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diff --git a/33837-h/33837-h.htm b/33837-h/33837-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f1b0d25 --- /dev/null +++ b/33837-h/33837-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,10526 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Architecture: Gothic and Renaissance, by T. Roger Smith. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + div.centered table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + a {text-decoration: none;} + + img {border: none;} + + em {font-style: italic;} + + .hidden {display: none;} + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-style: normal; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .bb {border-bottom: 1px black solid;} + .bl {border-left: 1px black solid;} + .bt {border-top: 1px black solid;} + .br {border-right: 1px black solid;} + .bbox {border: 2px black solid; padding: 1em; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps; font-style: normal;} + + .dropcap {float: left; width: auto; padding-right: 3px; font-size: 350%; line-height: 83%;} + /* Plain dropcaps */ + + .caption {font-weight: bold; font-variant: small-caps; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 2em;} + .right {text-align: right; font-size: 90%;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px; margin-top: 2em;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: .2em; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .tdlt {text-align: left; vertical-align: top;} /* left align cell */ + .tdc {text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom; padding-top: 1.5em;} /* center align cell */ + .tdrt {text-align: right; vertical-align: top;} /* right align cell */ + .tdrb {text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} /* right align cell */ + .tdind {text-align: left; vertical-align: top; padding-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;} /* left align cell, indented */ + .tdlsc {text-align: left; vertical-align: top; font-variant: small-caps;} /* left align cell small caps font */ + .tdinlsc {text-align: left; vertical-align: top; font-variant: small-caps; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} /* left align cell small caps font */ + .tdrsc {text-align: right; vertical-align: top; font-variant: small-caps;} /* right align cell small caps font */ + .tdspc {text-align: center; vertical-align: top;} + .tdl {text-align: left;} + + .sig {text-align: right; margin-right: 4em;} /* signature aligned right */ + + .xlrgfont {font-size: 200%;} + .lrgfont {font-size: 120%;} + .smlfont {font-size: 90%;} + .vsmlfont {font-size: 80%;} + + .nosc {font-variant: normal;} + + .vertmarg {margin-top: -1.5em;} + .smlpadt {padding-top: 1.5em;} + .padtop {padding-top: 3em;} + .padbase {padding-bottom: 3em;} + .ipadtop {padding-top: 2em;} + .ipadboth {padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 2em;} + + .hang {padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + + .space1 {padding-left: 2.5em; padding-right: 2.5em;} + .space2 {padding-left: 3.25em; padding-right: 3.25em;} + .space3 {padding-left: 1.35em; padding-right: 1.35em;} + + .index {padding-top: 2em;} /* spacing for individual letters */ + + .brace {font-size: 300%; padding-top: .5em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Architecture + Gothic and Renaissance + +Author: Thomas Roger Smith + +Editor: Edward J. Poynter + +Release Date: October 3, 2010 [EBook #33837] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHITECTURE *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Sam W. and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="bbox"> +<p><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p> + +<p>A considerable number of the page references in the index are incorrect; however, +they have been preserved as printed. The transcriber has, as far as possible, linked +to the correct place in the text.</p> +</div> + + + + +<p class="center padtop lrgfont"><i>ILLUSTRATED TEXT-BOOKS OF ART<br /> +EDUCATION</i></p> + +<p class="center"><i>EDITED BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.</i></p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/agr001.png" width="100" height="20" +alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + + +<p class="center xlrgfont">ARCHITECTURE<br /> +GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE</p> + +<p class="center lrgfont">BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 100px;"> +<img src="images/agr001.png" width="100" height="20" +alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + + + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 424px;"> +<a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a> +<img src="images/agr002.jpg" width="424" height="600" +alt="A view from a central courtyard to a high tower" /> +<p class="right">P. <a href="#Page_114">114</a></p> +</div> + +<p class="caption">THE CERTOSA, NEAR PAVIA. From the Cloisters.<br /> +Begun by Marco di Campione, <small>A.D.</small> 1393.</p> + + + + +<p class="center lrgfont padtop"><i>TEXT-BOOK OF ART EDUCATION, EDITED BY<br /> +EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.</i></p> + + +<h1 class="padtop"><span class="lrgfont">ARCHITECTURE</span><br /> +GOTHIC AND RENAISSANCE</h1> + +<p class="center padtop lrgfont">BY T. ROGER SMITH, F.R.I.B.A.</p> + +<p class="center smlfont"><i>Occasional Lecturer on Architecture at University College, London</i></p> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 306px;"> +<a name="tpage" id="tpage"></a> +<img src="images/agr003.jpg" width="306" height="300" +alt="St. George. Panel from the tomb of Cardinal Amboise in Rouen Cathedral" /> +</div> + + +<p class="center">NEW YORK<br /> +SCRIBNER AND WELFORD.</p> + +<p class="center">LONDON<br /> +SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON<br /> +<span class="smlfont">CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET</span><br /> +1880</p> + + +<p class="center padtop padbase">(<i>All rights reserved.</i>)</p> + + +<p class="center padtop padbase">LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR,<br /> +BREAD STREET HILL, E. C.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>vii]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/agr004.jpg" width="500" height="183" +alt="Crête from Notre Dame, Paris" /> +</div> + +<h2>PREFACE.</h2> + + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE history, the features, and the most famous +examples of European architecture, during a period +extending from the rise of the Gothic, or pointed, style +in the twelfth century to the general depression which +overtook the Renaissance style at the close of the eighteenth, +form the subject of this little volume. I have +endeavoured to adopt as free and simple a mode of treatment +as is compatible with the accurate statement of at +least the outlines of so very technical a subject.</p> + +<p>Though it is to be hoped that many professional students +of architecture will find this hand-book serviceable to +them in their elementary studies, it has been my principal +endeavour to adapt it to the requirements of those +who are preparing for the professional pursuit of the +sister arts, and of that large and happily increasing number +of students who pursue the fine arts as a necessary part +of a complete liberal education, and who know that a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>viii]</a></span> +solid and comprehensive acquaintance with art, especially +if joined to some skill in the use of the pencil, +the brush, the modelling tool, or the etching needle, will +open sources of pleasure and interest of the most refined +description.</p> + +<p>The broad facts of all art history; the principles which +underlie each of the fine arts; and the most precious or +most noteworthy examples of each, ought to be familiar +to every art student, whatever special branch he may +follow. Beyond these limits I have not attempted to +carry this account of Gothic and Renaissance architecture; +within them I have endeavoured to make the work +as complete as the space at my disposal permitted.</p> + +<p>Some portions of the text formed part of two courses +of lectures delivered before the students of the School +of Military Engineering at Chatham, and are introduced +here by the kind permission of Sir John Stokes. Many +of the descriptive and critical remarks are transcripts of +notes made by myself, almost under the shadow of the +buildings to which they refer. It would, however, have +been impossible to give a condensed view of so extended +a subject had not every part of it been treated +at much greater length by previous writers. The number +and variety of the books consulted renders it impossible +to make any other acknowledgment here than this general +recognition of my indebtedness to their authors.</p> + +<p class="sig">T. R. S.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>ix]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/agr005.jpg" width="500" height="135" +alt="Stained glass from Chartres Cathedral" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="contents" id="contents"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> + + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="Table of contents"> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdrb"><small>PAGE</small></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">ILLUSTRATED GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#glossary">xv to xxxix</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER I.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">INTRODUCTION.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap01">1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER II.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">THE BUILDINGS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap02">6</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER III.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap03">21</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls. Towers and Spires. Gables. Piers and Columns</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap04">28</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER V.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND (<i>continued</i>).</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">Analysis (<i>continued</i>). Openings. Roofs. Spires. Ornaments. Stained Glass. Sculpture</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap05">45</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>x]</a></span>CHAPTER VI.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN EUROPE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">1. <span class="smcap">France.</span> Chronological Sketch. Analysis of Buildings. +Plans. Walls, Towers and Gables. Columns and +Piers. Roofs and Vaults. Openings. Mouldings and +Ornaments. Construction and Design</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap06">69</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">2. <span class="smcap">Belgium</span> and the <span class="smcap">Netherlands</span></td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap06a">87</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">3. <span class="smcap">Scotland</span>, <span class="smcap">Wales</span>, and <span class="smcap">Ireland</span></td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap06b">91</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER VII.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN EUROPE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">1. <span class="smcap">Germany.</span> Chronological Sketch. Analysis of Buildings. +Plans. Walls, Towers and Gables. Roofs and Vaults. +Openings. Ornaments. Construction and Design</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap07">93</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">2. <span class="smcap">Northern Europe</span></td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap07a">111</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">1. <span class="smcap">Italy</span> and <span class="smcap">Sicily</span>. Topographical Sketch. <span class="smcap">Northern +Italy.</span> <span class="smcap">Central Italy.</span> <span class="smcap">Southern Italy.</span> Analysis +of Buildings. Plans. Walls, Towers, and Columns. +Openings and Arches. Roofs and Vaults. Mouldings +and Ornaments. Construction and Design</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap08">112</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">2. <span class="smcap">Spain.</span> Chronological Sketch</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap08a">137</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">3. <span class="smcap">Portugal</span></td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap08b">142</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">Principles of Construction and Design. Materials and Construction</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap09">143</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xi]</a></span>CHAPTER X.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind"><span class="smcap">General View.</span> Analysis of Buildings. Plans. Walls +and Columns. Openings. Construction and Design</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap10">154</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XI.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind"><span class="smcap">Florence. Rome. Venice, Vicenza, Verona. Milan, +Pavia. Genoa, Turin, Naples.</span> Country Villas</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap11">165</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XII.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE AND NORTHERN EUROPE.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">1. <span class="smcap">France.</span> Chronological Sketch</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap12">193</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">2. <span class="smcap">Belgium</span> and the <span class="smcap">Netherlands</span></td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap12a">206</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">3. <span class="smcap">Germany</span></td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap12b">210</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdc" colspan="2">CHAPTER XIII.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL.</td> + <td class="tdrb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">1. <span class="smcap">England.</span> Chronological Sketch</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap13">214</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">2. <span class="smcap">Scotland</span></td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap13a">227</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdind">3. <span class="smcap">Spain</span> and <span class="smcap">Portugal</span></td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#chap13b">229</a></td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xii]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/agr006.jpg" width="500" height="124" +alt="Sculptured ornament from Rheims Cathedral" /> +</div> + + +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> + + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="List of illustrations"> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt" colspan="2"> </td> + <td class="tdrb"><small>PAGE</small></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdinlsc" colspan="2">Certosa, The, near Pavia. From the Cloisters</td> + <td class="tdrb smcap"><a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdinlsc" colspan="2">Saint George. Panel from the Tomb of Cardinal Amboise in Rouen Cathedral</td> + <td class="tdrb smcap"><a href="#tpage">Title Page</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdinlsc" colspan="2">Glossary. Forty Engravings of Details</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#glossary">xv to xxxix</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">1.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">West Entrance, Lichfield Cathedral. (1275.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig01">5</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">2.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Ground Plan of Peterborough Cathedral. (1118 <span class="nosc">to</span> 1193.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig02">6</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">3.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Transverse Section of the Nave of Salisbury Cathedral</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig03">7</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">4.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Choir of Worcester Cathedral. (Begun 1224.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig04">9</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">5.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Nave of Wells Cathedral. (1206 <span class="nosc">to</span> 1242.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig05">9</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">6.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Ground Plan of Westminster Abbey</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig06">11</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">7.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">House of Jaques Cœur at Bourges. (Begun 1443.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig07">15</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">8.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Plan of Warwick Castle. (14th and 15th Centuries.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig08">16</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">9.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Palaces on the Grand Canal, Venice. (14th Century.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig09">18</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">10.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Well at Regensburg. (15th Century.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig10">20</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">11.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Gothic Ornament. From Sens Cathedral (Headpiece)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig11">21</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">12.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Lincoln Cathedral. (Mostly Early English.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig12">35</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">13.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">St. Pierre, Caen, Tower and Spire. (Spire, 1302.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig13">37</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">14.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">House at Chester. (16th Century.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig14">38</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">15.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Houses at Lisieux, France. (16th Century.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig15">41</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">16.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Lancet Window. (12th Century.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig16">46</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">17.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Two-light Window. (13th Century.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig17">47</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">18.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Geometrical Tracery. (14th Century.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig18">48</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">19.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Triforium Arcade, Westminster Abbey. (1269.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig19">49</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">20.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Rose Window from the Transept of Lincoln Cathedral</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig20">50</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">21.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Perpendicular Window</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig21">51</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xiii]</a></span>22.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Roof of Hall at Eltham Palace. (15th Century.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig22">53</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">23.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Henry VII.’s Chapel. (1503-1512.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig23">57</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">24.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Spire of St. Mary Magdalene, Warboys, Lincolnshire</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig24">59</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">25.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Decorated Spire. All Saints’ Church, Oakham</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig25">60</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">26.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Early Arch in Receding Planes</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig26">62</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">27.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Arch in Receding Planes Moulded</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig27">62</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">28.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Doorway, King’s College Chapel, Cambridge. (15th Cent.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig28">63</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">29.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Stained Glass Window from Chartres Cathedral</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig29">65</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">30.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Sculpture from Chapter House, Westminster Abbey</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig30">67</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">31.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Church at Fontevrault. (Begun 1125.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig31">70</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">32.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Doorway at Loches, France. (1180.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig32">72</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">33.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Notre Dame, Paris, West Front. (1214.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig33">74</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">34.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Plan of Amiens Cathedral. (1220-1272.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig34">76</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">35.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Amiens Cathedral, West Front. (1220-1272.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig35">78</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">36.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Piers and Superstructure, Rheims Cathedral. (1211-1240.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig36">80</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">37.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Capital from St. Nicholas, Blois, France. (13th Century.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig37">84</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">38.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Beauvais Cathedral, Interior. (1225-1537.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig38">86</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">39.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">The Town Hall of Middleburgh. (1518.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig39">89</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">40.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Tower at Ghent. (Begun 1183.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig40">90</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">41.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Abbey Church of Arnstein. (12th and 13th Centuries.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig41">94</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">42.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Church at Andernach. (Early 13th Century.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig42">96</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">43.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Church of St. Barbara at Kuttenberg. East End. (1358-1548.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig43">99</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">44.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Double Church at Schwartz-Rheindorff. Section. (1158.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig44">101</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">45.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Double Church at Schwartz-Rheindorff. (1158.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig45">102</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">46.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Cologne Cathedral. Ground Plan. (Begun 1248.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig46">104</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">47.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Western Doorway of Church at Thann. (14th Century.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig47">106</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">48.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Church of St. Catherine at Oppenheim. (1262 <span class="nosc">to</span> 1439.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig48">107</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">49.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">St. Sebald’s Church at Nuremberg. The Bride’s Doorway</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig49">109</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">50.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Palace of the Jurisconsults at Cremona</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig50">117</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">51.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Cathedral at Florence. With Giotto’s Campanile</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig51">121</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">52.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Cathedral at Siena. West Front and Campanile</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig52">123</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">53.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Cathedral at Orvieto. (Begun 1290; Façade, 1310.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig53">125</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">54.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Ogival Window-head</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig54">129</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">55.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Tracery in Window-head, from Venice</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig55">130</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xiv]</a></span>56.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Window from Tivoli</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig56">134</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">57.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Italian Gothic Window, with Tracery in Head</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig57">136</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">58.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Cathedral at Toledo. Interior. (Begun 1227.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig58">139</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">59.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">The Giralda at Seville. (Begun in 1196; Finished in 1568.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig59">141</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">60.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Doorway from Church at Batalha. (Begun 1385.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig60">151</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">61.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Strozzi Palace at Florence. (Begun 1489.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig61">169</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">62.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Part of the Loggia del Consiglio at Verona</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig62">171</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">63.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">The Pandolfini Palace, Florence. Designed by Raphael</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig63">173</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">64.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">St. Peter’s at Rome. Interior. (1506-1661.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig64">177</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">65.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Monument by Sansovino, in Sta. Maria del Popolo, Rome</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig65">179</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">66.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Palazzo Giraud, Rome. By Bramante. (1506.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig66">180</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">67.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Italian Shell Ornament</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig67">183</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">68.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">The Church of the Redentore, Venice. (1576.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig68">185</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">69.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Certosa near Pavia. Part of West Front. (Begun 1473.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig69">188</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">70.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Villa Medici—On the Pincian Hill near Rome. By Annibale Lippi (now the +<span class="nosc"><i>Académie Française</i></span>). (<small>A.D.</small> 1540.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig70">191</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">70<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Early Renaissance Corbel</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig70a">192</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">71.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Window from a House at Orleans. (Early 16th Century.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig71">195</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">72.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Capital from the House of Francis I., Orleans. (1540.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig72">197</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">73.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Pavillon Richelieu of the Louvre, Paris</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig73">199</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">74.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Part of the Tuileries, Paris. (Begun 1564.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig74">201</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">75.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Capital from Delorme’s work at the Louvre</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig75">202</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">76.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Hôtel des Invalides, Paris</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig76">204</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">77.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Window from Colmar. (1575.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig77">208</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">78.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Zeughaus, Dantzic. (1605.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig78">209</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">79.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Council-house at Leyden. (1599.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig79">211</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">80.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Quadrangle of the Castle of Schalaburg</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig80">213</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">81.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Holland House, Kensington. (1607.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig81">216</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">82.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. (1675-1710.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig82">220</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">83.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Houses at Chester. (16th Century.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig83">225</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">84.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">The Alcazar at Toledo. (Begun 1568.)</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig84">231</a></td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xv]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/agr005.jpg" width="500" height="135" +alt="Stained glass from Chartres Cathedral" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="glossary" id="glossary"></a>GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS.</h2> + + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><span class="smcap">Abacus.</span>—The upper portion of the capital of a column, upon which +the weight to be carried rests.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Aisle</span> (Lat. <i>ala</i>).—The side subdivision in a church; occasionally all +the subdivisions, including the nave, are called aisles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Apse.</span>—A semicircular or polygonal termination to, or projection +from, a church or other public building.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arcade.</span>—A range of arches, supported on piers or columns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Arch.</span>—A construction of wedge-shaped blocks of stone, or of bricks, +of a curved outline, and spanning an open space. The principal +forms of arch in use are Semicircular; Acutely-pointed, or Lancet; +Equilateral, or Less Acutely-pointed; Four-centred, or Depressed +Tudor; Three-centred, or Elliptic; Ogival; Segmental; and +Stilted. (Figs. <a href="#figa"><i>a</i> to <i>f</i></a>.)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Architrave.</span>—(1) The stone which in Classic and Renaissance architecture +is thrown from one column or pilaster to the next. (2) +The moulding which in the same styles is used to ornament the +margin of a door or window opening or arch.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ashlar.</span>—Finely-wrought masonry, employed for the facing of a wall +of coarser masonry or brick.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Attic</span> (In Renaissance Architecture).—A low upper story, distinctly +marked in the architecture of the building, usually surmounting +an order; (2) in ordinary building, any story in a roof.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Bailey</span> (from <i>vallum</i>).—The enclosure of the courtyard of a castle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ball-flower.</span>—An ornament representing a globular bud, placed +usually in a hollow moulding.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Baluster.</span>—A species of small column, generally of curved outline.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Balustrade.</span>—A parapet or rail formed of balusters.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xvi]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 286px;"> +<a name="figa" id="figa"></a> +<img src="images/agr007.png" width="286" height="150" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>a</i></span>.—Semicircular Arch.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 208px;"> +<a name="figb" id="figb"></a> +<img src="images/agr008.png" width="208" height="150" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>b</i></span>.—Stilted Arch.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The Semicircular and the Stilted Semicircular Arch were the only arches +in use till the introduction of the Pointed Arch. Throughout the Early +English, Decorated, and Perpendicular periods they occur as exceptional +features, but they were practically superseded after the close of the 12th cent.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 173px;"> +<a name="figc" id="figc"></a> +<img src="images/agr009.png" width="173" height="150" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>c</i></span>.—Equilateral Arch.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 188px;"> +<a name="figd" id="figd"></a> +<img src="images/agr010.png" width="188" height="150" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>d</i></span>.—Lancet Arch.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The Lancet Arch was characteristic of the Early English period, is never +found earlier, and but rarely occurs later. The Equilateral Arch was the +favourite arch of the architects of the geometrical Decorated, but is not +unfrequently met with in the early part of the Perpendicular period.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 214px;"> +<a name="fige" id="fige"></a> +<img src="images/agr011.png" width="214" height="150" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>e</i></span>.—Ogival Arch.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 229px;"> +<a name="figf" id="figf"></a> +<img src="images/agr012.png" width="229" height="150" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>f</i></span>.—Depressed Tudor Arch.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>The Depressed (or Four-centred) Tudor Arch is characteristic of the Perpendicular +period, and was then constantly employed. The Ogival Arch is +occasionally employed late in that period, but was more used by French and +Italian architects than by those of Great Britain.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xvii]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Band.</span>—A flat moulding or projecting strip of stone.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Barrel-vaulting.</span>—See Waggon-head vaulting.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Barge-board (or Verge-board).</span>—An inclined and pierced or ornamented +board placed along the edge of a roof when it overhangs +a gable wall.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Base.</span>—(1) The foot of a column; (2) sometimes that of a buttress +or wall.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 172px;"> +<a name="figg" id="figg"></a> +<img src="images/agr013.png" width="172" height="120" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>g</i></span>.—Base of Early English Shaft.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 248px;"> +<a name="figh" id="figh"></a> +<img src="images/agr014.jpg" width="248" height="350" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>h</i></span>.—Base of Perpendicular Shaft.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 274px;"> +<a name="figi" id="figi"></a> +<img src="images/agr015.jpg" width="274" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>i</i></span>.—Base of Decorated Shaft.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Basilica.</span>—(1) A Roman public hall; (2) an early Christian church, +similar to a Roman basilica in disposition.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xviii]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Bastion</span> (in Fortification).—A bold projecting mass of building, or +earthwork thrown out beyond the general line of a wall.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Battlement.</span>—A notched or indented parapet.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bay.</span>—One of the compartments in a building which is made up of +several repetitions of the same group of features; <i>e.g.</i>, in a church +the space from one column of the nave arcade to the next is a +bay.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bay-window.</span>—A window projecting outward from the wall. It may +be rectangular or polygonal. It must be built up from the ground. +If thrown out above the ground level, a projecting window is +called an Oriel. (See Bow window.)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bead.</span>—A small moulding of circular profile.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Belfry.</span>—A chamber fitted to receive a peal of bells.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Belfry Stage.</span>—The story of a tower where the belfry occurs. Usually +marked by large open arches or windows, to let the sound escape.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bell</span> (of a capital).—The body between the necking and the abacus +(which see).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Billet Moulding.</span>—A moulding consisting of a group of small +blocks separated by spaces about equal to their own length.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Blind Story.</span>—Triforium (which see).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Boss.</span>—A projecting mass of carving placed to conceal the intersection +of the ribs of a vault, or at the end of a string course +which it is desired to stop, or in an analogous situation.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bow Window.</span>—Similar to a Bay-window (which see), but circular or +segmental.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Broach-spire.</span>—A spire springing from a tower without a parapet and +with pyramidal features at the feet of its four oblique sides (see +Fig. <a href="#fig22">22</a>) to connect them to the four angles of the tower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Broachead (Spire).</span>—Formed as above described.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Buttress.</span>—A projection built up against a wall to create additional +strength or furnish support (see Flying Buttress).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Byzantine.</span>—The round-arched Christian architecture of the Eastern +Church, which had its origin in Byzantium (Constantinople).</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Canopy.</span>—(1) An ornamented projection over doors, windows, &c.; +(2) a covering over niches, tombs, &c.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Campanile.</span>—The Italian name for a bell-tower.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xix]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 154px;"> +<a name="figj" id="figj"></a> +<img src="images/agr016.jpg" width="154" height="350" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>j</i></span>.—Buttress.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Capital.</span>—The head of a column or pilaster (Figs. <a href="#figl"><i>l</i> to <i>p</i></a>).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cathedral.</span>—A church which contains the seat of a bishop; usually +a building of the first class.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Certosa.</span>—A monastery (or church) of Carthusian monks.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chamfer.</span>—A slight strip pared off from a sharp angle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chancel.</span>—The choir or eastern part of a church.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chantry Chapel.</span>—A chapel connected with a monument or tomb +in which masses were to be chanted. This was usually of small +size and very rich.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chapel.</span>—(1) A chamber attached to a church and opening out of it, +or formed within it, and in which an altar was placed; (2) a +small detached church.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chapter House.</span>—The hall of assembly of the chapter (dean and +canons) of a cathedral.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xx]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 96px;"> +<a name="figl" id="figl"></a> +<img src="images/agr017.jpg" width="96" height="150" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>l</i></span>.—Early Norman Capital.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 141px;"> +<a name="figm" id="figm"></a> +<img src="images/agr018.jpg" width="141" height="150" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>m</i></span>.—Early English Capital.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 206px;"> +<a name="fign" id="fign"></a> +<img src="images/agr019.jpg" width="206" height="150" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>n</i></span>.—Later Norman Capital.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 220px;"> +<a name="figo" id="figo"></a> +<img src="images/agr020.jpg" width="220" height="250" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>o</i></span>.—Perpendicular Capital.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="figp" id="figp"></a> +<img src="images/agr021.jpg" width="250" height="350" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>p</i></span>.—Early French Capital.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxi]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Château.</span>—The French name for a country mansion.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chevron.</span>—A zig-zag ornament.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Chevet.</span>—The French name for an apse when surrounded by chapels; +see the plan of Westminster Abbey (Fig. <a href="#fig06">6</a>).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Choir.</span>—The part of a church in which the services are celebrated; +usually, but not always, the east end or chancel. In a Spanish +church the choir is often at the crossing.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Clerestory.</span>—The upper story or row of windows lighting the nave of +a Gothic church.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cloister.</span>—A covered way round a quadrangle of a monastic building.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Clustered (shafts).</span>—Grouped so as to form a pier of some mass out +of several small shafts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corbel.</span>—A projecting stone (or timber) supporting, or seeming to +support, a weight (Fig. <a href="#figk"><i>k</i></a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="figk" id="figk"></a> +<img src="images/agr022.jpg" width="250" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>k</i></span>.—Early Renaissance Corbel.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corbelling.</span>—A series of mouldings doing the same duty as a corbel; +a row of corbels.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corbel Table.</span>—A row of corbels supporting an overhanging parapet +or cornice.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxii]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Cortile</span> (Italian).—The internal arcaded quadrangle of a palace, +mansion, or public building.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Column.</span>—A stone or marble post, divided usually into base, shaft, +and capital; distinguished from a pier by the shaft being cylindrical +or polygonal, and in one, or at most, in few pieces.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cornice.</span>—The projecting and crowning portion of an order (which +see) or of a building, or of a stage or story of a building.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Course.</span>—A horizontal layer of stones in the masonry of a building.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Crocket.</span>—A tuft of leaves arranged in a formal shape, used to decorate +ornamental gables, the ribs of spires, &c.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 156px;"> +<a name="figq" id="figq"></a> +<img src="images/agr023.jpg" width="156" height="200" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>q</i></span>.—Decorated Crocket.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 179px;"> +<a name="figr" id="figr"></a> +<img src="images/agr024.jpg" width="179" height="200" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>r</i></span>.—Perpendicular Crocket.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Crossing.</span>—The intersection (which see) in a church or cathedral.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cross Vault.</span>—A vault of which the arched surfaces intersect one +another, forming a groin (which see).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Crypt.</span>—The basement under a church or other building (almost invariably +vaulted).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cusp.</span>—The projecting point thrown out to form the leaf-shaped forms +or foliations in the heads of Gothic windows, and in tracery and +panels.</p> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Braced items with description"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl brace" rowspan="3">}</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Dec.</td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">The Gothic architecture of the fourteenth century in England. <i>Abbreviated</i> Dec.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Decorated.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="smcap">Detail.</span>—The minuter features of a design or building, especially its +mouldings and carving.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxiii]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Diaper</span> (Gothic).—An uniform pattern of leaves or flowers carved or +painted on the surface of a wall.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 398px;"> +<a name="figs" id="figs"></a> +<img src="images/agr025.png" width="398" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>s</i></span>.—Diaper in Spandrel, from Westminster Abbey.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dogtooth.</span>—A sharply-pointed ornament in a hollow moulding which +is peculiar to Early English Gothic. It somewhat resembles a +blunt tooth.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dormer Window.</span>—A window pierced through a sloping roof and +placed under a small gable or roof of its own.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dome.</span>—A cupola or spherical convex roof, ordinarily circular on plan.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Domical Vaulting.</span>—Vaulting in which a series of small domes are +employed; in contradistinction to a waggon-head vault, or an +intersecting vault.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxiv]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Double Tracery.</span>—Two layers of tracery one behind the other and +with a clear space between.</p> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Braced items with description"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl brace" rowspan="3">}</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl">E. E.</td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">The Gothic architecture of England in the thirteenth century. <i>Abbreviated</i> E. E.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Early English.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="smcap">Eaves.