success.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>163]</a></span>
+Renaissance architecture is so familiar in its general
+features, and these have been so constantly repeated, that
+we may not easily recognise the great need for skill and
+taste which exists if they are to be designed so as to produce
+the most refined effect possible. Many of the successful
+buildings of the style owe their excellence to the great delicacy
+and elegance of the mode in which the details have been
+studied, rather than to the vigour and boldness with which
+the masses have been shaped and disposed; and though grandeur
+is the noblest quality of which the style is capable,
+yet many more opportunities for displaying grace and
+refinement than for attaining grandeur offer themselves,
+and by nothing are the best works of the style so well
+marked out as by the success with which those opportunities
+have been grasped and turned to account.</p>
+
+<p>The concealment both of construction and arrangement
+is largely practised in Renaissance buildings. Behind an
+exterior wall filled by windows of uniform size and equally
+spaced, rooms large and small, corridors, staircases, and other
+features have to be provided for. This is completely in contrast
+to the Gothic principle of displaying frankly on the
+outside the arrangement of what is within; but it must be
+remembered that art often works most happily and successfully
+when limited by apparently strict and difficult
+conditions, and these rules have not prevented the great
+architects of the Renaissance from accomplishing works
+where both the exterior and the interior are thoroughly
+successful, and are brought into such happy harmony
+that the difficulties have clearly been no bar to success.
+There is no canon of art violated by such a method, the
+simple fact being that Gothic buildings are designed
+under one set of conditions and Renaissance under another.</p>
+
+<p>It is less easy to defend the use of pilasters and columns
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>164]</a></span>
+large enough to appear as though they were the main
+support of the building, for purely decorative purposes;
+yet here perhaps the fault lies rather in the extent to
+which the practice has been carried, and above all the
+scale upon which it is carried out, than in anything else.
+Small columns are constantly employed in Gothic buildings
+in positions where they serve the &aelig;sthetic purpose of conveying
+a sense of support, but where it is impossible for
+them to carry any weight. The Renaissance architects
+have done the same thing on a large scale, but it must not
+be forgotten that they only revived a Roman practice as
+part of the ancient style to which they reverted, and that
+they are not responsible for originating it.</p>
+
+<p>It will be understood therefore that symmetry, strict
+uniformity, not mere similarity, in features intended to
+correspond, and constant repetition, are leading principles
+in Renaissance architecture. These qualities tend to breadth
+rather than picturesqueness of effect, and to similarity
+rather than contrast. Simplicity and elaboration are both
+compatible with Renaissance design; the former distinguishes
+the earlier and purer examples of the style, the
+latter those more recent and more grandiose.</p>
+
+<p>It should be observed that in the transition styles, such
+as our own Elizabethan, or the French style of Francis the
+First, these principles of design are mixed up in a very
+miscellaneous way with those followed in the Gothic
+period. The result is often puzzling and inconsistent if
+we attempt to analyse it with exactness, but rarely fails
+to charm by its picturesque and irregular vividness.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a>
+Named after a French architect of the 17th century.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>165]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="head07" id="head07"></a>
+<img src="images/agr108.jpg" width="500" height="208"
+alt="From a terra-cotta frieze at Lodi" />
+</div>
+
+<h2><a name="chap11" id="chap11"></a>CHAPTER XI.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="vsmlfont">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">R</span>ENAISSANCE architecture&mdash;the architecture of the
+classic revival&mdash;had its origin in Italy, and should
+be first studied in the land of its birth. There are
+more ways than one in which it may be attempted to
+classify Italian Renaissance buildings. The names of
+conspicuous architects are sometimes adopted for this
+purpose, for now, for the first time, we meet with a
+complete record of the names and performances of all
+architects of note: the men who raised the great works
+of Gothic art are, with a few exceptions, absolutely unknown
+to us. An approximate division into three stages
+can also be recognised. There is an early, a developed,
+and a late Renaissance, but this is very far indeed from
+being a completely marked series, and was more interfered
+with by local circumstances and by the character and
+genius of individual artists than in Gothic. For this
+reason a local division will be of most service. The best
+examples exist in the great cities, with a few exceptions,
+and it is almost more useful to group them&mdash;as the paintings
+of the Renaissance are also often grouped&mdash;by locality
+than in either of the other methods.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>166]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>FLORENCE.</h3>
+
+<p>Renaissance architecture first sprang into existence in
+Florence. Here chiefly the works of the early Renaissance
+are met with, and the names of the great Florentine
+architects are Brunelleschi and Alberti.</p>
+
+<p>Brunelleschi was a citizen of Florence, of very ardent
+temperament and great energy, and a true artist. He was
+born in 1377, was originally trained as a goldsmith and
+sculptor, but devoted himself to the study of architecture,
+and early set his heart upon being appointed to complete
+the dome of the then unfinished cathedral of Florence, of
+which some account has already been given.</p>
+
+<p>Florence in the fifteenth century was full of artistic
+life, and the revival of learning and arts had then begun
+to take definite shape. The first years of the century
+found Brunelleschi studying antiquities at Rome, to fit
+himself for the work he desired to undertake. After his
+return to his native city, he ultimately succeeded in the
+object of his ambition; the cathedral was entrusted to him,
+and he erected the large pointed dome with which it is
+crowned. He also erected two large churches in Florence,
+which, as probably the first important buildings designed
+and built in the new style, possess great interest. Santo
+Spirito, one of these, shows a fully matured system of
+architectural treatment, and though it is quite true that it
+was a revived system, yet the application of it to a modern
+building, different in its purpose and in its design from
+anything the Romans had ever done, is little short of a
+work of genius.</p>
+
+<p>Santo Spirito has a very simple and beautifully regular
+plan, and its interior has a singular charm and grace: over
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>167]</a></span>
+the crossing is raised a low dome. The columns of the
+arcade are Corinthian columns, and the refinement of their
+detail and proportions strikes the eye at once on entering
+the building. The influence of Brunelleschi, who died in
+1440, was perpetuated by the works and writings of
+Alberti (born 1398) an architect of literary cultivation
+who wrote a systematic treatise which became extremely
+popular, and helped to form the taste and guide the practice
+of his contemporaries. He lived till near the close of the
+fifteenth century, and erected some buildings of great
+merit. To Alberti we owe the design of the Ruccellai
+Palace in Florence, a building begun in 1460, and which
+had been preceded by somewhat bolder and simpler
+designs. This is a three storey building, but has pilasters
+carried up the piers between the windows and a regular
+entablature and cornice<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> at each storey. The building is
+elegant and graceful, and though the employment of the
+orders<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> as its decoration gives it a distinctive character, it
+bears a strong general resemblance to the group of which
+the Strozzi Palace (Fig. <a href="#fig61">61</a>) may be taken as the type.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest Florentine palaces are the Riccardi, which
+dates from 1430, and the Pitti of almost the same date;
+Brunelleschi is said to have been consulted in the design of
+both, but Michelozzo was the architect. The distinguishing
+characteristic of the early palaces in this city is solidity,
+which rises from the fact that they were also fortresses.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>168]</a></span>
+The Pitti, well known for its picture gallery, is a building
+of vast extent, built throughout in very boldly rusticated
+masonry, the joints and projections of the stones being
+greatly exaggerated. The Riccardi, a square block of
+building, bears a considerable resemblance to the Strozzi,
+but is plainer. It is a most dignified building in its effect.</p>
+
+<p>The Strozzi Palace (Fig. <a href="#fig61">61</a>) was the next great
+palatial pile erected. It was designed by Cronaca, and
+begun in 1498. Like the Riccardi, it is of three storeys,
+with a bold projecting cornice. The whole wall is covered
+with rusticated masonry; the windows of the lower floor
+are small and square; those of the two upper floors are
+larger and semicircular headed, and with a shaft acting
+as a mullion, and carrying arches which occupy the window
+head with something like tracery. The entrance is by a
+semicircular headed archway. There is a great height of
+unpierced wall in the lowest storey and above the heads of
+the two upper ranges of windows; and to this and the
+bold overhanging cornice, this building, and those like it,
+owe much of their dignity and impressiveness. An elevation,
+such as our illustration, may convey a fair idea of the
+good proportion and ensemble of the front, but it is difficult
+without actually seeing the buildings to appreciate the
+effect produced by such palaces as these, seen foreshortened
+in the narrow streets, and with the shadows from their
+bold cornices and well-defined openings intensified by the
+effect of the Italian sun.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig61" id="fig61"></a>
+<img src="images/agr109.jpg" width="600" height="442" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 61.&mdash;Strozzi Palace at Florence. (Begun 1489.)</p>
+
+<p>Many excellent palatial buildings belong to the end of
+the fifteenth century. One among them is attributed to
+Bramante (who died 1513), a Florentine, whom we shall
+meet with in Rome and elsewhere. The Guadagni Palace
+has an upper storey entirely open, forming a sheltered
+loggia, but it is mentioned here chiefly on account of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"><!-- original location of Fig. 61 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>170]</a></span>
+decorations incised on its walls by the method known as
+Sgraffito. Part of the plain wall is covered in this way
+with decorative designs, which appear as though drawn
+with a bold line on their surface. An example of this
+decoration will be found in our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig62">62</a>),
+representing a portion of the Loggia del Consiglio
+at Verona.</p>
+
+<p>The series of great Florentine palaces closes with a
+charming example, the Pandolfini, designed by the great
+Raphael, and commenced in 1520&mdash;in other words, in the
+first quarter of the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>This palace is only one of many instances to be found in
+Italy of the skill in more walks of art than one, of some of
+the greatest artists. Raphael, though best known as a
+painter, executed works of sculpture of great merit, and
+designed some other buildings besides the one now under
+notice. The Pandolfini Palace (Fig. <a href="#fig63">63</a>) is small, the main
+building having only four windows in the front and two
+storeys in height, with a low one-storey side building.
+Its general design has been very successfully copied in the
+Travellers&rsquo; Club House, Pall Mall. On comparing this
+with any of the previously named designs, it will be seen
+that the semicircular headed windows have disappeared,
+the rusticated masonry is only now retained at the angles,
+and to emphasise the side entrance; and a small order
+with a little pediment (<i>i.e.</i> gable) is employed to mark
+each opening, door or window. In short this building
+belongs not only to another century, but to that advanced
+school of art to which we have given the name of developed
+Italian Renaissance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 525px;">
+<a name="fig62" id="fig62"></a>
+<img src="images/agr110.jpg" width="525" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 62.&mdash;Part of the Loggia del Consiglio at Verona. (16th Century.)<br />
+<span class="nosc">Showing the incised decoration known as <i>Sgraffito</i>.</span></p>
+
+<p>In Florence some of the work of Michelangelo is to be
+met with. His own house is here; so is the famous Medici
+chapel, a work in which we find him displaying power at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"><!-- original location of Fig. 62 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>172]</a></span>
+once as a sculptor and an architect. This interior is very
+fine and very studied both in its proportions and its details.
+The church of the Annunziata, remarkable for a fine dome,
+carried on a drum resting directly on the ground, is the
+foremost Renaissance church in Florence.</p>
+
+<p>The contrast between early and matured Renaissance
+can indeed be better recognised in Florence than in almost
+any other city. The early work, that of Bramante, Brunelleschi,
+and the architects who drew their inspirations
+from these masters, was delicate and refined. The detail
+was always elegant, the ornament always unobtrusive, and
+often most graceful. Features comparatively small in
+scale were employed, and were set off by the use of plain
+wall-surface, which was unhesitatingly displayed. The
+classic orders were used in a restricted, unobtrusive way,
+and with pilasters in preference to columns; and though
+probably the architects themselves would have repudiated
+the idea that the Gothic art, which they had cast behind
+them, influenced their practice of revived classic in the
+remotest degree, it is nevertheless true that many of these
+peculiarities, and still more the general quality of the
+designs, were to a large extent those to which the practice
+of Gothic architecture had led them.</p>
+
+<p>A change which was partly due to a natural desire for
+progress, was helped on by the great attention paid by
+students of architecture to the remains of ancient Roman
+buildings; but it was the influence excited by the powerful
+genius of Michelangelo, and by the gigantic scale and
+vigorous treatment of his masterpiece, St. Peter&rsquo;s, which
+was the proximate occasion of a revolution in taste and
+practice, to which, the labours, both literary and artistic,
+of Vignola, and the designs of Palladio, gave form and
+consistency. In the fully-developed, or, as it is sometimes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"><!-- original location of Fig. 63 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>174]</a></span>
+called, pure Renaissance of Italy, great use is made of the
+classic orders and pediment, and indeed of all the features
+which the Romans had employed. Plain wall space almost
+disappears under the various architectural features introduced,
+and all ornaments, details, and mouldings become
+bolder and richer, but often less refined and correct in
+design.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig63" id="fig63"></a>
+<img src="images/agr111.jpg" width="600" height="334" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 63.&mdash;The Pandolfini Palace, Florence. Designed by Raphael. (Begun 1520.)</p>
+
+
+<h3>ROME.</h3>
+
+<p>Rome, the capital of the country, contains, as was fit, the
+central building of the fully-developed Renaissance, St.
+Peter&rsquo;s. Bramante, the Florentine, was the architect to
+whom the task of designing a cathedral to surpass anything
+existing in Europe was committed by Pope Julius II.
+at the opening of the sixteenth century. Some such project
+had been entertained, and even begun, fifty years earlier,
+but the enterprise was now started afresh, a new design
+was made, and the first stone was laid by the Pope in
+1506. Bramante died in some six or seven years, and five
+or six architects in succession, one of whom was Raphael,
+proceeded with the work, without advancing it rapidly, for
+nearly half a century, during which time the design was
+modified again and again. In 1546 the great Michelangelo
+was appointed architect, and the last eighteen
+years of his life were spent in carrying on this great work.
+He completed the magnificent dome in all its essential
+parts, and left the church a Greek cross (<i>i.e.</i> one which
+has all its four arms equal) on plan, with the dome at the
+crossing. The boast is attributed to him that he would
+take the dome of the Pantheon and hang it in the air;
+and this he has virtually accomplished in the dome of
+St. Peter&rsquo;s&mdash;a work of the greatest beauty of design and
+boldness of construction.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>175]</a></span>
+Unfortunately, at the beginning of the seventeenth
+century, Maderno was employed to lengthen the nave.
+This transformed the plan of the cathedral into a Latin
+cross. The existing portico was built at the same time;
+and in 1661 Bernini added the vast forecourt, lined by
+colonnades, which now forms the approach.</p>
+
+<p>This cathedral, of which the history has been briefly
+sketched, is the largest in the world. As we now see it,
+it consists of a vast vestibule; a nave of four bays with
+side aisles; a vast square central space over which hangs
+the great dome; transepts and a choir, each of one bay and
+an apse. Outside the great central space, an aisle, not
+quite like the ordinary aisle of a church, exists, and there
+are two side chapels. It can be well understood that if
+the largest church in Christendom is divided into so few
+parts, these must be themselves of colossal dimensions, and
+the truth is that the piers are masses of masonry which can
+be called nothing else than vast, while the spaces spanned by
+the arches and vaults are prodigious. There is little sense
+of mystery about the interior of the building (Fig. <a href="#fig64">64</a>), the
+eye soon grasps it as a whole, and hours must be spent
+in it before an idea of its gigantic size is at all taken in.
+The beauty of the colouring adds wonderfully to the effect
+of St. Peter&rsquo;s upon the spectator, for the walls are rich
+with mosaics and coloured marbles; and the interior, the
+dome especially, with the drum upon which it rests, are
+decorated in colour throughout, with fine effect and in
+excellent taste. The interior is amply lighted, and, though
+very rich, not over decorated; its design is simple and
+noble in the extreme, and all its parts are wonderful
+in their harmony. The connection between the dome and
+the rest of the building is admirable, and there is a
+sense of vast space when the spectator stands under that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>176]</a></span>
+soaring vault which belongs to no other building in the
+world.</p>
+
+<p>The exterior is disappointing as long as the building is
+seen in front, for the fa&ccedil;ade is so lofty and advances so
+far forward as to cut off the view of the lower part of the
+dome. To have an idea of the building as Michelangelo
+designed it, it is necessary to go round to the back; and
+then, with the height of the drum fully seen and the contour
+of the dome, with all its massy lines of living force,
+carrying the eye with them right up to the elegant
+lantern that crowns the summit, some conception of the
+hugeness and the symmetry of this mountain of art seems
+to dawn on the mind. But even here it is with the
+utmost difficulty that one can apply any scale to the mass,
+so that the idea which the mind forms of its bulk is continually
+fluctuating.</p>
+
+<p>The history of this building extends over all the period
+of developed Renaissance in Rome, and its list of architects
+includes all the best known names. By the side of
+it every other church, even St. John Lateran, appears
+insignificant; so that the secular buildings in Rome, which
+are numerous, and some of them excellent, are more worth
+attention than the churches, though not a few of the three
+hundred churches and basilicas of the metropolis of Italy
+are good examples of Renaissance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 408px;">
+<a name="fig64" id="fig64"></a>
+<img src="images/agr112.jpg" width="408" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 64.&mdash;St. Peter&rsquo;s at Rome. Interior. (1506-1661.)</p>
+
+<p>The altars, tombs, and other architectural or semi-architectural
+works which occur in many of the churches
+of Rome, are, however, finer works of art as a rule than
+the buildings which they adorn. Such gems are not confined
+to Rome, but are to be found throughout Italy:
+many of them belong to the best period of art. Marble
+is generally the material, and the light as a rule falls
+on these works in one direction only. Under these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"><!-- original location of Fig. 64 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>178]</a></span>
+circumstances the most subtle moulding gives a play of light
+and shade, and the most delicate carving produces a richness
+of effect which cannot be attained in exterior architecture,
+executed for the most part in stone, exposed to the weather,
+and seen by diffused and reflected light. Nothing of this
+sort is finer than the monuments by Sansovino, erected in
+Sta. Maria del Popolo at Rome, one of which we illustrate
+on a small scale (Fig. <a href="#fig65">65</a>). The magnificent altar-piece in
+Sta. Coronale at Vicenza, in which is framed Bellini&rsquo;s
+picture of the baptism of Christ, is another example, on
+an unusually large scale&mdash;fine in style, and covered with
+beautiful ornament.</p>
+
+<p>No secular building exists in Rome so early or so simple
+as the severe Florentine palaces; but Bramante, who
+belongs to the early period, erected there the fine Cancelleria
+palace; and the Palazzo Giraud (Fig. <a href="#fig66">66</a>). These
+buildings resemble one another very closely; each bears
+the impress of refined taste, but delicacy has been carried
+almost to timidity. The pilasters and cornices which are
+employed have the very slightest projection, but the large
+mass of the wall as compared with the openings, secures an
+appearance of solidity, and hence of dignity. The interior
+of the Cancelleria contains an arcaded quadrangle (<i>cortile</i>)
+of great beauty. Smaller palaces belonging to the same
+period and of the same refined, but somewhat weak,
+character exist in Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 389px;">
+<a name="fig65" id="fig65"></a>
+<img src="images/agr113.jpg" width="389" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 65.&mdash;Monument, by Sansovino, in Sta. Maria del Popolo,
+Rome. (15th Century.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 462px;">
+<a name="fig66" id="fig66"></a>
+<img src="images/agr114.jpg" width="462" height="250" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 66.&mdash;Palazzo Giraud (now Torlonia), Rome. By Bramante. (1506.)</p>
+
+<p>The Vatican Palace is so vast that, like St. Peter&rsquo;s, it
+took more than one generation to complete. To Bramante&rsquo;s
+time belongs the great Belvedere, since much altered, but
+in its original state an admirable work. This palace also
+can show some remarkable additions by Bernini, a much
+later architect, with much that is not admirable or remarkable
+by other hands. The finest Roman palace is the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"><!-- original location of Fig. 65 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>180]</a></span>
+Farnese, begun by San Gallo in 1530, continued by
+Michelangelo, and completed by Giacomo della Porta,
+each architect having altered the design. This building,
+notwithstanding its chequered history, is a dignified, impressive
+mass. It has only three storeys and a scarcely
+marked basement, and is nearly square, with a large
+quadrangle in its heart. It is very lofty, and has a great
+height of unpierced wall over each storey of windows,
+and is crowned by a bold and highly-enriched cornice&mdash;an
+unusual thing for Rome. In this, and in many palaces
+built about the same time, the windows are ornamented
+in the same manner as those of the Pandolfini Palace at
+Florence; the use of pilasters instead of columns is
+general; the openings are usually square-headed, circular
+heads being usually confined to arcades and loggie; the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>181]</a></span>
+angles are marked by rustication, and the only cornice is
+the one that crowns the whole. This general character
+will apply to most of the works of Baldassare Peruzzi,
+Vignola, Sangallo, and Raphael, who were, with Michelangelo,
+the foremost architects in Rome in the sixteenth
+century. But &ldquo;the works executed by Michelangelo are
+in a bolder and more pictorial style, as are also many
+productions grafted on the earlier Italian manner by a
+numerous class of succeeding architects. In these is to
+be remarked a greater use of columns, engaged and isolated;
+stronger but less studied details; and a greater
+use of colonnades, in which however the combination with
+the semicircular arch is still unusual, the antique in this
+respect being followed to a great disadvantage. Still there
+is a nobility, a palatial look about these large mansions
+which is very admirable, and is to be remarked in all the
+palaces, even up to the time of Borromini, <i>circa</i> 1640, by
+whom all the principles and parts of Roman architecture
+were literally turned topsy-turvey. Michelangelo&rsquo;s peculiar
+style was more thoroughly carried out on ecclesiastical
+buildings, and as practised by his successors, exhibits much
+that is fine, in large masses, boldly projecting cornices,
+three-quarter columns, and noble domes; but it is otherwise
+debased by great misconceptions as to the reasonable
+application of architecture.&rdquo;&mdash;<small>M.&nbsp;D.&nbsp;W.</small></p>
+
+<p>In the seventeenth century a decline set in. The late
+Renaissance has neither the severity of the early, nor the
+dignified richness of the mature time, but is extravagant;
+though at Rome examples of its extreme phase are not
+common. Maderno, who erected the west front of St.
+Peter&rsquo;s, and Bernini, who added the outer forecourt and
+also built the curiously designed state staircase (the <i>scala
+regia</i>) in the Vatican, are the foremost architects. To
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>182]</a></span>
+these must be added Borromini. The great Barberini
+Palace belongs to this century; but perhaps its most
+characteristic works are the fountains, some of them with
+elaborate architectural backgrounds, which ornament many
+of the open places in Rome. Few of the buildings of the
+eighteenth century in Rome, or indeed in Italy generally,
+claim attention as architectural works of a high order
+of merit.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving central Italy for the north, it is necessary
+to mention the masterpiece of Vignola&mdash;the great
+Farnese Palace at Caprarola; and to add that in every
+city of importance examples more or less admirable of the
+art of the time were erected.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VENICE, VICENZA, AND VERONA.</h3>
+
+<p>The next great group of Renaissance buildings is to be
+found at Venice, where the style was adopted with some
+reluctance, and not till far on in the sixteenth century.
+At first we meet with some admixture of Gothic elements;
+as, for example, in the rebuilding of the internal quadrangle
+of the Ducal Palace. Pointed arches are partly
+employed in this work, which was completed about the
+middle of the sixteenth century. In the earlier palaces&mdash;which,
+it will be remembered, are comparatively narrow
+buildings standing side by side on the banks of the canals&mdash;the
+storeys are well marked; the windows are round headed
+with smaller arches within the main ones; the orders when
+introduced are kept subordinate; the windows are grouped
+together in the central portion of the front, as was the
+case with those of the Gothic palaces, and very little use
+is made of rusticated masonry. The Vendramini, Cornaro,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>183]</a></span>
+and Trevisano Palaces conform to this type. To the same
+period belong one or two fine churches, the most famous
+being San Zacaria, a building with a very delicately
+panelled front, and a semicircular pediment in lieu of a
+gable; here, too, semicircular-headed openings are made
+use of. In many of these churches and other buildings,
+a beautiful ornament, which may be regarded as typical of
+early Venetian Renaissance, is to be found. It is the
+shell ornament, so called from its resemblance to a flat
+semicircular shell, ribbed from the centre to the circumference
+(Fig. <a href="#fig67">67</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 383px;">
+<a name="fig67" id="fig67"></a>
+<img src="images/agr115.jpg" width="383" height="200" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 67.&mdash;Italian Shell Ornament.</p>
+
+<p>As time went on the style was matured into one of great
+richness, not to say ostentation, with which the names of
+Sansovino, Sanmichele, Palladio, and Scamozzi are identified
+as the prominent architects of the latter part of the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In this city of
+palaces Sansovino, also a very fine sculptor, built the celebrated
+Library of St. Mark, facing the Ducal Palace,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>184]</a></span>
+which has been followed very closely in the design of
+the Carlton Club, Pall Mall. Here, as in the splendid
+Cornaro Palace, the architect relied chiefly upon the
+columns and entablatures of the orders, combined with
+grand arcades enriched by sculpture, so arranged as to
+occupy the spaces between the columns; almost the whole
+of the wall-space was so taken up, and the basement only
+was covered with rustication, often rough worked, as at
+the beautiful Palazzo Pompeii, Verona, and the Grimani
+Palace, Venice.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Sanmichele&rsquo;s works are characterised chiefly by their
+excellent proportions, their carefully studied detail, their
+strength, and their beauty (qualities so difficult to combine).
+We believe that the buildings of this great architect
+and engineer at Verona are pre-eminent in their peculiar
+style over those of any other artist of the sixteenth
+century. In a different, but no less meritorious, manner
+are the buildings designed by Sansovino; they are characterised
+by a more sculptural and ornamental character;
+order over order with large arched voids in the interspaces
+of the columns producing a pictorial effect which might
+have led his less gifted followers into a false style, but for
+the example of the celebrated Palladio.&rdquo;&mdash;<small>M.&nbsp;D.&nbsp;W.</small></p>
+
+<p>To the latest time of the Renaissance in Venice belongs
+the picturesque domed church of St. Maria della Salute,
+conspicuous in many views of the Grand Canal, a building
+which is a work of real genius in spite of what is considered
+its false taste. It dates from 1632. The architect
+is Longhena.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 328px;">
+<a name="fig68" id="fig68"></a>
+<img src="images/agr116.jpg" width="328" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 68.&mdash;The Church of the Redentore, Venice. (1576.)</p>
+
+<p>An almost endless series of palaces and houses can be
+found in Venice, all of them rich, but few of great extent,
+for every foot of space had to be won from the sea
+by laborious engineering. There are some features which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>185]</a></span>
+never fail to present themselves, and which are consequences
+of the conditions under which the structures were
+designed. All rise from the water, and require to admit
+of gondolas coming under the walls; hence there is always
+a principal central entrance with steps in front, but this
+entrance never has any sort of projecting portico or porch,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>186]</a></span>
+and is never very much larger than the other openings in
+the front. As a straight frontage to the water had to be
+preserved, we hardly ever meet with such a thing as a break
+or projection of any sort; but the Venetian architects have
+found other means of giving interest to their elevations,
+and it is to the very restrictions imposed by circumstances
+that we owe the great originality displayed in their earlier
+buildings. The churches do not usually front directly on
+to the water; and though they are almost all good of their
+kind, they are far more commonplace than the palaces.
+The system of giving variety to the fa&ccedil;ade of the secular
+buildings by massing openings near the centre, has been
+already referred to. Both shadow and richness were also
+aimed at in the employment of projecting balconies; in fact
+the two usually go together, for the great central window
+or group of windows mostly has a large and rich balcony
+belonging to it.</p>
+
+<p>Not far from Venice is Vicenza, and here Palladio, whose
+best buildings in Venice are churches, such, for example,
+as the Redentore (Fig. <a href="#fig68">68</a>), enjoyed an opportunity of
+erecting a whole group of palaces, the fronts of which
+are extremely remarkable as designs; though, being executed
+in brick and plastered, they are now falling to ruin.
+There is much variety in them, and while some of them
+rely upon his device of lofty pilasters to include two storeys
+of the building under one storey of architectural treatment,
+others are handled differently. In all a singularly fine
+feeling for proportion and for the appropriate omission as
+well as introduction of ornament is to be detected. The
+worst defect of these fronts is, however, that they appear
+more like masks than the exteriors of buildings, for there
+is little obvious connection between the features of the
+exterior and anything which we may suppose to exist
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>187]</a></span>
+inside the building. The finest architectural work left
+behind by Palladio in this city are, however, the great
+arcades with which he surrounded the Basilica, a vast
+building of the middle ages already alluded to. These
+arcades are two storeys high, and are rich, yet vigorous;
+they ornament the great structure, the roof of which may
+be seen rising behind, without overpowering it.</p>
+
+
+<h3>MILAN AND PAVIA.</h3>
+
+<p>In Milan two buildings at least belong to the early
+Renaissance. These are the sacristy of Sta. Maria presso
+San Satiro, and the eastern portion of the church of Sta.
+Maria delle Grazie; Bramante was the architect of both.
+The last-named work is an addition to an existing Gothic
+church; it is executed in the terra-cotta and brick of
+Lombardy, materials which the Renaissance architects
+seemed to shun in later times, and is full of the most
+profuse and elegant ornaments. The design consists of a
+dome, treated externally a little like some of the Lombard
+domes of earlier date; and three apses forming choir and
+transepts. It is divided into several stages, and abundantly
+varied in its panelling and arcading, and is full of
+vigour. By Bramante is also the very beautiful arcaded
+quadrangle of the great hospital at Milan, the Gothic front
+of which has been already noticed. There are many
+Renaissance buildings of later date in Milan, but none
+very remarkable.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 421px;">
+<a name="fig69" id="fig69"></a>
+<img src="images/agr117.jpg" width="421" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 69.&mdash;The Certosa near Pavia. Part of the West Front.
+(Begun by Borgognone 1473.)</p>
+
+<p>To the early period belongs the design of the fa&ccedil;ade of
+the Certosa near Pavia, part of which is shown (Fig. <a href="#fig69">69</a>).
+This was begun as early as 1473, by Ambrogio Borgognone,
+and was long in hand. It proceeded on the lines settled thus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"><!-- original location of Fig. 69 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>189]</a></span>
+early, and is probably the richest fa&ccedil;ade belonging to any
+church in Christendom; it is executed entirely in marble.
+Sculpture is employed to adorn every part that is near
+the eye, and especially the portal, which is flanked by
+pilasters with their faces panelled and occupied by splendid
+<i>alti relievi</i>. The upper part is enriched by inlays of costly
+marbles, but the two systems of decoration do not thoroughly
+harmonise; for the upper half looks coarse, which it in
+reality is not, in contrast with the delicate richness of the
+carving near the eye. The great features, such as the
+entrance, the windows, and the angle pinnacles are
+thoroughly good, and an arcade of small arches is twice
+introduced,&mdash;once running completely across the front at
+about half its height, and again near the top of the
+central portion,&mdash;with excellent effect (see <a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3>GENOA, TURIN, AND NAPLES.</h3>
+
+<p>Turning now to Genoa we find, as we may in several
+great cities of Italy, that very great success has been
+achieved by an artist whose works are to be seen in no
+other city, and whose fame is proportionally restricted.
+Just as the power of Luini as a painter can only be fully
+understood at Milan, or that of Giulio Romano at Mantua,
+so the genius of Alessio (1500 to 1572) as an architect can
+only be understood at Genoa. From the designs of this
+architect were built a series of well planned and imposing
+palaces. These buildings have most of them the advantage
+of fine and roomy sites. The fronts are varied, but as a
+rule consist of a very bold basement, with admirably-treated
+vigorous mouldings, supporting a lighter superstructure, and
+in one or two instances flanked by an open arcade at the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>190]</a></span>
+wings. The entrance gives access, through a vaulted hall,
+to the cortile, which is usually planned and designed in
+the most effective manner; and in several instances the
+state staircase is so combined with this feature that on
+ascending the first flight the visitor comes to a point of
+sight for which the whole may be said to have been
+designed, and from which a splendid composition of
+columns and arches is seen. The rooms and galleries in
+these palaces are very fine, and in several instances have
+been beautifully decorated in fresco by Perino del Vaga.</p>
+
+<p>Alessio was also the architect of a large domical church
+(il Carignano) in the same city; but it is far inferior in
+merit to his series of palaces. Genoa also possesses a
+famous church (the Annunziata) of late Renaissance,
+attributed to Puget (1622-1694). It is vaulted, and
+enriched with marbles, mosaics, and colour to such an
+extent that it may fairly claim to be the most gaudy church
+in Italy, which is unfortunate, as its original undecorated
+design is fine and simple.</p>
+
+<p>Turin in the north, and Naples in the south, are chiefly
+remarkable for examples of the latest and more or less
+debased Renaissance, and we therefore do not propose to
+illustrate or describe any of the buildings in either city.</p>
+
+
+<h3>COUNTRY VILLAS.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig70" id="fig70"></a>
+<img src="images/agr118.jpg" width="600" height="397" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 70.&mdash;Villa Medici&mdash;On the Pincian Hill near Rome. By Annibale Lippi (now the <span class="nosc"><i>Acad&eacute;mie Fran&ccedil;aise</i></span>). (<small>A.D.</small> 1540.)</p>
+
+<p>As the ancient Roman patrician had his villa, which
+was his country resort, the Italian of the revival followed
+his example, and, if he was wealthy enough, built himself
+a pleasure house, which he called a villa, either in the
+immediate suburbs of his city, or at some little distance
+away in the country. These buildings occur throughout
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"><!-- original location of Fig. 70 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>192]</a></span>
+Italy. Many of them are excellent examples of Renaissance
+architecture of a more modest type than that of the
+palaces. The Villa Papa Giulio, built from the designs of
+Vignola, and the Villa Medici, designed by Annibale Lippi,
+but attributed, for some unknown reason, to Michelangelo,
+may be mentioned as among the most thoroughly architectural
+out of some twenty or more splendid villas in the
+suburbs of Rome alone. Many of these buildings were
+erected late in the Renaissance period, and are better
+worth attention for their fine decorations and the many
+works of art collected within their walls than as architectural
+studies&mdash;but this is not always the case; and as
+they were mostly designed to serve the purpose of elegant
+museums rather than that of country houses as we understand
+the term, they usually possess noble interiors, and
+exhibit throughout elaborate finish, choice materials, and
+lavish outlay.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 250px;">
+<a name="fig70a" id="fig70a"></a>
+<img src="images/agr022.jpg" width="250" height="300"
+alt="Early renaissance corbel. From a door in Santa Maria, Venice" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a>
+An entablature is the superstructure which ordinarily is carried
+by a column, and which it is usual to divide into architrave (or beam),
+frieze, and cornice.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a>
+An order consists of a column (or pilaster) with its distinctive
+base and capital, its entablature, and the appropriate decorations.
+There are five orders, differing in proportions, in the degree of enrichment
+required, and in the design of the base and capital of the
+column or pilaster, and of the entablature.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>193]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="head08" id="head08"></a>
+<img src="images/agr119.jpg" width="500" height="136"
+alt="Ornament by Giulio Romano" />
+</div>
+
+<h2><a name="chap12" id="chap12"></a>CHAPTER XII.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="vsmlfont">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE AND NORTH EUROPE.</span></h2>
+
+
+<h3>CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.</h3>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE revived classic architecture came direct from
+Italy, and did not reach France till it had been well
+established in the land of its origin. It was not however
+received with the same welcome which hailed its appearance
+in Italy. Gothic architecture had a strong hold on
+France, and accordingly, instead of a sudden change, we
+meet with a period of transition, during which buildings
+were erected with features partly Gothic and partly
+Renaissance, and on varied principles of design.</p>
+
+<p>French Renaissance underwent great fluctuations, and it
+is less easy to divide it into broad periods than to refer, as
+most French writers prefer to do, to the work of each
+prominent monarch&rsquo;s reign separately.</p>
+
+<p>Francis the First (1515-1547) made the architecture
+of Italy fashionable in his kingdom, and his name is borne
+by the beautiful transitional style of his day. This in most
+cases retains some Gothic forms, and the principles of composition
+are in the main Gothic, but the features are mostly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>194]</a></span>
+of Italian origin, though handled with a fineness of detail
+and a smallness of scale that is not often met with, even
+in early Italian Renaissance. There are few buildings more
+charming in the architecture of any age or country than
+the best specimens of the style of Francis the First, and
+none that can bear so much decoration and yet remain so
+little overladen by the ornaments they carry. The finest
+example is the Ch&acirc;teau of Chambord, a large building,
+nearly square on plan, with round corner towers, capped
+by simple and very steep roofs, at the angles; and having
+as its central feature, a large and lofty mass of towers,
+windows and arcades, surmounted by steep roofs, ending in
+a kind of huge lantern. The windows have mullions and
+transoms like Gothic windows, but pilasters of elegant
+Renaissance design ornament the walls. The main cornice
+is a kind of compromise between an Italian and a Gothic
+treatment. Dormer windows, high and sharply pointed,
+but with little pilasters and pediments as their ornaments,
+occur constantly; and the chimneys, which are of immense
+mass and great height, are panelled profusely, and almost
+ostentatiously displayed, especially on the central portion.
+In the interior of the central building is a famous staircase;
+but the main attractions are the bright and animated
+appearance of the whole exterior, and the richness and
+gracefulness of the details.</p>
+
+<p>The same architecture is to be well seen in the north
+side of the famous Ch&acirc;teau of Blois&mdash;a building parts of
+which were executed in three different periods of French
+architecture. The exterior of the <i>Fran&ccedil;ois premier</i> part of
+Blois is irregular, and portions of the design are wildly picturesque;
+on the side which fronts towards the quadrangle,
+the architecture is more symmetrically designed, and
+beauty rather than picturesque effect has been aimed at.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>195]</a></span>
+An open staircase is the part of the quadrangle upon which
+most care has been lavished. Throughout the whole block
+of buildings the character of each individual feature and
+of every combination of features is graceful and <i>piquant</i>.
+The elegance and delicacy of some of the carved decoration
+in the interior is unsurpassed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 492px;">
+<a name="fig71" id="fig71"></a>
+<img src="images/agr120.jpg" width="492" height="400" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 71.&mdash;Window from a House at Orleans. (Early 16th Century.)</p>
+
+<p>In the valley of the Loire there exist many noblemen&rsquo;s
+ch&acirc;teaux of this date, corresponding in general
+character with Chambord and Blois, though on a smaller
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>196]</a></span>
+scale. Of these Ch&eacute;nonceaux, fortunate alike in its
+design and its situation, is the most elegant and the best
+known: yet many others exist which approach it closely,
+such, for example, as the Ch&acirc;teau de Gaillon&mdash;a fragment
+of which forms part of the &Eacute;cole des Beaux Arts at Paris&mdash;the
+H&ocirc;tel de Ville of Beaugency, the Ch&acirc;teaux of
+Ch&acirc;teaudun, Azay-le-Rideau, La Cote, and Uss&eacute;; the
+H&ocirc;tel d&rsquo;Anjou at Angers, and the house of Agnes Sorel
+at Orleans.</p>
+
+<p>In the streets of Orleans houses of this date (Fig. <a href="#fig71">71</a>)
+are to be found, showing the style cleverly adapted to
+the requirements of town dwellings and shops. Several
+of them also possess courtyards with arcades or other
+architectural features treated with great freedom and
+beauty, for instance, the arcades in the house of <i>Fran&ccedil;ois
+Premier</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig72">72</a>). An arcade in the courtyard of the
+Gothic H&ocirc;tel de Bourgtherould at Rouen, is one of the
+best known examples of the style remaining, and instances
+of it may be met with as far apart as at Caen
+(east end of church of St. Pierre) and Toulouse (parts of
+St. Sernin).</p>
+
+<p>One Paris church, that of St. Eustache, belonging to
+this transitional period claims mention, since for boldness
+and completeness it is one of the best of any date
+in that city. St. Eustache is a five-aisled church with
+an apse, transept, and lateral chapels outside the outer
+aisle. It is vaulted throughout, and its plan and
+structure are those of a Gothic church in all respects. Its
+details are however all Renaissance, but not so good as
+those to be found at Blois, nor so appropriately used,
+yet notwithstanding this it has a singularly impressive
+interior.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 286px;">
+<a name="fig72" id="fig72"></a>
+<img src="images/agr121.jpg" width="286" height="450" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 72.&mdash;Capital from the House of Francis I., Orleans. (1540.)</p>
+
+<p>Meantime, and alongside the buildings resulting from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>197]</a></span>
+this fusion of styles, others which were almost direct
+importations from Italy were rising; in some cases, if not
+in all, under the direction of Italian architects. Thus on
+Fontainebleau, which Francis I. erected, three or four
+Italian architects, one of whom was Vignola, were engaged.
+It may or may not have been this connection of the great
+architect with this work which gave him influence in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>198]</a></span>
+France, but certainly almost the whole of the later
+French Renaissance, or at any rate its good time, was
+marked by a conformity to the practice of Vignola, in
+whose designs we usually find one order of columns or
+pilasters for each storey, rather than to that of Palladio,
+whose use of tall columns equalling in height two or more
+floors of the building has been already noticed.</p>
+
+<p>Designs for the Louvre, the rebuilding of which was
+commenced in the reign of Francis the First (about <small>A.D.</small>
+1544), were made by Serlio, an Italian; and though Pierre
+Lescot was the architect of the portion built in that reign,
+it is probable that the design obtained from Serlio was
+in the main followed. The part then finished, which, to a
+certain extent gave the keynote to the whole of this vast
+building, was unquestionably a happy effort, and may be
+taken to mark the establishment of a French version of
+matured Renaissance architecture. The main building has
+two orders of pilasters with cornices, &amp;c., and above them
+a low attic storey, with short piers: at the angles a taller
+pavilion was introduced, and next the quadrangle arcades
+are introduced between the pilasters. The sculpture, some
+of it at least, is from the chisel of Jean Goujon; it is
+good and well placed, and the whole has an air of dignity
+and richness. The <i>Pavillon Richelieu</i>, shewn in our engraving
+(Fig. <a href="#fig73">73</a>), was not built till the next century. The
+colossal figures are by Barye.</p>
+
+<p>A little later in date than the early part of the Louvre
+was the H&ocirc;tel de Ville, built from the designs of Pietro
+da Cortona, an Italian, and said to have been begun in
+1549. The building had been greatly extended before
+its recent total destruction by fire, but the central part,
+which was the original portion, was a fine vigorous composition,
+having two lofty pavilions, with high roofs at the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"><!-- original location of Fig. 73 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>200]</a></span>
+extremities, and a remarkably rich stone lantern of great
+height for a central feature.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 406px;">
+<a name="fig73" id="fig73"></a>
+<img src="images/agr122.jpg" width="406" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 73.&mdash;Pavillon Richelieu of the Louvre, Paris.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of Charles IX. the Palace of the Tuileries
+was commenced (1564) for Catherine de M&eacute;dicis, from the
+designs of Philibert Delorme. Of this building, that part
+only which fronted the garden was erected at the time.
+Our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig74">74</a>) shows the architectural character
+of a portion of it, and it is easy to detect that
+considerable alterations have by this time been introduced
+into the treatment of the features of Renaissance architecture.
+The bands of rustication passing round the pilasters
+as well as the walls, the broken pediments on the upper
+storey, surmounted by figures, and supported by long
+carved pilasters, and the shape of the dormer windows
+are all of them quite foreign to Renaissance architecture
+as practised in Italy, and may be looked upon as essentially
+French features. Similar details were employed in the
+work executed at about the same period, by the same and
+other architects, in other buildings, as may be seen by our
+illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig75">75</a>) of a portion of Delorme&rsquo;s work at
+the Louvre. In these features, which may be found in
+the Ch&acirc;teau d&rsquo;Anet and other works of the same time,
+and in the style to which they belong, may be seen the
+direct result of Michelangelo&rsquo;s Medici Chapel at Florence,
+a work which had much more effect on French than on
+Italian architecture. The full development of the architecture
+of Michelangelo (or rather the ornamental portions
+of it) is to be found in French Renaissance, rather than
+in the works of his own successors in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>Much of the late sixteenth century architecture of France
+was very inferior, and the parts of the Louvre and Tuileries
+which date from the reign of Henry IV. are the least
+satisfactory portions of those vast piles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>201]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 475px;">
+<a name="fig74" id="fig74"></a>
+<img src="images/agr123.jpg" width="475" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 74.&mdash;Part of the Tuileries, Paris. (Begun 1564.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>202]</a></span>
+Dating from the early part of the seventeenth century,
+we have the Palais Royal built for Richelieu, and the
+Palace of the Luxembourg, a building perhaps more correct
+and quiet than original or beautiful, but against which
+the reproach of extravagant ornament cannot certainly be
+brought.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 248px;">
+<a name="fig75" id="fig75"></a>
+<img src="images/agr124.jpg" width="248" height="350" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 75.&mdash;Capital from Delorme&rsquo;s work at the Louvre.
+(Middle of 16th Century.)</p>
+
+<p>With Louis the Fourteenth (1643 to 1715) came in a
+great building period, of which the most striking memorial
+is the vast and uninteresting Palace of Versailles. The
+architect was the younger Mansard (1647 to 1768), and
+the vastness of the scale upon which he worked only
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>203]</a></span>
+makes his failure to rise to his grand opportunity the more
+conspicuous. The absence of features to diversify the sky-line
+is one of the greatest defects of this building, a defect
+the less excusable as the high-pitched roof of Gothic origin
+had never been abandoned in France. This roof has been
+employed with great success in many buildings of the
+French Renaissance. Apart from this fault, the architectural
+features of Versailles are so monotonous, weak,
+and uninteresting that the building, though its size may
+astonish the spectator, seldom rouses admiration.</p>
+
+<p>Far better is the eastern block of the Louvre (the portion
+facing the Place du Louvre), though here also we find
+the absence of high roofs, and the consequent monotony of
+the sky-line&mdash;a defect attaching to hardly any other
+portion of the building. Bernini was invited from Italy
+for this work, and there is a curious story in one of Sir
+Christopher Wren&rsquo;s published letters of an interview he
+had with Bernini while the latter was in Paris on this
+business, and of the glimpse which he was allowed to enjoy
+of the design the Italian had made. The building was, however,
+after all, designed and carried out by Perrault, and,
+though somewhat severe, possesses great beauty and much
+of that dignity in which Versailles is wanting.</p>
+
+<p>The best French work of this epoch to be found in or
+out of Paris is probably the H&ocirc;tel des Invalides (Fig. <a href="#fig76">76</a>),
+with its fine central feature. This is crowned by the most
+striking dome in Paris, one which takes rank as second only
+in Europe to our own St. Paul&rsquo;s, for beauty of form and
+appropriateness of treatment. The two domes are indeed
+somewhat alike in general outline.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Louis XIV. witnessed a large amount of
+building throughout France, as well as in the metropolis,
+and to the same period we must refer an enormous amount
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>204]</a></span>
+of lavish decoration in the interior of buildings, the taste
+of which is to our eyes painfully extravagant. Purer taste
+on the whole prevailed, if not in the reign of Louis XV.
+certainly in that of Louis XVI., to which period much really
+good decorative work, and some successful architecture
+belongs. The chief building of the latter part of the
+eighteenth century is the Pantheon (Ste. Genevi&egrave;ve), the
+best domed church in France, and one which must always
+take a high rank among Renaissance buildings of any age
+or country. The architect was Soufflot, and his ambition,
+like that of the old Gothic masons, was not only to produce
+a work of art, but a feat of skill; his design accordingly
+provided a smaller area of walls and piers compared with
+the total floor space than any other Renaissance church, or
+indeed than any great church, except a few of the very best
+specimens of late Gothic construction, such for example as
+King&rsquo;s College Chapel. The result has been that the fabric
+has not been quite stout enough to bear the weight of the
+dome, and that it has required to be tied and propped and
+strengthened in various ways from time to time. The plan
+of the Pantheon is a Greek cross, with a short vestibule, and
+a noble portico at the west, and a choir corresponding to the
+vestibule on the east. It has a fine central dome, which is
+excellently seen from many points of view externally, and
+forms the principal feature of the very effective interior.
+Each arm of the building is covered by a flat domical
+vault; a single order of pilasters and columns runs quite
+round the interior of the church occupying the entire
+height of the walls; and the light is admitted in a most
+successful manner by large semicircular windows at the
+upper part of the church, starting above the cornice of
+the order.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 384px;">
+<a name="fig76" id="fig76"></a>
+<img src="images/agr125.jpg" width="384" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 76.&mdash;L&rsquo;&Eacute;glise des Invalides, Paris. By J.&nbsp;H. Mansard.
+(Begun <small>A.D.</small> 1645.)</p>
+
+<p>One other work of the eighteenth century challenges the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"><!-- original location of Fig. 76 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>206]</a></span>
+admiration of every visitor to Paris and must not be overlooked,
+because it is at once a specimen of architecture
+and of that skilful if formal arrangement of streets and
+public places in combination with buildings which the
+French have carried so far in the present century. We allude
+to the two blocks of buildings, occupied as government
+offices, which front to the Place de la Concorde and stand
+at the corner of the Rue Royale. They are the work of
+Gabriel (1710-1782), and are justly admired as dignified
+if a little heavy and uninteresting. As specimens of architecture
+these buildings, with the Pantheon, are enough to
+establish a high character for French art at a time when
+in most other European countries the standard of taste
+had fallen to a very low level.</p>
+
+<p>The h&ocirc;tels (<i>i.e.</i> town mansions) and ch&acirc;teaux of the
+French nobility furnish a series of examples, showing the
+successive styles of almost every part of the Renaissance
+period. The phases of the style, subsequent to that of
+Francis the First, can however, be so well illustrated by
+public buildings in Paris, that it will be hardly necessary
+to go through a list of private residences however commanding;
+but the Ch&acirc;teau of Maisons, and the Royal Ch&acirc;teau
+of Fontainebleau, may be named as specimens of a class of
+building which shows the capacity of the Renaissance style
+when freely treated.</p>
+
+<p>Renaissance buildings in France are distinguished by
+their large extent and the ample space which has been in
+many instances secured in connection with them. They
+are rarely of great height or imposing mass like the early
+Italian palaces. For the most part they are a good deal
+broken up, the surface of the walls is much covered by
+architectural features, not usually on a large scale, so that
+the impression of extent which really belongs to them is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>207]</a></span>
+intensified by the treatment which their architects have
+adopted.</p>
+
+<p>Orders are frequently introduced and usually correspond
+with the storeys of the building. However this may be
+the storeys are always well marked. The sky-line also
+is generally picturesque and telling, though Versailles and
+the work of Lescot at the Louvre form an exception.
+Rustication is not much employed, and the vast but simple
+crowning cornices of the Italian palaces are never made
+use of. Narrow fronts like those at Venice, and open
+arcades or loggias like those of Genoa, do not form features
+of French Renaissance buildings; but on the other hand,
+much richness, and many varieties of treatment which the
+Italians never attempted, were tried, and as a rule successfully,
+in France.</p>
+
+<p>Much good sculpture is employed in external enrichments,
+and a cultivated if often luxuriant taste is always
+shown. Many of the interiors are rich with carving,
+gilding, and mirrors, but harmonious coloured decoration is
+rare, and the fine and costly mosaics of Italy are almost
+unknown.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="chap12a" id="chap12a"></a>BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS.</h3>
+
+<p>These countries afford but few examples of Renaissance.
+The Town Hall at Antwerp, an interesting building of the
+sixteenth century, and the Church of St. Anne at Bruges,
+are the most conspicuous buildings; and there are other
+churches in the style which are characteristic, and parts of
+which are really fine. The interiors of some of the town
+halls display fittings of Renaissance character, often rich
+and fanciful in the extreme, and bearing a general
+resemblance to French work of the same period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>208]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 372px;">
+<a name="fig77" id="fig77"></a>
+<img src="images/agr126.jpg" width="372" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 77.&mdash;Window from Colmar. (1575.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>209]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 434px;">
+<a name="fig78" id="fig78"></a>
+<img src="images/agr127.jpg" width="434" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 78.&mdash;Zeughaus, Dantzic. (1605.)</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>210]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="chap12b" id="chap12b"></a>GERMANY AND NORTHERN EUROPE.</h3>
+
+<p>Buildings of pure Renaissance architecture, anterior to
+the nineteenth century, are scarce in Germany, or indeed
+in North-east Europe; but a transitional style, resembling
+our own Elizabethan, grew up and long held its ground, so
+that many picturesque buildings can be met with, of which
+the design indicates a fusion of the ideas and features of
+Gothic with those of classic art. This architectural style
+took so strong a hold that examples of it may be found
+throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in
+almost every northern town.</p>
+
+<p>That part of the Castle of Heidelberg, which was built
+at the beginning of the seventeenth century, may be cited
+as belonging to this German transitional style. The front
+in this case is regularly divided by pilasters of the classic
+orders, but very irregular in their proportions and position.
+The windows are strongly marked, and with carved mullions.
+Large dormer windows break into the high roof; ornaments
+abound, and the whole presents a curiously blended
+mixture of the regular and the picturesque. Rather
+earlier in date, and perhaps rather more Gothic in their
+general treatment, are such buildings as the great Council
+Hall at Rothenberg (1572), that at Leipzig (1556), the
+Castle of Stuttgart (1553), with its picturesque arcaded
+quadrangle, or the lofty and elaborate Cloth Hall at
+Brunswick.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 368px;">
+<a name="fig79" id="fig79"></a>
+<img src="images/agr128.jpg" width="368" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 79.&mdash;Council-house at Leyden. (1599.)</p>
+
+<p>Examples of similar character abound in the old inns
+of Germany and Switzerland, and many charming features,
+such as the window from Colmar (Fig. <a href="#fig77">77</a>), dated 1575,
+which forms one of our illustrations could be brought
+forward. Another development of the same mixed style
+may be illustrated by the Zeug House at Dantzic (1605),
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"><!-- original location of Fig. 79 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>212]</a></span>
+of which we give the rear elevation (Fig. <a href="#fig78">78</a>). Not
+altogether dissimilar from these in character is the finely-designed
+Castle of Fredericksberg at Copenhagen, testifying
+to the wide spread of the phase of architecture to
+which we are calling attention. The date of this building
+is 1610. A richer example, but one little if at all
+nearer to Italian feeling, is the Council House at Leyden,
+a portion of which we illustrate (Fig. <a href="#fig79">79</a>). This building
+dates from 1599, and bears more resemblance to English
+Elizabethan in its ornaments, than to the architecture of
+any other country.</p>
+
+<p>Simultaneously with these, some buildings made their
+appearance in Germany, which, though still picturesque,
+showed the dawn of a wish to adopt the features of pure
+Renaissance. The quadrangle of the Castle of Schalaburg
+(Fig. <a href="#fig80">80</a>), may be taken as a specimen of the adoption of
+Renaissance ideas as well as forms. It is in effect an Italian
+cortile, though more ornate than Italian architects would
+have made it. It was built in the latter part of the sixteenth
+century, and seems to point to a wish to make use of the
+new style with but little admixture of northern ornament
+or treatment.</p>
+
+<p>When architecture had quite passed through the transition
+period, which fortunately lasted long, the buildings,
+not only of Germany, but of the north generally, became
+uninteresting and tame; in fact, they present so few distinguishing
+features, that it is not necessary to describe or
+illustrate them. Russia, it is true, contains a few striking
+buildings belonging to the eighteenth century, but most
+of those which we might desire to refer to, were built
+subsequent to the close of that century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>213]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 396px;">
+<a name="fig80" id="fig80"></a>
+<img src="images/agr129.jpg" width="396" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 80.&mdash;Quadrangle of the Castle of Schalaburg.
+(Late 16th Century.)</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>214]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/agr130.jpg" width="500" height="116"
+alt="Ornamental foliage pattern" />
+</div>
+
+<h2><a name="chap13" id="chap13"></a>CHAPTER XIII.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="vsmlfont">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN, SPAIN, AND
+PORTUGAL.</span></h2>
+
+
+<h3>ENGLAND.&mdash;CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.</h3>
+
+<p><span class="dropcap">I</span>N England, as in France and Germany, the introduction
+of the Italian Renaissance was not accomplished
+without a period of transition. The architecture of this
+period is known as Elizabethan, though it lasted long after
+Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign. Sometimes it is called Tudor; but it is
+more convenient and not unusual to limit the term Tudor
+to the latest phase of English Gothic.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the earliest introduction into any English building
+of a feature derived from the newly-revived classic
+sources is in the tomb of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey.
+The grille inclosing this is of good, though late Gothic
+design; but when the tomb itself came to be set up, for
+which a contract was made with Torregiano in 1512, it was
+Italian in its details. The earliest examples of Renaissance
+features actually built into a structure, so far as we are
+aware, is in the terra-cotta ornamentation of Layer Marney
+House in Essex, which it is certain was erected prior to
+1525. It is however long&mdash;surprisingly long&mdash;after this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>215]</a></span>
+period before we come upon the traces of a general use of
+Renaissance details. In fact, up to the accession of
+Elizabeth (1558) they appear to have been little employed.
+It is however said that early in her reign the treatises
+on Renaissance architecture of Philibert de l&rsquo;Orme and
+Lomazzo were translated from Italian into English, and in
+1563 John Shute published a book on Italian architecture.</p>
+
+<p>John of Padua, an Italian architect, was brought to this
+country by Henry VIII. and practised here; and Theodore
+Havenius of Cleves was employed as architect in the
+buildings of Caius College, Cambridge (1565-1574). These
+two foreigners undoubtedly played an important part
+in a change of taste which, though not general so early,
+certainly did commence before Elizabeth&rsquo;s death in 1603.</p>
+
+<p>At the two universities, and in many localities throughout
+England, new buildings and enlargements of old ones
+were carried out during the long and prosperous reign of
+Elizabeth; and the style in which they were built will be
+found to have admitted of very great latitude. Where
+the intention was to obtain an effect of dignity or state,
+the classic principles of composition were more or less
+followed. The buildings at Caius College, Cambridge,
+Longleat, built between 1567 and 1579 by John of Padua,
+Woollaton, built about 1580 by Smithson, and Burleigh
+(built 1577), may be named as instances of this. On the
+other hand where a manorial or only a domestic character
+was desired, the main lines of the building are Gothic, but
+the details, in either case, are partly Gothic and partly
+modified Renaissance. This description will apply to such
+buildings as Knowle, Penshurst, Hardwick, Hatfield,
+Bramshill, or Holland House (Fig. <a href="#fig81">81</a>). In the introductory
+chapter some account has been given, in general
+terms, of the features familiar to most and endeared to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"><!-- original location of Fig. 81 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>217]</a></span>
+many, which mark these peculiarly English piles of buildings;
+those remarks may be appropriately continued
+here.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig81" id="fig81"></a>
+<img src="images/agr131.jpg" width="600" height="385" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 81.&mdash;Holland House at Kensington. (1607.)</p>
+
+<p>The hall of Gothic houses was still retained, but only as
+one of a series of fine apartments. In many cases English
+mansions had no internal quadrangle, and are built as large
+solid blocks with boldly projecting wings. They are often
+of three storeys in height, the roofs are frequently of flat
+pitch, and in that case are hidden behind a parapet which is
+sometimes of fantastic design. Where the roofs are steeper
+and not concealed the gables are frequently of broken outline.
+Windows are usually very large, and with mullions
+and transoms, and it is to these large openings that Elizabethan
+interiors owe their bright and picturesque effects.
+Entrances are generally adorned with some classic or semi-classic
+features, often, however, much altered from their
+original model; here balustrades, ornamental recesses,
+stone staircases, and similar formal surroundings are
+commonly found, and are generally arranged with excellent
+judgment, though often quaint in design.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;This style is characterised by a somewhat grotesque
+application of the ancient orders and ornaments, by large
+and picturesquely-formed masses, spacious staircases, broad
+terraces, galleries of great length (at times 100 feet long),
+orders placed on orders, pyramidal gables formed of scroll-work
+often pierced, large windows divided by mullions and
+transoms, bay windows, pierced parapets, angle turrets,
+and a love of arcades. The principal features in the ornament
+are pierced scroll-work, strap-work, and prismatic
+rustication, combined with boldly-carved foliage (usually
+conventional) and roughly-formed figures.&rdquo;&mdash;<small>M.&nbsp;D.&nbsp;W.</small></p>
+
+<p>Interiors are bright and with ample space; very richly
+ornamented plaster ceilings are common; the walls of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>218]</a></span>
+main rooms are often lined with wainscot panelling, and
+noble oak staircases are frequent.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of James I., our first Renaissance architect
+of mark, Inigo Jones (1572-1652) became known. He was
+a man of taste and genius, and had studied in Italy. He
+executed many works, the designs for which were more or
+less in the style of Palladio. These include the addition
+of a portico to the (then Gothic) cathedral of St. Paul&rsquo;s,
+and a magnificent design for a palace which Charles I.
+desired to build at Whitehall. A fragment of this building,
+now known as the Chapel Royal Whitehall, was
+erected, and small though it be, has done much by
+its conspicuous position and great beauty, to keep up a
+respect for Inigo Jones&rsquo;s undoubted high attainments as
+an artist.</p>
+
+<p>More fortunate than Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren
+(1632-1723) had just attained a high position as a young
+man of science, skill, and cultivation, and as the architect
+of the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford, when in 1666 the
+great fire of London destroyed the Metropolitan Cathedral,
+the parochial churches, the Royal Exchange, the Companies&rsquo;
+Halls, and an immense mass of private property in
+London, and created an opportunity which made great
+demands upon the energy, skill, and fertility of design
+of the architect who might attempt to grasp it. Fortunately,
+Wren was equal to the occasion, and he has endowed
+London with a Cathedral which takes rank among the
+very foremost Renaissance buildings in Europe, as well
+as a magnificent series of parochial churches, and other
+public buildings. It is not pretended that his works are
+free from defects, but there can be no question that admitting
+anything which can be truly said against them,
+they are works of artistic genius, full of fresh and original
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>219]</a></span>
+design, and exhibiting rare sagacity in their practical
+contrivance and construction.</p>
+
+<p>St. Paul&rsquo;s stands second only to St. Peter&rsquo;s as a great
+domical cathedral of Renaissance architecture. It falls far
+short of its great rival in actual size and internal effect,
+and is all but entirely devoid of that decoration in which
+St. Peter&rsquo;s is so rich. On the other hand, the exterior of
+St. Paul&rsquo;s (Fig. <a href="#fig82">82</a>) is far finer, and as the English cathedral
+had the good fortune to be erected entirely from the plans
+and under the supervision of one architect, it is a building
+consistent with itself throughout, which, as we have seen,
+is more than can be said of St. Peter&rsquo;s.</p>
+
+<p>The plan of St. Paul&rsquo;s is a Latin cross, with well
+marked transepts, a large portico, and two towers at the
+western entrance; an apse of small size forms the end of
+the eastern arm, and of each of the transepts; a great
+dome covers the crossing; the cathedral has a crypt raising
+the main floor considerably, and its side walls are carried
+high above the aisle roofs so as to hide the clerestory
+windows from sight.</p>
+
+<p>The dome is very cleverly planted on eight piers instead
+of four at the crossing, and is a triple structure; for
+between the dome seen from within, and the much higher
+dome seen from without, a strong cone of brickwork rises
+which bears the weight of the stone lantern and ball and
+cross that surmount the whole. The skill with which the
+dome is made the central feature of a pyramidal composition
+whatever be the point of view, the great beauty of
+the circular colonnade immediately below the dome, the
+elegant outline of the western towers, and the unusual
+but successful distribution of the great portico, are among
+the most noteworthy elements which go to make up the
+charm of this very successful exterior.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>220]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 472px;">
+<a name="fig82" id="fig82"></a>
+<img src="images/agr132.jpg" width="472" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 82.&mdash;St. Paul&rsquo;s Cathedral, London. (1675-1710.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>221]</a></span>
+Wren may be said to have introduced to Renaissance
+architecture the tower and spire, for though many examples
+occur in Spain, there is reason to suppose that he was
+before the architects of that country in his employment of
+that feature. He has enriched the City of London with
+a large number of steeples, which are Gothic so far as their
+general idea goes, but thoroughly classic in details, and
+all more or less distinctive. The most famous of these is
+the one belonging to Bow Church; others of note belong
+to St. Clement Danes and St. Bride, Fleet Street.</p>
+
+<p>The interiors of some of these churches, as for example
+St. Stephen, Walbrook, St. Andrew, Holborn, and St.
+James, Piccadilly, are excellent both for their good design
+and artistic treatment, and for their being well contrived
+and arranged for the special purposes they were intended
+to fill.</p>
+
+<p>Wren&rsquo;s secular works were considerable. The Sheldonian
+Theatre at Oxford, the library of Trinity College,
+Cambridge, and the theatre of the College of Physicians
+London (long since disused), are a group of special buildings
+each of which was undoubtedly a remarkable and
+successful work. Chelsea and Greenwich hospitals are noteworthy
+as among the first specimens of those great buildings
+for public purposes in which England is now so rich,
+and which to a certain extent replace the monastic establishments
+of the middle ages. At Chelsea the building is
+simple and dignified. Without lavish outlay, or the use
+of expensive materials, much ornament, or any extraneous
+features, an artistic and telling effect has been produced,
+such as few hospitals or asylums since built have equalled.
+Greenwich takes a higher level, and though Wren&rsquo;s work
+had the disadvantage of having to be accommodated to
+buildings already erected by another architect, this building,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>222]</a></span>
+with its twin domes, its rich outline, and its noble and
+dignified masses, will always reflect honour upon its
+designer. The view of Greenwich hospital from the river
+may fairly be said to be unique for beauty and picturesqueness.
+At Greenwich, too, we meet with some of that skill
+in associating buildings and open spaces together which is
+so much more common in France than in this country, and
+by the exercise of which the architecture of a good building
+can be in so many ways set off.</p>
+
+<p>Wren, like Inigo Jones, has left behind him a great
+unexecuted design which in many respects is more noble
+than anything that he actually built. This is his earlier
+design for St. Paul&rsquo;s Cathedral, which he planned as a
+Greek cross, with an ampler dome than the present
+cathedral possesses, but not so lofty. A large model
+of this design exists. Had it been carried out the
+exterior of the building would probably not have appeared
+so commanding, perhaps not so graceful, as it
+actually is; but the interior would have surpassed all the
+churches of the style in Europe, both by the grandeur of
+the vast arched space under the dome and by the intricacy
+and beauty of the various vistas and combinations of
+features, for which its admirably-designed plan makes
+provision.</p>
+
+<p>Wren had retired from practice before his death in 1723.
+His immediate successors were Hawksmoor, whose works
+were heavy and uninteresting, and Sir James Vanbrugh.
+Vanbrugh was a man of genius and has a style of his own,
+&ldquo;bold, original, and pictorial.&rdquo; His greatest and best
+work is Blenheim, in Oxfordshire, built for the Duke of
+Marlborough. This fine mansion, equal to any French
+ch&acirc;teau in extent and magnificence, is planned with much
+dignity. The entrance front looks towards a large space,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>223]</a></span>
+inclosed right and left by low buildings, which prolong
+the wings of the main block. The angles of the wings
+and the centre are masked by two colonnades of quadrant
+shape, and the central entrance with lofty columns which
+form a grand portico, is a noble composition.</p>
+
+<p>The three garden fronts of Blenheim are all fine, and
+there is a magnificent entrance hall, but the most successful
+part of the interior is the library, a long and lofty gallery,
+occupying the entire flank of the house and treated with
+the most picturesque variety both of plan and ornament.</p>
+
+<p>Vanbrugh also built Castle Howard, Grimesthorpe,
+Wentworth, King&rsquo;s Weston, as well as many other country
+mansions of more moderate size.</p>
+
+<p>Campbell, Kent, and Gibbs are the best known names
+next in succession. Of these Campbell is most famous as
+an author, but Gibbs (1674-1754) is the architect of two
+prominent London churches&mdash;St. Martin&rsquo;s and St. Mary
+le Strand, in which the general traditions of Wren&rsquo;s
+manner are ably followed. He was the architect of the
+Radcliffe Library at Oxford. Kent (1684-1748) was the
+architect of Holkham, the Treasury Buildings, and the
+Horse Guards. He was associated with the Earl of
+Burlington, who acquired a high reputation as an amateur
+architect, which the design of Burlington House (now remodelled
+for the Royal Academy), went far to justify.
+Probably the technical part of this and other designs was
+supplied by Kent.</p>
+
+<p>Sir William Chambers (1726-1796) was the architect
+of Somerset House, a building of no small merit, notwithstanding
+that it is tame and very bare of sculpture.
+This building is remarkable as one of the few in London
+in which the Italian feature of an interior quadrangle is
+attempted to be reproduced. Chambers wrote a treatise
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>224]</a></span>
+which has become a general text-book of revived classical
+architecture for English students. Contemporary with him
+were the brothers John and Robert Adam, who built
+much, and began to introduce a severity of treatment and
+a fineness of detail which correspond to some extent to
+the French style of Louis XVI. The interior decorations
+in plaster by these architects are of great elegance and
+often found in old houses in London, as in Hanover
+Square, on the Adelphi Terrace, and elsewhere. The
+list of the eighteenth century architects closes with the
+names of Sir Robert Taylor and the two Dances, one of
+whom built the Mansion House and the other Newgate;
+and Stuart, who built several country mansions, but who
+is best known for the magnificent work on the antiquities
+of Athens, which he and Revett published together in
+1762, and which went far to create a revolution in public
+taste; for before the close of the century there was
+a general cry for making every building and every
+ornamental detail purely and solely Greek.</p>
+
+<p>The architects above named, and others of less note were
+much employed during the eighteenth century in the
+erection of large country houses of Italian, usually Palladian
+design, many of them extremely incongruous and
+unsatisfactory. Here and there a design better than the
+average was obtained, but as a rule these stately but cold
+buildings are very far inferior to the picturesque and
+home-like manors and mansions built during the reigns
+of Elizabeth and James I.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 314px;">
+<a name="fig83" id="fig83"></a>
+<img src="images/agr133.jpg" width="314" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 83.&mdash;Houses at Chester. (16th Century.)</p>
+
+<p>It is worth notice that the picturesque element, inherited
+from the Gothic architecture of the middle ages, which
+before the eighteenth century had completely vanished
+from our public buildings, and the mansions of the wealthy
+did not entirely die out of works executed in remote places.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>225]</a></span>
+In the half-timbered manors and farmhouses which
+abound in Lancashire, Cheshire, Shropshire, and Staffordshire,
+and in other minor works, we always find a tinge,
+sometimes a very full colouring, of the picturesque and the
+irregular; the gables are sharp, upper storeys overhang, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>226]</a></span>
+the treatment of the timbers is thoroughly Gothic (Fig. <a href="#fig83">83</a>);
+so are the mouldings, transoms and mullions to the windows,
+and barge boards to the roofs. In the reign of James I.
+a mode of enriching the exteriors of dwelling-houses, as
+well as their ceilings, chimney-pieces, &amp;c., with ornaments
+modelled in plaster came in, and though the remaining
+specimens are from year to year disappearing, yet in
+some old towns (<i>e.g.</i> in Ipswich) examples of this sort of
+treatment (known as Jacobean) still linger.</p>
+
+<p>In Queen Anne&rsquo;s reign a semi-Gothic version of Renaissance
+architecture was practised, to which great attention
+has been directed in the present day. The Queen Anne
+style is usually carried out in brickwork, executed in red
+bricks and often most admirable in its workmanship.
+Pilasters, cornices, and panels are executed in cut bricks,
+and for arches, niches, and window heads very finely
+jointed bricks are employed. The details are usually
+Renaissance, but of debased character; a crowning cornice
+of considerable projection under a high-pitched hipped
+roof (<i>i.e.</i> one sloping back every way like a truncated
+pyramid) is commonly employed; so also are gables of
+broken outline. Dormer windows rich and picturesque, and
+high brick chimneys are also employed; so are bow windows,
+often carried on concave corbels of a clumsy form. Prominence
+is given in this style to the joiner&rsquo;s work; the
+windows, which are usually sash windows, are heavily
+moulded and divided into small squares by wooded sash bars.
+The doors have heavily moulded panels, and are often surmounted
+by pediments carried by carved brackets or by
+pilasters; in the interiors the woodwork of staircases
+such as the balusters, newel posts, and handrails is treated
+in a very effective and well considered way, the greater
+part of the work being turned on the lathe and enriched
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>227]</a></span>
+with mouldings extremely well designed for execution in
+that manner. By this style and the modifications of it
+which were more or less practised till they finally died
+out, the traditional picturesqueness of English architecture
+which it had inherited from the middle ages was kept
+alive, so that it has been handed down, in certain localities
+almost, if not quite, to the present century.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="chap13a" id="chap13a"></a>SCOTLAND.</h3>
+
+<p>The architecture of Scotland during the sixteenth and
+succeeding centuries possesses exceptional interest. It
+was the case here, as it had been in England, that the most
+important buildings of the time were domestic; the erection
+of churches and monasteries had ceased.</p>
+
+<p>The castles and semi-fortified houses of Scotland form a
+group apart, possessing strongly-marked and well-defined
+character; they are designed in a mixed style in which the
+Gothic elements predominated over the classic ones. But
+the Scottish domestic Gothic, from which the new style
+was partly derived, had borne little or no resemblance to
+the florid Tudor of England. It was the severe and simple
+architecture of strongholds built with stubborn materials,
+and on rocky sites, where there was little inducement to
+indulge in decoration. Dunstaffnage or Kilchurn Castles
+may be referred to as examples of these plain, gloomy
+keeps with their stepped gables, small loops for windows,
+and sometimes angle turrets.</p>
+
+<p>The classic elements of the style were not drawn (as had
+been the case in England) direct from Italy, but came from
+France. The Scotch, during their long struggles with the
+English, became intimately allied with the French, and it
+is therefore not surprising that Scottish Baronial architecture
+should resemble the early Renaissance of French
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>228]</a></span>
+ch&acirc;teaux very closely. The hardness of the stone in which
+the Scotch masons wrought forbade their attempting the
+extremely delicate detail of the Fran&ccedil;ois I. ornament,
+executed as it is in fine, easily-worked stone of smooth texture;
+and the difference in the climate of the two countries
+justified in Scotland a boldness which would have appeared
+exaggerated and extreme in France. Accordingly the style
+in passing from one country to the other has changed its
+details to no inconsiderable extent.</p>
+
+<p>Many castles were erected in the sixteenth and following
+centuries in Scotland, or were enlarged and altered; the
+most characteristic features in almost all of them are short
+round angle turrets, thrown out upon bold corbellings near
+the upper part of towers and other square masses. These
+are often capped by pointed roofs; and the corbels which
+carry them, and which are always of bold, vigorous character,
+are frequently enriched by a kind of cable ornament,
+which is very distinctive. Towers of circular plan,
+like bastions, and projecting from the general line of the
+walls, or at the angles, constantly occur. They are frequently
+crowned by conical roofs, but sometimes (as at
+Fyvie Castle) they are made square near the top by means
+of a series of corbels, and finished with gables or otherwise.
+Parapets are in general use, and are almost always battlemented.
+Roofs, when visible, are of steep pitch, and their
+gables are almost always of stepped outline, while dormer
+windows, frequently of fantastic form, are not infrequent.
+Chimneys are prominent and lofty. Windows are square-headed,
+and, as a rule, small; sometimes they retain the
+Gothic mullions and transom, but in many cases these
+features are absent. Doorways are generally arched, and
+not often highly ornamented.</p>
+
+<p>Cawdor Castle, Glamis Castle, Fyvie Castle, Castle
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>229]</a></span>
+Fraser, the old portions of Dunrobin Castle, Tyninghame
+House, the extremely picturesque palace at Falkland, and
+a considerable part of Stirling Castle, may be all quoted
+as good specimens of this thoroughly national style, but
+it would be easy to name two or three times as many
+buildings nearly, if not quite, equal to these in architectural
+merit.</p>
+
+<p>Heriot&rsquo;s Hospital, Edinburgh, may be quoted (with part
+of Holyrood Palace) as showing the style of the seventeenth
+century. Heriot&rsquo;s Hospital was built between the
+years 1628 and 1660. It is built round a great quadrangle,
+and has square towers at the four corners, each
+relieved by small corbelled angle turrets. The entrance
+displays columns and an entablature of debased but not
+unpleasing Renaissance architecture, and the building
+altogether resembles an English Elizabethan or Jacobean
+building to a greater extent than most Scottish designs.</p>
+
+<p>When this picturesque style, which appears indeed to
+have retained its hold for long, at last died out, very little
+of any artistic value was substituted for it. Late in the
+eighteenth century, it is true, the Brothers Adam erected
+public buildings in Edinburgh and Glasgow, and carried
+out various works of importance in a classic style which
+has certainly some claim to respect; but if correct it was
+tame and uninteresting, and a poor exchange for the
+vigorous vitality which breathes in the works of the
+architects of the early Renaissance in Scotland.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="chap13b" id="chap13b"></a>SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.</h3>
+
+<p>In the Spanish peninsula, Renaissance architecture ran
+through three phases, very strongly distinguished from
+one another, each being marked by peculiarities of more
+than ordinary prominence. The early stage, to which the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>230]</a></span>
+Spaniards give the name of Plateresco, exhibits the same
+sort of fusion of Gothic with classic which we find in
+France and Scotland. The masses are often simple, but
+the individual features are overladen with an extravagant
+amount of ornament, and, as in France, many things which
+are essentially Gothic, such as pinnacles, gargoyles, and
+parapets, are retained. The Renaissance style was introduced
+at the latter part of the fifteenth century, and a
+very considerable number of buildings to which the description
+given above will apply were erected prior to
+the middle of the sixteenth. Among these may be enumerated
+the cathedral at Granada, the Hospital of Santa Cruz
+at Toledo (1504-1514), the dome of Burgos Cathedral
+(1567), the Cathedral of Malaga, San Juan della Penitencia
+at Toledo (1511), the fa&ccedil;ade of the Alcazar at Toledo
+(1548), the Town Hall (1551), and Casa Zaporta (1560) at
+Zarragoza, and the Town Hall of Seville (1559).</p>
+
+<p>A great number of tombs, staircases, doorways, and
+other smaller single features, executed during this period
+from the designs of good artists, are to be found scattered
+through the country. &ldquo;These Renaissance monuments
+exhibit an extraordinary degree of variety in their
+ornaments, which are of the most fantastic nature; an
+exuberant fancy would seem to have sought a vent, especially
+in the sculptured ornament of the style, which though
+at times crowded, overladen, and we must add disfigured
+by the most grotesque ideas, is very striking for its
+originality and excellent workmanship.&rdquo;&mdash;(<small>M.&nbsp;D.&nbsp;W.</small>)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 412px;">
+<a name="fig84" id="fig84"></a>
+<img src="images/agr134.jpg" width="412" height="600" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 84.&mdash;The Alcazar at Toledo. (Begun 1568.)</p>
+
+<p>The second phase of Spanish architecture was marked
+by a plain and simple dignity, equally in contrast with the
+Plateresco which had preceded it and with the extravagant
+style to which it at length gave place. The earliest
+architect who introduced into Spain an architectural style
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"><!-- original location of Fig. 84 --></a></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>232]</a></span>
+founded on the best examples of Italy, was Juan Baptista
+de Toledo. He in the year 1563 commenced the Escurial
+Palace&mdash;the Versailles of Spain; but the principal part
+of the building was erected by his more celebrated pupil,
+Juan de Herrera, who carried on the works during the
+years from 1567 to 1579. This building, one of the most
+extensive palaces in Europe, is noble in its external
+aspect from a distance, thanks to its great extent, its fine
+central dome, and its many towers, but it is disappointing
+when approached. Of the interior the most noteworthy
+feature is a magnificently decorated church, of great size
+and unusual arrangement; and this dignified central feature
+has raised the Escurial, in spite of many faults, to the
+position of the most famous and probably most deservedly
+admired among the great Renaissance palaces of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>By the same architect numerous buildings were erected,
+among others the beautiful, if somewhat cold, arcaded
+interior of the Alcazar of Toledo (Fig. <a href="#fig84">84</a>), which may be
+taken as a fair specimen of the noble qualities to be found
+in his dignified and comparatively simple designs. About
+the middle of the sixteenth century Charles V. erected his
+palace at Granada; but here the architecture is strongly
+coloured by Italian or French examples, and much of
+the building resembles Perrault&rsquo;s work at the Louvre
+very closely. Herrera and his school were probably too
+severe in taste to suit the fancy of their countrymen, for
+Spanish architecture in the eighteenth century fell a victim
+to debased forms and a fantastic and exaggerated style
+of ornament. Churriguera was the architect who has the
+credit of having introduced this unfortunate third manner,
+and has lent it his name. For a time &ldquo;Churriguerismo&rdquo;
+found general acceptance, and the century closed under its
+influence.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>233]</a></span>
+We must not pass over the excellent and varied Renaissance
+towers and steeples of Spain in silence. They are
+not unlike Wren&rsquo;s spires in general idea; they are to be
+met with in many parts of the country attached to the
+churches, and their variety and picturesqueness increase
+the claim of Spanish architecture to our respect.</p>
+
+
+<p class="smlpadt">The one Renaissance building in Portugal which has
+been much illustrated, and is spoken of in high terms,
+is the Convent at Mafra, a building of the eighteenth
+century, of great extent and picturesque effect. Great skill
+is shown in dealing with the unwieldy bulk of an overgrown
+establishment which does not yield even to the
+Escurial in point of extent. We are, however, up to the
+present time without the means of forming an opinion
+upon the nature and value of the architecture of Portugal
+as a whole.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 208px;">
+<img src="images/agr135.jpg" width="208" height="150"
+alt="Ornamental foliage pattern" />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"><!-- Blank page --></a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>235]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="head09" id="head09"></a>
+<img src="images/agr136.jpg" width="500" height="106"
+alt="From a frieze at Venice" />
+</div>
+
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><i>See also <a href="#contents"><span class="smcap">Contents</span></a> at beginning.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<a href="#A">A</a> <a href="#B">B</a> <a href="#C">C</a>
+<a href="#D">D</a> <a href="#E">E</a> <a href="#F">F</a>
+<a href="#G">G</a> <a href="#H">H</a> <a href="#I">I</a>
+<a href="#J">J</a> <a href="#K">K</a> <a href="#L">L</a>
+<a href="#M">M</a> <a href="#N">N</a> <a href="#O">O</a>
+<a href="#P">P</a> <a href="#R">R</a> <a href="#S">S</a>
+<a href="#T">T</a> <a href="#V">V</a> <a href="#W">W</a>
+</p>
+
+<p class="index"><a name="A" id="A"></a>
+Adam, John and Robert, <a href="#Page_224">223</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Alberti, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Amiens Cathedral, <a href="#fig34">76</a>, <a href="#fig35">78</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Andernach, Church at, <a href="#Page_95">96</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Anne, Queen, Style of, <a href="#Page_226">225</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Arnstein Abbey, <a href="#Page_95">94</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="B" id="B"></a>
+Baptista, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Batalha, Monastery at, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#fig60">153</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Beauvais Cathedral, <i>Interior</i>, <a href="#fig38">86</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Belgium and Netherlands, <i>Gothic</i>, <a href="#chap06a">87</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;<i>Renaissance</i>, <a href="#chap12a">206</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bernini, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
+<a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blenheim, <a href="#Page_222">221</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blois, Ch&acirc;teau of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blois, Capital from St. Nicholas, <a href="#fig37">84</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bourges, House of Jaques C&oelig;ur, <a href="#fig07">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bramante, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>,
+<a href="#fig66">180</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Brunelleschi, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Buttresses, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="C" id="C"></a>
+Caen, Saint Pierre at, <a href="#fig13">37</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cambridge, King&rsquo;s College, <a href="#fig28">63</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Campaniles in Italy, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Capitals, Gothic, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Certosa, near Pavia, <a href="#frontispiece"><i>frontispiece</i></a>, <a href="#fig69">183</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chambers, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_223">222</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chambord, Ch&acirc;teau of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chartres, Stained glass at, <a href="#fig29">65</a>, <a href="#head05">69</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chester, Old Houses at, <a href="#fig14">38</a>, <a href="#fig83">224</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Churriguera, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_232">230</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Colmar, Window at, <a href="#fig77">206</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cologne Cathedral, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#fig46">104</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Columns and Piers, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cortona, Pietro da, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cremona, Palace at, <a href="#fig50">117</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="D" id="D"></a>
+Dantzic, Zeughaus at, <a href="#fig78">203</a>.</p>
+
+<p>De Caumont. <i>Ab&eacute;c&eacute;daire</i>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Decorated style of Architecture, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Delorme, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_215">214</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Domestic Buildings, <i>Gothic</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="E" id="E"></a>
+Early English Architecture, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Eltham Palace, Roof of, <a href="#fig22">53</a>.</p>
+
+<p>England, Gothic Architecture in, <a href="#chap03">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Renaissance in, <a href="#chap13">213</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="F" id="F"></a>
+Florence, Cathedral at, <a href="#fig51">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Pandolfini Palace, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#fig63">173</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Riccardi Palace, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Strozzi Palace, <a href="#fig61">169</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fontevrault, Church at, <a href="#fig31">70</a>.</p>
+
+<p>France, Gothic Architecture in, <a href="#chap06">69</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Renaissance in, <a href="#chap12">193</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Francis the First of France, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Friburg Cathedral, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="G" id="G"></a>
+Gables in Gothic Architecture, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Germany, Gothic Architecture in, <a href="#chap07">93</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Renaissance, <a href="#chap12b">209</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ghent, Tower at, <a href="#fig40">90</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gibbs, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_223">222</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Giotto&rsquo;s Campanile at Florence, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gothic, The word, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Goujon, Jean, <i>Sculptor</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="H" id="H"></a>
+Haddon Hall, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Havenius of Cleves, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_215">214</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hawksmoor, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_222">221</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Heidelberg, Castle of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_210">209</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Herrera, Juan de, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_232">217</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Holland House, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="I" id="I"></a>
+Italy, Gothic Architecture in, <a href="#chap08">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Renaissance in, <a href="#chap11">165</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="J" id="J"></a>
+John of Padua, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_215">214</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jones, Inigo, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_218">217</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>236]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="index"><a name="K" id="K"></a>
+Kent, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_223">222</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kuttenberg, St. Barbara at, <a href="#fig43">99</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="L" id="L"></a>
+Lescot, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leyden, Council-house at, <a href="#fig79">210</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lichfield Cathedral, West Door, <a href="#fig01">5</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lincoln Cathedral, General view, <a href="#fig12">35</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lippi Annibale, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lisieux, Old Houses at, <a href="#fig15">41</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Loches, Doorway at, <a href="#fig32">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p>London, St. Paul&rsquo;s Cathedral, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="M" id="M"></a>
+Maderno, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mafra, Convent at, <a href="#Page_233">232</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mansard, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Michelangelo <i>as an Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
+<a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Michelozzo, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Middleburgh, Town Hall at, <a href="#fig39">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Milan Cathedral, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Misereres in Wells Cathedral, <a href="#tail02">68</a>, <a href="#tail03">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mouldings, Gothic, <a href="#Page_61">62</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="N" id="N"></a>
+Nuremberg, St. Sebald&rsquo;s at, <a href="#fig49">109</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="O" id="O"></a>
+Oakham, Decorated Spire of, <a href="#fig25">60</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ogee-shaped arch, <a href="#fig54">129</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Oppenheim, St. Catherine at, <a href="#fig48">107</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Orleans, Capital from house at, <a href="#fig72">197</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Orleans, Window at, <a href="#fig71">196</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="P" id="P"></a>
+Pavia, Certosa, near, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#fig69">188</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Palladio, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
+<a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Paris, Cathedral of Notre Dame, <a href="#fig33">74</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;H&ocirc;tel des Invalides at, <a href="#fig76">205</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Louvre, Capital from, <a href="#fig75">202</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Louvre, Pavillon Richelieu, <a href="#fig73">199</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Pantheon at, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Tuileries, by Delorme, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Perpendicular Architecture, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Peruzzi, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Peterborough Cathedral, Plan, <a href="#fig02">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pisano, Nicola, <i>Sculptor</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Plateresco, <i>Spanish</i>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Principles of Gothic Design, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="R" id="R"></a>
+Raphael <i>as an Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Renaissance Architecture, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Regensburg (Ratisbon), Well at, <a href="#fig10">20</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rheims Cathedral, Piers, <a href="#fig36">80</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rome, Monument in Santa Maria del Popolo, <a href="#fig65">179</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rome, Palazzo Giraud, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#fig66">180</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;St. Peter&rsquo;s, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>,
+<a href="#fig64">177</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Villa Medici, <a href="#fig70">191</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="S" id="S"></a>
+Saint Gall Manuscript, The, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Salisbury Cathedral, Section, <a href="#fig03">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Saint Iago di Compostella, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sangallo, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sansovino, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_183">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scamozzi, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_183">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Scotland, Cawdor Castle, <a href="#Page_229">227</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Dunrobin Castle, <a href="#Page_229">228</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Heriot&rsquo;s Hospital, <a href="#Page_229">228</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schalaburg, Castle of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Schwartz-Rheindorff, Church at, <a href="#Page_100">101</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Serlio, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Seville, The Giralda at, <a href="#fig59">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Siena Cathedral, <a href="#fig52">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Spain, Gothic Architecture in, <a href="#chap08a">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Renaissance in, <a href="#chap13b">228</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Spires, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stained Glass, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Strasburg Cathedral, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="T" id="T"></a>
+Thann, Doorway at, <a href="#fig47">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tivoli, Window from, <a href="#fig56">134</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Toledo, Alcazar at, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Cathedral, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Towers and Spires, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tracery, Venetian, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tudor Architecture, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="V" id="V"></a>
+Vanbrugh, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_222">221</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Venice, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Venice, Church of Redentore, <a href="#fig68">186</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Ducal Palace at, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Palaces on Grand Canal, <a href="#fig09">18</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vienna, St. Stephen at, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Vignola, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
+<a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="W" id="W"></a>
+Warboys, Early English Spire, <a href="#fig24">59</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Warwick Castle, Plan, <a href="#fig08">16</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wells Cathedral, Nave, <a href="#fig05">9</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Westminster Abbey, Plan, <a href="#fig06">11</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Westminster Abbey, Carving, <a href="#fig30">67</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Henry VII.&rsquo;s Chapel, <a href="#fig23">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;Triforium, <a href="#fig19">49</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Windows, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,
+<a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Window, Italian Gothic, <a href="#fig56">134</a>, <a href="#fig57">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Worcester Cathedral, Choir, <a href="#fig04">9</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wren, Sir C., <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>,
+<a href="#Page_218">217</a>, <a href="#Page_221">220</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center padtop padbase vsmlfont">LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class="center"><i>Now in course of Publication.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center lrgfont padtop">A NEW SERIES</p>
+
+<p class="center smlfont">OF</p>
+
+<p class="center xlrgfont">ILLUSTRATED TEXT-BOOKS</p>
+
+<p class="center smlfont">OF</p>
+
+<p class="center xlrgfont">ART EDUCATION,</p>
+
+<p class="center lrgfont">EDITED BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Each volume contains numerous illustrations, and is strongly bound for the
+use of students. Price 5<i>s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>To be issued in the following Divisions:&mdash;</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>PAINTING.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="hang">* <b>CLASSIC and ITALIAN.</b> By <span class="smcap">Edward J. Poynter</span>, R.A., and <span class="smcap">Percy
+R. Head</span>, Lincoln College, Oxford.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><b>GERMAN, FLEMISH, and DUTCH.</b> By <span class="smcap">H. Wilmot Buxton</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><b>FRENCH and SPANISH.</b> By <span class="smcap">Gerard Smith</span>, Exeter College, Oxford.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><b>ENGLISH and AMERICAN.</b> By <span class="smcap">H. Wilmot Buxton</span>, M.A.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>ARCHITECTURE.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="hang"><b>CLASSIC and EARLY CHRISTIAN.</b> By <span class="smcap">T. Roger Smith</span>, F.R.I.B.A.</p>
+
+<p class="hang">* <b>GOTHIC and RENAISSANCE.</b> By <span class="smcap">T. Roger Smith</span>, F.R.I.B.A.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>SCULPTURE.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="hang"><b>ANTIQUE: EGYPTIAN and GREEK.</b> By <span class="smcap">George Redford</span>, F.R.C.S.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><b>RENAISSANCE and MODERN.</b> By <span class="smcap">George Redford</span>, F.R.C.S.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>ORNAMENT.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="hang"><b>DECORATION IN COLOUR.</b> By <span class="smcap">George Aitchison</span>, M.A.</p>
+
+<p class="hang"><b>ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENT.</b> With numerous Illustrations.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center padbase">* <i>These Divisions are now ready.</i></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 392px;">
+<a name="endpaper" id="endpaper"></a>
+<img src="images/agr137.jpg" width="392" height="600"
+alt="From a tapestry in Hardwick Hall" />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<p><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+
+<p>Minor punctuation errors have been repaired.</p>
+
+<p>Hyphenation and accent usage has been made consistent.</p>
+
+<p>Spelling was made consistent as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_xxxvii">xxxvii</a>&mdash;Transome amended to Transom&mdash;"<span class="smcap">Transom.</span>&mdash;A horizontal bar
+(usually of stone) ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_xl">xl</a>&mdash;Hardwicke amended to Hardwick&mdash;"<span class="smcap">The End-papers are from a Tapestry
+in Hardwick Hall.</span>"</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_198">198</a>&mdash;di amended to da&mdash;"... built from the designs of Pietro da Cortona, ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_217">217</a>&mdash;transomes amended to transoms&mdash;"... and with mullions and transoms, ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_217">217</a>&mdash;transomes amended to transoms&mdash;"... large windows divided by mullions and
+transoms, ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_224">224</a>&mdash;Cotemporary amended to Contemporary&mdash;"Contemporary with him were the
+brothers John and Robert Adam, ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_226">226</a>&mdash;transomes amended to transoms&mdash;"... so are the mouldings, transoms and
+mullions to the windows, ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_236">236</a>&mdash;Middleburg amended to Middleburgh&mdash;"Middleburgh, Town Hall at, 89."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_236">236</a>&mdash;N&iacute;colo amended to Nicola&mdash;"Pisano, Nicola, <i>Sculptor</i>, 120."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_236">236</a>&mdash;Strassburg amended to Strasburg&mdash;"Strasburg Cathedral, 98."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_236">236</a>&mdash;Van Brugh amended to Vanbrugh&mdash;"Vanbrugh, <i>Architect</i>, 221."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The following amendments have been made:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_x">x</a>&mdash;omitted page number added&mdash;"3. <span class="smcap">Scotland</span>, <span class="smcap">Wales</span>,
+and <span class="smcap">Ireland</span> 91"</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_xxiv">xxiv</a>&mdash;frize amended to frieze&mdash;"... the architrave, which rests on
+the columns, the frieze and the cornice."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_xxiv">xxiv</a>&mdash;The entry for Entablature originally followed Embattled. It has been
+moved to the correct place in the glossary.</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_xxv">xxv</a>&mdash;Styl amended to Style&mdash;"<span class="smcap">Fran&ccedil;ois I. Style.</span>&mdash;The
+early Renaissance architecture of France during part of the sixteenth century."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_xxvii">xxvii</a>&mdash;Lintol amended to Lintel&mdash;"<span class="smcap">Lintel.</span>&mdash;The stone or beam
+covering a doorway ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_12">12</a>&mdash;arrangment amended to arrangement&mdash;"The whole arrangement of pier
+and arch ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_25">25</a>&mdash;ierced amended to pierced&mdash;"Parapet pierced with quatrefoils and
+flowing tracery."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_30">30</a>&mdash;repeated 'and' deleted&mdash;"... Gothic dwelling-houses of the fourteenth
+and fifteenth centuries exist, ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_36">36</a>&mdash;constrast amended to contrast&mdash;"... is to combine and yet contrast
+its horizontal and vertical elements."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_39">39</a>&mdash;storys amended to storeys&mdash;"... and sometimes also the basement
+storeys, ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_46">46</a>&mdash;and amended to end&mdash;"... occupying the eastern end of one of the
+transepts ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_82">82</a>&mdash;semi-circula amended to semicircular&mdash;"... and the roofs of
+semicircular and circular apses, ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_88">88</a>&mdash;achitecture amended to architecture&mdash;"... their architecture, though
+certainly Gothic, is debased in style."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_114">114</a>&mdash;laboration amended to elaboration&mdash;"... remarkable specimens of the
+ornamental elaboration which can be accomplished in brickwork."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_142">142</a>&mdash;Ths amended to The&mdash;"The great church at Batalha ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_159">159</a>&mdash;omitted 'the' added before building&mdash;"... in his treatment of the same
+part of the building ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_176">176</a>&mdash;repeated 'is' deleted&mdash;"... as long as the building is seen in front ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_186">186</a>&mdash;builing amended to building&mdash;"... lofty pilasters to include two storeys
+of the building ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_194">194</a>&mdash;first amended to First&mdash;"...than the best specimens of the style of
+Francis the First ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_226">226</a>&mdash;82 amended to 83&mdash;"... the treatment of the timbers is
+thoroughly Gothic (Fig. 83); ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_230">230</a>&mdash;archiect amended to architect&mdash;"The earliest architect who introduced
+into Spain an architectural style ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_233">233</a>&mdash;picuresque amended to picturesque&mdash;"... a building of the eighteenth
+century, of great extent and picturesque effect."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_235">235</a>&mdash;page references put into numerical order&mdash;"Brunelleschi,
+<i>Architect</i>, 120, 166."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_235">235</a>&mdash;137 amended to 173&mdash;"Florence ... &mdash;&mdash; Pandolfini Palace, 170, 173."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_235">235</a>&mdash;omitted 7 added&mdash;"Haddon Hall, 17."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Illustrations have been moved where necessary so that they are not
+in the middle of a paragraph.</p>
+
+<p>There was an error in the List of Illustrations. The original read:</p>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Extract from table of contents as originally printed">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">66.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Palazzo Giraud, Rome. By Bramante. (1506.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">180</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">67.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">The Church of St. Francesco, at Ferrara. Interior</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">183</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">68.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Italian Shell Ornament</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">184</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">69.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">The Church of the Redentore, Venice. (1576.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">186</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">70.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Certosa near Pavia. Part of West Front. (Begun 1473.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">189</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">70<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Early Renaissance Corbel</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">192</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">71.</td>
+    <td class="tdinlsc">Window from a House at Orleans. (Early 16th Century.)</td>
+    <td class="tdrb">195</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The listed Fig. 67 does not appear anywhere in the text. The List of Illustrations
+has been amended to accurately list the figures in the main body of the book, by
+removing the erroneous listing, renumbering the figures as necessary, including
+a previously omitted figure, <span class="smcap">Fig. 70.&mdash;Villa Medici&mdash;On the Pincian Hill
+near Rome. By Annibale Lippi (now the <span class="nosc"><i>Acad&eacute;mie Fran&ccedil;aise</i></span>). (<small>A.D.</small>
+1540.)</span>, and amending the page numbers.</p>
+
+<p>Alphabetic links have been added to the index for ease of navigation.</p>
+
+<p>The advertising material has been moved to the end of the book.</p>
+
+<p>Omitted page numbers were blank pages or full page illustrations (moved for this
+e-text) in the original.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
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@@ -0,0 +1,7808 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Architecture
+       Gothic and Renaissance
+
+Author: Thomas Roger Smith
+
+Editor: Edward J. Poynter
+
+Release Date: October 3, 2010 [EBook #33837]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Sam W. and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Illustration captions in {curly brackets} have been added by the
+transcriber for the convenience of the reader.
+
+A considerable number of the page references in the index are
+incorrect; however, they have been preserved as printed.
+
+
+
+
+            _ILLUSTRATED TEXT-BOOKS OF ART
+                      EDUCATION_
+
+         _EDITED BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A._
+
+
+                     ARCHITECTURE
+                GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE
+
+            BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: P. 114
+      THE CERTOSA, NEAR PAVIA. FROM THE CLOISTERS.
+      BEGUN BY MARCO DI CAMPIONE, A.D. 1393.]
+
+
+
+
+        _TEXT-BOOK OF ART EDUCATION, EDITED BY
+               EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A._
+
+
+                     ARCHITECTURE
+                GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE
+
+            BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+
+         _Occasional Lecturer on Architecture
+            at University College, London_
+
+
+   [Illustration: {SAINT GEORGE. PANEL FROM THE TOMB
+      OF CARDINAL AMBOISE IN ROUEN CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+
+                       NEW YORK
+                SCRIBNER AND WELFORD.
+
+                        LONDON
+      SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON
+          CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET
+                         1880
+
+
+
+
+               (_All rights reserved._)
+
+
+          LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR,
+               BREAD STREET HILL, E. C.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {CRETE FROM NOTRE DAME, PARIS.}]
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The history, the features, and the most famous examples of European
+architecture, during a period extending from the rise of the Gothic,
+or pointed, style in the twelfth century to the general depression
+which overtook the Renaissance style at the close of the eighteenth,
+form the subject of this little volume. I have endeavoured to adopt as
+free and simple a mode of treatment as is compatible with the accurate
+statement of at least the outlines of so very technical a subject.
+
+Though it is to be hoped that many professional students of
+architecture will find this hand-book serviceable to them in their
+elementary studies, it has been my principal endeavour to adapt it to
+the requirements of those who are preparing for the professional
+pursuit of the sister arts, and of that large and happily increasing
+number of students who pursue the fine arts as a necessary part of a
+complete liberal education, and who know that a solid and
+comprehensive acquaintance with art, especially if joined to some
+skill in the use of the pencil, the brush, the modelling tool, or the
+etching needle, will open sources of pleasure and interest of the most
+refined description.