</span>—The verge or edge of a roof overhanging the wall.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Eaves-course.</span>—A moulding carrying the eaves.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Elevation.</span>—(1) A geometrical drawing of part of the exterior or +interior walls of a building; (2) the architectural treatment of the +exterior or interior walls of a building.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Elizabethan.</span>—The architecture of England in, and for some time +after, the reign of Elizabeth.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Embattled.</span>—Finished with battlements, or in imitation of battlements.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Enrichments.</span>—The carved (or coloured) decorations applied to the +mouldings or other features of an architectural design. (See +Mouldings.)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Entablature</span> (in Classic and Renaissance architecture).—The superstructure +above the columns where an order is employed. It is +divided into the architrave, which rests on the columns, the frieze +and the cornice.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Façade.</span>—The front of a building or of a principal part of a building.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fan Vault.</span>—The vaulting in use in England in the fifteenth +century, in which a series of conoids bearing some resemblance to +an open fan are employed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fillet.</span>—A small moulding of square flat section.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 108px;"> +<a name="figt" id="figt"></a> +<img src="images/agr026.jpg" width="108" height="200" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>t</i></span>.—Perpendicular Finial.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Finial.</span>—A formally arranged bunch of foliage or other similar ornament +forming the top of a pinnacle, gablet, or other ornamented +feature of Gothic architecture.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxv" id="Page_xxv">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxv]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Flamboyant Style.</span>—The late Gothic architecture of France at the +end of the fifteenth century, so called from the occurrence of +flame-shaped forms in the tracery.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Flèche.</span>—A name adapted from the French. A slender spire, mostly +placed on a roof; not often so called if on a tower.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Flying Buttress.</span>—A buttress used to steady the upper and inner +walls of a vaulted building, placed at some distance from the +wall which it supports, and connected with it by an arch.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 349px;"> +<a name="figu" id="figu"></a> +<img src="images/agr027.jpg" width="349" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>u</i></span>.—Flying Buttress.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Foil.</span>—A leaf-shaped form produced by adding cusps to the curved +outline of a window head or piece of tracery.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Foliation.</span>—The decoration of an opening, or of tracery by means of +foils and cusps.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Fosse.</span>—The ditch of a fortress.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">François I. Style.</span>—The early Renaissance architecture of France +during part of the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvi" id="Page_xxvi">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxvi]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Frieze.</span>—(1) The middle member of a Classic or Renaissance entablature; +this was often sculptured and carved; (2) any band of +sculptured ornament.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Gable.</span>—The triangular-shaped wall carrying the end of a roof.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gablet.</span>—A small gable (usually ornamental only).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gallery.</span>—(1) An apartment of great length in proportion to its +width; (2) a raised floor or stage in a building.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gargoyle.</span>—A projecting waterspout, usually carved in stone, more +rarely formed of metal.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Geometrical.</span>—The architecture of the earlier part of the decorated +period in England.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grille.</span>—A grating or ornamental railing of metal.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Groin.</span>—The curved line which is made by the meeting of the surfaces +of two vaults or portions of vaults which intersect.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Group.</span>—An assemblage of shafts or mouldings or other small features +intended to produce a combined effect.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Grouping.</span>—Combining architectural features as above.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Hall.</span>—(1) The largest room in an ancient English mansion, or a +college, &c.; (2) any large and stately apartment.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Half Timbered Construction.</span>—A mode of building in which a +framework of timbers is displayed and the spaces between them +are filled in with plaster or tiles.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hammer Beam Roof.</span>—A roof peculiar to English architecture of the +fifteenth century, deriving its name from the use of a hammer +beam (a large bracket projecting from the walls) to partly support +the rafters.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Head</span> (of an arch or other opening).—The portion within the curve; +whether filled in by masonry or left open, sometimes called a +tympanum.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hip.</span>—The external angle formed by the meeting of two sloping sides +of a roof where there is no gable.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hôtel</span> (French).—A town mansion.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Impost.</span>—A moulding or other line marking the top of the jambs +of an arched opening, and the starting point, or apparent starting +point, of the arch.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxvii" id="Page_xxvii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxvii]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Inlay.</span>—A mode of decoration in which coloured materials are laid +into sinkings of ornamental shape, cut into the surface to be +decorated.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Intersection (or Crossing).</span>—The point in a church where the +transepts cross the nave.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Intersecting Vaults.</span>—Vaults of which the surfaces cut one another.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Interpenetration.</span>—A German mode of treating mouldings, as though +two or more sets of them existed in the same stone and they +could pass through (interpenetrate) each other.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Jamb.</span>—The side of a door or window or arch, or other opening.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 356px;"> +<a name="figv" id="figv"></a> +<img src="images/agr028.png" width="356" height="200" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>v</i></span>.—Plan of a Jamb and Central Pier of a Gothic Doorway.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Keep.</span>—The tower which formed the stronghold of a mediæval castle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">King Post.</span>—The middle post in the framing of a timber roof.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Lancet Arch.</span>—The sharply-pointed window-head and arch, characteristic +of English Gothic in the thirteenth century.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lantern.</span>—A conspicuous feature rising above a roof or crowning a +dome, and intended usually to light a Hall, but often introduced +simply as an architectural finish to the whole building.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lierne</span> (rib).—A rib intermediate between the main ribs in Gothic +vaulting.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Light.</span>—One of the divisions of a window of which the entire width +is divided by one or more mullions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lintel.</span>—The stone or beam covering a doorway or other opening not +spanned by an arch. Sometimes applied to the architrave of an +order.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxviii" id="Page_xxviii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxviii]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Loggia</span> (Italian).—An open arcade with a gallery behind.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Loop.</span>—Short for loophole. A very narrow slit in the wall of a fortress, +serving as a window, or to shoot through.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lucarne.</span>—A spire-light. A small window like a slender dormer +window.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Moat</span> (or Fosse).—The ditch round a fortress or semi-fortified house.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mosaic.</span>—An ornament for pavements, walls, and the surfaces of +vaults, formed by cementing together small pieces of coloured +material (stone, marble, tile, &c.) so as to produce a pattern or +picture.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Moulding.</span>—A term applied to all varieties of contour or outline given +to the angles, projections, or recesses of the various parts of a +building. The object being either to produce an outline satisfactory +to the eye; or, more frequently, to obtain a play of light +and shade, and to produce the appearance of a line or a series of +lines, broad or narrow, and of varying intensity of lightness or +shade in the building or some of its features.</p> + +<p>The contour which a moulding would present when cut across +in a direction at right angles to its length is called its profile.</p> + +<p>The profile of mouldings varied with each style of architecture +and at each period (Figs. <a href="#figw"><i>w</i> to <i>z</i></a>). When ornaments are carved +out of some of the moulded surfaces the latter are technically +termed enriched mouldings. The enrichments in use varied with +each style and each period, as the mouldings themselves did.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mullion.</span>—The upright bars of stone frequently employed (especially +in Gothic architecture) to subdivide one window into two or more +lights.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Nave.</span>—(1) The central avenue of a church or cathedral; (2) the +western part of a church as distinguished from the chancel or +choir; (3) occasionally, any avenue in the interior of a building +which is divided by one or more rows of columns running lengthways +is called a nave.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Necking</span> (of a column).—The point (usually marked by a fillet or other +small projecting moulding) where the shaft ends and the capital +begins.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Newel Post.</span>—The stout post at the foot of a staircase from which +the balustrade or the handrail starts.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxix" id="Page_xxix">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxix]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 205px;"> +<a name="figw" id="figw"></a> +<img src="images/agr029.jpg" width="205" height="200" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>w</i></span>.—Arch Moulding. +(<span class="nosc">Gothic, 12th Century.</span>)</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="figy" id="figy"></a> +<img src="images/agr030.jpg" width="200" height="200" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>y</i></span>.—Arch Moulding. +(<span class="nosc">Decorated, 14th Century.</span>)</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 396px;"> +<a name="figz" id="figz"></a> +<img src="images/agr031.jpg" width="396" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>z</i></span>.—Arch Moulding. (<span class="nosc">Gothic, 13th Century.</span>)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxx" id="Page_xxx">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxx]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Niche.</span>—A recess in a wall for a statue, vase, or other upright ornament.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Norman.</span>—The architecture of England from the Norman Conquest +till the latter part of the twelfth century.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Ogee.</span>—A moulding or line of part concave and part convex curvature +(see Fig. <a href="#fige"><i>e</i></a>, showing an ogee-shaped arch).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ogival.</span>—Ogee-shaped (see Fig. <a href="#fig54">54</a>).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Open Tracery.</span>—Tracery in which the spaces between the bars are +neither closed by slabs of stone nor glazed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Order.</span>—(1) In Classical and Renaissance architecture a single column +or pilaster and its appropriate entablature or superstructure; (2) a +series of columns or pilasters with their entablature; (3) an entire +decorative system appropriate to the kind of column chosen. In +Renaissance architecture there are five orders—the Tuscan, Doric, +Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite. Each has its own proper +column, and its proper base, shaft, and capital; and its own entablature. +The proportions and the degree of enrichment appropriate +to each vary. The Tuscan being the sturdiest and plainest, the +Composite the most slender and most small, and the others taking +place in the succession in which they stand enumerated above. +Where more than one order occurs in a building, as constantly +happens in Classic and Renaissance buildings, the orders which +are the plainest and most sturdy (and have been named first) if +employed, are invariably placed below the more slender orders; +<i>e.g.</i> the Doric is never placed <em>over</em> the Corinthian or the Ionic, +but if employed in combination with either of those orders it is +always the lowest in position.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Oriel.</span>—A window projecting like a bay or bow window, not resting +on the ground but thrown out above the ground level and resting +on a corbel.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Palladian.</span>—A phase of fully developed Renaissance architecture +introduced by the architect Palladio, and largely followed in +England as well as in Italy.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Panel.</span>—(1) The thinner portions of the framed woodwork of doors +and other such joiner’s work; (2) all sunk compartments in +masonry, ceilings, &c.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxi" id="Page_xxxi">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxi]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Panelling.</span>—(1) Woodwork formed of framework containing panels; +(2) any decoration formed of a series of sunk compartments.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Parapet.</span>—A breastwork or low wall used to protect the gutters and +screen the roofs of buildings; also, perhaps primarily, to protect +the ramparts of fortifications.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 248px;"> +<a name="figaa" id="figaa"></a> +<img src="images/agr032.jpg" width="248" height="150" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>a a</i></span>.—Open Parapet, late Decorated.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 283px;"> +<a name="figbb" id="figbb"></a> +<img src="images/agr033.jpg" width="283" height="150" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>b b</i></span>.—Battlemented Parapet, Perpendicular.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pavilion.</span>—A strongly marked single block of building; most frequently +applied to those blocks in French and other Renaissance +buildings that are marked out by high roofs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pedestal.</span>—(1) A substructure sometimes placed under a column in +Renaissance architecture; (2) a similar substructure intended to +carry a statue, vase, or other ornament.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pediment.</span>—(1) The gable, where used in Renaissance buildings; (2) +an ornamental gable sometimes placed over windows, doors, and +other features in Gothic buildings.</p> + +<table class="vertmarg" border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Braced items with description"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdl brace" rowspan="3">}</td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Perp.</td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">The Gothic architecture of the fifteenth century in England. <i>Abbreviated</i> Perp.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl smcap">Perpendicular.</td> + </tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxii" id="Page_xxxii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxii]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Pier.</span>—(1) A mass of walling, either a detached portion of a wall or +a distinct structure of masonry, taking the place of a column in +the arcade of a church or elsewhere; (2) a group or cluster of +shafts substituted for a column.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 367px;"> +<a name="figcc" id="figcc"></a> +<img src="images/agr034.jpg" width="367" height="300" +alt="Showing actual, cross-section and plan views" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>c c</i></span>.—Early English Piers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 454px;"> +<a name="figdd" id="figdd"></a> +<img src="images/agr035.jpg" width="454" height="200" +alt="Showing three different cross-sections" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>d d</i></span>.—Late Decorated and Perpendicular Piers.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pilaster.</span>—A square column, usually attached to a wall; frequently +used in Classic and Renaissance architecture in combination with +columns.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxiii" id="Page_xxxiii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxiii]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Pinnacle</span> (in Gothic architecture).—A small turret, or ornament, +usually with a pointed top, employed to mark the summit of +gables, buttresses, and other tall features.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pitch.</span>—The degree of slope given to a roof, gable, or pediment.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plan.</span>—(1) A map of the floor of a building, showing the piers, if +any, and the walls which inclose and divide it, with the openings +in them; (2) the actual arrangement and disposition of the floors, +piers, and walls of the building itself.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plane.</span>—The imaginary surface within which a series of mouldings +lies, and which coincides with the salient and important points +of that series. Mouldings are said to be on an oblique plane when +their plane forms an angle less than a right angle with the face +of the wall; and in receding planes, when they can be divided +into a series of groups of more or less stepped outline, each within +and behind the other, and each partly bounded by a plane parallel +with the face of the wall.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plaster.</span>—The plastic material, of which the groundwork is lime +and sand, used to cover walls internally and to form ceilings. +Sometimes employed as a covering to walls externally.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Plinth.</span>—The base of a wall or of a column or range of columns.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Portal.</span>—A dignified and important entrance doorway.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Portico.</span>—A range of columns with their entablature (and usually +covered by a pediment), marking the entrance to a Renaissance or +Classic building.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Prismatic Rustication.</span>—In Elizabethan architecture rusticated +masonry with diamond-shaped projections worked on the face +of each stone.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Profile.</span>—The contour or outline of mouldings as they would appear +if sawn across at right angles to their length.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Porch.</span>—A small external structure to protect and ornament the doorway +to a building (rarely met with in Renaissance).</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Quatrefoil.</span>—A four-leaved ornament occupying a circle in tracery +or a panel.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Rafters.</span>—The sloping beams of a roof upon which the covering of +the roof rests.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ragstone.</span>—A coarse stone found in parts of Kent and elsewhere, and +used for walling.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Receding Planes.</span>—(See Plane.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxiv" id="Page_xxxiv">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxiv]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Recess.</span>—A sinking in a building deeper than a mere panel.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Recessing.</span>—Forming one or more recesses. Throwing back some +part of a building behind the general face.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Renaissance.</span>—The art of the period of the Classic revival which +began in the sixteenth century. In this volume used chiefly +to denote the architecture of Europe in that and the succeeding +centuries.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rib</span> (in Gothic vaulting).—A bar of masonry or moulding projecting +beyond the general surface of a vault, to mark its intersections or +subdivide its surface, and to add strength.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ridge.</span>—(1) The straight line or ornament which marks the summit +of a roof; (2) the line or rib, straight or curved, which marks the +summit of a vault.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Roll.</span>—A round moulding.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rose Window.</span>—A wheel window (which see).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rubble.</span>—Rough stonework forming the heart of a masonry wall; +sometimes faced with ashlar (which see), sometimes shown.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rustication</span> (or <span class="smcap">Rusticated Masonry</span>).—The sort of ornamental +ashlar masonry (chiefly Classic and Renaissance) in which each +stone is distinguished by a broad channel all round it, marking +the joints.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rustics.</span>—The individual blocks of stone used in rustication (as +described above).</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Screen.</span>—An internal partition or inclosure cutting off part of a +building. At the entrance to the choir of a church screens of +beautiful workmanship were used.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scroll Moulding.</span>—A round roll moulding showing a line along its +face (distinctive of decorated Gothic).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Scroll Work.</span>—Ornament showing winding spiral lines like the edge +of a scroll of paper (chiefly found in Elizabethan).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Section.</span>—(1) A drawing of a building as it would appear if cut +through at some fixed plane. (2) That part of the construction of +a building which would be displayed by such a drawing as +described above. (3) The profile of a moulding.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Set-off.</span>—A small ledge formed by diminishing the thickness of a +wall or pier.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sexpartite Vaulting.</span>—Where each bay or compartment is divided +by its main ribs into six portions.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxv" id="Page_xxxv">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxv]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Sgraffito</span> (Italian).—An ornament produced by scratching lines on +the plastered face of a building so as to show a different colour +filling up the lines or surfaces scratched away.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Shaft.</span>—(1) The middle part of a column between its base and capital. +(2) In Gothic, slender columns introduced for ornamental +purposes, singly or in clusters.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Shell Ornament.</span>—A decoration frequently employed in Italian and +French Renaissance, and resembling the interior of a shell.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sky-line.</span>—The outline which a building will show against the sky.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spandrel.</span>—The triangular (or other shaped) space between the outside +of an arch and the mouldings, or surfaces inclosing it or in +contact with it. (See Fig. <a href="#figs"><i>s</i></a>, under Diaper.)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spire.</span>—The steep and pointed roof of a tower (usually a church +tower).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spire-light</span> (or <span class="smcap">Lucarne</span>).—A dormer window (which see) in a spire.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Splay.</span>—A slope making with the face of a wall an angle less than a +right angle.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stage.</span>—One division in the height of any building or portion of a +building where horizontal divisions are distinctly marked, <i>e.g.</i>, the +belfry stage of a tower, the division in which the bells are hung.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Steeple.</span>—A tower and spire in combination. Sometimes applied to +a tower or spire separately.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stepped Gable.</span>—A gable in which, instead of a sloping line, the outline +is formed by a series of steps.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Stilted Arch.</span>—An arch of which the curve does not commence till +above the level of the impost (which see).</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Story.</span>—(1) The portion of a building between one floor and the +next; (2) any stage or decidedly marked horizontal compartment +of a building, even if not corresponding to an actual story marked +by a floor.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Strap-work</span> (Elizabethan).—An ornament representing strap-like +fillets interlaced.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">String-course.</span>—A projecting horizontal (or occasionally sloping) +band or line of mouldings.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Tabernacle Work.</span>—The richly ornamented and carved work with +which the smaller and more precious features of a church, <i>e.g.</i>, the +fittings of a choir, were adorned and made conspicuous.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Terminal</span> (or Finial).—The ornamental top of a pinnacle, gable, &c.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxvi" id="Page_xxxvi">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxvi]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Terra-cotta.</span>—A fine kind of brick capable of being highly ornamented, +and formed into blocks of some size.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Thrust.</span>—The pressure exercised laterally by an arch or vault, or by +the timbers of a roof on the abutments or supports.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tie.</span>—A beam of wood, bar of iron, or similar expedient employed to +hold together the feet or sides of an arch, vault, or roof, and so +counteract the thrust.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Torus.</span>—A large convex moulding.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tower.</span>—A portion of a building rising conspicuously above the general +mass, and obviously distinguished by its height from that mass. +A detached building of which the height is great, relative to the +width and breadth.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tracery</span> (Gothic).—The ornamental stonework formed by the curving +and interlacing of bars of stone, and occupying the heads of +windows, panels, and other situations where decoration and lightness +have to be combined. The simplest and earliest tracery might +be described as a combination of openings pierced through the stone +head of an arch. Cusping and foliation (which see) are features of +tracery. (See Figs. <a href="#fig18">18</a>, <a href="#fig19">19</a>, +<a href="#fig55">55</a>, and <a href="#fig57">57</a> in the text.)</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 270px;"> +<a name="figee" id="figee"></a> +<img src="images/agr036.jpg" width="270" height="350" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>e e</i></span>.—Perpendicular Window-head.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 164px;"> +<a name="figff" id="figff"></a> +<img src="images/agr037.jpg" width="164" height="250" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>f f</i></span>.—Late Perpendicular Window-head.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxvii" id="Page_xxxvii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxvii]</a></span> +<span class="smcap">Transept.</span>—The arms of a church or cathedral which cross the line of +the nave.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Transition.</span>—The architecture of a period coming between and sharing +the characteristics of two distinctly marked styles or phases of +architecture, one of which succeeded the other.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Transom.</span>—A horizontal bar (usually of stone) across a window or +panel.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Trefoil.</span>—A three-leaved or three-lobed form found constantly in +the heads of windows and in other situations where tracery is +employed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Triforium</span> (or <span class="smcap">Thorough-fare</span>).—The story in a large church or +cathedral intermediate between the arcade separating the nave and +aisles, and the clerestory.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tudor.</span>—The architecture of England during the reigns of the Tudor +kings. The use of the term is usually, however, restricted to a +period which closes with the end of Henry VIII.’s reign, 1547.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Turret.</span>—A small tower, sometimes rising from the ground, but often +carried on corbels and commencing near the upper part of the +building to which it is an appendage.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Tympanum.</span>—The filling in of the head of an arch, or occasionally of +an ornamental gable.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Undercutting.</span>—A moulding or ornament of which the greater part +stands out from the mouldings or surfaces which it adjoins, as +though almost or quite detached from them, is said to be undercut.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Vault.</span>—An arched ceiling to a building, or part of a building, executed +in masonry or in some substitute for masonry.</p> + +<p>The vaults of the Norman period were simple barrel- or waggon-headed +vaults, and semicircular arches only were used in their +construction. With the Gothic period the use of intersecting, +and as a result of pointed arches, was introduced into vaulting, +and vaults went on increasing in complexity and elaboration till +the Tudor period, when fan-vaulting was employed. Our illustrations +show some of the steps in the development of Gothic +vaults referred to in Chapter <a href="#chap05">V.</a> of the text. No. 1 represents a +waggon-head vault with an intersecting vault occupying part of +its length. No. 2 represents one of the expedients adopted for +vaulting an oblong compartment before the pointed arch was introduced. +The narrower arch is stilted and the line of the groin +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxviii" id="Page_xxxviii"><!-- original location of Fig. g g --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxxix" id="Page_xxxix">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxxix]</a></span> +is not true. No. 3 represents a similar compartment vaulted +without any distortion or irregularity by the help of the pointed +arch. No. 4 represents one lay of a sexpartite Gothic vault. +No. 5 represents a vault with lierne ribs making a star-shaped +pallom on plan, and No. 6 is a somewhat more intricate example +of the same class of vault.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 426px;"> +<a name="figgg" id="figgg"></a> +<img src="images/agr038.png" width="426" height="600" +alt="Six different types of vaults" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. <span class="nosc"><i>g g</i></span>.—Vaults.</p> + +<p>Vaults are met with in Renaissance buildings, but they are a less +distinctive feature of such buildings than they were in the Gothic +period; and in many cases where a vault or a series of vaults would +have been employed by a Gothic architect, a Renaissance architect +has preferred to make use of a dome or a series of domes. This +is called domical vaulting. Examples of it occur occasionally in +Gothic work.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt"><span class="smcap">Waggon-head Vaulting, or Barrel-Vaulting.</span>—A simple form +of tunnel-like vaulting, which gets its name from its resemblance +to the tilt often seen over large waggons, or to the half of a barrel.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Wainscot.</span>—(1) The panelling often employed to line the walls of a +room or building; (2) a finely marked variety of oak imported +chiefly from Holland; probably so called because wainscot oak +was at one time largely employed for such panelling.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Weathering.</span>—A sloping surface of stone employed to cover the set-off +(which see) of a wall or buttress and protect it from the effects +of weather.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Wheel Window.</span>—A circular window, and usually one in which +mullions radiate from a centre towards the circumference like the +spokes of a wheel; sometimes called a rose-window.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Window-head.</span>—For illustrations of the various forms and filling-in +of Gothic window-heads, see the words Arch and Tracery.</p></div> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 216px;"> +<img src="images/agr039.jpg" width="216" height="100" +alt="Ornamental dolphin pattern" /> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xl" id="Page_xl">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xl]</a></span></p> + +<h2>HEAD AND TAILPIECES.</h2> + + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="List of head and tailpiece illustrations"> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt"> </td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + <td class="tdrb"><small>PAGE</small></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrsc">Headpiece.—</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Crête from Notre Dame, Paris</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head01">1</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Sculptured Ornament from Rheims Cathedral</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head02">6</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdinlsc"><span class="space1">”</span> <span class="space2">”</span> Sens Cathedral</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig11">21</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdinlsc"><span class="space1">”</span> <span class="space2">”</span> Westminster Abbey</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head03">28</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrsc">Tailpiece.—</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Norman Capitals</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#tail01">44</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrsc">Headpiece.—</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Sculptured Ornament from Westminster Abbey</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head04">45</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrsc">Tailpiece.—</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Miserere Seat from Wells Cathedral</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#tail02">68</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrsc">Headpiece.—</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Stained Glass from Chartres Cathedral</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head05">69</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrsc">Tailpiece.—</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Miserere Seat from Wells Cathedral</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#tail03">92</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Ornament from Rheims Cathedral</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#tail04">153</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrsc">Headpiece.—</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Renaissance Ornament from a Frieze</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head06">154</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">From a terra-cotta Frieze at Lodi</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head07">165</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrsc">Tailpiece.—</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">From a Door in Santa Maria, Venice</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig70a">192</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrsc">Headpiece.—</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Ornament by Giulio Romano</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head08">193</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">From a Frieze at Venice</td> + <td class="tdrb"><a href="#head09">235</a></td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p class="center smcap">The <a href="#endpaper">End-papers</a> are from a Tapestry in Hardwick Hall.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 200px;"> +<img src="images/agr040.jpg" width="200" height="200" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption nosc"><i>The Lily of Florence.</i></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>1]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="head01" id="head01"></a> +<img src="images/agr004.jpg" width="500" height="183" +alt="Crête from Notre Dame, Paris" /> +</div> + +<p class="center xlrgfont padtop padbase">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="chap01" id="chap01"></a>CHAPTER I.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="vsmlfont">INTRODUCTION.</span></h2> + + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE architecture generally known as Gothic, but often +described as Christian Pointed, prevailed throughout +Europe to the exclusion of every rival for upwards +of three centuries; and it is to be met with, more or less, +during two others. Speaking broadly, it may be said +that its origin took place in the twelfth century, that +the thirteenth was the period of its development, the +fourteenth that of its perfection, and the fifteenth that +of its decline; while many examples of its employment +occur in the sixteenth.</p> + +<p>In the following chapters the principal changes in the +features of buildings which occurred during the progress +of the style in England will be described. Subsequently, +the manner in which the different stages of development +were reached in different countries will be given; for +architecture passed through very nearly the same phases +in all European nations, though not quite simultaneously.</p> + +<p>It must be understood that through the whole Gothic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>2]</a></span> +period, growth or at least change was going on; the +transitions from one stage to another were only periods of +more rapid change than usual. The whole process may be +illustrated by the progress of a language. If, for instance, we +compare round-arched architecture in the eleventh century +to the Anglo-Saxon form of speech of the time of Alfred +the Great, and the architecture of the twelfth century to +the English of Chaucer, that of the thirteenth will correspond +to the richer language of Shakespeare, that of the +fourteenth to the highly polished language of Addison and +Pope, and that of the fifteenth to the English of our own +day. We can thus obtain an apt parallel to the gradual +change and growth which went on in architecture; and +we shall find that the oneness of the language in the +former case, and of the architecture in the latter, was +maintained throughout.</p> + +<p>For an account of the Christian round-arched architecture +which preceded Gothic, the reader is referred to the +companion volume in this series. Here it will be only +necessary briefly to review the circumstances which went +before the appearance of the pointed styles.</p> + +<p>The Roman empire had introduced into Europe some +thing like a universal architecture, so that the buildings +of any Roman colony bore a strong resemblance to those +of every other colony and of the metropolis; varying, of +course, in extent and magnificence, but not much in design. +The architecture of the Dark Ages in Western Europe +exhibited, so far as is known, the same general similarity. +Down to the eleventh century the buildings erected (almost +exclusively churches and monastic buildings) were not +large or rich, and were heavy in appearance and simple +in construction. Their arches were all semicircular.</p> + +<p>The first rays of light across the gloom of the Dark +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>3]</a></span> +Ages seem to have come from the energy and ability of +Charlemagne in the eighth century.</p> + +<p>In the succeeding century, this activity received a +check; an idea became generally prevalent that the year +one thousand was to see the end of the world; men’s minds +were overshadowed with apprehension; and buildings, in +common with other undertakings of a permanent nature, +were but little attempted.</p> + +<p>When the millennium came and passed, and left all as it +had been, a kind of revulsion of feeling was experienced; +many important undertakings were set on foot, such as +during the preceding years it had not been thought +worth while to prosecute. The eleventh century thus +became a time of great religious activity; and if the First +Crusade, which took place 1095, may be taken as one +outcome of that pious zeal, another can certainly be found +in the large and often costly churches and monasteries +which rose in every part of England, France, Germany, +Lombardy, and South Italy. Keen rivalry raged among +the builders of these churches; each one was built larger +and finer than the previous examples, and the details began +to grow elaborate. Construction and ornament were in +fact advancing and improving, if not from year to year, +at any rate from decade to decade, so that by the commencement +of the twelfth century a remarkable development +had taken place. The ideas of the dimensions of +churches then entertained were really almost as liberal as +during the best period of Gothic architecture.</p> + +<p>An illustration of this fact is furnished by the rebuilding +of Westminster Abbey under Edward the Confessor. He +pulled down a small church which he found standing on +the site, in order to erect one suitable in size and style to +the ideas of the day. The style of his cathedral (but not its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>4]</a></span> +dimensions) soon became so much out of date that Henry III. +pulled the buildings down in order to re-erect them of the +lofty proportions and with the pointed arches which we now +see in the choir and transepts of the Abbey; but the size +remained nearly the same, for there is evidence to show that +the Confessor’s buildings must have occupied very nearly, if +not quite, as much ground as those which succeeded them.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the twelfth century many local +peculiarities, some of them due to accident, some to the +nature and quality of the building materials obtainable, +some to differences of race, climate, and habits, and some +to other causes, had begun to make their appearance in the +buildings of various parts of Europe; and through the +whole Gothic period such peculiarities were to be met +with. Still the points of similarity were greater and more +numerous than the differences; so much so, that by going +through the course which Gothic architecture ran in one +of the countries in which it flourished, it will readily be +possible to furnish a general outline of the subject as a +whole; it will then only be requisite to point out the +principal variations in the practice of other countries. On +some grounds France would be the most suitable country +to select for this purpose, for Gothic appeared earlier and +flourished more brilliantly in that country than in any +other; the balance of advantage lies however, when writing +for English students, in the selection of Great Britain. +The various phases through which the art passed are well +marked in this country, they have been fully studied and +described, and, what is of the greatest importance, English +examples are easily accessible to the majority of students, +while those which cannot be visited may be very readily +studied from engravings and photographs. English Gothic +will therefore be first considered; but as a preliminary a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>5]</a></span> +few words remain to be said describing generally the buildings +which have come down to us from the Gothic period.</p> + +<p>The word Gothic, which was in use in the eighteenth +century, and probably earlier, was invented at a time when +a Goth was synonymous with everything that was barbarous; +and its use then implied a reproach. It denotes, +according to Mr. Fergusson, “all the styles invented and +used by the Western barbarians who overthrew the Roman +empire, and settled within its limits.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 407px;"> +<a name="fig01" id="fig01"></a> +<img src="images/agr041.jpg" width="407" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig 1.—West Entrance, Lichfield Cathedral, (1275.) +(<span class="nosc"><i>See Chapter <a href="#chap05">V.</a></i></span>)</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>6]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="head02" id="head02"></a> +<img src="images/agr006.jpg" width="500" height="124" +alt="Sculptured ornament from Rheims Cathedral" /> +</div> + + +<h2><a name="chap02" id="chap02"></a>CHAPTER II.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="vsmlfont">THE BUILDINGS OF THE MIDDLE AGES.</span></h2> + + +<p><span class="dropcap">B</span>Y far the most important specimens of Gothic architecture +are the cathedrals and large churches which were +built during the prevalence of the style. They were more +numerous, larger, and more complete as works of art than +any other structures, and accordingly they are to be considered +on every account as the best examples of pointed +architecture.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 598px;"> +<a name="fig02" id="fig02"></a> +<img src="images/agr042.jpg" width="598" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 2.—Ground Plan of Peterborough Cathedral. (1118 <span class="nosc">to</span> 1193.)<br /> +<span class="nosc"><small>A.</small> Nave. <small>B B.</small> Transepts. <small>C.</small> Choir. <small>D D.</small> Aisles. <small>E.</small> Principal Entrance.</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 389px;"> +<a name="fig03" id="fig03"></a> +<img src="images/agr043.jpg" width="389" height="450" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 3.—Transverse Section of the Nave of Salisbury Cathedral. +(<small>A.D.</small> 1217).</p> + +<p>The arrangement and construction of a Gothic cathedral +were customarily as follows:—(See Fig. <a href="#fig02">2</a>.) The main +axis of the building was always east and west, the principal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>7]</a></span> +entrance being at the west end, usually under a grand porch +or portal, and the high altar stood at the east end. The plan +(or main floor) of the building almost always displays the +form of a cross. The stem of the cross is the part from the +west entrance to the crossing, and is called the nave. The +arms of the cross are called transepts, and point respectively +north and south. Their crossing with the nave is often +called the intersection. The remaining arm, which prolongs +the stem eastwards, is ordinarily called the choir, but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>8]</a></span> +sometimes the presbytery, and sometimes the chancel. All these +names really refer to the position of the internal fittings +of the church, and it is often more accurate simply to +employ the term eastern arm for this portion of a church.</p> + +<p>The nave is flanked by two avenues running parallel to +it, narrower and lower than itself, called aisles. They are +separated from it by rows of columns or piers, connected +together by arches. Thus the nave has an arcade on +each side of it, and each aisle has an arcade on one +side, and a main external wall on the other. The aisle +walls are usually pierced by windows. The arches of the +arcade carry walls which rise above the roofs of the aisles, +and light the nave. These walls are usually subdivided +internally into two heights or stories; the lower story +consists of a series of small arches, to which the name of +triforium is given. This arcade usually opens into the dark +space above the ceiling or vault of the aisle, and hence it is +sometimes called the blind story. The upper story is the +range of windows already alluded to as lighting the nave, +and is called the clerestory. Thus a spectator standing +in the nave, and looking towards the side (Figs. <a href="#fig04">4</a> and <a href="#fig05">5</a>), +will see opposite him the main arcade, and over that the +triforium, and over that the clerestory, crowned by the nave +vault or roof; and looking through the arches of the nave +arcade, he will see the side windows of the aisle. Above +the clerestory of the nave, and the side windows of the +aisles, come the vaults or roofs. In some instances double +aisles (two on each side) have been employed.</p> + +<p>The transepts usually consist of well-marked limbs, +divided like the nave into a centre avenue and two side +aisles, and these usually are of the same width and height +as the nave and its aisles. Sometimes there are no transepts; +sometimes they do not project beyond the line of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>9]</a></span> +walls, but still are marked by their rising above the lower +height of the nave aisles. Sometimes the transepts have no +aisles, or an aisle only on one side.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> On the other hand, it +is sometimes customary, especially in English examples, +to form two pairs of transepts. This occurs in Lichfield +Cathedral.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 208px;"> +<a name="fig04" id="fig04"></a> +<img src="images/agr044.jpg" width="208" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 4.—Choir of Worcester +Cathedral. (Begun 1224.)<br /> +<span class="nosc"><small>A.