+
+The broad facts of all art history; the principles which underlie each
+of the fine arts; and the most precious or most noteworthy examples of
+each, ought to be familiar to every art student, whatever special
+branch he may follow. Beyond these limits I have not attempted to
+carry this account of Gothic and Renaissance architecture; within them
+I have endeavoured to make the work as complete as the space at my
+disposal permitted.
+
+Some portions of the text formed part of two courses of lectures
+delivered before the students of the School of Military Engineering at
+Chatham, and are introduced here by the kind permission of Sir John
+Stokes. Many of the descriptive and critical remarks are transcripts
+of notes made by myself, almost under the shadow of the buildings to
+which they refer. It would, however, have been impossible to give a
+condensed view of so extended a subject had not every part of it been
+treated at much greater length by previous writers. The number and
+variety of the books consulted renders it impossible to make any other
+acknowledgment here than this general recognition of my indebtedness
+to their authors.
+
+                                                    T. R. S.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+    ILLUSTRATED GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS.               xv to xxxix
+
+
+    CHAPTER I.
+
+      INTRODUCTION.                                                  1
+
+
+    CHAPTER II.
+
+      THE BUILDINGS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.                              6
+
+
+    CHAPTER III.
+
+      GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.                                          21
+
+
+    CHAPTER IV.
+
+      GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND.
+
+          Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls. Towers and
+            Spires. Gables. Piers and Columns                       28
+
+
+    CHAPTER V.
+
+      GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND (_continued_).
+
+          Analysis (_continued_). Openings. Roofs. Spires.
+            Ornaments. Stained Glass. Sculpture                     45
+
+
+    CHAPTER VI.
+
+      GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN EUROPE.
+
+          1. FRANCE. Chronological Sketch. Analysis of
+            Buildings. Plans. Walls, Towers and Gables.
+            Columns and Piers. Roofs and Vaults. Openings.
+            Mouldings and Ornaments. Construction and Design        69
+
+          2. BELGIUM and the NETHERLANDS                            87
+
+          3. SCOTLAND, WALES, and IRELAND                           91
+
+
+    CHAPTER VII.
+
+      GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+          1. GERMANY. Chronological Sketch. Analysis of
+            Buildings. Plans. Walls, Towers and Gables.
+            Roofs and Vaults. Openings. Ornaments.
+            Construction and Design                                 93
+
+          2. NORTHERN EUROPE                                       111
+
+
+    CHAPTER VIII.
+
+      GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.
+
+          1. ITALY and SICILY. Topographical Sketch.
+            NORTHERN ITALY. CENTRAL ITALY. SOUTHERN
+            ITALY. Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls,
+            Towers, and Columns. Openings and Arches.
+            Roofs and Vaults. Mouldings and Ornaments.
+            Construction and Design                                112
+
+          2. SPAIN. Chronological Sketch                           137
+
+          3. PORTUGAL                                              142
+
+
+    CHAPTER IX.
+
+      GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+          Principles of Construction and Design. Materials
+            and Construction                                       143
+
+
+    CHAPTER X.
+
+      RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+          GENERAL VIEW. Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls
+            and Columns. Openings. Construction and Design         154
+
+
+    CHAPTER XI.
+
+      RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.
+
+          FLORENCE. ROME. VENICE, VICENZA, VERONA. MILAN,
+            PAVIA. GENOA, TURIN, NAPLES. Country Villas            165
+
+
+    CHAPTER XII.
+
+      RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+          1. FRANCE. Chronological Sketch                          193
+
+          2. BELGIUM and the NETHERLANDS                           206
+
+          3. GERMANY                                               210
+
+
+    CHAPTER XIII.
+
+      RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN, SPAIN,
+        AND PORTUGAL.
+
+          1. ENGLAND. Chronological Sketch                         214
+
+          2. SCOTLAND                                              227
+
+          3. SPAIN and PORTUGAL                                    229
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+    CERTOSA, THE, NEAR PAVIA. FROM THE CLOISTERS          Frontispiece
+
+    SAINT GEORGE. PANEL FROM THE TOMB OF CARDINAL
+        AMBOISE IN ROUEN CATHEDRAL                          Title Page
+
+    GLOSSARY. FORTY ENGRAVINGS OF DETAILS                  xv to xxxix
+
+    1. WEST ENTRANCE, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL. (1275.)                   5
+
+    2. GROUND PLAN OF PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL. (1118 to 1193.)        6
+
+    3. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE NAVE OF SALISBURY CATHEDRAL         7
+
+    4. CHOIR OF WORCESTER CATHEDRAL. (BEGUN 1224.)                   9
+
+    5. NAVE OF WELLS CATHEDRAL. (1206 to 1242.)                      9
+
+    6. GROUND PLAN OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY                             11
+
+    7. HOUSE OF JAQUES COEUR AT BOURGES. (BEGUN 1443.)              15
+
+    8. PLAN OF WARWICK CASTLE. (14TH AND 15TH CENTURIES.)           16
+
+    9. PALACES ON THE GRAND CANAL, VENICE. (14TH CENTURY.)          18
+
+    10. WELL AT REGENSBURG. (15TH CENTURY.)                         20
+
+    11. GOTHIC ORNAMENT. FROM SENS CATHEDRAL (HEADPIECE)            21
+
+    12. LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. (MOSTLY EARLY ENGLISH.)                  35
+
+    13. ST. PIERRE, CAEN, TOWER AND SPIRE. (SPIRE, 1302.)           37
+
+    14. HOUSE AT CHESTER. (16TH CENTURY.)                           38
+
+    15. HOUSES AT LISIEUX, FRANCE. (16TH CENTURY.)                  41
+
+    16. LANCET WINDOW. (12TH CENTURY.)                              46
+
+    17. TWO-LIGHT WINDOW. (13TH CENTURY.)                           47
+
+    18. GEOMETRICAL TRACERY. (14TH CENTURY.)                        48
+
+    19. TRIFORIUM ARCADE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY. (1269.)                49
+
+    20. ROSE WINDOW FROM THE TRANSEPT OF LINCOLN CATHEDRAL          50
+
+    21. PERPENDICULAR WINDOW                                        51
+
+    22. ROOF OF HALL AT ELTHAM PALACE. (15TH CENTURY.)              53
+
+    23. HENRY VII.'S CHAPEL. (1503-1512.)                           57
+
+    24. SPIRE OF ST. MARY MAGDALENE, WARBOYS, LINCOLNSHIRE          59
+
+    25. DECORATED SPIRE. ALL SAINTS' CHURCH, OAKHAM                 60
+
+    26. EARLY ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES                               62
+
+    27. ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES MOULDED                             62
+
+    28. DOORWAY, KING'S COLLEGE CHAPEL, CAMBRIDGE. (15TH CENT.)     63
+
+    29. STAINED GLASS WINDOW FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL                65
+
+    30. SCULPTURE FROM CHAPTER HOUSE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY             67
+
+    31. CHURCH AT FONTEVRAULT. (BEGUN 1125.)                        70
+
+    32. DOORWAY AT LOCHES, FRANCE. (1180.)                          72
+
+    33. NOTRE DAME, PARIS, WEST FRONT. (1214.)                      74
+
+    34. PLAN OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL. (1220-1272.)                      76
+
+    35. AMIENS CATHEDRAL, WEST FRONT. (1220-1272.)                  78
+
+    36. PIERS AND SUPERSTRUCTURE, RHEIMS CATHEDRAL. (1211-1240.)    80
+
+    37. CAPITAL FROM ST. NICHOLAS, BLOIS, FRANCE. (13TH CENTURY.)   84
+
+    38. BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL, INTERIOR. (1225-1537.)                  86
+
+    39. THE TOWN HALL OF MIDDLEBURGH. (1518.)                       89
+
+    40. TOWER AT GHENT. (BEGUN 1183.)                               90
+
+    41. ABBEY CHURCH OF ARNSTEIN. (12TH AND 13TH CENTURIES.)        94
+
+    42. CHURCH AT ANDERNACH. (EARLY 13TH CENTURY.)                  96
+
+    43. CHURCH OF ST. BARBARA AT KUTTENBERG. EAST END.
+        (1358-1548.)                                                99
+
+    44. DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF. SECTION. (1158.)     101
+
+    45. DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF. (1158.)              102
+
+    46. COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. GROUND PLAN. (BEGUN 1248.)              104
+
+    47. WESTERN DOORWAY OF CHURCH AT THANN. (14TH CENTURY.)        106
+
+    48. CHURCH OF ST. CATHERINE AT OPPENHEIM. (1262 TO 1439.)      107
+
+    49. ST. SEBALD'S CHURCH AT NUREMBERG. THE BRIDE'S DOORWAY      109
+
+    50. PALACE OF THE JURISCONSULTS AT CREMONA                     117
+
+    51. CATHEDRAL AT FLORENCE. WITH GIOTTO'S CAMPANILE             121
+
+    52. CATHEDRAL AT SIENA. WEST FRONT AND CAMPANILE               123
+
+    53. CATHEDRAL AT ORVIETO. (BEGUN 1290; FACADE, 1310.)          125
+
+    54. OGIVAL WINDOW-HEAD                                         129
+
+    55. TRACERY IN WINDOW-HEAD, FROM VENICE                        130
+
+    56. WINDOW FROM TIVOLI                                         134
+
+    57. ITALIAN GOTHIC WINDOW, WITH TRACERY IN HEAD                136
+
+    58. CATHEDRAL AT TOLEDO. INTERIOR. (BEGUN 1227.)               139
+
+    59. THE GIRALDA AT SEVILLE. (BEGUN IN 1196; FINISHED
+        IN 1568.)                                                  141
+
+    60. DOORWAY FROM CHURCH AT BATALHA. (BEGUN 1385.)              151
+
+    61. STROZZI PALACE AT FLORENCE. (BEGUN 1489.)                  169
+
+    62. PART OF THE LOGGIA DEL CONSIGLIO AT VERONA                 171
+
+    63. THE PANDOLFINI PALACE, FLORENCE. DESIGNED BY RAPHAEL       173
+
+    64. ST. PETER'S AT ROME. INTERIOR. (1506-1661.)                177
+
+    65. MONUMENT BY SANSOVINO, IN STA. MARIA DEL POPOLO, ROME      179
+
+    66. PALAZZO GIRAUD, ROME. BY BRAMANTE. (1506.)                 180
+
+    67. ITALIAN SHELL ORNAMENT                                     183
+
+    68. THE CHURCH OF THE REDENTORE, VENICE. (1576.)               185
+
+    69. CERTOSA NEAR PAVIA. PART OF WEST FRONT. (BEGUN 1473.)      188
+
+    70. VILLA MEDICI--ON THE PINCIAN HILL NEAR ROME. BY
+        ANNIBALE LIPPI (NOW THE _Academie Francaise_).
+        (A.D. 1540.)                                               191
+
+    70A. EARLY RENAISSANCE CORBEL                                  192
+
+    71. WINDOW FROM A HOUSE AT ORLEANS. (EARLY 16TH CENTURY.)      195
+
+    72. CAPITAL FROM THE HOUSE OF FRANCIS I., ORLEANS. (1540.)     197
+
+    73. PAVILLON RICHELIEU OF THE LOUVRE, PARIS                    199
+
+    74. PART OF THE TUILERIES, PARIS. (BEGUN 1564.)                201
+
+    75. CAPITAL FROM DELORME'S WORK AT THE LOUVRE                  202
+
+    76. HOTEL DES INVALIDES, PARIS                                 204
+
+    77. WINDOW FROM COLMAR. (1575.)                                208
+
+    78. ZEUGHAUS, DANTZIC. (1605.)                                 209
+
+    79. COUNCIL-HOUSE AT LEYDEN. (1599.)                           211
+
+    80. QUADRANGLE OF THE CASTLE OF SCHALABURG                     213
+
+    81. HOLLAND HOUSE, KENSINGTON. (1607.)                         216
+
+    82. ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, LONDON. (1675-1710.)                 220
+
+    83. HOUSES AT CHESTER. (16TH CENTURY.)                         225
+
+    84. THE ALCAZAR AT TOLEDO. (BEGUN 1568.)                       231
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS.
+
+
+    ABACUS.--The upper portion of the capital of a column, upon
+    which the weight to be carried rests.
+
+    AISLE (Lat. _ala_).--The side subdivision in a church;
+    occasionally all the subdivisions, including the nave, are
+    called aisles.
+
+    APSE.--A semicircular or polygonal termination to, or
+    projection from, a church or other public building.
+
+    ARCADE.--A range of arches, supported on piers or columns.
+
+    ARCH.--A construction of wedge-shaped blocks of stone, or of
+    bricks, of a curved outline, and spanning an open space. The
+    principal forms of arch in use are Semicircular;
+    Acutely-pointed, or Lancet; Equilateral, or Less
+    Acutely-pointed; Four-centred, or Depressed Tudor;
+    Three-centred, or Elliptic; Ogival; Segmental; and Stilted.
+    (Figs. _A_ to _F_.)
+
+    ARCHITRAVE.--(1) The stone which in Classic and Renaissance
+    architecture is thrown from one column or pilaster to the
+    next. (2) The moulding which in the same styles is used to
+    ornament the margin of a door or window opening or arch.
+
+    ASHLAR.--Finely-wrought masonry, employed for the facing of
+    a wall of coarser masonry or brick.
+
+    ATTIC (In Renaissance Architecture).--A low upper story,
+    distinctly marked in the architecture of the building,
+    usually surmounting an order; (2) in ordinary building, any
+    story in a roof.
+
+
+    BAILEY (from _vallum_).--The enclosure of the courtyard of a
+    castle.
+
+    BALL-FLOWER.--An ornament representing a globular bud,
+    placed usually in a hollow moulding.
+
+    BALUSTER.--A species of small column, generally of curved
+    outline.
+
+    BALUSTRADE.--A parapet or rail formed of balusters.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _A_.--SEMICIRCULAR ARCH.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _B_.--STILTED ARCH.]
+
+      The Semicircular and the Stilted Semicircular Arch were the
+      only arches in use till the introduction of the Pointed
+      Arch. Throughout the Early English, Decorated, and
+      Perpendicular periods they occur as exceptional features,
+      but they were practically superseded after the close of the
+      12th cent.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _C_.--EQUILATERAL ARCH.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _D_.--LANCET ARCH.]
+
+      The Lancet Arch was characteristic of the Early English
+      period, is never found earlier, and but rarely occurs later.
+      The Equilateral Arch was the favourite arch of the
+      architects of the geometrical Decorated, but is not
+      unfrequently met with in the early part of the Perpendicular
+      period.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _E_.--OGIVAL ARCH.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _F_.--DEPRESSED TUDOR ARCH.]
+
+      The Depressed (or Four-centred) Tudor Arch is characteristic
+      of the Perpendicular period, and was then constantly
+      employed. The Ogival Arch is occasionally employed late in
+      that period, but was more used by French and Italian
+      architects than by those of Great Britain.
+
+    BAND.--A flat moulding or projecting strip of stone.
+
+    BARREL-VAULTING.--See Waggon-head vaulting.
+
+    BARGE-BOARD (OR VERGE-BOARD).--An inclined and pierced or
+    ornamented board placed along the edge of a roof when it
+    overhangs a gable wall.
+
+    BASE.--(1) The foot of a column; (2) sometimes that of a
+    buttress or wall.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _G_.--BASE OF EARLY ENGLISH SHAFT.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _H_.--BASE OF PERPENDICULAR SHAFT.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _I_.--BASE OF DECORATED SHAFT.]
+
+    BASILICA.--(1) A Roman public hall; (2) an early Christian
+    church, similar to a Roman basilica in disposition.
+
+    BASTION (in Fortification).--A bold projecting mass of
+    building, or earthwork thrown out beyond the general line of
+    a wall.
+
+    BATTLEMENT.--A notched or indented parapet.
+
+    BAY.--One of the compartments in a building which is made up
+    of several repetitions of the same group of features;
+    _e.g._, in a church the space from one column of the nave
+    arcade to the next is a bay.
+
+    BAY-WINDOW.--A window projecting outward from the wall. It
+    may be rectangular or polygonal. It must be built up from
+    the ground. If thrown out above the ground level, a
+    projecting window is called an Oriel. (See Bow window.)
+
+    BEAD.--A small moulding of circular profile.
+
+    BELFRY.--A chamber fitted to receive a peal of bells.
+
+    BELFRY STAGE.--The story of a tower where the belfry occurs.
+    Usually marked by large open arches or windows, to let the
+    sound escape.
+
+    BELL (of a capital).--The body between the necking and the
+    abacus (which see).
+
+    BILLET MOULDING.--A moulding consisting of a group of small
+    blocks separated by spaces about equal to their own length.
+
+    BLIND STORY.--Triforium (which see).
+
+    BOSS.--A projecting mass of carving placed to conceal the
+    intersection of the ribs of a vault, or at the end of a
+    string course which it is desired to stop, or in an
+    analogous situation.
+
+    BOW WINDOW.--Similar to a Bay-window (which see), but
+    circular or segmental.
+
+    BROACH-SPIRE.--A spire springing from a tower without a
+    parapet and with pyramidal features at the feet of its four
+    oblique sides (see Fig. 22) to connect them to the four
+    angles of the tower.
+
+    BROACHEAD (SPIRE).--Formed as above described.
+
+    BUTTRESS.--A projection built up against a wall to create
+    additional strength or furnish support (see Flying
+    Buttress).
+
+    BYZANTINE.--The round-arched Christian architecture of the
+    Eastern Church, which had its origin in Byzantium
+    (Constantinople).
+
+
+    CANOPY.--(1) An ornamented projection over doors, windows,
+    &c.; (2) a covering over niches, tombs, &c.
+
+    CAMPANILE.--The Italian name for a bell-tower.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _J_.--BUTTRESS.]
+
+    CAPITAL.--The head of a column or pilaster (Figs. _L_ to
+    _P_).
+
+    CATHEDRAL.--A church which contains the seat of a bishop;
+    usually a building of the first class.
+
+    CERTOSA.--A monastery (or church) of Carthusian monks.
+
+    CHAMFER.--A slight strip pared off from a sharp angle.
+
+    CHANCEL.--The choir or eastern part of a church.
+
+    CHANTRY CHAPEL.--A chapel connected with a monument or tomb
+    in which masses were to be chanted. This was usually of
+    small size and very rich.
+
+    CHAPEL.--(1) A chamber attached to a church and opening out
+    of it, or formed within it, and in which an altar was
+    placed; (2) a small detached church.
+
+    CHAPTER HOUSE.--The hall of assembly of the chapter (dean
+    and canons) of a cathedral.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _L_.--EARLY NORMAN CAPITAL.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _M_.--EARLY ENGLISH CAPITAL.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _N_.--LATER NORMAN CAPITAL.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _O_.--PERPENDICULAR CAPITAL.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _P_.--EARLY FRENCH CAPITAL.]
+
+    CHATEAU.--The French name for a country mansion.
+
+    CHEVRON.--A zig-zag ornament.
+
+    CHEVET.--The French name for an apse when surrounded by
+    chapels; see the plan of Westminster Abbey (Fig. 6).
+
+    CHOIR.--The part of a church in which the services are
+    celebrated; usually, but not always, the east end or
+    chancel. In a Spanish church the choir is often at the
+    crossing.
+
+    CLERESTORY.--The upper story or row of windows lighting the
+    nave of a Gothic church.
+
+    CLOISTER.--A covered way round a quadrangle of a monastic
+    building.
+
+    CLUSTERED (SHAFTS).--Grouped so as to form a pier of some
+    mass out of several small shafts.
+
+    CORBEL.--A projecting stone (or timber) supporting, or
+    seeming to support, a weight (Fig. _K_).
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _K_.--EARLY RENAISSANCE CORBEL.]
+
+    CORBELLING.--A series of mouldings doing the same duty as a
+    corbel; a row of corbels.
+
+    CORBEL TABLE.--A row of corbels supporting an overhanging
+    parapet or cornice.
+
+    CORTILE (Italian).--The internal arcaded quadrangle of a
+    palace, mansion, or public building.
+
+    COLUMN.--A stone or marble post, divided usually into base,
+    shaft, and capital; distinguished from a pier by the shaft
+    being cylindrical or polygonal, and in one, or at most, in
+    few pieces.
+
+    CORNICE.--The projecting and crowning portion of an order
+    (which see) or of a building, or of a stage or story of a
+    building.
+
+    COURSE.--A horizontal layer of stones in the masonry of a
+    building.
+
+    CROCKET.--A tuft of leaves arranged in a formal shape, used
+    to decorate ornamental gables, the ribs of spires, &c.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _Q_.--DECORATED CROCKET.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _R_.--PERPENDICULAR CROCKET.]
+
+    CROSSING.--The intersection (which see) in a church or
+    cathedral.
+
+    CROSS VAULT.--A vault of which the arched surfaces intersect
+    one another, forming a groin (which see).
+
+    CRYPT.--The basement under a church or other building
+    (almost invariably vaulted).
+
+    CUSP.--The projecting point thrown out to form the
+    leaf-shaped forms or foliations in the heads of Gothic
+    windows, and in tracery and panels.
+
+
+    DEC.       } The Gothic architecture of the fourteenth century
+    DECORATED. }   in England. _Abbreviated_ Dec.
+
+    DETAIL.--The minuter features of a design or building,
+    especially its mouldings and carving.
+
+    DIAPER (Gothic).--An uniform pattern of leaves or flowers
+    carved or painted on the surface of a wall.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _S_.--DIAPER IN SPANDREL, FROM
+          WESTMINSTER ABBEY.]
+
+    DOGTOOTH.--A sharply-pointed ornament in a hollow moulding
+    which is peculiar to Early English Gothic. It somewhat
+    resembles a blunt tooth.
+
+    DORMER WINDOW.--A window pierced through a sloping roof and
+    placed under a small gable or roof of its own.
+
+    DOME.--A cupola or spherical convex roof, ordinarily
+    circular on plan.
+
+    DOMICAL VAULTING.--Vaulting in which a series of small domes
+    are employed; in contradistinction to a waggon-head vault,
+    or an intersecting vault.
+
+    DOUBLE TRACERY.--Two layers of tracery one behind the other
+    and with a clear space between.
+
+
+    E. E.          } The Gothic architecture of England in the
+    EARLY ENGLISH. } thirteenth century. _Abbreviated_ E. E.
+
+    EAVES.--The verge or edge of a roof overhanging the wall.
+
+    EAVES-COURSE.--A moulding carrying the eaves.
+
+    ELEVATION.--(1) A geometrical drawing of part of the
+    exterior or interior walls of a building; (2) the
+    architectural treatment of the exterior or interior walls of
+    a building.
+
+    ELIZABETHAN.--The architecture of England in, and for some
+    time after, the reign of Elizabeth.
+
+    EMBATTLED.--Finished with battlements, or in imitation of
+    battlements.
+
+    ENRICHMENTS.--The carved (or coloured) decorations applied
+    to the mouldings or other features of an architectural
+    design. (See Mouldings.)
+
+    ENTABLATURE (in Classic and Renaissance architecture).--The
+    superstructure above the columns where an order is employed.
+    It is divided into the architrave, which rests on the
+    columns, the frieze and the cornice.
+
+
+    FACADE.--The front of a building or of a principal part of a
+    building.
+
+    FAN VAULT.--The vaulting in use in England in the fifteenth
+    century, in which a series of conoids bearing some
+    resemblance to an open fan are employed.
+
+    FILLET.--A small moulding of square flat section.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _T_.--PERPENDICULAR FINIAL.]
+
+    FINIAL.--A formally arranged bunch of foliage or other
+    similar ornament forming the top of a pinnacle, gablet, or
+    other ornamented feature of Gothic architecture.
+
+    FLAMBOYANT STYLE.--The late Gothic architecture of France
+    at the end of the fifteenth century, so called from the
+    occurrence of flame-shaped forms in the tracery.
+
+    FLECHE.--A name adapted from the French. A slender spire,
+    mostly placed on a roof; not often so called if on a tower.
+
+    FLYING BUTTRESS.--A buttress used to steady the upper and
+    inner walls of a vaulted building, placed at some distance
+    from the wall which it supports, and connected with it by an
+    arch.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _U_.--FLYING BUTTRESS.]
+
+    FOIL.--A leaf-shaped form produced by adding cusps to the
+    curved outline of a window head or piece of tracery.
+
+    FOLIATION.--The decoration of an opening, or of tracery by
+    means of foils and cusps.
+
+    FOSSE.--The ditch of a fortress.
+
+    FRANCOIS I. STYLE.--The early Renaissance architecture of
+    France during part of the sixteenth century.
+
+    FRIEZE.--(1) The middle member of a Classic or Renaissance
+    entablature; this was often sculptured and carved; (2) any
+    band of sculptured ornament.
+
+
+    GABLE.--The triangular-shaped wall carrying the end of a
+    roof.
+
+    GABLET.--A small gable (usually ornamental only).
+
+    GALLERY.--(1) An apartment of great length in proportion to
+    its width; (2) a raised floor or stage in a building.
+
+    GARGOYLE.--A projecting waterspout, usually carved in stone,
+    more rarely formed of metal.
+
+    GEOMETRICAL.--The architecture of the earlier part of the
+    decorated period in England.
+
+    GRILLE.--A grating or ornamental railing of metal.
+
+    GROIN.--The curved line which is made by the meeting of the
+    surfaces of two vaults or portions of vaults which
+    intersect.
+
+    GROUP.--An assemblage of shafts or mouldings or other small
+    features intended to produce a combined effect.
+
+    GROUPING.--Combining architectural features as above.
+
+
+    HALL.--(1) The largest room in an ancient English mansion,
+    or a college, &c.; (2) any large and stately apartment.
+
+    HALF TIMBERED CONSTRUCTION.--A mode of building in which a
+    framework of timbers is displayed and the spaces between
+    them are filled in with plaster or tiles.
+
+    HAMMER BEAM ROOF.--A roof peculiar to English architecture
+    of the fifteenth century, deriving its name from the use of
+    a hammer beam (a large bracket projecting from the walls) to
+    partly support the rafters.
+
+    HEAD (of an arch or other opening).--The portion within the
+    curve; whether filled in by masonry or left open, sometimes
+    called a tympanum.
+
+    HIP.--The external angle formed by the meeting of two
+    sloping sides of a roof where there is no gable.
+
+    HOTEL (French).--A town mansion.
+
+
+    IMPOST.--A moulding or other line marking the top of the
+    jambs of an arched opening, and the starting point, or
+    apparent starting point, of the arch.
+
+    INLAY.--A mode of decoration in which coloured materials
+    are laid into sinkings of ornamental shape, cut into the
+    surface to be decorated.
+
+    INTERSECTION (OR CROSSING).--The point in a church where the
+    transepts cross the nave.
+
+    INTERSECTING VAULTS.--Vaults of which the surfaces cut one
+    another.
+
+    INTERPENETRATION.--A German mode of treating mouldings, as
+    though two or more sets of them existed in the same stone
+    and they could pass through (interpenetrate) each other.
+
+
+    JAMB.--The side of a door or window or arch, or other
+    opening.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _V_.--PLAN OF A JAMB AND CENTRAL
+          PIER OF A GOTHIC DOORWAY.]
+
+
+    KEEP.--The tower which formed the stronghold of a mediaeval
+    castle.
+
+    KING POST.--The middle post in the framing of a timber roof.
+
+
+    LANCET ARCH.--The sharply-pointed window-head and arch,
+    characteristic of English Gothic in the thirteenth century.
+
+    LANTERN.--A conspicuous feature rising above a roof or
+    crowning a dome, and intended usually to light a Hall, but
+    often introduced simply as an architectural finish to the
+    whole building.
+
+    LIERNE (rib).--A rib intermediate between the main ribs in
+    Gothic vaulting.
+
+    LIGHT.--One of the divisions of a window of which the entire
+    width is divided by one or more mullions.
+
+    LINTEL.--The stone or beam covering a doorway or other
+    opening not spanned by an arch. Sometimes applied to the
+    architrave of an order.
+
+    LOGGIA (Italian).--An open arcade with a gallery behind.
+
+    LOOP.--Short for loophole. A very narrow slit in the wall of
+    a fortress, serving as a window, or to shoot through.
+
+    LUCARNE.--A spire-light. A small window like a slender
+    dormer window.
+
+
+    MOAT (or Fosse).--The ditch round a fortress or
+    semi-fortified house.
+
+    MOSAIC.--An ornament for pavements, walls, and the surfaces
+    of vaults, formed by cementing together small pieces of
+    coloured material (stone, marble, tile, &c.) so as to
+    produce a pattern or picture.
+
+    MOULDING.--A term applied to all varieties of contour or
+    outline given to the angles, projections, or recesses of the
+    various parts of a building. The object being either to
+    produce an outline satisfactory to the eye; or, more
+    frequently, to obtain a play of light and shade, and to
+    produce the appearance of a line or a series of lines, broad
+    or narrow, and of varying intensity of lightness or shade in
+    the building or some of its features.
+
+    The contour which a moulding would present when cut across
+    in a direction at right angles to its length is called its
+    profile.
+
+    The profile of mouldings varied with each style of
+    architecture and at each period (Figs. _W_ to _Z_). When
+    ornaments are carved out of some of the moulded surfaces the
+    latter are technically termed enriched mouldings. The
+    enrichments in use varied with each style and each period,
+    as the mouldings themselves did.
+
+    MULLION.--The upright bars of stone frequently employed
+    (especially in Gothic architecture) to subdivide one window
+    into two or more lights.
+
+
+    NAVE.--(1) The central avenue of a church or cathedral; (2)
+    the western part of a church as distinguished from the
+    chancel or choir; (3) occasionally, any avenue in the
+    interior of a building which is divided by one or more rows
+    of columns running lengthways is called a nave.
+
+    NECKING (of a column).--The point (usually marked by a
+    fillet or other small projecting moulding) where the shaft
+    ends and the capital begins.
+
+    NEWEL POST.--The stout post at the foot of a staircase from
+    which the balustrade or the handrail starts.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _W_.--ARCH MOULDING. (Gothic, 12th
+          Century.)]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _Y_.--ARCH MOULDING. (Decorated, 14th
+          Century.)]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _Z_.--ARCH MOULDING. (Gothic, 13th
+          Century.)]
+
+    NICHE.--A recess in a wall for a statue, vase, or other
+    upright ornament.
+
+    NORMAN.--The architecture of England from the Norman
+    Conquest till the latter part of the twelfth century.
+
+
+    OGEE.--A moulding or line of part concave and part convex
+    curvature (see Fig. _E_, showing an ogee-shaped arch).
+
+    OGIVAL.--Ogee-shaped (see Fig. 54).
+
+    OPEN TRACERY.--Tracery in which the spaces between the bars
+    are neither closed by slabs of stone nor glazed.
+
+    ORDER.--(1) In Classical and Renaissance architecture a
+    single column or pilaster and its appropriate entablature or
+    superstructure; (2) a series of columns or pilasters with
+    their entablature; (3) an entire decorative system
+    appropriate to the kind of column chosen. In Renaissance
+    architecture there are five orders--the Tuscan, Doric,
+    Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite. Each has its own proper
+    column, and its proper base, shaft, and capital; and its own
+    entablature. The proportions and the degree of enrichment
+    appropriate to each vary. The Tuscan being the sturdiest and
+    plainest, the Composite the most slender and most small, and
+    the others taking place in the succession in which they
+    stand enumerated above. Where more than one order occurs in
+    a building, as constantly happens in Classic and Renaissance
+    buildings, the orders which are the plainest and most sturdy
+    (and have been named first) if employed, are invariably
+    placed below the more slender orders; _e.g._ the Doric is
+    never placed _over_ the Corinthian or the Ionic, but if
+    employed in combination with either of those orders it is
+    always the lowest in position.
+
+    ORIEL.--A window projecting like a bay or bow window, not
+    resting on the ground but thrown out above the ground level
+    and resting on a corbel.
+
+
+    PALLADIAN.--A phase of fully developed Renaissance
+    architecture introduced by the architect Palladio, and
+    largely followed in England as well as in Italy.
+
+    PANEL.--(1) The thinner portions of the framed woodwork of
+    doors and other such joiner's work; (2) all sunk
+    compartments in masonry, ceilings, &c.
+
+    PANELLING.--(1) Woodwork formed of framework containing
+    panels; (2) any decoration formed of a series of sunk
+    compartments.
+
+    PARAPET.--A breastwork or low wall used to protect the
+    gutters and screen the roofs of buildings; also, perhaps
+    primarily, to protect the ramparts of fortifications.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _A A_.--OPEN PARAPET, LATE DECORATED.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _B B_.--BATTLEMENTED PARAPET,
+          PERPENDICULAR.]
+
+    PAVILION.--A strongly marked single block of building; most
+    frequently applied to those blocks in French and other
+    Renaissance buildings that are marked out by high roofs.
+
+    PEDESTAL.--(1) A substructure sometimes placed under a
+    column in Renaissance architecture; (2) a similar
+    substructure intended to carry a statue, vase, or other
+    ornament.
+
+    PEDIMENT.--(1) The gable, where used in Renaissance
+    buildings; (2) an ornamental gable sometimes placed over
+    windows, doors, and other features in Gothic buildings.
+
+    PERP.          } The Gothic architecture of the fifteenth century
+    PERPENDICULAR. }   in England. _Abbreviated_ Perp.
+
+    PIER.--(1) A mass of walling, either a detached portion of
+    a wall or a distinct structure of masonry, taking the place
+    of a column in the arcade of a church or elsewhere; (2) a
+    group or cluster of shafts substituted for a column.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _C C_.--EARLY ENGLISH PIERS.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _D D_.--LATE DECORATED AND PERPENDICULAR
+          PIERS.]
+
+    PILASTER.--A square column, usually attached to a wall;
+    frequently used in Classic and Renaissance architecture in
+    combination with columns.
+
+    PINNACLE (in Gothic architecture).--A small turret, or
+    ornament, usually with a pointed top, employed to mark the
+    summit of gables, buttresses, and other tall features.
+
+    PITCH.--The degree of slope given to a roof, gable, or
+    pediment.
+
+    PLAN.--(1) A map of the floor of a building, showing the
+    piers, if any, and the walls which inclose and divide it,
+    with the openings in them; (2) the actual arrangement and
+    disposition of the floors, piers, and walls of the building
+    itself.
+
+    PLANE.--The imaginary surface within which a series of
+    mouldings lies, and which coincides with the salient and
+    important points of that series. Mouldings are said to be on
+    an oblique plane when their plane forms an angle less than a
+    right angle with the face of the wall; and in receding
+    planes, when they can be divided into a series of groups of
+    more or less stepped outline, each within and behind the
+    other, and each partly bounded by a plane parallel with the
+    face of the wall.
+
+    PLASTER.--The plastic material, of which the groundwork is
+    lime and sand, used to cover walls internally and to form
+    ceilings. Sometimes employed as a covering to walls
+    externally.
+
+    PLINTH.--The base of a wall or of a column or range of
+    columns.
+
+    PORTAL.--A dignified and important entrance doorway.
+
+    PORTICO.--A range of columns with their entablature (and
+    usually covered by a pediment), marking the entrance to a
+    Renaissance or Classic building.
+
+    PRISMATIC RUSTICATION.--In Elizabethan architecture
+    rusticated masonry with diamond-shaped projections worked on
+    the face of each stone.
+
+    PROFILE.--The contour or outline of mouldings as they would
+    appear if sawn across at right angles to their length.
+
+    PORCH.--A small external structure to protect and ornament
+    the doorway to a building (rarely met with in Renaissance).
+
+
+    QUATREFOIL.--A four-leaved ornament occupying a circle in
+    tracery or a panel.
+
+
+    RAFTERS.--The sloping beams of a roof upon which the
+    covering of the roof rests.
+
+    RAGSTONE.--A coarse stone found in parts of Kent and
+    elsewhere, and used for walling.
+
+    RECEDING PLANES.--(See Plane.)
+
+    RECESS.--A sinking in a building deeper than a mere panel.
+
+    RECESSING.--Forming one or more recesses. Throwing back some
+    part of a building behind the general face.
+
+    RENAISSANCE.--The art of the period of the Classic revival
+    which began in the sixteenth century. In this volume used
+    chiefly to denote the architecture of Europe in that and the
+    succeeding centuries.
+
+    RIB (in Gothic vaulting).--A bar of masonry or moulding
+    projecting beyond the general surface of a vault, to mark
+    its intersections or subdivide its surface, and to add
+    strength.
+
+    RIDGE.--(1) The straight line or ornament which marks the
+    summit of a roof; (2) the line or rib, straight or curved,
+    which marks the summit of a vault.
+
+    ROLL.--A round moulding.
+
+    ROSE WINDOW.--A wheel window (which see).
+
+    RUBBLE.--Rough stonework forming the heart of a masonry
+    wall; sometimes faced with ashlar (which see), sometimes
+    shown.
+
+    RUSTICATION (or RUSTICATED MASONRY).--The sort of ornamental
+    ashlar masonry (chiefly Classic and Renaissance) in which
+    each stone is distinguished by a broad channel all round it,
+    marking the joints.
+
+    RUSTICS.--The individual blocks of stone used in rustication
+    (as described above).
+
+
+    SCREEN.--An internal partition or inclosure cutting off part
+    of a building. At the entrance to the choir of a church
+    screens of beautiful workmanship were used.
+
+    SCROLL MOULDING.--A round roll moulding showing a line along
+    its face (distinctive of decorated Gothic).
+
+    SCROLL WORK.--Ornament showing winding spiral lines like the
+    edge of a scroll of paper (chiefly found in Elizabethan).
+
+    SECTION.--(1) A drawing of a building as it would appear if
+    cut through at some fixed plane. (2) That part of the
+    construction of a building which would be displayed by such
+    a drawing as described above. (3) The profile of a moulding.
+
+    SET-OFF.--A small ledge formed by diminishing the thickness
+    of a wall or pier.
+
+    SEXPARTITE VAULTING.--Where each bay or compartment is
+    divided by its main ribs into six portions.
+
+    SGRAFFITO (Italian).--An ornament produced by scratching
+    lines on the plastered face of a building so as to show a
+    different colour filling up the lines or surfaces scratched
+    away.
+
+    SHAFT.--(1) The middle part of a column between its base and
+    capital. (2) In Gothic, slender columns introduced for
+    ornamental purposes, singly or in clusters.
+
+    SHELL ORNAMENT.--A decoration frequently employed in Italian
+    and French Renaissance, and resembling the interior of a
+    shell.
+
+    SKY-LINE.--The outline which a building will show against
+    the sky.
+
+    SPANDREL.--The triangular (or other shaped) space between
+    the outside of an arch and the mouldings, or surfaces
+    inclosing it or in contact with it. (See Fig. _S_, under
+    Diaper.)
+
+    SPIRE.--The steep and pointed roof of a tower (usually a
+    church tower).
+
+    SPIRE-LIGHT (or LUCARNE).--A dormer window (which see) in a
+    spire.
+
+    SPLAY.--A slope making with the face of a wall an angle less
+    than a right angle.
+
+    STAGE.--One division in the height of any building or
+    portion of a building where horizontal divisions are
+    distinctly marked, _e.g._, the belfry stage of a tower, the
+    division in which the bells are hung.
+
+    STEEPLE.--A tower and spire in combination. Sometimes
+    applied to a tower or spire separately.
+
+    STEPPED GABLE.--A gable in which, instead of a sloping line,
+    the outline is formed by a series of steps.
+
+    STILTED ARCH.--An arch of which the curve does not commence
+    till above the level of the impost (which see).
+
+    STORY.--(1) The portion of a building between one floor and
+    the next; (2) any stage or decidedly marked horizontal
+    compartment of a building, even if not corresponding to an
+    actual story marked by a floor.
+
+    STRAP-WORK (Elizabethan).--An ornament representing
+    strap-like fillets interlaced.
+
+    STRING-COURSE.--A projecting horizontal (or occasionally
+    sloping) band or line of mouldings.
+
+
+    TABERNACLE WORK.--The richly ornamented and carved work with
+    which the smaller and more precious features of a church,
+    _e.g._, the fittings of a choir, were adorned and made
+    conspicuous.
+
+    TERMINAL (or Finial).--The ornamental top of a pinnacle,
+    gable, &c.
+
+    TERRA-COTTA.--A fine kind of brick capable of being highly
+    ornamented, and formed into blocks of some size.
+
+    THRUST.--The pressure exercised laterally by an arch or
+    vault, or by the timbers of a roof on the abutments or
+    supports.
+
+    TIE.--A beam of wood, bar of iron, or similar expedient
+    employed to hold together the feet or sides of an arch,
+    vault, or roof, and so counteract the thrust.
+
+    TORUS.--A large convex moulding.
+
+    TOWER.--A portion of a building rising conspicuously above
+    the general mass, and obviously distinguished by its height
+    from that mass. A detached building of which the height is
+    great, relative to the width and breadth.
+
+    TRACERY (Gothic).--The ornamental stonework formed by the
+    curving and interlacing of bars of stone, and occupying the
+    heads of windows, panels, and other situations where
+    decoration and lightness have to be combined. The simplest
+    and earliest tracery might be described as a combination of
+    openings pierced through the stone head of an arch. Cusping
+    and foliation (which see) are features of tracery. (See
+    Figs. 18, 19, 55, and 57 in the text.)
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _E E_.--PERPENDICULAR WINDOW-HEAD.]
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _F F_.--LATE PERPENDICULAR WINDOW-HEAD.]
+
+    TRANSEPT.--The arms of a church or cathedral which cross
+    the line of the nave.
+
+    TRANSITION.--The architecture of a period coming between and
+    sharing the characteristics of two distinctly marked styles
+    or phases of architecture, one of which succeeded the other.
+
+    TRANSOM.--A horizontal bar (usually of stone) across a
+    window or panel.
+
+    TREFOIL.--A three-leaved or three-lobed form found
+    constantly in the heads of windows and in other situations
+    where tracery is employed.
+
+    TRIFORIUM (or THOROUGH-FARE).--The story in a large church
+    or cathedral intermediate between the arcade separating the
+    nave and aisles, and the clerestory.
+
+    TUDOR.--The architecture of England during the reigns of the
+    Tudor kings. The use of the term is usually, however,
+    restricted to a period which closes with the end of Henry
+    VIII.'s reign, 1547.
+
+    TURRET.--A small tower, sometimes rising from the ground,
+    but often carried on corbels and commencing near the upper
+    part of the building to which it is an appendage.
+
+    TYMPANUM.--The filling in of the head of an arch, or
+    occasionally of an ornamental gable.
+
+
+    UNDERCUTTING.--A moulding or ornament of which the greater
+    part stands out from the mouldings or surfaces which it
+    adjoins, as though almost or quite detached from them, is
+    said to be undercut.
+
+
+    VAULT.--An arched ceiling to a building, or part of a
+    building, executed in masonry or in some substitute for
+    masonry.
+
+    The vaults of the Norman period were simple barrel- or
+    waggon-headed vaults, and semicircular arches only were used
+    in their construction. With the Gothic period the use of
+    intersecting, and as a result of pointed arches, was
+    introduced into vaulting, and vaults went on increasing in
+    complexity and elaboration till the Tudor period, when
+    fan-vaulting was employed. Our illustrations show some of
+    the steps in the development of Gothic vaults referred to in
+    Chapter V. of the text. No. 1 represents a waggon-head vault
+    with an intersecting vault occupying part of its length. No.
+    2 represents one of the expedients adopted for vaulting an
+    oblong compartment before the pointed arch was introduced.
+    The narrower arch is stilted and the line of the groin is
+    not true. No. 3 represents a similar compartment vaulted
+    without any distortion or irregularity by the help of the
+    pointed arch. No. 4 represents one lay of a sexpartite
+    Gothic vault. No. 5 represents a vault with lierne ribs
+    making a star-shaped pallom on plan, and No. 6 is a somewhat
+    more intricate example of the same class of vault.
+
+      [Illustration: FIG. _G G_.--VAULTS.]
+
+    Vaults are met with in Renaissance buildings, but they are a
+    less distinctive feature of such buildings than they were in
+    the Gothic period; and in many cases where a vault or a
+    series of vaults would have been employed by a Gothic
+    architect, a Renaissance architect has preferred to make use
+    of a dome or a series of domes. This is called domical
+    vaulting. Examples of it occur occasionally in Gothic work.
+
+
+    WAGGON-HEAD VAULTING, OR BARREL-VAULTING.--A simple form of
+    tunnel-like vaulting, which gets its name from its
+    resemblance to the tilt often seen over large waggons, or to
+    the half of a barrel.
+
+    WAINSCOT.--(1) The panelling often employed to line the
+    walls of a room or building; (2) a finely marked variety of
+    oak imported chiefly from Holland; probably so called
+    because wainscot oak was at one time largely employed for
+    such panelling.
+
+    WEATHERING.--A sloping surface of stone employed to cover
+    the set-off (which see) of a wall or buttress and protect it
+    from the effects of weather.
+
+    WHEEL WINDOW.--A circular window, and usually one in which
+    mullions radiate from a centre towards the circumference
+    like the spokes of a wheel; sometimes called a rose-window.
+
+    WINDOW-HEAD.--For illustrations of the various forms and
+    filling-in of Gothic window-heads, see the words Arch and
+    Tracery.
+
+  [Illustration: {ORNAMENTAL DOLPHIN PATTERN.}]
+
+
+
+
+HEAD AND TAILPIECES.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+    HEADPIECE.--CRETE FROM NOTRE DAME, PARIS                         1
+
+        "       SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL            6
+
+        "            "           "       SENS CATHEDRAL             21
+
+        "            "           "       WESTMINSTER ABBEY          28
+
+    TAILPIECE.--NORMAN CAPITALS                                     44
+
+    HEADPIECE.--SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY          45
+
+    TAILPIECE.--MISERERE SEAT FROM WELLS CATHEDRAL                  68
+
+    HEADPIECE.--STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL               69
+
+    TAILPIECE.--MISERERE SEAT FROM WELLS CATHEDRAL                  92
+
+        "       ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL                     153
+
+    HEADPIECE.--RENAISSANCE ORNAMENT FROM A FRIEZE                 154
+
+        "       FROM A TERRA-COTTA FRIEZE AT LODI                  165
+
+    TAILPIECE.--FROM A DOOR IN SANTA MARIA, VENICE                 192
+
+    HEADPIECE.--ORNAMENT BY GIULIO ROMANO                          193
+
+        "       FROM A FRIEZE AT VENICE                            235
+
+THE END-PAPERS ARE FROM A TAPESTRY IN HARDWICK HALL.
+
+
+  [Illustration: _The Lily of Florence._]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {CRETE FROM NOTRE DAME, PARIS.}]
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The architecture generally known as Gothic, but often described as
+Christian Pointed, prevailed throughout Europe to the exclusion of
+every rival for upwards of three centuries; and it is to be met with,
+more or less, during two others. Speaking broadly, it may be said that
+its origin took place in the twelfth century, that the thirteenth was
+the period of its development, the fourteenth that of its perfection,
+and the fifteenth that of its decline; while many examples of its
+employment occur in the sixteenth.
+
+In the following chapters the principal changes in the features of
+buildings which occurred during the progress of the style in England
+will be described. Subsequently, the manner in which the different
+stages of development were reached in different countries will be
+given; for architecture passed through very nearly the same phases in
+all European nations, though not quite simultaneously.
+
+It must be understood that through the whole Gothic period, growth or
+at least change was going on; the transitions from one stage to
+another were only periods of more rapid change than usual. The whole
+process may be illustrated by the progress of a language. If, for
+instance, we compare round-arched architecture in the eleventh century
+to the Anglo-Saxon form of speech of the time of Alfred the Great, and
+the architecture of the twelfth century to the English of Chaucer,
+that of the thirteenth will correspond to the richer language of
+Shakespeare, that of the fourteenth to the highly polished language of
+Addison and Pope, and that of the fifteenth to the English of our own
+day. We can thus obtain an apt parallel to the gradual change and
+growth which went on in architecture; and we shall find that the
+oneness of the language in the former case, and of the architecture in
+the latter, was maintained throughout.
+
+For an account of the Christian round-arched architecture which
+preceded Gothic, the reader is referred to the companion volume in
+this series. Here it will be only necessary briefly to review the
+circumstances which went before the appearance of the pointed styles.
+
+The Roman empire had introduced into Europe some thing like a
+universal architecture, so that the buildings of any Roman colony bore
+a strong resemblance to those of every other colony and of the
+metropolis; varying, of course, in extent and magnificence, but not
+much in design. The architecture of the Dark Ages in Western Europe
+exhibited, so far as is known, the same general similarity. Down to
+the eleventh century the buildings erected (almost exclusively
+churches and monastic buildings) were not large or rich, and were
+heavy in appearance and simple in construction. Their arches were all
+semicircular.
+
+The first rays of light across the gloom of the Dark Ages seem to
+have come from the energy and ability of Charlemagne in the eighth
+century.
+
+In the succeeding century, this activity received a check; an idea
+became generally prevalent that the year one thousand was to see the
+end of the world; men's minds were overshadowed with apprehension; and
+buildings, in common with other undertakings of a permanent nature,
+were but little attempted.
+
+When the millennium came and passed, and left all as it had been, a
+kind of revulsion of feeling was experienced; many important
+undertakings were set on foot, such as during the preceding years it
+had not been thought worth while to prosecute. The eleventh century
+thus became a time of great religious activity; and if the First
+Crusade, which took place 1095, may be taken as one outcome of that
+pious zeal, another can certainly be found in the large and often
+costly churches and monasteries which rose in every part of England,
+France, Germany, Lombardy, and South Italy. Keen rivalry raged among
+the builders of these churches; each one was built larger and finer
+than the previous examples, and the details began to grow elaborate.
+Construction and ornament were in fact advancing and improving, if not
+from year to year, at any rate from decade to decade, so that by the
+commencement of the twelfth century a remarkable development had taken
+place. The ideas of the dimensions of churches then entertained were
+really almost as liberal as during the best period of Gothic
+architecture.
+
+An illustration of this fact is furnished by the rebuilding of
+Westminster Abbey under Edward the Confessor. He pulled down a small
+church which he found standing on the site, in order to erect one
+suitable in size and style to the ideas of the day. The style of his
+cathedral (but not its dimensions) soon became so much out of date
+that Henry III. pulled the buildings down in order to re-erect them of
+the lofty proportions and with the pointed arches which we now see in
+the choir and transepts of the Abbey; but the size remained nearly the
+same, for there is evidence to show that the Confessor's buildings
+must have occupied very nearly, if not quite, as much ground as those
+which succeeded them.