</small> Nave Arcade. <small>B.</small> Triforium. <small>C.</small> Clerestory.</span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 232px;"> +<a name="fig05" id="fig05"></a> +<img src="images/agr045.jpg" width="232" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 5.—Nave of Wells Cathedral. +(1206 to 1242.)<br /> +<span class="nosc"><small>A.</small> Nave Arcade. <small>B.</small> Triforium. <small>C.</small> Clerestory.</span></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>10]</a></span> +The eastern arm of the cathedral is the part to which +most importance was attached, and it is usual to mark +that importance by greater richness, and by a difference in +the height of its roof or vault as compared with the nave; +its floor is always raised. It also has its central passage +and its aisles; and it has double aisles much more frequently +than the nave. The eastern termination of the cathedral +is sometimes semicircular, sometimes polygonal, and when +it takes this form it is called an apse or an apsidal east +end; sometimes it is square, the apse being most in use +on the Continent, and the square east end in England. +Attached to some of the side walls of the church it is +usual to have a series of chapels; these are ordinarily +chambers partly shut off from the main structure, but +opening into it by arched openings; each chapel contains +an altar. The finest chapel is usually one placed on the +axis of the cathedral, and east of the east end of the main +building; this is called, where it exists, the Lady Chapel, +and was customarily dedicated to the Virgin. Henry VII.’s +Chapel at Westminster (Fig. <a href="#fig06">6</a>) furnishes a familiar instance +of the lady chapel of a great church. Next in importance +rank the side chapels which open out of the aisles of the +apse, when there is one. Westminster Abbey furnishes +good examples of these also. The eastern wall of the +transept is a favourite position for chapels. They are +less frequently added to the nave aisles.</p> + +<p>The floor of the eastern arm of the cathedral, as has +been pointed out, is always raised, so as to be approached +by steps; it is inclosed by screen work which shuts off +the choir, or inclosure for the performance of divine service, +from the nave. The fittings of this part of the building +generally include stalls for the clergy and choristers +and a bishop’s throne, and are usually beautiful works of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"><!-- original location of Fig. 6 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>12]</a></span> +art. Tombs, and inclosures connected with them, called +chantry chapels, are constantly met with in various +positions, but most frequently in the eastern arm.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 305px;"> +<a name="fig06" id="fig06"></a> +<img src="images/agr046.jpg" width="305" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 6.—Ground Plan of Westminster Abbey.</p> + +<p>Below the raised floor of the choir, and sometimes below +other parts of the building, there often exists a subterranean +vaulted structure known as the crypt.</p> + +<p>Passing to the exterior of the cathedral, the principal +doorway is in the western front:<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> usually supplemented by +entrances at the ends of the transepts, and one or more +side entrances to the nave. A porch on the north side of +the nave is a common feature. The walls are now seen to +be strengthened by stone piers, called buttresses. Frequently +arches are thrown from these buttresses to the +higher walls of the building. The whole arrangement of +pier and arch is called a flying buttress,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> and, as will be +explained later, is used to steady the upper part of the +building when a stone vault is employed (see Chap. <a href="#chap05">V.</a>). +The lofty gables in which the nave and transepts, and +the eastern arm when square terminate, form prominent +features, and are often occupied by great windows.</p> + +<p>In a complete cathedral, the effect of the exterior is +largely due to the towers with which it was adorned. The +most massive tower was ordinarily one which stood, like +the central one of Lichfield Cathedral, at the crossing of +the nave and transepts. Two towers were usually intended +at the western front of the building, and sometimes one, or +occasionally two, at the end of each transept. It is rare to +find a cathedral where the whole of these towers have been +even begun, much less completed. In many cases only one, +in others three, have been built. In some instances they +have been erected, and have fallen. In others they have +never been carried up at all. During a large portion of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>13]</a></span> +the Gothic period it was usual to add to each tower a lofty +pyramidal roof or spire, and these are still standing in +some instances, though many of them have disappeared. +Occasionally a tower was built quite detached from the +church to which it belonged.</p> + +<p>To cathedrals and abbey churches a group of monastic +buildings was appended. It will not be necessary to describe +these in much detail. They were grouped round an +open square, surrounded by a vaulted and arcaded passage, +which is known as the cloister. This was usually fitted +into the warm and sheltered angle formed by the south +side of the nave and the south transept, though occasionally +the cloister is found on the north side of the nave. +The most important building opening out of the cloister is +the chapter-house, frequently a lofty and richly-ornamented +room, often octagonal, and generally standing south of the +south transept. The usual arrangement of the monastic +buildings round and adjoining the cloister varied in details +with the requirements of the different monastic orders, and +the circumstances of each individual religious house, but, +as in the case of churches, the general principles of disposition +were fixed early. They are embodied in a manuscript +plan, dating as far back as the ninth century, and found at +St. Gall in Switzerland, and never seem to have been widely +departed from. The monks’ dormitory here occupies the +whole east side of the great cloister, there being no +chapter-house. It is usually met with as nearly in this +position as the transept and the chapter-house will permit. +The refectory is on the south side of the cloister, and has +a connected kitchen. The west side of the cloister in this +instance was occupied by a great cellar. Frequently a +hospitum, or apartment for entertaining guests, stood here. +The north side of the cloister was formed by the church.</p> + +<p>For the abbot a detached house was provided in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>14]</a></span> +St. Gall plan to stand on the north side of the church; and +a second superior hospitum for his guests. Eastward of +the church are placed the infirmary with its chapel, and +an infirmarer’s lodging. The infirmary was commonly +arranged with a nave and aisles, much like, a small parish +church. Other detached buildings gave a public school, a +school for novices with its chapel, and, more remotely +placed, granaries, mills, a bakehouse, and other offices. A +garden and a cemetery formed part of the scheme, which +corresponds tolerably well with that of many monastic +buildings remaining in England, as <i>e.g.</i>, those at Fountains’ +Abbey, Furness Abbey, or Westminster Abbey, so far as +they can be traced.</p> + +<p>Generally speaking the principal buildings in a monastery +were long and not very wide apartments, with windows on +both sides. Frequently they were vaulted, and they often +had a row of columns down the middle. Many are two +stories high. Of the dependencies, the kitchen, which was +often a vaulted apartment with a chimney, and the +barn, which was often of great size, were the most prominent. +They are often fine buildings. At Glastonbury very +good examples of a monastic barn and kitchen can be seen.</p> + +<p>Second only in importance to the churches and religious +buildings come the military and domestic buildings of the +Gothic period (Fig. <a href="#fig07">7</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 479px;"> +<a name="fig07" id="fig07"></a> +<img src="images/agr047.jpg" width="479" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 7.—House of Jaques Cœur at Bourges. (Begun 1413.)</p> + +<p>Every dwelling-house of consequence was more or less +fortified, at any rate during the twelfth, thirteenth, and +fourteenth centuries. A lofty square tower, called a keep, +built to stand a siege, and with a walled inclosure at its +feet, often protected by a wide ditch (fosse or moat), +formed the castle of the twelfth century, and in some cases +(<i>e.g.</i> the White Tower of London), this keep was of considerable +size. The first step in enlargement was to +increase the number and importance of the buildings which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>15]</a></span> +clustered round the keep, and to form two inclosures for +them, known as an inner and an outer bailey. The +outer buildings of the Tower of London, though much +modernised, will give a good idea of what a first class +castle grew to be by successive additions of this sort. In +castles erected near the end of the thirteenth century +(<i>e.g.</i> Conway Castle in North Wales), and later, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>16]</a></span> +square form of the keep was abandoned, and many more +arrangements for the comfort and convenience of the +occupants were introduced; and the buildings and additions +to buildings of the fifteenth century took more the +shape of a modern dwelling-house, partly protected against +violence, but by no means strong enough to stand a siege. +Penshurst may be cited as a good example of this class of +building.</p> + +<p>It will be understood that, unlike the religious buildings +which early received the form and disposition from which +they did not depart widely, mediæval domestic buildings +exhibit an amount of change in which we can readily trace +the effects of the gradual settlement of this country, the +abandonment of habits of petty warfare, the ultimate +cessation of civil wars, the introduction of gunpowder, the +increase in wealth and desire for comfort, and last, but +not least, the confiscation by Henry VIII. of the property +of the monastic houses.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 510px;"> +<a name="fig08" id="fig08"></a> +<img src="images/agr048.jpg" width="510" height="150" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 8.—Plan of Warwick Castle. (14th and following Centuries.)</p> + +<p>Warwick Castle, of which we give a plan (Fig. <a href="#fig08">8</a>), maybe +cited as a good example of an English castellated mansion +of the time of Richard II. Below the principal story there +is a vaulted basement containing the kitchens and many of +the offices. On the main floor we find the hall, entered as +usual at the lower or servants’ end, from a porch. The upper +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>17]</a></span> +end gives access to a sitting-room, built immediately behind +it, and beyond are a drawing-room and state bed-rooms, +while across a passage are placed the private chapel and +a large dining-room (a modern addition). Bed-rooms +occupy the upper floors of the buildings at both ends of +the hall.</p> + +<p>Perhaps even more interesting as a study than Warwick +Castle is Haddon Hall, the well-preserved residence of the +Duke of Rutland, in Derbyshire. The five or six successive +enlargements and additions which this building has +received between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries +show the growth of ideas of comfort and even luxury in +this country.</p> + +<p>As it now stands, Haddon Hall contains two internal +quadrangles, separated from one another by the great hall +with its dais, its minstrels’ gallery, its vast open fire-place, +and its traceried windows, and by the kitchens, butteries, +&c., belonging to it.</p> + +<p>The most important apartments are reached from the +upper end of the hall, and consist of the magnificent ball-room, +and a dining-room in the usual position, <i>i.e.</i> adjoining +the hall and opening out of it; with, on the upper floor, a +drawing-room, and a suite of state bed-rooms, occupying +the south side of both quadrangles and the east end of +one. A large range of apartments, added at a late period, +and many of them finely panelled and lined with tapestry, +occupies the north side of this building and the northwestern +tower. At the south-western corner of the building +stands a chapel of considerable size, and which once +seems to have served as a kind of parochial church; and a +very considerable number of rooms of small size, opening +out of both quadrangles, would afford shelter, if not comfortable +lodging, to retainers, servants, and others. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"><!-- original location of Fig. 9 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>19]</a></span> +portions built in the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth +centuries are more or less fortified. The ball-room, which is +of Elizabethan architecture, opens on to a terraced garden, +accessible from without by no more violent means than +climbing over a not very formidable wall. Probably +nowhere in England, can the growth of domestic architecture +be better studied, whether we look to the alterations +which took place in accommodation and arrangement, or to +the changes which occurred in the architectural treatment +of windows, battlements, doorways and other features, +than at Haddon Hall.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 387px;"> +<a name="fig09" id="fig09"></a> +<img src="images/agr049.jpg" width="387" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 9.—Palaces on the Grand Canal, Venice. (14th Century.)</p> + +<p>In towns and cities much beautiful domestic architecture +is to be found in the ordinary dwelling-houses, +<i>e.g.</i> houses from Chester and Lisieux (Figs. <a href="#fig14">14</a> and <a href="#fig15">15</a>); but +many specimens have of course perished, especially as timber +was freely used in their construction. Dwelling-houses of a +high order of excellence, and of large size, were also built +during this period. The Gothic palaces of Venice, of which +many stand on the Grand Canal (Fig. <a href="#fig09">9</a>), are the best +examples of these, and the lordly Ducal Palace in that +city is perhaps the finest secular building which exists +of Gothic architecture.</p> + +<p>Municipal buildings of great size and beauty are to be +found in North Italy and Germany, but chiefly in +Belgium, where the various town-halls of Louvain, +Bruges, Ypres, Ghent, Antwerp, Brussels, &c., vie with +each other in magnificence and extent.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Many secular buildings also remain to us of which the +architecture is Gothic. Among these we find public halls +and large buildings for public purposes—as Westminster +Hall, or the Palace of Justice at Rouen; hospitals, as +that at Milan; or colleges, as King’s College, Cambridge, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>20]</a></span> +with its unrivalled chapel. Many charming minor works, +such as fountains, wells (Fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a>), crosses, tombs, monuments, +and the fittings of the interior of churches, also +remain to attest the versatility, the power of design, and +the cultivated taste of the architects of the Gothic period.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 353px;"> +<a name="fig10" id="fig10"></a> +<img src="images/agr050.jpg" width="353" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 10.—Well at Regensburg. (15th Century.)</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> +As the north transept at Peterborough (Fig. <a href="#fig02">2</a>).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> +At <span class="smcap">E</span> on the plan of Peterborough (Fig. <a href="#fig02">2</a>).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> +See <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p> +</div> +</div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>21]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig11" id="fig11"></a> +<img src="images/agr051.jpg" width="500" height="228" +alt="Sculptured ornament from Sens Cathedral" /> +<p class="right smcap"><b>Fig. 11.</b></p> +</div> + + +<h2><a name="chap03" id="chap03"></a>CHAPTER III.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="vsmlfont">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN.</span></h2> + + +<p><span class="dropcap">E</span>NGLISH Gothic architecture has been usually subdivided +into three periods or stages of advancement, +corresponding to those enumerated on page <a href="#Page_1">1</a>; the +early stage known as Early English, or sometimes as +Lancet, occupying the thirteenth century and something +more; the middle stage, known as Decorated, occupying +most of the fourteenth century; and the latest stage, +known as Perpendicular, occupying the fifteenth century +and part of the sixteenth.</p> + +<p>The duration of each of these coincides approximately +with the century, the transition from each phase to the +next taking place chiefly in the last quarter of the century. +Adding the periods of the English types of round arched +Architecture, we obtain the following table:—</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Periods of English types of round arched architecture"> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">Up to 1066 or up to middle of 11th century,</td> + <td class="tdlsc">Saxon.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt"><small>A.D.</small> 1066 to 1189 or up to end of 12th <span class="space3">”</span></td> + <td class="tdlsc">Norman.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt"><small>A.D.</small> 1189 to 1307 or up to end of 13th <span class="space3">”</span></td> + <td class="tdlsc">Early English.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt"><small>A.D.</small> 1307 to 1377 or up to end of 14th <span class="space3">”</span></td> + <td class="tdlsc">Decorated.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt"><small>A.D.</small> 1377 to 1546 or up to middle of 16th <span class="space3">”</span></td> + <td class="tdlsc">Perpendicular.</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>22]</a></span> +The term “Early English” (short for Early English +Gothic) applied to English thirteenth-century architecture +explains itself.</p> + +<p>The term “Lancet” sometimes applied to the Early +English style, is derived from the shape of the ordinary +window-heads, which resemble the point of a lancet in outline +(Fig. <a href="#fig16">16</a>). Whatever term be adopted, it is necessary +to remark that a wide difference exists between the earlier +and the late examples of this period. It will suffice for our +purposes if, when speaking of the fully-developed style of +the late examples, we refer to it as Advanced Early English.</p> + +<p>The architecture of the fourteenth century is called +“Decorated,” from the great increase of ornament, especially +in window tracery and carved enrichments.</p> + +<p>The architecture of the fifteenth century is called +“Perpendicular,” from the free use made of perpendicular +lines, both in general features and in ornaments, especially +in the tracery of the windows and the panelling with +which walls are ornamented.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<p>The following condensed list, partly from Morant,<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> of the +most striking peculiarities of each period, may be found +useful for reference, and is on that account placed here, +notwithstanding that it contains many technical words, +for the meaning of which the student must consult the +<a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> which forms part of this volume.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Anglo-Saxon</span>—(Prior to the Norman Conquest).—</p> + +<p>Rude work and rough material; walls mostly of rubble or ragstone +with ashlar at the angles in long and short courses alternately; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>23]</a></span> +openings with round or triangular heads, sometimes divided by a rude +baluster. Piers plain, square, and narrow. Windows splayed externally +and internally. Rude square blocks of stone in place of capitals +and bases. Mouldings generally semi-cylindrical and coarsely chiselled. +Corners of buildings square without buttresses.</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Norman period monarchs"> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc">Norman.</td> + <td class="tdlt">William I.</td> + <td class="tdspc"><small>A.D.</small></td> + <td class="tdlt">1066.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">William II.</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1087.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Henry I.</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1100.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Stephen</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1135.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Henry II.</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1154 to 1189.</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Arches semicircular, occasionally stilted; at first plain, afterwards +enriched with chevron or other mouldings; and frequent repetition of +same ornament on each stone. Piers low and massive, cylindrical, +square, polygonal, or composed of clustered shafts, often ornamented +with spiral bands and mouldings. Windows generally narrow and +splayed internally only; sometimes double and divided by a shaft. +Walls sometimes a series of arcades, a few pierced as windows, the rest +left blank. Doorways deeply recessed and richly ornamented with +bands of mouldings. Doors often square headed, but under arches the +head of the arch filled with carving. Capitals carved in outline, often +grotesquely sculptured with devices of animals and leaves. Abacus +square, lower edge moulded. Bases much resembling the classic orders. +The mouldings at first imperfectly formed. Pedestals of piers square. +Buttresses plain, with broad faces and small projections. Parapets plain +with projecting corbel table under.</p> + +<p>Plain mouldings consist of chamfers, round or pointed rolls at +edges, divided from plain face by shallow channels. Enriched +mouldings—the chevrons or zig-zag, the billet square or round, the +cable, the lozenge, the chain, nail heads, and others. Niches with +figures over doorways. Roofs of moderately high pitch, and open +to the frame; timbers chiefly king-post trusses. Towers square and +massive—those of late date richly adorned with arcades. Openings in +towers often beautifully grouped. Vaulting waggon-headed, and simple +intersecting vaults of semicircular outline.</p> + +<p>Towards the close of the style in reign of Henry II., details of +transitional character begin to appear. Pointed arch with Norman +pier. Arcades of intersecting semicircular arches. Norman abacus +blended with Early English foliage in capitals.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>24]</a></span></p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Early English period monarchs"> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc">Early English.</td> + <td class="tdlt">Richard I.</td> + <td class="tdspc"><small>A.D.</small></td> + <td class="tdlt">1189 <i>Transition.</i></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">John</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1199.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Henry III.</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1216.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Edward I.</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1272 to 1307.</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>General proportions more slender, and height of walls, columns, &c., +greater. Arches pointed, generally lancet; often richly moulded. +Triforium arches and arcades open with trefoiled heads. Piers slender, +composed of a central circular shaft surrounded by several smaller ones, +almost or quite detached; generally with horizontal bands. In small +buildings plain polygonal and circular piers are used. Capitals concave +in outline, moulded, or carved with conventional foliage delicately +executed and arranged vertically. The abacus always undercut. +Detached shafts often of Purbeck marble. Base a deep hollow between +two rounds. Windows at first long, narrow, and deeply splayed +internally, the glass within a few inches of outer face of wall; later +in the style less acute, divided by mullions, enriched with cusped +circles in the head, often of three or more lights, the centre light being +the highest. Doorways often deeply recessed and enriched with slender +shafts and elaborate mouldings. Shafts detached. Buttresses about +equal in projection to width, with but one set-off, or without any. +Buttresses at angles always in pairs. Mouldings bold and deeply undercut, +consisting chiefly of round mouldings sometimes pointed or with +a fillett, separated by deep hollows. Great depth of moulded surface +generally arranged on rectangular planes. Hollows of irregular curve +sometimes filled with dogtooth ornament or with foliage. Roofs of +high pitch, timbers plain, and where there is no vault open.</p> + +<p>Early in the style finials were plain bunches of leaves; towards the +close beautifully carved finials and crockets with carved foliage of conventional +character were introduced. Flat surfaces often richly diapered. +Spires broached. Vaulting pointed with diagonal and main +ribs only; ridge ribs not introduced till late in the style; bosses at +intersection of ribs.</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Decorated period monarchs"> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc">Decorated.</td> + <td class="tdlt">Edward II.</td> + <td class="tdspc"><small>A.D.</small></td> + <td class="tdlt">1307.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Edward III.</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1377 to 1379.</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Proportions less lofty than in the previous style. Arches mostly +inclosing an equilateral angle, the mouldings often continued down the +pier. Windows large, and divided into two or more lights by mullions. +Tracery in the head, at first composed geometrical forms, later of +flowing character. Clerestory windows generally small. Diamond +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>25]</a></span> +shaped piers with shafts engaged. Capitals with scroll moulding on +under side of abacus, with elegant foliage arranged horizontally. +Doors frequently without shafts, the arch moulding running down the +jambs. Rich doorways and windows often surrounded with triangular +and ogee-shaped canopies. Buttresses in stages variously ornamented. +Parapet pierced with quatrefoils and flowing tracery. Niches panelled +and with projecting canopies. Spires lofty; the broach rarely used, +parapets and angle pinnacles take the place of it. Roofs of moderate +pitch open to the framing. Mouldings bold and finely proportioned, +generally in groups, the groups separated from each other by hollows, +composed of segments of circles. Deep hollows, now generally confined +to inner angles. Mouldings varying in size and kind, arranged +on diagonal as well as rectangular planes, often ornamented with +ball flower. Foliage chiefly of ivy, oak, and vine leaves; natural, +also conventional. Rich crockets, finials, and pinnacles. Vaulting +with intermediate ribs, ridge ribs, and late in the style lierne ribs, and +bosses.</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Perpendicular and Tudor period monarchs"> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc">Perpendicular.</td> + <td class="tdlt">Richard II.</td> + <td class="tdspc"><small>A.D.</small></td> + <td class="tdlt">1377. (<i>Transition.</i>)</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Henry IV.</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1399.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Henry V.</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1413.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Henry VI.</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1422.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Edward IV.</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1461.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Edward V.</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1483.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Richard III.</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1483.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc">Tudor.</td> + <td class="tdlt">Henry VII.</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1485.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Henry VIII.</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdlt">1509 to 1546.</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Arches at first inclosing an equilateral triangle, afterwards obtusely +pointed and struck from four centres. Piers generally oblong; longitudinal +direction north and south. Mouldings continued from base +through arch. Capitals with mouldings large, angular, and few, with +abacus and bell imperfectly defined. Foliage of conventional character, +shallow, and square in outline. Bases polygonal. Windows where +lofty divided into stories by transoms. The mullions often continued +perpendicularly into the head. Canopies of ogee character enriched +with crockets. Doors generally with square label over arch, the +spandrels filled with ornament. Buttresses with bold projection often +ending in finials. Flying buttresses pierced with tracery. Walls +profusely ornamented with panelling. Parapets embattled and panelled. +Open timber roofs of moderate pitch, of elaborate construction, often +with hammer beams, richly ornamented with moulded timbers, carved +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>26]</a></span> +figures of angels and with pierced tracery in spandrels. Roofs sometimes +of very flat pitch. Lofty clerestories. Mouldings large, coarse, +and with wide and shallow hollows and hard wiry edges, meagre in +appearance and wanting in minute and delicate detail, generally +arranged on diagonal planes. Early in the style the mouldings partake +of decorated character.</p> + +<p>In the Tudor period depressed four-centered arch prevails; transoms +of windows battlemented. Tudor flower, rose, portcullis, and fleur-de-lis +common ornaments. Crockets and pinnacles much projected. +Roofs of low pitch.</p> + +<p>Vaulting. Fan vaulting, with tracery and pendants elaborately +carved.</p> +</div> + +<p>Other modes of distinguishing the periods of English +Gothic have been proposed by writers of authority. The +division given above is that of Rickman, and is generally +adopted. A more minute subdivision and a different set +of names were proposed by Sharpe as follows:—</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Sharpe's division of periods for Romanesque and Gothic"> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc">Romanesque.</td> + <td class="tdlt">Saxon</td> + <td class="tdspc"><small>A.D.</small></td> + <td class="tdrt">to 1066.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Norman</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdrt">1066 to 1145.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlsc">Gothic.</td> + <td class="tdlt">Transitional</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdrt">1145 to 1190.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Lancet</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdrt">1190 to 1245.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Geometrical</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdrt">1245 to 1315.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Curvilinear</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdrt">1315 to 1360.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Rectilinear</td> + <td class="tdspc">”</td> + <td class="tdrt">1360 to 1550.</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>Of the new names proposed by Mr. Sharpe “transitional” +explains itself; and “geometrical, curvilinear, +and rectilinear” refer to the characters of the window +tracery at the different periods which they denote.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">The history of English Gothic proper may be said to +begin with the reign of Henry II., coinciding very nearly +with the commencement of the period named by Mr. Sharpe +transitional (1145 to 1190), when Norman architecture +was changing into Gothic. This history we propose now to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>27]</a></span> +consider somewhat in detail, dividing the buildings in the +simplest possible way, namely, into floors, walls, columns, +roofs, openings, and ornaments. After this we shall have +to consider the mode in which materials were used by the +builders of the Gothic period, <i>i.e.</i> the construction of the +buildings; and the general artistic principles which guided +their architects, <i>i.e.</i> the design of the buildings.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">It may be useful to students in and near London to give +Sir G. Gilbert Scott’s list of striking London examples<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> of +Gothic architecture (with the omission of such examples as +are more antiquarian than architectural in their interest):—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Norman</i> (temp. Conquest).—The Keep and Chapel of the Tower of +London.</p> + +<p><i>Advanced Norman.</i>—Chapel of St. Catherine, Westminster Abbey; +St. Bartholomew’s Priory, Smithfield.</p> + +<p><i>Transitional.</i>—The round part of the Temple Church.</p> + +<p><i>Early English.</i>—Eastern part of the Temple Church; Choir and +Lady Chapel of St. Mary Overy, Southwark; Chapel of Lambeth +Palace.</p> + +<p><i>Advanced Early English</i> (passing to decorated).—Eastern part of +Westminster Abbey generally and its Chapter House.</p> + +<p><i>Early Decorated.</i>—Choir of Westminster, (but this has been much +influenced by the design of the earlier parts adjacent); Chapel of St. +Etheldreda, Ely Place, Holborn.</p> + +<p><i>Late Decorated.</i>—The three bays of the Cloister at Westminster +opposite the entrance to Chapter House; Crypt of St. Stephen’s +Chapel, Westminster; Dutch Church, Austin Friars.</p> + +<p><i>Early Perpendicular.</i>—South and West walks of the Cloister, Westminster; +Westminster Hall.</p> + +<p><i>Advanced Perpendicular (Tudor period).</i>—Henry VII.’s Chapel; +Double Cloister of St. Stephen’s, Westminster.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> +The abbreviations, E. E., Dec., and Perp., will be employed to +denote these three periods.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> +<i>Notes on English Architecture, Costumes, Monuments, &c.</i> <i>Privately +printed.</i> Quoted here with the author’s permission.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> +See examples in Chapter <a href="#chap05">V.</a> and in <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> +Address to Conference of Architects, <i>Builder</i>, June 24, 1876.</p> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>28]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="head03" id="head03"></a> +<img src="images/agr052.jpg" width="500" height="226" +alt="Sculptured ornament from Westminster Abbey" /> +</div> + + +<h2><a name="chap04" id="chap04"></a>CHAPTER IV.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="vsmlfont">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.—ENGLAND.</span></h2> + + +<h3>ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.—FLOOR, WALLS, TOWERS, GABLES, +COLUMNS.</h3> + +<h4><i>Floor, or Plan.</i></h4> + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE excellences or defects of a building are more due +to the shape and size of its floor and, incidentally, +of the walls and columns or piers which inclose and subdivide +its floor than to anything else whatever. A map of +the floor and walls (usually showing also the position of the +doors and windows), is known as a plan, but by a pardonable +figure of speech the plan of a building is often understood +to mean the shape and size and arrangement of its +floor and walls themselves, instead of simply the drawing +representing them. It is in this sense that the word plan +will be used in this volume.</p> + +<p>The plan of a Gothic Cathedral has been described, and +it has been already remarked that before the Gothic period +had commenced the dimensions of great churches had been +very much increased. The generally received disposition +of the parts of a church had indeed been already settled +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>29]</a></span> +or nearly so. There were consequently few radical alterations +in church plans during the Gothic period. One, however, +took place in England in the abandonment of the +apse.</p> + +<p>At first the apsidal east end, common in the Norman times, +was retained. For example, it is found at Canterbury, +where the choir and transept are transitional, having been +begun soon after 1174 and completed about 1184; but the +eastern end of Chichester, which belongs to the same period +(the transition), displays the square east end, and this +termination was almost invariably preferred in our country +after the twelfth century.</p> + +<p>A great amount of regularity marks the plans of those +great churches which had vaulted roofs, as will be readily +understood when it is remembered that the vaults were +divided into equal and similar compartments, and that the +points of support had to be placed with corresponding regularity. +Where, however, some controlling cause of this +nature was not at work much picturesque irregularity prevailed +in the planning of English Gothic buildings of all +periods. The plans of our Cathedrals are noted for their +great length in proportion to their width, for the considerable +length given to the transepts, and for the occurrence in +many cases (<i>e.g.</i> Salisbury, thirteenth century) of a second +transept. The principal alterations which took place in +plan as time went on originated in the desire to concentrate +material as much as possible on points of support, +leaving the walls between them thin and the openings +wide, and in the use of flying buttresses, the feet of which +occupy a considerable space outside the main walls of the +church. The plans of piers and columns also underwent +the alterations which will be presently described.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>30]</a></span> +Buildings of a circular shape on plan are very rare, but +octagonal ones are not uncommon. The finest chapter-houses +attached to our Cathedrals are octagons, with a +central pier to carry the vaulting. On the whole, play of +shape on plan was less cultivated in England than in some +continental countries.</p> + +<p>The plans of domestic buildings are usually simple, but +grew more elaborate and extensive as time went on. The +cloister with dwelling-rooms and common-rooms entered +from its walk, formed the model on which colleges, hospitals, +and alms-houses were planned. The castle, already +described, was the residence of the wealthy during the +earlier part of the Gothic period, and when, in the fourteenth +and fifteenth centuries, houses which were rather +dwellings than fortresses began to be erected, the hall, +with a large bay window and a raised floor or dais at +one end and a mighty open fire-place, was always the most +conspicuous feature in the plan. Towards the close of the +Gothic period the plan of a great dwelling, such as +Warwick Castle (Fig. <a href="#fig08">8</a>), began to show many of +the features which distinguish a mansion of the present +day.</p> + +<p>In various parts of the country remains of magnificent +Gothic dwelling-houses of the fourteenth and fifteenth +centuries exist, and long before the close of the perpendicular +period we had such mansions as Penshurst and +Hever, such palaces as Windsor and Wells, such castellated +dwellings as Warwick and Haddon, differing in many +respects but all agreeing in the possession of a great central +hall. Buildings for public purposes also often took the +form of a great hall. Westminster Hall may be cited as +the finest example of such a structure, not only in England +but in Europe.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>31]</a></span> +The student who desires to obtain anything beyond the +most superficial acquaintance with architecture must endeavour +to obtain enough familiarity with ground plans, to +be able to sketch, measure, and lay down a plan to scale +and to <em>read</em> one. The plan shows to the experienced +architect the nature, arrangement, and qualities of a building +better than any other drawing, and a better memorandum +of a building is preserved if a fairly correct sketch +of its plan, or of the plan of important parts of it, is +preserved than if written notes are alone relied upon.</p> + + +<h4><i>Walls.</i></h4> + +<p>The walls of Gothic buildings are generally of stone; +brick being the exception. They were in the transitional +and Early English times extremely thick, and became +thinner afterwards. All sorts of ornamental masonry were +introduced into them, so that diapers,<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> bands, arcades, +mouldings, and inlaid patterns are all to be met with +occasionally, especially in districts where building materials +of varied colours, or easy to work, are plentiful. In the +perpendicular period the walls were systematically covered +with panelling closely resembling the tracery of the +windows (<i>e.g.</i>, Henry VII.’s Chapel at Westminster).</p> + +<p>The wall of a building ordinarily requires some kind of +base and some kind of top. The base or plinth in English +Gothic buildings was usually well marked and bold, especially +in the perpendicular period, and it is seldom absent. +The eaves of the roof in some cases overhang the walls, +resting on a simple stone band, called an eaves-course, +and constitute the crowning feature. In many instances, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>32]</a></span> +however, the eaves are concealed behind a parapet<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> which +is often carried on a moulded cornice or on corbels. This, +in the E. E. period, was usually very simple. In the Dec. +it was panelled with ornamental panels, and often made +very beautiful. In the Perp. it was frequently battlemented +as well as panelled.</p> + +<p>A distinguishing feature of Gothic walls is the buttress. +It existed, but only in the form of a flat pier of very slight +projection in Norman, as in almost all Romanesque buildings, +but in the Gothic period it became developed.</p> + +<p>The buttress, like many of the peculiarities of Gothic +architecture, originated in the use of stone vaults and the +need for strong piers at these points, upon which the +thrust and weight of those vaults were concentrated. The +use of very large openings, for wide windows full of +stained glass also made it increasingly necessary in the +Dec. and Perp. periods to fortify the walls at regular +points.</p> + +<p>A buttress<a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> is, in fact, a piece of wall set athwart the +main wall, usually projecting considerably at the base and +diminished by successive reductions of its mass as it approaches +the top, and so placed as to counteract the thrust +of some arch or vault inside. It had great artistic value; +in the feeble and level light of our Northern climate it +casts bold shadows and catches bright lights, and so adds +greatly to the architectural effect of the exterior. In the +E. E. the buttress was simple and ordinarily projected +about its own width. In the Dec. it obtained much more +projection, was constructed with several diminutions (technically +called weatherings), and was considerably ornamented. +In the Perp. it was frequently enriched by +panelling. The buttresses in the Dec. period are often set +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>33]</a></span> +diagonally at the corner of a building or tower. In the +E. E. period this was never done.</p> + +<p>The flying buttress<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> is one of the most conspicuous +features of the exterior of those Gothic buildings which +possessed elaborate stone vaults. It was a contrivance for +providing an abutment to counterbalance the outward pressure +of the vault covering the highest and central parts +of the building in cases where that vault rested upon and +abutted against walls which themselves were carried by +arches, and were virtually internal walls, so that no buttress +could be carried up from the ground to steady them.</p> + +<p>A pier of masonry, sometimes standing alone, sometimes +thrown out from the aisle wall opposite the point to be +propped, formed the solid part of this buttress; it was +carried to the requisite height and a flying arch spanning +the whole width of the aisles was thrown across from it +to the wall at the point whence the vault sprung. The +pier itself was in many cases loaded by an enormous +pinnacle, so that its weight might combine with the pressure +transmitted along the slope of the flying arch to give +a resultant which should fall within the base of the +buttress. The back of such an arch was generally used as +a water channel.</p> + +<p>The forest of flying buttresses round many French +cathedrals produces an almost bewildering effect, as, for +instance, at the east end of Notre Dame;—our English +specimens, at Westminster Abbey for example, are +comparatively simple.</p> + + +<h4><i>Towers.</i></h4> + +<p>The gable and the tower are developments of the +walls of the building. Gothic is <i>par excellence</i> the style +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>34]</a></span> +of towers. Many towers were built detached from all +other buildings, but no great Gothic building is complete +without one main tower and some subordinate ones.</p> + +<p>In the E. E. style church towers were often crowned by +low spires, becoming more lofty as the style advanced. In +the Dec. style lofty spires were almost universal. In the +Perp. the tower rarely has a visible roof.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p> + +<p>The artistic value of towers in giving unity coupled +with variety to a group of buildings can hardly be +exaggerated.</p> + +<p>The positions which towers occupy are various. They +produce the greatest effect when central, <i>i.e.</i> placed over +the crossing of the nave and transepts. Lichfield, Chichester, +and Salisbury may be referred to as examples of cathedrals +with towers in this position and surmounted by spires. +Canterbury, York, Lincoln, and Gloucester are specimens +of the effectiveness of the tower similarly placed, but without +a spire (Fig. <a href="#fig12">12</a>). At Wells a fine central octagon +occupies the crossing, and is remarkable for the skill with +which it is fitted to the nave and aisles internally. Next +to central towers rank a pair of towers at the western end +of the building. These exist at Lichfield with their spires; +they exist (square-topped) at Lincoln, and (though carried +up since the Gothic period) at Westminster.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> Many +churches have a single tower in this position (Fig. <a href="#fig13">13</a>).</p> + +<p>The obvious purpose of a tower, beyond its serviceableness +as a feature of the building and as a landmark, is to +lift up a belfry high into the air: accordingly, almost +without exception, church and cathedral towers are designed +with a large upper story, pierced by openings of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>35]</a></span> +great size and height called the belfry stage; and the +whole artistic treatment of the tower is subordinate to +this feature. It is also very often the case that a turret to +contain a spiral staircase which may afford the means of +access to the upper part of the tower, forms a prominent +feature of its whole height, especially in the Dec. and +Perp. periods.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 345px;"> +<a name="fig12" id="fig12"></a> +<img src="images/agr053.jpg" width="345" height="250" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 12.—Lincoln Cathedral. (Mostly Early English.)</p> + +<p>In domestic and monastic buildings, low towers were +frequently employed with excellent effect. Many castles +retained the Norman keep, or square strong tower, which +had served as the nucleus round which other buildings had +afterwards clustered; but where during the Gothic period +a castle was built, or rebuilt, without such a keep, one or +more towers, often of great beauty, were always added. +Examples abound; good ones will be found in the +Edwardian castles in Wales (end of thirteenth century), as +for example at Conway and Caernarvon.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>36]</a></span></p> + +<h4><i>Gables.</i></h4> + +<p>The gable forms a distinctive Gothic feature. The gables +crowned those parts of a great church in which the skill +of the architect was directed to producing a regular composition, +often called a front, or a façade. The west +fronts of Cathedrals were the most important architectural +designs of this sort, and with them we may include the +ends of the transepts and the east fronts.</p> + +<p>The same parts of parish churches are often excellent +compositions. The gable of the nave always formed the +central feature of the main front. This was flanked by the +gables, or half-gables, of the aisles where there were no +towers, or by the lower portions of the towers. As a rule +the centre and sides of the façade are separated by buttresses, +or some other mode of marking a vertical division, +and the composition is also divided by bands of mouldings +or otherwise, horizontally into storeys. Some of the +horizontal divisions are often strongly marked, especially +in the lower part of the building, where in early examples +there is sometimes in addition to the plinth, or base of the +wall, an arcade or a band of sculpture running across the +entire front (<i>e.g.</i> east front of Lincoln Cathedral). The +central gable is always occupied by a large window—or in +early buildings a group of windows—sometimes two storeys +in height. A great side window usually occurs at the end +of each aisle. Below these great windows are introduced, +at any rate in west fronts, the doorways, which, even in the +finest English examples, are comparatively small. The +gable also contains as a rule one or more windows often +circular which light the space above the vaults.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 358px;"> +<a name="fig13" id="fig13"></a> +<img src="images/agr054.jpg" width="358" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 13.—St. Pierre, Caen, Tower and Spire. (Spire, 1302.)</p> + +<p>Part of the art in arranging such a composition is to combine +and yet contrast its horizontal and vertical elements. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"><!-- original location of Fig. 13 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>38]</a></span> +The horizontal lines, or features, are those which serve to +bind the whole together, and the vertical ones are those +which give that upward tendency which is the great charm +and peculiar characteristic of Gothic architecture. It is +essential for the masses of solid masonry and the openings +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>39]</a></span> +to be properly contrasted and proportioned to each other, +and here, as in every part of a building, such ornaments +and ornamental features as are introduced must be designed +to contribute to the enrichment of the building +as a whole, so that no part shall be conspicuous either +by inharmonious treatment, undue plainness, or excessive +enrichment.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 296px;"> +<a name="fig14" id="fig14"></a> +<img src="images/agr055.jpg" width="296" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 14.—House at Chester. (16th Century.)</p> + +<p>During the transition the gable became steeper in pitch +than the comparatively moderate slope of Norman times. +In the E. E. it was acutely pointed, in the Dec. the usual +slope was that of the two sides of an equilateral triangle: +in the Perp. it became extremely flat and ceased to be so +marked a feature as it had formerly been. In domestic buildings +the gable was employed in the most effective manner, +and town dwelling-houses were almost invariably built +their gable ends to the street (Fig. <a href="#fig14">14</a>).</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">A very effective form of wall was frequently made use of +in dwelling-houses. This consisted of a sturdy framework +of stout timbers exposed to view, with the spaces between +them filled in with plaster. Of this work, which is known +as half-timbered work, many beautiful specimens remain +dating from the fifteenth and following centuries (Figs. <a href="#fig14">14</a> +and <a href="#fig15">15</a>), and a few of earlier date. In those parts of England +where tiles are manufactured such framework was often +covered by tiles instead of being filled in with plastering. +In half-timbered houses, the fire-places and chimneys, and +sometimes also the basement storeys, are usually of brickwork +or masonry; so are the side walls in the case of +houses in streets. It was usual in such buildings to cause +the upper storeys to overhang the lower ones.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>40]</a></span></p> + +<h4><i>Columns and Piers.</i></h4> + +<p>The columns and piers of a building virtually form +portions of its walls, so far as aiding to support the weight +of the roof is concerned, and are appropriately considered +in connection with them. In Gothic architecture very +little use is made of columns on the outside of a building, +and the porticoes and external rows of columns proper to +the classic styles are quite unknown. On the other +hand the series of piers, or columns, from which spring +the arches which separate the central avenues of nave, +transepts and choir from the aisles, are among the most +prominent features in every church. These piers varied +in each century.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> + +<p>The Norman piers had been frequently circular or +polygonal, but sometimes nearly square, and usually of +enormous mass. Thus, at Durham (Norman), oblong piers +of about eleven feet in diameter occur alternately with +round ones of about seven feet. In transitional examples +columns of more slender proportions were employed either +(as in the choir of Canterbury) as single shafts or collected +into groups. Where grouping took place it was +intended that each shaft of the group should be seen to +support some definite feature of the superincumbent structure, +as where a separate group of mouldings springs +from each shaft in a doorway, and this principle was +very steadily adhered to during the greater part of the +Gothic period.<a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 404px;"> +<a name="fig15" id="fig15"></a> +<img src="images/agr056.jpg" width="404" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 15.—Houses at Lisieux, France. (16th Century.)</p> + +<p>Through the E. E. period groups of shafts are generally +employed; they are often formed of detached shafts +clustering round a central one, and held together at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"><!-- original location of Fig. 15 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>42]</a></span> +intervals by bands or belts of masonry, and generally the +entire group is nearly circular on plan. In the succeeding +century (Dec. period) the piers also take the form of +groups of shafts, but they are generally carved out of one +block of stone, and the ordinary arrangement of the pier +is on a lozenge-shaped plan. In the Perp., the piers retain +the same general character, but are slenderer, and the shafts +have often shrunk to nothing more than reedy mouldings.</p> + +<p>The column is often employed in Transitional and E. E. +churches as a substitute for piers carrying arches. In +every period small columns are freely used as ornamental +features. They are constantly met with, for example, in +the jambs of doorways and of windows.</p> + +<p>Every column is divided naturally into three parts, its +base, or foot; its shaft, which forms the main body; and +its capital, or head. Each of these went through a series of +modifications. Part of the base usually consisted of a flat +stone larger than the diameter of the column, sometimes +called a plinth, and upon this stood the moulded base +which gradually diminished to the size of the shaft. This +plain stone was in E. E. often square, and in that case the +corner spaces which were not covered by the mouldings +of the base were often occupied by an elegantly carved +leaf. In Dec. and Perp. buildings the lower part of the +base was often polygonal, and frequently moulded so as +to make it into a pedestal.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<p>The proportions of shafts varied extraordinarily; they +were, as a rule, extremely slender when their purpose was +purely decorative, and comparatively sturdy when they +really served to carry a weight.</p> + +<p>The capital of the column has been perhaps the most +conspicuous feature in the architecture of every age and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>43]</a></span> +every country, and it is one of the features which a student +may make use of as an indication of date and style of +buildings, very much as the botanist employs the flower as +an index to the genus and species of plants. The capital +almost invariably starts from a ring, called the neck of +the column. This serves to mark the end of the shaft and +the commencement of the capital. Above this follows +what is commonly called the bell,—the main portion of the +capital, which is that part upon which the skill of the +carver and the taste of the designer can be most freely +expended, and on the top of the bell is placed the abacus, +a flat block of stone upon the upper surface of which is +built the superstructure or is laid the beam or block which +the column has to support. The shape and ornaments +given to the abacus are often of considerable importance +as indications of the position in architectural history which +the building in which it occurs should occupy.</p> + +<p>The Norman capital differed to some extent from +the Romanesque capitals of other parts of Europe. It was +commonly of a heavy, strong-looking shape, and is often +appropriately called the cushion capital. In its simpler +forms the cushion capital is nothing but a cubical block +of stone with its lower corners rounded off to make it fit +the circular shaft on which it is placed, and with a slab by +way of abacus placed upon it. In later Norman and +transitional work the faces of this block and the edges of +the abacus are often richly moulded. By degrees, however, +as the transition to E. E. approached, a new sort of +capital<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> was introduced, having the outline of the bell +hollow instead of convex. The square faces of the Norman +capital of course disappeared, and the square abacus soon +(at least in this country) became circular, involving no small +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>44]</a></span> +loss of vigour in the appearance of the work. The bell of +this capital was often decorated with rich mouldings, and +had finely-designed and characteristic foliage, which almost +always seemed to grow up the capital, and represented a +conventional kind of leaf easily recognised when once +seen.</p> + +<p>In the Dec. period the capitals have, as a rule, fewer and +less elaborate mouldings; the foliage is often very beautifully +carved in imitation of natural leaves, and wreathed +round the capital instead of growing up it. In the Perp. +this feature is in every way less ornate, the mouldings +are plainer, and the foliage, often absent, is, when it occurs, +conventional and stiff. Polygonal capitals are common in +this period.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 274px;"> +<a name="tail01" id="tail01"></a> +<img src="images/agr057.jpg" width="274" height="200" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption nosc"><i>Later Norman Capital.</i></p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> +For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> under <i>Pier</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> +For illustration consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> +For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> +For illustration consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> under <i>Flying buttress</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> +For remarks on Spires, see Chap. <a href="#chap05">V.</a></p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> +York, Lichfield, and Lincoln, are the cathedrals distinguished by +the possession of three towers.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> +For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> under <i>Pier</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> +For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> under <i>Base</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> +For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>45]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="head04" id="head04"></a> +<img src="images/agr058.jpg" width="500" height="114" +alt="Sculptured ornament from Westminster Abbey" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="chap05" id="chap05"></a>CHAPTER V.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="vsmlfont">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.—ENGLAND.</span></h2> + + +<h3>ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS (<i>continued</i>)—OPENINGS, ROOFS, +SPIRES, ORNAMENTS, STAINED GLASS, SCULPTURE.</h3> + +<h4><i>Openings and Arches.</i></h4> + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE openings (<i>i.e.</i> doors and windows) in the walls of +English Gothic buildings are occasionally covered +by flat heads or lintels, but this is exceptional; ordinarily +they have arched heads. The shape of the arch varies at +all periods. Architects always felt themselves free to +adopt any shape which best met the requirements of +any special case; but at each period there was one shape +of arch which it was customary to use.</p> + +<p>In the first transitional period (end of twelfth century) +semicircular and pointed arches are both met with, and +are often both employed in the same part of the same +building. The mouldings and enrichments which are +common in Norman work are usually still in use. In the +E. E. period the doorways are almost invariably rather +acutely pointed, the arched heads are enriched by a large +mass of rich mouldings, and the jambs<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> have usually a +series of small columns, each of which is intended to carry +a portion of the entire group of mouldings. Large doorways +are often subdivided into two, and frequently approached +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>46]</a></span> +by porches. A most beautiful example occurs in the +splendid west entrance to Ely Cathedral. Other examples +will be found at Lichfield (Fig. <a href="#fig01">1</a>) and Salisbury. It was +not uncommon to cover doorways with a lintel, the whole +being under an archway; this left a space above the head +of the door which was occupied by carving often of great +beauty. Ornamental gables are often formed over the entrances +of churches, and are richly sculptured; but though +beautiful, these features rarely attained magnificence. +The most remarkable entrance to an English cathedral is +the west portal of Peterborough—a composition of lofty +and richly moulded arches built +in front of the original west wall. +A portal on a smaller scale, but +added in the same manner adorns +the west front of Wells. As a +less exceptional example we may +refer to the entrance to Westminster +Abbey at the end of the +north transept (now under restoration), +which must have been a +noble example of an E. E. portal +when in its perfect state.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 148px;"> +<a name="fig16" id="fig16"></a> +<img src="images/agr059.jpg" width="148" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 16.—Lancet Window. (12th Century.)</p> + +<p>The windows in this style were +almost always long, narrow, and +with a pointed head resembling +the blade of a lancet (Fig. <a href="#fig16">16</a>). +The glass is generally near the +outside face of the wall, and the sides of the opening are +splayed towards the inside. It was very customary to +place these lancet windows in groups. The best known group +is the celebrated one of “the five sisters,” five lofty single +lights, occupying the eastern end of one of the transepts of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>47]</a></span> +York Minster. A common arrangement in designing such +a group was to make the central light the highest, and +to graduate the height of the others. It after a time became +customary to render the opening more ornamental +by adding pointed projections called cusps. By these the +shape of the head of the opening was turned into a form +resembling a trefoil leaf. Sometimes two cusps were +added on each side. The head is, in the former case, said +to be trefoiled—in the latter, cinqfoiled.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 202px;"> +<a name="fig17" id="fig17"></a> +<img src="images/agr060.jpg" width="202" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 17.—Two-light Window. (13th Century.)</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 236px;"> +<a name="fig18" id="fig18"></a> +<img src="images/agr061.jpg" width="236" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 18.—Geometrical Tracery. (14th Century.)</p> + +<p>When two windows were placed close together it began +to be customary to include them under one outer arch, and +after a time to pierce the solid head between them with +a circle, which frequently was cusped, forming often a +quatrefoil (Fig. <a href="#fig17">17</a>). This completed the idea of a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>48]</a></span> +group, and was rapidly followed by ornamental treatment. +Three, four, five, or more windows (which in such a position +are often termed lights) were often placed under one +arch, the head of which was filled by a more or less rich +group of circles; mouldings were added, and thus rose the +system of decoration for window-heads known as tracery. +So long as the tracery preserves the simple character of +piercings through a flat stone, filling the space between the +window heads, it is known as plate tracery. The thinning +down of the blank space to a comparatively narrow +surface went on, and by and by the use of mouldings +caused that plain surface to resemble bars of stone bent +into a circular form: this was called bar tracery, and it is +in this form that tracery is chiefly employed in England +(Fig. <a href="#fig18">18</a>). Westminster Abbey is full of exquisite examples +of E. E. window-tracery (temp. Henry III.); as, +for example, in the windows of the choir, the great +circular windows (technically termed rose-windows) at +the ends of the transepts, the windows of the chapter-house. +Last, but not least, the splendid arcade which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>49]</a></span> +forms the triforium is filled with tracery similar in every +respect to the best window tracery of the period (Fig. <a href="#fig19">19</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 368px;"> +<a name="fig19" id="fig19"></a> +<img src="images/agr062.jpg" width="368" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 19.—The Triforium Arcade, Westminster Abbey. (1269.)</p> + +<p>In the decorated style of the fourteenth century tracery +was developed till it reached a great pitch of perfection +and intricacy. In the earlier half of the century none +save regular geometrical forms, made up of circles and segments +of circles, occur; in other words, the whole design +of the most elaborate window could be drawn with the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>50]</a></span> +compasses, and a curve of contrary flexure rarely occurred. +In the latest half of that period flowing lines are introduced +into the tracery, and very much alter its character +(Fig. <a href="#fig20">20</a>). The cusping throughout is bolder than in the +E. E. period.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 299px;"> +<a name="fig20" id="fig20"></a> +<img src="images/agr063.jpg" width="299" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 20.—Rose Window from the Transept of Lincoln Cathedral. (1342-1347.)</p> + +<p>In perpendicular windows spaces of enormous size +are occupied by the mullions and tracery. Horizontal +bars, called transoms, are now for the first time introduced, +and the upright bars or mullions form with them +a kind of stone grating; but below each transom a series +of small stone arches forms heads to the lights below that +transom, and a minor mullion often springs from the head +of each of these arches, so that as the window increases in +height, the number of its lights increases. The character +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>51]</a></span> +of the cusping changed again, the cusps becoming club-headed +in their form (Fig. <a href="#fig21">21</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 230px;"> +<a name="fig21" id="fig21"></a> +<img src="images/agr064.jpg" width="230" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 21.—Perpendicular Window.</p> + +<p>Arches in the great arcades of churches, or in the +smaller arcades of cloisters, or used as decorations to the +surface of the walls, were made acute, obtuse, or segmental, +to suit the duty they had to perform; but when +there was nothing to dictate any special shape, the arch +of the E. E. period was by preference acute<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> and of lofty +proportions, and that of the Dec. less lofty, and its head +equilateral (<i>i.e.</i> described so that if the ends of the base +of an equilateral triangle touch the two points from which +it springs, the apex of the angle shall touch the point of +the arch). In the Perp. period the four centred depressed +arch, sometimes called the Tudor arch, was introduced, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>52]</a></span> +and though it did not entirely supersede the equilateral +arch, yet its employment became at last all but universal, +and it is one of the especially characteristic features of the +Tudor period.</p> + + +<h4><i>Roofs and Vaults.</i></h4> + +<p>The external and the internal covering of a building are +very often not the same; the outer covering is then usually +called a roof—the other, a vault or ceiling. In not a few +Gothic buildings, however, they were the same; such +buildings had what are known as open roofs—<i>i.e.</i> roofs in +which the whole of the timber framing of which they are +constructed is open to view from the interior right up to +the tiles or lead. Very few open roofs of E. E. character +are now remaining, but a good many parish churches retain +roofs of the Dec., and more of the Perp. period. The +roof of Westminster Hall (Perp., erected 1397) shows how +fine an architectural object such a roof may become. The +roof of the hall of Eltham Palace (Fig. <a href="#fig22">22</a>) is another good +example. Wooden ceilings, often very rich, are not uncommon, +especially in the churches of Norfolk and Suffolk, but +greater interest attaches to the stone vaults with which +the majority of Gothic buildings were erected, than to +any other description of covering to the interiors of +buildings.</p> + +<p>The vault was a feature rarely absent from important +churches, and the structural requirements of the Gothic +vault were among the most influential of the elements +which determined both the plan and the section of a +mediæval church. There was a regular growth in Gothic +vaults. Those of the thirteenth century are comparatively +simple; those of the fourteenth are much richer and more +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>53]</a></span> +elaborate, and often involve very great structural difficulties. +Those of the fifteenth are more systematic, and +consequently more simple in principle than the ones which +preceded them, but are such marvels of workmanship, and +so enriched by an infinity of parts, that they astonish +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>54]</a></span> +the beholder, and it appears, till the secret is known, +impossible to imagine how they can be made to stand.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 372px;"> +<a name="fig22" id="fig22"></a> +<img src="images/agr065.jpg" width="372" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 22.—Roof of Hall at Eltham Palace. (15th Century.)</p> + +<p>It has been held by some very good authorities that the +pointed arch was first introduced into Gothic architecture +to solve difficulties which presented themselves in the +vaulting. In all probability the desire to give to everything, +arches included, a more lofty appearance and more +slender proportions may have had as much to do with the +adoption of the pointed arch as any structural considerations, +but there can be no doubt that it was used for +structural arches from the very first, even when window heads +and wall arcades were semicircular, and that the introduction +of it cleared the way for the use of stone vaults of +large span to a wonderful extent. It is not easy to explain +this without being more technical than is perhaps desirable +in the present volume, but the subject is one of too much +importance for it to be possible to avoid making the +attempt.</p> + +<p>Churches, it will be recollected, were commonly built +with a wide nave and narrower aisles, and it was in the +Norman period customary to vault the aisles and cover the +nave with a ceiling. There was no difficulty in so spacing +the distances apart of the piers of the main arcade that the +compartments (usually termed bays) of the aisle should be +square on plan; and it was quite possible, without doing more +than the Romans had done, to vault each bay of the aisles +with a semicircular intersecting vault (<i>i.e.</i> one which has the +appearance of a semicircular or waggon-head vault, intersected +by another vault of the same outline and height). This +produced a simple series of what are called groined or cross +vaults, which allowed height to be given to the window +heads of the aisle and to the arcades between the aisles +and nave.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>55]</a></span> +After a time it was desired to vault the nave also, and +to adopt for it an intersecting vault, so that the heads of +the windows of the clerestory might be raised above the +springing line of the vault, but so long as the arches +remained semicircular, this was very difficult to accomplish.</p> + +<p>The Romans would probably have contented themselves +with employing a barrel vault and piercing it to the extent +required by short lateral vaults, but the result would have +been an irregular, weak, curved line at each intersection +with the main vault; and the aisle vaults having made the +pleasing effect of a perfectly regular intersection familiar, +this expedient does not seem to have found favour, at any +rate in England.</p> + +<p>Other expedients were however tried, and with curious +results. It was for example attempted to vault the nave +with a cross vault, embracing two bays of the arcade to +one of the vault, but the wall space so gained was particularly +ill suited to the clerestory windows, as may be seen +by examining the nave of St. Stephen’s at Caen. In short, +if the vaulting compartment were as wide as the nave one +way, but only as wide as the aisle the other way, and semicircular +arches alone were employed, a satisfactory result +seemed to be unattainable.</p> + +<p>In the search for some means of so vaulting a bay of +oblong plan that the arches should spring all at one level, +and the groins or lines of intersection should cross one +another in the centre of the ceiling, the idea either arose +or was suggested that the curve of the smaller span should +be a pointed instead of a semicircular arch.</p> + +<p>The moment this was tried all difficulty vanished, and +groined (<i>i.e.</i> intersecting) vaults, covering compartments of +any proportions became easy to design and simple to construct, +for if the vault which spanned the narrow way of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>56]</a></span> +the compartment were acutely pointed, and that which +spanned it the wide way were either semicircular or flatly-pointed, +it became easy to arrange that the startings of +both vaults should be at the same level, and that they +should rise to the same height, which is the condition +essential to the production of a satisfactory intersection.</p> + +<p>Scott enumerates not fewer than fourteen varieties of +mediæval vaults<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> and points out that specimens of thirteen +are to be found at Westminster. Without such minute +detail we may select some well-known varieties:—(1) +The plain waggon-head vault, as at the Chapel of the +Tower; (2) in advanced Norman works, cross-vaults +formed by two intersecting semicircular vaults, the +diagonal line being called a groin. (3) The earliest +transitional and E. E. vaults, pointed and with transverse +and diagonal ribs, and bosses at the intersection of ribs, +<i>e.g.</i>, in the aisles and the early part of the cloisters at +Westminster. (4) In the advanced part of the E. E. +period, the addition of a rib at the ridge, as seen in the +presbytery and transepts at Westminster. (5) At the +time of the transition to Dec. (<i>temp.</i> Ed. 1.) additional +ribs began to be introduced between the diagonal and the +transverse ribs. (6) As the Dec. period advanced other +ribs, called <em>liernes</em>, were introduced, running in various +directions over the surface of the vault, making star-like +figures on the vault. (7) The vault of the early Perp., +which is similar to the last, but more complicated and +approaching No. 8, <i>e.g.</i>, Abbot Islip’s chapel. (8) Lastly, +the distinctive vault of the advanced or Tudor Perp., is +the fan-tracery vault of which Henry VII.’s Chapel roof is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"><!-- original location of Fig. 23 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>58]</a></span> +the climax. The vaulting surfaces in these are portions +of hollow conoids, and are covered by a net-work of fine +ribs, connected together by bands of cusping (Fig. <a href="#fig23">23</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 421px;"> +<a name="fig23" id="fig23"></a> +<img src="images/agr066.jpg" width="421" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 23.—Henry VII.’s Chapel. (1503-1512.)</p> + +<p>In Scott’s enumeration the vaults of octagons and irregular +compartments, and such varieties as the one called +sexpartite, find a place; here they have been intentionally +excluded. Many of them are works of the greatest skill +and beauty, especially the vaults of octagonal chapter +houses springing from one centre pier (<i>e.g.</i>, Chapter Houses +at Worcester, Westminster, Wells, and Salisbury).</p> + +<p>Externally, the roofs of buildings became very steep in +the thirteenth century; they were not quite so steep in the +fourteenth, and in the fifteenth they were frequently +almost flat. They were always relied upon to add to the +effectiveness of a building, and were enriched sometimes +by variegated tiles or other covering, sometimes by the +introduction of small windows, known as dormer windows, +each with its own gablet and its little roof, and sometimes +by the addition of a steep sided roof in the shape of +a lantern or a “flèche” on the ridge, or a pyramidal covering +to some projecting octagon or turret.</p> + +<p>All these have their value in breaking up the sky-line +of the building, and adding interest and beauty to it. +Still more striking, however, in its effect on the sky-line +was the spire, a feature to which great attention was paid +in English architecture.</p> + + +<h4><i>Spires.</i></h4> + +<p>The early square towers of Romanesque churches were +sometimes surmounted by pyramidal roofs of low pitch. +We have probably none now remaining, but we have some +examples of large pinnacles, crowned with pyramids, which +show what the shape must have been. They were square +in plan and somewhat steep in slope.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>59]</a></span> +The spire was developed +early in the E. E. +period. It was octagonal +in plan, and the +four sides which coincided +with the faces +of the tower rose direct +from the walls above +a slightly masked +eaves course. The +four oblique sides are +connected to the tower +by a feature called a +broach, which may be +described as part of +a blunt pyramid. The +broach-spire (Fig. <a href="#fig24">24</a>) +is to be met with in +many parts of England, +but especially +in Northamptonshire. +The chief ornaments +of an E. E. spire +consist in small windows +(called spire-lights +or lucarnes) +each surmounted by +its gablet.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 228px;"> +<a name="fig24" id="fig24"></a> +<img src="images/agr067.jpg" width="228" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 24.—Early English Spire. Church of St. +Mary Magdalene, Warboys, Lincolnshire.</p> + +<p>In the Dec. period +it was common to +finish the tower by a +parapet, and to start +the spire behind the +parapet, sometimes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>60]</a></span> +with a broach, often +without. Pinnacles +were frequently +added at the corners +of the tower, +and an arch, like +that of a flying +buttress, was +sometimes thrown +across from the +pinnacle to the +spire. Spire-lights +occur as before, +and the surface of +the spire is often +enriched by bands +of ornament at +intervals. The +general proportions +of the spire were +more slender than +before, and the rib, +which generally +ran up each angle, +was often enriched +by crockets, <i>i.e.</i> +tufts of leaves arranged +in a formal +shape (Fig. <a href="#fig25">25</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 238px;"> +<a name="fig25" id="fig25"></a> +<img src="images/agr068.jpg" width="238" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 25.—Decorated Spire. All Saints’ Church, +Oakham, Rutlandshire.</p> + +<p>Towers were frequently +intended +to stand without +spires in the Perp. +period, and are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>61]</a></span> +often finished by four effective angle-pinnacles and a +cornice with battlements. Where spires occur in this +period they resemble those of the Dec. period.</p> + +<p>Spires end usually in a boss or finial, surmounted by a +weathercock. Ordinary roofs were usually finished by +ornamental cresting, and their summits were marked by +finials,<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> frequently of exquisite workmanship.</p> + + +<h4><i>Ornaments.</i></h4> + +<p>We now come to ornaments, including mouldings, carving, +and colour, and here we are landed upon a mass of +details which it would be impossible to pursue far. Mouldings +play a prominent part in Gothic architecture, and +from the first to the last they varied so constantly that +their profiles and grouping may be constantly made use of +as a kind of architectural calendar, to point out the time, +to within a few years, when the building in which they +occur was erected.</p> + +<p>A moulding is the architect’s means of drawing a line +on his building. If he desires to mark on the exterior the +position of an internal floor, or in any other way to suggest +a division into storeys, a moulded string-course is +introduced. If he wishes to add richness and play of +light and shade to the sides of an important arch, he +introduces a series of mouldings, the profile of which +has been designed to form lights and shadows such as +will answer his purpose. If again he desires to throw +out a projection and to give the idea of its being properly +supported, he places under his projection a corbel of +mouldings which are of strong as well as pleasing form, +so as to convey to the eye the notion of support. Mouldings, +it can be understood, differ in both size and profile, +according to the purpose which they are required to serve, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>62]</a></span> +the distance from the spectator at which they are fixed, +and the material out of which they are formed. In the +Gothic periods they also differed according to the date at +which they were executed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 208px;"> +<a name="fig26" id="fig26"></a> +<img src="images/agr069.jpg" width="208" height="200" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 26.—Early Arch in Receding +Planes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 196px;"> +<a name="fig27" id="fig27"></a> +<img src="images/agr070.jpg" width="196" height="200" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 27.—Arch in Receding Planes +Moulded.</p> + +<p>The first step towards the Gothic system of mouldings +was taken by the Romanesque architects when the idea +of building arches in thick walls, not only one within the +others, but also in planes receding back from the face of +the wall one behind as well as within another, was formed +and carried out, and when a corresponding recessed arrangement +of the jamb of the arch was made (Fig. <a href="#fig26">26</a>). The +next step was the addition of some simple moulding to the +advancing angle of each rim of such a series of arches +either forming a bead (Fig. <a href="#fig27">27</a>) or a chamfer.</p> + +<p>In the transitional part of the twelfth century and the +E. E. period this process went on till at last, though +the separate receding arches still continued to exist, the +mouldings<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> into which they were cut became so numerous +and elaborate as to render it often difficult to detect the +subordination or division into distinct planes which really +remained.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>63]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 380px;"> +<a name="fig28" id="fig28"></a> +<img src="images/agr071.jpg" width="380" height="450" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 28.—Doorway, King’s College Chapel, Cambridge. (15th Century.)</p> + +<p>This passion for elaborate mouldings, often extraordinarily +undercut, reached its climax in the thirteenth +century, the E. E. period. In the Dec. period, while almost +everything else became more elaborate, mouldings grew +more simple, yet hardly less beautiful. In the Perp. +period they were not only further simplified, but often +impoverished, being usually shallow, formal, and stiff.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>64]</a></span> +Ornaments abounded, and included not only enrichments +in the shape of carved foliage and figures, statuary, +mosaics, and so forth, but ornamental features, such as +canopies, pinnacles, arcades, and recesses (Fig. <a href="#fig28">28</a>).</p> + +<p>In each period these are distinct in design from all that +went before or came after, and thus to catch the spirit of +any one Gothic period aright, it is not enough to fix the +general shapes of the arches and proportions of the piers +but every feature, every moulding, and every ornament +must be wrought in the true spirit of the work, or the +result will be marred.</p> + + +<h4><i>Stained Glass.</i></h4> + +<p>Ornamental materials and every sort of decorative art, +such as mosaic, enamel, metal work and inlays, were +freely employed to add beauty in appropriate positions; +but there was one ornament, the crowning invention of +the Gothic artists, which largely influenced the design of +the finest buildings, and which reflected a glory on them +such as nothing else can approach: this was stained glass.</p> + +<p>So much of the old glass has perished, and so little +modern glass is even passable, that this praise may +seem overcharged to those who have never seen any +of the best specimens still left. We have in the choir at +Canterbury a remnant of the finest sort of glass which +England possesses. Some good fragments remain at Westminster, +though not very many; but to judge of the effect +of glass at its best, the student should visit La Sainte +Chapelle at Paris, or the Cathedrals of Chartres, Le Mans, +Bourges, or Rheims, and he will find in these buildings +effects in colour which are nothing less than gorgeous in +their brilliancy, richness, and harmony.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>65]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 278px;"> +<a name="fig29" id="fig29"></a> +<img src="images/agr072.jpg" width="278" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 29.—Stained Glass Window from Chartres Cathedral.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>66]</a></span> +The peculiar excellence of stained glass as compared with +every other sort of decoration, is that it is luminous. To +some extent fresco-painting may claim a sort of brightness; +mosaic when executed in polished materials possesses +brilliancy; but in stained glass the light which comes +streaming in through the window itself gives radiance, +while the quality of the glass determines the colour, and +thus we obtain a glowing, lustre of colour which can only +be compared to the beauty of gems. In order properly to +fill their place as decorations, stained-glass windows must be +something quite different from transparent pictures, and +the scenes they represent must not detach themselves too +violently from the general ground. The most perfect effect +is produced by such windows as those at Canterbury or +Chartres (Fig. <a href="#fig29">29</a>), which recall a cluster of jewels rather +than a picture.</p> + + +<h4><i>Coloured Decoration.</i></h4> + +<p>Colour was also freely introduced by the lavish employment +of coloured materials where they were to be had, +and by painting the interiors with bright pigments. We +meet with traces of rich colour on many parts of ancient +buildings, where we should hardly dare to put it now, and +we cannot doubt that painted decoration was constantly +made use of with the happiest effect.</p> + + +<h4><i>Sculpture.</i></h4> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 278px;"> +<a name="fig30" id="fig30"></a> +<img src="images/agr073.jpg" width="278" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 30.—Sculpture from the Entrance to the Chapter House, +Westminster Abbey. (1250.)</p> + +<p>The last, perhaps the noblest ornament, is sculpture. The +Gothic architects were alive to its value, and in all their +best works statues abounded; often conventional to the last +degree; sometimes to our eyes uncouth, but always the +best which those who carved them could do at the time; +always sure to contribute to architectural effect; never +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"><!-- original location of Fig. 30 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>68]</a></span> +without a picturesque power, sometimes rising to grace +and even grandeur, and sometimes sinking to grotesque +ugliness. Whatever the quality of the sculpture was, +it was always there, and added life to the whole. +Monsters gaped and grinned from the water-spouts, little +figures or strange animals twisted in and out of the foliage +at angles and bosses and corbels. Stately effigies occupied +dignified niches, in places of honour; and in the mouldings +and tympanum of the head of a doorway there was +often carved a whole host of figures representing heaven, +earth, and hell, with a rude force and a native eloquence +that have not lost their power to the present day.</p> + +<p>In the positions where modest ornamentation was required, +as for example the capitals of shafts, the hollows +of groups of mouldings, and the bosses of vaulting, carving +of the most finished execution and masterly design +constantly occurs. Speaking roughly, this was chiefly +conventional in the E. E. period, chiefly natural in the +Dec. and mixed, but with perhaps a preference for the +conventional in the Perp. Examples abound, but both +for beauty and accessibility we can refer to no better +example than the carving which enriches the entrance +to the Chapter House of Westminster Abbey (Fig. <a href="#fig30">30</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 388px;"> +<a name="tail02" id="tail02"></a> +<img src="images/agr074.jpg" width="388" height="150" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption nosc"><i>Miserere Seat from Wells Cathedral.</i></p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> +For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> under <i>Jamb</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> +For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> under <i>Arch</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> +Address to the Conference of Architects. Reported in the <i>Builder</i> +of 24th June, 1876. Outlines illustrating some of these varieties of +vault will be found in the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a> under <i>Vault</i>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> +See <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> +For illustrations consult the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> +For further illustrations see the <a href="#glossary">Glossary</a>.</p> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>69]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="head05" id="head05"></a> +<img src="images/agr005.jpg" width="500" height="135" +alt="Stained glass from Chartres Cathedral" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="chap06" id="chap06"></a>CHAPTER VI.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="vsmlfont">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN WESTERN EUROPE.</span></h2> + + +<h3>FRANCE.—CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.</h3> + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE architecture of France during the Middle Ages +throws much light upon the history of the +country. The features in which it differs from the work +done in England at the same period can, many of them, +be directly traced to differences in the social, political, or +religious situation of the two nations at the time. For +example, we find England in the eleventh and twelfth +centuries in the hands of the Normans, a newly-conquered +country under uniform administration; and accordingly +few local variations occur in the architecture of our +Norman period. The twelfth-century work, at Durham or +Peterborough for instance, differs but little from that at +Gloucester or Winchester. In France the case is different. +That country was divided into a series of semi-independent +provinces, whose inhabitants differed, not only in the +leaders whom they followed, but in speech, race, and +customs. As might be expected, the buildings of each +province presented an aspect different in many respects +from those of every other; and we may as well add that +these peculiarities did not die out with the end of the +round-arched period of architecture, but lingered far into +the pointed period.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>70]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 436px;"> +<a name="fig31" id="fig31"></a> +<img src="images/agr075.jpg" width="436" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 31.—Church at Fontevrault. (Begun 1125.)</p> + +<p>The south of France was occupied by people speaking +what are now known as the Romance dialects, and some +writers have adopted the name as descriptive of the +peculiarities of the architecture of these districts. The +Romance provinces clung tenaciously to their early forms +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>71]</a></span> +of art, so that pointed architecture was not established in +the south of France till half a century, and in some places +nearly a whole century, later than in the north.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the Frankish part of the country +was the cradle of Gothic. The transition from +round to pointed architecture first took place in the royal +domain, of which Paris was the centre, and it may be +assumed that the new style was already existing when in +1140 Abbot Suger laid the foundations of the choir of +the church of St. Denis, about forty years before the +commencement of the eastern arm of our own Canterbury.</p> + +<p>De Caumont, who in his “Abécédaire” did for French +architecture somewhat the same work of analysis and +scientific arrangement which Rickman performed for +English, has adopted the following classification:—</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="De Caumont's classification"> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="8">Romanesque Architecture.<br /><i>Architecture Romane.</i></td> + <td class="tdl bt bl"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Primitive.</td> + <td class="tdl bt br"> </td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">5th to 10th century.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl bl"> </td> + <td class="tdlt"><i>Primordiale.</i></td> + <td class="tdl br"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl bl"> </td> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdl br"> </td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl bl"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Second.</td> + <td class="tdl br"> </td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">End of 10th to commencement of 12th century.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl bl"> </td> + <td class="tdlt"><i>Secondaire.</i></td> + <td class="tdl br"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl bl"> </td> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdl br"> </td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl bl"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Third or Transition </td> + <td class="tdl br"> </td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">12th century.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl bl bb"> </td> + <td class="tdlt"><i>Tertiaire ou de Transition.</i></td> + <td class="tdl br bb"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" colspan="5"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="8">Pointed Architecture.<br /><i>Architecture ogivale.</i></td> + <td class="tdl bl bt"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">First.</td> + <td class="tdl br bt"> </td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">13th century.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl bl"> </td> + <td class="tdlt"><i>Primitive.</i></td> + <td class="tdl br"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl bl"> </td> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdl br"> </td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl bl"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Second.</td> + <td class="tdl br"> </td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">14th century.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl bl"> </td> + <td class="tdlt"><i>Secondaire.</i></td> + <td class="tdl br"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl bl"> </td> + <td class="tdlt"> </td> + <td class="tdl br"> </td> + <td class="tdl"> </td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl bl"> </td> + <td class="tdlt">Third.</td> + <td class="tdl br"> </td> + <td class="tdl" rowspan="2">15th century.</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdl bl bb"> </td> + <td class="tdlt"><i>Tertiaire.</i></td> + <td class="tdl br bb"> </td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 484px;"> +<a name="fig32" id="fig32"></a> +<img src="images/agr076.jpg" width="484" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 32.—Doorway at Loches, France. (1180.)</p> + +<p>The transitional architecture of France is no exception to +the rule that the art of a period of change is full of interest. +Much of it has disappeared, but examples remain in the +eastern part of the cathedral of St. Denis already referred +to, in portions of the cathedrals of Noyon and Sens, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"><!-- original location of Fig. 32 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>73]</a></span> +west front of Chartres, the church of St. Germain des Prés +at Paris, and elsewhere. We here often find the pointed +arch employed for the most important parts of the +structure, while the round arch is still retained in the +window and door-heads, and in decorative arcades, as +shown in our illustrations of a section of the church +at Fontevrault (Fig. <a href="#fig31">31</a>), and of a doorway at Loches +(Fig. <a href="#fig32">32</a>).</p> + +<p>The first pointed architecture of the thirteenth century +in France differs considerably from the early English of +this country. The arches are usually less acute, and the +windows not so tall in proportion to their width. The +mouldings employed are few and simple compared with the +many and intricate English ones. Large round columns +are much used in place of our complicated groups of small +shafts for the piers of the nave; and the abacus of the +capital remains square. An air of breadth and dignity +prevails in the buildings of this date to which the simple +details, noble proportions, and great size largely contribute. +The western front of Notre Dame, Paris (Fig. +<a href="#fig33">33</a>), dates from the early years of this century, the interior +being much of it a little earlier. The well-known +cathedrals of Chartres, Rheims, Laon, and later in the +style, Amiens, and Beauvais, may be taken as grand +examples of French first pointed. To these may be added +the very graceful Sainte Chapelle of Paris, the choir and +part of the nave of the cathedral at Rouen, the church +of St. Etienne at Caen, and the cathedrals of Coutances, +Lisieux, Le Mans, and Bourges. This list of churches +could be almost indefinitely extended, and many monastic +buildings, and not a few domestic and military ones, might +be added. Among the most conspicuous of these may be +named the monastic fortress at Mont St. Michel, probably +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"><!-- original location of Fig. 33 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>75]</a></span> +the most picturesque structure in France, the remarkable +fortifications of Carcassonne, and the lordly castle of Couçy.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 376px;"> +<a name="fig33" id="fig33"></a> +<img src="images/agr077.jpg" width="376" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 33.—Notre Dame, Paris, West Front. (1214.)</p> + +<p>The second pointed, or fourteenth century Gothic of +France, bears more resemblance to contemporary English +Gothic than the work of the centuries preceding or +following. Large windows for stained glass, with rich +geometrical tracery prevailed, and much the same sort of +ornamental treatment as in England was adopted in richly +decorated buildings. Specimens of the work of this century +occur everywhere in the shape of additions to the great +churches and cathedrals which had been left unfinished +from the previous century, and also of side chapels which +it became customary to add to the aisles of churches. The +great and well-known abbey of St. Ouen at Rouen is one of +the few first-class churches which can be named as begun +and almost entirely completed in this century. The tower +and spire of the church of St. Pierre at Caen (Fig. <a href="#fig13">13</a>) are +very well-known and beautiful specimens of this period.</p> + +<p>French fifteenth century architecture, or third pointed, +is far from being so dignified or so scientific as English +perpendicular, and differs from it considerably. Exuberant +richness in decoration was the rage, and shows itself both +in sculpture, tracery, and general design. Much of the later +work of this period has received the name of flamboyant, +because of the flame-like shapes into which the tracery of +the heads of windows was thrown. In flamboyant buildings +we often meet with art which, though certainly over-florid, +is brilliant, rich, and full of true feeling for decoration.