+
+At the beginning of the twelfth century many local peculiarities, some
+of them due to accident, some to the nature and quality of the
+building materials obtainable, some to differences of race, climate,
+and habits, and some to other causes, had begun to make their
+appearance in the buildings of various parts of Europe; and through
+the whole Gothic period such peculiarities were to be met with. Still
+the points of similarity were greater and more numerous than the
+differences; so much so, that by going through the course which Gothic
+architecture ran in one of the countries in which it flourished, it
+will readily be possible to furnish a general outline of the subject
+as a whole; it will then only be requisite to point out the principal
+variations in the practice of other countries. On some grounds France
+would be the most suitable country to select for this purpose, for
+Gothic appeared earlier and flourished more brilliantly in that
+country than in any other; the balance of advantage lies however, when
+writing for English students, in the selection of Great Britain. The
+various phases through which the art passed are well marked in this
+country, they have been fully studied and described, and, what is of
+the greatest importance, English examples are easily accessible to the
+majority of students, while those which cannot be visited may be very
+readily studied from engravings and photographs. English Gothic will
+therefore be first considered; but as a preliminary a few words
+remain to be said describing generally the buildings which have come
+down to us from the Gothic period.
+
+The word Gothic, which was in use in the eighteenth century, and
+probably earlier, was invented at a time when a Goth was synonymous
+with everything that was barbarous; and its use then implied a
+reproach. It denotes, according to Mr. Fergusson, "all the styles
+invented and used by the Western barbarians who overthrew the Roman
+empire, and settled within its limits."
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 1.--WEST ENTRANCE, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL, (1275.)
+      (_See Chapter V._)]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE BUILDINGS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
+
+
+By far the most important specimens of Gothic architecture are the
+cathedrals and large churches which were built during the prevalence
+of the style. They were more numerous, larger, and more complete as
+works of art than any other structures, and accordingly they are to be
+considered on every account as the best examples of pointed
+architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--GROUND PLAN OF PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL. (1118
+      to 1193.) A. Nave. B B. Transepts. C. Choir. D D. Aisles.
+      E. Principal Entrance.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE NAVE OF SALISBURY
+      CATHEDRAL. (A.D. 1217).]
+
+The arrangement and construction of a Gothic cathedral were
+customarily as follows:--(See Fig. 2.) The main axis of the building
+was always east and west, the principal entrance being at the west
+end, usually under a grand porch or portal, and the high altar stood
+at the east end. The plan (or main floor) of the building almost
+always displays the form of a cross. The stem of the cross is the part
+from the west entrance to the crossing, and is called the nave. The
+arms of the cross are called transepts, and point respectively north
+and south. Their crossing with the nave is often called the
+intersection. The remaining arm, which prolongs the stem eastwards, is
+ordinarily called the choir, but sometimes the presbytery, and
+sometimes the chancel. All these names really refer to the position of
+the internal fittings of the church, and it is often more accurate
+simply to employ the term eastern arm for this portion of a church.
+
+The nave is flanked by two avenues running parallel to it, narrower
+and lower than itself, called aisles. They are separated from it by
+rows of columns or piers, connected together by arches. Thus the nave
+has an arcade on each side of it, and each aisle has an arcade on one
+side, and a main external wall on the other. The aisle walls are
+usually pierced by windows. The arches of the arcade carry walls which
+rise above the roofs of the aisles, and light the nave. These walls
+are usually subdivided internally into two heights or stories; the
+lower story consists of a series of small arches, to which the name of
+triforium is given. This arcade usually opens into the dark space
+above the ceiling or vault of the aisle, and hence it is sometimes
+called the blind story. The upper story is the range of windows
+already alluded to as lighting the nave, and is called the clerestory.
+Thus a spectator standing in the nave, and looking towards the side
+(Figs. 4 and 5), will see opposite him the main arcade, and over that
+the triforium, and over that the clerestory, crowned by the nave vault
+or roof; and looking through the arches of the nave arcade, he will
+see the side windows of the aisle. Above the clerestory of the nave,
+and the side windows of the aisles, come the vaults or roofs. In some
+instances double aisles (two on each side) have been employed.
+
+The transepts usually consist of well-marked limbs, divided like the
+nave into a centre avenue and two side aisles, and these usually are
+of the same width and height as the nave and its aisles. Sometimes
+there are no transepts; sometimes they do not project beyond the line
+of the walls, but still are marked by their rising above the lower
+height of the nave aisles. Sometimes the transepts have no aisles, or
+an aisle only on one side.[1] On the other hand, it is sometimes
+customary, especially in English examples, to form two pairs of
+transepts. This occurs in Lichfield Cathedral.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--CHOIR OF WORCESTER CATHEDRAL. (BEGUN 1224.)
+      A. Nave Arcade. B. Triforium. C. Clerestory.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--NAVE OF WELLS CATHEDRAL. (1206 TO 1242.)
+      A. Nave Arcade. B. Triforium. C. Clerestory.]
+
+The eastern arm of the cathedral is the part to which most importance
+was attached, and it is usual to mark that importance by greater
+richness, and by a difference in the height of its roof or vault as
+compared with the nave; its floor is always raised. It also has its
+central passage and its aisles; and it has double aisles much more
+frequently than the nave. The eastern termination of the cathedral is
+sometimes semicircular, sometimes polygonal, and when it takes this
+form it is called an apse or an apsidal east end; sometimes it is
+square, the apse being most in use on the Continent, and the square
+east end in England. Attached to some of the side walls of the church
+it is usual to have a series of chapels; these are ordinarily chambers
+partly shut off from the main structure, but opening into it by arched
+openings; each chapel contains an altar. The finest chapel is usually
+one placed on the axis of the cathedral, and east of the east end of
+the main building; this is called, where it exists, the Lady Chapel,
+and was customarily dedicated to the Virgin. Henry VII.'s Chapel at
+Westminster (Fig. 6) furnishes a familiar instance of the lady chapel
+of a great church. Next in importance rank the side chapels which open
+out of the aisles of the apse, when there is one. Westminster Abbey
+furnishes good examples of these also. The eastern wall of the
+transept is a favourite position for chapels. They are less frequently
+added to the nave aisles.
+
+The floor of the eastern arm of the cathedral, as has been pointed
+out, is always raised, so as to be approached by steps; it is inclosed
+by screen work which shuts off the choir, or inclosure for the
+performance of divine service, from the nave. The fittings of this
+part of the building generally include stalls for the clergy and
+choristers and a bishop's throne, and are usually beautiful works of
+art. Tombs, and inclosures connected with them, called chantry
+chapels, are constantly met with in various positions, but most
+frequently in the eastern arm.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--GROUND PLAN OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY.]
+
+Below the raised floor of the choir, and sometimes below other parts
+of the building, there often exists a subterranean vaulted structure
+known as the crypt.
+
+Passing to the exterior of the cathedral, the principal doorway is in
+the western front:[2] usually supplemented by entrances at the ends of
+the transepts, and one or more side entrances to the nave. A porch on
+the north side of the nave is a common feature. The walls are now seen
+to be strengthened by stone piers, called buttresses. Frequently
+arches are thrown from these buttresses to the higher walls of the
+building. The whole arrangement of pier and arch is called a flying
+buttress,[3] and, as will be explained later, is used to steady the
+upper part of the building when a stone vault is employed (see Chap.
+V.). The lofty gables in which the nave and transepts, and the eastern
+arm when square terminate, form prominent features, and are often
+occupied by great windows.
+
+In a complete cathedral, the effect of the exterior is largely due to
+the towers with which it was adorned. The most massive tower was
+ordinarily one which stood, like the central one of Lichfield
+Cathedral, at the crossing of the nave and transepts. Two towers were
+usually intended at the western front of the building, and sometimes
+one, or occasionally two, at the end of each transept. It is rare to
+find a cathedral where the whole of these towers have been even begun,
+much less completed. In many cases only one, in others three, have
+been built. In some instances they have been erected, and have fallen.
+In others they have never been carried up at all. During a large
+portion of the Gothic period it was usual to add to each tower a
+lofty pyramidal roof or spire, and these are still standing in some
+instances, though many of them have disappeared. Occasionally a tower
+was built quite detached from the church to which it belonged.
+
+To cathedrals and abbey churches a group of monastic buildings was
+appended. It will not be necessary to describe these in much detail.
+They were grouped round an open square, surrounded by a vaulted and
+arcaded passage, which is known as the cloister. This was usually
+fitted into the warm and sheltered angle formed by the south side of
+the nave and the south transept, though occasionally the cloister is
+found on the north side of the nave. The most important building
+opening out of the cloister is the chapter-house, frequently a lofty
+and richly-ornamented room, often octagonal, and generally standing
+south of the south transept. The usual arrangement of the monastic
+buildings round and adjoining the cloister varied in details with the
+requirements of the different monastic orders, and the circumstances
+of each individual religious house, but, as in the case of churches,
+the general principles of disposition were fixed early. They are
+embodied in a manuscript plan, dating as far back as the ninth
+century, and found at St. Gall in Switzerland, and never seem to have
+been widely departed from. The monks' dormitory here occupies the
+whole east side of the great cloister, there being no chapter-house.
+It is usually met with as nearly in this position as the transept and
+the chapter-house will permit. The refectory is on the south side of
+the cloister, and has a connected kitchen. The west side of the
+cloister in this instance was occupied by a great cellar. Frequently a
+hospitum, or apartment for entertaining guests, stood here. The north
+side of the cloister was formed by the church.
+
+For the abbot a detached house was provided in the St. Gall plan to
+stand on the north side of the church; and a second superior hospitum
+for his guests. Eastward of the church are placed the infirmary with
+its chapel, and an infirmarer's lodging. The infirmary was commonly
+arranged with a nave and aisles, much like, a small parish church.
+Other detached buildings gave a public school, a school for novices
+with its chapel, and, more remotely placed, granaries, mills, a
+bakehouse, and other offices. A garden and a cemetery formed part of
+the scheme, which corresponds tolerably well with that of many
+monastic buildings remaining in England, as _e.g._, those at
+Fountains' Abbey, Furness Abbey, or Westminster Abbey, so far as they
+can be traced.
+
+Generally speaking the principal buildings in a monastery were long
+and not very wide apartments, with windows on both sides. Frequently
+they were vaulted, and they often had a row of columns down the
+middle. Many are two stories high. Of the dependencies, the kitchen,
+which was often a vaulted apartment with a chimney, and the barn,
+which was often of great size, were the most prominent. They are often
+fine buildings. At Glastonbury very good examples of a monastic barn
+and kitchen can be seen.
+
+Second only in importance to the churches and religious buildings come
+the military and domestic buildings of the Gothic period (Fig. 7).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--HOUSE OF JAQUES COEUR AT BOURGES.
+      (BEGUN 1413.)]
+
+Every dwelling-house of consequence was more or less fortified, at any
+rate during the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries. A lofty
+square tower, called a keep, built to stand a siege, and with a walled
+inclosure at its feet, often protected by a wide ditch (fosse or
+moat), formed the castle of the twelfth century, and in some cases
+(_e.g._ the White Tower of London), this keep was of considerable
+size. The first step in enlargement was to increase the number and
+importance of the buildings which clustered round the keep, and to
+form two inclosures for them, known as an inner and an outer bailey.
+The outer buildings of the Tower of London, though much modernised,
+will give a good idea of what a first class castle grew to be by
+successive additions of this sort. In castles erected near the end of
+the thirteenth century (_e.g._ Conway Castle in North Wales), and
+later, the square form of the keep was abandoned, and many more
+arrangements for the comfort and convenience of the occupants were
+introduced; and the buildings and additions to buildings of the
+fifteenth century took more the shape of a modern dwelling-house,
+partly protected against violence, but by no means strong enough to
+stand a siege. Penshurst may be cited as a good example of this class
+of building.
+
+It will be understood that, unlike the religious buildings which early
+received the form and disposition from which they did not depart
+widely, mediaeval domestic buildings exhibit an amount of change in
+which we can readily trace the effects of the gradual settlement of
+this country, the abandonment of habits of petty warfare, the ultimate
+cessation of civil wars, the introduction of gunpowder, the increase
+in wealth and desire for comfort, and last, but not least, the
+confiscation by Henry VIII. of the property of the monastic houses.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--PLAN OF WARWICK CASTLE. (14TH AND FOLLOWING
+      CENTURIES.)]
+
+Warwick Castle, of which we give a plan (Fig. 8), maybe cited as a
+good example of an English castellated mansion of the time of Richard
+II. Below the principal story there is a vaulted basement containing
+the kitchens and many of the offices. On the main floor we find the
+hall, entered as usual at the lower or servants' end, from a porch.
+The upper end gives access to a sitting-room, built immediately
+behind it, and beyond are a drawing-room and state bed-rooms, while
+across a passage are placed the private chapel and a large dining-room
+(a modern addition). Bed-rooms occupy the upper floors of the
+buildings at both ends of the hall.
+
+Perhaps even more interesting as a study than Warwick Castle is Haddon
+Hall, the well-preserved residence of the Duke of Rutland, in
+Derbyshire. The five or six successive enlargements and additions
+which this building has received between the thirteenth and
+seventeenth centuries show the growth of ideas of comfort and even
+luxury in this country.
+
+As it now stands, Haddon Hall contains two internal quadrangles,
+separated from one another by the great hall with its dais, its
+minstrels' gallery, its vast open fire-place, and its traceried
+windows, and by the kitchens, butteries, &c., belonging to it.
+
+The most important apartments are reached from the upper end of the
+hall, and consist of the magnificent ball-room, and a dining-room in
+the usual position, _i.e._ adjoining the hall and opening out of it;
+with, on the upper floor, a drawing-room, and a suite of state
+bed-rooms, occupying the south side of both quadrangles and the east
+end of one. A large range of apartments, added at a late period, and
+many of them finely panelled and lined with tapestry, occupies the
+north side of this building and the northwestern tower. At the
+south-western corner of the building stands a chapel of considerable
+size, and which once seems to have served as a kind of parochial
+church; and a very considerable number of rooms of small size, opening
+out of both quadrangles, would afford shelter, if not comfortable
+lodging, to retainers, servants, and others. The portions built in
+the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries are more or less
+fortified. The ball-room, which is of Elizabethan architecture, opens
+on to a terraced garden, accessible from without by no more violent
+means than climbing over a not very formidable wall. Probably nowhere
+in England, can the growth of domestic architecture be better studied,
+whether we look to the alterations which took place in accommodation
+and arrangement, or to the changes which occurred in the architectural
+treatment of windows, battlements, doorways and other features, than
+at Haddon Hall.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--PALACES ON THE GRAND CANAL, VENICE. (14TH
+      CENTURY.)]
+
+In towns and cities much beautiful domestic architecture is to be
+found in the ordinary dwelling-houses, _e.g._ houses from Chester and
+Lisieux (Figs. 14 and 15); but many specimens have of course perished,
+especially as timber was freely used in their construction.
+Dwelling-houses of a high order of excellence, and of large size, were
+also built during this period. The Gothic palaces of Venice, of which
+many stand on the Grand Canal (Fig. 9), are the best examples of
+these, and the lordly Ducal Palace in that city is perhaps the finest
+secular building which exists of Gothic architecture.
+
+Municipal buildings of great size and beauty are to be found in North
+Italy and Germany, but chiefly in Belgium, where the various
+town-halls of Louvain, Bruges, Ypres, Ghent, Antwerp, Brussels, &c.,
+vie with each other in magnificence and extent.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Many secular buildings also remain to us of which the architecture is
+Gothic. Among these we find public halls and large buildings for
+public purposes--as Westminster Hall, or the Palace of Justice at
+Rouen; hospitals, as that at Milan; or colleges, as King's College,
+Cambridge, with its unrivalled chapel. Many charming minor works,
+such as fountains, wells (Fig. 10), crosses, tombs, monuments, and the
+fittings of the interior of churches, also remain to attest the
+versatility, the power of design, and the cultivated taste of the
+architects of the Gothic period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--WELL AT REGENSBURG. (15TH CENTURY.)]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] As the north transept at Peterborough (Fig. 2).
+
+[2] At E on the plan of Peterborough (Fig. 2).
+
+[3] See Glossary.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.{--SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM SENS CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN.
+
+
+English Gothic architecture has been usually subdivided into three
+periods or stages of advancement, corresponding to those enumerated on
+page 1; the early stage known as Early English, or sometimes as
+Lancet, occupying the thirteenth century and something more; the
+middle stage, known as Decorated, occupying most of the fourteenth
+century; and the latest stage, known as Perpendicular, occupying the
+fifteenth century and part of the sixteenth.
+
+The duration of each of these coincides approximately with the
+century, the transition from each phase to the next taking place
+chiefly in the last quarter of the century. Adding the periods of the
+English types of round arched Architecture, we obtain the following
+table:--
+
+           Up to 1066 or up to middle of 11th century, SAXON.
+    A.D. 1066 to 1189 or up to end of    12th    "     NORMAN.
+    A.D. 1189 to 1307 or up to end of    13th    "     EARLY ENGLISH.
+    A.D. 1307 to 1377 or up to end of    14th    "     DECORATED.
+    A.D. 1377 to 1546 or up to middle of 16th    "     PERPENDICULAR.
+
+The term "Early English" (short for Early English Gothic) applied to
+English thirteenth-century architecture explains itself.
+
+The term "Lancet" sometimes applied to the Early English style, is
+derived from the shape of the ordinary window-heads, which resemble
+the point of a lancet in outline (Fig. 16). Whatever term be adopted,
+it is necessary to remark that a wide difference exists between the
+earlier and the late examples of this period. It will suffice for our
+purposes if, when speaking of the fully-developed style of the late
+examples, we refer to it as Advanced Early English.
+
+The architecture of the fourteenth century is called "Decorated," from
+the great increase of ornament, especially in window tracery and
+carved enrichments.
+
+The architecture of the fifteenth century is called "Perpendicular,"
+from the free use made of perpendicular lines, both in general
+features and in ornaments, especially in the tracery of the windows
+and the panelling with which walls are ornamented.[4]
+
+The following condensed list, partly from Morant,[5] of the most
+striking peculiarities of each period, may be found useful for
+reference, and is on that account placed here, notwithstanding that it
+contains many technical words, for the meaning of which the student
+must consult the Glossary which forms part of this volume.
+
+    ANGLO-SAXON--(Prior to the Norman Conquest).--
+
+    Rude work and rough material; walls mostly of rubble or
+    ragstone with ashlar at the angles in long and short courses
+    alternately; openings with round or triangular heads,
+    sometimes divided by a rude baluster. Piers plain, square,
+    and narrow. Windows splayed externally and internally. Rude
+    square blocks of stone in place of capitals and bases.
+    Mouldings generally semi-cylindrical and coarsely chiselled.
+    Corners of buildings square without buttresses.
+
+
+    NORMAN.  William I.  A.D. 1066.
+             William II.  "   1087.
+             Henry I.     "   1100.
+             Stephen      "   1135.
+             Henry II.    "   1154 to 1189.
+
+    Arches semicircular, occasionally stilted; at first plain,
+    afterwards enriched with chevron or other mouldings; and
+    frequent repetition of same ornament on each stone. Piers
+    low and massive, cylindrical, square, polygonal, or composed
+    of clustered shafts, often ornamented with spiral bands and
+    mouldings. Windows generally narrow and splayed internally
+    only; sometimes double and divided by a shaft. Walls
+    sometimes a series of arcades, a few pierced as windows, the
+    rest left blank. Doorways deeply recessed and richly
+    ornamented with bands of mouldings. Doors often square
+    headed, but under arches the head of the arch filled with
+    carving. Capitals carved in outline, often grotesquely
+    sculptured with devices of animals and leaves. Abacus
+    square, lower edge moulded. Bases much resembling the
+    classic orders. The mouldings at first imperfectly formed.
+    Pedestals of piers square. Buttresses plain, with broad
+    faces and small projections. Parapets plain with projecting
+    corbel table under.
+
+    Plain mouldings consist of chamfers, round or pointed rolls
+    at edges, divided from plain face by shallow channels.
+    Enriched mouldings--the chevrons or zig-zag, the billet
+    square or round, the cable, the lozenge, the chain, nail
+    heads, and others. Niches with figures over doorways. Roofs
+    of moderately high pitch, and open to the frame; timbers
+    chiefly king-post trusses. Towers square and massive--those
+    of late date richly adorned with arcades. Openings in towers
+    often beautifully grouped. Vaulting waggon-headed, and
+    simple intersecting vaults of semicircular outline.
+
+    Towards the close of the style in reign of Henry II.,
+    details of transitional character begin to appear. Pointed
+    arch with Norman pier. Arcades of intersecting semicircular
+    arches. Norman abacus blended with Early English foliage in
+    capitals.
+
+
+    EARLY ENGLISH.  Richard I. A.D. 1189 _Transition._
+                    John        "   1199.
+                    Henry III.  "   1216.
+                    Edward I.   "   1272 to 1307.
+
+    General proportions more slender, and height of walls,
+    columns, &c., greater. Arches pointed, generally lancet;
+    often richly moulded. Triforium arches and arcades open with
+    trefoiled heads. Piers slender, composed of a central
+    circular shaft surrounded by several smaller ones, almost or
+    quite detached; generally with horizontal bands. In small
+    buildings plain polygonal and circular piers are used.
+    Capitals concave in outline, moulded, or carved with
+    conventional foliage delicately executed and arranged
+    vertically. The abacus always undercut. Detached shafts
+    often of Purbeck marble. Base a deep hollow between two
+    rounds. Windows at first long, narrow, and deeply splayed
+    internally, the glass within a few inches of outer face of
+    wall; later in the style less acute, divided by mullions,
+    enriched with cusped circles in the head, often of three or
+    more lights, the centre light being the highest. Doorways
+    often deeply recessed and enriched with slender shafts and
+    elaborate mouldings. Shafts detached. Buttresses about equal
+    in projection to width, with but one set-off, or without
+    any. Buttresses at angles always in pairs. Mouldings bold
+    and deeply undercut, consisting chiefly of round mouldings
+    sometimes pointed or with a fillett, separated by deep
+    hollows. Great depth of moulded surface generally arranged
+    on rectangular planes. Hollows of irregular curve sometimes
+    filled with dogtooth ornament or with foliage. Roofs of
+    high pitch, timbers plain, and where there is no vault open.
+
+    Early in the style finials were plain bunches of leaves;
+    towards the close beautifully carved finials and crockets
+    with carved foliage of conventional character were
+    introduced. Flat surfaces often richly diapered. Spires
+    broached. Vaulting pointed with diagonal and main ribs only;
+    ridge ribs not introduced till late in the style; bosses at
+    intersection of ribs.
+
+
+    DECORATED.  Edward II.  A.D. 1307.
+                Edward III.  "   1377 to 1379.
+
+    Proportions less lofty than in the previous style. Arches
+    mostly inclosing an equilateral angle, the mouldings often
+    continued down the pier. Windows large, and divided into two
+    or more lights by mullions. Tracery in the head, at first
+    composed geometrical forms, later of flowing character.
+    Clerestory windows generally small. Diamond shaped piers
+    with shafts engaged. Capitals with scroll moulding on under
+    side of abacus, with elegant foliage arranged horizontally.
+    Doors frequently without shafts, the arch moulding running
+    down the jambs. Rich doorways and windows often surrounded
+    with triangular and ogee-shaped canopies. Buttresses in
+    stages variously ornamented. Parapet pierced with
+    quatrefoils and flowing tracery. Niches panelled and with
+    projecting canopies. Spires lofty; the broach rarely used,
+    parapets and angle pinnacles take the place of it. Roofs of
+    moderate pitch open to the framing. Mouldings bold and
+    finely proportioned, generally in groups, the groups
+    separated from each other by hollows, composed of segments
+    of circles. Deep hollows, now generally confined to inner
+    angles. Mouldings varying in size and kind, arranged on
+    diagonal as well as rectangular planes, often ornamented
+    with ball flower. Foliage chiefly of ivy, oak, and vine
+    leaves; natural, also conventional. Rich crockets, finials,
+    and pinnacles. Vaulting with intermediate ribs, ridge ribs,
+    and late in the style lierne ribs, and bosses.
+
+
+    PERPENDICULAR.  Richard II.  A.D. 1377. (_Transition._)
+                    Henry IV.     "   1399.
+                    Henry V.      "   1413.
+                    Henry VI.     "   1422.
+                    Edward IV.    "   1461.
+                    Edward V.     "   1483.
+                    Richard III.  "   1483.
+
+    TUDOR.          Henry VII.    "   1485.
+                    Henry VIII.   "   1509 to 1546.
+
+    Arches at first inclosing an equilateral triangle,
+    afterwards obtusely pointed and struck from four centres.
+    Piers generally oblong; longitudinal direction north and
+    south. Mouldings continued from base through arch. Capitals
+    with mouldings large, angular, and few, with abacus and bell
+    imperfectly defined. Foliage of conventional character,
+    shallow, and square in outline. Bases polygonal. Windows
+    where lofty divided into stories by transoms. The mullions
+    often continued perpendicularly into the head. Canopies of
+    ogee character enriched with crockets. Doors generally with
+    square label over arch, the spandrels filled with ornament.
+    Buttresses with bold projection often ending in finials.
+    Flying buttresses pierced with tracery. Walls profusely
+    ornamented with panelling. Parapets embattled and panelled.
+    Open timber roofs of moderate pitch, of elaborate
+    construction, often with hammer beams, richly ornamented
+    with moulded timbers, carved figures of angels and with
+    pierced tracery in spandrels. Roofs sometimes of very flat
+    pitch. Lofty clerestories. Mouldings large, coarse, and with
+    wide and shallow hollows and hard wiry edges, meagre in
+    appearance and wanting in minute and delicate detail,
+    generally arranged on diagonal planes. Early in the style
+    the mouldings partake of decorated character.
+
+    In the Tudor period depressed four-centered arch prevails;
+    transoms of windows battlemented. Tudor flower, rose,
+    portcullis, and fleur-de-lis common ornaments. Crockets and
+    pinnacles much projected. Roofs of low pitch.
+
+    Vaulting. Fan vaulting, with tracery and pendants
+    elaborately carved.
+
+Other modes of distinguishing the periods of English Gothic have been
+proposed by writers of authority. The division given above is that of
+Rickman, and is generally adopted. A more minute subdivision and a
+different set of names were proposed by Sharpe as follows:--
+
+    ROMANESQUE.  Saxon         A.D.      to 1066.
+                 Norman         "   1066 to 1145.
+    GOTHIC.      Transitional   "   1145 to 1190.
+                 Lancet         "   1190 to 1245.
+                 Geometrical    "   1245 to 1315.
+                 Curvilinear    "   1315 to 1360.
+                 Rectilinear    "   1360 to 1550.
+
+Of the new names proposed by Mr. Sharpe "transitional" explains
+itself; and "geometrical, curvilinear, and rectilinear" refer to the
+characters of the window tracery at the different periods which they
+denote.[6]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The history of English Gothic proper may be said to begin with the
+reign of Henry II., coinciding very nearly with the commencement of
+the period named by Mr. Sharpe transitional (1145 to 1190), when
+Norman architecture was changing into Gothic. This history we propose
+now to consider somewhat in detail, dividing the buildings in the
+simplest possible way, namely, into floors, walls, columns, roofs,
+openings, and ornaments. After this we shall have to consider the mode
+in which materials were used by the builders of the Gothic period,
+_i.e._ the construction of the buildings; and the general artistic
+principles which guided their architects, _i.e._ the design of the
+buildings.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It may be useful to students in and near London to give Sir G. Gilbert
+Scott's list of striking London examples[7] of Gothic architecture
+(with the omission of such examples as are more antiquarian than
+architectural in their interest):--
+
+    _Norman_ (temp. Conquest).--The Keep and Chapel of the Tower
+    of London.
+
+    _Advanced Norman._--Chapel of St. Catherine, Westminster
+    Abbey; St. Bartholomew's Priory, Smithfield.
+
+    _Transitional._--The round part of the Temple Church.
+
+    _Early English._--Eastern part of the Temple Church; Choir
+    and Lady Chapel of St. Mary Overy, Southwark; Chapel of
+    Lambeth Palace.
+
+    _Advanced Early English_ (passing to decorated).--Eastern
+    part of Westminster Abbey generally and its Chapter House.
+
+    _Early Decorated._--Choir of Westminster, (but this has been
+    much influenced by the design of the earlier parts
+    adjacent); Chapel of St. Etheldreda, Ely Place, Holborn.
+
+    _Late Decorated._--The three bays of the Cloister at
+    Westminster opposite the entrance to Chapter House; Crypt of
+    St. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster; Dutch Church, Austin
+    Friars.
+
+    _Early Perpendicular._--South and West walks of the
+    Cloister, Westminster; Westminster Hall.
+
+    _Advanced Perpendicular (Tudor period)._--Henry VII.'s
+    Chapel; Double Cloister of St. Stephen's, Westminster.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4] The abbreviations, E. E., Dec., and Perp., will be employed to
+denote these three periods.
+
+[5] _Notes on English Architecture, Costumes, Monuments, &c._
+_Privately printed._ Quoted here with the author's permission.
+
+[6] See examples in Chapter V. and in Glossary.
+
+[7] Address to Conference of Architects, _Builder_, June 24, 1876.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY.}]
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.--ENGLAND.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.--FLOOR, WALLS, TOWERS, GABLES, COLUMNS.
+
+_Floor, or Plan._
+
+The excellences or defects of a building are more due to the shape and
+size of its floor and, incidentally, of the walls and columns or piers
+which inclose and subdivide its floor than to anything else whatever.
+A map of the floor and walls (usually showing also the position of the
+doors and windows), is known as a plan, but by a pardonable figure of
+speech the plan of a building is often understood to mean the shape
+and size and arrangement of its floor and walls themselves, instead of
+simply the drawing representing them. It is in this sense that the
+word plan will be used in this volume.
+
+The plan of a Gothic Cathedral has been described, and it has been
+already remarked that before the Gothic period had commenced the
+dimensions of great churches had been very much increased. The
+generally received disposition of the parts of a church had indeed
+been already settled or nearly so. There were consequently few
+radical alterations in church plans during the Gothic period. One,
+however, took place in England in the abandonment of the apse.
+
+At first the apsidal east end, common in the Norman times, was
+retained. For example, it is found at Canterbury, where the choir and
+transept are transitional, having been begun soon after 1174 and
+completed about 1184; but the eastern end of Chichester, which belongs
+to the same period (the transition), displays the square east end, and
+this termination was almost invariably preferred in our country after
+the twelfth century.
+
+A great amount of regularity marks the plans of those great churches
+which had vaulted roofs, as will be readily understood when it is
+remembered that the vaults were divided into equal and similar
+compartments, and that the points of support had to be placed with
+corresponding regularity. Where, however, some controlling cause of
+this nature was not at work much picturesque irregularity prevailed in
+the planning of English Gothic buildings of all periods. The plans of
+our Cathedrals are noted for their great length in proportion to their
+width, for the considerable length given to the transepts, and for the
+occurrence in many cases (_e.g._ Salisbury, thirteenth century) of a
+second transept. The principal alterations which took place in plan as
+time went on originated in the desire to concentrate material as much
+as possible on points of support, leaving the walls between them thin
+and the openings wide, and in the use of flying buttresses, the feet
+of which occupy a considerable space outside the main walls of the
+church. The plans of piers and columns also underwent the alterations
+which will be presently described.[8]
+
+Buildings of a circular shape on plan are very rare, but octagonal
+ones are not uncommon. The finest chapter-houses attached to our
+Cathedrals are octagons, with a central pier to carry the vaulting. On
+the whole, play of shape on plan was less cultivated in England than
+in some continental countries.
+
+The plans of domestic buildings are usually simple, but grew more
+elaborate and extensive as time went on. The cloister with
+dwelling-rooms and common-rooms entered from its walk, formed the
+model on which colleges, hospitals, and alms-houses were planned. The
+castle, already described, was the residence of the wealthy during the
+earlier part of the Gothic period, and when, in the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries, houses which were rather dwellings than
+fortresses began to be erected, the hall, with a large bay window and
+a raised floor or dais at one end and a mighty open fire-place, was
+always the most conspicuous feature in the plan. Towards the close of
+the Gothic period the plan of a great dwelling, such as Warwick Castle
+(Fig. 8), began to show many of the features which distinguish a
+mansion of the present day.
+
+In various parts of the country remains of magnificent Gothic
+dwelling-houses of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries exist, and
+long before the close of the perpendicular period we had such mansions
+as Penshurst and Hever, such palaces as Windsor and Wells, such
+castellated dwellings as Warwick and Haddon, differing in many
+respects but all agreeing in the possession of a great central hall.
+Buildings for public purposes also often took the form of a great
+hall. Westminster Hall may be cited as the finest example of such a
+structure, not only in England but in Europe.
+
+The student who desires to obtain anything beyond the most
+superficial acquaintance with architecture must endeavour to obtain
+enough familiarity with ground plans, to be able to sketch, measure,
+and lay down a plan to scale and to _read_ one. The plan shows to the
+experienced architect the nature, arrangement, and qualities of a
+building better than any other drawing, and a better memorandum of a
+building is preserved if a fairly correct sketch of its plan, or of
+the plan of important parts of it, is preserved than if written notes
+are alone relied upon.
+
+
+_Walls._
+
+The walls of Gothic buildings are generally of stone; brick being the
+exception. They were in the transitional and Early English times
+extremely thick, and became thinner afterwards. All sorts of
+ornamental masonry were introduced into them, so that diapers,[9]
+bands, arcades, mouldings, and inlaid patterns are all to be met with
+occasionally, especially in districts where building materials of
+varied colours, or easy to work, are plentiful. In the perpendicular
+period the walls were systematically covered with panelling closely
+resembling the tracery of the windows (_e.g._, Henry VII.'s Chapel at
+Westminster).
+
+The wall of a building ordinarily requires some kind of base and some
+kind of top. The base or plinth in English Gothic buildings was
+usually well marked and bold, especially in the perpendicular period,
+and it is seldom absent. The eaves of the roof in some cases overhang
+the walls, resting on a simple stone band, called an eaves-course, and
+constitute the crowning feature. In many instances, however, the
+eaves are concealed behind a parapet[10] which is often carried on a
+moulded cornice or on corbels. This, in the E. E. period, was usually
+very simple. In the Dec. it was panelled with ornamental panels, and
+often made very beautiful. In the Perp. it was frequently battlemented
+as well as panelled.
+
+A distinguishing feature of Gothic walls is the buttress. It existed,
+but only in the form of a flat pier of very slight projection in
+Norman, as in almost all Romanesque buildings, but in the Gothic
+period it became developed.
+
+The buttress, like many of the peculiarities of Gothic architecture,
+originated in the use of stone vaults and the need for strong piers at
+these points, upon which the thrust and weight of those vaults were
+concentrated. The use of very large openings, for wide windows full of
+stained glass also made it increasingly necessary in the Dec. and
+Perp. periods to fortify the walls at regular points.
+
+A buttress[10] is, in fact, a piece of wall set athwart the main wall,
+usually projecting considerably at the base and diminished by
+successive reductions of its mass as it approaches the top, and so
+placed as to counteract the thrust of some arch or vault inside. It
+had great artistic value; in the feeble and level light of our
+Northern climate it casts bold shadows and catches bright lights, and
+so adds greatly to the architectural effect of the exterior. In the
+E. E. the buttress was simple and ordinarily projected about its own
+width. In the Dec. it obtained much more projection, was constructed
+with several diminutions (technically called weatherings), and was
+considerably ornamented. In the Perp. it was frequently enriched by
+panelling. The buttresses in the Dec. period are often set diagonally
+at the corner of a building or tower. In the E. E. period this was
+never done.
+
+The flying buttress[11] is one of the most conspicuous features of the
+exterior of those Gothic buildings which possessed elaborate stone
+vaults. It was a contrivance for providing an abutment to
+counterbalance the outward pressure of the vault covering the highest
+and central parts of the building in cases where that vault rested
+upon and abutted against walls which themselves were carried by
+arches, and were virtually internal walls, so that no buttress could
+be carried up from the ground to steady them.
+
+A pier of masonry, sometimes standing alone, sometimes thrown out from
+the aisle wall opposite the point to be propped, formed the solid part
+of this buttress; it was carried to the requisite height and a flying
+arch spanning the whole width of the aisles was thrown across from it
+to the wall at the point whence the vault sprung. The pier itself was
+in many cases loaded by an enormous pinnacle, so that its weight might
+combine with the pressure transmitted along the slope of the flying
+arch to give a resultant which should fall within the base of the
+buttress. The back of such an arch was generally used as a water
+channel.
+
+The forest of flying buttresses round many French cathedrals produces
+an almost bewildering effect, as, for instance, at the east end of
+Notre Dame;--our English specimens, at Westminster Abbey for example,
+are comparatively simple.
+
+
+_Towers._
+
+The gable and the tower are developments of the walls of the building.
+Gothic is _par excellence_ the style of towers. Many towers were
+built detached from all other buildings, but no great Gothic building
+is complete without one main tower and some subordinate ones.
+
+In the E. E. style church towers were often crowned by low spires,
+becoming more lofty as the style advanced. In the Dec. style lofty
+spires were almost universal. In the Perp. the tower rarely has a
+visible roof.[12]
+
+The artistic value of towers in giving unity coupled with variety to a
+group of buildings can hardly be exaggerated.
+
+The positions which towers occupy are various. They produce the
+greatest effect when central, _i.e._ placed over the crossing of the
+nave and transepts. Lichfield, Chichester, and Salisbury may be
+referred to as examples of cathedrals with towers in this position and
+surmounted by spires. Canterbury, York, Lincoln, and Gloucester are
+specimens of the effectiveness of the tower similarly placed, but
+without a spire (Fig. 12). At Wells a fine central octagon occupies
+the crossing, and is remarkable for the skill with which it is fitted
+to the nave and aisles internally. Next to central towers rank a pair
+of towers at the western end of the building. These exist at Lichfield
+with their spires; they exist (square-topped) at Lincoln, and (though
+carried up since the Gothic period) at Westminster.[13] Many churches
+have a single tower in this position (Fig. 13).
+
+The obvious purpose of a tower, beyond its serviceableness as a
+feature of the building and as a landmark, is to lift up a belfry high
+into the air: accordingly, almost without exception, church and
+cathedral towers are designed with a large upper story, pierced by
+openings of great size and height called the belfry stage; and the
+whole artistic treatment of the tower is subordinate to this feature.
+It is also very often the case that a turret to contain a spiral
+staircase which may afford the means of access to the upper part of
+the tower, forms a prominent feature of its whole height, especially
+in the Dec. and Perp. periods.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--LINCOLN CATHEDRAL. (MOSTLY EARLY ENGLISH.)]
+
+In domestic and monastic buildings, low towers were frequently
+employed with excellent effect. Many castles retained the Norman keep,
+or square strong tower, which had served as the nucleus round which
+other buildings had afterwards clustered; but where during the Gothic
+period a castle was built, or rebuilt, without such a keep, one or
+more towers, often of great beauty, were always added. Examples
+abound; good ones will be found in the Edwardian castles in Wales (end
+of thirteenth century), as for example at Conway and Caernarvon.
+
+
+_Gables._
+
+The gable forms a distinctive Gothic feature. The gables crowned those
+parts of a great church in which the skill of the architect was
+directed to producing a regular composition, often called a front, or
+a facade. The west fronts of Cathedrals were the most important
+architectural designs of this sort, and with them we may include the
+ends of the transepts and the east fronts.
+
+The same parts of parish churches are often excellent compositions.
+The gable of the nave always formed the central feature of the main
+front. This was flanked by the gables, or half-gables, of the aisles
+where there were no towers, or by the lower portions of the towers. As
+a rule the centre and sides of the facade are separated by buttresses,
+or some other mode of marking a vertical division, and the composition
+is also divided by bands of mouldings or otherwise, horizontally into
+storeys. Some of the horizontal divisions are often strongly marked,
+especially in the lower part of the building, where in early examples
+there is sometimes in addition to the plinth, or base of the wall, an
+arcade or a band of sculpture running across the entire front (_e.g._
+east front of Lincoln Cathedral). The central gable is always occupied
+by a large window--or in early buildings a group of windows--sometimes
+two storeys in height. A great side window usually occurs at the end
+of each aisle. Below these great windows are introduced, at any rate
+in west fronts, the doorways, which, even in the finest English
+examples, are comparatively small. The gable also contains as a rule
+one or more windows often circular which light the space above the
+vaults.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--ST. PIERRE, CAEN, TOWER AND SPIRE. (SPIRE,
+      1302.)]
+
+Part of the art in arranging such a composition is to combine and yet
+contrast its horizontal and vertical elements. The horizontal lines,
+or features, are those which serve to bind the whole together, and the
+vertical ones are those which give that upward tendency which is the
+great charm and peculiar characteristic of Gothic architecture. It is
+essential for the masses of solid masonry and the openings to be
+properly contrasted and proportioned to each other, and here, as in
+every part of a building, such ornaments and ornamental features as
+are introduced must be designed to contribute to the enrichment of the
+building as a whole, so that no part shall be conspicuous either by
+inharmonious treatment, undue plainness, or excessive enrichment.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--HOUSE AT CHESTER. (16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+During the transition the gable became steeper in pitch than the
+comparatively moderate slope of Norman times. In the E. E. it was
+acutely pointed, in the Dec. the usual slope was that of the two sides
+of an equilateral triangle: in the Perp. it became extremely flat and
+ceased to be so marked a feature as it had formerly been. In domestic
+buildings the gable was employed in the most effective manner, and
+town dwelling-houses were almost invariably built their gable ends to
+the street (Fig. 14).
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A very effective form of wall was frequently made use of in
+dwelling-houses. This consisted of a sturdy framework of stout timbers
+exposed to view, with the spaces between them filled in with plaster.
+Of this work, which is known as half-timbered work, many beautiful
+specimens remain dating from the fifteenth and following centuries
+(Figs. 14 and 15), and a few of earlier date. In those parts of
+England where tiles are manufactured such framework was often covered
+by tiles instead of being filled in with plastering. In half-timbered
+houses, the fire-places and chimneys, and sometimes also the basement
+storeys, are usually of brickwork or masonry; so are the side walls in
+the case of houses in streets. It was usual in such buildings to cause
+the upper storeys to overhang the lower ones.
+
+
+_Columns and Piers._
+
+The columns and piers of a building virtually form portions of its
+walls, so far as aiding to support the weight of the roof is
+concerned, and are appropriately considered in connection with them.
+In Gothic architecture very little use is made of columns on the
+outside of a building, and the porticoes and external rows of columns
+proper to the classic styles are quite unknown. On the other hand the
+series of piers, or columns, from which spring the arches which
+separate the central avenues of nave, transepts and choir from the
+aisles, are among the most prominent features in every church. These
+piers varied in each century.[14]
+
+The Norman piers had been frequently circular or polygonal, but
+sometimes nearly square, and usually of enormous mass. Thus, at Durham
+(Norman), oblong piers of about eleven feet in diameter occur
+alternately with round ones of about seven feet. In transitional
+examples columns of more slender proportions were employed either (as
+in the choir of Canterbury) as single shafts or collected into groups.
+Where grouping took place it was intended that each shaft of the group
+should be seen to support some definite feature of the superincumbent
+structure, as where a separate group of mouldings springs from each
+shaft in a doorway, and this principle was very steadily adhered to
+during the greater part of the Gothic period.[14]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--HOUSES AT LISIEUX, FRANCE. (16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+Through the E. E. period groups of shafts are generally employed; they
+are often formed of detached shafts clustering round a central one,
+and held together at intervals by bands or belts of masonry, and
+generally the entire group is nearly circular on plan. In the
+succeeding century (Dec. period) the piers also take the form of
+groups of shafts, but they are generally carved out of one block of
+stone, and the ordinary arrangement of the pier is on a lozenge-shaped
+plan. In the Perp., the piers retain the same general character, but
+are slenderer, and the shafts have often shrunk to nothing more than
+reedy mouldings.
+
+The column is often employed in Transitional and E. E. churches as a
+substitute for piers carrying arches. In every period small columns
+are freely used as ornamental features. They are constantly met with,
+for example, in the jambs of doorways and of windows.
+
+Every column is divided naturally into three parts, its base, or foot;
+its shaft, which forms the main body; and its capital, or head. Each
+of these went through a series of modifications. Part of the base
+usually consisted of a flat stone larger than the diameter of the
+column, sometimes called a plinth, and upon this stood the moulded
+base which gradually diminished to the size of the shaft. This plain
+stone was in E. E. often square, and in that case the corner spaces
+which were not covered by the mouldings of the base were often
+occupied by an elegantly carved leaf. In Dec. and Perp. buildings the
+lower part of the base was often polygonal, and frequently moulded so
+as to make it into a pedestal.[15]
+
+The proportions of shafts varied extraordinarily; they were, as a
+rule, extremely slender when their purpose was purely decorative, and
+comparatively sturdy when they really served to carry a weight.
+
+The capital of the column has been perhaps the most conspicuous
+feature in the architecture of every age and every country, and it is
+one of the features which a student may make use of as an indication
+of date and style of buildings, very much as the botanist employs the
+flower as an index to the genus and species of plants. The capital
+almost invariably starts from a ring, called the neck of the column.
+This serves to mark the end of the shaft and the commencement of the
+capital. Above this follows what is commonly called the bell,--the
+main portion of the capital, which is that part upon which the skill
+of the carver and the taste of the designer can be most freely
+expended, and on the top of the bell is placed the abacus, a flat
+block of stone upon the upper surface of which is built the
+superstructure or is laid the beam or block which the column has to
+support. The shape and ornaments given to the abacus are often of
+considerable importance as indications of the position in
+architectural history which the building in which it occurs should
+occupy.
+
+The Norman capital differed to some extent from the Romanesque
+capitals of other parts of Europe. It was commonly of a heavy,
+strong-looking shape, and is often appropriately called the cushion
+capital. In its simpler forms the cushion capital is nothing but a
+cubical block of stone with its lower corners rounded off to make it
+fit the circular shaft on which it is placed, and with a slab by way
+of abacus placed upon it. In later Norman and transitional work the
+faces of this block and the edges of the abacus are often richly
+moulded. By degrees, however, as the transition to E. E. approached, a
+new sort of capital[16] was introduced, having the outline of the bell
+hollow instead of convex. The square faces of the Norman capital of
+course disappeared, and the square abacus soon (at least in this
+country) became circular, involving no small loss of vigour in the
+appearance of the work. The bell of this capital was often decorated
+with rich mouldings, and had finely-designed and characteristic
+foliage, which almost always seemed to grow up the capital, and
+represented a conventional kind of leaf easily recognised when once
+seen.
+
+In the Dec. period the capitals have, as a rule, fewer and less
+elaborate mouldings; the foliage is often very beautifully carved in
+imitation of natural leaves, and wreathed round the capital instead of
+growing up it. In the Perp. this feature is in every way less ornate,
+the mouldings are plainer, and the foliage, often absent, is, when it
+occurs, conventional and stiff. Polygonal capitals are common in this
+period.
+
+  [Illustration: _Later Norman Capital._]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[8] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Pier_.
+
+[9] For illustration consult the Glossary.
+
+[10] For illustrations consult the Glossary.
+
+[11] For illustration consult the Glossary under _Flying buttress_.
+
+[12] For remarks on Spires, see Chap. V.
+
+[13] York, Lichfield, and Lincoln, are the cathedrals distinguished by
+the possession of three towers.
+
+[14] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Pier_.
+
+[15] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Base_.
+
+[16] For illustrations consult the Glossary.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY.}]
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.--ENGLAND.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS (_continued_)--OPENINGS, ROOFS, SPIRES,
+ORNAMENTS, STAINED GLASS, SCULPTURE.
+
+_Openings and Arches._
+
+The openings (_i.e._ doors and windows) in the walls of English Gothic
+buildings are occasionally covered by flat heads or lintels, but this
+is exceptional; ordinarily they have arched heads. The shape of the
+arch varies at all periods. Architects always felt themselves free to
+adopt any shape which best met the requirements of any special case;
+but at each period there was one shape of arch which it was customary
+to use.
+
+In the first transitional period (end of twelfth century) semicircular
+and pointed arches are both met with, and are often both employed in
+the same part of the same building. The mouldings and enrichments
+which are common in Norman work are usually still in use. In the E. E.
+period the doorways are almost invariably rather acutely pointed, the
+arched heads are enriched by a large mass of rich mouldings, and the
+jambs[17] have usually a series of small columns, each of which is
+intended to carry a portion of the entire group of mouldings. Large
+doorways are often subdivided into two, and frequently approached by
+porches. A most beautiful example occurs in the splendid west entrance
+to Ely Cathedral. Other examples will be found at Lichfield (Fig. 1)
+and Salisbury. It was not uncommon to cover doorways with a lintel,
+the whole being under an archway; this left a space above the head of
+the door which was occupied by carving often of great beauty.
+Ornamental gables are often formed over the entrances of churches, and
+are richly sculptured; but though beautiful, these features rarely
+attained magnificence. The most remarkable entrance to an English
+cathedral is the west portal of Peterborough--a composition of lofty
+and richly moulded arches built in front of the original west wall. A
+portal on a smaller scale, but added in the same manner adorns the
+west front of Wells. As a less exceptional example we may refer to the
+entrance to Westminster Abbey at the end of the north transept (now
+under restoration), which must have been a noble example of an E. E.
+portal when in its perfect state.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--LANCET WINDOW. (12TH CENTURY.)]
+
+The windows in this style were almost always long, narrow, and with a
+pointed head resembling the blade of a lancet (Fig. 16). The glass is
+generally near the outside face of the wall, and the sides of the
+opening are splayed towards the inside. It was very customary to place
+these lancet windows in groups. The best known group is the celebrated
+one of "the five sisters," five lofty single lights, occupying the
+eastern end of one of the transepts of York Minster. A common
+arrangement in designing such a group was to make the central light
+the highest, and to graduate the height of the others. It after a time
+became customary to render the opening more ornamental by adding
+pointed projections called cusps. By these the shape of the head of
+the opening was turned into a form resembling a trefoil leaf.
+Sometimes two cusps were added on each side. The head is, in the
+former case, said to be trefoiled--in the latter, cinqfoiled.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--TWO-LIGHT WINDOW. (13TH CENTURY.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--GEOMETRICAL TRACERY. (14TH CENTURY.)]
+
+When two windows were placed close together it began to be customary
+to include them under one outer arch, and after a time to pierce the
+solid head between them with a circle, which frequently was cusped,
+forming often a quatrefoil (Fig. 17). This completed the idea of a
+group, and was rapidly followed by ornamental treatment. Three, four,
+five, or more windows (which in such a position are often termed
+lights) were often placed under one arch, the head of which was filled
+by a more or less rich group of circles; mouldings were added, and
+thus rose the system of decoration for window-heads known as tracery.
+So long as the tracery preserves the simple character of piercings
+through a flat stone, filling the space between the window heads, it
+is known as plate tracery. The thinning down of the blank space to a
+comparatively narrow surface went on, and by and by the use of
+mouldings caused that plain surface to resemble bars of stone bent
+into a circular form: this was called bar tracery, and it is in this
+form that tracery is chiefly employed in England (Fig. 18).
+Westminster Abbey is full of exquisite examples of E. E.
+window-tracery (temp. Henry III.); as, for example, in the windows of
+the choir, the great circular windows (technically termed
+rose-windows) at the ends of the transepts, the windows of the
+chapter-house. Last, but not least, the splendid arcade which forms
+the triforium is filled with tracery similar in every respect to the
+best window tracery of the period (Fig. 19).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--THE TRIFORIUM ARCADE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
+      (1269.)]