</p> + +<p>In this century, secular and domestic buildings attained +more prominence than at any previous periods. Some of +them are among the best works which this period produced. +Familiar examples will be found in the noble +Palais de Justice at Rouen, and the Hôtel de Bourgtherould +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>76]</a></span> +in the same city; in parts of the great château at Blois, +the splendid château of Pierrefonds, and the Hôtels de +Ville of Oudenarde and Caen.</p> + + +<h3>FRANCE.—ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.</h3> + +<h4><i>Plan.</i></h4> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 195px;"> +<a name="fig34" id="fig34"></a> +<img src="images/agr078.jpg" width="195" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 34.—Plan of Amiens Cathedral. (1220-1272.)</p> + +<p>The plans of French cathedrals and other buildings +conform in general to the description of Gothic plans +given in Chapter <a href="#chap02">II.</a>, but they have of course certain +distinctive peculiarities (Fig. <a href="#fig34">34</a>). The cathedrals are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>77]</a></span> +as a rule much broader in proportion to their length +than English ones. Double aisles frequently occur, and +not infrequently an added range of side chapels fringes +each of the main side walls, so that the interior of +one of these vast buildings presents, in addition to the +main vista along the nave, many delightful cross views of +great extent. The transepts are also much less strongly +marked than our English examples. There are even some +great cathedrals (<i>e.g.</i>, Bourges) without transepts; and +where they exist it is common to find that, as in the case of +Notre Dame de Paris, they do not project beyond the line +of the side walls, so that, although fairly well-marked in +the exterior and interior of the building, they add nothing +to its floor-space. The eastern end of a French cathedral +(and indeed of French churches generally, with very few +exceptions) is terminated in an apse. When, as is frequently +the case, this apse is encircled by a ring of chapels, +with flying buttresses on several stages rising from among +them, the whole arrangement is called a <em>chevet</em>, and very +striking and busy is the appearance which it presents.</p> + + +<h4><i>Walls, Towers, and Gables.</i></h4> + +<p>The walls are rarely built of any other material than +stone, and much splendid masonry is to be found in France. +Low towers are often to be met with, and so are projecting +staircase turrets of polygonal or circular forms. The +façades of cathedrals, including ends of transepts as +well as west fronts, are most striking, and often magnificently +enriched. It is an interesting study to examine +a series of these fronts, each a little more advanced +than the last, as for example Notre Dame (Fig. <a href="#fig33">33</a>), the +transept at Rouen, Amiens (Fig. <a href="#fig35">35</a>), and Rheims, and to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"><!-- original location of Fig. 35 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>79]</a></span> +note how the horizontal bands and other level features +grow less and less conspicuous, while the vertical ones +are more and more strongly marked; showing an increasing +desire, not only to make the buildings lofty, but to +suppress everything which might interfere with their +looking as high as possible.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 467px;"> +<a name="fig35" id="fig35"></a> +<img src="images/agr079.jpg" width="467" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 35.—Amiens Cathedral, West Front. (1220-1272.)</p> + + +<h4><i>Columns and Piers.</i></h4> + +<p>The column is a greater favourite than the pier in +France, as has already been said. Sometimes, where +the supports of the main arcade are really piers, they are +built like circular shafts of large size; and even when they +have no capital (as was the case in third-pointed examples), +these piers still retain much of the air of solid strength +which belongs to the column, and which the French architects +appear to have valued highly. In cases where a +series of mouldings has to be carried—as for example +when the main arcade of a building is richly moulded—English +architects would usually have provided a distinct +shaft for each little group (or as Willis named them order), +into which the whole can be subdivided. In France, at +any rate during the earlier periods, the whole series of +mouldings would spring from the square unbroken abacus +of a single large column, to which perhaps one shaft, or as +in our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig36">36</a>) four shafts, would be attached +which would be carried up to the springing of the nave +vault, at which point the same treatment would be repeated, +though on a smaller scale, with the moulded ribs +of that vault.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 435px;"> +<a name="fig36" id="fig36"></a> +<img src="images/agr080.jpg" width="435" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 36.—Piers and Superstructure, Rheims Cathedral. (1211-1240.)</p> + +<p>A peculiarity of some districts of southern France is +the suppression of the external buttress; the buttresses +are in fact built within the church walls instead of outside, +and masonry enough is added to make each into a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"><!-- original location of Fig. 36 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>81]</a></span> +separating wall which divides side chapels. Some large +churches, <i>e.g.</i>, the cathedral at Alby, in Southern France, +consist of a wide nave buttressed in this way, and having +side chapels between the buttresses, but without side aisles.</p> + +<p>The plans of the secular, military, and domestic buildings +of France also present many interesting peculiarities, +but not such as it is possible to review within the narrow +limits of this chapter.</p> + + +<h4><i>Roofs and Vaults.</i></h4> + +<p>The peculiarly English feature of an open roof is hardly +ever met with in any shape: yet though stone vaults are +almost universal, they are rarely equal in scientific skill +to the best of those in our own country. In transitional +examples, many very singular instances of the expedients +employed before the pointed vault was fully developed +can be found. In some of the central and southern districts, +domes, or at least domical vaults, were employed. +(See the section of Fontevrault, Fig. <a href="#fig31">31</a>). The dome came +in from Byzantium. It was introduced in Perigord, where +the very curious and remarkable church of St. Front +(begun early in the eleventh century) was built. This is +to all intents a Byzantine church. It is an almost exact +copy in plan and construction of St. Mark’s at Venice, a +church designed and built by Eastern architects, and it is +roofed by a series of domes, a peculiarity which is as distinctive +of Byzantine (<i>i.e.</i>, Eastern early Christian), as the +vaulted roof is of Romanesque (or Western early Christian) +architecture. Artists from Constantinople itself probably +visited France, and from this centre a not inconsiderable +influence extended itself in various directions, and led to +the use of many Byzantine features both of design and +ornament.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>82]</a></span> +As features in the exterior of their buildings, the roofs +have been in every period valued by the French architects; +they are almost always steep, striking, and ornamented. +All appropriate modes of giving prominence and adding +ornament to a roof have been very fully developed in +French Gothic architecture, and the roofs of semicircular +and circular apses, staircase towers, &c., may be almost +looked upon as typical.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p> + + +<h4><i>Openings.</i></h4> + +<p>The treatment of openings gives occasion for one of the +most strongly marked points of contrast between French +and English Gothic architecture. With us the great +windows are unquestionably the prominent features, but +with the French the doors are most elaborated. This result +is reached not so much by any lowering of the quality +of the treatment bestowed upon the windows, but by the +greatly increased importance given to doorways.</p> + +<p>The great portals of Notre Dame at Paris (Fig. <a href="#fig33">33</a>), +Rheims, or Amiens (Fig. <a href="#fig35">35</a>), and the grand porches of +Chartres may be named as the finest examples, and +are probably the most magnificent single features which +Gothic Art produced in any age or any country; +but in its degree the western portal of every great +church is usually an object upon which the best resources +of the architect have been freely lavished. The wall is +built very thick so that enormous jambs, carrying a vast +moulded arch, can be employed. The head of the door is +filled with sculpture, which is also lavishly used in the +sides and arch, and over the whole rises an ornamental +gable, frequently profusely adorned with tracery and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>83]</a></span> +sculpture, its sides being richly decorated by crockets or +similar ornaments, and crowned by a sculptured terminal +or finial.</p> + +<p>The windows in the earliest periods are simpler than +in our E. E., as well as of less slender proportions. In +the second and third periods they are full of rich tracery, +and are made lofty and wide to receive the magnificent +stained glass with which it was intended to fill them, and +which many churches retain. Circular windows, sometimes +called wheel-windows, often occupy the gables, and are +many of them very fine compositions.</p> + + +<h4><i>Mouldings and Ornaments.</i></h4> + +<p>The mouldings of the French first pointed are usually +larger than our own. Compared with ours they are also +fewer, simpler, and designed to produce more breadth of +effect. This may partly result from their originating in a +sunshiny country where effects of shade are easily obtained. +In the second and third periods they more nearly resemble +those in use in England at the corresponding times.</p> + +<p>The carving is very characteristic and very beautiful. +In the transition and first pointed a cluster of stalks, ending +in a tuft of foliage or flowers, is constantly employed, +especially in capitals. The use of this in England is rare; +and, on the other hand, foliage like E. E. conventional +foliage is rare in France. In the second pointed, natural +foliage is admirably rendered (Fig. <a href="#fig37">37</a>). In the third a +somewhat conventional kind of foliage, very luxuriant in +its apparent growth, is constantly met with.</p> + +<p>This carving is at every stage accompanied by figure-sculpture +of the finest character. Heads of animals, statues, +groups of figures, and has reliefs are freely employed, but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>84]</a></span> +always with the greatest judgment, so that their introduction +adds richness to the very point in the whole composition +where it is most needed. In every part of France, +and in every period of Gothic architecture, good specimens +of sculpture abound. Easily accessible illustrations will +be found in the west entrance and south transept front of +Rouen Cathedral, the porches and portals at Chartres, the +choir inclosure of Notre Dame at Paris, and the richly +sculptured inclosure of the choir of Amiens Cathedral.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 183px;"> +<a name="fig37" id="fig37"></a> +<img src="images/agr081.jpg" width="183" height="300" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 37.—Capital from St. Nicholas, Blois, France. +(13th Century.)</p> + +<p>Stained glass has been more than once referred to. It is +to be found in its greatest perfection in France, as for +example in La Sainte Chapelle at Paris, and the cathedrals +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>85]</a></span> +of Le Mans, Bourges, Chartres, and Rheims. All that has +been said in the introductory chapter on this, the crowning +ornament of Gothic architecture, and on its influence upon +window design, and through that, upon the whole structure +of the best churches, is to the full as applicable to French +examples. Coloured decoration was also frequently employed +in the interior of churches and other buildings, and +is constantly to be met with in French buildings, both +secular and religious. In most cases, however, it is less +easy to appreciate this than the stained glass, for, as it is +now to be seen, the colours are either faded and darkened +by time and smoke, or else restored, not always with the +exactness that could be desired.</p> + + +<h4><i>Construction and Design.</i></h4> + +<p>The construction of the great buildings of the middle +ages in France is an interesting subject of study, but +necessarily a thoroughly technical one. Great sagacity +in designing the masonry, carpentry, joinery, and metal-work; +and trained skill in the carrying out the designs, +have left their traces everywhere; and while the construction +of the earlier castles and of the simple churches +shows a solidity but little inferior to that of the Romans +themselves, the most elaborate works, such for example +as the choir at Beauvais (Fig. <a href="#fig38">38</a>), can hardly be surpassed +as specimens of skill and daring, careful forethought, and +bold execution.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 428px;"> +<a name="fig38" id="fig38"></a> +<img src="images/agr082.jpg" width="428" height="550" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 38.—Beauvais Cathedral, Interior. (1225-1537.)</p> + +<p>Design, in France, pursued the general principles of Gothic +architecture to their logical conclusions with the most +uncompromising consistency. Perhaps the most distinctive +peculiarity in French cathedrals is a love of abstract beauty, +and a strong preference for breadth, regularity, dignity, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>86]</a></span> +and symmetry wherever they come into competition with +picturesqueness and irregular grouping. There is, it is +true, plenty of the picturesque element in French mediæval +art; but if we take the finest buildings, and those in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>87]</a></span> +which the greatest effort would be made to secure the qualities +which were considered the greatest and most desirable, +we shall find very strong evidences of a conviction that +beauty was to be attained by regularity and order, rather +than by unsymmetrical and irregular treatment.</p> + + +<h3><a name="chap06a" id="chap06a"></a>BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS.</h3> + +<p>Belgium is a country rich in remains of Gothic architecture. +Its art was influenced so largely by its neighbourhood +to France, that it will not be necessary to attempt +anything like a chronological arrangement of its buildings. +Fine churches exist in its principal cities, but they cannot +be said to form a series differing widely from the churches +of France, with which they were contemporary, and where +they differ the advantage is generally on the side of the +French originals.</p> + +<p>The principal cathedral of the Low Countries, that at +Antwerp, is a building remarkable for its great width +(having seven aisles), and for the wonderful picturesqueness +of its interior. The exterior, which is unfinished, +is also very effective, with its one lofty spire. The other +cathedrals of note include those of Tournay, Brussels, +Mechlin, Louvain, Liége, and Ghent. Belgium also possesses +a great number of large parochial churches.</p> + +<p>When we turn to secular buildings we find the Belgian +architecture of the middle ages taking a leading position. +The free cities of Belgium acquired municipal privileges +at an early date, and accumulated great wealth. Accordingly +we find town halls, trade halls, belfries, warehouses, +and excellent private dwelling-houses in abundance. The +cloth hall at Ypres has been repeatedly illustrated and +referred to as an example of a grand and effective building +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>88]</a></span> +for trade purposes; it is of thirteenth-century architecture +and of great size, its centre marked by a massive lofty +tower; and its angles carrying slight turrets; but in other +respects it depends for its effectiveness solely on its repetition +of similar features. Examples of the same kind +of architecture exist at Louvain and Ghent.</p> + +<p>The Town Halls of Brussels, Louvain, Bruges, Mechlin, +Ghent, Oudenarde, and Ypres, are all buildings claiming +attention. They were most of them in progress during the +fifteenth century, and are fine, but florid examples of late +Gothic. Some one or two at least of the town halls were +begun and partly carried out in the fourteenth century; on +the other hand, the Hôtel de Ville at Oudenarde, was +begun as late as the beginning of the sixteenth; so +were the Exchange at Antwerp (destroyed by fire and +rebuilt not long since) and some other well-known +structures: their architecture, though certainly Gothic, is +debased in style.</p> + +<p>The general aspect of these famous buildings was noble +and bold in mass, and rich in ornament. Our illustration +(Fig. <a href="#fig39">39</a>) shows the Town Hall of Middleburgh in Holland; +one which is less famous and of smaller dimensions than +those enumerated above, but equally characteristic.</p> + +<p>The main building usually consisted of a long unbroken +block surmounted by a high-pitched roof, and usually occupied +one side of a public place. The side of the building +presents several storeys, filled by rows of fine windows, +though in some cases the lowest storey is occupied by an +open arcade. The steep roof, usually crowded with dormer +windows, carries up the eye to a lofty ridge, and from the +centre of it rises the lofty tower which forms so conspicuous +a feature in most of these buildings. In the Town Hall +at Bruges the tower is comparatively simple, though of a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"><!-- original location of Fig. 39 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>90]</a></span> +mass and height that are truly imposing; but in Brussels, +Ypres, and other examples, it is a richly ornamented composition +on which every resource of the mason and the +carver has been lavished. Our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig40">40</a>) +shows the well-known tower at Ghent.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 398px;"> +<a name="fig39" id="fig39"></a> +<img src="images/agr083.jpg" width="398" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 39.—The Town Hall of Middleburgh. (1518.)</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 330px;"> +<a name="fig40" id="fig40"></a> +<img src="images/agr084.jpg" width="330" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 40.—Tower at Ghent. (Begun 1183.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>91]</a></span> +The gable ends of the great roof are often adorned by +pinnacles and other ornaments; but they rarely come +prominently into view, as it is invariably the long side of +the building which is considered to be the principal front.</p> + + +<h3><a name="chap06b" id="chap06b"></a>SCOTLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND.</h3> + +<p>In Scotland good but simple examples of early work +(transition from Romanesque to E. E.) occur, as for +example, at Jedburgh and Kelso, Dryburgh and Leuchars +abbey churches. A very interesting and in many respects +unique cathedral of the thirteenth century, with later +additions, exists at Glasgow. It is a building of much +beauty, with good tracery, and the crypt offers a perfect +study of various and often graceful modes of forming +groined vaults. The Cathedral of Elgin (thirteenth century), +an admirable Edwardian building, now in ruins, and +the Abbey at Melrose, also ruined, of fourteenth century +architecture (begun 1322), are both excellent specimens of +the art of the periods to which they belong, and bear a +close resemblance to what was being done in England at +the same time. The famous tower of St. Giles’s Cathedral, +Edinburgh, and the Chapel at Roslyn, of the fifteenth +century, on the other hand, are of thoroughly un-English +character, resembling in this respect much of the Scotch +architecture of the succeeding centuries; Roslyn is ascribed +by Mr. Fergusson to a Spanish or Portuguese architect, +with great probability.</p> + +<p>Other abbey churches and remains of architectural work +exist at Dumblane, Arbroath, Dunkeld, and in many other +localities; and Holyrood Palace, still retains part of its +elegant early fourteenth-century chapel.</p> + +<p>Of secular and domestic work Linlithgow is a fair +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>92]</a></span> +specimen, but of late date. Most of the castles and +castellated mansions of Scotland belong indeed to a later +time than the Gothic period, though there is a strong infusion +of Gothic feeling in the very picturesque style in +which they are designed.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Wales is distinguished for the splendid series of castles +to which allusion has been made in a previous chapter. +They were erected at the best time of English Gothic +architecture (Edward I.) under English direction, and are +finely designed and solidly built. Wales can also boast +the interesting Cathedrals of Chester, Llandaff, St. David’s, +and some smaller churches, but in every case there is little +to distinguish them from contemporary English work.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">Ireland is more remarkable for antiquities of a date +anterior to the beginning of the Gothic period than for +works belonging to it. A certain amount of graceful +and simple domestic work, however, exists there; and in +addition to the cathedrals of Kildare, Cashel, and Dublin, +numerous monastic buildings, not as a rule large or +ambitious, but often graceful and picturesque, are +scattered about.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 431px;"> +<a name="tail03" id="tail03"></a> +<img src="images/agr085.jpg" width="431" height="150" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption nosc"><i>Miserere Seat in Wells Cathedral.</i></p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> +For an example of these see the house of Jaques Cœur (Fig. <a href="#fig07">7</a>).</p> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>93]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/agr058.jpg" width="500" height="114" +alt="Sculptured ornament from Westminster Abbey" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="chap07" id="chap07"></a>CHAPTER VII.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="vsmlfont">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN CENTRAL AND NORTHERN EUROPE.</span></h2> + + +<h3>GERMANY.—CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.</h3> + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE architecture of Germany, from the twelfth to the +sixteenth centuries, can be divided into an early, a +middle, and a late period, with tolerable distinctness. Of +these, the early period possesses the greatest interest, and the +peculiarities of its buildings are the most marked and most +beautiful. In the middle period, German Gothic bore a +very close general resemblance to the Gothic of the same +time in France; and, as a rule, such points of difference +as exist are not in favour of the German work. Late +Gothic work in Germany is very fantastic and unattractive.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 424px;"> +<a name="fig41" id="fig41"></a> +<img src="images/agr086.jpg" width="424" height="450" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 41.—Abbey Church of Arnstein. (12th and 13th Centuries.)</p> + +<p>Through the twelfth, and part of the thirteenth centuries, +the architects of Germany pursued a course parallel +with that followed in France and in England, but without +adopting the pointed arch. They developed the +simple and rude Romanesque architecture which prevailed +throughout Europe in the tenth and eleventh centuries, and +which they learnt originally from Byzantine artists who fled +from their own country during the reign of the iconoclasts; +and they not only carried it to a point of elaboration which +was abreast of the art of our best Norman architecture, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>94]</a></span> +but went on further in the same course; for while the +French and ourselves were adopting lancet windows and +pointed arches, they continued to employ the round-headed +window and the semicircular arch in buildings +which in their size, richness, loftiness, and general style, +correspond with early Gothic examples in other countries. +This early German architecture has been sometimes called +fully developed Romanesque, and sometimes round-arched +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>95]</a></span> +Gothic, and both terms may be applied to it without +impropriety, for it partakes of the qualities implied by each. +The Church of the Holy Apostles at Cologne, and those +of St. Martin and St. Maria in Capitolo, in the same city, +may be referred to as among the best works of this class. +Each of these has an eastern apse, and also an apsidal termination +to each transept. The Apostles’ church has a low +octagon at the crossing, and its sky-line is further broken +up by western and eastern towers, the latter of comparatively +small size and octagonal; and under the eaves of the +roof occurs an arcade of small arches.</p> + +<p>A view of the Abbey Church of Arnstein (Fig. <a href="#fig41">41</a>) illustrates +some of the features of these transitional churches. It +will be noticed that though there is no transept, there are +no less than four towers, two octagonal, and two square, +and that the apse is a strongly developed feature.</p> + +<p>In the church at Andernach, of which we give an illustration +(Fig. <a href="#fig42">42</a>), the same arrangement, namely, that of +four towers, two to the west, and two to the east, may +be noticed; but there is not the same degree of difference +between the towers, and the result is less happy. This +example, like the last, has no central feature, and in both +the arcade under the eaves of the roof is conspicuous only +by its absence. It does, however, occur on the western +towers at Andernach.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig42" id="fig42"></a> +<img src="images/agr087.jpg" width="600" height="418" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 42.—Church at Andernach. (Early 13th Century.)</p> + +<p>The pointed arch, when adopted in Germany, was in all +probability borrowed from France, as the general aspect +of German churches of pointed architecture seems to prove. +The greatest Gothic cathedral of Germany, Cologne +Cathedral, was not commenced till about the year 1275, +and its choir was probably completed during the first +quarter of the fourteenth century. This cathedral, one of +the largest in Europe, is also one of the grandest efforts of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"><!-- original location of Fig. 42 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>97]</a></span> +mediæval architecture, and it closely resembles French examples +of the same period, both in its general treatment, +and in the detail of its features. The plan of Cologne +Cathedral (Fig. <a href="#fig46">46</a>) is one of the most regular and symmetrical +which has come down to us from the middle +ages. The works were carried on slowly after the choir +was consecrated, but without any deviation from the +original plan, though some alteration in style and details +crept in. In our own day the works have been resumed +and vigorously pushed on towards completion; and, the +original drawings having been preserved, the two western +towers, the front, and other portions have been carried on in +accordance with them. Cologne, accordingly, presents the +almost unique spectacle of a great Gothic church, erected +without deviation from its original plan, and completed in +the style in which it was begun. It is fair to add that +though splendid in the extreme, this cathedral has far less +charm, and less of that peculiar quality of mystery and +vitality than many, we might say most, of the great +cathedrals of Europe.</p> + +<p>The plan consists of a nave of eight bays, two of which +form a kind of vestibule, and five avenues, <i>i.e.</i> two aisles +on each side; transepts of four bays each, with single +aisles; and a choir of four bays and an apse, the double +aisle of the nave being continued and carried down the +choir. That part of the outer aisle which sweeps round +the apse has been formed into a series of seven polygonal +chapels, thus gaining a complete <i>chevet</i>.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> Over the crossing +there is a comparatively slender spire, and at the west end +stand two massive towers terminated by a pair of lofty +and elaborate spires, of open tracery, and enriched by +crockets, finials, and much ornamentation. The cathedral +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>98]</a></span> +is built of stone, without much variation in colour; it is +vaulted throughout, and a forest of flying buttresses +surrounds it on all sides. The beauty of the tracery, the +magnificent boldness of the scale of the whole building, +and its orderly regularity, are very imposing, and give it a +high rank among the greatest works of European architecture; +but it is almost too majestic to be lovely, and somewhat +cold and uninteresting from its uniform colour, and +perhaps from its great regularity.</p> + +<p>Strasburg Cathedral—not so large as Cologne—has +been built at various times; the nave and west front are +the work of the best Gothic period. This building has +a nave and single aisles, short transepts, and a short +apsidal choir. There is great richness in much of the +work; double tracery, <i>i.e.</i> a second layer, so to speak, of +tracery, is here employed in the windows, and extended +beyond them, but the effect is not happy. The front was +designed to receive two open tracery spires, but only one of +them has been erected. It is amazingly intricate and rich, +the workmanship is very astonishing, but the artistic effect +is not half so good as that of many plain stone spires.</p> + +<p>Another important German church famous for an open +spire is the cathedral at Friburg. Here only one tower, +standing at the middle of the west front, was ever intended, +and partly because the composition is complete +as proposed, and partly because the design of the tracery +in the spire itself is more telling, this building forms a +more effective object than Strasburg, though by no means +so lofty or so grandiose.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 396px;"> +<a name="fig43" id="fig43"></a> +<img src="images/agr088.jpg" width="396" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 43.—Church of St. Barbara at Kuttenberg. East End. (1358-1548.)</p> + +<p>The Cathedral of St. Stephen at Vienna is a large and +exceedingly rich church. In this building the side aisles +are carried to almost the same height as the centre avenue—an +arrangement not infrequent in German churches +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"><!-- original location of Fig. 43 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>100]</a></span> +having little save novelty to recommend it, and by which +the triforium, and, as a rule, the clerestory disappear, and +the church is lighted solely by large side windows. The +three avenues are covered by one wide roof, which makes +a vast and rather clumsy display externally. A lofty +tower, surmounted by a fine and elaborate spire of open +tracery, stands on one side of the church—an unusual +position—and an unfinished companion tower is begun on +the corresponding side. Great churches and cathedrals +are to be found in many of the cities of Germany, but +their salient points are, as a rule, similar to those of +the examples which have been already described.</p> + +<p>The incomplete Church of St. Barbara at Kuttenberg, in +Bohemia, is one of somewhat exceptional design. It has +double aisles, but the side walls for the greater part of the +length of the church rest upon the arcade dividing the +two aisles, instead of that separating the centre avenue from +the side one; and a vault over the inner side aisle forms +in effect a kind of balcony or gallery in the nave. The +illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig43">43</a>) which we give of the exterior does not +of course indicate this peculiarity, but it shows a very good +example of a German adaptation of the French <i>chevet</i>, and +may be considered as a specimen of German pointed architecture +at its ripest stage. The church is vaulted, as might +be inferred from the forest of flying buttresses; and the +vaulting displays some resemblance to our English fan-vaulting +in general idea.</p> + +<p>German churches include some specimens of unusual +disposition or form, as for example the Church of St. Gereon +at Cologne, with an oval choir, and one or two double +churches, one of the most curious being the one at +Schwartz-Rheindorff, of which we give a section and view. +(Figs. <a href="#fig44">44</a>, <a href="#fig45">45</a>.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>101]</a></span> +In their doorways and porches the German architects +are often very happy. Our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig47">47</a>) of one of +the portals of the church at Thann may be taken as giving +a good idea of the amount of rich ornament often concentrated +here: it displays a wealth of decorative sculpture, +which was one of the great merits of the German +architects.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 392px;"> +<a name="fig44" id="fig44"></a> +<img src="images/agr089.jpg" width="392" height="200" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 44.—Double Church at Schwartz-Rheindorff. Section. (1158.)</p> + +<p>The latest development of Gothic in Germany, of which +the Church of St. Catherine at Oppenheim (Fig. <a href="#fig48">48</a>) is a +specimen, was marked (just as late French was by flamboyant +tracery, and late English by fan-vaulting) by a +peculiarity in the treatment of mouldings by which they +were robbed of almost all their grace and beauty, while +the execution of them became a kind of masonic puzzle. +Two or more groups of mouldings were supposed to coexist +in the same stone, and sometimes a part of one +group, sometimes a part of the other group, became visible +at the surface. The name given to this eccentric development +is interpenetration.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 439px;"> +<a name="fig45" id="fig45"></a> +<img src="images/agr090.jpg" width="439" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 45.—Double Church at Schwartz-Rheindorff. (<small>A.D.</small> 1158.)</p> + +<p>Secular architecture in Germany, though not carried to +such a pitch of perfection as in Belgium, was by no means +overlooked; but the examples are not numerous. In some +of the older cities, such as Prague, Nuremberg, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"><!-- original location of Fig. 45 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>103]</a></span> +Frankfort, much picturesque domestic architecture abounds, +most of it of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and +even later, and all full of piquancy and beauty. In North +Germany, where there is a large tract of country in which +building stone is scarce, a style of brick architecture was +developed, which was applied to all sorts of purposes with +great success. The most remarkable of these brick buildings +are the large dwelling-houses, with façades ornamented +by brick tracery and panelling, to be found in Eastern +Prussia, together with some town halls and similar +buildings.</p> + + +<h3>GERMANY.—ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.</h3> + +<h4><i>Plan.</i></h4> + +<p>The points of difference between German and French +Gothic are not so numerous as to render a very minute +analysis of the Gothic of Germany requisite in order to +make them clear.</p> + +<p>The plans of German churches usually show internal +piers; and columns occur but rarely. The churches have +nave and aisles, transepts and apsidal choir; but they +are peculiar from the frequent use of apses at the ends of +the transepts, and also from the occurrence, in not a few +instances, of an apse at the west end of the nave as +well as at the east end of the choir. They are almost +invariably vaulted.</p> + +<p>As the style advanced, large churches were constantly +planned with double aisles, and the western apse disappeared. +Some German church plans, notably those of +Cologne Cathedral (Fig. <a href="#fig46">46</a>) and the great church of St. +Lawrence at Nuremberg, are fine specimens of regularity +of disposition, though full of many parts.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>104]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 384px;"> +<a name="fig46" id="fig46"></a> +<img src="images/agr091.jpg" width="384" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 46.—Cologne Cathedral. Ground Plan. (Begun 1248.)</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>105]</a></span></p> + +<h4><i>Walls, Towers, and Gables.</i></h4> + +<p>The German architects delighted in towers with pointed +roofs, and in a multiplicity of them. A highly characteristic +feature is a tower of great mass, but often extremely +low, covering the crossing. The Cathedral at Mayence +shows a fine example of this feature, which was often +not more than a low octagon. Western towers, square on +plan, are common, and small towers, frequently octagonal, +are often employed to flank the choir or in combination with +the transepts. These in early examples, are always surmounted +by high roofs; in late ones, by stone spires, often +of rich open tracery. A very characteristic feature of the +round arched Gothic churches is an arcade of small arches +immediately below the eaves of the roof and opening into +the space above the vaults (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a>). This is rarely +wanting in churches built previous to the time when the +French type was followed implicitly.</p> + +<p>The gables are seldom such fine compositions as in +France, or even in Italy; but in domestic and secular +buildings many striking gabled fronts occur, the gable +being often stepped in outline and full of windows.</p> + + +<h4><i>Roofs and Vaults.</i></h4> + +<p>Vaults are universal in the great churches, and German +vaulting has some special peculiarities, but they are such +as hardly come within the scope of this hand-book. Roofs, +however, are so conspicuous that in any general account of +German architecture attention must be paid to them. They +were from very early times steep in pitch and picturesque in +outline, and are evidently much relied upon as giving play +to the sky-line. Indeed, for variety of form and piquancy +of detail the German roofs are the most successful of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"><!-- original location of Fig. 47 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>107]</a></span> +middle ages. The spires, as will have been easily gathered +from the descriptions of those at Strasburg, Cologne, &c., +became extremely elaborate, and were constructed in many +cases entirely of open tracery.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 378px;"> +<a name="fig47" id="fig47"></a> +<img src="images/agr092.jpg" width="378" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 47.—Western Doorway of Church at Thann. (14th Century.)</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 480px;"> +<a name="fig48" id="fig48"></a> +<img src="images/agr093.jpg" width="480" height="550" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 48.—Church of St. Catherine at Oppenheim. (1262 to 1439.)</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>108]</a></span></p> + +<h4><i>Openings.</i></h4> + +<p>Openings are, on the whole, treated very much as the +French treated them. A good example is the western doorway +at Thann (Fig. <a href="#fig47">47</a>); but the use of double tracery in +the windows in late examples is characteristic. Sometimes +a partial screen of outside tracery is employed in other +features besides windows, as may be seen by the very +elegant doorway of St. Sebald’s Church at Nuremberg, +which we have illustrated (Fig. <a href="#fig49">49</a>).</p> + + +<h4><i>Ornaments.</i></h4> + +<p>The ornaments of German Gothic are often profuse, +but rarely quite happy. Sculpture, often of a high class, +carving of every sort, tracery, and panelling, are largely +employed; but with a hardness and a tendency to cover +all surfaces with a profusion of weak imitations of +tracery that disfigures much of the masonry. The tracery +became towards the latter part of the time intricate and +unmeaning, and the interpenetrating mouldings already +described, though of course intended to be ornamental, are +more perplexing and confusing than pleasing: the carving +exaggerates the natural markings of the foliage represented, +and being thin, and very boldly undercut, resembles leaves +beaten out in metal, rather than foliage happily and easily +imitated in stone, which is what good architectural carving +should be.</p> + +<p>The use of coloured building materials and of inlays +and mosaics does not prevail to any great extent in +Germany, though stained glass is often to be found and +coloured wall decoration occasionally.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>109]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 406px;"> +<a name="fig49" id="fig49"></a> +<img src="images/agr094.jpg" width="406" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 49.—St. Sebald’s Church at Nuremberg. +The Bride’s Doorway. (1303-1377.)</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>110]</a></span></p> + +<h4><i>Construction and Design.</i></h4> + +<p>The marked peculiarities of construction by which the +German Gothic buildings are most distinguished, are the +prevalent high-pitched roofs, the vaulting with aisle +vaults carried to the same height as in the centre, and +the employment in certain districts of brick to the exclusion +of stone, all of which have been already referred +to. In a great part of that large portion of Europe, which +is included under the name of Germany, the materials and +modes of construction adopted during the middle ages, +bear a close resemblance to those in general use in France +and England.</p> + +<p>Some of the characteristics of German Gothic design +have been already alluded to. The German architects +display an exuberant fancy, a great love of the picturesque, +and even the grotesque, and a strong predilection for +creating artificial difficulties in order to enjoy the pleasure +of surmounting them. Their work is full of unrest; they +attach small value to the artistic quality of breadth, and +destroy the value of the plain surfaces of their buildings as +contrasts to the openings, by cutting them up by mouldings +and enrichments of various sorts. The sculpture introduced +is, as a rule, naturalistic rather than conventional. +The capitals of piers and columns are often fine specimens +of effective carving, while the delicate and ornamental details +of the tabernacle work with which church furniture is +enriched, are unsurpassed in elaboration, and often of rare +beauty. The churches of Nuremberg are specially distinguished +for the richness and number of their sculptured +fittings. There is, moreover, in some of the best German +buildings a rugged grandeur which approaches the sublime; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>111]</a></span> +and in the humbler ones a large amount of picturesque and +thoroughly successful architecture.</p> + +<p>In the smaller objects upon which the art of the architect +was often employed the Germans were frequently happy. +Public fountains, such for example as the one illustrated +in Chapter <a href="#chap02">II.</a> (Fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a>), are to be met within the streets +of many towns, and rarely fail to please by their simple, +graceful, and often quaint design. Crosses, monuments, +and individual features in domestic buildings, such <i>e.g.</i> as +bay windows, frequently show a very skilful and picturesque +treatment and happy enrichment.</p> + + +<h3><a name="chap07a" id="chap07a"></a>NORTHERN EUROPE.</h3> + +<p>Gothic architecture closely resembling German work may +be found in Switzerland, Norway and Sweden, and Denmark; +but there are few very conspicuous buildings, and +not enough variety to form a distinct style. In Norway and +Sweden curious and picturesque buildings exist, erected +solely of timber, and both there and in Switzerland many +of the traditions of the Gothic period have been handed +down to our own day with comparatively little change, in +the pleasing and often highly enriched timber buildings +which are to be met with in considerable numbers in +those countries.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> +See p. <a href="#Page_77">77</a> for an explanation of <i>chevet.</i></p> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>112]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/agr051.jpg" width="500" height="228" +alt="Sculptured ornament from Sens Cathedral" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="chap08" id="chap08"></a>CHAPTER VIII.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="vsmlfont">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.</span></h2> + + +<h3>ITALY AND SICILY.—TOPOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.</h3> + +<p><span class="dropcap">G</span>OTHIC architecture in Italy may be considered as +a foreign importation. The Italians, it is true, +displayed their natural taste and artistic instinct in their +use of the style, and a large number of their works +possess, as we shall see, strongly-marked characteristics +and much charm; but it is impossible to avoid the feeling +that the architects were working in a style not thoroughly +congenial to their instincts nor to the traditions they had +inherited from classical times; and not entirely in harmony +with the requirements of the climate and the nature of their +building materials.</p> + +<p>Italian Gothic may be conveniently considered geographically, +dividing the buildings into three groups, the +first and most important containing the architecture of +Northern Italy (Lombardy, Venetia, and the neighbourhood), +the second that of Central Italy (Tuscany, &c.), the +third that of the south and of Sicily—a classification which +will suit the subject better than the chronological arrangement +which has been our guide in examining the art of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>113]</a></span> +other countries; for the variations occasioned by development +as time went on are less strongly marked in Italy +than elsewhere.</p> + + +<h4><i>Northern Italy.</i></h4> + +<p>Lombardy in the Romanesque period was thoroughly +under German influence, and the buildings remaining to +us from the eleventh and twelfth centuries bear a close +resemblance to those erected north of the Alps at the same +date. The twelfth century Lombard churches again are specimens +of round-arched Gothic, just as truly as those on the +banks of the Rhine. Many of them are also peculiar as +being erected chiefly in brickwork; the great alluvial plain +of Lombardy being deficient in building-stone. St. Michele +at Pavia, a well-known church of this date, may be cited +as a good example. This is a vaulted church, with an +apsidal east end and transepts. The round arch is employed +in this building, but the general proportions and +treatment are essentially Gothic. A striking campanile +(bell tower) belongs to the church, and is a good specimen +of a feature very frequently met with in Lombardy; the +tower here (and usually) is square, and rises by successive +stages, but with only few and small openings or ornaments, +to a considerable height. There are no buttresses, no +diminution of bulk, no staircase turrets. At the summit +is an open belfry-stage, with large semicircular-headed +arches, crowned by a cornice and a low-pitched conical roof.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p> + +<p>In the same city a good example of an Italian Gothic +church, erected after the pointed arch had been introduced, +may be found in the church of Sta. Maria del Carmine. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>114]</a></span> +The west front of this church is but clumsy in general +design. Its width is divided into five compartments by flat +buttresses. The gables are crowned by a deep and heavy +cornice of moulded brick and the openings are grouped +with but little skill. Individually, however, the features of +this front are very beautiful, and the great wheel-window, +full of tracery, and the two-light windows flanking it, +may be quoted as remarkable specimens of the ornamental +elaboration which can be accomplished in brickwork.</p> + +<p>The campanile of this church, like the one just described, +is a plain square tower. It rises by successive stages, +each taller than the last, each stage being marked by a +rich brick cornice. The belfry-stage has on each face a +three-light window, with a traceried head, and above the +cornice the square tower is finished by a tall conical roof, +circular on plan, an arrangement not unfrequently met with.</p> + +<p>The Certosa, the great Carthusian Church and Monastery +near Pavia,<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> best known by the elaborate marble front +added in a different style about a century after the erection +of the main building, is a good example of a highly-enriched +church, with dependencies, built in brickwork, and possessing +most of the distinctive peculiarities of a great Gothic +church, except the general use of the pointed arch. It was +begun in 1396, and is consistent in its exterior architecture, +the front excepted, though it took a long time to +build. Attached to it are two cloisters, of which the +arches are semicircular, and the enrichments, of wonderful +beauty, are modelled in terra-cotta.</p> + +<p>This church resembles the great German round-arched +Gothic churches on the Rhine in many of its features. +Its plan includes a nave, with aisles and side chapels, transepts +and a choir. The eastern arm and the transepts are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>115]</a></span> +each ornamented by an apse, somewhat smaller than would +be met with in a German church; but as a compensation +each of these three arms has two side apses, as well as the +one at the end. The exterior possesses the German arcade +of little arches immediately under the eaves of the roof; +it is marked by the same multiplicity of small towers, each +with its own steep roof; and it possesses the same striking +central feature, internally a small dome, externally a kind +of light pyramidal structure, ornamented by small arcades +rising tier above tier, and ending in a central pointed roof.</p> + +<p>The finest Gothic cathedral in North Italy, if dimensions, +general effectiveness, and beauty of material be the +test, is that of Milan. This building is disfigured by a west +front in a totally inappropriate style, but apart from this +it is virtually a German church of the first class, erected +entirely in white marble, and covered with a profusion of +decoration. Its dimensions show that, with the exception +of Seville, this was the largest of all the Gothic cathedrals +of Europe. It has double aisles, transepts, and a polygonal +apse. At the crossing of the nave and transepts a low +dome rises, covered by a conical roof, and surmounted +by an elegant marble spire.</p> + +<p>The structure is vaulted throughout, and each of the +great piers which carry the nave arcade is surmounted by +a mass of niches and tabernacle work, occupied by statues—a +splendid substitute for ordinary capitals. The interior +effect of Milan Cathedral is grand and full of beauty. +The exterior, though much of its power is destroyed by +the weakly-designed ornament with which all the surfaces +of the walls are covered, is endowed with a wonderful +charm. This building was commenced in the year 1385, +and consecrated in the year 1418. The details of the +window-tracery, pinnacles, &c. (but not the statues which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>116]</a></span> +are of Italian character), correspond very closely to those +of German buildings erected at the same period (close of +the fourteenth century).</p> + +<p>Milan possesses, among other examples of pointed architecture, +one secular building, the Great Hospital, well +known for its Gothic façade. This hospital was founded +in 1456, and most of it is of later date and of renaissance +character; the street front of two storeys in height, with +pointed arches, is very rich. The church of Chiaravalle, +near Milan, which has been more than once illustrated and +described, ought not to be passed unnoticed, on account +of the beauty of its fully developed central dome. It was +built in the early part of the thirteenth century (1221).</p> + +<p>Almost all the great cities of North Italy possess striking +Gothic buildings. Genoa, for instance, can boast of her +cathedral, with a front in alternate courses of black and +white marble, dating from about the year 1300, and full +of beauty; the details bearing much resemblance to +the best Western Gothic work. Passing eastward, Verona +possesses a wealth of Gothic work in the well-known +tombs of the Scaligers, the churches of Sta. Anastasia, +San Zenone, and several minor churches and campaniles; +and at Como, Bergamo, Vicenza, Padua, Treviso, Cremona, +Bologna, and many other cities and towns, good churches +of pointed architecture are to be found.</p> + +<p>Our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig50">50</a>) of the ancient Palace of the +Jurisconsults at Cremona, is a good specimen of the +secular architecture of North Italy. Originally the lower +storey was a loggia, or open arcaded storey, but the arches +have been built up. Telling, simple, and graceful, this +building owes its effect chiefly to its well-designed openings +and a characteristic brick cornice. It is entirely without +buttresses, has no spreading base, no gables, and no visible +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>117]</a></span> +roof: some of these features would have been present had +it been designed and erected north of the Alps.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig50" id="fig50"></a> +<img src="images/agr095.jpg" width="500" height="550" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 50.—The Palace of the Jurisconsults at Cremona.</p> + +<p>Venice is the city in the whole of North Italy where +Gothic architecture has had freest scope and has achieved +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>118]</a></span> +the greatest success, not, however, in ecclesiastical, but in +secular buildings. The great Cathedral of St. Mark, perhaps +the most wonderful church in Europe, certainly the foremost +in Italy, is a Byzantine building, and though it has +received some additions in Gothic times, does not fairly +come within the scope of this volume; and the Gothic +churches of Venice are not very numerous nor, with the +exception of the fine brick church of the Frari, extremely +remarkable. On the banks of the Grand Canal and its +tributaries, however, stand not a few Gothic palaces of +noble design (see Fig. <a href="#fig09">9</a>, p. 18), while the Ducal Palace +itself alone is sufficient to confer a reputation upon the city +which it adorns.</p> + +<p>The Ducal Palace at Venice is a large rectangular block +of buildings erected round a vast quadrangle. Of its exterior +two sides only are visible from a distance, one being the sea +front looking over the lagoon, and the other the land front +directed towards the piazzetta. Rather less than one half +the height of each front is occupied by two storeys of +arcades; the lower storey bold, simple, and vigorous; +the upper storey lighter, and ending in a mass of bold +tracery. Above this open work, and resting upon it, rises +the external wall of the palace, faced with marble in +alternate slabs of rose-colour and white, pierced by a few +large pointed windows and crowned by an open parapet. +Few buildings are so familiar, even to untravelled persons, +as this fine work, which owes its great charm to the extent, +beauty, and mingled solidity and grace of its arcades, and +to the fine sculpture by which the capitals from which +they spring are enriched.</p> + +<p>The Gothic palaces are almost invariably remarkable for +the skill with which the openings in their fronts are +arranged and designed. It was not necessary to render +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>119]</a></span> +any other part of the exterior specially architectural, as +the palaces stand side by side like houses in a modern +street, as can be seen from our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig09">9</a>). In +almost all cases a large proportion of the openings are +grouped together in the centre of the front, and the sides +are left comparatively plain and strong-looking, the composition +presenting a centre and two wings. By this +simple expedient each portion of the composition is made +to add emphasis to the other, and a powerful but not +inharmonious contrast between the open centre and the +solid sides is called into existence. The earliest Gothic +buildings in point of date are often the most delicate and +graceful, and this rule holds good in the Gothic palaces of +Venice; yet one of the later palaces, the Ca’ d’Oro, must +be at least named on account of the splendid richness of +its marble front—of which, however, only the centre and +one wing is built—and the beauty of the ornament lavishly +employed upon it.</p> + +<p>The balconies, angle windows, and other minor features +with which the Venetian Gothic palaces abound, are among +the most graceful features of the architecture of Italy.</p> + + +<h4><i>Central Italy.</i></h4> + +<p>Those towns of Central Italy (by which is meant Tuscany +and the former States of the Church), in which the best +Gothic buildings are to be found, are Pisa, Lucca, Florence, +Siena, Orvieto, and Perugia. As a general rule the Gothic +work in this district is more developed and more lavishly +enriched than that in Lombardy.</p> + +<p>In Pisa, the Cathedral and the Campanile (the famous +leaning tower) belong to the late Romanesque style, but +the Baptistry, an elegant circular building, has a good deal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>120]</a></span> +of Gothic ornament in its upper storeys, and may be fairly +classed as a transitional building. The most charming +and thoroughly characteristic work of Gothic architecture +in Pisa is, however, a small gem of a chapel, the church +of Sta. Maria della Spina. It displays exquisite ornament, +and, notwithstanding much false construction, the beauty +of its details, of its sculpture, and of the marble of which +it is built, invest it with a great charm.</p> + +<p>Pisan Gothic is remarkable as being associated with the +name of a family of highly gifted sculptors and architects, +the Pisani, of whom Nicola Pisano was the earliest and +greatest artist; he was followed by his descendants +Giovanni, Nino, and Andrea. With the Pisani and Giotto +the series of the known names of architects of great +buildings may be said to begin.</p> + +<p>Florence, the most important of the cities we have +named, is distinguished by a cathedral built in the early +part of the fourteenth century, and one of the grandest +in Italy. It has very few columns, and its walls and +vaults are of great height. The walls are adorned externally +with inlays in coloured marble, and the windows +have stained glass—a rarity in Italy; but its lofty dome, +added after the completion of the rest of the building, +is its chief feature. This was always intended, but the +pointed octagonal dome actually erected by Brunelleschi, +between the years 1420 and 1444, though it harmonises +fairly well with the general lines of the building, and +forms, as can be seen from our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig51">51</a>), a +striking object in all distant views of the city, is probably +very different from what was originally intended. Near +the cathedral stand the Baptistry, famous for the possession +of the finest gates in the world, and the Campanile +of Giotto. This tower is built, or at least faced, entirely +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"><!-- original location of Fig. 51 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>122]</a></span> +with marble; and when it is stated that its height is not +far short of that of the Victoria Tower of our Houses of +Parliament, though of slenderer proportions, it will be +seen that it is magnificently liberal in its general scheme. +The tower is covered with panels of variously coloured +marbles from base to summit, and enriched by fine sculpture. +The angles are strengthened by slightly projecting +piers. The windows are comparatively small till the +highest or belfry stage is reached, and here each face of +the tower is pierced by a magnificent three-light window. +A deep and elaborate cornice now crowns the whole, but +it was originally designed to add a high-pitched roof or +a spire as a terminal.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig51" id="fig51"></a> +<img src="images/agr096.jpg" width="600" height="398" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 51.—The Cathedral at Florence. With Giotto’s Campanile. (Begun, 1298; Dome, 1420-1444; +Campanile begun, 1324.)</p> + +<p>Our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig52">52</a>) shows the west front and +campanile of the Cathedral at Siena, an exceedingly good +specimen of the beauties and peculiarities of the style. +This building was commenced in 1243. The plan is simple +but singular, for the central feature is a six-sided dome, +at the crossing of the nave and transepts; and some +ingenuity has been spent in fitting this figure to the arches +of the main avenues of the building. The interior is rich +and effective; the exterior, as can be seen by the illustration, +is covered with ornament, and the front is the richest +and probably the best designed of all the cathedral fronts +of Central Italy. The strongly-marked horizontal lines +of cornices, arcades, &c., the moulded gables, the great +wheel-window set in a square panel, and the use of marble +of various colours, are all points to note. So is the +employment of the semicircular arch for the doorways of +this thoroughly Gothic building. The campanile is a good +example of that feature, except that instead of the rich +window which usually occupies the belfry stage, or highest +storey, two storeys of small lights have been formed. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"><!-- original location of Fig. 52 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>124]</a></span> +introduction of angle turrets is not very usual, and it here +supplies a deficiency which makes itself felt in other +campaniles, where the junction of tower and spire is not +always happy.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 457px;"> +<a name="fig52" id="fig52"></a> +<img src="images/agr097.jpg" width="457" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 52.—Cathedral at Siena. West Front and Campanile. +(Façade begun 1284.)</p> + +<p>Gothic churches of importance can be found in many of +the cities and towns of Central Italy. None are more +remarkable than the singular double church of St. Francis +at Assisi, with its wealth of mural paintings and stained +glass, and the cathedral at Orvieto (Fig. <a href="#fig53">53</a>) with its +splendid front.</p> + +<p>In Rome, so rich in specimens of the architecture of +many styles and times, Gothic could find no footing; +the one solitary church which can be claimed as Gothic +may be taken as an exception. And south of the Capital +there lies a considerable tract of country, containing few +if any examples of the style we are considering.</p> + + +<h4><i>Southern Italy.</i></h4> + +<p>Southern Italy is conveniently grouped with Sicily, but +the mainland is deficient in examples of Gothic buildings. +The old towns of Apulia indeed, such as Bari, Bitonto and +Brindisi, possess an architecture which the few who have +had an opportunity of examining, declare to be surpassingly +rich in its decoration, but it is for the most part Romanesque.</p> + +<p>The Gothic work remaining in and about Naples is most +of it extremely florid, and often rich, but seldom possesses +the grace and charm of that which exists further north.</p> + +<p>Sicily shows the picturesquely mixed results of a complication +of agencies which have not affected the mainland, +and is accordingly an interesting field for architectural +study. The island was first under Byzantine influence; +was next occupied and held by the Saracens; and was later +seized and for some time retained by the Normans.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>125]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 556px;"> +<a name="fig53" id="fig53"></a> +<img src="images/agr098.jpg" width="556" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 53.—The Cathedral at Orvieto. (Begun 1290; Façade, 1310.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>126]</a></span> +The most striking early Gothic building in Sicily is the +richly adorned cathedral of Monreale, commenced in the +twelfth century. Here very simple pointed arches are +made use of, as the entire surface of the interior is +covered with mosaic pictures of Norman origin. The +small Capella Palatina in Palermo itself is of the same +simple and early architectural character, and adorned with +equally magnificent mosaics. In these buildings the +splendour of the colouring is only equalled by the vigorous +and often pathetic power with which the stories of sacred +history are embodied in these mosaics. The cathedral of +Cefalu is a building bearing a general resemblance to that +at Monreale, but not enriched in the same manner.</p> + +<p>Of the fourteenth century are the richly ornamented +cathedral of Palermo and that of Messina. The latter +has been so much altered as to have lost a good deal of its +interest; but at Palermo there is much that is striking and +almost unique. This building has little in common with +the works of northern or central Italy, and not much more +alliance with the Gothic of North Europe. It is richly +panelled and decorated, but its most striking feature is +its bold arcaded portal.</p> + + +<h3>ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.</h3> + +<h4><i>Plan.</i></h4> + +<p>The plans of Italian churches are simple, compared with +those of the northern and western architects. As a rule +they are also moderate in size, and they bear a close resemblance +to those of the early basilica churches from +which they are directly descended. Though the apse is all +but universal, the French <i>chevet</i>, with its crown of clustering +chapels, was not adopted in Italy. There is very +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>127]</a></span> +much in common between the churches of Lombardy and +those of Germany, but the German western apse and the +apsidal ends to the transept do not occur. The spaces +between the piers of the main arcade are greater than in +French or English examples, so that there are fewer piers, +and the vaults are of wider span. In the churches +founded by the great preaching orders, the division into +nave and aisle does not take place, and the church consists +of nothing but a large hall for the congregation, with a +chancel for the choir.</p> + +<p>In monastic, secular, and domestic building a general +squareness and simplicity of plan prevails, and where an +internal arcaded quadrangle can be made use of (<i>e.g.</i> in +the cloister of a monastery), it is almost always relied upon +to add effect. The famous external arcade at the Ducal +Palace, Venice, was nowhere repeated, though simpler +external arcades occur frequently; but it is so splendid +as to form, itself alone a feature in Italian planning.</p> + +<p>The arrangements of the mansions and palaces found in +the great cities were a good deal influenced by the circumstance +that it was customary, in order to secure as much +cool air as possible, to devote one of the upper floors to the +purpose of a suite of reception rooms; to this was given +the name of <i>piano nobile</i>.</p> + + +<h4><i>Walls, Towers, Columns.</i></h4> + +<p>Walls are usually thick and stand unbuttressed, and +rarely have such slopes and diminutions of apparent thickness +towards their upper part as are not uncommon in England. +Base mouldings are not universal. The cornice, on +the other hand, is far more cared for, and is made much +more conspicuous than with us. In the brick buildings +especially it attains great development. Above the cornice +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>128]</a></span> +a kind of ornamental parapet, bearing some resemblance +to battlements, is common. The strikingly peculiar use of +materials of different colours in alternate courses, or in +panels, to decorate the wall surfaces, has already been +referred to. It is very characteristic of the style.</p> + +<p>The campanile or bell-tower of an Italian church is +a feature very different from western towers. It is +never placed over the crossing of nave and aisles and +rarely forms an essential part of the church, often being +quite detached and not seldom placed at an angle with +the walls of the main building. Such towers are not unfrequently +appended to palaces, and are sometimes (<i>e.g.</i> at +Venice) erected alone. Some of the Italian cities were +also remarkable for strong towers erected in the city +itself as fortresses by the heads of influential families. +Many of these are still standing in Bologna. The smaller +towers in which northern architects took so much delight +are almost unknown in Italy, though on a few +of the great churches of the north (<i>e.g.</i> the Certosa at Pavia, +and St. Antonio at Padua) they are to be found.</p> + +<p>The use of constructive columns is general; piers +are by no means unknown, but fine shafts of marble +meet the eye frequently in Italian churches. The constant +use of the column for decorative purposes is a +marked characteristic. Not only is it employed where +French and English architects used it, as in the jambs of +doorways, but it constantly replaces the mullion in traceried +windows. It is employed as an ornament at the angles of +buildings to take off the harshness of a sharp corner, and +it is introduced in many unexpected and often picturesque +situations. Twisted, knotted, and otherwise carved and +ornamental shafts are not unfrequently made use of in +columns that serve purely decorative purposes.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>129]</a></span></p> + +<h4><i>Openings and Arches.</i></h4> + +<p>The constructive arches in Italian Gothic buildings are, +as a rule, pointed, but it is remarkable that at every period +round and pointed arches are indiscriminately employed for +doors and windows, both being constantly met with in the +same building.</p> + +<p>The naves of Italian churches rarely show the division +into three, common in the north. The triforium +is almost invariably absent, and the clerestory is often +reduced to a series of small round windows, sufficient to +admit the moderate light which, in a very bright climate, +is grateful in the interior of such a building as a church; +but they are far less effective features than our own well-marked +clerestory windows.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 182px;"> +<a name="fig54" id="fig54"></a> +<img src="images/agr099.jpg" width="182" height="200" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 54.—Ogival Window-head.</p> + +<p>The doorways are often very beautiful, and are frequently +sheltered by projecting porches of extreme elegance +and lightness. The window openings are, as a rule, cusped. +An ogee-shaped arch (Fig. <a href="#fig54">54</a>) is +constantly in use in window-heads, +especially at Venice, and much +graceful design is lavished on the +arched openings of domestic and +secular buildings. A great deal +of the tracery employed is plate +tracery.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> The tracery in terra-cotta +has already been referred to. In +the large windows of the principal +apartments and other similar positions +of the palaces in Venice and Vicenza, a sort of tracery +not met with in other countries is freely employed. The +openings are square-headed, and are divided into separate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>130]</a></span> +lights by small columns; the heads of these lights are +ogee-shaped, and the spaces between them and the horizontal +lintel are filled in with circles, richly quatrefoiled +or otherwise cusped (Fig. <a href="#fig55">55</a>). The upper arcade of the +Ducal Palace at Venice offers the best known and finest +example of this class of tracery.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 172px;"> +<a name="fig55" id="fig55"></a> +<img src="images/agr100.jpg" width="172" height="200" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 55.—Tracery, from Venice.</p> + + +<h4><i>Roofs and Vaults.</i></h4> + +<p>The vaulting of Italian churches is always simple, and +the bays, as has been pointed out, are usually wider than +those of the northern Gothic churches. Frequently there +are no ribs of any sort to the groins of the vaults. A +characteristic feature of Italian Gothic is the central dome. +It is rarely very large or overpowering, and in the one +instance of a magnificent dome—the Cathedral at Florence, +the feature, though intended from the first, was added +after the Gothic period had closed. Still many churches +have a modest dome, and it frequently forms a striking +feature in the interior, while in some northern instances (<i>e.g.</i> +at the Certosa at Pavia, or at Chiaravalle) it is treated +like a many storeyed pyramid and becomes an external +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>131]</a></span> +feature of importance. At Sant’ Antonio at Padua there +are five domes.</p> + +<p>The churches of the preaching orders are some of them +covered by timber ceilings, not perfectly flat but having an +outline made up of hollow curves of rather flat sweep. +The great halls at Padua and Vicenza displayed a vast +wooden curved ceiling resembling the hull of a ship turned +upside down.</p> + +<p>The ordinary church roof is of flat pitch and frequently +concealed behind a parapet. Dormer windows, crestings, +and other similar features, by the use of which northern +architects enriched their roofs, are hardly ever employed by +Italian architects.</p> + + +<h4><i>Mouldings and Ornaments.</i></h4> + +<p>Ornament is almost instinctively understood by the +Italians, and their mastery of it is well shown in their +architecture. The carving of spandrels, capitals, and other +ornaments, and the sculpture of the heads and statues introduced +is full of power and beauty. The famous capitals +of the lower arcade of the Ducal Palace may be quoted as +illustrations.</p> + +<p>The employment of coloured materials is carried so far +as sometimes to startle an eye trained to the sombreness of +English architecture, but a great deal of the beauty of this +style is derived from colour, and much of the comparative +simplicity and scarcity of mouldings is due to the desire +to leave large unbroken surfaces for marble linings, +mosaics or fresco painting. Mouldings, where they are +introduced, differ from northern mouldings in being flatter +and far less bold, their enrichments are chiefly confined to +dentils, notches, and small and simple ornaments. Stained +glass is not so often seen as in France, but is to be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>132]</a></span> +met with, as, for example, in the fine church of San +Petronio at Bologna, and in Sta. Maria Novella, and in the +Cathedral at Florence. At Florence the stained glass has +a character of its own both in colour and style of treatment. +It is not too much to say that every kind of +decoration which can be employed to add beauty to +a building may be found at its best in Italy. In the +churches much of the finest furniture, such as stall-work, +screens, altar frontals, will be found in profusion; and the +church porches and the mural monuments should be especially +studied on account of the singular elegance with which +they are usually designed.</p> + + +<h4><i>Construction and Design.</i></h4> + +<p>The material employed for the external and internal face +of the walls in a very large proportion of the buildings +mentioned in this chapter is marble. This is sometimes used +in blocks as stone is with us, but more frequently in the +form of thin slabs as a facing upon masonry or brickwork. +In Lombardy, where brick is the natural building material, +most of the walls are not only built but faced with brick; +and the ornamental features, including tracery, are often +executed in ornamental brickwork, or in what is known as +terra-cotta (<i>i.e.</i> bricks or blocks of brick clay of fine quality, +moulded or otherwise ornamented and burnt like bricks). +Stone was less commonly employed as a building material in +Italy during the Gothic period, than in other countries of +Europe. The surfaces of the vaults, and the surfaces of the +internal walls were often covered with mosaics, or with +paintings in fresco. Vaulting is frequently met with, but it +is generally simple in character, the flat external roof over it +is commonly covered with tiles or metal, while the apparent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>133]</a></span> +gable frequently rises more sharply than the actual roof. +The Italians seem never to have cordially welcomed the +Gothic principle of resisting the thrust of vaults or arches +by a counter-thrust, or by the weight of a buttress. The +buttress is almost unknown in Italian Gothic, and as a rule +an iron tie is introduced at the feet of such arches as would +in France or Germany have been buttressed. This +expedient is, of course, economical, but to northern eyes it +appears strange and out of place. The Italians, however, +take no pains to conceal it, and many of their lighter works, +such as canopies over tombs, porches, &c., would fall to +pieces at once were the iron ties removed.</p> + +<p>Open timber roofs in the English fashion are unknown; +but the wooden ceilings already alluded to are found in +San Zeno at Verona, and the Eremitani at Padua. A kind +of open roof of large span, carried by curved ribs and +tied by iron ties, covers the great hall of the Basilica at +Vicenza, and the very similar hall at Padua. The ribs of +these roofs are built up of many thicknesses of material +bolted together.</p> + +<p>The design of Italian Gothic buildings presents many +peculiarities, some of which are due to the materials made +use of. For example, where brick and terra-cotta are alone +employed, wide moulded cornices of no great projection, +and broad masses of enriched moulding encircling arches +are easily executed, and they are accordingly constantly to +be found; but bold mouldings, with deep hollows, similar to +those of Early English arches, could not be constructed of +these materials, and are not attempted. These peculiarities +will be found in the Town Hall at Cremona, of which an +illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig50">50</a>) has already been given.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 474px;"> +<a name="fig56" id="fig56"></a> +<img src="images/agr101.jpg" width="474" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 56.—Window from Tivoli.</p> + +<p>Where marble is used, the peculiar fineness of its +surface, upon which the bright Italian sun makes the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>134]</a></span> +smallest moulding effective, combined with the fact that +the material, being costly, is often used in thin slabs, has +given occasion to extreme flatness of treatment, and to the +use of modes of enrichment which do not require much +depth of material. Our illustration of a window from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>135]</a></span> +Piazza S. Croce at Tivoli, shows these peculiarities extremely +well (Fig. <a href="#fig56">56</a>), and also illustrates the strong +predilection which the Italian architects retained throughout +the Gothic period for squareness and for horizontal +lines. The whole ornamental treatment is here square; +the window rests on a strongly-moulded horizontal sill, and +is surrounded by flatly-carved enrichment, making a +square panel of the entire feature. Even in the richly-decorated +window (Fig. <a href="#fig57">57</a>), which is in its pointed outline +more truly Gothic than the Tivoli example, much of the +same quality can be traced. The arch and jamb are +richly moulded, but the whole mass of mouldings is flat, +and the flat cuspings of the tracery, elaborately carved +though it be, more resemble the cusps of early Western +Gothic, executed at a time when tracery was beginning +its career, than work belonging to the period of full +maturity to which this feature, as a whole, undoubtedly +belongs.</p> + +<p>Where marbles were plentiful enough to be built into +the fabric, the national love of colour gave rise to the use +of black and white—or sometimes red and white—alternate +courses, already mentioned. The effect of this striped +masonry may be partly judged of from the illustration of +the cathedral at Siena (Fig. <a href="#fig52">52</a>), where it is employed +to a considerable extent. A finer method of surface +decoration, less simple, however, and perhaps less frequently +practised, was open to the Italian architect, in +the use of panels of various coloured marbles. A beautiful +example of the employment of this expedient exists in +Giotto’s campanile at Florence (Fig. <a href="#fig51">51</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 368px;"> +<a name="fig57" id="fig57"></a> +<img src="images/agr102.jpg" width="368" height="450" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 57.—Italian Gothic Window, with Tracery in the Head. +(13th Century.)</p> + +<p>The flatness of the roofs, which the Italians never +abandoned, was always found difficult to reconcile with +the Gothic tendency to height and steepness. In many +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>136]</a></span> +cases, the sharp pitched gables which the buildings display, +are only masks, and do not truly denote the pitch of the +roofs behind them. In other instances the walls finish with +a horizontal parapet, plain or ornamental, quite concealing +the roof. In the roofs of their campaniles, however, the +Gothic architects of Italy were usually happy; they +almost always adopted a steep conical terminal, with or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>137]</a></span> +without pinnacles, which is very telling against the sky; +even if its junction with the tower is at times clumsy.</p> + +<p>The brightness of southern suns prevented the adoption +of the great windows, adapted to masses of stained glass, +which were the ambition of northern architects in the +fourteenth century; and the tenacity with which a love for +squareness of effect and for strongly-marked horizontal +lines of various sorts retained its hold, tended to keep +Italian Gothic buildings essentially different from those of +northern nations; but the love of colour, the command of +precious materials, and of fine sculpture, the passion for +beauty and for a decorative richness, and the artistic taste +of the Italians, display themselves in these buildings in a +hundred ways: all this lends to them a charm such as few +works of the middle ages existing elsewhere can surpass.</p> + + +<h3><a name="chap08a" id="chap08a"></a>SPAIN.—CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.</h3> + +<p>An early, middle, and late period can be distinguished +in dealing with Spanish Gothic. The first period reaches +to the first quarter of the thirteenth century, the second +occupies the remainder of the thirteenth and the fourteenth +centuries, the third completes the fifteenth and runs on into +part of the sixteenth.</p> + +<p>The early style is one of much purity and dignity, and is +developed directly from the Romanesque of the country. +The cathedral of St. Iago di Compostella, a fine cruciform +church of round-arched Gothic, with a magnificent western +portal,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> recalling the great lateral porches at Chartres, is an +early and fine example. Like other churches of the type +in Spain, it is far plainer inside than out, but it is vaulted +throughout.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>138]</a></span> +The cathedral of Zamora, and those of Tarragona and +Salamanca must also be referred to. In each of these, the +most thoroughly Spanish feature is a dome, occupying the +crossing of the nave and transepts, and apparently better +developed than those in early German churches or in +Italian ones. It is called in Spanish the <i>cimborio</i>. This +feature was constructed so as to consist of an inner dome, +decorated by ribs thrown over the central space, and carried +by pendentives; having above it a separate outer dome +somewhat higher and often richly decorated. This feature +unfortunately disappeared when the French designs of the +thirteenth century began to be the rage. A peculiarity of +plan, however, which was retained throughout the whole +Gothic period in Spain, is to be found in the early churches; +it consists of an inclosure for the choir quite in the body +of the church, and often west of the transepts,—in such +a position, in fact, as the choir at Westminster Abbey +occupies. A third peculiarity is the addition of an outer +aisle, not unlike the arcade of a cloister, to the side walls +of the churches, possibly with a view of protecting them +from heat.</p> + +<p>With the thirteenth century a strong passion for churches, +closely resembling those being erected in France at the +same time, set in, as has just been remarked. Accordingly +the cathedrals of Toledo, Burgos, and Leon, approach +very closely to French types. Toledo is very large, five +aisled, and with a vast chevet. Its exterior is unfinished, +but the dignity of its fine interior may be well understood +from the illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig58">58</a>) here given. Burgos is not so +ambitious in size as Toledo, but has a florid exterior of late +architecture with two lofty, open-traceried spires, like Strasburg +and other German examples. Leon is remarkable for +its lofty clerestory. Spanish Gothic may be said to have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"><!-- original location of Fig. 58 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>140]</a></span> +culminated in the vast cathedral at Seville (begun 1401), +claiming to be of greater extent than any Gothic cathedral +in the world, larger, therefore, than Milan or Cologne. It +stands on the site of a mosque, and has never been completed +externally. The interior is very imposing and rich, +but when it is stated that it was not completed till 1520, +it may be readily understood that many of the details are +very late, and far from the purity of earlier examples.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 395px;"> +<a name="fig58" id="fig58"></a> +<img src="images/agr103.jpg" width="395" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 58.—The Cathedral at Toledo. Interior. (Begun 1227.)</p> + +<p>In the fourteenth century an innovation, of which French +architects immediately north of the Pyrenees were also +availing themselves, found favour in Barcelona. The great +buttresses by which the thrust of the vaults was met were +brought inside the boundary walls of the church, and were +made to serve as division walls between a series of side +chapels. Both here and at Manresa and Gerona, cathedrals +were built, resembling in construction that at Alby, in +Southern France; in these this arrangement was carried a +step further, and the side aisles were suppressed, leaving +the whole nave to consist of a very bold vaulted hall, +fringed by a series of side chapels, which were separated +from each other by the buttresses which supported the main +vault. These large vaults, however, when bare of decoration, +as most of the Spanish vaults are, appear bald and poor +in effect, though they are grand objects structurally.</p> + +<p>The Gothic work of the latest period in Spain became +extraordinarily florid in its details, especially in the variety +introduced into the ribs of the vaulting and the enrichments +generally. The great cathedrals of Segovia and +Salamanca were neither of them begun till the sixteenth +century had already well set in. They are the two principal +examples of this florid Gothic.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 363px;"> +<a name="fig59" id="fig59"></a> +<img src="images/agr104.jpg" width="363" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 59.—The Giralda at Seville. (Begun in 1196. Finished in 1538).</p> + +<p>It will not be forgotten that the country we are now +considering was fully occupied by the Moors, and that they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"><!-- original location of Fig. 59 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>142]</a></span> +left in Southern Spain buildings of great merit. A certain +number of Christian churches exist built in a style which +has been called Moresco, as being a kind of fusion of +Moorish and Gothic. The towers of these churches bear a +close resemblance to the Saracenic towers of which the +beautiful bell-tower, called the Giralda, at Seville (Fig. <a href="#fig59">59</a>) +is the type; with this and similar examples in the country +it is not surprising that at Toledo, Saragoza, and other +places, towers of the same character should be erected +as parts of churches in which the architecture throughout +is as much Saracenic as Christian.</p> + +<p>To many of these great churches, cloisters, and monastic +buildings, which are often both extensive and of a high +order of architectural excellence, are attached. The secular +buildings, of Spain in the Gothic period are, on the other +hand, neither numerous nor remarkable.</p> + + +<h3><a name="chap08b" id="chap08b"></a>PORTUGAL.</h3> + +<p>The architecture of Portugal has been very little investigated. +The great church at Batalha<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> is probably the +most important in the country. This building, though +interesting in plan, is more remarkable for a lavish amount +of florid ornament, of which our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig60">60</a>) +may furnish some idea, than for really fine architecture. +The conventual church at Belem, near Lisbon, a work of +the beginning of the sixteenth century, and equally +florid, is another of the small number of specimens of +Portuguese Gothic of which descriptions or illustrations +have been published.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> +An illustration of such a campanile will be found in that belonging +to the Cathedral of Siena (Fig. <a href="#fig52">52</a>).</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> +See <a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> +For an explanation of this term, see <i>ante</i>, Chapter <a href="#chap05">V.</a>, page <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> +A cast of this portal is at the South Kensington Museum.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> +See <i>Sculptures of the Monastery at Batalha</i>, published by the +Arundel Society.</p> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>143]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/agr004.jpg" width="500" height="183" +alt="Crête from Notre Dame, Paris" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="chap09" id="chap09"></a>CHAPTER IX.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="vsmlfont">GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE.</span></h2> + + +<h3>PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN.</h3> + +<h4><i>Materials and Construction.</i></h4> + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE Gothic architects adhered, at any rate till the +fifteenth century, to the use of very small stones in +their masonry. In many buildings of large size it is hard +to find any stone heavier than two men can lift. Bad +roads and the absence of good mechanical means of +hoisting and moving big blocks led to this.</p> + +<p>The mortar, though good, is not equal to the Roman. As +a rule in each period mortar joints are thick. They are +finest in the fifteenth century.</p> + +<p>The masonry of all important features of the building +is always good; it is often a perfect marvel of dexterity +and skill as well as of beauty.</p> + +<p>The arts of workers in other materials, such as carpenters, +joiners, smiths, and plumbers were carried to great +perfection during the Gothic period.</p> + +<p>The appropriate ornamental treatment which each material +is best fitted to receive was invariably given to it, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>144]</a></span> +and forms appropriate to one material were very rarely +copied in others. For example, whenever wrought iron, a +material which can be beaten and welded, or rivetted, was +employed, those ornamental forms were selected into which +hot iron can with ease be beaten, and such groups of those +forms were designed as can be obtained by welding or by +rivetting them together.</p> + +<p>Wood, on the other hand, cannot be bent with ease, but +can be readily cut, drilled with holes, notched and carved; +accordingly, where wood had to be treated ornamentally, +we only find such forms as the drill, the chisel, the saw, or +the gouge readily and naturally leave behind them.</p> + +<p>Again, the mode into which wood can be best framed +together was carefully considered from a constructional +point of view, and mediæval joiners’ work is always first so +designed as to reduce the damage from shrinkage to the +smallest amount possible; and the pieces of which it is +composed are then appropriately ornamented, moulded, or +carved.</p> + +<p>Stone is now always, at least in this country, worked by +being first squared and then worked-down or “sunk” +from the squared faces to the mouldings required, and this +procedure seems to have been common, though not quite +universal, in the Middle Ages. Consequently we usually find +the whole of the external mouldings with which the doorways +and arcades of important buildings were enriched, +designed so as to be easily formed out of stones having +squared faces, or, to use the technical phrase, to be “sunk” +from the squared blocks.</p> + +<p>The character of sculpture in wood differs from that in +stone, the material being harder, more capable of standing +alone; so in stone we find more breadth, in wood finer lines +and more elaboration.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>145]</a></span> +In a word, no material was employed in simulating +another (or with the rarest exceptions), and when any +ornament was to be executed in one place in one material +and in another place in a different one, such alterations +were always made in the treatment as corresponded to the +different qualities of the two materials.</p> + +<p>The arch was introduced whenever possible, and the +structure of a great Gothic building presents the strongest +possible contrast to that of a Greek building.</p> + +<p>In the Greek temple there was no pressure that was not +vertical and met by a vertical support, wall, or column, and +no support that was not vastly in excess of the dimensions +actually required to do the work.</p> + +<p>A great Gothic building attains stability through the +balanced counterpoise of a vast series of pressures, oblique, +perpendicular, or horizontal, so arranged as to counteract +each other. The vault was kept from spreading by the +flying buttress, the thrust of the arcade was resisted by +massive walls, and so on throughout.</p> + +<p>The equilibrium thus obtained was sometimes so ticklish +that a storm of wind, a trifling settlement, or a slight concussion +sufficed to occasion a disaster; and many of the +daring feats of the masons of the Middle Ages are lost to +us, because they dared a little too much and the entire +structure collapsed. This happened more often in the +middle period of the style than in the earliest, but during +the whole Gothic period there is a constant uniform +tendency in one direction: thinner walls, wider arches, +loftier vaults, slenderer buttresses, slighter piers, confront +us at every step, and we need only compare some Norman +structure (such as Durham), with a perpendicular (such +as Henry VII.’s Chapel), to see how vast a change took +place in this respect.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>146]</a></span></p> + +<h4><i>The Principles of Gothic Design.</i></h4> + +<p>All the germs of Gothic architecture exist in the Romanesque +of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and became +developed as the passion for more slender proportions, +greater lightness, and loftiness of effect, and more delicate +enrichment became marked. It is quite true that the +pointed arch is universally recognised as, so to speak, the +badge of Gothic, even to the extent of having suggested the +title of Christian pointed architecture, by which it is often +called. But the pointed arch must be regarded rather as a +token that the series of changes, which, starting from the +heavy if majestic Romanesque of such a cathedral as Peterborough, +culminated in the gracefulness of Salisbury or +Lincoln, was far advanced towards completion, than as really +essential to their perfection. Many of the examples of +the transition period exhibit the round arch blended with +the pointed (<i>e.g.</i> the nave of St. David’s Cathedral or the +Choir of Canterbury), and when we come to consider German +architecture we shall find that the adoption of the pointed +arch was postponed till long after the development of all, or +almost all, the other features of the Gothic style; so as to +place beyond question the existence, in that country at +least, of “round arched Gothic.” Some of the best authorities +have indeed proposed to employ this title as a designation +for much, if not all, the round arched architecture +of the west of Europe, but Scott, Sharpe, and other +authorities class mediæval art down to the middle of the +twelfth century under the general head of Romanesque, +a course which has been adopted in this volume.</p> + +<p>The proportions of Gothic buildings were well studied, +their forms were always lofty, their gables sharp, and their +general composition more or less pyramidal. Remarkable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>147]</a></span> +numerical relations between the dimensions of the different +parts of a great Gothic cathedral can be discovered upon +careful examination in most, if not all instances, and there +can be little doubt that a system of geometrical proportions +ran through the earlier design, and that much of the +harmony and beauty which the buildings present is traceable +to this fact. Independent of this the skill with which +subordinate features and important ones are fitted to their +respective positions, both by their dimensions and by their +relative elaboration or plainness, forms a complete system +of proportion, making use of the word in its broadest sense; +and the results are extremely happy.</p> + +<p>Apparent size was imparted to almost every Gothic +building by the smallness, great number, and variety of +its features, and by the small size of the stones employed. +The effect of strength is generally, though not perhaps +so uniformly, also obtained, and dignity, beauty, and +harmony are rarely wanting.</p> + +<p>Symmetry, though not altogether overlooked, has but a +slender hold upon Gothic architects. It is far more +observed in the interior than in the exterior of the buildings; +but it must be remembered that symmetry formed the +basis of many designs which, owing to the execution having +been carried on through a long series of years and by +different hands, came to be varied from the original intentions. +Thus, for example, Chartres is a cathedral with +two western towers. One of these was carried up and its +spire completed in the twelfth century. The companion +spire was not added till the end of the fifteenth, when +men’s ideas as to the proportions, shape, ornaments, and +details of a spire had altered entirely;—the later architect +did not value symmetry enough to think himself bound to +adhere either to the design or to the height of the earlier +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>148]</a></span> +spire, so we have in this great façade two similar flanking +towers but spires entirely unlike. What happened +at Chartres happened elsewhere. The original design of +buildings was in the main symmetrical, but it was never +considered that symmetry was a matter so important as to +require that much sacrifice should be made to preserve it.</p> + +<p>On the other hand the subordination of a multitude of +small features to one dominant one enters largely into the +design of every good Gothic building; with the result that +if the great governing feature or mass has been carried out +in its entirety, almost any feature, no matter how irregular +or unsymmetrical, may be safely introduced, and will only +add picturesqueness and piquancy to the design. This is +more or less a leading principle of Gothic design. A building +with no irregularities, none of those charming additions +which add individual character to Gothic churches, and +none of the isolated features which the principle of subordination +permits the architect to employ, has missed one +of the chief qualities of the style. It is here that unskilled +architects mostly fail when they attempt Gothic designs; +they either hold on to symmetry as though they were +designing a Greek temple, and they are unaware that the +spirit of the style in which they are trying to work not +only permits, but requires some irregular features; or if +they do not fall into this error they are overtaken by the +opposite one, and omit to make their irregular features subordinate +to the general effect of the whole, an error less +serious in its effects than the other, but still destructive of +anything like the highest qualities in a building.</p> + +<p>Repetition, like symmetry, is recognised by Gothic +architecture, but not adhered to in a rigid way. No +buildings gain more from the repetition of parts than +Gothic churches and cathedrals; the series of pillars or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>149]</a></span> +piers and arches inside, the series of buttresses and +windows outside, add scale to the general effect. But so +long as it was in the main a series of features which +broadly resembled one another, the Gothic architect was +satisfied, and did not feel bound to exact repetition.</p> + +<p>We are often, for example, surprised to find in the +columns of a church an octagonal one alternating with a +circular one, and almost invariably, if a series of capitals +be examined, each will be discovered to differ from the +others to some extent. In one bay of a church there may +be a two-light window, and in the next a three-light +window, and so on.</p> + +<p>This we find in buildings erected at one time and under +one architect. Where, however, a building begun at one +period was continued at another (and this, it must be +remembered, was the rule, not the exception, with all large +Gothic buildings), the architect, while usually repeating the +same features, with the same general forms, invariably +followed his own predilections as to detail. There is a +very good example of this in Westminster Abbey, in the +western bays of the nave, which were built years later +than the eastern bays. They are, to a superficial observer, +identical, being of the same height and width and shape +of arch, but nearly every detail differs.</p> + +<p>Disclosure, rather than concealment, was a principle of +Gothic design. This was demonstrated long ago by Pugin, +and many of his followers pushed the doctrine to such +extremes, that they held—and some of them still hold—that +no building is really Gothic in which any part, either +of its construction or arrangement, is not obviously visible +inside and out.</p> + +<p>This is, however, carrying the principle too far. It is +sufficient to say that the interior disposition of every Gothic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>150]</a></span> +building was as much as possible disclosed by the exterior. +Thus, in a secular building, where there is a large room, +there usually was a large window; when a lofty apartment +occurs, its roof was generally proportionately high; where +a staircase rises, we usually can detect it by a sloping row +of little windows following the line of the stair, or by a +turret roof.