+
+In the decorated style of the fourteenth century tracery was developed
+till it reached a great pitch of perfection and intricacy. In the
+earlier half of the century none save regular geometrical forms, made
+up of circles and segments of circles, occur; in other words, the
+whole design of the most elaborate window could be drawn with the
+compasses, and a curve of contrary flexure rarely occurred. In the
+latest half of that period flowing lines are introduced into the
+tracery, and very much alter its character (Fig. 20). The cusping
+throughout is bolder than in the E. E. period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--ROSE WINDOW FROM THE TRANSEPT OF LINCOLN
+      CATHEDRAL. (1342-1347.)]
+
+In perpendicular windows spaces of enormous size are occupied by the
+mullions and tracery. Horizontal bars, called transoms, are now for
+the first time introduced, and the upright bars or mullions form with
+them a kind of stone grating; but below each transom a series of small
+stone arches forms heads to the lights below that transom, and a minor
+mullion often springs from the head of each of these arches, so that
+as the window increases in height, the number of its lights increases.
+The character of the cusping changed again, the cusps becoming
+club-headed in their form (Fig. 21).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--PERPENDICULAR WINDOW.]
+
+Arches in the great arcades of churches, or in the smaller arcades of
+cloisters, or used as decorations to the surface of the walls, were
+made acute, obtuse, or segmental, to suit the duty they had to
+perform; but when there was nothing to dictate any special shape, the
+arch of the E. E. period was by preference acute[18] and of lofty
+proportions, and that of the Dec. less lofty, and its head equilateral
+(_i.e._ described so that if the ends of the base of an equilateral
+triangle touch the two points from which it springs, the apex of the
+angle shall touch the point of the arch). In the Perp. period the four
+centred depressed arch, sometimes called the Tudor arch, was
+introduced, and though it did not entirely supersede the equilateral
+arch, yet its employment became at last all but universal, and it is
+one of the especially characteristic features of the Tudor period.
+
+
+_Roofs and Vaults._
+
+The external and the internal covering of a building are very often
+not the same; the outer covering is then usually called a roof--the
+other, a vault or ceiling. In not a few Gothic buildings, however,
+they were the same; such buildings had what are known as open
+roofs--_i.e._ roofs in which the whole of the timber framing of which
+they are constructed is open to view from the interior right up to the
+tiles or lead. Very few open roofs of E. E. character are now
+remaining, but a good many parish churches retain roofs of the Dec.,
+and more of the Perp. period. The roof of Westminster Hall (Perp.,
+erected 1397) shows how fine an architectural object such a roof may
+become. The roof of the hall of Eltham Palace (Fig. 22) is another
+good example. Wooden ceilings, often very rich, are not uncommon,
+especially in the churches of Norfolk and Suffolk, but greater
+interest attaches to the stone vaults with which the majority of
+Gothic buildings were erected, than to any other description of
+covering to the interiors of buildings.
+
+The vault was a feature rarely absent from important churches, and the
+structural requirements of the Gothic vault were among the most
+influential of the elements which determined both the plan and the
+section of a mediaeval church. There was a regular growth in Gothic
+vaults. Those of the thirteenth century are comparatively simple;
+those of the fourteenth are much richer and more elaborate, and often
+involve very great structural difficulties. Those of the fifteenth are
+more systematic, and consequently more simple in principle than the
+ones which preceded them, but are such marvels of workmanship, and so
+enriched by an infinity of parts, that they astonish the beholder,
+and it appears, till the secret is known, impossible to imagine how
+they can be made to stand.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--ROOF OF HALL AT ELTHAM PALACE. (15TH
+      CENTURY.)]
+
+It has been held by some very good authorities that the pointed arch
+was first introduced into Gothic architecture to solve difficulties
+which presented themselves in the vaulting. In all probability the
+desire to give to everything, arches included, a more lofty appearance
+and more slender proportions may have had as much to do with the
+adoption of the pointed arch as any structural considerations, but
+there can be no doubt that it was used for structural arches from the
+very first, even when window heads and wall arcades were semicircular,
+and that the introduction of it cleared the way for the use of stone
+vaults of large span to a wonderful extent. It is not easy to explain
+this without being more technical than is perhaps desirable in the
+present volume, but the subject is one of too much importance for it
+to be possible to avoid making the attempt.
+
+Churches, it will be recollected, were commonly built with a wide nave
+and narrower aisles, and it was in the Norman period customary to
+vault the aisles and cover the nave with a ceiling. There was no
+difficulty in so spacing the distances apart of the piers of the main
+arcade that the compartments (usually termed bays) of the aisle should
+be square on plan; and it was quite possible, without doing more than
+the Romans had done, to vault each bay of the aisles with a
+semicircular intersecting vault (_i.e._ one which has the appearance
+of a semicircular or waggon-head vault, intersected by another vault
+of the same outline and height). This produced a simple series of what
+are called groined or cross vaults, which allowed height to be given
+to the window heads of the aisle and to the arcades between the aisles
+and nave.
+
+After a time it was desired to vault the nave also, and to adopt for
+it an intersecting vault, so that the heads of the windows of the
+clerestory might be raised above the springing line of the vault, but
+so long as the arches remained semicircular, this was very difficult
+to accomplish.
+
+The Romans would probably have contented themselves with employing a
+barrel vault and piercing it to the extent required by short lateral
+vaults, but the result would have been an irregular, weak, curved line
+at each intersection with the main vault; and the aisle vaults having
+made the pleasing effect of a perfectly regular intersection familiar,
+this expedient does not seem to have found favour, at any rate in
+England.
+
+Other expedients were however tried, and with curious results. It was
+for example attempted to vault the nave with a cross vault, embracing
+two bays of the arcade to one of the vault, but the wall space so
+gained was particularly ill suited to the clerestory windows, as may
+be seen by examining the nave of St. Stephen's at Caen. In short, if
+the vaulting compartment were as wide as the nave one way, but only as
+wide as the aisle the other way, and semicircular arches alone were
+employed, a satisfactory result seemed to be unattainable.
+
+In the search for some means of so vaulting a bay of oblong plan that
+the arches should spring all at one level, and the groins or lines of
+intersection should cross one another in the centre of the ceiling,
+the idea either arose or was suggested that the curve of the smaller
+span should be a pointed instead of a semicircular arch.
+
+The moment this was tried all difficulty vanished, and groined (_i.e._
+intersecting) vaults, covering compartments of any proportions became
+easy to design and simple to construct, for if the vault which spanned
+the narrow way of the compartment were acutely pointed, and that
+which spanned it the wide way were either semicircular or
+flatly-pointed, it became easy to arrange that the startings of both
+vaults should be at the same level, and that they should rise to the
+same height, which is the condition essential to the production of a
+satisfactory intersection.
+
+Scott enumerates not fewer than fourteen varieties of mediaeval
+vaults[19] and points out that specimens of thirteen are to be found
+at Westminster. Without such minute detail we may select some
+well-known varieties:--(1) The plain waggon-head vault, as at the
+Chapel of the Tower; (2) in advanced Norman works, cross-vaults formed
+by two intersecting semicircular vaults, the diagonal line being
+called a groin. (3) The earliest transitional and E. E. vaults,
+pointed and with transverse and diagonal ribs, and bosses at the
+intersection of ribs, _e.g._, in the aisles and the early part of the
+cloisters at Westminster. (4) In the advanced part of the E. E.
+period, the addition of a rib at the ridge, as seen in the presbytery
+and transepts at Westminster. (5) At the time of the transition to
+Dec. (_temp._ Ed. 1.) additional ribs began to be introduced between
+the diagonal and the transverse ribs. (6) As the Dec. period advanced
+other ribs, called _liernes_, were introduced, running in various
+directions over the surface of the vault, making star-like figures on
+the vault. (7) The vault of the early Perp., which is similar to the
+last, but more complicated and approaching No. 8, _e.g._, Abbot
+Islip's chapel. (8) Lastly, the distinctive vault of the advanced or
+Tudor Perp., is the fan-tracery vault of which Henry VII.'s Chapel
+roof is the climax. The vaulting surfaces in these are portions of
+hollow conoids, and are covered by a net-work of fine ribs, connected
+together by bands of cusping (Fig. 23).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--HENRY VII.'S CHAPEL. (1503-1512.)]
+
+In Scott's enumeration the vaults of octagons and irregular
+compartments, and such varieties as the one called sexpartite, find a
+place; here they have been intentionally excluded. Many of them are
+works of the greatest skill and beauty, especially the vaults of
+octagonal chapter houses springing from one centre pier (_e.g._,
+Chapter Houses at Worcester, Westminster, Wells, and Salisbury).
+
+Externally, the roofs of buildings became very steep in the thirteenth
+century; they were not quite so steep in the fourteenth, and in the
+fifteenth they were frequently almost flat. They were always relied
+upon to add to the effectiveness of a building, and were enriched
+sometimes by variegated tiles or other covering, sometimes by the
+introduction of small windows, known as dormer windows, each with its
+own gablet and its little roof, and sometimes by the addition of a
+steep sided roof in the shape of a lantern or a "fleche" on the ridge,
+or a pyramidal covering to some projecting octagon or turret.
+
+All these have their value in breaking up the sky-line of the
+building, and adding interest and beauty to it. Still more striking,
+however, in its effect on the sky-line was the spire, a feature to
+which great attention was paid in English architecture.
+
+
+_Spires._
+
+The early square towers of Romanesque churches were sometimes
+surmounted by pyramidal roofs of low pitch. We have probably none now
+remaining, but we have some examples of large pinnacles, crowned with
+pyramids, which show what the shape must have been. They were square
+in plan and somewhat steep in slope.
+
+The spire was developed early in the E. E. period. It was octagonal
+in plan, and the four sides which coincided with the faces of the
+tower rose direct from the walls above a slightly masked eaves course.
+The four oblique sides are connected to the tower by a feature called
+a broach, which may be described as part of a blunt pyramid. The
+broach-spire (Fig. 24) is to be met with in many parts of England, but
+especially in Northamptonshire. The chief ornaments of an E. E. spire
+consist in small windows (called spire-lights or lucarnes) each
+surmounted by its gablet.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--EARLY ENGLISH SPIRE. CHURCH OF ST. MARY
+      MAGDALENE, WARBOYS, LINCOLNSHIRE.]
+
+In the Dec. period it was common to finish the tower by a parapet, and
+to start the spire behind the parapet, sometimes with a broach, often
+without. Pinnacles were frequently added at the corners of the tower,
+and an arch, like that of a flying buttress, was sometimes thrown
+across from the pinnacle to the spire. Spire-lights occur as before,
+and the surface of the spire is often enriched by bands of ornament at
+intervals. The general proportions of the spire were more slender than
+before, and the rib, which generally ran up each angle, was often
+enriched by crockets, _i.e._ tufts of leaves arranged in a formal
+shape (Fig. 25).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--DECORATED SPIRE. ALL SAINTS' CHURCH, OAKHAM,
+      RUTLANDSHIRE.]
+
+Towers were frequently intended to stand without spires in the Perp.
+period, and are often finished by four effective angle-pinnacles and
+a cornice with battlements. Where spires occur in this period they
+resemble those of the Dec. period.
+
+Spires end usually in a boss or finial, surmounted by a weathercock.
+Ordinary roofs were usually finished by ornamental cresting, and their
+summits were marked by finials,[20] frequently of exquisite
+workmanship.
+
+
+_Ornaments._
+
+We now come to ornaments, including mouldings, carving, and colour,
+and here we are landed upon a mass of details which it would be
+impossible to pursue far. Mouldings play a prominent part in Gothic
+architecture, and from the first to the last they varied so constantly
+that their profiles and grouping may be constantly made use of as a
+kind of architectural calendar, to point out the time, to within a few
+years, when the building in which they occur was erected.
+
+A moulding is the architect's means of drawing a line on his building.
+If he desires to mark on the exterior the position of an internal
+floor, or in any other way to suggest a division into storeys, a
+moulded string-course is introduced. If he wishes to add richness and
+play of light and shade to the sides of an important arch, he
+introduces a series of mouldings, the profile of which has been
+designed to form lights and shadows such as will answer his purpose.
+If again he desires to throw out a projection and to give the idea of
+its being properly supported, he places under his projection a corbel
+of mouldings which are of strong as well as pleasing form, so as to
+convey to the eye the notion of support. Mouldings, it can be
+understood, differ in both size and profile, according to the purpose
+which they are required to serve, the distance from the spectator at
+which they are fixed, and the material out of which they are formed.
+In the Gothic periods they also differed according to the date at
+which they were executed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--EARLY ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--ARCH IN RECEDING PLANES MOULDED.]
+
+The first step towards the Gothic system of mouldings was taken by the
+Romanesque architects when the idea of building arches in thick walls,
+not only one within the others, but also in planes receding back from
+the face of the wall one behind as well as within another, was formed
+and carried out, and when a corresponding recessed arrangement of the
+jamb of the arch was made (Fig. 26). The next step was the addition of
+some simple moulding to the advancing angle of each rim of such a
+series of arches either forming a bead (Fig. 27) or a chamfer.
+
+In the transitional part of the twelfth century and the E. E. period
+this process went on till at last, though the separate receding arches
+still continued to exist, the mouldings[21] into which they were cut
+became so numerous and elaborate as to render it often difficult to
+detect the subordination or division into distinct planes which really
+remained.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--DOORWAY, KING'S COLLEGE CHAPEL, CAMBRIDGE.
+      (15TH CENTURY.)]
+
+This passion for elaborate mouldings, often extraordinarily undercut,
+reached its climax in the thirteenth century, the E. E. period. In the
+Dec. period, while almost everything else became more elaborate,
+mouldings grew more simple, yet hardly less beautiful. In the Perp.
+period they were not only further simplified, but often impoverished,
+being usually shallow, formal, and stiff.[22]
+
+Ornaments abounded, and included not only enrichments in the shape of
+carved foliage and figures, statuary, mosaics, and so forth, but
+ornamental features, such as canopies, pinnacles, arcades, and
+recesses (Fig. 28).
+
+In each period these are distinct in design from all that went before
+or came after, and thus to catch the spirit of any one Gothic period
+aright, it is not enough to fix the general shapes of the arches and
+proportions of the piers but every feature, every moulding, and every
+ornament must be wrought in the true spirit of the work, or the result
+will be marred.
+
+
+_Stained Glass._
+
+Ornamental materials and every sort of decorative art, such as mosaic,
+enamel, metal work and inlays, were freely employed to add beauty in
+appropriate positions; but there was one ornament, the crowning
+invention of the Gothic artists, which largely influenced the design
+of the finest buildings, and which reflected a glory on them such as
+nothing else can approach: this was stained glass.
+
+So much of the old glass has perished, and so little modern glass is
+even passable, that this praise may seem overcharged to those who have
+never seen any of the best specimens still left. We have in the choir
+at Canterbury a remnant of the finest sort of glass which England
+possesses. Some good fragments remain at Westminster, though not very
+many; but to judge of the effect of glass at its best, the student
+should visit La Sainte Chapelle at Paris, or the Cathedrals of
+Chartres, Le Mans, Bourges, or Rheims, and he will find in these
+buildings effects in colour which are nothing less than gorgeous in
+their brilliancy, richness, and harmony.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--STAINED GLASS WINDOW FROM CHARTRES
+      CATHEDRAL.]
+
+The peculiar excellence of stained glass as compared with every other
+sort of decoration, is that it is luminous. To some extent
+fresco-painting may claim a sort of brightness; mosaic when executed
+in polished materials possesses brilliancy; but in stained glass the
+light which comes streaming in through the window itself gives
+radiance, while the quality of the glass determines the colour, and
+thus we obtain a glowing, lustre of colour which can only be compared
+to the beauty of gems. In order properly to fill their place as
+decorations, stained-glass windows must be something quite different
+from transparent pictures, and the scenes they represent must not
+detach themselves too violently from the general ground. The most
+perfect effect is produced by such windows as those at Canterbury or
+Chartres (Fig. 29), which recall a cluster of jewels rather than a
+picture.
+
+
+_Coloured Decoration._
+
+Colour was also freely introduced by the lavish employment of coloured
+materials where they were to be had, and by painting the interiors
+with bright pigments. We meet with traces of rich colour on many parts
+of ancient buildings, where we should hardly dare to put it now, and
+we cannot doubt that painted decoration was constantly made use of
+with the happiest effect.
+
+
+_Sculpture._
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 30.--SCULPTURE FROM THE ENTRANCE TO THE CHAPTER
+      HOUSE, WESTMINSTER ABBEY. (1250.)]
+
+The last, perhaps the noblest ornament, is sculpture. The Gothic
+architects were alive to its value, and in all their best works
+statues abounded; often conventional to the last degree; sometimes to
+our eyes uncouth, but always the best which those who carved them
+could do at the time; always sure to contribute to architectural
+effect; never without a picturesque power, sometimes rising to grace
+and even grandeur, and sometimes sinking to grotesque ugliness.
+Whatever the quality of the sculpture was, it was always there, and
+added life to the whole. Monsters gaped and grinned from the
+water-spouts, little figures or strange animals twisted in and out of
+the foliage at angles and bosses and corbels. Stately effigies
+occupied dignified niches, in places of honour; and in the mouldings
+and tympanum of the head of a doorway there was often carved a whole
+host of figures representing heaven, earth, and hell, with a rude
+force and a native eloquence that have not lost their power to the
+present day.
+
+In the positions where modest ornamentation was required, as for
+example the capitals of shafts, the hollows of groups of mouldings,
+and the bosses of vaulting, carving of the most finished execution and
+masterly design constantly occurs. Speaking roughly, this was chiefly
+conventional in the E. E. period, chiefly natural in the Dec. and
+mixed, but with perhaps a preference for the conventional in the Perp.
+Examples abound, but both for beauty and accessibility we can refer to
+no better example than the carving which enriches the entrance to the
+Chapter House of Westminster Abbey (Fig. 30).
+
+  [Illustration: _Miserere Seat from Wells Cathedral._]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[17] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Jamb_.
+
+[18] For illustrations consult the Glossary under _Arch_.
+
+[19] Address to the Conference of Architects. Reported in the
+_Builder_ of 24th June, 1876. Outlines illustrating some of these
+varieties of vault will be found in the Glossary under _Vault_.
+
+[20] See Glossary.
+
+[21] For illustrations consult the Glossary.
+
+[22] For further illustrations see the Glossary.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {STAINED GLASS FROM CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN EUROPE.
+
+
+FRANCE.--CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
+
+The architecture of France during the Middle Ages throws much light
+upon the history of the country. The features in which it differs from
+the work done in England at the same period can, many of them, be
+directly traced to differences in the social, political, or religious
+situation of the two nations at the time. For example, we find England
+in the eleventh and twelfth centuries in the hands of the Normans, a
+newly-conquered country under uniform administration; and accordingly
+few local variations occur in the architecture of our Norman period.
+The twelfth-century work, at Durham or Peterborough for instance,
+differs but little from that at Gloucester or Winchester. In France
+the case is different. That country was divided into a series of
+semi-independent provinces, whose inhabitants differed, not only in
+the leaders whom they followed, but in speech, race, and customs. As
+might be expected, the buildings of each province presented an aspect
+different in many respects from those of every other; and we may as
+well add that these peculiarities did not die out with the end of the
+round-arched period of architecture, but lingered far into the pointed
+period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 31.--CHURCH AT FONTEVRAULT. (BEGUN 1125.)]
+
+The south of France was occupied by people speaking what are now known
+as the Romance dialects, and some writers have adopted the name as
+descriptive of the peculiarities of the architecture of these
+districts. The Romance provinces clung tenaciously to their early
+forms of art, so that pointed architecture was not established in the
+south of France till half a century, and in some places nearly a whole
+century, later than in the north.
+
+On the other hand, the Frankish part of the country was the cradle of
+Gothic. The transition from round to pointed architecture first took
+place in the royal domain, of which Paris was the centre, and it may
+be assumed that the new style was already existing when in 1140 Abbot
+Suger laid the foundations of the choir of the church of St. Denis,
+about forty years before the commencement of the eastern arm of our
+own Canterbury.
+
+De Caumont, who in his "Abecedaire" did for French architecture
+somewhat the same work of analysis and scientific arrangement which
+Rickman performed for English, has adopted the following
+classification:--
+
+                           { Primitive.          } 5th to 10th
+                           { _Primordiale._      }  century.
+                           {                     }
+                           { Second.             } End of 10th to
+  Romanesque Architecture. { _Secondaire._       }  commencement of
+  _Architecture Romane._   {                     }  12th century.
+                           {                     }
+                           { Third or Transition }
+                           { _Tertiaire ou de_   } 12th century.
+                           { _Transition._       }
+
+                           { First.              }
+                           { _Primitive._        } 13th century.
+                           {                     }
+  Pointed Architecture.    { Second.             }
+  _Architecture ogivale._  { _Secondaire._       } 14th century.
+                           {                     }
+                           { Third.              }
+                           { _Tertiaire._        } 15th century.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--DOORWAY AT LOCHES, FRANCE. (1180.)]
+
+The transitional architecture of France is no exception to the rule
+that the art of a period of change is full of interest. Much of it has
+disappeared, but examples remain in the eastern part of the cathedral
+of St. Denis already referred to, in portions of the cathedrals of
+Noyon and Sens, the west front of Chartres, the church of St.
+Germain des Pres at Paris, and elsewhere. We here often find the
+pointed arch employed for the most important parts of the structure,
+while the round arch is still retained in the window and door-heads,
+and in decorative arcades, as shown in our illustrations of a section
+of the church at Fontevrault (Fig. 31), and of a doorway at Loches
+(Fig. 32).
+
+The first pointed architecture of the thirteenth century in France
+differs considerably from the early English of this country. The
+arches are usually less acute, and the windows not so tall in
+proportion to their width. The mouldings employed are few and simple
+compared with the many and intricate English ones. Large round columns
+are much used in place of our complicated groups of small shafts for
+the piers of the nave; and the abacus of the capital remains square.
+An air of breadth and dignity prevails in the buildings of this date
+to which the simple details, noble proportions, and great size largely
+contribute. The western front of Notre Dame, Paris (Fig. 33), dates
+from the early years of this century, the interior being much of it a
+little earlier. The well-known cathedrals of Chartres, Rheims, Laon,
+and later in the style, Amiens, and Beauvais, may be taken as grand
+examples of French first pointed. To these may be added the very
+graceful Sainte Chapelle of Paris, the choir and part of the nave of
+the cathedral at Rouen, the church of St. Etienne at Caen, and the
+cathedrals of Coutances, Lisieux, Le Mans, and Bourges. This list of
+churches could be almost indefinitely extended, and many monastic
+buildings, and not a few domestic and military ones, might be added.
+Among the most conspicuous of these may be named the monastic fortress
+at Mont St. Michel, probably the most picturesque structure in
+France, the remarkable fortifications of Carcassonne, and the lordly
+castle of Coucy.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--NOTRE DAME, PARIS, WEST FRONT. (1214.)]
+
+The second pointed, or fourteenth century Gothic of France, bears more
+resemblance to contemporary English Gothic than the work of the
+centuries preceding or following. Large windows for stained glass,
+with rich geometrical tracery prevailed, and much the same sort of
+ornamental treatment as in England was adopted in richly decorated
+buildings. Specimens of the work of this century occur everywhere in
+the shape of additions to the great churches and cathedrals which had
+been left unfinished from the previous century, and also of side
+chapels which it became customary to add to the aisles of churches.
+The great and well-known abbey of St. Ouen at Rouen is one of the few
+first-class churches which can be named as begun and almost entirely
+completed in this century. The tower and spire of the church of St.
+Pierre at Caen (Fig. 13) are very well-known and beautiful specimens
+of this period.
+
+French fifteenth century architecture, or third pointed, is far from
+being so dignified or so scientific as English perpendicular, and
+differs from it considerably. Exuberant richness in decoration was the
+rage, and shows itself both in sculpture, tracery, and general design.
+Much of the later work of this period has received the name of
+flamboyant, because of the flame-like shapes into which the tracery of
+the heads of windows was thrown. In flamboyant buildings we often meet
+with art which, though certainly over-florid, is brilliant, rich, and
+full of true feeling for decoration.
+
+In this century, secular and domestic buildings attained more
+prominence than at any previous periods. Some of them are among the
+best works which this period produced. Familiar examples will be found
+in the noble Palais de Justice at Rouen, and the Hotel de
+Bourgtherould in the same city; in parts of the great chateau at
+Blois, the splendid chateau of Pierrefonds, and the Hotels de Ville of
+Oudenarde and Caen.
+
+
+FRANCE.--ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+_Plan._
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--PLAN OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL. (1220-1272.)]
+
+The plans of French cathedrals and other buildings conform in general
+to the description of Gothic plans given in Chapter II., but they have
+of course certain distinctive peculiarities (Fig. 34). The cathedrals
+are as a rule much broader in proportion to their length than English
+ones. Double aisles frequently occur, and not infrequently an added
+range of side chapels fringes each of the main side walls, so that the
+interior of one of these vast buildings presents, in addition to the
+main vista along the nave, many delightful cross views of great
+extent. The transepts are also much less strongly marked than our
+English examples. There are even some great cathedrals (_e.g._,
+Bourges) without transepts; and where they exist it is common to find
+that, as in the case of Notre Dame de Paris, they do not project
+beyond the line of the side walls, so that, although fairly
+well-marked in the exterior and interior of the building, they add
+nothing to its floor-space. The eastern end of a French cathedral (and
+indeed of French churches generally, with very few exceptions) is
+terminated in an apse. When, as is frequently the case, this apse is
+encircled by a ring of chapels, with flying buttresses on several
+stages rising from among them, the whole arrangement is called a
+_chevet_, and very striking and busy is the appearance which it
+presents.
+
+
+_Walls, Towers, and Gables._
+
+The walls are rarely built of any other material than stone, and much
+splendid masonry is to be found in France. Low towers are often to be
+met with, and so are projecting staircase turrets of polygonal or
+circular forms. The facades of cathedrals, including ends of transepts
+as well as west fronts, are most striking, and often magnificently
+enriched. It is an interesting study to examine a series of these
+fronts, each a little more advanced than the last, as for example
+Notre Dame (Fig. 33), the transept at Rouen, Amiens (Fig. 35), and
+Rheims, and to note how the horizontal bands and other level
+features grow less and less conspicuous, while the vertical ones are
+more and more strongly marked; showing an increasing desire, not only
+to make the buildings lofty, but to suppress everything which might
+interfere with their looking as high as possible.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35.--AMIENS CATHEDRAL, WEST FRONT. (1220-1272.)]
+
+
+_Columns and Piers._
+
+The column is a greater favourite than the pier in France, as has
+already been said. Sometimes, where the supports of the main arcade
+are really piers, they are built like circular shafts of large size;
+and even when they have no capital (as was the case in third-pointed
+examples), these piers still retain much of the air of solid strength
+which belongs to the column, and which the French architects appear to
+have valued highly. In cases where a series of mouldings has to be
+carried--as for example when the main arcade of a building is richly
+moulded--English architects would usually have provided a distinct
+shaft for each little group (or as Willis named them order), into
+which the whole can be subdivided. In France, at any rate during the
+earlier periods, the whole series of mouldings would spring from the
+square unbroken abacus of a single large column, to which perhaps one
+shaft, or as in our illustration (Fig. 36) four shafts, would be
+attached which would be carried up to the springing of the nave vault,
+at which point the same treatment would be repeated, though on a
+smaller scale, with the moulded ribs of that vault.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--PIERS AND SUPERSTRUCTURE, RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.
+      (1211-1240.)
+          _i._ Springing of main ribs of the vault.
+          _h._ String-course below the clerestory.
+          _a b._ Triforium arcade.
+          _g._ String-course below the triform.
+          B. Main arcade separating the nave from the aisles.
+          A and N. Shafts attached to pier and supporting portions
+            of the superstructure.]
+
+A peculiarity of some districts of southern France is the suppression
+of the external buttress; the buttresses are in fact built within the
+church walls instead of outside, and masonry enough is added to make
+each into a separating wall which divides side chapels. Some large
+churches, _e.g._, the cathedral at Alby, in Southern France, consist
+of a wide nave buttressed in this way, and having side chapels between
+the buttresses, but without side aisles.
+
+The plans of the secular, military, and domestic buildings of France
+also present many interesting peculiarities, but not such as it is
+possible to review within the narrow limits of this chapter.
+
+
+_Roofs and Vaults._
+
+The peculiarly English feature of an open roof is hardly ever met with
+in any shape: yet though stone vaults are almost universal, they are
+rarely equal in scientific skill to the best of those in our own
+country. In transitional examples, many very singular instances of the
+expedients employed before the pointed vault was fully developed can
+be found. In some of the central and southern districts, domes, or at
+least domical vaults, were employed. (See the section of Fontevrault,
+Fig. 31). The dome came in from Byzantium. It was introduced in
+Perigord, where the very curious and remarkable church of St. Front
+(begun early in the eleventh century) was built. This is to all
+intents a Byzantine church. It is an almost exact copy in plan and
+construction of St. Mark's at Venice, a church designed and built by
+Eastern architects, and it is roofed by a series of domes, a
+peculiarity which is as distinctive of Byzantine (_i.e._, Eastern
+early Christian), as the vaulted roof is of Romanesque (or Western
+early Christian) architecture. Artists from Constantinople itself
+probably visited France, and from this centre a not inconsiderable
+influence extended itself in various directions, and led to the use of
+many Byzantine features both of design and ornament.
+
+As features in the exterior of their buildings, the roofs have been
+in every period valued by the French architects; they are almost
+always steep, striking, and ornamented. All appropriate modes of
+giving prominence and adding ornament to a roof have been very fully
+developed in French Gothic architecture, and the roofs of semicircular
+and circular apses, staircase towers, &c., may be almost looked upon
+as typical.[23]
+
+
+_Openings._
+
+The treatment of openings gives occasion for one of the most strongly
+marked points of contrast between French and English Gothic
+architecture. With us the great windows are unquestionably the
+prominent features, but with the French the doors are most elaborated.
+This result is reached not so much by any lowering of the quality of
+the treatment bestowed upon the windows, but by the greatly increased
+importance given to doorways.
+
+The great portals of Notre Dame at Paris (Fig. 33), Rheims, or Amiens
+(Fig. 35), and the grand porches of Chartres may be named as the
+finest examples, and are probably the most magnificent single features
+which Gothic Art produced in any age or any country; but in its degree
+the western portal of every great church is usually an object upon
+which the best resources of the architect have been freely lavished.
+The wall is built very thick so that enormous jambs, carrying a vast
+moulded arch, can be employed. The head of the door is filled with
+sculpture, which is also lavishly used in the sides and arch, and over
+the whole rises an ornamental gable, frequently profusely adorned with
+tracery and sculpture, its sides being richly decorated by crockets
+or similar ornaments, and crowned by a sculptured terminal or finial.
+
+The windows in the earliest periods are simpler than in our E. E., as
+well as of less slender proportions. In the second and third periods
+they are full of rich tracery, and are made lofty and wide to receive
+the magnificent stained glass with which it was intended to fill them,
+and which many churches retain. Circular windows, sometimes called
+wheel-windows, often occupy the gables, and are many of them very fine
+compositions.
+
+
+_Mouldings and Ornaments._
+
+The mouldings of the French first pointed are usually larger than our
+own. Compared with ours they are also fewer, simpler, and designed to
+produce more breadth of effect. This may partly result from their
+originating in a sunshiny country where effects of shade are easily
+obtained. In the second and third periods they more nearly resemble
+those in use in England at the corresponding times.
+
+The carving is very characteristic and very beautiful. In the
+transition and first pointed a cluster of stalks, ending in a tuft of
+foliage or flowers, is constantly employed, especially in capitals.
+The use of this in England is rare; and, on the other hand, foliage
+like E. E. conventional foliage is rare in France. In the second
+pointed, natural foliage is admirably rendered (Fig. 37). In the third
+a somewhat conventional kind of foliage, very luxuriant in its
+apparent growth, is constantly met with.
+
+This carving is at every stage accompanied by figure-sculpture of the
+finest character. Heads of animals, statues, groups of figures, and
+has reliefs are freely employed, but always with the greatest
+judgment, so that their introduction adds richness to the very point
+in the whole composition where it is most needed. In every part of
+France, and in every period of Gothic architecture, good specimens of
+sculpture abound. Easily accessible illustrations will be found in the
+west entrance and south transept front of Rouen Cathedral, the porches
+and portals at Chartres, the choir inclosure of Notre Dame at Paris,
+and the richly sculptured inclosure of the choir of Amiens Cathedral.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--CAPITAL FROM ST. NICHOLAS, BLOIS, FRANCE.
+      (13TH CENTURY.)]
+
+Stained glass has been more than once referred to. It is to be found
+in its greatest perfection in France, as for example in La Sainte
+Chapelle at Paris, and the cathedrals of Le Mans, Bourges, Chartres,
+and Rheims. All that has been said in the introductory chapter on
+this, the crowning ornament of Gothic architecture, and on its
+influence upon window design, and through that, upon the whole
+structure of the best churches, is to the full as applicable to French
+examples. Coloured decoration was also frequently employed in the
+interior of churches and other buildings, and is constantly to be met
+with in French buildings, both secular and religious. In most cases,
+however, it is less easy to appreciate this than the stained glass,
+for, as it is now to be seen, the colours are either faded and
+darkened by time and smoke, or else restored, not always with the
+exactness that could be desired.
+
+
+_Construction and Design._
+
+The construction of the great buildings of the middle ages in France
+is an interesting subject of study, but necessarily a thoroughly
+technical one. Great sagacity in designing the masonry, carpentry,
+joinery, and metal-work; and trained skill in the carrying out the
+designs, have left their traces everywhere; and while the construction
+of the earlier castles and of the simple churches shows a solidity but
+little inferior to that of the Romans themselves, the most elaborate
+works, such for example as the choir at Beauvais (Fig. 38), can hardly
+be surpassed as specimens of skill and daring, careful forethought,
+and bold execution.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL, INTERIOR. (1225-1537.)]
+
+Design, in France, pursued the general principles of Gothic
+architecture to their logical conclusions with the most uncompromising
+consistency. Perhaps the most distinctive peculiarity in French
+cathedrals is a love of abstract beauty, and a strong preference for
+breadth, regularity, dignity, and symmetry wherever they come into
+competition with picturesqueness and irregular grouping. There is, it
+is true, plenty of the picturesque element in French mediaeval art; but
+if we take the finest buildings, and those in which the greatest
+effort would be made to secure the qualities which were considered the
+greatest and most desirable, we shall find very strong evidences of a
+conviction that beauty was to be attained by regularity and order,
+rather than by unsymmetrical and irregular treatment.
+
+
+BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+Belgium is a country rich in remains of Gothic architecture. Its art
+was influenced so largely by its neighbourhood to France, that it will
+not be necessary to attempt anything like a chronological arrangement
+of its buildings. Fine churches exist in its principal cities, but
+they cannot be said to form a series differing widely from the
+churches of France, with which they were contemporary, and where they
+differ the advantage is generally on the side of the French originals.
+
+The principal cathedral of the Low Countries, that at Antwerp, is a
+building remarkable for its great width (having seven aisles), and for
+the wonderful picturesqueness of its interior. The exterior, which is
+unfinished, is also very effective, with its one lofty spire. The
+other cathedrals of note include those of Tournay, Brussels, Mechlin,
+Louvain, Liege, and Ghent. Belgium also possesses a great number of
+large parochial churches.
+
+When we turn to secular buildings we find the Belgian architecture of
+the middle ages taking a leading position. The free cities of Belgium
+acquired municipal privileges at an early date, and accumulated great
+wealth. Accordingly we find town halls, trade halls, belfries,
+warehouses, and excellent private dwelling-houses in abundance. The
+cloth hall at Ypres has been repeatedly illustrated and referred to as
+an example of a grand and effective building for trade purposes; it
+is of thirteenth-century architecture and of great size, its centre
+marked by a massive lofty tower; and its angles carrying slight
+turrets; but in other respects it depends for its effectiveness solely
+on its repetition of similar features. Examples of the same kind of
+architecture exist at Louvain and Ghent.
+
+The Town Halls of Brussels, Louvain, Bruges, Mechlin, Ghent,
+Oudenarde, and Ypres, are all buildings claiming attention. They were
+most of them in progress during the fifteenth century, and are fine,
+but florid examples of late Gothic. Some one or two at least of the
+town halls were begun and partly carried out in the fourteenth
+century; on the other hand, the Hotel de Ville at Oudenarde, was begun
+as late as the beginning of the sixteenth; so were the Exchange at
+Antwerp (destroyed by fire and rebuilt not long since) and some other
+well-known structures: their architecture, though certainly Gothic, is
+debased in style.
+
+The general aspect of these famous buildings was noble and bold in
+mass, and rich in ornament. Our illustration (Fig. 39) shows the Town
+Hall of Middleburgh in Holland; one which is less famous and of
+smaller dimensions than those enumerated above, but equally
+characteristic.
+
+The main building usually consisted of a long unbroken block
+surmounted by a high-pitched roof, and usually occupied one side of a
+public place. The side of the building presents several storeys,
+filled by rows of fine windows, though in some cases the lowest storey
+is occupied by an open arcade. The steep roof, usually crowded with
+dormer windows, carries up the eye to a lofty ridge, and from the
+centre of it rises the lofty tower which forms so conspicuous a
+feature in most of these buildings. In the Town Hall at Bruges the
+tower is comparatively simple, though of a mass and height that are
+truly imposing; but in Brussels, Ypres, and other examples, it is a
+richly ornamented composition on which every resource of the mason and
+the carver has been lavished. Our illustration (Fig. 40) shows the
+well-known tower at Ghent.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--THE TOWN HALL OF MIDDLEBURGH. (1518.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 40.--TOWER AT GHENT. (BEGUN 1183.)]
+
+The gable ends of the great roof are often adorned by pinnacles and
+other ornaments; but they rarely come prominently into view, as it is
+invariably the long side of the building which is considered to be the
+principal front.
+
+
+SCOTLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND.
+
+In Scotland good but simple examples of early work (transition from
+Romanesque to E. E.) occur, as for example, at Jedburgh and Kelso,
+Dryburgh and Leuchars abbey churches. A very interesting and in many
+respects unique cathedral of the thirteenth century, with later
+additions, exists at Glasgow. It is a building of much beauty, with
+good tracery, and the crypt offers a perfect study of various and
+often graceful modes of forming groined vaults. The Cathedral of Elgin
+(thirteenth century), an admirable Edwardian building, now in ruins,
+and the Abbey at Melrose, also ruined, of fourteenth century
+architecture (begun 1322), are both excellent specimens of the art of
+the periods to which they belong, and bear a close resemblance to what
+was being done in England at the same time. The famous tower of St.
+Giles's Cathedral, Edinburgh, and the Chapel at Roslyn, of the
+fifteenth century, on the other hand, are of thoroughly un-English
+character, resembling in this respect much of the Scotch architecture
+of the succeeding centuries; Roslyn is ascribed by Mr. Fergusson to a
+Spanish or Portuguese architect, with great probability.
+
+Other abbey churches and remains of architectural work exist at
+Dumblane, Arbroath, Dunkeld, and in many other localities; and
+Holyrood Palace, still retains part of its elegant early
+fourteenth-century chapel.
+
+Of secular and domestic work Linlithgow is a fair specimen, but of
+late date. Most of the castles and castellated mansions of Scotland
+belong indeed to a later time than the Gothic period, though there is
+a strong infusion of Gothic feeling in the very picturesque style in
+which they are designed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Wales is distinguished for the splendid series of castles to which
+allusion has been made in a previous chapter. They were erected at the
+best time of English Gothic architecture (Edward I.) under English
+direction, and are finely designed and solidly built. Wales can also
+boast the interesting Cathedrals of Chester, Llandaff, St. David's,
+and some smaller churches, but in every case there is little to
+distinguish them from contemporary English work.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Ireland is more remarkable for antiquities of a date anterior to the
+beginning of the Gothic period than for works belonging to it. A
+certain amount of graceful and simple domestic work, however, exists
+there; and in addition to the cathedrals of Kildare, Cashel, and
+Dublin, numerous monastic buildings, not as a rule large or ambitious,
+but often graceful and picturesque, are scattered about.
+
+  [Illustration: _Miserere Seat in Wells Cathedral._]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[23] For an example of these see the house of Jaques Coeur (Fig. 7).
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM WESTMINSTER ABBEY.}]
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+
+GERMANY.--CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
+
+The architecture of Germany, from the twelfth to the sixteenth
+centuries, can be divided into an early, a middle, and a late period,
+with tolerable distinctness. Of these, the early period possesses the
+greatest interest, and the peculiarities of its buildings are the most
+marked and most beautiful. In the middle period, German Gothic bore a
+very close general resemblance to the Gothic of the same time in
+France; and, as a rule, such points of difference as exist are not in
+favour of the German work. Late Gothic work in Germany is very
+fantastic and unattractive.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 41.--ABBEY CHURCH OF ARNSTEIN. (12TH AND 13TH
+      CENTURIES.)]
+
+Through the twelfth, and part of the thirteenth centuries, the
+architects of Germany pursued a course parallel with that followed in
+France and in England, but without adopting the pointed arch. They
+developed the simple and rude Romanesque architecture which prevailed
+throughout Europe in the tenth and eleventh centuries, and which they
+learnt originally from Byzantine artists who fled from their own
+country during the reign of the iconoclasts; and they not only carried
+it to a point of elaboration which was abreast of the art of our best
+Norman architecture, but went on further in the same course; for
+while the French and ourselves were adopting lancet windows and
+pointed arches, they continued to employ the round-headed window and
+the semicircular arch in buildings which in their size, richness,
+loftiness, and general style, correspond with early Gothic examples in
+other countries. This early German architecture has been sometimes
+called fully developed Romanesque, and sometimes round-arched Gothic,
+and both terms may be applied to it without impropriety, for it
+partakes of the qualities implied by each. The Church of the Holy
+Apostles at Cologne, and those of St. Martin and St. Maria in
+Capitolo, in the same city, may be referred to as among the best works
+of this class. Each of these has an eastern apse, and also an apsidal
+termination to each transept. The Apostles' church has a low octagon
+at the crossing, and its sky-line is further broken up by western and
+eastern towers, the latter of comparatively small size and octagonal;
+and under the eaves of the roof occurs an arcade of small arches.
+
+A view of the Abbey Church of Arnstein (Fig. 41) illustrates some of
+the features of these transitional churches. It will be noticed that
+though there is no transept, there are no less than four towers, two
+octagonal, and two square, and that the apse is a strongly developed
+feature.
+
+In the church at Andernach, of which we give an illustration (Fig.
+42), the same arrangement, namely, that of four towers, two to the
+west, and two to the east, may be noticed; but there is not the same
+degree of difference between the towers, and the result is less happy.
+This example, like the last, has no central feature, and in both the
+arcade under the eaves of the roof is conspicuous only by its absence.
+It does, however, occur on the western towers at Andernach.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 42.--CHURCH AT ANDERNACH. (EARLY 13TH CENTURY.)]
+
+The pointed arch, when adopted in Germany, was in all probability
+borrowed from France, as the general aspect of German churches of
+pointed architecture seems to prove. The greatest Gothic cathedral of
+Germany, Cologne Cathedral, was not commenced till about the year
+1275, and its choir was probably completed during the first quarter of
+the fourteenth century. This cathedral, one of the largest in Europe,
+is also one of the grandest efforts of mediaeval architecture, and it
+closely resembles French examples of the same period, both in its
+general treatment, and in the detail of its features. The plan of
+Cologne Cathedral (Fig. 46) is one of the most regular and symmetrical
+which has come down to us from the middle ages. The works were carried
+on slowly after the choir was consecrated, but without any deviation
+from the original plan, though some alteration in style and details
+crept in. In our own day the works have been resumed and vigorously
+pushed on towards completion; and, the original drawings having been
+preserved, the two western towers, the front, and other portions have
+been carried on in accordance with them. Cologne, accordingly,
+presents the almost unique spectacle of a great Gothic church, erected
+without deviation from its original plan, and completed in the style
+in which it was begun. It is fair to add that though splendid in the
+extreme, this cathedral has far less charm, and less of that peculiar
+quality of mystery and vitality than many, we might say most, of the
+great cathedrals of Europe.
+
+The plan consists of a nave of eight bays, two of which form a kind of
+vestibule, and five avenues, _i.e._ two aisles on each side; transepts
+of four bays each, with single aisles; and a choir of four bays and an
+apse, the double aisle of the nave being continued and carried down
+the choir. That part of the outer aisle which sweeps round the apse
+has been formed into a series of seven polygonal chapels, thus gaining
+a complete _chevet_.[24] Over the crossing there is a comparatively
+slender spire, and at the west end stand two massive towers terminated
+by a pair of lofty and elaborate spires, of open tracery, and enriched
+by crockets, finials, and much ornamentation. The cathedral is built
+of stone, without much variation in colour; it is vaulted throughout,
+and a forest of flying buttresses surrounds it on all sides. The
+beauty of the tracery, the magnificent boldness of the scale of the
+whole building, and its orderly regularity, are very imposing, and
+give it a high rank among the greatest works of European architecture;
+but it is almost too majestic to be lovely, and somewhat cold and
+uninteresting from its uniform colour, and perhaps from its great
+regularity.
+
+Strasburg Cathedral--not so large as Cologne--has been built at
+various times; the nave and west front are the work of the best Gothic
+period. This building has a nave and single aisles, short transepts,
+and a short apsidal choir. There is great richness in much of the
+work; double tracery, _i.e._ a second layer, so to speak, of tracery,
+is here employed in the windows, and extended beyond them, but the
+effect is not happy. The front was designed to receive two open
+tracery spires, but only one of them has been erected. It is amazingly
+intricate and rich, the workmanship is very astonishing, but the
+artistic effect is not half so good as that of many plain stone
+spires.
+
+Another important German church famous for an open spire is the
+cathedral at Friburg. Here only one tower, standing at the middle of
+the west front, was ever intended, and partly because the composition
+is complete as proposed, and partly because the design of the tracery
+in the spire itself is more telling, this building forms a more
+effective object than Strasburg, though by no means so lofty or so
+grandiose.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 43.--CHURCH OF ST. BARBARA AT KUTTENBERG. EAST
+      END. (1358-1548.)]
+
+The Cathedral of St. Stephen at Vienna is a large and exceedingly rich
+church. In this building the side aisles are carried to almost the
+same height as the centre avenue--an arrangement not infrequent in
+German churches having little save novelty to recommend it, and by
+which the triforium, and, as a rule, the clerestory disappear, and the
+church is lighted solely by large side windows. The three avenues are
+covered by one wide roof, which makes a vast and rather clumsy display
+externally. A lofty tower, surmounted by a fine and elaborate spire of
+open tracery, stands on one side of the church--an unusual
+position--and an unfinished companion tower is begun on the
+corresponding side. Great churches and cathedrals are to be found in
+many of the cities of Germany, but their salient points are, as a
+rule, similar to those of the examples which have been already
+described.
+
+The incomplete Church of St. Barbara at Kuttenberg, in Bohemia, is one
+of somewhat exceptional design. It has double aisles, but the side
+walls for the greater part of the length of the church rest upon the
+arcade dividing the two aisles, instead of that separating the centre
+avenue from the side one; and a vault over the inner side aisle forms
+in effect a kind of balcony or gallery in the nave. The illustration
+(Fig. 43) which we give of the exterior does not of course indicate
+this peculiarity, but it shows a very good example of a German
+adaptation of the French _chevet_, and may be considered as a specimen
+of German pointed architecture at its ripest stage. The church is
+vaulted, as might be inferred from the forest of flying buttresses;
+and the vaulting displays some resemblance to our English fan-vaulting
+in general idea.
+
+German churches include some specimens of unusual disposition or form,
+as for example the Church of St. Gereon at Cologne, with an oval
+choir, and one or two double churches, one of the most curious being
+the one at Schwartz-Rheindorff, of which we give a section and view.
+(Figs. 44, 45.)
+
+In their doorways and porches the German architects are often very
+happy. Our illustration (Fig. 47) of one of the portals of the church
+at Thann may be taken as giving a good idea of the amount of rich
+ornament often concentrated here: it displays a wealth of decorative
+sculpture, which was one of the great merits of the German architects.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 44.--DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF.
+      SECTION. (1158.)]
+
+The latest development of Gothic in Germany, of which the Church of
+St. Catherine at Oppenheim (Fig. 48) is a specimen, was marked (just
+as late French was by flamboyant tracery, and late English by
+fan-vaulting) by a peculiarity in the treatment of mouldings by which
+they were robbed of almost all their grace and beauty, while the
+execution of them became a kind of masonic puzzle. Two or more groups
+of mouldings were supposed to coexist in the same stone, and sometimes
+a part of one group, sometimes a part of the other group, became
+visible at the surface. The name given to this eccentric development
+is interpenetration.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 45.--DOUBLE CHURCH AT SCHWARTZ-RHEINDORFF.
+      (A.D. 1158.)]
+
+Secular architecture in Germany, though not carried to such a pitch of
+perfection as in Belgium, was by no means overlooked; but the examples
+are not numerous. In some of the older cities, such as Prague,
+Nuremberg, and Frankfort, much picturesque domestic architecture
+abounds, most of it of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and even
+later, and all full of piquancy and beauty. In North Germany, where
+there is a large tract of country in which building stone is scarce, a
+style of brick architecture was developed, which was applied to all
+sorts of purposes with great success. The most remarkable of these
+brick buildings are the large dwelling-houses, with facades ornamented
+by brick tracery and panelling, to be found in Eastern Prussia,
+together with some town halls and similar buildings.
+
+
+GERMANY.--ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+_Plan._
+
+The points of difference between German and French Gothic are not so
+numerous as to render a very minute analysis of the Gothic of Germany
+requisite in order to make them clear.
+
+The plans of German churches usually show internal piers; and columns
+occur but rarely. The churches have nave and aisles, transepts and
+apsidal choir; but they are peculiar from the frequent use of apses at
+the ends of the transepts, and also from the occurrence, in not a few
+instances, of an apse at the west end of the nave as well as at the
+east end of the choir. They are almost invariably vaulted.
+
+As the style advanced, large churches were constantly planned with
+double aisles, and the western apse disappeared. Some German church
+plans, notably those of Cologne Cathedral (Fig. 46) and the great
+church of St. Lawrence at Nuremberg, are fine specimens of regularity
+of disposition, though full of many parts.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 46.--COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. GROUND PLAN. (BEGUN
+      1248.)]
+
+
+_Walls, Towers, and Gables._
+
+The German architects delighted in towers with pointed roofs, and in a
+multiplicity of them. A highly characteristic feature is a tower of
+great mass, but often extremely low, covering the crossing. The
+Cathedral at Mayence shows a fine example of this feature, which was
+often not more than a low octagon. Western towers, square on plan, are
+common, and small towers, frequently octagonal, are often employed to
+flank the choir or in combination with the transepts. These in early
+examples, are always surmounted by high roofs; in late ones, by stone
+spires, often of rich open tracery. A very characteristic feature of
+the round arched Gothic churches is an arcade of small arches
+immediately below the eaves of the roof and opening into the space
+above the vaults (Fig. 45). This is rarely wanting in churches built
+previous to the time when the French type was followed implicitly.
+
+The gables are seldom such fine compositions as in France, or even in
+Italy; but in domestic and secular buildings many striking gabled
+fronts occur, the gable being often stepped in outline and full of
+windows.
+
+
+_Roofs and Vaults._
+
+Vaults are universal in the great churches, and German vaulting has
+some special peculiarities, but they are such as hardly come within
+the scope of this hand-book. Roofs, however, are so conspicuous that
+in any general account of German architecture attention must be paid
+to them. They were from very early times steep in pitch and
+picturesque in outline, and are evidently much relied upon as giving
+play to the sky-line. Indeed, for variety of form and piquancy of
+detail the German roofs are the most successful of the middle ages.
+The spires, as will have been easily gathered from the descriptions of
+those at Strasburg, Cologne, &c., became extremely elaborate, and were
+constructed in many cases entirely of open tracery.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 47.--WESTERN DOORWAY OF CHURCH AT THANN. (14TH
+      CENTURY.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 48.--CHURCH OF ST. CATHERINE AT OPPENHEIM. (1262
+      TO 1439.)]
+
+
+_Openings._
+
+Openings are, on the whole, treated very much as the French treated
+them. A good example is the western doorway at Thann (Fig. 47); but
+the use of double tracery in the windows in late examples is
+characteristic. Sometimes a partial screen of outside tracery is
+employed in other features besides windows, as may be seen by the very
+elegant doorway of St. Sebald's Church at Nuremberg, which we have
+illustrated (Fig. 49).
+
+
+_Ornaments._
+
+The ornaments of German Gothic are often profuse, but rarely quite
+happy. Sculpture, often of a high class, carving of every sort,
+tracery, and panelling, are largely employed; but with a hardness and
+a tendency to cover all surfaces with a profusion of weak imitations
+of tracery that disfigures much of the masonry. The tracery became
+towards the latter part of the time intricate and unmeaning, and the
+interpenetrating mouldings already described, though of course
+intended to be ornamental, are more perplexing and confusing than
+pleasing: the carving exaggerates the natural markings of the foliage
+represented, and being thin, and very boldly undercut, resembles
+leaves beaten out in metal, rather than foliage happily and easily
+imitated in stone, which is what good architectural carving should be.
+
+The use of coloured building materials and of inlays and mosaics does
+not prevail to any great extent in Germany, though stained glass is
+often to be found and coloured wall decoration occasionally.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 49.--ST. SEBALD'S CHURCH AT NUREMBERG. THE
+      BRIDE'S DOORWAY. (1303-1377.)]
+
+
+_Construction and Design._
+
+The marked peculiarities of construction by which the German Gothic
+buildings are most distinguished, are the prevalent high-pitched
+roofs, the vaulting with aisle vaults carried to the same height as in
+the centre, and the employment in certain districts of brick to the
+exclusion of stone, all of which have been already referred to. In a
+great part of that large portion of Europe, which is included under
+the name of Germany, the materials and modes of construction adopted
+during the middle ages, bear a close resemblance to those in general
+use in France and England.
+
+Some of the characteristics of German Gothic design have been already
+alluded to. The German architects display an exuberant fancy, a great
+love of the picturesque, and even the grotesque, and a strong
+predilection for creating artificial difficulties in order to enjoy
+the pleasure of surmounting them. Their work is full of unrest; they
+attach small value to the artistic quality of breadth, and destroy the
+value of the plain surfaces of their buildings as contrasts to the
+openings, by cutting them up by mouldings and enrichments of various
+sorts. The sculpture introduced is, as a rule, naturalistic rather
+than conventional. The capitals of piers and columns are often fine
+specimens of effective carving, while the delicate and ornamental
+details of the tabernacle work with which church furniture is
+enriched, are unsurpassed in elaboration, and often of rare beauty.
+The churches of Nuremberg are specially distinguished for the richness
+and number of their sculptured fittings. There is, moreover, in some
+of the best German buildings a rugged grandeur which approaches the
+sublime; and in the humbler ones a large amount of picturesque and
+thoroughly successful architecture.
+
+In the smaller objects upon which the art of the architect was often
+employed the Germans were frequently happy. Public fountains, such for
+example as the one illustrated in Chapter II. (Fig. 10), are to be met
+within the streets of many towns, and rarely fail to please by their
+simple, graceful, and often quaint design. Crosses, monuments, and
+individual features in domestic buildings, such _e.g._ as bay windows,
+frequently show a very skilful and picturesque treatment and happy
+enrichment.
+
+
+NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+Gothic architecture closely resembling German work may be found in
+Switzerland, Norway and Sweden, and Denmark; but there are few very
+conspicuous buildings, and not enough variety to form a distinct
+style. In Norway and Sweden curious and picturesque buildings exist,
+erected solely of timber, and both there and in Switzerland many of
+the traditions of the Gothic period have been handed down to our own
+day with comparatively little change, in the pleasing and often highly
+enriched timber buildings which are to be met with in considerable
+numbers in those countries.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[24] See p. 77 for an explanation of _chevet._
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM SENS CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.
+
+
+ITALY AND SICILY.--TOPOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
+
+Gothic architecture in Italy may be considered as a foreign
+importation. The Italians, it is true, displayed their natural taste
+and artistic instinct in their use of the style, and a large number of
+their works possess, as we shall see, strongly-marked characteristics
+and much charm; but it is impossible to avoid the feeling that the
+architects were working in a style not thoroughly congenial to their
+instincts nor to the traditions they had inherited from classical
+times; and not entirely in harmony with the requirements of the
+climate and the nature of their building materials.
+
+Italian Gothic may be conveniently considered geographically, dividing
+the buildings into three groups, the first and most important
+containing the architecture of Northern Italy (Lombardy, Venetia, and
+the neighbourhood), the second that of Central Italy (Tuscany, &c.),
+the third that of the south and of Sicily--a classification which will
+suit the subject better than the chronological arrangement which has
+been our guide in examining the art of other countries; for the
+variations occasioned by development as time went on are less strongly
+marked in Italy than elsewhere.
+
+
+_Northern Italy._
+
+Lombardy in the Romanesque period was thoroughly under German
+influence, and the buildings remaining to us from the eleventh and
+twelfth centuries bear a close resemblance to those erected north of
+the Alps at the same date. The twelfth century Lombard churches again
+are specimens of round-arched Gothic, just as truly as those on the
+banks of the Rhine. Many of them are also peculiar as being erected
+chiefly in brickwork; the great alluvial plain of Lombardy being
+deficient in building-stone. St. Michele at Pavia, a well-known church
+of this date, may be cited as a good example. This is a vaulted
+church, with an apsidal east end and transepts. The round arch is
+employed in this building, but the general proportions and treatment
+are essentially Gothic. A striking campanile (bell tower) belongs to
+the church, and is a good specimen of a feature very frequently met
+with in Lombardy; the tower here (and usually) is square, and rises by
+successive stages, but with only few and small openings or ornaments,
+to a considerable height. There are no buttresses, no diminution of
+bulk, no staircase turrets. At the summit is an open belfry-stage,
+with large semicircular-headed arches, crowned by a cornice and a
+low-pitched conical roof.[25]
+
+In the same city a good example of an Italian Gothic church, erected
+after the pointed arch had been introduced, may be found in the church
+of Sta. Maria del Carmine. The west front of this church is but
+clumsy in general design. Its width is divided into five compartments
+by flat buttresses. The gables are crowned by a deep and heavy cornice
+of moulded brick and the openings are grouped with but little skill.
+Individually, however, the features of this front are very beautiful,
+and the great wheel-window, full of tracery, and the two-light windows
+flanking it, may be quoted as remarkable specimens of the ornamental
+elaboration which can be accomplished in brickwork.
+
+The campanile of this church, like the one just described, is a plain
+square tower. It rises by successive stages, each taller than the
+last, each stage being marked by a rich brick cornice. The
+belfry-stage has on each face a three-light window, with a traceried
+head, and above the cornice the square tower is finished by a tall
+conical roof, circular on plan, an arrangement not unfrequently met
+with.
+
+The Certosa, the great Carthusian Church and Monastery near Pavia,[26]
+best known by the elaborate marble front added in a different style
+about a century after the erection of the main building, is a good
+example of a highly-enriched church, with dependencies, built in
+brickwork, and possessing most of the distinctive peculiarities of a
+great Gothic church, except the general use of the pointed arch. It
+was begun in 1396, and is consistent in its exterior architecture, the
+front excepted, though it took a long time to build. Attached to it
+are two cloisters, of which the arches are semicircular, and the
+enrichments, of wonderful beauty, are modelled in terra-cotta.
+
+This church resembles the great German round-arched Gothic churches on
+the Rhine in many of its features. Its plan includes a nave, with
+aisles and side chapels, transepts and a choir. The eastern arm and
+the transepts are each ornamented by an apse, somewhat smaller than
+would be met with in a German church; but as a compensation each of
+these three arms has two side apses, as well as the one at the end.
+The exterior possesses the German arcade of little arches immediately
+under the eaves of the roof; it is marked by the same multiplicity of
+small towers, each with its own steep roof; and it possesses the same
+striking central feature, internally a small dome, externally a kind
+of light pyramidal structure, ornamented by small arcades rising tier
+above tier, and ending in a central pointed roof.
+
+The finest Gothic cathedral in North Italy, if dimensions, general
+effectiveness, and beauty of material be the test, is that of Milan.
+This building is disfigured by a west front in a totally inappropriate
+style, but apart from this it is virtually a German church of the
+first class, erected entirely in white marble, and covered with a
+profusion of decoration. Its dimensions show that, with the exception
+of Seville, this was the largest of all the Gothic cathedrals of
+Europe. It has double aisles, transepts, and a polygonal apse. At the
+crossing of the nave and transepts a low dome rises, covered by a
+conical roof, and surmounted by an elegant marble spire.
+
+The structure is vaulted throughout, and each of the great piers which
+carry the nave arcade is surmounted by a mass of niches and tabernacle
+work, occupied by statues--a splendid substitute for ordinary
+capitals. The interior effect of Milan Cathedral is grand and full of
+beauty. The exterior, though much of its power is destroyed by the
+weakly-designed ornament with which all the surfaces of the walls are
+covered, is endowed with a wonderful charm. This building was
+commenced in the year 1385, and consecrated in the year 1418. The
+details of the window-tracery, pinnacles, &c. (but not the statues
+which are of Italian character), correspond very closely to those of
+German buildings erected at the same period (close of the fourteenth
+century).
+
+Milan possesses, among other examples of pointed architecture, one
+secular building, the Great Hospital, well known for its Gothic
+facade. This hospital was founded in 1456, and most of it is of later
+date and of renaissance character; the street front of two storeys in
+height, with pointed arches, is very rich. The church of Chiaravalle,
+near Milan, which has been more than once illustrated and described,
+ought not to be passed unnoticed, on account of the beauty of its
+fully developed central dome. It was built in the early part of the
+thirteenth century (1221).
+
+Almost all the great cities of North Italy possess striking Gothic
+buildings. Genoa, for instance, can boast of her cathedral, with a
+front in alternate courses of black and white marble, dating from
+about the year 1300, and full of beauty; the details bearing much
+resemblance to the best Western Gothic work. Passing eastward, Verona
+possesses a wealth of Gothic work in the well-known tombs of the
+Scaligers, the churches of Sta. Anastasia, San Zenone, and several
+minor churches and campaniles; and at Como, Bergamo, Vicenza, Padua,
+Treviso, Cremona, Bologna, and many other cities and towns, good
+churches of pointed architecture are to be found.
+
+Our illustration (Fig. 50) of the ancient Palace of the Jurisconsults
+at Cremona, is a good specimen of the secular architecture of North
+Italy. Originally the lower storey was a loggia, or open arcaded
+storey, but the arches have been built up. Telling, simple, and
+graceful, this building owes its effect chiefly to its well-designed
+openings and a characteristic brick cornice. It is entirely without
+buttresses, has no spreading base, no gables, and no visible roof:
+some of these features would have been present had it been designed
+and erected north of the Alps.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 50.--THE PALACE OF THE JURISCONSULTS AT
+      CREMONA.]
+
+Venice is the city in the whole of North Italy where Gothic
+architecture has had freest scope and has achieved the greatest
+success, not, however, in ecclesiastical, but in secular buildings.
+The great Cathedral of St. Mark, perhaps the most wonderful church in
+Europe, certainly the foremost in Italy, is a Byzantine building, and
+though it has received some additions in Gothic times, does not fairly
+come within the scope of this volume; and the Gothic churches of
+Venice are not very numerous nor, with the exception of the fine brick
+church of the Frari, extremely remarkable. On the banks of the Grand
+Canal and its tributaries, however, stand not a few Gothic palaces of
+noble design (see Fig. 9, p. 18), while the Ducal Palace itself alone
+is sufficient to confer a reputation upon the city which it adorns.
+
+The Ducal Palace at Venice is a large rectangular block of buildings
+erected round a vast quadrangle. Of its exterior two sides only are
+visible from a distance, one being the sea front looking over the
+lagoon, and the other the land front directed towards the piazzetta.
+Rather less than one half the height of each front is occupied by two
+storeys of arcades; the lower storey bold, simple, and vigorous; the
+upper storey lighter, and ending in a mass of bold tracery. Above this
+open work, and resting upon it, rises the external wall of the palace,
+faced with marble in alternate slabs of rose-colour and white, pierced
+by a few large pointed windows and crowned by an open parapet. Few
+buildings are so familiar, even to untravelled persons, as this fine
+work, which owes its great charm to the extent, beauty, and mingled
+solidity and grace of its arcades, and to the fine sculpture by which
+the capitals from which they spring are enriched.
+
+The Gothic palaces are almost invariably remarkable for the skill with
+which the openings in their fronts are arranged and designed. It was
+not necessary to render any other part of the exterior specially
+architectural, as the palaces stand side by side like houses in a
+modern street, as can be seen from our illustration (Fig. 9). In
+almost all cases a large proportion of the openings are grouped
+together in the centre of the front, and the sides are left
+comparatively plain and strong-looking, the composition presenting a
+centre and two wings. By this simple expedient each portion of the
+composition is made to add emphasis to the other, and a powerful but
+not inharmonious contrast between the open centre and the solid sides
+is called into existence. The earliest Gothic buildings in point of
+date are often the most delicate and graceful, and this rule holds
+good in the Gothic palaces of Venice; yet one of the later palaces,
+the Ca' d'Oro, must be at least named on account of the splendid
+richness of its marble front--of which, however, only the centre and
+one wing is built--and the beauty of the ornament lavishly employed
+upon it.
+
+The balconies, angle windows, and other minor features with which the
+Venetian Gothic palaces abound, are among the most graceful features
+of the architecture of Italy.
+
+
+_Central Italy._
+
+Those towns of Central Italy (by which is meant Tuscany and the former
+States of the Church), in which the best Gothic buildings are to be
+found, are Pisa, Lucca, Florence, Siena, Orvieto, and Perugia. As a
+general rule the Gothic work in this district is more developed and
+more lavishly enriched than that in Lombardy.
+
+In Pisa, the Cathedral and the Campanile (the famous leaning tower)
+belong to the late Romanesque style, but the Baptistry, an elegant
+circular building, has a good deal of Gothic ornament in its upper
+storeys, and may be fairly classed as a transitional building. The
+most charming and thoroughly characteristic work of Gothic
+architecture in Pisa is, however, a small gem of a chapel, the church
+of Sta. Maria della Spina. It displays exquisite ornament, and,
+notwithstanding much false construction, the beauty of its details, of
+its sculpture, and of the marble of which it is built, invest it with
+a great charm.
+
+Pisan Gothic is remarkable as being associated with the name of a
+family of highly gifted sculptors and architects, the Pisani, of whom
+Nicola Pisano was the earliest and greatest artist; he was followed by
+his descendants Giovanni, Nino, and Andrea. With the Pisani and Giotto
+the series of the known names of architects of great buildings may be
+said to begin.
+
+Florence, the most important of the cities we have named, is
+distinguished by a cathedral built in the early part of the fourteenth
+century, and one of the grandest in Italy. It has very few columns,
+and its walls and vaults are of great height. The walls are adorned
+externally with inlays in coloured marble, and the windows have
+stained glass--a rarity in Italy; but its lofty dome, added after the
+completion of the rest of the building, is its chief feature. This was
+always intended, but the pointed octagonal dome actually erected by
+Brunelleschi, between the years 1420 and 1444, though it harmonises
+fairly well with the general lines of the building, and forms, as can
+be seen from our illustration (Fig. 51), a striking object in all
+distant views of the city, is probably very different from what was
+originally intended. Near the cathedral stand the Baptistry, famous
+for the possession of the finest gates in the world, and the Campanile
+of Giotto. This tower is built, or at least faced, entirely with
+marble; and when it is stated that its height is not far short of that
+of the Victoria Tower of our Houses of Parliament, though of slenderer
+proportions, it will be seen that it is magnificently liberal in its
+general scheme. The tower is covered with panels of variously coloured
+marbles from base to summit, and enriched by fine sculpture. The
+angles are strengthened by slightly projecting piers. The windows are
+comparatively small till the highest or belfry stage is reached, and
+here each face of the tower is pierced by a magnificent three-light
+window. A deep and elaborate cornice now crowns the whole, but it was
+originally designed to add a high-pitched roof or a spire as a
+terminal.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 51.--THE CATHEDRAL AT FLORENCE. WITH GIOTTO'S
+      CAMPANILE. (BEGUN, 1298; DOME, 1420-1444; CAMPANILE BEGUN,
+      1324.)]
+
+Our illustration (Fig. 52) shows the west front and campanile of the
+Cathedral at Siena, an exceedingly good specimen of the beauties and
+peculiarities of the style. This building was commenced in 1243. The
+plan is simple but singular, for the central feature is a six-sided
+dome, at the crossing of the nave and transepts; and some ingenuity
+has been spent in fitting this figure to the arches of the main
+avenues of the building. The interior is rich and effective; the
+exterior, as can be seen by the illustration, is covered with
+ornament, and the front is the richest and probably the best designed
+of all the cathedral fronts of Central Italy. The strongly-marked
+horizontal lines of cornices, arcades, &c., the moulded gables, the
+great wheel-window set in a square panel, and the use of marble of
+various colours, are all points to note. So is the employment of the
+semicircular arch for the doorways of this thoroughly Gothic building.
+The campanile is a good example of that feature, except that instead
+of the rich window which usually occupies the belfry stage, or highest
+storey, two storeys of small lights have been formed. The
+introduction of angle turrets is not very usual, and it here supplies
+a deficiency which makes itself felt in other campaniles, where the
+junction of tower and spire is not always happy.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 52.--CATHEDRAL AT SIENA. WEST FRONT AND
+      CAMPANILE. (FACADE BEGUN 1284.)]
+
+Gothic churches of importance can be found in many of the cities and
+towns of Central Italy. None are more remarkable than the singular
+double church of St. Francis at Assisi, with its wealth of mural
+paintings and stained glass, and the cathedral at Orvieto (Fig. 53)
+with its splendid front.
+
+In Rome, so rich in specimens of the architecture of many styles and
+times, Gothic could find no footing; the one solitary church which can
+be claimed as Gothic may be taken as an exception. And south of the
+Capital there lies a considerable tract of country, containing few if
+any examples of the style we are considering.
+
+
+_Southern Italy._
+
+Southern Italy is conveniently grouped with Sicily, but the mainland
+is deficient in examples of Gothic buildings. The old towns of Apulia
+indeed, such as Bari, Bitonto and Brindisi, possess an architecture
+which the few who have had an opportunity of examining, declare to be
+surpassingly rich in its decoration, but it is for the most part
+Romanesque.
+
+The Gothic work remaining in and about Naples is most of it extremely
+florid, and often rich, but seldom possesses the grace and charm of
+that which exists further north.
+
+Sicily shows the picturesquely mixed results of a complication of
+agencies which have not affected the mainland, and is accordingly an
+interesting field for architectural study. The island was first under
+Byzantine influence; was next occupied and held by the Saracens; and
+was later seized and for some time retained by the Normans.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 53.--THE CATHEDRAL AT ORVIETO. (BEGUN 1290;
+      FACADE, 1310.)]
+
+The most striking early Gothic building in Sicily is the richly
+adorned cathedral of Monreale, commenced in the twelfth century. Here
+very simple pointed arches are made use of, as the entire surface of
+the interior is covered with mosaic pictures of Norman origin. The
+small Capella Palatina in Palermo itself is of the same simple and
+early architectural character, and adorned with equally magnificent
+mosaics. In these buildings the splendour of the colouring is only
+equalled by the vigorous and often pathetic power with which the
+stories of sacred history are embodied in these mosaics. The cathedral
+of Cefalu is a building bearing a general resemblance to that at
+Monreale, but not enriched in the same manner.
+
+Of the fourteenth century are the richly ornamented cathedral of
+Palermo and that of Messina. The latter has been so much altered as to
+have lost a good deal of its interest; but at Palermo there is much
+that is striking and almost unique. This building has little in common
+with the works of northern or central Italy, and not much more
+alliance with the Gothic of North Europe. It is richly panelled and
+decorated, but its most striking feature is its bold arcaded portal.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+_Plan._
+
+The plans of Italian churches are simple, compared with those of the
+northern and western architects. As a rule they are also moderate in
+size, and they bear a close resemblance to those of the early basilica
+churches from which they are directly descended. Though the apse is
+all but universal, the French _chevet_, with its crown of clustering
+chapels, was not adopted in Italy. There is very much in common
+between the churches of Lombardy and those of Germany, but the German
+western apse and the apsidal ends to the transept do not occur. The
+spaces between the piers of the main arcade are greater than in French
+or English examples, so that there are fewer piers, and the vaults are
+of wider span. In the churches founded by the great preaching orders,
+the division into nave and aisle does not take place, and the church
+consists of nothing but a large hall for the congregation, with a
+chancel for the choir.
+
+In monastic, secular, and domestic building a general squareness and
+simplicity of plan prevails, and where an internal arcaded quadrangle
+can be made use of (_e.g._ in the cloister of a monastery), it is
+almost always relied upon to add effect. The famous external arcade at
+the Ducal Palace, Venice, was nowhere repeated, though simpler
+external arcades occur frequently; but it is so splendid as to form,
+itself alone a feature in Italian planning.
+
+The arrangements of the mansions and palaces found in the great cities
+were a good deal influenced by the circumstance that it was customary,
+in order to secure as much cool air as possible, to devote one of the
+upper floors to the purpose of a suite of reception rooms; to this was
+given the name of _piano nobile_.
+
+
+_Walls, Towers, Columns._
+
+Walls are usually thick and stand unbuttressed, and rarely have such
+slopes and diminutions of apparent thickness towards their upper part
+as are not uncommon in England. Base mouldings are not universal. The
+cornice, on the other hand, is far more cared for, and is made much
+more conspicuous than with us. In the brick buildings especially it
+attains great development. Above the cornice a kind of ornamental
+parapet, bearing some resemblance to battlements, is common. The
+strikingly peculiar use of materials of different colours in alternate
+courses, or in panels, to decorate the wall surfaces, has already been
+referred to. It is very characteristic of the style.
+
+The campanile or bell-tower of an Italian church is a feature very
+different from western towers. It is never placed over the crossing of
+nave and aisles and rarely forms an essential part of the church,
+often being quite detached and not seldom placed at an angle with the
+walls of the main building. Such towers are not unfrequently appended
+to palaces, and are sometimes (_e.g._ at Venice) erected alone. Some
+of the Italian cities were also remarkable for strong towers erected
+in the city itself as fortresses by the heads of influential families.
+Many of these are still standing in Bologna. The smaller towers in
+which northern architects took so much delight are almost unknown in
+Italy, though on a few of the great churches of the north (_e.g._ the
+Certosa at Pavia, and St. Antonio at Padua) they are to be found.
+
+The use of constructive columns is general; piers are by no means
+unknown, but fine shafts of marble meet the eye frequently in Italian
+churches. The constant use of the column for decorative purposes is a
+marked characteristic. Not only is it employed where French and
+English architects used it, as in the jambs of doorways, but it
+constantly replaces the mullion in traceried windows. It is employed
+as an ornament at the angles of buildings to take off the harshness of
+a sharp corner, and it is introduced in many unexpected and often
+picturesque situations. Twisted, knotted, and otherwise carved and
+ornamental shafts are not unfrequently made use of in columns that
+serve purely decorative purposes.
+
+
+_Openings and Arches._
+
+The constructive arches in Italian Gothic buildings are, as a rule,
+pointed, but it is remarkable that at every period round and pointed
+arches are indiscriminately employed for doors and windows, both being
+constantly met with in the same building.
+
+The naves of Italian churches rarely show the division into three,
+common in the north. The triforium is almost invariably absent, and
+the clerestory is often reduced to a series of small round windows,
+sufficient to admit the moderate light which, in a very bright
+climate, is grateful in the interior of such a building as a church;
+but they are far less effective features than our own well-marked
+clerestory windows.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 54.--OGIVAL WINDOW-HEAD.]
+
+The doorways are often very beautiful, and are frequently sheltered by
+projecting porches of extreme elegance and lightness. The window
+openings are, as a rule, cusped. An ogee-shaped arch (Fig. 54) is
+constantly in use in window-heads, especially at Venice, and much
+graceful design is lavished on the arched openings of domestic and
+secular buildings. A great deal of the tracery employed is plate
+tracery.[27] The tracery in terra-cotta has already been referred to.
+In the large windows of the principal apartments and other similar
+positions of the palaces in Venice and Vicenza, a sort of tracery not
+met with in other countries is freely employed. The openings are
+square-headed, and are divided into separate lights by small columns;
+the heads of these lights are ogee-shaped, and the spaces between them
+and the horizontal lintel are filled in with circles, richly
+quatrefoiled or otherwise cusped (Fig. 55). The upper arcade of the
+Ducal Palace at Venice offers the best known and finest example of
+this class of tracery.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 55.--TRACERY, FROM VENICE.]
+
+
+_Roofs and Vaults._
+
+The vaulting of Italian churches is always simple, and the bays, as
+has been pointed out, are usually wider than those of the northern
+Gothic churches. Frequently there are no ribs of any sort to the
+groins of the vaults. A characteristic feature of Italian Gothic is
+the central dome. It is rarely very large or overpowering, and in the
+one instance of a magnificent dome--the Cathedral at Florence, the
+feature, though intended from the first, was added after the Gothic
+period had closed. Still many churches have a modest dome, and it
+frequently forms a striking feature in the interior, while in some
+northern instances (_e.g._ at the Certosa at Pavia, or at Chiaravalle)
+it is treated like a many storeyed pyramid and becomes an external
+feature of importance. At Sant' Antonio at Padua there are five domes.
+
+The churches of the preaching orders are some of them covered by
+timber ceilings, not perfectly flat but having an outline made up of
+hollow curves of rather flat sweep. The great halls at Padua and
+Vicenza displayed a vast wooden curved ceiling resembling the hull of
+a ship turned upside down.
+
+The ordinary church roof is of flat pitch and frequently concealed
+behind a parapet. Dormer windows, crestings, and other similar
+features, by the use of which northern architects enriched their
+roofs, are hardly ever employed by Italian architects.
+
+
+_Mouldings and Ornaments._
+
+Ornament is almost instinctively understood by the Italians, and their
+mastery of it is well shown in their architecture. The carving of
+spandrels, capitals, and other ornaments, and the sculpture of the
+heads and statues introduced is full of power and beauty. The famous
+capitals of the lower arcade of the Ducal Palace may be quoted as
+illustrations.
+
+The employment of coloured materials is carried so far as sometimes to
+startle an eye trained to the sombreness of English architecture, but
+a great deal of the beauty of this style is derived from colour, and
+much of the comparative simplicity and scarcity of mouldings is due to
+the desire to leave large unbroken surfaces for marble linings,
+mosaics or fresco painting. Mouldings, where they are introduced,
+differ from northern mouldings in being flatter and far less bold,
+their enrichments are chiefly confined to dentils, notches, and small
+and simple ornaments. Stained glass is not so often seen as in France,
+but is to be met with, as, for example, in the fine church of San
+Petronio at Bologna, and in Sta. Maria Novella, and in the Cathedral
+at Florence. At Florence the stained glass has a character of its own
+both in colour and style of treatment. It is not too much to say that
+every kind of decoration which can be employed to add beauty to a
+building may be found at its best in Italy. In the churches much of
+the finest furniture, such as stall-work, screens, altar frontals,
+will be found in profusion; and the church porches and the mural
+monuments should be especially studied on account of the singular
+elegance with which they are usually designed.
+
+
+_Construction and Design._
+
+The material employed for the external and internal face of the walls
+in a very large proportion of the buildings mentioned in this chapter
+is marble. This is sometimes used in blocks as stone is with us, but
+more frequently in the form of thin slabs as a facing upon masonry or
+brickwork. In Lombardy, where brick is the natural building material,
+most of the walls are not only built but faced with brick; and the
+ornamental features, including tracery, are often executed in
+ornamental brickwork, or in what is known as terra-cotta (_i.e._
+bricks or blocks of brick clay of fine quality, moulded or otherwise
+ornamented and burnt like bricks). Stone was less commonly employed as
+a building material in Italy during the Gothic period, than in other
+countries of Europe. The surfaces of the vaults, and the surfaces of
+the internal walls were often covered with mosaics, or with paintings
+in fresco. Vaulting is frequently met with, but it is generally simple
+in character, the flat external roof over it is commonly covered with
+tiles or metal, while the apparent gable frequently rises more
+sharply than the actual roof. The Italians seem never to have
+cordially welcomed the Gothic principle of resisting the thrust of
+vaults or arches by a counter-thrust, or by the weight of a buttress.
+The buttress is almost unknown in Italian Gothic, and as a rule an
+iron tie is introduced at the feet of such arches as would in France
+or Germany have been buttressed. This expedient is, of course,
+economical, but to northern eyes it appears strange and out of place.
+The Italians, however, take no pains to conceal it, and many of their
+lighter works, such as canopies over tombs, porches, &c., would fall
+to pieces at once were the iron ties removed.
+
+Open timber roofs in the English fashion are unknown; but the wooden
+ceilings already alluded to are found in San Zeno at Verona, and the
+Eremitani at Padua. A kind of open roof of large span, carried by
+curved ribs and tied by iron ties, covers the great hall of the
+Basilica at Vicenza, and the very similar hall at Padua. The ribs of
+these roofs are built up of many thicknesses of material bolted
+together.
+
+The design of Italian Gothic buildings presents many peculiarities,
+some of which are due to the materials made use of. For example, where
+brick and terra-cotta are alone employed, wide moulded cornices of no
+great projection, and broad masses of enriched moulding encircling
+arches are easily executed, and they are accordingly constantly to be
+found; but bold mouldings, with deep hollows, similar to those of
+Early English arches, could not be constructed of these materials, and
+are not attempted. These peculiarities will be found in the Town Hall
+at Cremona, of which an illustration (Fig. 50) has already been given.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56.--WINDOW FROM TIVOLI.]
+
+Where marble is used, the peculiar fineness of its surface, upon which
+the bright Italian sun makes the smallest moulding effective,
+combined with the fact that the material, being costly, is often used
+in thin slabs, has given occasion to extreme flatness of treatment,
+and to the use of modes of enrichment which do not require much depth
+of material. Our illustration of a window from the Piazza S. Croce at
+Tivoli, shows these peculiarities extremely well (Fig. 56), and also
+illustrates the strong predilection which the Italian architects
+retained throughout the Gothic period for squareness and for
+horizontal lines. The whole ornamental treatment is here square; the
+window rests on a strongly-moulded horizontal sill, and is surrounded
+by flatly-carved enrichment, making a square panel of the entire
+feature. Even in the richly-decorated window (Fig. 57), which is in
+its pointed outline more truly Gothic than the Tivoli example, much of
+the same quality can be traced. The arch and jamb are richly moulded,
+but the whole mass of mouldings is flat, and the flat cuspings of the
+tracery, elaborately carved though it be, more resemble the cusps of
+early Western Gothic, executed at a time when tracery was beginning
+its career, than work belonging to the period of full maturity to
+which this feature, as a whole, undoubtedly belongs.
+
+Where marbles were plentiful enough to be built into the fabric, the
+national love of colour gave rise to the use of black and white--or
+sometimes red and white--alternate courses, already mentioned. The
+effect of this striped masonry may be partly judged of from the
+illustration of the cathedral at Siena (Fig. 52), where it is employed
+to a considerable extent. A finer method of surface decoration, less
+simple, however, and perhaps less frequently practised, was open to
+the Italian architect, in the use of panels of various coloured
+marbles. A beautiful example of the employment of this expedient
+exists in Giotto's campanile at Florence (Fig. 51).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 57.--ITALIAN GOTHIC WINDOW, WITH TRACERY
+      IN THE HEAD. (13TH CENTURY.)]
+
+The flatness of the roofs, which the Italians never abandoned, was
+always found difficult to reconcile with the Gothic tendency to height
+and steepness. In many cases, the sharp pitched gables which the
+buildings display, are only masks, and do not truly denote the pitch
+of the roofs behind them. In other instances the walls finish with a
+horizontal parapet, plain or ornamental, quite concealing the roof. In
+the roofs of their campaniles, however, the Gothic architects of Italy
+were usually happy; they almost always adopted a steep conical
+terminal, with or without pinnacles, which is very telling against
+the sky; even if its junction with the tower is at times clumsy.
+
+The brightness of southern suns prevented the adoption of the great
+windows, adapted to masses of stained glass, which were the ambition
+of northern architects in the fourteenth century; and the tenacity
+with which a love for squareness of effect and for strongly-marked
+horizontal lines of various sorts retained its hold, tended to keep
+Italian Gothic buildings essentially different from those of northern
+nations; but the love of colour, the command of precious materials,
+and of fine sculpture, the passion for beauty and for a decorative
+richness, and the artistic taste of the Italians, display themselves
+in these buildings in a hundred ways: all this lends to them a charm
+such as few works of the middle ages existing elsewhere can surpass.
+
+
+SPAIN.--CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
+
+An early, middle, and late period can be distinguished in dealing with
+Spanish Gothic. The first period reaches to the first quarter of the
+thirteenth century, the second occupies the remainder of the
+thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries, the third completes the
+fifteenth and runs on into part of the sixteenth.
+
+The early style is one of much purity and dignity, and is developed
+directly from the Romanesque of the country. The cathedral of St. Iago
+di Compostella, a fine cruciform church of round-arched Gothic, with a
+magnificent western portal,[28] recalling the great lateral porches at
+Chartres, is an early and fine example. Like other churches of the
+type in Spain, it is far plainer inside than out, but it is vaulted
+throughout.
+
+The cathedral of Zamora, and those of Tarragona and Salamanca must
+also be referred to. In each of these, the most thoroughly Spanish
+feature is a dome, occupying the crossing of the nave and transepts,
+and apparently better developed than those in early German churches or
+in Italian ones. It is called in Spanish the _cimborio_. This feature
+was constructed so as to consist of an inner dome, decorated by ribs
+thrown over the central space, and carried by pendentives; having
+above it a separate outer dome somewhat higher and often richly
+decorated. This feature unfortunately disappeared when the French
+designs of the thirteenth century began to be the rage. A peculiarity
+of plan, however, which was retained throughout the whole Gothic
+period in Spain, is to be found in the early churches; it consists of
+an inclosure for the choir quite in the body of the church, and often
+west of the transepts,--in such a position, in fact, as the choir at
+Westminster Abbey occupies. A third peculiarity is the addition of an
+outer aisle, not unlike the arcade of a cloister, to the side walls of
+the churches, possibly with a view of protecting them from heat.
+
+With the thirteenth century a strong passion for churches, closely
+resembling those being erected in France at the same time, set in, as
+has just been remarked. Accordingly the cathedrals of Toledo, Burgos,
+and Leon, approach very closely to French types. Toledo is very large,
+five aisled, and with a vast chevet. Its exterior is unfinished, but
+the dignity of its fine interior may be well understood from the
+illustration (Fig. 58) here given. Burgos is not so ambitious in size
+as Toledo, but has a florid exterior of late architecture with two
+lofty, open-traceried spires, like Strasburg and other German
+examples. Leon is remarkable for its lofty clerestory. Spanish Gothic
+may be said to have culminated in the vast cathedral at Seville
+(begun 1401), claiming to be of greater extent than any Gothic
+cathedral in the world, larger, therefore, than Milan or Cologne. It
+stands on the site of a mosque, and has never been completed
+externally. The interior is very imposing and rich, but when it is
+stated that it was not completed till 1520, it may be readily
+understood that many of the details are very late, and far from the
+purity of earlier examples.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 58.--THE CATHEDRAL AT TOLEDO. INTERIOR.
+      (BEGUN 1227.)]
+
+In the fourteenth century an innovation, of which French architects
+immediately north of the Pyrenees were also availing themselves, found
+favour in Barcelona. The great buttresses by which the thrust of the
+vaults was met were brought inside the boundary walls of the church,
+and were made to serve as division walls between a series of side
+chapels. Both here and at Manresa and Gerona, cathedrals were built,
+resembling in construction that at Alby, in Southern France; in these
+this arrangement was carried a step further, and the side aisles were
+suppressed, leaving the whole nave to consist of a very bold vaulted
+hall, fringed by a series of side chapels, which were separated from
+each other by the buttresses which supported the main vault. These
+large vaults, however, when bare of decoration, as most of the Spanish
+vaults are, appear bald and poor in effect, though they are grand
+objects structurally.
+
+The Gothic work of the latest period in Spain became extraordinarily
+florid in its details, especially in the variety introduced into the
+ribs of the vaulting and the enrichments generally. The great
+cathedrals of Segovia and Salamanca were neither of them begun till
+the sixteenth century had already well set in. They are the two
+principal examples of this florid Gothic.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 59.--THE GIRALDA AT SEVILLE. (BEGUN IN 1196.
+      FINISHED IN 1538).]
+
+It will not be forgotten that the country we are now considering was
+fully occupied by the Moors, and that they left in Southern Spain
+buildings of great merit. A certain number of Christian churches exist
+built in a style which has been called Moresco, as being a kind of
+fusion of Moorish and Gothic. The towers of these churches bear a
+close resemblance to the Saracenic towers of which the beautiful
+bell-tower, called the Giralda, at Seville (Fig. 59) is the type; with
+this and similar examples in the country it is not surprising that at
+Toledo, Saragoza, and other places, towers of the same character
+should be erected as parts of churches in which the architecture
+throughout is as much Saracenic as Christian.
+
+To many of these great churches, cloisters, and monastic buildings,
+which are often both extensive and of a high order of architectural
+excellence, are attached. The secular buildings, of Spain in the
+Gothic period are, on the other hand, neither numerous nor remarkable.
+
+
+PORTUGAL.
+
+The architecture of Portugal has been very little investigated. The
+great church at Batalha[29] is probably the most important in the
+country. This building, though interesting in plan, is more remarkable
+for a lavish amount of florid ornament, of which our illustration
+(Fig. 60) may furnish some idea, than for really fine architecture.
+The conventual church at Belem, near Lisbon, a work of the beginning
+of the sixteenth century, and equally florid, is another of the small
+number of specimens of Portuguese Gothic of which descriptions or
+illustrations have been published.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[25] An illustration of such a campanile will be found in that
+belonging to the Cathedral of Siena (Fig. 52).
+
+[26] See Frontispiece.
+
+[27] For an explanation of this term, see _ante_, Chapter V., page 48.
+
+[28] A cast of this portal is at the South Kensington Museum.
+
+[29] See _Sculptures of the Monastery at Batalha_, published by the
+Arundel Society.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {CRETE FROM NOTRE DAME, PARIS.}]
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN.
+
+_Materials and Construction._
+
+The Gothic architects adhered, at any rate till the fifteenth century,
+to the use of very small stones in their masonry. In many buildings of
+large size it is hard to find any stone heavier than two men can lift.
+Bad roads and the absence of good mechanical means of hoisting and
+moving big blocks led to this.
+
+The mortar, though good, is not equal to the Roman. As a rule in each
+period mortar joints are thick. They are finest in the fifteenth
+century.
+
+The masonry of all important features of the building is always good;
+it is often a perfect marvel of dexterity and skill as well as of
+beauty.
+
+The arts of workers in other materials, such as carpenters, joiners,
+smiths, and plumbers were carried to great perfection during the
+Gothic period.
+
+The appropriate ornamental treatment which each material is best
+fitted to receive was invariably given to it, and forms appropriate
+to one material were very rarely copied in others. For example,
+whenever wrought iron, a material which can be beaten and welded, or
+rivetted, was employed, those ornamental forms were selected into
+which hot iron can with ease be beaten, and such groups of those forms
+were designed as can be obtained by welding or by rivetting them
+together.
+
+Wood, on the other hand, cannot be bent with ease, but can be readily
+cut, drilled with holes, notched and carved; accordingly, where wood
+had to be treated ornamentally, we only find such forms as the drill,
+the chisel, the saw, or the gouge readily and naturally leave behind
+them.
+
+Again, the mode into which wood can be best framed together was
+carefully considered from a constructional point of view, and mediaeval
+joiners' work is always first so designed as to reduce the damage from
+shrinkage to the smallest amount possible; and the pieces of which it
+is composed are then appropriately ornamented, moulded, or carved.
+
+Stone is now always, at least in this country, worked by being first
+squared and then worked-down or "sunk" from the squared faces to the
+mouldings required, and this procedure seems to have been common,
+though not quite universal, in the Middle Ages. Consequently we
+usually find the whole of the external mouldings with which the
+doorways and arcades of important buildings were enriched, designed so
+as to be easily formed out of stones having squared faces, or, to use
+the technical phrase, to be "sunk" from the squared blocks.
+
+The character of sculpture in wood differs from that in stone, the
+material being harder, more capable of standing alone; so in stone we
+find more breadth, in wood finer lines and more elaboration.
+
+In a word, no material was employed in simulating another (or with
+the rarest exceptions), and when any ornament was to be executed in
+one place in one material and in another place in a different one,
+such alterations were always made in the treatment as corresponded to
+the different qualities of the two materials.
+
+The arch was introduced whenever possible, and the structure of a
+great Gothic building presents the strongest possible contrast to that
+of a Greek building.
+
+In the Greek temple there was no pressure that was not vertical and
+met by a vertical support, wall, or column, and no support that was
+not vastly in excess of the dimensions actually required to do the
+work.
+
+A great Gothic building attains stability through the balanced
+counterpoise of a vast series of pressures, oblique, perpendicular, or
+horizontal, so arranged as to counteract each other. The vault was
+kept from spreading by the flying buttress, the thrust of the arcade
+was resisted by massive walls, and so on throughout.
+
+The equilibrium thus obtained was sometimes so ticklish that a storm
+of wind, a trifling settlement, or a slight concussion sufficed to
+occasion a disaster; and many of the daring feats of the masons of the
+Middle Ages are lost to us, because they dared a little too much and
+the entire structure collapsed. This happened more often in the middle
+period of the style than in the earliest, but during the whole Gothic
+period there is a constant uniform tendency in one direction: thinner
+walls, wider arches, loftier vaults, slenderer buttresses, slighter
+piers, confront us at every step, and we need only compare some Norman
+structure (such as Durham), with a perpendicular (such as Henry VII.'s
+Chapel), to see how vast a change took place in this respect.
+
+
+_The Principles of Gothic Design._
+
+All the germs of Gothic architecture exist in the Romanesque of the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries, and became developed as the passion
+for more slender proportions, greater lightness, and loftiness of
+effect, and more delicate enrichment became marked. It is quite true
+that the pointed arch is universally recognised as, so to speak, the
+badge of Gothic, even to the extent of having suggested the title of
+Christian pointed architecture, by which it is often called. But the
+pointed arch must be regarded rather as a token that the series of
+changes, which, starting from the heavy if majestic Romanesque of such
+a cathedral as Peterborough, culminated in the gracefulness of
+Salisbury or Lincoln, was far advanced towards completion, than as
+really essential to their perfection. Many of the examples of the
+transition period exhibit the round arch blended with the pointed
+(_e.g._ the nave of St. David's Cathedral or the Choir of Canterbury),
+and when we come to consider German architecture we shall find that
+the adoption of the pointed arch was postponed till long after the
+development of all, or almost all, the other features of the Gothic
+style; so as to place beyond question the existence, in that country
+at least, of "round arched Gothic." Some of the best authorities have
+indeed proposed to employ this title as a designation for much, if not
+all, the round arched architecture of the west of Europe, but Scott,
+Sharpe, and other authorities class mediaeval art down to the middle of
+the twelfth century under the general head of Romanesque, a course
+which has been adopted in this volume.
+
+The proportions of Gothic buildings were well studied, their forms
+were always lofty, their gables sharp, and their general composition
+more or less pyramidal. Remarkable numerical relations between the
+dimensions of the different parts of a great Gothic cathedral can be
+discovered upon careful examination in most, if not all instances, and
+there can be little doubt that a system of geometrical proportions ran
+through the earlier design, and that much of the harmony and beauty
+which the buildings present is traceable to this fact. Independent of
+this the skill with which subordinate features and important ones are
+fitted to their respective positions, both by their dimensions and by
+their relative elaboration or plainness, forms a complete system of
+proportion, making use of the word in its broadest sense; and the
+results are extremely happy.
+
+Apparent size was imparted to almost every Gothic building by the
+smallness, great number, and variety of its features, and by the small
+size of the stones employed. The effect of strength is generally,
+though not perhaps so uniformly, also obtained, and dignity, beauty,
+and harmony are rarely wanting.
+
+Symmetry, though not altogether overlooked, has but a slender hold
+upon Gothic architects. It is far more observed in the interior than
+in the exterior of the buildings; but it must be remembered that
+symmetry formed the basis of many designs which, owing to the
+execution having been carried on through a long series of years and by
+different hands, came to be varied from the original intentions. Thus,
+for example, Chartres is a cathedral with two western towers. One of
+these was carried up and its spire completed in the twelfth century.
+The companion spire was not added till the end of the fifteenth, when
+men's ideas as to the proportions, shape, ornaments, and details of a
+spire had altered entirely;--the later architect did not value
+symmetry enough to think himself bound to adhere either to the design
+or to the height of the earlier spire, so we have in this great
+facade two similar flanking towers but spires entirely unlike. What
+happened at Chartres happened elsewhere. The original design of
+buildings was in the main symmetrical, but it was never considered
+that symmetry was a matter so important as to require that much
+sacrifice should be made to preserve it.
+
+On the other hand the subordination of a multitude of small features
+to one dominant one enters largely into the design of every good
+Gothic building; with the result that if the great governing feature
+or mass has been carried out in its entirety, almost any feature, no
+matter how irregular or unsymmetrical, may be safely introduced, and
+will only add picturesqueness and piquancy to the design. This is more
+or less a leading principle of Gothic design. A building with no
+irregularities, none of those charming additions which add individual
+character to Gothic churches, and none of the isolated features which
+the principle of subordination permits the architect to employ, has
+missed one of the chief qualities of the style. It is here that
+unskilled architects mostly fail when they attempt Gothic designs;
+they either hold on to symmetry as though they were designing a Greek
+temple, and they are unaware that the spirit of the style in which
+they are trying to work not only permits, but requires some irregular
+features; or if they do not fall into this error they are overtaken by
+the opposite one, and omit to make their irregular features
+subordinate to the general effect of the whole, an error less serious
+in its effects than the other, but still destructive of anything like
+the highest qualities in a building.
+
+Repetition, like symmetry, is recognised by Gothic architecture, but
+not adhered to in a rigid way. No buildings gain more from the
+repetition of parts than Gothic churches and cathedrals; the series of
+pillars or piers and arches inside, the series of buttresses and
+windows outside, add scale to the general effect. But so long as it
+was in the main a series of features which broadly resembled one
+another, the Gothic architect was satisfied, and did not feel bound to
+exact repetition.
+
+We are often, for example, surprised to find in the columns of a
+church an octagonal one alternating with a circular one, and almost
+invariably, if a series of capitals be examined, each will be
+discovered to differ from the others to some extent. In one bay of a
+church there may be a two-light window, and in the next a three-light
+window, and so on.
+
+This we find in buildings erected at one time and under one architect.
+Where, however, a building begun at one period was continued at
+another (and this, it must be remembered, was the rule, not the
+exception, with all large Gothic buildings), the architect, while
+usually repeating the same features, with the same general forms,
+invariably followed his own predilections as to detail. There is a
+very good example of this in Westminster Abbey, in the western bays of
+the nave, which were built years later than the eastern bays. They
+are, to a superficial observer, identical, being of the same height
+and width and shape of arch, but nearly every detail differs.
+
+Disclosure, rather than concealment, was a principle of Gothic design.
+This was demonstrated long ago by Pugin, and many of his followers
+pushed the doctrine to such extremes, that they held--and some of them
+still hold--that no building is really Gothic in which any part,
+either of its construction or arrangement, is not obviously visible
+inside and out.
+
+This is, however, carrying the principle too far. It is sufficient to
+say that the interior disposition of every Gothic building was as
+much as possible disclosed by the exterior. Thus, in a secular
+building, where there is a large room, there usually was a large
+window; when a lofty apartment occurs, its roof was generally
+proportionately high; where a staircase rises, we usually can detect
+it by a sloping row of little windows following the line of the stair,
+or by a turret roof.
+
+The mode in which the thrust of vaults is counterpoised is, as has
+been shown, frankly displayed by the Gothic architects, and as a rule,
+every portion of the structure is freely exhibited. It grows out of
+this, that when an ornamental feature is desired, it is not
+constructed purely for ornament, as the Romans added the columns and
+cornices of the orders to the outside of their massive walls purely as
+an architectural screen; but some requisite, of the building is taken
+and ornamented, and in some cases elaborated. Thus the belfry grew
+into the enormous bell tower; the tower roof grew into the spire; the
+extra weight required on flying buttresses grew into the ornamental
+pinnacle; and the window head grew into tracery.
+
+There were, however, some exceptions. The walls were still constantly
+faced with finer masonry than in the heart, and though some are
+unwilling to admit the fact, were often plastered outside as well as
+in; and what is more remarkable, no other sign of the vault appeared
+outside the building than the buttresses required to sustain it.
+
+The external gable conforms to the shape of the roof which covered the
+vault, but the vault, perhaps the most remarkable and characteristic
+feature of the whole building, does not betray its presence by any
+external line or mark corresponding to its position and shape in the
+interior of the building. Notwithstanding these and some other
+exceptions, frank disclosure must be reckoned one of the main
+principles of Gothic architecture.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 60.--DOORWAY FROM CHURCH AT BATALHA.