</p> + +<p>The mode in which the thrust of vaults is counterpoised +is, as has been shown, frankly displayed by the Gothic +architects, and as a rule, every portion of the structure is +freely exhibited. It grows out of this, that when an ornamental +feature is desired, it is not constructed purely for +ornament, as the Romans added the columns and cornices +of the orders to the outside of their massive walls purely +as an architectural screen; but some requisite, of the building +is taken and ornamented, and in some cases elaborated. +Thus the belfry grew into the enormous bell tower; the +tower roof grew into the spire; the extra weight required +on flying buttresses grew into the ornamental pinnacle; +and the window head grew into tracery.</p> + +<p>There were, however, some exceptions. The walls were +still constantly faced with finer masonry than in the +heart, and though some are unwilling to admit the fact, +were often plastered outside as well as in; and what is +more remarkable, no other sign of the vault appeared +outside the building than the buttresses required to +sustain it.</p> + +<p>The external gable conforms to the shape of the roof +which covered the vault, but the vault, perhaps the most +remarkable and characteristic feature of the whole building, +does not betray its presence by any external line or +mark corresponding to its position and shape in the interior +of the building. Notwithstanding these and some other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"><!-- original location of Fig. 60 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>152]</a></span> +exceptions, frank disclosure must be reckoned one of the +main principles of Gothic architecture.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 404px;"> +<a name="fig60" id="fig60"></a> +<img src="images/agr105.jpg" width="404" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 60.—Doorway from Church at Batalha. (Begun 1385.)</p> + +<p>Elaboration and simplicity were both so well known to +the Gothic architect that it is difficult to say that either +of these qualities belongs exclusively to his work. But +he was rarely simple when he had the opportunity of +being elaborate, and simplicity was perhaps rather forced +upon him by the circumstances under which he worked, by +rude materials, scanty funds, and lack of skilled workmen, +than freely chosen. Many of the great works of the Gothic +period are as elaborate as they could be made (Fig. <a href="#fig60">60</a>), +and yet, when simplicity had to be the order of the day, +no architecture has lent it such a grace as Gothic.</p> + +<p>The last pair of qualities is similarity and contrast. +What has been said about repetition has anticipated the +remarks called for by these qualities, so far as to point out +that even where the arrangement of the building dictated +the repetition of similar features, a general resemblance, and +not an exact similarity, was considered sufficient. In the +composition of masses of building, contrast and not similarity +was the ruling principle. Even in the interiors of +great churches which, as a rule, are far more regular than +the exteriors, the contrast between the comparative plainness +of the nave and the richness of the choir was an +essential element of design.</p> + +<p>External design in Gothic buildings depends almost +entirely upon contrast for its power of charming the +eye, and it is this circumstance which has left the successive +generations of men who toiled at our great Gothic +cathedrals so free to follow the bent of their own taste +in their additions, rather than that of their forerunners.</p> + +<p>But setting aside the irregularities due to the caprice of +various builders, and the constant changes which took place +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>153]</a></span> +in detail through the Gothic period, it is to contrast that +we must trace most of the surprising effects attained by the +architecture of the Middle Ages. The rich tracery was +made richer by contrast with plain walls, the loftiest towers +appeared higher from their contrast with the long level +lines of roofs and parapets.</p> + +<p>It is, in truth, one of the principal marks of the decadence +which began in the fifteenth century that the +principle of contrast was, to a considerable extent, abandoned, +at least in the details of the buildings if not in +their great masses. Walls were at that time panelled in +imitation of the tracery of the adjoining windows, and no +longer acted as a foil to them by their solid plainness; +long rows of pinnacles, all exactly alike, followed the line +of the parapets, and a repetition of absolutely identical +features became the rule for the first time in the history of +Gothic art.</p> + +<p>There can be no doubt that had this modification run its +natural course unchecked and undisturbed by the change +in taste which abruptly brought the Gothic period to a +close, it must have resulted in the deterioration of the +art.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 350px;"> +<a name="tail04" id="tail04"></a> +<img src="images/agr106.jpg" width="350" height="122" +alt="Sculptured ornament from Rheims Cathedral" /> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>154]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="head06" id="head06"></a> +<img src="images/agr107.jpg" width="500" height="146" +alt="Renaissance ornament from a frieze" /> +</div> + +<p class="center xlrgfont padtop padbase">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE.</p> + +<h2><a name="chap10" id="chap10"></a>CHAPTER X.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="vsmlfont">GENERAL VIEW.</span></h2> + +<p><span class="dropcap">G</span>OTHIC architecture had begun, before the close of the +fifteenth century, to show marks of decadence, and +men’s minds and tastes were ripening for a change. The +change, when it did take place, arose in Italy, and was a direct +consequence of that burst of modern civilisation known as +the revival of letters. All the characteristics of the middle +ages were rapidly thrown off. The strain of old Roman +blood in the modern Italians asserted itself, and almost at +a bound, literature and the arts sprang back, like a bow +unstrung, into the forms they had displayed fifteen hundred +years before.</p> + +<p>It became the rage to read the choice Greek and Latin +authors, and to write Latin with a pedantic purity. Can +we wonder that in painting, in sculpture, and in architecture, +men reverted to the form, the style, and the decorations +of the antique compositions, statues, and architectural +remains? This was the more easy in Italy, as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>155]</a></span> +Gothic art had never at any time taken so firm a hold +upon Italians as it had upon nations north of the Alps.</p> + +<p>Though, however, the details and forms employed were +all Roman, or Græco-Roman, they were applied to buildings +essentially modern, and used with much freedom +and spirit. This revival of classic taste in art is commonly +and appropriately called Renaissance. In Italy it +took place so rapidly that there was hardly any transition +period. Brunelleschi, the first great Renaissance architect, +began his work as early as the middle of the fifteenth +century, and his buildings, in which classic details of great +severity and purity are employed, struck, so to speak, a +keynote which had been responded to all over Italy before +the close of the fifteenth century.</p> + +<p>To other countries the change spread later, and it found +them less prepared to welcome it unreservedly. Accordingly, +in France, in England, and in many parts of Germany, we +find a transition period, during which buildings were designed +in a mixed style. In England, the transition lasted +almost through the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p>As the century went on, a most picturesque and telling +style, the earlier phases of which are known as Tudor +and the later as Elizabethan, sprang up in England. It +betrays in its mixture of Gothic and classic forms great +incongruities and even monstrosities; but it allows unrestrained +play for the fancies, and the best mansions +and manors of the time, such as Hatfield, Hardwick, +Burleigh, Bramshill, and Audley End, are unsurpassed in +their picturesqueness and romantic charm.</p> + +<p>The old red-brick, heavily chimneyed, and gabled buildings, +with their large windows divided by bold mullions +and transoms, and their simple noble outlines, are familiar +to us all, and so are their characteristic features. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>156]</a></span> +great hall with its oriel or its bay, the fine plastered ceiling, +supported by heavy beams of timber; the wide oak +staircase, with its carved balusters, and ornamented newel +post, and heavy-moulded handrail; the old wainscoted +parlour, with its magnificent chimney-piece reaching to +the ceiling; these are all essentially English features, +and are full of vigour and life, as indeed the work of +every period of transition must almost necessarily prove.</p> + +<p>The transitional period in France produced exquisite +works more refined and elegantly treated than ours, but not +so vigorous. Its manner is known as the François Premier +(Francis I.) style. No modern buildings are more profusely +ornamented, and yet not spoilt.</p> + +<p>In Germany, the Castle of Heidelberg may be named +as a well-known specimen of the transition period, a period +over which however we must not linger. Suffice it to say, +that sooner or later the change was fully accomplished in +every European country, and Renaissance architecture, +modified as climate, materials, habits, or even caprice suggested, +yet the same in its essential characteristics, obtained +a firm footing: this it has succeeded in retaining, though +not to the exclusion of other styles, for now nearly three +centuries.</p> + +<p>In Italy, Renaissance churches, great and small—from +St. Peter’s downwards—and magnificent secular buildings, +some, like the Vatican Palace or the Library of St. Mark +at Venice, for public purposes, but most for the occupation +of the great wealthy and princely families, abound in +Naples, Rome, Florence, Genoa, Venice, Milan, and indeed +every great city.</p> + +<p>In France, the transition period was succeeded by a +time when vast undertakings, <i>e.g.</i> the Hôtel de Ville, +the Louvre, the Tuileries, Versailles, were carried out +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>157]</a></span> +in the revived style with the utmost magnificence, and +were imitated in every part of the country in the structures +greater or smaller which were then built.</p> + +<p>In England, the works of Inigo Jones, and of Wren, are +the most famous works of the developed style, and to the +last-named architect we owe a cathedral second to none in +Europe for its beauty of outline, and play of light and +shade. To Germany, and the countries of the north-east +Europe, and to Spain and Portugal on the south, the style +also extended with no very great modification, either of its +general forms or of its details.</p> + + +<h3>ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS.</h3> + +<h4><i>Plan.</i></h4> + +<p>The plan of Renaissance buildings was uniform and +symmetrical, and the picturesqueness of the Gothic times +was abandoned. The plans of churches were not widely +different from those in use in Italy before the revival of +classic art took place, but it will be remembered that these +were by no means so irregular or picturesque at any time +as the plans of French and English cathedral churches.</p> + +<p>In secular architecture, the vast piles erected in the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by Italian, French, and +Spanish architects are to the last degree orderly in their +disposition. They are adapted to a great variety of purposes, +and they display a varying degree of skill. The +palaces of Genoa are, on the one hand, among the cleverest +examples of planning existing; on the other hand, many +of the palaces in France are weak and poor to the last degree. +As a rule the scale of the plan is more considerable than in +Gothic work. A very large building is often not divided +into more parts than a small one, or one of moderate size. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>158]</a></span> +In St. Peter’s, for example, there are only four bays between +the west front and the dome, everything being on a most +gigantic scale. As a contrast to this principle we may cite +the nave of the Gothic cathedral at Milan, which is not so +long at St. Peter’s, but has at least thrice as many bays, and +looks much larger in consequence.</p> + +<p>No style affords more room for skill in planning than the +Renaissance, and in no style is the exercise of such skill +more repaid by results.</p> + + +<h4><i>Walls and Columns.</i></h4> + +<p>In the treatment of external walls, the mediæval use +of small materials, involving many joints for the exterior +of walls has quite disappeared, and they are universally +faced with stone or plaster, and are consequently uniformly +smooth. Perhaps the principal feature to note is the very +great use made of that elaborate sort of masonry in which +the joints of the stones are very carefully channelled or +otherwise marked, and which is known by the singularly +inappropriate name of rustic work. The basements of +most Italian and French palaces are rusticated, and in +many cases (as the Pitti Palace, Florence) rustic work +covers an entire façade.</p> + +<p>The Gothic mouldings in receding planes disappear +entirely, and the classic architrave takes their place. The +orders are again revived and are used (as the Romans often +used them) as purely decorative features added for the mere +sake of ornament to a wall sufficient without them, and are +freely piled one upon the other. Palladio (a very influential +Italian architect) reproduced the use of lofty pilasters +running through two or even more storeys of the building, +and often combined one tall order and two short ones +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>159]</a></span> +in his treatment of the same part of the building, a contrivance +which in less clever hands than his has given rise to +the greatest confusion.</p> + +<p>The Renaissance architects also revived the late +Roman manner of employing the column and entablature. +They frequently carried on the top of a column a little +square pier divided up as the architrave and frieze proper +to the column would be divided, and they surmounted it +with a cornice which was carried quite round this pier, and +from this curious compound pedestal an arch will frequently +spring. The classic portico, with pediments, was constantly +employed by them; and small pediments over window heads +were common. A peculiarity worth mention is the +introduction in many Italian palaces of a great crowning +cornice, proportioned not to the size of the columns and of +the order upon which it rests (if an order be employed), +but to the height of the whole building. Much fine +effect is obtained by means of this feature; it is, however, +better fitted for sunny Italy than for gloomy England, and +it is not an unmixed success when repeated in our climate.</p> + +<p>Towers are less frequently employed than by the Gothic +architects, and indeed in Italy the sky-line was less thought +of at this period than it was in the middle ages. In +churches, towers sometimes occur, nowhere more picturesque +than those designed by Sir Christopher Wren for many of +his London parish churches. The frequent use of the dome +takes the place of the tower both in churches and secular +buildings.</p> + + +<h4><i>Openings.</i></h4> + +<p>Openings are both flat-headed and semicircular, occasionally +elliptical, but hardly ever pointed. Renaissance +buildings may be to some extent divided into those which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>160]</a></span> +depend for effect upon window openings, and those which +depend chiefly upon architectural features such as cornices, +pilasters, and orders. Among the buildings where fenestration +(or the treatment of windows) is relied upon the +palaces of Venice stand pre-eminent as compositions +admirably designed for effect and very successful. In them +the openings are massed near the centre of the façade, and +strong piers are left near the angles, a simple expedient +when once known, and one inherited from the Gothic +palaces in that city, but giving remarkable individuality +of character to this group of buildings.</p> + +<p>In roofs, including vaults and domes, we meet with a +divergence of practice between Italy and France. In +Italy low-pitched roofs were the rule: the parapet alone +often formed the sky-line, and the dome and pediment +are usually the only telling features of the outline. +France, on the other hand, revived a most picturesque +feature of Gothic days, namely, the high-pitched roof, employing +it in the shape commonly known as the Mansard<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> +roof. Nothing adds more to the effectiveness of the great +French Renaissance buildings than these lofty terminals.</p> + +<p>The dome is, however, the glory of this style, as it had +been of the Roman. It is the one feature by which revived +and original classic architects retain a clear and defined +advantage over Gothic architects, who, strange to say, all +but abandoned the dome. The mouldings and other +ornaments of the Renaissance are much the same as those +of the Roman style, which the Italians revived; their +sculptures and their mural decorations were all originally +drawn from classic sources. These, however, attained +very great excellence, and it is probable that such decorative +paintings as Raphael and his scholars executed in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>161]</a></span> +Rome, at Genoa, at Mantua, and elsewhere, far surpass +anything which the old Roman decorative artists ever +executed.</p> + + +<h4><i>Construction and Design.</i></h4> + +<p>The earlier Renaissance buildings are remarkable for +the great use which their architects made of carpentry, +as the most modern structures are for the use of wrought +and cast-iron construction. As regards carpentry, it is of +course true that all the woodwork of the classic periods, +and much of that done in the Gothic period, has perished, +either through decay or fire; but making every allowance +for this, we must still recognise a very great increase in the +employment of timber as an integral part of large structures. +Vaulted roofs for example are comparatively rare, +and domes, even when the inner dome is of brickwork +or masonry, have their outer envelope of carpentry. A +disuse of brick and rough masonry, or rather a constant +effort to conceal them from view, is a distinctive mark of +Renaissance work. The Roman method of facing rough +walls with fine stone was resorted to in the best buildings. +In humbler buildings plaster is employed.</p> + +<p>Renaissance architects made very free use of plaster. +Inside and out this material is utilised, not merely to +cover surfaces, but to form architectural features. Cornices, +panels, and enrichments of all kinds modelled in +plaster are constantly employed in the interior of rooms +and buildings. On the exterior we constantly find imitations +of similar architectural features proper to stone +executed in plaster and simulating stone; a short-sighted +practice which cannot be commended, and which has only +cheapness and convenience in its favour. There can be +no question of the fact that the features thus executed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>162]</a></span> +never equal those done in stone in their effectiveness, and +are far more liable to decay.</p> + +<p>Design in Renaissance buildings may be said to be +directed towards producing a telling result by the effect of +the buildings taken as a whole, rather than by the intricacy +or the beauty of individual parts; and herein lies one of the +great contrasts between Renaissance and Gothic architecture. +A Renaissance building which fails to produce an +impression as a whole is rarely felt to be successful. No +better example of this can be given than the straggling, +unsatisfactory Palace of Versailles, magnificent as it is in +dimensions and rich in treatment. To the production of a +homogeneous impression the arrangement of plan, the proportion +of storeys, the contrasts of voids and solids, and above +all the outline of the entire building, should be devoted.</p> + +<p>The general arrangement of buildings is usually strictly +symmetrical, one half corresponding to the other, and with +some well-defined feature to mark the centre. Of course +in very large buildings this does not occur, nor in the +nature of things can it often take place in the sides of +churches; but the individual features of such buildings, +and all those parts of them which permit of symmetry in +their arrangement, always display it.</p> + +<p>Proportion plays an important part in the design of +Renaissance buildings. The actual shape of openings, the +proportion which they bear to voids, the proportion of +storeys to one another; and, going into details, the proportions +which the different features—<i>e.g.</i>, cornice, and +the columns supporting it—should bear to one another, +have to be carefully studied. It is to the possession of +a keen sense of what makes a pleasing proportion and +one satisfactory to the eye, that the great architects +of Italy owed the greater part of their success.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>163]</a></span> +Renaissance architecture is so familiar in its general +features, and these have been so constantly repeated, that +we may not easily recognise the great need for skill and +taste which exists if they are to be designed so as to produce +the most refined effect possible. Many of the successful +buildings of the style owe their excellence to the great delicacy +and elegance of the mode in which the details have been +studied, rather than to the vigour and boldness with which +the masses have been shaped and disposed; and though grandeur +is the noblest quality of which the style is capable, +yet many more opportunities for displaying grace and +refinement than for attaining grandeur offer themselves, +and by nothing are the best works of the style so well +marked out as by the success with which those opportunities +have been grasped and turned to account.</p> + +<p>The concealment both of construction and arrangement +is largely practised in Renaissance buildings. Behind an +exterior wall filled by windows of uniform size and equally +spaced, rooms large and small, corridors, staircases, and other +features have to be provided for. This is completely in contrast +to the Gothic principle of displaying frankly on the +outside the arrangement of what is within; but it must be +remembered that art often works most happily and successfully +when limited by apparently strict and difficult +conditions, and these rules have not prevented the great +architects of the Renaissance from accomplishing works +where both the exterior and the interior are thoroughly +successful, and are brought into such happy harmony +that the difficulties have clearly been no bar to success. +There is no canon of art violated by such a method, the +simple fact being that Gothic buildings are designed +under one set of conditions and Renaissance under another.</p> + +<p>It is less easy to defend the use of pilasters and columns +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>164]</a></span> +large enough to appear as though they were the main +support of the building, for purely decorative purposes; +yet here perhaps the fault lies rather in the extent to +which the practice has been carried, and above all the +scale upon which it is carried out, than in anything else. +Small columns are constantly employed in Gothic buildings +in positions where they serve the æsthetic purpose of conveying +a sense of support, but where it is impossible for +them to carry any weight. The Renaissance architects +have done the same thing on a large scale, but it must not +be forgotten that they only revived a Roman practice as +part of the ancient style to which they reverted, and that +they are not responsible for originating it.</p> + +<p>It will be understood therefore that symmetry, strict +uniformity, not mere similarity, in features intended to +correspond, and constant repetition, are leading principles +in Renaissance architecture. These qualities tend to breadth +rather than picturesqueness of effect, and to similarity +rather than contrast. Simplicity and elaboration are both +compatible with Renaissance design; the former distinguishes +the earlier and purer examples of the style, the +latter those more recent and more grandiose.</p> + +<p>It should be observed that in the transition styles, such +as our own Elizabethan, or the French style of Francis the +First, these principles of design are mixed up in a very +miscellaneous way with those followed in the Gothic +period. The result is often puzzling and inconsistent if +we attempt to analyse it with exactness, but rarely fails +to charm by its picturesque and irregular vividness.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h3>FOOTNOTE:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> +Named after a French architect of the 17th century.</p> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>165]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="head07" id="head07"></a> +<img src="images/agr108.jpg" width="500" height="208" +alt="From a terra-cotta frieze at Lodi" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="chap11" id="chap11"></a>CHAPTER XI.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="vsmlfont">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY.</span></h2> + + +<p><span class="dropcap">R</span>ENAISSANCE architecture—the architecture of the +classic revival—had its origin in Italy, and should +be first studied in the land of its birth. There are +more ways than one in which it may be attempted to +classify Italian Renaissance buildings. The names of +conspicuous architects are sometimes adopted for this +purpose, for now, for the first time, we meet with a +complete record of the names and performances of all +architects of note: the men who raised the great works +of Gothic art are, with a few exceptions, absolutely unknown +to us. An approximate division into three stages +can also be recognised. There is an early, a developed, +and a late Renaissance, but this is very far indeed from +being a completely marked series, and was more interfered +with by local circumstances and by the character and +genius of individual artists than in Gothic. For this +reason a local division will be of most service. The best +examples exist in the great cities, with a few exceptions, +and it is almost more useful to group them—as the paintings +of the Renaissance are also often grouped—by locality +than in either of the other methods.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>166]</a></span></p> + +<h3>FLORENCE.</h3> + +<p>Renaissance architecture first sprang into existence in +Florence. Here chiefly the works of the early Renaissance +are met with, and the names of the great Florentine +architects are Brunelleschi and Alberti.</p> + +<p>Brunelleschi was a citizen of Florence, of very ardent +temperament and great energy, and a true artist. He was +born in 1377, was originally trained as a goldsmith and +sculptor, but devoted himself to the study of architecture, +and early set his heart upon being appointed to complete +the dome of the then unfinished cathedral of Florence, of +which some account has already been given.</p> + +<p>Florence in the fifteenth century was full of artistic +life, and the revival of learning and arts had then begun +to take definite shape. The first years of the century +found Brunelleschi studying antiquities at Rome, to fit +himself for the work he desired to undertake. After his +return to his native city, he ultimately succeeded in the +object of his ambition; the cathedral was entrusted to him, +and he erected the large pointed dome with which it is +crowned. He also erected two large churches in Florence, +which, as probably the first important buildings designed +and built in the new style, possess great interest. Santo +Spirito, one of these, shows a fully matured system of +architectural treatment, and though it is quite true that it +was a revived system, yet the application of it to a modern +building, different in its purpose and in its design from +anything the Romans had ever done, is little short of a +work of genius.</p> + +<p>Santo Spirito has a very simple and beautifully regular +plan, and its interior has a singular charm and grace: over +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>167]</a></span> +the crossing is raised a low dome. The columns of the +arcade are Corinthian columns, and the refinement of their +detail and proportions strikes the eye at once on entering +the building. The influence of Brunelleschi, who died in +1440, was perpetuated by the works and writings of +Alberti (born 1398) an architect of literary cultivation +who wrote a systematic treatise which became extremely +popular, and helped to form the taste and guide the practice +of his contemporaries. He lived till near the close of the +fifteenth century, and erected some buildings of great +merit. To Alberti we owe the design of the Ruccellai +Palace in Florence, a building begun in 1460, and which +had been preceded by somewhat bolder and simpler +designs. This is a three storey building, but has pilasters +carried up the piers between the windows and a regular +entablature and cornice<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> at each storey. The building is +elegant and graceful, and though the employment of the +orders<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> as its decoration gives it a distinctive character, it +bears a strong general resemblance to the group of which +the Strozzi Palace (Fig. <a href="#fig61">61</a>) may be taken as the type.</p> + +<p>The earliest Florentine palaces are the Riccardi, which +dates from 1430, and the Pitti of almost the same date; +Brunelleschi is said to have been consulted in the design of +both, but Michelozzo was the architect. The distinguishing +characteristic of the early palaces in this city is solidity, +which rises from the fact that they were also fortresses. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>168]</a></span> +The Pitti, well known for its picture gallery, is a building +of vast extent, built throughout in very boldly rusticated +masonry, the joints and projections of the stones being +greatly exaggerated. The Riccardi, a square block of +building, bears a considerable resemblance to the Strozzi, +but is plainer. It is a most dignified building in its effect.</p> + +<p>The Strozzi Palace (Fig. <a href="#fig61">61</a>) was the next great +palatial pile erected. It was designed by Cronaca, and +begun in 1498. Like the Riccardi, it is of three storeys, +with a bold projecting cornice. The whole wall is covered +with rusticated masonry; the windows of the lower floor +are small and square; those of the two upper floors are +larger and semicircular headed, and with a shaft acting +as a mullion, and carrying arches which occupy the window +head with something like tracery. The entrance is by a +semicircular headed archway. There is a great height of +unpierced wall in the lowest storey and above the heads of +the two upper ranges of windows; and to this and the +bold overhanging cornice, this building, and those like it, +owe much of their dignity and impressiveness. An elevation, +such as our illustration, may convey a fair idea of the +good proportion and ensemble of the front, but it is difficult +without actually seeing the buildings to appreciate the +effect produced by such palaces as these, seen foreshortened +in the narrow streets, and with the shadows from their +bold cornices and well-defined openings intensified by the +effect of the Italian sun.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig61" id="fig61"></a> +<img src="images/agr109.jpg" width="600" height="442" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 61.—Strozzi Palace at Florence. (Begun 1489.)</p> + +<p>Many excellent palatial buildings belong to the end of +the fifteenth century. One among them is attributed to +Bramante (who died 1513), a Florentine, whom we shall +meet with in Rome and elsewhere. The Guadagni Palace +has an upper storey entirely open, forming a sheltered +loggia, but it is mentioned here chiefly on account of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"><!-- original location of Fig. 61 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>170]</a></span> +decorations incised on its walls by the method known as +Sgraffito. Part of the plain wall is covered in this way +with decorative designs, which appear as though drawn +with a bold line on their surface. An example of this +decoration will be found in our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig62">62</a>), +representing a portion of the Loggia del Consiglio +at Verona.</p> + +<p>The series of great Florentine palaces closes with a +charming example, the Pandolfini, designed by the great +Raphael, and commenced in 1520—in other words, in the +first quarter of the sixteenth century.</p> + +<p>This palace is only one of many instances to be found in +Italy of the skill in more walks of art than one, of some of +the greatest artists. Raphael, though best known as a +painter, executed works of sculpture of great merit, and +designed some other buildings besides the one now under +notice. The Pandolfini Palace (Fig. <a href="#fig63">63</a>) is small, the main +building having only four windows in the front and two +storeys in height, with a low one-storey side building. +Its general design has been very successfully copied in the +Travellers’ Club House, Pall Mall. On comparing this +with any of the previously named designs, it will be seen +that the semicircular headed windows have disappeared, +the rusticated masonry is only now retained at the angles, +and to emphasise the side entrance; and a small order +with a little pediment (<i>i.e.</i> gable) is employed to mark +each opening, door or window. In short this building +belongs not only to another century, but to that advanced +school of art to which we have given the name of developed +Italian Renaissance.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 525px;"> +<a name="fig62" id="fig62"></a> +<img src="images/agr110.jpg" width="525" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 62.—Part of the Loggia del Consiglio at Verona. (16th Century.)<br /> +<span class="nosc">Showing the incised decoration known as <i>Sgraffito</i>.</span></p> + +<p>In Florence some of the work of Michelangelo is to be +met with. His own house is here; so is the famous Medici +chapel, a work in which we find him displaying power at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"><!-- original location of Fig. 62 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>172]</a></span> +once as a sculptor and an architect. This interior is very +fine and very studied both in its proportions and its details. +The church of the Annunziata, remarkable for a fine dome, +carried on a drum resting directly on the ground, is the +foremost Renaissance church in Florence.</p> + +<p>The contrast between early and matured Renaissance +can indeed be better recognised in Florence than in almost +any other city. The early work, that of Bramante, Brunelleschi, +and the architects who drew their inspirations +from these masters, was delicate and refined. The detail +was always elegant, the ornament always unobtrusive, and +often most graceful. Features comparatively small in +scale were employed, and were set off by the use of plain +wall-surface, which was unhesitatingly displayed. The +classic orders were used in a restricted, unobtrusive way, +and with pilasters in preference to columns; and though +probably the architects themselves would have repudiated +the idea that the Gothic art, which they had cast behind +them, influenced their practice of revived classic in the +remotest degree, it is nevertheless true that many of these +peculiarities, and still more the general quality of the +designs, were to a large extent those to which the practice +of Gothic architecture had led them.</p> + +<p>A change which was partly due to a natural desire for +progress, was helped on by the great attention paid by +students of architecture to the remains of ancient Roman +buildings; but it was the influence excited by the powerful +genius of Michelangelo, and by the gigantic scale and +vigorous treatment of his masterpiece, St. Peter’s, which +was the proximate occasion of a revolution in taste and +practice, to which, the labours, both literary and artistic, +of Vignola, and the designs of Palladio, gave form and +consistency. In the fully-developed, or, as it is sometimes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"><!-- original location of Fig. 63 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>174]</a></span> +called, pure Renaissance of Italy, great use is made of the +classic orders and pediment, and indeed of all the features +which the Romans had employed. Plain wall space almost +disappears under the various architectural features introduced, +and all ornaments, details, and mouldings become +bolder and richer, but often less refined and correct in +design.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig63" id="fig63"></a> +<img src="images/agr111.jpg" width="600" height="334" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 63.—The Pandolfini Palace, Florence. Designed by Raphael. (Begun 1520.)</p> + + +<h3>ROME.</h3> + +<p>Rome, the capital of the country, contains, as was fit, the +central building of the fully-developed Renaissance, St. +Peter’s. Bramante, the Florentine, was the architect to +whom the task of designing a cathedral to surpass anything +existing in Europe was committed by Pope Julius II. +at the opening of the sixteenth century. Some such project +had been entertained, and even begun, fifty years earlier, +but the enterprise was now started afresh, a new design +was made, and the first stone was laid by the Pope in +1506. Bramante died in some six or seven years, and five +or six architects in succession, one of whom was Raphael, +proceeded with the work, without advancing it rapidly, for +nearly half a century, during which time the design was +modified again and again. In 1546 the great Michelangelo +was appointed architect, and the last eighteen +years of his life were spent in carrying on this great work. +He completed the magnificent dome in all its essential +parts, and left the church a Greek cross (<i>i.e.</i> one which +has all its four arms equal) on plan, with the dome at the +crossing. The boast is attributed to him that he would +take the dome of the Pantheon and hang it in the air; +and this he has virtually accomplished in the dome of +St. Peter’s—a work of the greatest beauty of design and +boldness of construction.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>175]</a></span> +Unfortunately, at the beginning of the seventeenth +century, Maderno was employed to lengthen the nave. +This transformed the plan of the cathedral into a Latin +cross. The existing portico was built at the same time; +and in 1661 Bernini added the vast forecourt, lined by +colonnades, which now forms the approach.</p> + +<p>This cathedral, of which the history has been briefly +sketched, is the largest in the world. As we now see it, +it consists of a vast vestibule; a nave of four bays with +side aisles; a vast square central space over which hangs +the great dome; transepts and a choir, each of one bay and +an apse. Outside the great central space, an aisle, not +quite like the ordinary aisle of a church, exists, and there +are two side chapels. It can be well understood that if +the largest church in Christendom is divided into so few +parts, these must be themselves of colossal dimensions, and +the truth is that the piers are masses of masonry which can +be called nothing else than vast, while the spaces spanned by +the arches and vaults are prodigious. There is little sense +of mystery about the interior of the building (Fig. <a href="#fig64">64</a>), the +eye soon grasps it as a whole, and hours must be spent +in it before an idea of its gigantic size is at all taken in. +The beauty of the colouring adds wonderfully to the effect +of St. Peter’s upon the spectator, for the walls are rich +with mosaics and coloured marbles; and the interior, the +dome especially, with the drum upon which it rests, are +decorated in colour throughout, with fine effect and in +excellent taste. The interior is amply lighted, and, though +very rich, not over decorated; its design is simple and +noble in the extreme, and all its parts are wonderful +in their harmony. The connection between the dome and +the rest of the building is admirable, and there is a +sense of vast space when the spectator stands under that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>176]</a></span> +soaring vault which belongs to no other building in the +world.</p> + +<p>The exterior is disappointing as long as the building is +seen in front, for the façade is so lofty and advances so +far forward as to cut off the view of the lower part of the +dome. To have an idea of the building as Michelangelo +designed it, it is necessary to go round to the back; and +then, with the height of the drum fully seen and the contour +of the dome, with all its massy lines of living force, +carrying the eye with them right up to the elegant +lantern that crowns the summit, some conception of the +hugeness and the symmetry of this mountain of art seems +to dawn on the mind. But even here it is with the +utmost difficulty that one can apply any scale to the mass, +so that the idea which the mind forms of its bulk is continually +fluctuating.</p> + +<p>The history of this building extends over all the period +of developed Renaissance in Rome, and its list of architects +includes all the best known names. By the side of +it every other church, even St. John Lateran, appears +insignificant; so that the secular buildings in Rome, which +are numerous, and some of them excellent, are more worth +attention than the churches, though not a few of the three +hundred churches and basilicas of the metropolis of Italy +are good examples of Renaissance.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 408px;"> +<a name="fig64" id="fig64"></a> +<img src="images/agr112.jpg" width="408" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 64.—St. Peter’s at Rome. Interior. (1506-1661.)</p> + +<p>The altars, tombs, and other architectural or semi-architectural +works which occur in many of the churches +of Rome, are, however, finer works of art as a rule than +the buildings which they adorn. Such gems are not confined +to Rome, but are to be found throughout Italy: +many of them belong to the best period of art. Marble +is generally the material, and the light as a rule falls +on these works in one direction only. Under these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"><!-- original location of Fig. 64 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>178]</a></span> +circumstances the most subtle moulding gives a play of light +and shade, and the most delicate carving produces a richness +of effect which cannot be attained in exterior architecture, +executed for the most part in stone, exposed to the weather, +and seen by diffused and reflected light. Nothing of this +sort is finer than the monuments by Sansovino, erected in +Sta. Maria del Popolo at Rome, one of which we illustrate +on a small scale (Fig. <a href="#fig65">65</a>). The magnificent altar-piece in +Sta. Coronale at Vicenza, in which is framed Bellini’s +picture of the baptism of Christ, is another example, on +an unusually large scale—fine in style, and covered with +beautiful ornament.</p> + +<p>No secular building exists in Rome so early or so simple +as the severe Florentine palaces; but Bramante, who +belongs to the early period, erected there the fine Cancelleria +palace; and the Palazzo Giraud (Fig. <a href="#fig66">66</a>). These +buildings resemble one another very closely; each bears +the impress of refined taste, but delicacy has been carried +almost to timidity. The pilasters and cornices which are +employed have the very slightest projection, but the large +mass of the wall as compared with the openings, secures an +appearance of solidity, and hence of dignity. The interior +of the Cancelleria contains an arcaded quadrangle (<i>cortile</i>) +of great beauty. Smaller palaces belonging to the same +period and of the same refined, but somewhat weak, +character exist in Rome.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 389px;"> +<a name="fig65" id="fig65"></a> +<img src="images/agr113.jpg" width="389" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 65.—Monument, by Sansovino, in Sta. Maria del Popolo, +Rome. (15th Century.)</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 462px;"> +<a name="fig66" id="fig66"></a> +<img src="images/agr114.jpg" width="462" height="250" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 66.—Palazzo Giraud (now Torlonia), Rome. By Bramante. (1506.)</p> + +<p>The Vatican Palace is so vast that, like St. Peter’s, it +took more than one generation to complete. To Bramante’s +time belongs the great Belvedere, since much altered, but +in its original state an admirable work. This palace also +can show some remarkable additions by Bernini, a much +later architect, with much that is not admirable or remarkable +by other hands. The finest Roman palace is the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"><!-- original location of Fig. 65 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>180]</a></span> +Farnese, begun by San Gallo in 1530, continued by +Michelangelo, and completed by Giacomo della Porta, +each architect having altered the design. This building, +notwithstanding its chequered history, is a dignified, impressive +mass. It has only three storeys and a scarcely +marked basement, and is nearly square, with a large +quadrangle in its heart. It is very lofty, and has a great +height of unpierced wall over each storey of windows, +and is crowned by a bold and highly-enriched cornice—an +unusual thing for Rome. In this, and in many palaces +built about the same time, the windows are ornamented +in the same manner as those of the Pandolfini Palace at +Florence; the use of pilasters instead of columns is +general; the openings are usually square-headed, circular +heads being usually confined to arcades and loggie; the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>181]</a></span> +angles are marked by rustication, and the only cornice is +the one that crowns the whole. This general character +will apply to most of the works of Baldassare Peruzzi, +Vignola, Sangallo, and Raphael, who were, with Michelangelo, +the foremost architects in Rome in the sixteenth +century. But “the works executed by Michelangelo are +in a bolder and more pictorial style, as are also many +productions grafted on the earlier Italian manner by a +numerous class of succeeding architects. In these is to +be remarked a greater use of columns, engaged and isolated; +stronger but less studied details; and a greater +use of colonnades, in which however the combination with +the semicircular arch is still unusual, the antique in this +respect being followed to a great disadvantage. Still there +is a nobility, a palatial look about these large mansions +which is very admirable, and is to be remarked in all the +palaces, even up to the time of Borromini, <i>circa</i> 1640, by +whom all the principles and parts of Roman architecture +were literally turned topsy-turvey. Michelangelo’s peculiar +style was more thoroughly carried out on ecclesiastical +buildings, and as practised by his successors, exhibits much +that is fine, in large masses, boldly projecting cornices, +three-quarter columns, and noble domes; but it is otherwise +debased by great misconceptions as to the reasonable +application of architecture.”—<small>M. D. W.</small></p> + +<p>In the seventeenth century a decline set in. The late +Renaissance has neither the severity of the early, nor the +dignified richness of the mature time, but is extravagant; +though at Rome examples of its extreme phase are not +common. Maderno, who erected the west front of St. +Peter’s, and Bernini, who added the outer forecourt and +also built the curiously designed state staircase (the <i>scala +regia</i>) in the Vatican, are the foremost architects. To +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>182]</a></span> +these must be added Borromini. The great Barberini +Palace belongs to this century; but perhaps its most +characteristic works are the fountains, some of them with +elaborate architectural backgrounds, which ornament many +of the open places in Rome. Few of the buildings of the +eighteenth century in Rome, or indeed in Italy generally, +claim attention as architectural works of a high order +of merit.</p> + +<p>Before leaving central Italy for the north, it is necessary +to mention the masterpiece of Vignola—the great +Farnese Palace at Caprarola; and to add that in every +city of importance examples more or less admirable of the +art of the time were erected.</p> + + +<h3>VENICE, VICENZA, AND VERONA.</h3> + +<p>The next great group of Renaissance buildings is to be +found at Venice, where the style was adopted with some +reluctance, and not till far on in the sixteenth century. +At first we meet with some admixture of Gothic elements; +as, for example, in the rebuilding of the internal quadrangle +of the Ducal Palace. Pointed arches are partly +employed in this work, which was completed about the +middle of the sixteenth century. In the earlier palaces—which, +it will be remembered, are comparatively narrow +buildings standing side by side on the banks of the canals—the +storeys are well marked; the windows are round headed +with smaller arches within the main ones; the orders when +introduced are kept subordinate; the windows are grouped +together in the central portion of the front, as was the +case with those of the Gothic palaces, and very little use +is made of rusticated masonry. The Vendramini, Cornaro, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>183]</a></span> +and Trevisano Palaces conform to this type. To the same +period belong one or two fine churches, the most famous +being San Zacaria, a building with a very delicately +panelled front, and a semicircular pediment in lieu of a +gable; here, too, semicircular-headed openings are made +use of. In many of these churches and other buildings, +a beautiful ornament, which may be regarded as typical of +early Venetian Renaissance, is to be found. It is the +shell ornament, so called from its resemblance to a flat +semicircular shell, ribbed from the centre to the circumference +(Fig. <a href="#fig67">67</a>).</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 383px;"> +<a name="fig67" id="fig67"></a> +<img src="images/agr115.jpg" width="383" height="200" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 67.—Italian Shell Ornament.</p> + +<p>As time went on the style was matured into one of great +richness, not to say ostentation, with which the names of +Sansovino, Sanmichele, Palladio, and Scamozzi are identified +as the prominent architects of the latter part of the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In this city of +palaces Sansovino, also a very fine sculptor, built the celebrated +Library of St. Mark, facing the Ducal Palace, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>184]</a></span> +which has been followed very closely in the design of +the Carlton Club, Pall Mall. Here, as in the splendid +Cornaro Palace, the architect relied chiefly upon the +columns and entablatures of the orders, combined with +grand arcades enriched by sculpture, so arranged as to +occupy the spaces between the columns; almost the whole +of the wall-space was so taken up, and the basement only +was covered with rustication, often rough worked, as at +the beautiful Palazzo Pompeii, Verona, and the Grimani +Palace, Venice.