+      (BEGUN 1385.)]
+
+Elaboration and simplicity were both so well known to the Gothic
+architect that it is difficult to say that either of these qualities
+belongs exclusively to his work. But he was rarely simple when he had
+the opportunity of being elaborate, and simplicity was perhaps rather
+forced upon him by the circumstances under which he worked, by rude
+materials, scanty funds, and lack of skilled workmen, than freely
+chosen. Many of the great works of the Gothic period are as elaborate
+as they could be made (Fig. 60), and yet, when simplicity had to be
+the order of the day, no architecture has lent it such a grace as
+Gothic.
+
+The last pair of qualities is similarity and contrast. What has been
+said about repetition has anticipated the remarks called for by these
+qualities, so far as to point out that even where the arrangement of
+the building dictated the repetition of similar features, a general
+resemblance, and not an exact similarity, was considered sufficient.
+In the composition of masses of building, contrast and not similarity
+was the ruling principle. Even in the interiors of great churches
+which, as a rule, are far more regular than the exteriors, the
+contrast between the comparative plainness of the nave and the
+richness of the choir was an essential element of design.
+
+External design in Gothic buildings depends almost entirely upon
+contrast for its power of charming the eye, and it is this
+circumstance which has left the successive generations of men who
+toiled at our great Gothic cathedrals so free to follow the bent of
+their own taste in their additions, rather than that of their
+forerunners.
+
+But setting aside the irregularities due to the caprice of various
+builders, and the constant changes which took place in detail through
+the Gothic period, it is to contrast that we must trace most of the
+surprising effects attained by the architecture of the Middle Ages.
+The rich tracery was made richer by contrast with plain walls, the
+loftiest towers appeared higher from their contrast with the long
+level lines of roofs and parapets.
+
+It is, in truth, one of the principal marks of the decadence which
+began in the fifteenth century that the principle of contrast was, to
+a considerable extent, abandoned, at least in the details of the
+buildings if not in their great masses. Walls were at that time
+panelled in imitation of the tracery of the adjoining windows, and no
+longer acted as a foil to them by their solid plainness; long rows of
+pinnacles, all exactly alike, followed the line of the parapets, and a
+repetition of absolutely identical features became the rule for the
+first time in the history of Gothic art.
+
+There can be no doubt that had this modification run its natural
+course unchecked and undisturbed by the change in taste which abruptly
+brought the Gothic period to a close, it must have resulted in the
+deterioration of the art.
+
+  [Illustration: {SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM RHEIMS CATHEDRAL.}]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {RENAISSANCE ORNAMENT FROM A FRIEZE.}]
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+GENERAL VIEW.
+
+
+Gothic architecture had begun, before the close of the fifteenth
+century, to show marks of decadence, and men's minds and tastes were
+ripening for a change. The change, when it did take place, arose in
+Italy, and was a direct consequence of that burst of modern
+civilisation known as the revival of letters. All the characteristics
+of the middle ages were rapidly thrown off. The strain of old Roman
+blood in the modern Italians asserted itself, and almost at a bound,
+literature and the arts sprang back, like a bow unstrung, into the
+forms they had displayed fifteen hundred years before.
+
+It became the rage to read the choice Greek and Latin authors, and to
+write Latin with a pedantic purity. Can we wonder that in painting, in
+sculpture, and in architecture, men reverted to the form, the style,
+and the decorations of the antique compositions, statues, and
+architectural remains? This was the more easy in Italy, as Gothic art
+had never at any time taken so firm a hold upon Italians as it had
+upon nations north of the Alps.
+
+Though, however, the details and forms employed were all Roman, or
+Graeco-Roman, they were applied to buildings essentially modern, and
+used with much freedom and spirit. This revival of classic taste in
+art is commonly and appropriately called Renaissance. In Italy it took
+place so rapidly that there was hardly any transition period.
+Brunelleschi, the first great Renaissance architect, began his work as
+early as the middle of the fifteenth century, and his buildings, in
+which classic details of great severity and purity are employed,
+struck, so to speak, a keynote which had been responded to all over
+Italy before the close of the fifteenth century.
+
+To other countries the change spread later, and it found them less
+prepared to welcome it unreservedly. Accordingly, in France, in
+England, and in many parts of Germany, we find a transition period,
+during which buildings were designed in a mixed style. In England, the
+transition lasted almost through the sixteenth century.
+
+As the century went on, a most picturesque and telling style, the
+earlier phases of which are known as Tudor and the later as
+Elizabethan, sprang up in England. It betrays in its mixture of Gothic
+and classic forms great incongruities and even monstrosities; but it
+allows unrestrained play for the fancies, and the best mansions and
+manors of the time, such as Hatfield, Hardwick, Burleigh, Bramshill,
+and Audley End, are unsurpassed in their picturesqueness and romantic
+charm.
+
+The old red-brick, heavily chimneyed, and gabled buildings, with their
+large windows divided by bold mullions and transoms, and their simple
+noble outlines, are familiar to us all, and so are their
+characteristic features. The great hall with its oriel or its bay,
+the fine plastered ceiling, supported by heavy beams of timber; the
+wide oak staircase, with its carved balusters, and ornamented newel
+post, and heavy-moulded handrail; the old wainscoted parlour, with its
+magnificent chimney-piece reaching to the ceiling; these are all
+essentially English features, and are full of vigour and life, as
+indeed the work of every period of transition must almost necessarily
+prove.
+
+The transitional period in France produced exquisite works more
+refined and elegantly treated than ours, but not so vigorous. Its
+manner is known as the Francois Premier (Francis I.) style. No modern
+buildings are more profusely ornamented, and yet not spoilt.
+
+In Germany, the Castle of Heidelberg may be named as a well-known
+specimen of the transition period, a period over which however we must
+not linger. Suffice it to say, that sooner or later the change was
+fully accomplished in every European country, and Renaissance
+architecture, modified as climate, materials, habits, or even caprice
+suggested, yet the same in its essential characteristics, obtained a
+firm footing: this it has succeeded in retaining, though not to the
+exclusion of other styles, for now nearly three centuries.
+
+In Italy, Renaissance churches, great and small--from St. Peter's
+downwards--and magnificent secular buildings, some, like the Vatican
+Palace or the Library of St. Mark at Venice, for public purposes, but
+most for the occupation of the great wealthy and princely families,
+abound in Naples, Rome, Florence, Genoa, Venice, Milan, and indeed
+every great city.
+
+In France, the transition period was succeeded by a time when vast
+undertakings, _e.g._ the Hotel de Ville, the Louvre, the Tuileries,
+Versailles, were carried out in the revived style with the utmost
+magnificence, and were imitated in every part of the country in the
+structures greater or smaller which were then built.
+
+In England, the works of Inigo Jones, and of Wren, are the most famous
+works of the developed style, and to the last-named architect we owe a
+cathedral second to none in Europe for its beauty of outline, and play
+of light and shade. To Germany, and the countries of the north-east
+Europe, and to Spain and Portugal on the south, the style also
+extended with no very great modification, either of its general forms
+or of its details.
+
+
+ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.
+
+_Plan._
+
+The plan of Renaissance buildings was uniform and symmetrical, and the
+picturesqueness of the Gothic times was abandoned. The plans of
+churches were not widely different from those in use in Italy before
+the revival of classic art took place, but it will be remembered that
+these were by no means so irregular or picturesque at any time as the
+plans of French and English cathedral churches.
+
+In secular architecture, the vast piles erected in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries by Italian, French, and Spanish architects are
+to the last degree orderly in their disposition. They are adapted to a
+great variety of purposes, and they display a varying degree of skill.
+The palaces of Genoa are, on the one hand, among the cleverest
+examples of planning existing; on the other hand, many of the palaces
+in France are weak and poor to the last degree. As a rule the scale of
+the plan is more considerable than in Gothic work. A very large
+building is often not divided into more parts than a small one, or one
+of moderate size. In St. Peter's, for example, there are only four
+bays between the west front and the dome, everything being on a most
+gigantic scale. As a contrast to this principle we may cite the nave
+of the Gothic cathedral at Milan, which is not so long at St. Peter's,
+but has at least thrice as many bays, and looks much larger in
+consequence.
+
+No style affords more room for skill in planning than the Renaissance,
+and in no style is the exercise of such skill more repaid by results.
+
+
+_Walls and Columns._
+
+In the treatment of external walls, the mediaeval use of small
+materials, involving many joints for the exterior of walls has quite
+disappeared, and they are universally faced with stone or plaster, and
+are consequently uniformly smooth. Perhaps the principal feature to
+note is the very great use made of that elaborate sort of masonry in
+which the joints of the stones are very carefully channelled or
+otherwise marked, and which is known by the singularly inappropriate
+name of rustic work. The basements of most Italian and French palaces
+are rusticated, and in many cases (as the Pitti Palace, Florence)
+rustic work covers an entire facade.
+
+The Gothic mouldings in receding planes disappear entirely, and the
+classic architrave takes their place. The orders are again revived and
+are used (as the Romans often used them) as purely decorative features
+added for the mere sake of ornament to a wall sufficient without them,
+and are freely piled one upon the other. Palladio (a very influential
+Italian architect) reproduced the use of lofty pilasters running
+through two or even more storeys of the building, and often combined
+one tall order and two short ones in his treatment of the same part
+of the building, a contrivance which in less clever hands than his has
+given rise to the greatest confusion.
+
+The Renaissance architects also revived the late Roman manner of
+employing the column and entablature. They frequently carried on the
+top of a column a little square pier divided up as the architrave and
+frieze proper to the column would be divided, and they surmounted it
+with a cornice which was carried quite round this pier, and from this
+curious compound pedestal an arch will frequently spring. The classic
+portico, with pediments, was constantly employed by them; and small
+pediments over window heads were common. A peculiarity worth mention
+is the introduction in many Italian palaces of a great crowning
+cornice, proportioned not to the size of the columns and of the order
+upon which it rests (if an order be employed), but to the height of
+the whole building. Much fine effect is obtained by means of this
+feature; it is, however, better fitted for sunny Italy than for gloomy
+England, and it is not an unmixed success when repeated in our
+climate.
+
+Towers are less frequently employed than by the Gothic architects, and
+indeed in Italy the sky-line was less thought of at this period than
+it was in the middle ages. In churches, towers sometimes occur,
+nowhere more picturesque than those designed by Sir Christopher Wren
+for many of his London parish churches. The frequent use of the dome
+takes the place of the tower both in churches and secular buildings.
+
+
+_Openings._
+
+Openings are both flat-headed and semicircular, occasionally
+elliptical, but hardly ever pointed. Renaissance buildings may be to
+some extent divided into those which depend for effect upon window
+openings, and those which depend chiefly upon architectural features
+such as cornices, pilasters, and orders. Among the buildings where
+fenestration (or the treatment of windows) is relied upon the palaces
+of Venice stand pre-eminent as compositions admirably designed for
+effect and very successful. In them the openings are massed near the
+centre of the facade, and strong piers are left near the angles, a
+simple expedient when once known, and one inherited from the Gothic
+palaces in that city, but giving remarkable individuality of character
+to this group of buildings.
+
+In roofs, including vaults and domes, we meet with a divergence of
+practice between Italy and France. In Italy low-pitched roofs were the
+rule: the parapet alone often formed the sky-line, and the dome and
+pediment are usually the only telling features of the outline. France,
+on the other hand, revived a most picturesque feature of Gothic days,
+namely, the high-pitched roof, employing it in the shape commonly
+known as the Mansard[30] roof. Nothing adds more to the effectiveness
+of the great French Renaissance buildings than these lofty terminals.
+
+The dome is, however, the glory of this style, as it had been of the
+Roman. It is the one feature by which revived and original classic
+architects retain a clear and defined advantage over Gothic
+architects, who, strange to say, all but abandoned the dome. The
+mouldings and other ornaments of the Renaissance are much the same as
+those of the Roman style, which the Italians revived; their sculptures
+and their mural decorations were all originally drawn from classic
+sources. These, however, attained very great excellence, and it is
+probable that such decorative paintings as Raphael and his scholars
+executed in Rome, at Genoa, at Mantua, and elsewhere, far surpass
+anything which the old Roman decorative artists ever executed.
+
+
+_Construction and Design._
+
+The earlier Renaissance buildings are remarkable for the great use
+which their architects made of carpentry, as the most modern
+structures are for the use of wrought and cast-iron construction. As
+regards carpentry, it is of course true that all the woodwork of the
+classic periods, and much of that done in the Gothic period, has
+perished, either through decay or fire; but making every allowance for
+this, we must still recognise a very great increase in the employment
+of timber as an integral part of large structures. Vaulted roofs for
+example are comparatively rare, and domes, even when the inner dome is
+of brickwork or masonry, have their outer envelope of carpentry. A
+disuse of brick and rough masonry, or rather a constant effort to
+conceal them from view, is a distinctive mark of Renaissance work. The
+Roman method of facing rough walls with fine stone was resorted to in
+the best buildings. In humbler buildings plaster is employed.
+
+Renaissance architects made very free use of plaster. Inside and out
+this material is utilised, not merely to cover surfaces, but to form
+architectural features. Cornices, panels, and enrichments of all kinds
+modelled in plaster are constantly employed in the interior of rooms
+and buildings. On the exterior we constantly find imitations of
+similar architectural features proper to stone executed in plaster and
+simulating stone; a short-sighted practice which cannot be commended,
+and which has only cheapness and convenience in its favour. There can
+be no question of the fact that the features thus executed never
+equal those done in stone in their effectiveness, and are far more
+liable to decay.
+
+Design in Renaissance buildings may be said to be directed towards
+producing a telling result by the effect of the buildings taken as a
+whole, rather than by the intricacy or the beauty of individual parts;
+and herein lies one of the great contrasts between Renaissance and
+Gothic architecture. A Renaissance building which fails to produce an
+impression as a whole is rarely felt to be successful. No better
+example of this can be given than the straggling, unsatisfactory
+Palace of Versailles, magnificent as it is in dimensions and rich in
+treatment. To the production of a homogeneous impression the
+arrangement of plan, the proportion of storeys, the contrasts of voids
+and solids, and above all the outline of the entire building, should
+be devoted.
+
+The general arrangement of buildings is usually strictly symmetrical,
+one half corresponding to the other, and with some well-defined
+feature to mark the centre. Of course in very large buildings this
+does not occur, nor in the nature of things can it often take place in
+the sides of churches; but the individual features of such buildings,
+and all those parts of them which permit of symmetry in their
+arrangement, always display it.
+
+Proportion plays an important part in the design of Renaissance
+buildings. The actual shape of openings, the proportion which they
+bear to voids, the proportion of storeys to one another; and, going
+into details, the proportions which the different features--_e.g._,
+cornice, and the columns supporting it--should bear to one another,
+have to be carefully studied. It is to the possession of a keen sense
+of what makes a pleasing proportion and one satisfactory to the eye,
+that the great architects of Italy owed the greater part of their
+success.
+
+Renaissance architecture is so familiar in its general features, and
+these have been so constantly repeated, that we may not easily
+recognise the great need for skill and taste which exists if they are
+to be designed so as to produce the most refined effect possible. Many
+of the successful buildings of the style owe their excellence to the
+great delicacy and elegance of the mode in which the details have been
+studied, rather than to the vigour and boldness with which the masses
+have been shaped and disposed; and though grandeur is the noblest
+quality of which the style is capable, yet many more opportunities for
+displaying grace and refinement than for attaining grandeur offer
+themselves, and by nothing are the best works of the style so well
+marked out as by the success with which those opportunities have been
+grasped and turned to account.
+
+The concealment both of construction and arrangement is largely
+practised in Renaissance buildings. Behind an exterior wall filled by
+windows of uniform size and equally spaced, rooms large and small,
+corridors, staircases, and other features have to be provided for.
+This is completely in contrast to the Gothic principle of displaying
+frankly on the outside the arrangement of what is within; but it must
+be remembered that art often works most happily and successfully when
+limited by apparently strict and difficult conditions, and these rules
+have not prevented the great architects of the Renaissance from
+accomplishing works where both the exterior and the interior are
+thoroughly successful, and are brought into such happy harmony that
+the difficulties have clearly been no bar to success. There is no
+canon of art violated by such a method, the simple fact being that
+Gothic buildings are designed under one set of conditions and
+Renaissance under another.
+
+It is less easy to defend the use of pilasters and columns large
+enough to appear as though they were the main support of the building,
+for purely decorative purposes; yet here perhaps the fault lies rather
+in the extent to which the practice has been carried, and above all
+the scale upon which it is carried out, than in anything else. Small
+columns are constantly employed in Gothic buildings in positions where
+they serve the aesthetic purpose of conveying a sense of support, but
+where it is impossible for them to carry any weight. The Renaissance
+architects have done the same thing on a large scale, but it must not
+be forgotten that they only revived a Roman practice as part of the
+ancient style to which they reverted, and that they are not
+responsible for originating it.
+
+It will be understood therefore that symmetry, strict uniformity, not
+mere similarity, in features intended to correspond, and constant
+repetition, are leading principles in Renaissance architecture. These
+qualities tend to breadth rather than picturesqueness of effect, and
+to similarity rather than contrast. Simplicity and elaboration are
+both compatible with Renaissance design; the former distinguishes the
+earlier and purer examples of the style, the latter those more recent
+and more grandiose.
+
+It should be observed that in the transition styles, such as our own
+Elizabethan, or the French style of Francis the First, these
+principles of design are mixed up in a very miscellaneous way with
+those followed in the Gothic period. The result is often puzzling and
+inconsistent if we attempt to analyse it with exactness, but rarely
+fails to charm by its picturesque and irregular vividness.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[30] Named after a French architect of the 17th century.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {FROM A TERRA-COTTA FRIEZE AT LODI.}]
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.
+
+
+Renaissance architecture--the architecture of the classic revival--had
+its origin in Italy, and should be first studied in the land of its
+birth. There are more ways than one in which it may be attempted to
+classify Italian Renaissance buildings. The names of conspicuous
+architects are sometimes adopted for this purpose, for now, for the
+first time, we meet with a complete record of the names and
+performances of all architects of note: the men who raised the great
+works of Gothic art are, with a few exceptions, absolutely unknown to
+us. An approximate division into three stages can also be recognised.
+There is an early, a developed, and a late Renaissance, but this is
+very far indeed from being a completely marked series, and was more
+interfered with by local circumstances and by the character and genius
+of individual artists than in Gothic. For this reason a local division
+will be of most service. The best examples exist in the great cities,
+with a few exceptions, and it is almost more useful to group them--as
+the paintings of the Renaissance are also often grouped--by locality
+than in either of the other methods.
+
+
+FLORENCE.
+
+Renaissance architecture first sprang into existence in Florence. Here
+chiefly the works of the early Renaissance are met with, and the names
+of the great Florentine architects are Brunelleschi and Alberti.
+
+Brunelleschi was a citizen of Florence, of very ardent temperament and
+great energy, and a true artist. He was born in 1377, was originally
+trained as a goldsmith and sculptor, but devoted himself to the study
+of architecture, and early set his heart upon being appointed to
+complete the dome of the then unfinished cathedral of Florence, of
+which some account has already been given.
+
+Florence in the fifteenth century was full of artistic life, and the
+revival of learning and arts had then begun to take definite shape.
+The first years of the century found Brunelleschi studying antiquities
+at Rome, to fit himself for the work he desired to undertake. After
+his return to his native city, he ultimately succeeded in the object
+of his ambition; the cathedral was entrusted to him, and he erected
+the large pointed dome with which it is crowned. He also erected two
+large churches in Florence, which, as probably the first important
+buildings designed and built in the new style, possess great interest.
+Santo Spirito, one of these, shows a fully matured system of
+architectural treatment, and though it is quite true that it was a
+revived system, yet the application of it to a modern building,
+different in its purpose and in its design from anything the Romans
+had ever done, is little short of a work of genius.
+
+Santo Spirito has a very simple and beautifully regular plan, and its
+interior has a singular charm and grace: over the crossing is raised
+a low dome. The columns of the arcade are Corinthian columns, and the
+refinement of their detail and proportions strikes the eye at once on
+entering the building. The influence of Brunelleschi, who died in
+1440, was perpetuated by the works and writings of Alberti (born 1398)
+an architect of literary cultivation who wrote a systematic treatise
+which became extremely popular, and helped to form the taste and guide
+the practice of his contemporaries. He lived till near the close of
+the fifteenth century, and erected some buildings of great merit. To
+Alberti we owe the design of the Ruccellai Palace in Florence, a
+building begun in 1460, and which had been preceded by somewhat bolder
+and simpler designs. This is a three storey building, but has
+pilasters carried up the piers between the windows and a regular
+entablature and cornice[31] at each storey. The building is elegant
+and graceful, and though the employment of the orders[32] as its
+decoration gives it a distinctive character, it bears a strong general
+resemblance to the group of which the Strozzi Palace (Fig. 61) may be
+taken as the type.
+
+The earliest Florentine palaces are the Riccardi, which dates from
+1430, and the Pitti of almost the same date; Brunelleschi is said to
+have been consulted in the design of both, but Michelozzo was the
+architect. The distinguishing characteristic of the early palaces in
+this city is solidity, which rises from the fact that they were also
+fortresses. The Pitti, well known for its picture gallery, is a
+building of vast extent, built throughout in very boldly rusticated
+masonry, the joints and projections of the stones being greatly
+exaggerated. The Riccardi, a square block of building, bears a
+considerable resemblance to the Strozzi, but is plainer. It is a most
+dignified building in its effect.
+
+The Strozzi Palace (Fig. 61) was the next great palatial pile erected.
+It was designed by Cronaca, and begun in 1498. Like the Riccardi, it
+is of three storeys, with a bold projecting cornice. The whole wall is
+covered with rusticated masonry; the windows of the lower floor are
+small and square; those of the two upper floors are larger and
+semicircular headed, and with a shaft acting as a mullion, and
+carrying arches which occupy the window head with something like
+tracery. The entrance is by a semicircular headed archway. There is a
+great height of unpierced wall in the lowest storey and above the
+heads of the two upper ranges of windows; and to this and the bold
+overhanging cornice, this building, and those like it, owe much of
+their dignity and impressiveness. An elevation, such as our
+illustration, may convey a fair idea of the good proportion and
+ensemble of the front, but it is difficult without actually seeing the
+buildings to appreciate the effect produced by such palaces as these,
+seen foreshortened in the narrow streets, and with the shadows from
+their bold cornices and well-defined openings intensified by the
+effect of the Italian sun.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 61.--STROZZI PALACE AT FLORENCE. (BEGUN 1489.)]
+
+Many excellent palatial buildings belong to the end of the fifteenth
+century. One among them is attributed to Bramante (who died 1513), a
+Florentine, whom we shall meet with in Rome and elsewhere. The
+Guadagni Palace has an upper storey entirely open, forming a sheltered
+loggia, but it is mentioned here chiefly on account of the
+decorations incised on its walls by the method known as Sgraffito.
+Part of the plain wall is covered in this way with decorative designs,
+which appear as though drawn with a bold line on their surface. An
+example of this decoration will be found in our illustration (Fig.
+62), representing a portion of the Loggia del Consiglio at Verona.
+
+The series of great Florentine palaces closes with a charming example,
+the Pandolfini, designed by the great Raphael, and commenced in
+1520--in other words, in the first quarter of the sixteenth century.
+
+This palace is only one of many instances to be found in Italy of the
+skill in more walks of art than one, of some of the greatest artists.
+Raphael, though best known as a painter, executed works of sculpture
+of great merit, and designed some other buildings besides the one now
+under notice. The Pandolfini Palace (Fig. 63) is small, the main
+building having only four windows in the front and two storeys in
+height, with a low one-storey side building. Its general design has
+been very successfully copied in the Travellers' Club House, Pall
+Mall. On comparing this with any of the previously named designs, it
+will be seen that the semicircular headed windows have disappeared,
+the rusticated masonry is only now retained at the angles, and to
+emphasise the side entrance; and a small order with a little pediment
+(_i.e._ gable) is employed to mark each opening, door or window. In
+short this building belongs not only to another century, but to that
+advanced school of art to which we have given the name of developed
+Italian Renaissance.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 62.--PART OF THE LOGGIA DEL CONSIGLIO AT VERONA.
+      (16TH CENTURY.)
+      Showing the incised decoration known as _Sgraffito_.]
+
+In Florence some of the work of Michelangelo is to be met with. His
+own house is here; so is the famous Medici chapel, a work in which we
+find him displaying power at once as a sculptor and an architect.
+This interior is very fine and very studied both in its proportions
+and its details. The church of the Annunziata, remarkable for a fine
+dome, carried on a drum resting directly on the ground, is the
+foremost Renaissance church in Florence.
+
+The contrast between early and matured Renaissance can indeed be
+better recognised in Florence than in almost any other city. The early
+work, that of Bramante, Brunelleschi, and the architects who drew
+their inspirations from these masters, was delicate and refined. The
+detail was always elegant, the ornament always unobtrusive, and often
+most graceful. Features comparatively small in scale were employed,
+and were set off by the use of plain wall-surface, which was
+unhesitatingly displayed. The classic orders were used in a
+restricted, unobtrusive way, and with pilasters in preference to
+columns; and though probably the architects themselves would have
+repudiated the idea that the Gothic art, which they had cast behind
+them, influenced their practice of revived classic in the remotest
+degree, it is nevertheless true that many of these peculiarities, and
+still more the general quality of the designs, were to a large extent
+those to which the practice of Gothic architecture had led them.
+
+A change which was partly due to a natural desire for progress, was
+helped on by the great attention paid by students of architecture to
+the remains of ancient Roman buildings; but it was the influence
+excited by the powerful genius of Michelangelo, and by the gigantic
+scale and vigorous treatment of his masterpiece, St. Peter's, which was
+the proximate occasion of a revolution in taste and practice, to which,
+the labours, both literary and artistic, of Vignola, and the designs of
+Palladio, gave form and consistency. In the fully-developed, or, as it
+is sometimes called, pure Renaissance of Italy, great use is made of
+the classic orders and pediment, and indeed of all the features which
+the Romans had employed. Plain wall space almost disappears under the
+various architectural features introduced, and all ornaments, details,
+and mouldings become bolder and richer, but often less refined and
+correct in design.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 63.--THE PANDOLFINI PALACE, FLORENCE.
+      DESIGNED BY RAPHAEL. (BEGUN 1520.)]
+
+
+ROME.
+
+Rome, the capital of the country, contains, as was fit, the central
+building of the fully-developed Renaissance, St. Peter's. Bramante,
+the Florentine, was the architect to whom the task of designing a
+cathedral to surpass anything existing in Europe was committed by Pope
+Julius II. at the opening of the sixteenth century. Some such project
+had been entertained, and even begun, fifty years earlier, but the
+enterprise was now started afresh, a new design was made, and the
+first stone was laid by the Pope in 1506. Bramante died in some six or
+seven years, and five or six architects in succession, one of whom was
+Raphael, proceeded with the work, without advancing it rapidly, for
+nearly half a century, during which time the design was modified again
+and again. In 1546 the great Michelangelo was appointed architect, and
+the last eighteen years of his life were spent in carrying on this
+great work. He completed the magnificent dome in all its essential
+parts, and left the church a Greek cross (_i.e._ one which has all its
+four arms equal) on plan, with the dome at the crossing. The boast is
+attributed to him that he would take the dome of the Pantheon and hang
+it in the air; and this he has virtually accomplished in the dome of
+St. Peter's--a work of the greatest beauty of design and boldness of
+construction.
+
+Unfortunately, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, Maderno
+was employed to lengthen the nave. This transformed the plan of the
+cathedral into a Latin cross. The existing portico was built at the
+same time; and in 1661 Bernini added the vast forecourt, lined by
+colonnades, which now forms the approach.
+
+This cathedral, of which the history has been briefly sketched, is the
+largest in the world. As we now see it, it consists of a vast
+vestibule; a nave of four bays with side aisles; a vast square central
+space over which hangs the great dome; transepts and a choir, each of
+one bay and an apse. Outside the great central space, an aisle, not
+quite like the ordinary aisle of a church, exists, and there are two
+side chapels. It can be well understood that if the largest church in
+Christendom is divided into so few parts, these must be themselves of
+colossal dimensions, and the truth is that the piers are masses of
+masonry which can be called nothing else than vast, while the spaces
+spanned by the arches and vaults are prodigious. There is little sense
+of mystery about the interior of the building (Fig. 64), the eye soon
+grasps it as a whole, and hours must be spent in it before an idea of
+its gigantic size is at all taken in. The beauty of the colouring adds
+wonderfully to the effect of St. Peter's upon the spectator, for the
+walls are rich with mosaics and coloured marbles; and the interior,
+the dome especially, with the drum upon which it rests, are decorated
+in colour throughout, with fine effect and in excellent taste. The
+interior is amply lighted, and, though very rich, not over decorated;
+its design is simple and noble in the extreme, and all its parts are
+wonderful in their harmony. The connection between the dome and the
+rest of the building is admirable, and there is a sense of vast space
+when the spectator stands under that soaring vault which belongs to
+no other building in the world.
+
+The exterior is disappointing as long as the building is seen in
+front, for the facade is so lofty and advances so far forward as to
+cut off the view of the lower part of the dome. To have an idea of the
+building as Michelangelo designed it, it is necessary to go round to
+the back; and then, with the height of the drum fully seen and the
+contour of the dome, with all its massy lines of living force,
+carrying the eye with them right up to the elegant lantern that crowns
+the summit, some conception of the hugeness and the symmetry of this
+mountain of art seems to dawn on the mind. But even here it is with
+the utmost difficulty that one can apply any scale to the mass, so
+that the idea which the mind forms of its bulk is continually
+fluctuating.
+
+The history of this building extends over all the period of developed
+Renaissance in Rome, and its list of architects includes all the best
+known names. By the side of it every other church, even St. John
+Lateran, appears insignificant; so that the secular buildings in Rome,
+which are numerous, and some of them excellent, are more worth
+attention than the churches, though not a few of the three hundred
+churches and basilicas of the metropolis of Italy are good examples of
+Renaissance.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 64.--ST. PETER'S AT ROME. INTERIOR. (1506-1661.)]
+
+The altars, tombs, and other architectural or semi-architectural works
+which occur in many of the churches of Rome, are, however, finer works
+of art as a rule than the buildings which they adorn. Such gems are
+not confined to Rome, but are to be found throughout Italy: many of
+them belong to the best period of art. Marble is generally the
+material, and the light as a rule falls on these works in one
+direction only. Under these circumstances the most subtle moulding
+gives a play of light and shade, and the most delicate carving
+produces a richness of effect which cannot be attained in exterior
+architecture, executed for the most part in stone, exposed to the
+weather, and seen by diffused and reflected light. Nothing of this
+sort is finer than the monuments by Sansovino, erected in Sta. Maria
+del Popolo at Rome, one of which we illustrate on a small scale (Fig.
+65). The magnificent altar-piece in Sta. Coronale at Vicenza, in which
+is framed Bellini's picture of the baptism of Christ, is another
+example, on an unusually large scale--fine in style, and covered with
+beautiful ornament.
+
+No secular building exists in Rome so early or so simple as the severe
+Florentine palaces; but Bramante, who belongs to the early period,
+erected there the fine Cancelleria palace; and the Palazzo Giraud
+(Fig. 66). These buildings resemble one another very closely; each
+bears the impress of refined taste, but delicacy has been carried
+almost to timidity. The pilasters and cornices which are employed have
+the very slightest projection, but the large mass of the wall as
+compared with the openings, secures an appearance of solidity, and
+hence of dignity. The interior of the Cancelleria contains an arcaded
+quadrangle (_cortile_) of great beauty. Smaller palaces belonging to
+the same period and of the same refined, but somewhat weak, character
+exist in Rome.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 65.--MONUMENT, BY SANSOVINO, IN STA. MARIA DEL
+      POPOLO, ROME. (15TH CENTURY.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 66.--PALAZZO GIRAUD (NOW TORLONIA), ROME. BY
+      BRAMANTE. (1506.)]
+
+The Vatican Palace is so vast that, like St. Peter's, it took more
+than one generation to complete. To Bramante's time belongs the great
+Belvedere, since much altered, but in its original state an admirable
+work. This palace also can show some remarkable additions by Bernini,
+a much later architect, with much that is not admirable or remarkable
+by other hands. The finest Roman palace is the Farnese, begun by San
+Gallo in 1530, continued by Michelangelo, and completed by Giacomo
+della Porta, each architect having altered the design. This building,
+notwithstanding its chequered history, is a dignified, impressive
+mass. It has only three storeys and a scarcely marked basement, and is
+nearly square, with a large quadrangle in its heart. It is very lofty,
+and has a great height of unpierced wall over each storey of windows,
+and is crowned by a bold and highly-enriched cornice--an unusual thing
+for Rome. In this, and in many palaces built about the same time, the
+windows are ornamented in the same manner as those of the Pandolfini
+Palace at Florence; the use of pilasters instead of columns is
+general; the openings are usually square-headed, circular heads being
+usually confined to arcades and loggie; the angles are marked by
+rustication, and the only cornice is the one that crowns the whole.
+This general character will apply to most of the works of Baldassare
+Peruzzi, Vignola, Sangallo, and Raphael, who were, with Michelangelo,
+the foremost architects in Rome in the sixteenth century. But "the
+works executed by Michelangelo are in a bolder and more pictorial
+style, as are also many productions grafted on the earlier Italian
+manner by a numerous class of succeeding architects. In these is to be
+remarked a greater use of columns, engaged and isolated; stronger but
+less studied details; and a greater use of colonnades, in which
+however the combination with the semicircular arch is still unusual,
+the antique in this respect being followed to a great disadvantage.
+Still there is a nobility, a palatial look about these large mansions
+which is very admirable, and is to be remarked in all the palaces,
+even up to the time of Borromini, _circa_ 1640, by whom all the
+principles and parts of Roman architecture were literally turned
+topsy-turvey. Michelangelo's peculiar style was more thoroughly
+carried out on ecclesiastical buildings, and as practised by his
+successors, exhibits much that is fine, in large masses, boldly
+projecting cornices, three-quarter columns, and noble domes; but it is
+otherwise debased by great misconceptions as to the reasonable
+application of architecture."--M. D. W.
+
+In the seventeenth century a decline set in. The late Renaissance has
+neither the severity of the early, nor the dignified richness of the
+mature time, but is extravagant; though at Rome examples of its
+extreme phase are not common. Maderno, who erected the west front of
+St. Peter's, and Bernini, who added the outer forecourt and also built
+the curiously designed state staircase (the _scala regia_) in the
+Vatican, are the foremost architects. To these must be added
+Borromini. The great Barberini Palace belongs to this century; but
+perhaps its most characteristic works are the fountains, some of them
+with elaborate architectural backgrounds, which ornament many of the
+open places in Rome. Few of the buildings of the eighteenth century in
+Rome, or indeed in Italy generally, claim attention as architectural
+works of a high order of merit.
+
+Before leaving central Italy for the north, it is necessary to mention
+the masterpiece of Vignola--the great Farnese Palace at Caprarola; and
+to add that in every city of importance examples more or less
+admirable of the art of the time were erected.
+
+
+VENICE, VICENZA, AND VERONA.
+
+The next great group of Renaissance buildings is to be found at
+Venice, where the style was adopted with some reluctance, and not
+till far on in the sixteenth century. At first we meet with some
+admixture of Gothic elements; as, for example, in the rebuilding of
+the internal quadrangle of the Ducal Palace. Pointed arches are
+partly employed in this work, which was completed about the middle of
+the sixteenth century. In the earlier palaces--which, it will be
+remembered, are comparatively narrow buildings standing side by side
+on the banks of the canals--the storeys are well marked; the windows
+are round headed with smaller arches within the main ones; the orders
+when introduced are kept subordinate; the windows are grouped
+together in the central portion of the front, as was the case with
+those of the Gothic palaces, and very little use is made of
+rusticated masonry. The Vendramini, Cornaro, and Trevisano Palaces
+conform to this type. To the same period belong one or two fine
+churches, the most famous being San Zacaria, a building with a very
+delicately panelled front, and a semicircular pediment in lieu of a
+gable; here, too, semicircular-headed openings are made use of. In
+many of these churches and other buildings, a beautiful ornament,
+which may be regarded as typical of early Venetian Renaissance, is to
+be found. It is the shell ornament, so called from its resemblance to
+a flat semicircular shell, ribbed from the centre to the
+circumference (Fig. 67).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 67.--ITALIAN SHELL ORNAMENT.]
+
+As time went on the style was matured into one of great richness, not
+to say ostentation, with which the names of Sansovino, Sanmichele,
+Palladio, and Scamozzi are identified as the prominent architects of
+the latter part of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In this
+city of palaces Sansovino, also a very fine sculptor, built the
+celebrated Library of St. Mark, facing the Ducal Palace, which has
+been followed very closely in the design of the Carlton Club, Pall
+Mall. Here, as in the splendid Cornaro Palace, the architect relied
+chiefly upon the columns and entablatures of the orders, combined with
+grand arcades enriched by sculpture, so arranged as to occupy the
+spaces between the columns; almost the whole of the wall-space was so
+taken up, and the basement only was covered with rustication, often
+rough worked, as at the beautiful Palazzo Pompeii, Verona, and the
+Grimani Palace, Venice.
+
+"Sanmichele's works are characterised chiefly by their excellent
+proportions, their carefully studied detail, their strength, and their
+beauty (qualities so difficult to combine). We believe that the
+buildings of this great architect and engineer at Verona are
+pre-eminent in their peculiar style over those of any other artist of
+the sixteenth century. In a different, but no less meritorious, manner
+are the buildings designed by Sansovino; they are characterised by a
+more sculptural and ornamental character; order over order with large
+arched voids in the interspaces of the columns producing a pictorial
+effect which might have led his less gifted followers into a false
+style, but for the example of the celebrated Palladio."--M. D. W.
+
+To the latest time of the Renaissance in Venice belongs the
+picturesque domed church of St. Maria della Salute, conspicuous in
+many views of the Grand Canal, a building which is a work of real
+genius in spite of what is considered its false taste. It dates from
+1632. The architect is Longhena.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 68.--THE CHURCH OF THE REDENTORE, VENICE.
+      (1576.)]
+
+An almost endless series of palaces and houses can be found in Venice,
+all of them rich, but few of great extent, for every foot of space had
+to be won from the sea by laborious engineering. There are some
+features which never fail to present themselves, and which are
+consequences of the conditions under which the structures were
+designed. All rise from the water, and require to admit of gondolas
+coming under the walls; hence there is always a principal central
+entrance with steps in front, but this entrance never has any sort of
+projecting portico or porch, and is never very much larger than the
+other openings in the front. As a straight frontage to the water had
+to be preserved, we hardly ever meet with such a thing as a break or
+projection of any sort; but the Venetian architects have found other
+means of giving interest to their elevations, and it is to the very
+restrictions imposed by circumstances that we owe the great
+originality displayed in their earlier buildings. The churches do not
+usually front directly on to the water; and though they are almost all
+good of their kind, they are far more commonplace than the palaces.
+The system of giving variety to the facade of the secular buildings by
+massing openings near the centre, has been already referred to. Both
+shadow and richness were also aimed at in the employment of projecting
+balconies; in fact the two usually go together, for the great central
+window or group of windows mostly has a large and rich balcony
+belonging to it.
+
+Not far from Venice is Vicenza, and here Palladio, whose best
+buildings in Venice are churches, such, for example, as the Redentore
+(Fig. 68), enjoyed an opportunity of erecting a whole group of
+palaces, the fronts of which are extremely remarkable as designs;
+though, being executed in brick and plastered, they are now falling to
+ruin. There is much variety in them, and while some of them rely upon
+his device of lofty pilasters to include two storeys of the building
+under one storey of architectural treatment, others are handled
+differently. In all a singularly fine feeling for proportion and for
+the appropriate omission as well as introduction of ornament is to be
+detected. The worst defect of these fronts is, however, that they
+appear more like masks than the exteriors of buildings, for there is
+little obvious connection between the features of the exterior and
+anything which we may suppose to exist inside the building. The
+finest architectural work left behind by Palladio in this city are,
+however, the great arcades with which he surrounded the Basilica, a
+vast building of the middle ages already alluded to. These arcades are
+two storeys high, and are rich, yet vigorous; they ornament the great
+structure, the roof of which may be seen rising behind, without
+overpowering it.
+
+
+MILAN AND PAVIA.
+
+In Milan two buildings at least belong to the early Renaissance. These
+are the sacristy of Sta. Maria presso San Satiro, and the eastern
+portion of the church of Sta. Maria delle Grazie; Bramante was the
+architect of both. The last-named work is an addition to an existing
+Gothic church; it is executed in the terra-cotta and brick of
+Lombardy, materials which the Renaissance architects seemed to shun in
+later times, and is full of the most profuse and elegant ornaments.
+The design consists of a dome, treated externally a little like some
+of the Lombard domes of earlier date; and three apses forming choir
+and transepts. It is divided into several stages, and abundantly
+varied in its panelling and arcading, and is full of vigour. By
+Bramante is also the very beautiful arcaded quadrangle of the great
+hospital at Milan, the Gothic front of which has been already noticed.
+There are many Renaissance buildings of later date in Milan, but none
+very remarkable.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 69.--THE CERTOSA NEAR PAVIA. PART OF THE WEST
+      FRONT. (BEGUN BY BORGOGNONE 1473.)]
+
+To the early period belongs the design of the facade of the Certosa
+near Pavia, part of which is shown (Fig. 69). This was begun as early
+as 1473, by Ambrogio Borgognone, and was long in hand. It proceeded on
+the lines settled thus early, and is probably the richest facade
+belonging to any church in Christendom; it is executed entirely in
+marble. Sculpture is employed to adorn every part that is near the
+eye, and especially the portal, which is flanked by pilasters with
+their faces panelled and occupied by splendid _alti relievi_. The
+upper part is enriched by inlays of costly marbles, but the two
+systems of decoration do not thoroughly harmonise; for the upper half
+looks coarse, which it in reality is not, in contrast with the
+delicate richness of the carving near the eye. The great features,
+such as the entrance, the windows, and the angle pinnacles are
+thoroughly good, and an arcade of small arches is twice
+introduced,--once running completely across the front at about half
+its height, and again near the top of the central portion,--with
+excellent effect (see Frontispiece).
+
+
+GENOA, TURIN, AND NAPLES.
+
+Turning now to Genoa we find, as we may in several great cities of
+Italy, that very great success has been achieved by an artist whose
+works are to be seen in no other city, and whose fame is
+proportionally restricted. Just as the power of Luini as a painter can
+only be fully understood at Milan, or that of Giulio Romano at Mantua,
+so the genius of Alessio (1500 to 1572) as an architect can only be
+understood at Genoa. From the designs of this architect were built a
+series of well planned and imposing palaces. These buildings have most
+of them the advantage of fine and roomy sites. The fronts are varied,
+but as a rule consist of a very bold basement, with admirably-treated
+vigorous mouldings, supporting a lighter superstructure, and in one or
+two instances flanked by an open arcade at the wings. The entrance
+gives access, through a vaulted hall, to the cortile, which is usually
+planned and designed in the most effective manner; and in several
+instances the state staircase is so combined with this feature that on
+ascending the first flight the visitor comes to a point of sight for
+which the whole may be said to have been designed, and from which a
+splendid composition of columns and arches is seen. The rooms and
+galleries in these palaces are very fine, and in several instances
+have been beautifully decorated in fresco by Perino del Vaga.
+
+Alessio was also the architect of a large domical church (il
+Carignano) in the same city; but it is far inferior in merit to his
+series of palaces. Genoa also possesses a famous church (the
+Annunziata) of late Renaissance, attributed to Puget (1622-1694). It
+is vaulted, and enriched with marbles, mosaics, and colour to such an
+extent that it may fairly claim to be the most gaudy church in Italy,
+which is unfortunate, as its original undecorated design is fine and
+simple.
+
+Turin in the north, and Naples in the south, are chiefly remarkable
+for examples of the latest and more or less debased Renaissance, and
+we therefore do not propose to illustrate or describe any of the
+buildings in either city.
+
+
+COUNTRY VILLAS.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 70.--VILLA MEDICI--ON THE PINCIAN HILL NEAR
+      ROME. BY ANNIBALE LIPPI (NOW THE _Academie Francaise_).
+      (A.D. 1540.)]
+
+As the ancient Roman patrician had his villa, which was his country
+resort, the Italian of the revival followed his example, and, if he
+was wealthy enough, built himself a pleasure house, which he called a
+villa, either in the immediate suburbs of his city, or at some little
+distance away in the country. These buildings occur throughout
+Italy. Many of them are excellent examples of Renaissance
+architecture of a more modest type than that of the palaces. The Villa
+Papa Giulio, built from the designs of Vignola, and the Villa Medici,
+designed by Annibale Lippi, but attributed, for some unknown reason,
+to Michelangelo, may be mentioned as among the most thoroughly
+architectural out of some twenty or more splendid villas in the
+suburbs of Rome alone. Many of these buildings were erected late in
+the Renaissance period, and are better worth attention for their fine
+decorations and the many works of art collected within their walls
+than as architectural studies--but this is not always the case; and as
+they were mostly designed to serve the purpose of elegant museums
+rather than that of country houses as we understand the term, they
+usually possess noble interiors, and exhibit throughout elaborate
+finish, choice materials, and lavish outlay.
+
+  [Illustration: {EARLY RENAISSANCE CORBEL. FROM A DOOR IN SANTA MARIA,
+      VENICE.}]
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[31] An entablature is the superstructure which ordinarily is carried
+by a column, and which it is usual to divide into architrave (or
+beam), frieze, and cornice.
+
+[32] An order consists of a column (or pilaster) with its distinctive
+base and capital, its entablature, and the appropriate decorations.
+There are five orders, differing in proportions, in the degree of
+enrichment required, and in the design of the base and capital of the
+column or pilaster, and of the entablature.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {ORNAMENT BY GIULIO ROMANO.}]
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE AND NORTH EUROPE.
+
+
+CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
+
+The revived classic architecture came direct from Italy, and did not
+reach France till it had been well established in the land of its
+origin. It was not however received with the same welcome which hailed
+its appearance in Italy. Gothic architecture had a strong hold on
+France, and accordingly, instead of a sudden change, we meet with a
+period of transition, during which buildings were erected with
+features partly Gothic and partly Renaissance, and on varied
+principles of design.
+
+French Renaissance underwent great fluctuations, and it is less easy
+to divide it into broad periods than to refer, as most French writers
+prefer to do, to the work of each prominent monarch's reign
+separately.
+
+Francis the First (1515-1547) made the architecture of Italy
+fashionable in his kingdom, and his name is borne by the beautiful
+transitional style of his day. This in most cases retains some Gothic
+forms, and the principles of composition are in the main Gothic, but
+the features are mostly of Italian origin, though handled with a
+fineness of detail and a smallness of scale that is not often met
+with, even in early Italian Renaissance. There are few buildings more
+charming in the architecture of any age or country than the best
+specimens of the style of Francis the First, and none that can bear so
+much decoration and yet remain so little overladen by the ornaments
+they carry. The finest example is the Chateau of Chambord, a large
+building, nearly square on plan, with round corner towers, capped by
+simple and very steep roofs, at the angles; and having as its central
+feature, a large and lofty mass of towers, windows and arcades,
+surmounted by steep roofs, ending in a kind of huge lantern. The
+windows have mullions and transoms like Gothic windows, but pilasters
+of elegant Renaissance design ornament the walls. The main cornice is
+a kind of compromise between an Italian and a Gothic treatment. Dormer
+windows, high and sharply pointed, but with little pilasters and
+pediments as their ornaments, occur constantly; and the chimneys,
+which are of immense mass and great height, are panelled profusely,
+and almost ostentatiously displayed, especially on the central
+portion. In the interior of the central building is a famous
+staircase; but the main attractions are the bright and animated
+appearance of the whole exterior, and the richness and gracefulness of
+the details.
+
+The same architecture is to be well seen in the north side of the
+famous Chateau of Blois--a building parts of which were executed in
+three different periods of French architecture. The exterior of the
+_Francois premier_ part of Blois is irregular, and portions of the
+design are wildly picturesque; on the side which fronts towards the
+quadrangle, the architecture is more symmetrically designed, and
+beauty rather than picturesque effect has been aimed at. An open
+staircase is the part of the quadrangle upon which most care has been
+lavished. Throughout the whole block of buildings the character of
+each individual feature and of every combination of features is
+graceful and _piquant_. The elegance and delicacy of some of the
+carved decoration in the interior is unsurpassed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 71.--WINDOW FROM A HOUSE AT ORLEANS. (EARLY
+      16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+In the valley of the Loire there exist many noblemen's chateaux of
+this date, corresponding in general character with Chambord and Blois,
+though on a smaller scale. Of these Chenonceaux, fortunate alike in
+its design and its situation, is the most elegant and the best known:
+yet many others exist which approach it closely, such, for example, as
+the Chateau de Gaillon--a fragment of which forms part of the Ecole
+des Beaux Arts at Paris--the Hotel de Ville of Beaugency, the Chateaux
+of Chateaudun, Azay-le-Rideau, La Cote, and Usse; the Hotel d'Anjou at
+Angers, and the house of Agnes Sorel at Orleans.
+
+In the streets of Orleans houses of this date (Fig. 71) are to be
+found, showing the style cleverly adapted to the requirements of town
+dwellings and shops. Several of them also possess courtyards with
+arcades or other architectural features treated with great freedom and
+beauty, for instance, the arcades in the house of _Francois Premier_
+(Fig. 72). An arcade in the courtyard of the Gothic Hotel de
+Bourgtherould at Rouen, is one of the best known examples of the style
+remaining, and instances of it may be met with as far apart as at Caen
+(east end of church of St. Pierre) and Toulouse (parts of St. Sernin).
+
+One Paris church, that of St. Eustache, belonging to this transitional
+period claims mention, since for boldness and completeness it is one
+of the best of any date in that city. St. Eustache is a five-aisled
+church with an apse, transept, and lateral chapels outside the outer
+aisle. It is vaulted throughout, and its plan and structure are those
+of a Gothic church in all respects. Its details are however all
+Renaissance, but not so good as those to be found at Blois, nor so
+appropriately used, yet notwithstanding this it has a singularly
+impressive interior.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 72.--CAPITAL FROM THE HOUSE OF FRANCIS I.,
+      ORLEANS. (1540.)]
+
+Meantime, and alongside the buildings resulting from this fusion of
+styles, others which were almost direct importations from Italy were
+rising; in some cases, if not in all, under the direction of Italian
+architects. Thus on Fontainebleau, which Francis I. erected, three or
+four Italian architects, one of whom was Vignola, were engaged. It may
+or may not have been this connection of the great architect with this
+work which gave him influence in France, but certainly almost the
+whole of the later French Renaissance, or at any rate its good time,
+was marked by a conformity to the practice of Vignola, in whose
+designs we usually find one order of columns or pilasters for each
+storey, rather than to that of Palladio, whose use of tall columns
+equalling in height two or more floors of the building has been
+already noticed.
+
+Designs for the Louvre, the rebuilding of which was commenced in the
+reign of Francis the First (about A.D. 1544), were made by Serlio, an
+Italian; and though Pierre Lescot was the architect of the portion
+built in that reign, it is probable that the design obtained from
+Serlio was in the main followed. The part then finished, which, to a
+certain extent gave the keynote to the whole of this vast building,
+was unquestionably a happy effort, and may be taken to mark the
+establishment of a French version of matured Renaissance architecture.
+The main building has two orders of pilasters with cornices, &c., and
+above them a low attic storey, with short piers: at the angles a
+taller pavilion was introduced, and next the quadrangle arcades are
+introduced between the pilasters. The sculpture, some of it at least,
+is from the chisel of Jean Goujon; it is good and well placed, and the
+whole has an air of dignity and richness. The _Pavillon Richelieu_,
+shewn in our engraving (Fig. 73), was not built till the next century.
+The colossal figures are by Barye.
+
+A little later in date than the early part of the Louvre was the Hotel
+de Ville, built from the designs of Pietro da Cortona, an Italian, and
+said to have been begun in 1549. The building had been greatly
+extended before its recent total destruction by fire, but the central
+part, which was the original portion, was a fine vigorous composition,
+having two lofty pavilions, with high roofs at the extremities, and
+a remarkably rich stone lantern of great height for a central feature.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 73.--PAVILLON RICHELIEU OF THE LOUVRE, PARIS.]
+
+In the reign of Charles IX. the Palace of the Tuileries was commenced
+(1564) for Catherine de Medicis, from the designs of Philibert
+Delorme. Of this building, that part only which fronted the garden was
+erected at the time. Our illustration (Fig. 74) shows the
+architectural character of a portion of it, and it is easy to detect
+that considerable alterations have by this time been introduced into
+the treatment of the features of Renaissance architecture. The bands
+of rustication passing round the pilasters as well as the walls, the
+broken pediments on the upper storey, surmounted by figures, and
+supported by long carved pilasters, and the shape of the dormer
+windows are all of them quite foreign to Renaissance architecture as
+practised in Italy, and may be looked upon as essentially French
+features. Similar details were employed in the work executed at about
+the same period, by the same and other architects, in other buildings,
+as may be seen by our illustration (Fig. 75) of a portion of Delorme's
+work at the Louvre. In these features, which may be found in the
+Chateau d'Anet and other works of the same time, and in the style to
+which they belong, may be seen the direct result of Michelangelo's
+Medici Chapel at Florence, a work which had much more effect on French
+than on Italian architecture. The full development of the architecture
+of Michelangelo (or rather the ornamental portions of it) is to be
+found in French Renaissance, rather than in the works of his own
+successors in Italy.
+
+Much of the late sixteenth century architecture of France was very
+inferior, and the parts of the Louvre and Tuileries which date from
+the reign of Henry IV. are the least satisfactory portions of those
+vast piles.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 74.--PART OF THE TUILERIES, PARIS. (BEGUN 1564.)]
+
+Dating from the early part of the seventeenth century, we have the
+Palais Royal built for Richelieu, and the Palace of the Luxembourg, a
+building perhaps more correct and quiet than original or beautiful,
+but against which the reproach of extravagant ornament cannot
+certainly be brought.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 75.--CAPITAL FROM DELORME'S WORK AT THE LOUVRE.
+      (MIDDLE OF 16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+With Louis the Fourteenth (1643 to 1715) came in a great building
+period, of which the most striking memorial is the vast and
+uninteresting Palace of Versailles. The architect was the younger
+Mansard (1647 to 1768), and the vastness of the scale upon which he
+worked only makes his failure to rise to his grand opportunity the
+more conspicuous. The absence of features to diversify the sky-line is
+one of the greatest defects of this building, a defect the less
+excusable as the high-pitched roof of Gothic origin had never been
+abandoned in France. This roof has been employed with great success in
+many buildings of the French Renaissance. Apart from this fault, the
+architectural features of Versailles are so monotonous, weak, and
+uninteresting that the building, though its size may astonish the
+spectator, seldom rouses admiration.
+
+Far better is the eastern block of the Louvre (the portion facing the
+Place du Louvre), though here also we find the absence of high roofs,
+and the consequent monotony of the sky-line--a defect attaching to
+hardly any other portion of the building. Bernini was invited from
+Italy for this work, and there is a curious story in one of Sir
+Christopher Wren's published letters of an interview he had with
+Bernini while the latter was in Paris on this business, and of the
+glimpse which he was allowed to enjoy of the design the Italian had
+made. The building was, however, after all, designed and carried out
+by Perrault, and, though somewhat severe, possesses great beauty and
+much of that dignity in which Versailles is wanting.
+
+The best French work of this epoch to be found in or out of Paris is
+probably the Hotel des Invalides (Fig. 76), with its fine central
+feature. This is crowned by the most striking dome in Paris, one which
+takes rank as second only in Europe to our own St. Paul's, for beauty
+of form and appropriateness of treatment. The two domes are indeed
+somewhat alike in general outline.
+
+The reign of Louis XIV. witnessed a large amount of building
+throughout France, as well as in the metropolis, and to the same
+period we must refer an enormous amount of lavish decoration in the
+interior of buildings, the taste of which is to our eyes painfully
+extravagant. Purer taste on the whole prevailed, if not in the reign
+of Louis XV. certainly in that of Louis XVI., to which period much
+really good decorative work, and some successful architecture belongs.
+The chief building of the latter part of the eighteenth century is the
+Pantheon (Ste. Genevieve), the best domed church in France, and one
+which must always take a high rank among Renaissance buildings of any
+age or country. The architect was Soufflot, and his ambition, like
+that of the old Gothic masons, was not only to produce a work of art,
+but a feat of skill; his design accordingly provided a smaller area of
+walls and piers compared with the total floor space than any other
+Renaissance church, or indeed than any great church, except a few of
+the very best specimens of late Gothic construction, such for example
+as King's College Chapel. The result has been that the fabric has not
+been quite stout enough to bear the weight of the dome, and that it
+has required to be tied and propped and strengthened in various ways
+from time to time. The plan of the Pantheon is a Greek cross, with a
+short vestibule, and a noble portico at the west, and a choir
+corresponding to the vestibule on the east. It has a fine central
+dome, which is excellently seen from many points of view externally,
+and forms the principal feature of the very effective interior. Each
+arm of the building is covered by a flat domical vault; a single order
+of pilasters and columns runs quite round the interior of the church
+occupying the entire height of the walls; and the light is admitted in
+a most successful manner by large semicircular windows at the upper
+part of the church, starting above the cornice of the order.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 76.--L'EGLISE DES INVALIDES, PARIS. BY J. H.
+      MANSARD. (BEGUN A.D. 1645.)]
+
+One other work of the eighteenth century challenges the admiration
+of every visitor to Paris and must not be overlooked, because it is at
+once a specimen of architecture and of that skilful if formal
+arrangement of streets and public places in combination with buildings
+which the French have carried so far in the present century. We allude
+to the two blocks of buildings, occupied as government offices, which
+front to the Place de la Concorde and stand at the corner of the Rue
+Royale. They are the work of Gabriel (1710-1782), and are justly
+admired as dignified if a little heavy and uninteresting. As specimens
+of architecture these buildings, with the Pantheon, are enough to
+establish a high character for French art at a time when in most other
+European countries the standard of taste had fallen to a very low
+level.
+
+The hotels (_i.e._ town mansions) and chateaux of the French nobility
+furnish a series of examples, showing the successive styles of almost
+every part of the Renaissance period. The phases of the style,
+subsequent to that of Francis the First, can however, be so well
+illustrated by public buildings in Paris, that it will be hardly
+necessary to go through a list of private residences however
+commanding; but the Chateau of Maisons, and the Royal Chateau of
+Fontainebleau, may be named as specimens of a class of building which
+shows the capacity of the Renaissance style when freely treated.
+
+Renaissance buildings in France are distinguished by their large
+extent and the ample space which has been in many instances secured in
+connection with them. They are rarely of great height or imposing mass
+like the early Italian palaces. For the most part they are a good deal
+broken up, the surface of the walls is much covered by architectural
+features, not usually on a large scale, so that the impression of
+extent which really belongs to them is intensified by the treatment
+which their architects have adopted.
+
+Orders are frequently introduced and usually correspond with the
+storeys of the building. However this may be the storeys are always
+well marked. The sky-line also is generally picturesque and telling,
+though Versailles and the work of Lescot at the Louvre form an
+exception. Rustication is not much employed, and the vast but simple
+crowning cornices of the Italian palaces are never made use of. Narrow
+fronts like those at Venice, and open arcades or loggias like those of
+Genoa, do not form features of French Renaissance buildings; but on
+the other hand, much richness, and many varieties of treatment which
+the Italians never attempted, were tried, and as a rule successfully,
+in France.
+
+Much good sculpture is employed in external enrichments, and a
+cultivated if often luxuriant taste is always shown. Many of the
+interiors are rich with carving, gilding, and mirrors, but harmonious
+coloured decoration is rare, and the fine and costly mosaics of Italy
+are almost unknown.
+
+
+BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+These countries afford but few examples of Renaissance. The Town Hall
+at Antwerp, an interesting building of the sixteenth century, and the
+Church of St. Anne at Bruges, are the most conspicuous buildings; and
+there are other churches in the style which are characteristic, and
+parts of which are really fine. The interiors of some of the town
+halls display fittings of Renaissance character, often rich and
+fanciful in the extreme, and bearing a general resemblance to French
+work of the same period.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 77.--WINDOW FROM COLMAR. (1575.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 78.--ZEUGHAUS, DANTZIC. (1605.)]
+
+
+GERMANY AND NORTHERN EUROPE.
+
+Buildings of pure Renaissance architecture, anterior to the nineteenth
+century, are scarce in Germany, or indeed in North-east Europe; but a
+transitional style, resembling our own Elizabethan, grew up and long
+held its ground, so that many picturesque buildings can be met with,
+of which the design indicates a fusion of the ideas and features of
+Gothic with those of classic art. This architectural style took so
+strong a hold that examples of it may be found throughout the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in almost every northern town.
+
+That part of the Castle of Heidelberg, which was built at the
+beginning of the seventeenth century, may be cited as belonging to
+this German transitional style. The front in this case is regularly
+divided by pilasters of the classic orders, but very irregular in
+their proportions and position. The windows are strongly marked, and
+with carved mullions. Large dormer windows break into the high roof;
+ornaments abound, and the whole presents a curiously blended mixture
+of the regular and the picturesque. Rather earlier in date, and
+perhaps rather more Gothic in their general treatment, are such
+buildings as the great Council Hall at Rothenberg (1572), that at
+Leipzig (1556), the Castle of Stuttgart (1553), with its picturesque
+arcaded quadrangle, or the lofty and elaborate Cloth Hall at
+Brunswick.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 79.--COUNCIL-HOUSE AT LEYDEN. (1599.)]
+
+Examples of similar character abound in the old inns of Germany and
+Switzerland, and many charming features, such as the window from
+Colmar (Fig. 77), dated 1575, which forms one of our illustrations
+could be brought forward. Another development of the same mixed style
+may be illustrated by the Zeug House at Dantzic (1605), of which we
+give the rear elevation (Fig. 78). Not altogether dissimilar from
+these in character is the finely-designed Castle of Fredericksberg at
+Copenhagen, testifying to the wide spread of the phase of architecture
+to which we are calling attention. The date of this building is 1610.
+A richer example, but one little if at all nearer to Italian feeling,
+is the Council House at Leyden, a portion of which we illustrate (Fig.
+79). This building dates from 1599, and bears more resemblance to
+English Elizabethan in its ornaments, than to the architecture of any
+other country.
+
+Simultaneously with these, some buildings made their appearance in
+Germany, which, though still picturesque, showed the dawn of a wish to
+adopt the features of pure Renaissance. The quadrangle of the Castle
+of Schalaburg (Fig. 80), may be taken as a specimen of the adoption of
+Renaissance ideas as well as forms. It is in effect an Italian
+cortile, though more ornate than Italian architects would have made
+it. It was built in the latter part of the sixteenth century, and
+seems to point to a wish to make use of the new style with but little
+admixture of northern ornament or treatment.
+
+When architecture had quite passed through the transition period,
+which fortunately lasted long, the buildings, not only of Germany, but
+of the north generally, became uninteresting and tame; in fact, they
+present so few distinguishing features, that it is not necessary to
+describe or illustrate them. Russia, it is true, contains a few
+striking buildings belonging to the eighteenth century, but most of
+those which we might desire to refer to, were built subsequent to the
+close of that century.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 80.--QUADRANGLE OF THE CASTLE OF SCHALABURG.
+      (LATE 16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE PATTERN.}]
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL.
+
+
+ENGLAND.--CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.
+
+In England, as in France and Germany, the introduction of the Italian
+Renaissance was not accomplished without a period of transition. The
+architecture of this period is known as Elizabethan, though it lasted
+long after Elizabeth's reign. Sometimes it is called Tudor; but it is
+more convenient and not unusual to limit the term Tudor to the latest
+phase of English Gothic.
+
+Probably the earliest introduction into any English building of a
+feature derived from the newly-revived classic sources is in the tomb
+of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey. The grille inclosing this is of
+good, though late Gothic design; but when the tomb itself came to be
+set up, for which a contract was made with Torregiano in 1512, it was
+Italian in its details. The earliest examples of Renaissance features
+actually built into a structure, so far as we are aware, is in the
+terra-cotta ornamentation of Layer Marney House in Essex, which it is
+certain was erected prior to 1525. It is however long--surprisingly
+long--after this period before we come upon the traces of a general
+use of Renaissance details. In fact, up to the accession of Elizabeth
+(1558) they appear to have been little employed. It is however said
+that early in her reign the treatises on Renaissance architecture of
+Philibert de l'Orme and Lomazzo were translated from Italian into
+English, and in 1563 John Shute published a book on Italian
+architecture.
+
+John of Padua, an Italian architect, was brought to this country by
+Henry VIII. and practised here; and Theodore Havenius of Cleves was
+employed as architect in the buildings of Caius College, Cambridge
+(1565-1574). These two foreigners undoubtedly played an important part
+in a change of taste which, though not general so early, certainly did
+commence before Elizabeth's death in 1603.
+
+At the two universities, and in many localities throughout England,
+new buildings and enlargements of old ones were carried out during the
+long and prosperous reign of Elizabeth; and the style in which they
+were built will be found to have admitted of very great latitude.
+Where the intention was to obtain an effect of dignity or state, the
+classic principles of composition were more or less followed. The
+buildings at Caius College, Cambridge, Longleat, built between 1567
+and 1579 by John of Padua, Woollaton, built about 1580 by Smithson,
+and Burleigh (built 1577), may be named as instances of this. On the
+other hand where a manorial or only a domestic character was desired,
+the main lines of the building are Gothic, but the details, in either
+case, are partly Gothic and partly modified Renaissance. This
+description will apply to such buildings as Knowle, Penshurst,
+Hardwick, Hatfield, Bramshill, or Holland House (Fig. 81). In the
+introductory chapter some account has been given, in general terms, of
+the features familiar to most and endeared to many, which mark these
+peculiarly English piles of buildings; those remarks may be
+appropriately continued here.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 81.--HOLLAND HOUSE AT KENSINGTON. (1607.)]
+
+The hall of Gothic houses was still retained, but only as one of a
+series of fine apartments. In many cases English mansions had no
+internal quadrangle, and are built as large solid blocks with boldly
+projecting wings. They are often of three storeys in height, the roofs
+are frequently of flat pitch, and in that case are hidden behind a
+parapet which is sometimes of fantastic design. Where the roofs are
+steeper and not concealed the gables are frequently of broken outline.
+Windows are usually very large, and with mullions and transoms, and it
+is to these large openings that Elizabethan interiors owe their bright
+and picturesque effects. Entrances are generally adorned with some
+classic or semi-classic features, often, however, much altered from
+their original model; here balustrades, ornamental recesses, stone
+staircases, and similar formal surroundings are commonly found, and
+are generally arranged with excellent judgment, though often quaint in
+design.
+
+"This style is characterised by a somewhat grotesque application of
+the ancient orders and ornaments, by large and picturesquely-formed
+masses, spacious staircases, broad terraces, galleries of great length
+(at times 100 feet long), orders placed on orders, pyramidal gables
+formed of scroll-work often pierced, large windows divided by mullions
+and transoms, bay windows, pierced parapets, angle turrets, and a love
+of arcades. The principal features in the ornament are pierced
+scroll-work, strap-work, and prismatic rustication, combined with
+boldly-carved foliage (usually conventional) and roughly-formed
+figures."--M. D. W.
+
+Interiors are bright and with ample space; very richly ornamented
+plaster ceilings are common; the walls of main rooms are often lined
+with wainscot panelling, and noble oak staircases are frequent.
+
+In the reign of James I., our first Renaissance architect of mark,
+Inigo Jones (1572-1652) became known. He was a man of taste and
+genius, and had studied in Italy. He executed many works, the designs
+for which were more or less in the style of Palladio. These include
+the addition of a portico to the (then Gothic) cathedral of St.
+Paul's, and a magnificent design for a palace which Charles I. desired
+to build at Whitehall. A fragment of this building, now known as the
+Chapel Royal Whitehall, was erected, and small though it be, has done
+much by its conspicuous position and great beauty, to keep up a
+respect for Inigo Jones's undoubted high attainments as an artist.
+
+More fortunate than Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren (1632-1723) had just
+attained a high position as a young man of science, skill, and
+cultivation, and as the architect of the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford,
+when in 1666 the great fire of London destroyed the Metropolitan
+Cathedral, the parochial churches, the Royal Exchange, the Companies'
+Halls, and an immense mass of private property in London, and created
+an opportunity which made great demands upon the energy, skill, and
+fertility of design of the architect who might attempt to grasp it.
+Fortunately, Wren was equal to the occasion, and he has endowed London
+with a Cathedral which takes rank among the very foremost Renaissance
+buildings in Europe, as well as a magnificent series of parochial
+churches, and other public buildings. It is not pretended that his
+works are free from defects, but there can be no question that
+admitting anything which can be truly said against them, they are
+works of artistic genius, full of fresh and original design, and
+exhibiting rare sagacity in their practical contrivance and
+construction.
+
+St. Paul's stands second only to St. Peter's as a great domical
+cathedral of Renaissance architecture. It falls far short of its great
+rival in actual size and internal effect, and is all but entirely
+devoid of that decoration in which St. Peter's is so rich. On the
+other hand, the exterior of St. Paul's (Fig. 82) is far finer, and as
+the English cathedral had the good fortune to be erected entirely from
+the plans and under the supervision of one architect, it is a building
+consistent with itself throughout, which, as we have seen, is more
+than can be said of St. Peter's.
+
+The plan of St. Paul's is a Latin cross, with well marked transepts, a
+large portico, and two towers at the western entrance; an apse of
+small size forms the end of the eastern arm, and of each of the
+transepts; a great dome covers the crossing; the cathedral has a crypt
+raising the main floor considerably, and its side walls are carried
+high above the aisle roofs so as to hide the clerestory windows from
+sight.
+
+The dome is very cleverly planted on eight piers instead of four at
+the crossing, and is a triple structure; for between the dome seen
+from within, and the much higher dome seen from without, a strong cone
+of brickwork rises which bears the weight of the stone lantern and
+ball and cross that surmount the whole. The skill with which the dome
+is made the central feature of a pyramidal composition whatever be the
+point of view, the great beauty of the circular colonnade immediately
+below the dome, the elegant outline of the western towers, and the
+unusual but successful distribution of the great portico, are among
+the most noteworthy elements which go to make up the charm of this
+very successful exterior.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 82.--ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, LONDON. (1675-1710.)]
+
+Wren may be said to have introduced to Renaissance architecture the
+tower and spire, for though many examples occur in Spain, there is
+reason to suppose that he was before the architects of that country in
+his employment of that feature. He has enriched the City of London
+with a large number of steeples, which are Gothic so far as their
+general idea goes, but thoroughly classic in details, and all more or
+less distinctive. The most famous of these is the one belonging to Bow
+Church; others of note belong to St. Clement Danes and St. Bride,
+Fleet Street.
+
+The interiors of some of these churches, as for example St. Stephen,
+Walbrook, St. Andrew, Holborn, and St. James, Piccadilly, are
+excellent both for their good design and artistic treatment, and for
+their being well contrived and arranged for the special purposes they
+were intended to fill.
+
+Wren's secular works were considerable. The Sheldonian Theatre at
+Oxford, the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, and the theatre of
+the College of Physicians London (long since disused), are a group of
+special buildings each of which was undoubtedly a remarkable and
+successful work. Chelsea and Greenwich hospitals are noteworthy as
+among the first specimens of those great buildings for public purposes
+in which England is now so rich, and which to a certain extent replace
+the monastic establishments of the middle ages. At Chelsea the
+building is simple and dignified. Without lavish outlay, or the use of
+expensive materials, much ornament, or any extraneous features, an
+artistic and telling effect has been produced, such as few hospitals
+or asylums since built have equalled. Greenwich takes a higher level,
+and though Wren's work had the disadvantage of having to be
+accommodated to buildings already erected by another architect, this
+building, with its twin domes, its rich outline, and its noble and
+dignified masses, will always reflect honour upon its designer. The
+view of Greenwich hospital from the river may fairly be said to be
+unique for beauty and picturesqueness. At Greenwich, too, we meet with
+some of that skill in associating buildings and open spaces together
+which is so much more common in France than in this country, and by
+the exercise of which the architecture of a good building can be in so
+many ways set off.
+
+Wren, like Inigo Jones, has left behind him a great unexecuted design
+which in many respects is more noble than anything that he actually
+built. This is his earlier design for St. Paul's Cathedral, which he
+planned as a Greek cross, with an ampler dome than the present
+cathedral possesses, but not so lofty. A large model of this design
+exists. Had it been carried out the exterior of the building would
+probably not have appeared so commanding, perhaps not so graceful, as
+it actually is; but the interior would have surpassed all the churches
+of the style in Europe, both by the grandeur of the vast arched space
+under the dome and by the intricacy and beauty of the various vistas
+and combinations of features, for which its admirably-designed plan
+makes provision.
+
+Wren had retired from practice before his death in 1723. His immediate
+successors were Hawksmoor, whose works were heavy and uninteresting,
+and Sir James Vanbrugh. Vanbrugh was a man of genius and has a style
+of his own, "bold, original, and pictorial." His greatest and best
+work is Blenheim, in Oxfordshire, built for the Duke of Marlborough.
+This fine mansion, equal to any French chateau in extent and
+magnificence, is planned with much dignity. The entrance front looks
+towards a large space, inclosed right and left by low buildings,
+which prolong the wings of the main block. The angles of the wings and
+the centre are masked by two colonnades of quadrant shape, and the
+central entrance with lofty columns which form a grand portico, is a
+noble composition.
+
+The three garden fronts of Blenheim are all fine, and there is a
+magnificent entrance hall, but the most successful part of the
+interior is the library, a long and lofty gallery, occupying the
+entire flank of the house and treated with the most picturesque
+variety both of plan and ornament.
+
+Vanbrugh also built Castle Howard, Grimesthorpe, Wentworth, King's
+Weston, as well as many other country mansions of more moderate size.
+
+Campbell, Kent, and Gibbs are the best known names next in succession.
+Of these Campbell is most famous as an author, but Gibbs (1674-1754)
+is the architect of two prominent London churches--St. Martin's and
+St. Mary le Strand, in which the general traditions of Wren's manner
+are ably followed. He was the architect of the Radcliffe Library at
+Oxford. Kent (1684-1748) was the architect of Holkham, the Treasury
+Buildings, and the Horse Guards. He was associated with the Earl of
+Burlington, who acquired a high reputation as an amateur architect,
+which the design of Burlington House (now remodelled for the Royal
+Academy), went far to justify. Probably the technical part of this and
+other designs was supplied by Kent.
+
+Sir William Chambers (1726-1796) was the architect of Somerset House,
+a building of no small merit, notwithstanding that it is tame and very
+bare of sculpture. This building is remarkable as one of the few in
+London in which the Italian feature of an interior quadrangle is
+attempted to be reproduced. Chambers wrote a treatise which has
+become a general text-book of revived classical architecture for
+English students. Contemporary with him were the brothers John and
+Robert Adam, who built much, and began to introduce a severity of
+treatment and a fineness of detail which correspond to some extent to
+the French style of Louis XVI. The interior decorations in plaster by
+these architects are of great elegance and often found in old houses
+in London, as in Hanover Square, on the Adelphi Terrace, and
+elsewhere. The list of the eighteenth century architects closes with
+the names of Sir Robert Taylor and the two Dances, one of whom built
+the Mansion House and the other Newgate; and Stuart, who built several
+country mansions, but who is best known for the magnificent work on
+the antiquities of Athens, which he and Revett published together in
+1762, and which went far to create a revolution in public taste; for
+before the close of the century there was a general cry for making
+every building and every ornamental detail purely and solely Greek.
+
+The architects above named, and others of less note were much employed
+during the eighteenth century in the erection of large country houses
+of Italian, usually Palladian design, many of them extremely
+incongruous and unsatisfactory. Here and there a design better than
+the average was obtained, but as a rule these stately but cold
+buildings are very far inferior to the picturesque and home-like
+manors and mansions built during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 83.--HOUSES AT CHESTER. (16TH CENTURY.)]
+
+It is worth notice that the picturesque element, inherited from the
+Gothic architecture of the middle ages, which before the eighteenth
+century had completely vanished from our public buildings, and the
+mansions of the wealthy did not entirely die out of works executed in
+remote places. In the half-timbered manors and farmhouses which
+abound in Lancashire, Cheshire, Shropshire, and Staffordshire, and in
+other minor works, we always find a tinge, sometimes a very full
+colouring, of the picturesque and the irregular; the gables are sharp,
+upper storeys overhang, and the treatment of the timbers is
+thoroughly Gothic (Fig. 83); so are the mouldings, transoms and
+mullions to the windows, and barge boards to the roofs. In the reign
+of James I. a mode of enriching the exteriors of dwelling-houses, as
+well as their ceilings, chimney-pieces, &c., with ornaments modelled
+in plaster came in, and though the remaining specimens are from year
+to year disappearing, yet in some old towns (_e.g._ in Ipswich)
+examples of this sort of treatment (known as Jacobean) still linger.
+
+In Queen Anne's reign a semi-Gothic version of Renaissance
+architecture was practised, to which great attention has been directed
+in the present day. The Queen Anne style is usually carried out in
+brickwork, executed in red bricks and often most admirable in its
+workmanship. Pilasters, cornices, and panels are executed in cut
+bricks, and for arches, niches, and window heads very finely jointed
+bricks are employed. The details are usually Renaissance, but of
+debased character; a crowning cornice of considerable projection under
+a high-pitched hipped roof (_i.e._ one sloping back every way like a
+truncated pyramid) is commonly employed; so also are gables of broken
+outline. Dormer windows rich and picturesque, and high brick chimneys
+are also employed; so are bow windows, often carried on concave
+corbels of a clumsy form. Prominence is given in this style to the
+joiner's work; the windows, which are usually sash windows, are
+heavily moulded and divided into small squares by wooded sash bars.
+The doors have heavily moulded panels, and are often surmounted by
+pediments carried by carved brackets or by pilasters; in the interiors
+the woodwork of staircases such as the balusters, newel posts, and
+handrails is treated in a very effective and well considered way, the
+greater part of the work being turned on the lathe and enriched with
+mouldings extremely well designed for execution in that manner. By
+this style and the modifications of it which were more or less
+practised till they finally died out, the traditional picturesqueness
+of English architecture which it had inherited from the middle ages
+was kept alive, so that it has been handed down, in certain localities
+almost, if not quite, to the present century.
+
+
+SCOTLAND.
+
+The architecture of Scotland during the sixteenth and succeeding
+centuries possesses exceptional interest. It was the case here, as it
+had been in England, that the most important buildings of the time
+were domestic; the erection of churches and monasteries had ceased.
+
+The castles and semi-fortified houses of Scotland form a group apart,
+possessing strongly-marked and well-defined character; they are
+designed in a mixed style in which the Gothic elements predominated
+over the classic ones. But the Scottish domestic Gothic, from which
+the new style was partly derived, had borne little or no resemblance
+to the florid Tudor of England. It was the severe and simple
+architecture of strongholds built with stubborn materials, and on
+rocky sites, where there was little inducement to indulge in
+decoration. Dunstaffnage or Kilchurn Castles may be referred to as
+examples of these plain, gloomy keeps with their stepped gables, small
+loops for windows, and sometimes angle turrets.
+
+The classic elements of the style were not drawn (as had been the case
+in England) direct from Italy, but came from France. The Scotch,
+during their long struggles with the English, became intimately allied
+with the French, and it is therefore not surprising that Scottish
+Baronial architecture should resemble the early Renaissance of French
+chateaux very closely. The hardness of the stone in which the Scotch
+masons wrought forbade their attempting the extremely delicate detail
+of the Francois I. ornament, executed as it is in fine, easily-worked
+stone of smooth texture; and the difference in the climate of the two
+countries justified in Scotland a boldness which would have appeared
+exaggerated and extreme in France. Accordingly the style in passing
+from one country to the other has changed its details to no
+inconsiderable extent.
+
+Many castles were erected in the sixteenth and following centuries in
+Scotland, or were enlarged and altered; the most characteristic
+features in almost all of them are short round angle turrets, thrown
+out upon bold corbellings near the upper part of towers and other
+square masses. These are often capped by pointed roofs; and the
+corbels which carry them, and which are always of bold, vigorous
+character, are frequently enriched by a kind of cable ornament, which
+is very distinctive. Towers of circular plan, like bastions, and
+projecting from the general line of the walls, or at the angles,
+constantly occur. They are frequently crowned by conical roofs, but
+sometimes (as at Fyvie Castle) they are made square near the top by
+means of a series of corbels, and finished with gables or otherwise.
+Parapets are in general use, and are almost always battlemented.
+Roofs, when visible, are of steep pitch, and their gables are almost
+always of stepped outline, while dormer windows, frequently of
+fantastic form, are not infrequent. Chimneys are prominent and lofty.
+Windows are square-headed, and, as a rule, small; sometimes they
+retain the Gothic mullions and transom, but in many cases these
+features are absent. Doorways are generally arched, and not often
+highly ornamented.
+
+Cawdor Castle, Glamis Castle, Fyvie Castle, Castle Fraser, the old
+portions of Dunrobin Castle, Tyninghame House, the extremely
+picturesque palace at Falkland, and a considerable part of Stirling
+Castle, may be all quoted as good specimens of this thoroughly
+national style, but it would be easy to name two or three times as
+many buildings nearly, if not quite, equal to these in architectural
+merit.
+
+Heriot's Hospital, Edinburgh, may be quoted (with part of Holyrood
+Palace) as showing the style of the seventeenth century. Heriot's
+Hospital was built between the years 1628 and 1660. It is built round
+a great quadrangle, and has square towers at the four corners, each
+relieved by small corbelled angle turrets. The entrance displays
+columns and an entablature of debased but not unpleasing Renaissance
+architecture, and the building altogether resembles an English
+Elizabethan or Jacobean building to a greater extent than most
+Scottish designs.
+
+When this picturesque style, which appears indeed to have retained its
+hold for long, at last died out, very little of any artistic value was
+substituted for it. Late in the eighteenth century, it is true, the
+Brothers Adam erected public buildings in Edinburgh and Glasgow, and
+carried out various works of importance in a classic style which has
+certainly some claim to respect; but if correct it was tame and
+uninteresting, and a poor exchange for the vigorous vitality which
+breathes in the works of the architects of the early Renaissance in
+Scotland.
+
+
+SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
+
+In the Spanish peninsula, Renaissance architecture ran through three
+phases, very strongly distinguished from one another, each being
+marked by peculiarities of more than ordinary prominence. The early
+stage, to which the Spaniards give the name of Plateresco, exhibits
+the same sort of fusion of Gothic with classic which we find in France
+and Scotland. The masses are often simple, but the individual features
+are overladen with an extravagant amount of ornament, and, as in
+France, many things which are essentially Gothic, such as pinnacles,
+gargoyles, and parapets, are retained. The Renaissance style was
+introduced at the latter part of the fifteenth century, and a very
+considerable number of buildings to which the description given above
+will apply were erected prior to the middle of the sixteenth. Among
+these may be enumerated the cathedral at Granada, the Hospital of
+Santa Cruz at Toledo (1504-1514), the dome of Burgos Cathedral (1567),
+the Cathedral of Malaga, San Juan della Penitencia at Toledo (1511),
+the facade of the Alcazar at Toledo (1548), the Town Hall (1551), and
+Casa Zaporta (1560) at Zarragoza, and the Town Hall of Seville (1559).
+
+A great number of tombs, staircases, doorways, and other smaller
+single features, executed during this period from the designs of good
+artists, are to be found scattered through the country. "These
+Renaissance monuments exhibit an extraordinary degree of variety in
+their ornaments, which are of the most fantastic nature; an exuberant
+fancy would seem to have sought a vent, especially in the sculptured
+ornament of the style, which though at times crowded, overladen, and
+we must add disfigured by the most grotesque ideas, is very striking
+for its originality and excellent workmanship."--(M. D. W.)
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 84.--THE ALCAZAR AT TOLEDO. (BEGUN 1568.)]
+
+The second phase of Spanish architecture was marked by a plain and
+simple dignity, equally in contrast with the Plateresco which had
+preceded it and with the extravagant style to which it at length gave
+place. The earliest architect who introduced into Spain an
+architectural style founded on the best examples of Italy, was Juan
+Baptista de Toledo. He in the year 1563 commenced the Escurial
+Palace--the Versailles of Spain; but the principal part of the
+building was erected by his more celebrated pupil, Juan de Herrera,
+who carried on the works during the years from 1567 to 1579. This
+building, one of the most extensive palaces in Europe, is noble in its
+external aspect from a distance, thanks to its great extent, its fine
+central dome, and its many towers, but it is disappointing when
+approached. Of the interior the most noteworthy feature is a
+magnificently decorated church, of great size and unusual arrangement;
+and this dignified central feature has raised the Escurial, in spite
+of many faults, to the position of the most famous and probably most
+deservedly admired among the great Renaissance palaces of Europe.
+
+By the same architect numerous buildings were erected, among others
+the beautiful, if somewhat cold, arcaded interior of the Alcazar of
+Toledo (Fig. 84), which may be taken as a fair specimen of the noble
+qualities to be found in his dignified and comparatively simple
+designs. About the middle of the sixteenth century Charles V. erected
+his palace at Granada; but here the architecture is strongly coloured
+by Italian or French examples, and much of the building resembles
+Perrault's work at the Louvre very closely. Herrera and his school
+were probably too severe in taste to suit the fancy of their
+countrymen, for Spanish architecture in the eighteenth century fell a
+victim to debased forms and a fantastic and exaggerated style of
+ornament. Churriguera was the architect who has the credit of having
+introduced this unfortunate third manner, and has lent it his name.
+For a time "Churriguerismo" found general acceptance, and the century
+closed under its influence.
+
+We must not pass over the excellent and varied Renaissance towers and
+steeples of Spain in silence. They are not unlike Wren's spires in
+general idea; they are to be met with in many parts of the country
+attached to the churches, and their variety and picturesqueness
+increase the claim of Spanish architecture to our respect.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The one Renaissance building in Portugal which has been much
+illustrated, and is spoken of in high terms, is the Convent at Mafra,
+a building of the eighteenth century, of great extent and picturesque
+effect. Great skill is shown in dealing with the unwieldy bulk of an
+overgrown establishment which does not yield even to the Escurial in
+point of extent. We are, however, up to the present time without the
+means of forming an opinion upon the nature and value of the
+architecture of Portugal as a whole.
+
+  [Illustration: {ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE PATTERN.}]
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: {FROM A FRIEZE AT VENICE.}]
+
+INDEX.
+
+_See also CONTENTS at beginning._
+
+
+    Adam, John and Robert, 223.
+
+    Alberti, _Architect_, 167.
+
+    Amiens Cathedral, 76, 78.
+
+    Andernach, Church at, 96.
+
+    Anne, Queen, Style of, 225.
+
+    Arnstein Abbey, 94.
+
+
+    Baptista, _Architect_, 232.
+
+    Batalha, Monastery at, 142, 153.
+
+    Beauvais Cathedral, _Interior_, 86.
+
+    Belgium and Netherlands, _Gothic_, 87.
+
+    ---- _Renaissance_, 206.
+
+    Bernini, _Architect_, 175, 181, 203.
+
+    Blenheim, 221.
+
+    Blois, Chateau of, 194.
+
+    Blois, Capital from St. Nicholas, 84.
+
+    Bourges, House of Jaques Coeur, 15.
+
+    Bramante, _Architect_, 168, 174, 180.
+
+    Brunelleschi, _Architect_, 120, 166.
+
+    Buttresses, 32.
+
+
+    Caen, Saint Pierre at, 37.
+
+    Cambridge, King's College, 63.
+
+    Campaniles in Italy, 128.
+
+    Capitals, Gothic, 43.
+
+    Certosa, near Pavia, _frontispiece_, 183.
+
+    Chambers, _Architect_, 222.
+
+    Chambord, Chateau of, 194.
+
+    Chartres, Stained glass at, 65, 69.
+
+    Chester, Old Houses at, 38, 224.
+
+    Churriguera, _Architect_, 230.
+
+    Colmar, Window at, 206.
+
+    Cologne Cathedral, 97, 104.
+
+    Columns and Piers, 40.
+
+    Cortona, Pietro da, _Architect_, 198.
+
+    Cremona, Palace at, 117.
+
+
+    Dantzic, Zeughaus at, 203.
+
+    De Caumont. _Abecedaire_, 71.
+
+    Decorated style of Architecture, 24.
+
+    Delorme, _Architect_, 200, 214.
+
+    Domestic Buildings, _Gothic_, 14.
+
+
+    Early English Architecture, 24.
+
+    Eltham Palace, Roof of, 53.
+
+    England, Gothic Architecture in, 21.
+
+    ---- Renaissance in, 213.
+
+
+    Florence, Cathedral at, 121.
+
+    ---- Pandolfini Palace, 170, 173.
+
+    ---- Riccardi Palace, 167.
+
+    ---- Strozzi Palace, 169.
+
+    Fontevrault, Church at, 70.
+
+    France, Gothic Architecture in, 69.
+
+    ---- Renaissance in, 193.
+
+    Francis the First of France, 193.
+
+    Friburg Cathedral, 98.
+
+
+    Gables in Gothic Architecture, 36.
+
+    Germany, Gothic Architecture in, 93.
+
+    ---- Renaissance, 209.
+
+    Ghent, Tower at, 90.
+
+    Gibbs, _Architect_, 222.
+
+    Giotto's Campanile at Florence, 120.
+
+    Gothic, The word, 5.
+
+    Goujon, Jean, _Sculptor_, 198.
+
+
+    Haddon Hall, 17.
+
+    Havenius of Cleves, _Architect_, 214.
+
+    Hawksmoor, _Architect_, 221.
+
+    Heidelberg, Castle of, 156, 209.
+
+    Herrera, Juan de, _Architect_, 217.
+
+    Holland House, 215.
+
+
+    Italy, Gothic Architecture in, 112.
+
+    ---- Renaissance in, 165.
+
+
+    John of Padua, _Architect_, 214.
+
+    Jones, Inigo, _Architect_, 217.
+
+
+    Kent, _Architect_, 222.
+
+    Kuttenberg, St. Barbara at, 99.
+
+
+    Lescot, _Architect_, 198.
+
+    Leyden, Council-house at, 210.
+
+    Lichfield Cathedral, West Door, 5.
+
+    Lincoln Cathedral, General view, 35.
+
+    Lippi Annibale, _Architect_, 192.
+
+    Lisieux, Old Houses at, 41.
+
+    Loches, Doorway at, 72.
+
+    London, St. Paul's Cathedral, 218.
+
+
+    Maderno, _Architect_, 175, 181.
+
+    Mafra, Convent at, 232.
+
+    Mansard, _Architect_, 160.
+
+    Michelangelo _as an Architect_, 170, 174.
+
+    Michelozzo, _Architect_, 167.
+
+    Middleburgh, Town Hall at, 89.
+
+    Milan Cathedral, 115.
+
+    Misereres in Wells Cathedral, 68, 92.
+
+    Mouldings, Gothic, 62.
+
+
+    Nuremberg, St. Sebald's at, 109.
+
+
+    Oakham, Decorated Spire of, 60.
+
+    Ogee-shaped arch, 129.
+
+    Oppenheim, St. Catherine at, 107.
+
+    Orleans, Capital from house at, 197.
+
+    Orleans, Window at, 196.
+
+
+    Pavia, Certosa, near, 114, 188.
+
+    Palladio, _Architect_, 172, 184, 187.
+
+    Paris, Cathedral of Notre Dame, 74.
+
+    ---- Hotel des Invalides at, 205.
+
+    ---- Louvre, Capital from, 202.
+
+    ---- Louvre, Pavillon Richelieu, 199.
+
+    ---- Pantheon at, 204.
+
+    ---- Tuileries, by Delorme, 200.
+
+    Perpendicular Architecture, 25.
+
+    Peruzzi, _Architect_, 181.
+
+    Peterborough Cathedral, Plan, 6.
+
+    Pisano, Nicola, _Sculptor_, 120.
+
+    Plateresco, _Spanish_, 230.
+
+    Principles of Gothic Design, 146.
+
+
+    Raphael _as an Architect_, 170.
+
+    Renaissance Architecture, 154.
+
+    Regensburg (Ratisbon), Well at, 20.
+
+    Rheims Cathedral, Piers, 80.
+
+    Rome, Monument in Santa Maria del Popolo, 179.
+
+    Rome, Palazzo Giraud, 178, 180.
+
+    ---- St. Peter's, 174, 177.
+
+    ---- Villa Medici, 191.
+
+
+    Saint Gall Manuscript, The, 13.
+
+    Salisbury Cathedral, Section, 7.
+
+    Saint Iago di Compostella, 137.
+
+    Sangallo, _Architect_, 181.
+
+    Sansovino, _Architect_, 178, 184.
+
+    Scamozzi, _Architect_, 184.
+
+    Scotland, Cawdor Castle, 227.
+
+    ---- Dunrobin Castle, 228.
+
+    ---- Heriot's Hospital, 228.
+
+    Schalaburg, Castle of, 212.
+
+    Schwartz-Rheindorff, Church at, 101.
+
+    Serlio, _Architect_, 198.
+
+    Seville, The Giralda at, 140.
+
+    Siena Cathedral, 123.
+
+    Spain, Gothic Architecture in, 137.
+
+    ---- Renaissance in, 228.
+
+    Spires, 58.
+
+    Stained Glass, 64.
+
+    Strasburg Cathedral, 98.
+
+
+    Thann, Doorway at, 106.
+
+    Tivoli, Window from, 134.
+
+    Toledo, Alcazar at, 232.
+
+    ---- Cathedral, 138.
+
+    Towers and Spires, 33.
+
+    Tracery, Venetian, 130.
+
+    Tudor Architecture, 25.
+
+
+    Vanbrugh, _Architect_, 221.
+
+    Venice, 182.
+
+    Venice, Church of Redentore, 186.
+
+    ---- Ducal Palace at, 118.
+
+    ---- Palaces on Grand Canal, 18.
+
+    Vienna, St. Stephen at, 98.
+
+    Vignola, _Architect_, 172, 181, 182.
+
+
+    Warboys, Early English Spire, 59.
+
+    Warwick Castle, Plan, 16.
+
+    Wells Cathedral, Nave, 9.
+
+    Westminster Abbey, Plan, 11.
+
+    Westminster Abbey, Carving, 67.
+
+    ---- Henry VII.'s Chapel, 57.
+
+    ---- Triforium, 49.
+
+    Windows, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51.
+
+    Window, Italian Gothic, 134, 136.
+
+    Worcester Cathedral, Choir, 9.
+
+    Wren, Sir C., _Architect_, 203, 217, 220.
+
+
+LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR.
+
+
+
+
+_Now in course of Publication._
+
+A NEW SERIES
+
+OF
+
+ILLUSTRATED TEXT-BOOKS
+
+OF
+
+ART EDUCATION,
+
+EDITED BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.
+
+Each volume contains numerous illustrations, and is strongly bound for
+the use of students. Price 5_s._
+
+_To be issued in the following Divisions:--_
+
+
+_PAINTING._
+
+* CLASSIC and ITALIAN. By EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A., and PERCY R. HEAD,
+Lincoln College, Oxford.
+
+GERMAN, FLEMISH, and DUTCH. By H. WILMOT BUXTON, M.A.
+
+FRENCH and SPANISH. By GERARD SMITH, Exeter College, Oxford.
+
+ENGLISH and AMERICAN. By H. WILMOT BUXTON, M.A.
+
+
+_ARCHITECTURE._
+
+CLASSIC and EARLY CHRISTIAN. By T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+
+* GOTHIC and RENAISSANCE. By T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.
+
+
+_SCULPTURE._
+
+ANTIQUE: EGYPTIAN and GREEK. By GEORGE REDFORD, F.R.C.S.
+
+RENAISSANCE and MODERN. By GEORGE REDFORD, F.R.C.S.
+
+
+_ORNAMENT._
+
+DECORATION IN COLOUR. By GEORGE AITCHISON, M.A.
+
+ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENT. With numerous Illustrations.
+
+* _These Divisions are now ready._
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Minor punctuation errors have been repaired.
+
+Hyphenation and accent usage has been made consistent.
+
+Spelling was made consistent as follows:
+
+    Page xxxvii--Transome amended to Transom--"TRANSOM.--A
+    horizontal bar (usually of stone) ..."
+
+    Page xl--Hardwicke amended to Hardwick--"THE END-PAPERS ARE
+    FROM A TAPESTRY IN HARDWICK HALL."
+
+    Page 198--di amended to da--"... built from the designs of
+    Pietro da Cortona, ..."
+
+    Page 217--transomes amended to transoms--"... and with
+    mullions and transoms, ..."
+
+    Page 217--transomes amended to transoms--"... large windows
+    divided by mullions and transoms, ..."
+
+    Page 224--Cotemporary amended to Contemporary--"Contemporary
+    with him were the brothers John and Robert Adam, ..."
+
+    Page 226--transomes amended to transoms--"... so are the
+    mouldings, transoms and mullions to the windows, ..."
+
+    Page 236--Middleburg amended to Middleburgh--"Middleburgh,
+    Town Hall at, 89."
+
+    Page 236--Nicolo amended to Nicola--"Pisano, Nicola,
+    _Sculptor_, 120."
+
+    Page 236--Strassburg amended to Strasburg--"Strasburg
+    Cathedral, 98."
+
+    Page 236--Van Brugh amended to Vanbrugh--"Vanbrugh,
+    _Architect_, 221."
+
+The following amendments have been made:
+
+    Page x--omitted page number added--"3. SCOTLAND, WALES, and
+    IRELAND 91"
+
+    Page xxiv--frize amended to frieze--"... the architrave,
+    which rests on the columns, the frieze and the cornice."
+
+    Page xxiv--The entry for Entablature originally followed
+    Embattled. It has been moved to the correct place in the
+    glossary.
+
+    Page xxv--Styl amended to Style--"FRANCOIS I. STYLE.--The
+    early Renaissance architecture of France during part of the
+    sixteenth century."
+
+    Page xxvii--Lintol amended to Lintel--"LINTEL.--The stone or
+    beam covering a doorway ..."
+
+    Page 12--arrangment amended to arrangement--"The whole
+    arrangement of pier and arch ..."
+
+    Page 25--ierced amended to pierced--"Parapet pierced with
+    quatrefoils and flowing tracery."
+
+    Page 30--repeated 'and' deleted--"... Gothic dwelling-houses
+    of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries exist, ..."
+
+    Page 36--constrast amended to contrast--"... is to combine
+    and yet contrast its horizontal and vertical elements."
+
+    Page 39--storys amended to storeys--"... and sometimes also
+    the basement storeys, ..."
+
+    Page 46--and amended to end--"... occupying the eastern end
+    of one of the transepts ..."
+
+    Page 82--semi-circula amended to semicircular--"... and the
+    roofs of semicircular and circular apses, ..."
+
+    Page 88--achitecture amended to architecture--"... their
+    architecture, though certainly Gothic, is debased in style."
+
+    Page 114--laboration amended to elaboration--"... remarkable
+    specimens of the ornamental elaboration which can be
+    accomplished in brickwork."
+
+    Page 142--Ths amended to The--"The great church at Batalha
+    ..."
+
+    Page 159--omitted 'the' added before building--"... in his
+    treatment of the same part of the building ..."
+
+    Page 176--repeated 'is' deleted--"... as long as the
+    building is seen in front ..."
+
+    Page 186--builing amended to building--"... lofty pilasters
+    to include two storeys of the building ..."
+
+    Page 194--first amended to First--"...than the best
+    specimens of the style of Francis the First ..."
+
+    Page 226--82 amended to 83--"... the treatment of the timbers
+    is thoroughly Gothic (Fig. 83); ..."
+
+    Page 230--archiect amended to architect--"The earliest
+    architect who introduced into Spain an architectural style
+    ..."
+
+    Page 233--picuresque amended to picturesque--"... a building
+    of the eighteenth century, of great extent and picturesque
+    effect."
+
+    Page 235--page references put into numerical
+    order--"Brunelleschi, _Architect_, 120, 166."
+
+    Page 235--137 amended to 173--"Florence ... ---- Pandolfini
+    Palace, 170, 173."
+
+    Page 235--omitted 7 added--"Haddon Hall, 17."
+
+Illustrations have been moved where necessary so that they are not in
+the middle of a paragraph.
+
+There was an error in the List of Illustrations. The original read:
+
+    66. PALAZZO GIRAUD, ROME. BY BRAMANTE. (1506.) 180
+
+    67. THE CHURCH OF ST. FRANCESCO, AT FERRARA. INTERIOR 183
+
+    68. ITALIAN SHELL ORNAMENT 184
+
+    69. THE CHURCH OF THE REDENTORE, VENICE. (1576.) 186
+
+    70. CERTOSA NEAR PAVIA. PART OF WEST FRONT. (BEGUN 1473.)
+    189
+
+    70A. EARLY RENAISSANCE CORBEL 192
+
+    71. WINDOW FROM A HOUSE AT ORLEANS. (EARLY 16TH CENTURY.)
+    195
+
+The listed Fig. 67 does not appear anywhere in the text. The List of
+Illustrations has been amended to accurately list the figures in the
+main body of the book, by removing the erroneous listing, renumbering
+the figures as necessary, including a previously omitted figure, FIG.
+70.--VILLA MEDICI--ON THE PINCIAN HILL NEAR ROME. BY ANNIBALE LIPPI
+(NOW THE _Academie Francaise_). (A.D. 1540.), and amending the page
+numbers.
+
+The advertising material has been moved to the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith
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