</p> + +<p>“Sanmichele’s works are characterised chiefly by their +excellent proportions, their carefully studied detail, their +strength, and their beauty (qualities so difficult to combine). +We believe that the buildings of this great architect +and engineer at Verona are pre-eminent in their peculiar +style over those of any other artist of the sixteenth +century. In a different, but no less meritorious, manner +are the buildings designed by Sansovino; they are characterised +by a more sculptural and ornamental character; +order over order with large arched voids in the interspaces +of the columns producing a pictorial effect which might +have led his less gifted followers into a false style, but for +the example of the celebrated Palladio.”—<small>M. D. W.</small></p> + +<p>To the latest time of the Renaissance in Venice belongs +the picturesque domed church of St. Maria della Salute, +conspicuous in many views of the Grand Canal, a building +which is a work of real genius in spite of what is considered +its false taste. It dates from 1632. The architect +is Longhena.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 328px;"> +<a name="fig68" id="fig68"></a> +<img src="images/agr116.jpg" width="328" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 68.—The Church of the Redentore, Venice. (1576.)</p> + +<p>An almost endless series of palaces and houses can be +found in Venice, all of them rich, but few of great extent, +for every foot of space had to be won from the sea +by laborious engineering. There are some features which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>185]</a></span> +never fail to present themselves, and which are consequences +of the conditions under which the structures were +designed. All rise from the water, and require to admit +of gondolas coming under the walls; hence there is always +a principal central entrance with steps in front, but this +entrance never has any sort of projecting portico or porch, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>186]</a></span> +and is never very much larger than the other openings in +the front. As a straight frontage to the water had to be +preserved, we hardly ever meet with such a thing as a break +or projection of any sort; but the Venetian architects have +found other means of giving interest to their elevations, +and it is to the very restrictions imposed by circumstances +that we owe the great originality displayed in their earlier +buildings. The churches do not usually front directly on +to the water; and though they are almost all good of their +kind, they are far more commonplace than the palaces. +The system of giving variety to the façade of the secular +buildings by massing openings near the centre, has been +already referred to. Both shadow and richness were also +aimed at in the employment of projecting balconies; in fact +the two usually go together, for the great central window +or group of windows mostly has a large and rich balcony +belonging to it.</p> + +<p>Not far from Venice is Vicenza, and here Palladio, whose +best buildings in Venice are churches, such, for example, +as the Redentore (Fig. <a href="#fig68">68</a>), enjoyed an opportunity of +erecting a whole group of palaces, the fronts of which +are extremely remarkable as designs; though, being executed +in brick and plastered, they are now falling to ruin. +There is much variety in them, and while some of them +rely upon his device of lofty pilasters to include two storeys +of the building under one storey of architectural treatment, +others are handled differently. In all a singularly fine +feeling for proportion and for the appropriate omission as +well as introduction of ornament is to be detected. The +worst defect of these fronts is, however, that they appear +more like masks than the exteriors of buildings, for there +is little obvious connection between the features of the +exterior and anything which we may suppose to exist +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>187]</a></span> +inside the building. The finest architectural work left +behind by Palladio in this city are, however, the great +arcades with which he surrounded the Basilica, a vast +building of the middle ages already alluded to. These +arcades are two storeys high, and are rich, yet vigorous; +they ornament the great structure, the roof of which may +be seen rising behind, without overpowering it.</p> + + +<h3>MILAN AND PAVIA.</h3> + +<p>In Milan two buildings at least belong to the early +Renaissance. These are the sacristy of Sta. Maria presso +San Satiro, and the eastern portion of the church of Sta. +Maria delle Grazie; Bramante was the architect of both. +The last-named work is an addition to an existing Gothic +church; it is executed in the terra-cotta and brick of +Lombardy, materials which the Renaissance architects +seemed to shun in later times, and is full of the most +profuse and elegant ornaments. The design consists of a +dome, treated externally a little like some of the Lombard +domes of earlier date; and three apses forming choir and +transepts. It is divided into several stages, and abundantly +varied in its panelling and arcading, and is full of +vigour. By Bramante is also the very beautiful arcaded +quadrangle of the great hospital at Milan, the Gothic front +of which has been already noticed. There are many +Renaissance buildings of later date in Milan, but none +very remarkable.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 421px;"> +<a name="fig69" id="fig69"></a> +<img src="images/agr117.jpg" width="421" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 69.—The Certosa near Pavia. Part of the West Front. +(Begun by Borgognone 1473.)</p> + +<p>To the early period belongs the design of the façade of +the Certosa near Pavia, part of which is shown (Fig. <a href="#fig69">69</a>). +This was begun as early as 1473, by Ambrogio Borgognone, +and was long in hand. It proceeded on the lines settled thus +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188"><!-- original location of Fig. 69 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>189]</a></span> +early, and is probably the richest façade belonging to any +church in Christendom; it is executed entirely in marble. +Sculpture is employed to adorn every part that is near +the eye, and especially the portal, which is flanked by +pilasters with their faces panelled and occupied by splendid +<i>alti relievi</i>. The upper part is enriched by inlays of costly +marbles, but the two systems of decoration do not thoroughly +harmonise; for the upper half looks coarse, which it in +reality is not, in contrast with the delicate richness of the +carving near the eye. The great features, such as the +entrance, the windows, and the angle pinnacles are +thoroughly good, and an arcade of small arches is twice +introduced,—once running completely across the front at +about half its height, and again near the top of the +central portion,—with excellent effect (see <a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a>).</p> + + +<h3>GENOA, TURIN, AND NAPLES.</h3> + +<p>Turning now to Genoa we find, as we may in several +great cities of Italy, that very great success has been +achieved by an artist whose works are to be seen in no +other city, and whose fame is proportionally restricted. +Just as the power of Luini as a painter can only be fully +understood at Milan, or that of Giulio Romano at Mantua, +so the genius of Alessio (1500 to 1572) as an architect can +only be understood at Genoa. From the designs of this +architect were built a series of well planned and imposing +palaces. These buildings have most of them the advantage +of fine and roomy sites. The fronts are varied, but as a +rule consist of a very bold basement, with admirably-treated +vigorous mouldings, supporting a lighter superstructure, and +in one or two instances flanked by an open arcade at the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>190]</a></span> +wings. The entrance gives access, through a vaulted hall, +to the cortile, which is usually planned and designed in +the most effective manner; and in several instances the +state staircase is so combined with this feature that on +ascending the first flight the visitor comes to a point of +sight for which the whole may be said to have been +designed, and from which a splendid composition of +columns and arches is seen. The rooms and galleries in +these palaces are very fine, and in several instances have +been beautifully decorated in fresco by Perino del Vaga.</p> + +<p>Alessio was also the architect of a large domical church +(il Carignano) in the same city; but it is far inferior in +merit to his series of palaces. Genoa also possesses a +famous church (the Annunziata) of late Renaissance, +attributed to Puget (1622-1694). It is vaulted, and +enriched with marbles, mosaics, and colour to such an +extent that it may fairly claim to be the most gaudy church +in Italy, which is unfortunate, as its original undecorated +design is fine and simple.</p> + +<p>Turin in the north, and Naples in the south, are chiefly +remarkable for examples of the latest and more or less +debased Renaissance, and we therefore do not propose to +illustrate or describe any of the buildings in either city.</p> + + +<h3>COUNTRY VILLAS.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig70" id="fig70"></a> +<img src="images/agr118.jpg" width="600" height="397" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 70.—Villa Medici—On the Pincian Hill near Rome. By Annibale Lippi (now the <span class="nosc"><i>Académie Française</i></span>). (<small>A.D.</small> 1540.)</p> + +<p>As the ancient Roman patrician had his villa, which +was his country resort, the Italian of the revival followed +his example, and, if he was wealthy enough, built himself +a pleasure house, which he called a villa, either in the +immediate suburbs of his city, or at some little distance +away in the country. These buildings occur throughout +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191"><!-- original location of Fig. 70 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>192]</a></span> +Italy. Many of them are excellent examples of Renaissance +architecture of a more modest type than that of the +palaces. The Villa Papa Giulio, built from the designs of +Vignola, and the Villa Medici, designed by Annibale Lippi, +but attributed, for some unknown reason, to Michelangelo, +may be mentioned as among the most thoroughly architectural +out of some twenty or more splendid villas in the +suburbs of Rome alone. Many of these buildings were +erected late in the Renaissance period, and are better +worth attention for their fine decorations and the many +works of art collected within their walls than as architectural +studies—but this is not always the case; and as +they were mostly designed to serve the purpose of elegant +museums rather than that of country houses as we understand +the term, they usually possess noble interiors, and +exhibit throughout elaborate finish, choice materials, and +lavish outlay.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="fig70a" id="fig70a"></a> +<img src="images/agr022.jpg" width="250" height="300" +alt="Early renaissance corbel. From a door in Santa Maria, Venice" /> +</div> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> +An entablature is the superstructure which ordinarily is carried +by a column, and which it is usual to divide into architrave (or beam), +frieze, and cornice.</p> +</div> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> +An order consists of a column (or pilaster) with its distinctive +base and capital, its entablature, and the appropriate decorations. +There are five orders, differing in proportions, in the degree of enrichment +required, and in the design of the base and capital of the +column or pilaster, and of the entablature.</p> +</div> +</div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>193]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="head08" id="head08"></a> +<img src="images/agr119.jpg" width="500" height="136" +alt="Ornament by Giulio Romano" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="chap12" id="chap12"></a>CHAPTER XII.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="vsmlfont">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE AND NORTH EUROPE.</span></h2> + + +<h3>CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.</h3> + +<p><span class="dropcap">T</span>HE revived classic architecture came direct from +Italy, and did not reach France till it had been well +established in the land of its origin. It was not however +received with the same welcome which hailed its appearance +in Italy. Gothic architecture had a strong hold on +France, and accordingly, instead of a sudden change, we +meet with a period of transition, during which buildings +were erected with features partly Gothic and partly +Renaissance, and on varied principles of design.</p> + +<p>French Renaissance underwent great fluctuations, and it +is less easy to divide it into broad periods than to refer, as +most French writers prefer to do, to the work of each +prominent monarch’s reign separately.</p> + +<p>Francis the First (1515-1547) made the architecture +of Italy fashionable in his kingdom, and his name is borne +by the beautiful transitional style of his day. This in most +cases retains some Gothic forms, and the principles of composition +are in the main Gothic, but the features are mostly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>194]</a></span> +of Italian origin, though handled with a fineness of detail +and a smallness of scale that is not often met with, even +in early Italian Renaissance. There are few buildings more +charming in the architecture of any age or country than +the best specimens of the style of Francis the First, and +none that can bear so much decoration and yet remain so +little overladen by the ornaments they carry. The finest +example is the Château of Chambord, a large building, +nearly square on plan, with round corner towers, capped +by simple and very steep roofs, at the angles; and having +as its central feature, a large and lofty mass of towers, +windows and arcades, surmounted by steep roofs, ending in +a kind of huge lantern. The windows have mullions and +transoms like Gothic windows, but pilasters of elegant +Renaissance design ornament the walls. The main cornice +is a kind of compromise between an Italian and a Gothic +treatment. Dormer windows, high and sharply pointed, +but with little pilasters and pediments as their ornaments, +occur constantly; and the chimneys, which are of immense +mass and great height, are panelled profusely, and almost +ostentatiously displayed, especially on the central portion. +In the interior of the central building is a famous staircase; +but the main attractions are the bright and animated +appearance of the whole exterior, and the richness and +gracefulness of the details.</p> + +<p>The same architecture is to be well seen in the north +side of the famous Château of Blois—a building parts of +which were executed in three different periods of French +architecture. The exterior of the <i>François premier</i> part of +Blois is irregular, and portions of the design are wildly picturesque; +on the side which fronts towards the quadrangle, +the architecture is more symmetrically designed, and +beauty rather than picturesque effect has been aimed at. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>195]</a></span> +An open staircase is the part of the quadrangle upon which +most care has been lavished. Throughout the whole block +of buildings the character of each individual feature and +of every combination of features is graceful and <i>piquant</i>. +The elegance and delicacy of some of the carved decoration +in the interior is unsurpassed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 492px;"> +<a name="fig71" id="fig71"></a> +<img src="images/agr120.jpg" width="492" height="400" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 71.—Window from a House at Orleans. (Early 16th Century.)</p> + +<p>In the valley of the Loire there exist many noblemen’s +châteaux of this date, corresponding in general +character with Chambord and Blois, though on a smaller +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>196]</a></span> +scale. Of these Chénonceaux, fortunate alike in its +design and its situation, is the most elegant and the best +known: yet many others exist which approach it closely, +such, for example, as the Château de Gaillon—a fragment +of which forms part of the École des Beaux Arts at Paris—the +Hôtel de Ville of Beaugency, the Châteaux of +Châteaudun, Azay-le-Rideau, La Cote, and Ussé; the +Hôtel d’Anjou at Angers, and the house of Agnes Sorel +at Orleans.</p> + +<p>In the streets of Orleans houses of this date (Fig. <a href="#fig71">71</a>) +are to be found, showing the style cleverly adapted to +the requirements of town dwellings and shops. Several +of them also possess courtyards with arcades or other +architectural features treated with great freedom and +beauty, for instance, the arcades in the house of <i>François +Premier</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig72">72</a>). An arcade in the courtyard of the +Gothic Hôtel de Bourgtherould at Rouen, is one of the +best known examples of the style remaining, and instances +of it may be met with as far apart as at Caen +(east end of church of St. Pierre) and Toulouse (parts of +St. Sernin).</p> + +<p>One Paris church, that of St. Eustache, belonging to +this transitional period claims mention, since for boldness +and completeness it is one of the best of any date +in that city. St. Eustache is a five-aisled church with +an apse, transept, and lateral chapels outside the outer +aisle. It is vaulted throughout, and its plan and +structure are those of a Gothic church in all respects. Its +details are however all Renaissance, but not so good as +those to be found at Blois, nor so appropriately used, +yet notwithstanding this it has a singularly impressive +interior.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 286px;"> +<a name="fig72" id="fig72"></a> +<img src="images/agr121.jpg" width="286" height="450" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 72.—Capital from the House of Francis I., Orleans. (1540.)</p> + +<p>Meantime, and alongside the buildings resulting from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>197]</a></span> +this fusion of styles, others which were almost direct +importations from Italy were rising; in some cases, if not +in all, under the direction of Italian architects. Thus on +Fontainebleau, which Francis I. erected, three or four +Italian architects, one of whom was Vignola, were engaged. +It may or may not have been this connection of the great +architect with this work which gave him influence in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>198]</a></span> +France, but certainly almost the whole of the later +French Renaissance, or at any rate its good time, was +marked by a conformity to the practice of Vignola, in +whose designs we usually find one order of columns or +pilasters for each storey, rather than to that of Palladio, +whose use of tall columns equalling in height two or more +floors of the building has been already noticed.</p> + +<p>Designs for the Louvre, the rebuilding of which was +commenced in the reign of Francis the First (about <small>A.D.</small> +1544), were made by Serlio, an Italian; and though Pierre +Lescot was the architect of the portion built in that reign, +it is probable that the design obtained from Serlio was +in the main followed. The part then finished, which, to a +certain extent gave the keynote to the whole of this vast +building, was unquestionably a happy effort, and may be +taken to mark the establishment of a French version of +matured Renaissance architecture. The main building has +two orders of pilasters with cornices, &c., and above them +a low attic storey, with short piers: at the angles a taller +pavilion was introduced, and next the quadrangle arcades +are introduced between the pilasters. The sculpture, some +of it at least, is from the chisel of Jean Goujon; it is +good and well placed, and the whole has an air of dignity +and richness. The <i>Pavillon Richelieu</i>, shewn in our engraving +(Fig. <a href="#fig73">73</a>), was not built till the next century. The +colossal figures are by Barye.</p> + +<p>A little later in date than the early part of the Louvre +was the Hôtel de Ville, built from the designs of Pietro +da Cortona, an Italian, and said to have been begun in +1549. The building had been greatly extended before +its recent total destruction by fire, but the central part, +which was the original portion, was a fine vigorous composition, +having two lofty pavilions, with high roofs at the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199"><!-- original location of Fig. 73 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>200]</a></span> +extremities, and a remarkably rich stone lantern of great +height for a central feature.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 406px;"> +<a name="fig73" id="fig73"></a> +<img src="images/agr122.jpg" width="406" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 73.—Pavillon Richelieu of the Louvre, Paris.</p> + +<p>In the reign of Charles IX. the Palace of the Tuileries +was commenced (1564) for Catherine de Médicis, from the +designs of Philibert Delorme. Of this building, that part +only which fronted the garden was erected at the time. +Our illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig74">74</a>) shows the architectural character +of a portion of it, and it is easy to detect that +considerable alterations have by this time been introduced +into the treatment of the features of Renaissance architecture. +The bands of rustication passing round the pilasters +as well as the walls, the broken pediments on the upper +storey, surmounted by figures, and supported by long +carved pilasters, and the shape of the dormer windows +are all of them quite foreign to Renaissance architecture +as practised in Italy, and may be looked upon as essentially +French features. Similar details were employed in the +work executed at about the same period, by the same and +other architects, in other buildings, as may be seen by our +illustration (Fig. <a href="#fig75">75</a>) of a portion of Delorme’s work at +the Louvre. In these features, which may be found in +the Château d’Anet and other works of the same time, +and in the style to which they belong, may be seen the +direct result of Michelangelo’s Medici Chapel at Florence, +a work which had much more effect on French than on +Italian architecture. The full development of the architecture +of Michelangelo (or rather the ornamental portions +of it) is to be found in French Renaissance, rather than +in the works of his own successors in Italy.</p> + +<p>Much of the late sixteenth century architecture of France +was very inferior, and the parts of the Louvre and Tuileries +which date from the reign of Henry IV. are the least +satisfactory portions of those vast piles.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>201]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 475px;"> +<a name="fig74" id="fig74"></a> +<img src="images/agr123.jpg" width="475" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 74.—Part of the Tuileries, Paris. (Begun 1564.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>202]</a></span> +Dating from the early part of the seventeenth century, +we have the Palais Royal built for Richelieu, and the +Palace of the Luxembourg, a building perhaps more correct +and quiet than original or beautiful, but against which +the reproach of extravagant ornament cannot certainly be +brought.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 248px;"> +<a name="fig75" id="fig75"></a> +<img src="images/agr124.jpg" width="248" height="350" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 75.—Capital from Delorme’s work at the Louvre. +(Middle of 16th Century.)</p> + +<p>With Louis the Fourteenth (1643 to 1715) came in a +great building period, of which the most striking memorial +is the vast and uninteresting Palace of Versailles. The +architect was the younger Mansard (1647 to 1768), and +the vastness of the scale upon which he worked only +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>203]</a></span> +makes his failure to rise to his grand opportunity the more +conspicuous. The absence of features to diversify the sky-line +is one of the greatest defects of this building, a defect +the less excusable as the high-pitched roof of Gothic origin +had never been abandoned in France. This roof has been +employed with great success in many buildings of the +French Renaissance. Apart from this fault, the architectural +features of Versailles are so monotonous, weak, +and uninteresting that the building, though its size may +astonish the spectator, seldom rouses admiration.</p> + +<p>Far better is the eastern block of the Louvre (the portion +facing the Place du Louvre), though here also we find +the absence of high roofs, and the consequent monotony of +the sky-line—a defect attaching to hardly any other +portion of the building. Bernini was invited from Italy +for this work, and there is a curious story in one of Sir +Christopher Wren’s published letters of an interview he +had with Bernini while the latter was in Paris on this +business, and of the glimpse which he was allowed to enjoy +of the design the Italian had made. The building was, however, +after all, designed and carried out by Perrault, and, +though somewhat severe, possesses great beauty and much +of that dignity in which Versailles is wanting.</p> + +<p>The best French work of this epoch to be found in or +out of Paris is probably the Hôtel des Invalides (Fig. <a href="#fig76">76</a>), +with its fine central feature. This is crowned by the most +striking dome in Paris, one which takes rank as second only +in Europe to our own St. Paul’s, for beauty of form and +appropriateness of treatment. The two domes are indeed +somewhat alike in general outline.</p> + +<p>The reign of Louis XIV. witnessed a large amount of +building throughout France, as well as in the metropolis, +and to the same period we must refer an enormous amount +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>204]</a></span> +of lavish decoration in the interior of buildings, the taste +of which is to our eyes painfully extravagant. Purer taste +on the whole prevailed, if not in the reign of Louis XV. +certainly in that of Louis XVI., to which period much really +good decorative work, and some successful architecture +belongs. The chief building of the latter part of the +eighteenth century is the Pantheon (Ste. Geneviève), the +best domed church in France, and one which must always +take a high rank among Renaissance buildings of any age +or country. The architect was Soufflot, and his ambition, +like that of the old Gothic masons, was not only to produce +a work of art, but a feat of skill; his design accordingly +provided a smaller area of walls and piers compared with +the total floor space than any other Renaissance church, or +indeed than any great church, except a few of the very best +specimens of late Gothic construction, such for example as +King’s College Chapel. The result has been that the fabric +has not been quite stout enough to bear the weight of the +dome, and that it has required to be tied and propped and +strengthened in various ways from time to time. The plan +of the Pantheon is a Greek cross, with a short vestibule, and +a noble portico at the west, and a choir corresponding to the +vestibule on the east. It has a fine central dome, which is +excellently seen from many points of view externally, and +forms the principal feature of the very effective interior. +Each arm of the building is covered by a flat domical +vault; a single order of pilasters and columns runs quite +round the interior of the church occupying the entire +height of the walls; and the light is admitted in a most +successful manner by large semicircular windows at the +upper part of the church, starting above the cornice of +the order.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 384px;"> +<a name="fig76" id="fig76"></a> +<img src="images/agr125.jpg" width="384" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 76.—L’Église des Invalides, Paris. By J. H. Mansard. +(Begun <small>A.D.</small> 1645.)</p> + +<p>One other work of the eighteenth century challenges the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205"><!-- original location of Fig. 76 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>206]</a></span> +admiration of every visitor to Paris and must not be overlooked, +because it is at once a specimen of architecture +and of that skilful if formal arrangement of streets and +public places in combination with buildings which the +French have carried so far in the present century. We allude +to the two blocks of buildings, occupied as government +offices, which front to the Place de la Concorde and stand +at the corner of the Rue Royale. They are the work of +Gabriel (1710-1782), and are justly admired as dignified +if a little heavy and uninteresting. As specimens of architecture +these buildings, with the Pantheon, are enough to +establish a high character for French art at a time when +in most other European countries the standard of taste +had fallen to a very low level.</p> + +<p>The hôtels (<i>i.e.</i> town mansions) and châteaux of the +French nobility furnish a series of examples, showing the +successive styles of almost every part of the Renaissance +period. The phases of the style, subsequent to that of +Francis the First, can however, be so well illustrated by +public buildings in Paris, that it will be hardly necessary +to go through a list of private residences however commanding; +but the Château of Maisons, and the Royal Château +of Fontainebleau, may be named as specimens of a class of +building which shows the capacity of the Renaissance style +when freely treated.</p> + +<p>Renaissance buildings in France are distinguished by +their large extent and the ample space which has been in +many instances secured in connection with them. They +are rarely of great height or imposing mass like the early +Italian palaces. For the most part they are a good deal +broken up, the surface of the walls is much covered by +architectural features, not usually on a large scale, so that +the impression of extent which really belongs to them is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>207]</a></span> +intensified by the treatment which their architects have +adopted.</p> + +<p>Orders are frequently introduced and usually correspond +with the storeys of the building. However this may be +the storeys are always well marked. The sky-line also +is generally picturesque and telling, though Versailles and +the work of Lescot at the Louvre form an exception. +Rustication is not much employed, and the vast but simple +crowning cornices of the Italian palaces are never made +use of. Narrow fronts like those at Venice, and open +arcades or loggias like those of Genoa, do not form features +of French Renaissance buildings; but on the other hand, +much richness, and many varieties of treatment which the +Italians never attempted, were tried, and as a rule successfully, +in France.</p> + +<p>Much good sculpture is employed in external enrichments, +and a cultivated if often luxuriant taste is always +shown. Many of the interiors are rich with carving, +gilding, and mirrors, but harmonious coloured decoration is +rare, and the fine and costly mosaics of Italy are almost +unknown.</p> + + +<h3><a name="chap12a" id="chap12a"></a>BELGIUM AND THE NETHERLANDS.</h3> + +<p>These countries afford but few examples of Renaissance. +The Town Hall at Antwerp, an interesting building of the +sixteenth century, and the Church of St. Anne at Bruges, +are the most conspicuous buildings; and there are other +churches in the style which are characteristic, and parts of +which are really fine. The interiors of some of the town +halls display fittings of Renaissance character, often rich +and fanciful in the extreme, and bearing a general +resemblance to French work of the same period.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>208]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 372px;"> +<a name="fig77" id="fig77"></a> +<img src="images/agr126.jpg" width="372" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 77.—Window from Colmar. (1575.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>209]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 434px;"> +<a name="fig78" id="fig78"></a> +<img src="images/agr127.jpg" width="434" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 78.—Zeughaus, Dantzic. (1605.)</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>210]</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="chap12b" id="chap12b"></a>GERMANY AND NORTHERN EUROPE.</h3> + +<p>Buildings of pure Renaissance architecture, anterior to +the nineteenth century, are scarce in Germany, or indeed +in North-east Europe; but a transitional style, resembling +our own Elizabethan, grew up and long held its ground, so +that many picturesque buildings can be met with, of which +the design indicates a fusion of the ideas and features of +Gothic with those of classic art. This architectural style +took so strong a hold that examples of it may be found +throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in +almost every northern town.</p> + +<p>That part of the Castle of Heidelberg, which was built +at the beginning of the seventeenth century, may be cited +as belonging to this German transitional style. The front +in this case is regularly divided by pilasters of the classic +orders, but very irregular in their proportions and position. +The windows are strongly marked, and with carved mullions. +Large dormer windows break into the high roof; ornaments +abound, and the whole presents a curiously blended +mixture of the regular and the picturesque. Rather +earlier in date, and perhaps rather more Gothic in their +general treatment, are such buildings as the great Council +Hall at Rothenberg (1572), that at Leipzig (1556), the +Castle of Stuttgart (1553), with its picturesque arcaded +quadrangle, or the lofty and elaborate Cloth Hall at +Brunswick.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 368px;"> +<a name="fig79" id="fig79"></a> +<img src="images/agr128.jpg" width="368" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 79.—Council-house at Leyden. (1599.)</p> + +<p>Examples of similar character abound in the old inns +of Germany and Switzerland, and many charming features, +such as the window from Colmar (Fig. <a href="#fig77">77</a>), dated 1575, +which forms one of our illustrations could be brought +forward. Another development of the same mixed style +may be illustrated by the Zeug House at Dantzic (1605), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"><!-- original location of Fig. 79 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>212]</a></span> +of which we give the rear elevation (Fig. <a href="#fig78">78</a>). Not +altogether dissimilar from these in character is the finely-designed +Castle of Fredericksberg at Copenhagen, testifying +to the wide spread of the phase of architecture to +which we are calling attention. The date of this building +is 1610. A richer example, but one little if at all +nearer to Italian feeling, is the Council House at Leyden, +a portion of which we illustrate (Fig. <a href="#fig79">79</a>). This building +dates from 1599, and bears more resemblance to English +Elizabethan in its ornaments, than to the architecture of +any other country.</p> + +<p>Simultaneously with these, some buildings made their +appearance in Germany, which, though still picturesque, +showed the dawn of a wish to adopt the features of pure +Renaissance. The quadrangle of the Castle of Schalaburg +(Fig. <a href="#fig80">80</a>), may be taken as a specimen of the adoption of +Renaissance ideas as well as forms. It is in effect an Italian +cortile, though more ornate than Italian architects would +have made it. It was built in the latter part of the sixteenth +century, and seems to point to a wish to make use of the +new style with but little admixture of northern ornament +or treatment.</p> + +<p>When architecture had quite passed through the transition +period, which fortunately lasted long, the buildings, +not only of Germany, but of the north generally, became +uninteresting and tame; in fact, they present so few distinguishing +features, that it is not necessary to describe or +illustrate them. Russia, it is true, contains a few striking +buildings belonging to the eighteenth century, but most +of those which we might desire to refer to, were built +subsequent to the close of that century.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>213]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 396px;"> +<a name="fig80" id="fig80"></a> +<img src="images/agr129.jpg" width="396" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 80.—Quadrangle of the Castle of Schalaburg. +(Late 16th Century.)</p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>214]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<img src="images/agr130.jpg" width="500" height="116" +alt="Ornamental foliage pattern" /> +</div> + +<h2><a name="chap13" id="chap13"></a>CHAPTER XIII.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="vsmlfont">RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN, SPAIN, AND +PORTUGAL.</span></h2> + + +<h3>ENGLAND.—CHRONOLOGICAL SKETCH.</h3> + +<p><span class="dropcap">I</span>N England, as in France and Germany, the introduction +of the Italian Renaissance was not accomplished +without a period of transition. The architecture of this +period is known as Elizabethan, though it lasted long after +Elizabeth’s reign. Sometimes it is called Tudor; but it is +more convenient and not unusual to limit the term Tudor +to the latest phase of English Gothic.</p> + +<p>Probably the earliest introduction into any English building +of a feature derived from the newly-revived classic +sources is in the tomb of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey. +The grille inclosing this is of good, though late Gothic +design; but when the tomb itself came to be set up, for +which a contract was made with Torregiano in 1512, it was +Italian in its details. The earliest examples of Renaissance +features actually built into a structure, so far as we are +aware, is in the terra-cotta ornamentation of Layer Marney +House in Essex, which it is certain was erected prior to +1525. It is however long—surprisingly long—after this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>215]</a></span> +period before we come upon the traces of a general use of +Renaissance details. In fact, up to the accession of +Elizabeth (1558) they appear to have been little employed. +It is however said that early in her reign the treatises +on Renaissance architecture of Philibert de l’Orme and +Lomazzo were translated from Italian into English, and in +1563 John Shute published a book on Italian architecture.</p> + +<p>John of Padua, an Italian architect, was brought to this +country by Henry VIII. and practised here; and Theodore +Havenius of Cleves was employed as architect in the +buildings of Caius College, Cambridge (1565-1574). These +two foreigners undoubtedly played an important part +in a change of taste which, though not general so early, +certainly did commence before Elizabeth’s death in 1603.</p> + +<p>At the two universities, and in many localities throughout +England, new buildings and enlargements of old ones +were carried out during the long and prosperous reign of +Elizabeth; and the style in which they were built will be +found to have admitted of very great latitude. Where +the intention was to obtain an effect of dignity or state, +the classic principles of composition were more or less +followed. The buildings at Caius College, Cambridge, +Longleat, built between 1567 and 1579 by John of Padua, +Woollaton, built about 1580 by Smithson, and Burleigh +(built 1577), may be named as instances of this. On the +other hand where a manorial or only a domestic character +was desired, the main lines of the building are Gothic, but +the details, in either case, are partly Gothic and partly +modified Renaissance. This description will apply to such +buildings as Knowle, Penshurst, Hardwick, Hatfield, +Bramshill, or Holland House (Fig. <a href="#fig81">81</a>). In the introductory +chapter some account has been given, in general +terms, of the features familiar to most and endeared to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216"><!-- original location of Fig. 81 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>217]</a></span> +many, which mark these peculiarly English piles of buildings; +those remarks may be appropriately continued +here.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig81" id="fig81"></a> +<img src="images/agr131.jpg" width="600" height="385" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 81.—Holland House at Kensington. (1607.)</p> + +<p>The hall of Gothic houses was still retained, but only as +one of a series of fine apartments. In many cases English +mansions had no internal quadrangle, and are built as large +solid blocks with boldly projecting wings. They are often +of three storeys in height, the roofs are frequently of flat +pitch, and in that case are hidden behind a parapet which is +sometimes of fantastic design. Where the roofs are steeper +and not concealed the gables are frequently of broken outline. +Windows are usually very large, and with mullions +and transoms, and it is to these large openings that Elizabethan +interiors owe their bright and picturesque effects. +Entrances are generally adorned with some classic or semi-classic +features, often, however, much altered from their +original model; here balustrades, ornamental recesses, +stone staircases, and similar formal surroundings are +commonly found, and are generally arranged with excellent +judgment, though often quaint in design.</p> + +<p>“This style is characterised by a somewhat grotesque +application of the ancient orders and ornaments, by large +and picturesquely-formed masses, spacious staircases, broad +terraces, galleries of great length (at times 100 feet long), +orders placed on orders, pyramidal gables formed of scroll-work +often pierced, large windows divided by mullions and +transoms, bay windows, pierced parapets, angle turrets, +and a love of arcades. The principal features in the ornament +are pierced scroll-work, strap-work, and prismatic +rustication, combined with boldly-carved foliage (usually +conventional) and roughly-formed figures.”—<small>M. D. W.</small></p> + +<p>Interiors are bright and with ample space; very richly +ornamented plaster ceilings are common; the walls of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>218]</a></span> +main rooms are often lined with wainscot panelling, and +noble oak staircases are frequent.</p> + +<p>In the reign of James I., our first Renaissance architect +of mark, Inigo Jones (1572-1652) became known. He was +a man of taste and genius, and had studied in Italy. He +executed many works, the designs for which were more or +less in the style of Palladio. These include the addition +of a portico to the (then Gothic) cathedral of St. Paul’s, +and a magnificent design for a palace which Charles I. +desired to build at Whitehall. A fragment of this building, +now known as the Chapel Royal Whitehall, was +erected, and small though it be, has done much by +its conspicuous position and great beauty, to keep up a +respect for Inigo Jones’s undoubted high attainments as +an artist.</p> + +<p>More fortunate than Inigo Jones, Christopher Wren +(1632-1723) had just attained a high position as a young +man of science, skill, and cultivation, and as the architect +of the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford, when in 1666 the +great fire of London destroyed the Metropolitan Cathedral, +the parochial churches, the Royal Exchange, the Companies’ +Halls, and an immense mass of private property in +London, and created an opportunity which made great +demands upon the energy, skill, and fertility of design +of the architect who might attempt to grasp it. Fortunately, +Wren was equal to the occasion, and he has endowed +London with a Cathedral which takes rank among the +very foremost Renaissance buildings in Europe, as well +as a magnificent series of parochial churches, and other +public buildings. It is not pretended that his works are +free from defects, but there can be no question that admitting +anything which can be truly said against them, +they are works of artistic genius, full of fresh and original +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>219]</a></span> +design, and exhibiting rare sagacity in their practical +contrivance and construction.</p> + +<p>St. Paul’s stands second only to St. Peter’s as a great +domical cathedral of Renaissance architecture. It falls far +short of its great rival in actual size and internal effect, +and is all but entirely devoid of that decoration in which +St. Peter’s is so rich. On the other hand, the exterior of +St. Paul’s (Fig. <a href="#fig82">82</a>) is far finer, and as the English cathedral +had the good fortune to be erected entirely from the plans +and under the supervision of one architect, it is a building +consistent with itself throughout, which, as we have seen, +is more than can be said of St. Peter’s.</p> + +<p>The plan of St. Paul’s is a Latin cross, with well +marked transepts, a large portico, and two towers at the +western entrance; an apse of small size forms the end of +the eastern arm, and of each of the transepts; a great +dome covers the crossing; the cathedral has a crypt raising +the main floor considerably, and its side walls are carried +high above the aisle roofs so as to hide the clerestory +windows from sight.</p> + +<p>The dome is very cleverly planted on eight piers instead +of four at the crossing, and is a triple structure; for +between the dome seen from within, and the much higher +dome seen from without, a strong cone of brickwork rises +which bears the weight of the stone lantern and ball and +cross that surmount the whole. The skill with which the +dome is made the central feature of a pyramidal composition +whatever be the point of view, the great beauty of +the circular colonnade immediately below the dome, the +elegant outline of the western towers, and the unusual +but successful distribution of the great portico, are among +the most noteworthy elements which go to make up the +charm of this very successful exterior.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>220]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 472px;"> +<a name="fig82" id="fig82"></a> +<img src="images/agr132.jpg" width="472" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 82.—St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. (1675-1710.)</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>221]</a></span> +Wren may be said to have introduced to Renaissance +architecture the tower and spire, for though many examples +occur in Spain, there is reason to suppose that he was +before the architects of that country in his employment of +that feature. He has enriched the City of London with +a large number of steeples, which are Gothic so far as their +general idea goes, but thoroughly classic in details, and +all more or less distinctive. The most famous of these is +the one belonging to Bow Church; others of note belong +to St. Clement Danes and St. Bride, Fleet Street.</p> + +<p>The interiors of some of these churches, as for example +St. Stephen, Walbrook, St. Andrew, Holborn, and St. +James, Piccadilly, are excellent both for their good design +and artistic treatment, and for their being well contrived +and arranged for the special purposes they were intended +to fill.</p> + +<p>Wren’s secular works were considerable. The Sheldonian +Theatre at Oxford, the library of Trinity College, +Cambridge, and the theatre of the College of Physicians +London (long since disused), are a group of special buildings +each of which was undoubtedly a remarkable and +successful work. Chelsea and Greenwich hospitals are noteworthy +as among the first specimens of those great buildings +for public purposes in which England is now so rich, +and which to a certain extent replace the monastic establishments +of the middle ages. At Chelsea the building is +simple and dignified. Without lavish outlay, or the use +of expensive materials, much ornament, or any extraneous +features, an artistic and telling effect has been produced, +such as few hospitals or asylums since built have equalled. +Greenwich takes a higher level, and though Wren’s work +had the disadvantage of having to be accommodated to +buildings already erected by another architect, this building, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>222]</a></span> +with its twin domes, its rich outline, and its noble and +dignified masses, will always reflect honour upon its +designer. The view of Greenwich hospital from the river +may fairly be said to be unique for beauty and picturesqueness. +At Greenwich, too, we meet with some of that skill +in associating buildings and open spaces together which is +so much more common in France than in this country, and +by the exercise of which the architecture of a good building +can be in so many ways set off.</p> + +<p>Wren, like Inigo Jones, has left behind him a great +unexecuted design which in many respects is more noble +than anything that he actually built. This is his earlier +design for St. Paul’s Cathedral, which he planned as a +Greek cross, with an ampler dome than the present +cathedral possesses, but not so lofty. A large model +of this design exists. Had it been carried out the +exterior of the building would probably not have appeared +so commanding, perhaps not so graceful, as it +actually is; but the interior would have surpassed all the +churches of the style in Europe, both by the grandeur of +the vast arched space under the dome and by the intricacy +and beauty of the various vistas and combinations of +features, for which its admirably-designed plan makes +provision.</p> + +<p>Wren had retired from practice before his death in 1723. +His immediate successors were Hawksmoor, whose works +were heavy and uninteresting, and Sir James Vanbrugh. +Vanbrugh was a man of genius and has a style of his own, +“bold, original, and pictorial.” His greatest and best +work is Blenheim, in Oxfordshire, built for the Duke of +Marlborough. This fine mansion, equal to any French +château in extent and magnificence, is planned with much +dignity. The entrance front looks towards a large space, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>223]</a></span> +inclosed right and left by low buildings, which prolong +the wings of the main block. The angles of the wings +and the centre are masked by two colonnades of quadrant +shape, and the central entrance with lofty columns which +form a grand portico, is a noble composition.</p> + +<p>The three garden fronts of Blenheim are all fine, and +there is a magnificent entrance hall, but the most successful +part of the interior is the library, a long and lofty gallery, +occupying the entire flank of the house and treated with +the most picturesque variety both of plan and ornament.</p> + +<p>Vanbrugh also built Castle Howard, Grimesthorpe, +Wentworth, King’s Weston, as well as many other country +mansions of more moderate size.</p> + +<p>Campbell, Kent, and Gibbs are the best known names +next in succession. Of these Campbell is most famous as +an author, but Gibbs (1674-1754) is the architect of two +prominent London churches—St. Martin’s and St. Mary +le Strand, in which the general traditions of Wren’s +manner are ably followed. He was the architect of the +Radcliffe Library at Oxford. Kent (1684-1748) was the +architect of Holkham, the Treasury Buildings, and the +Horse Guards. He was associated with the Earl of +Burlington, who acquired a high reputation as an amateur +architect, which the design of Burlington House (now remodelled +for the Royal Academy), went far to justify. +Probably the technical part of this and other designs was +supplied by Kent.</p> + +<p>Sir William Chambers (1726-1796) was the architect +of Somerset House, a building of no small merit, notwithstanding +that it is tame and very bare of sculpture. +This building is remarkable as one of the few in London +in which the Italian feature of an interior quadrangle is +attempted to be reproduced. Chambers wrote a treatise +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>224]</a></span> +which has become a general text-book of revived classical +architecture for English students. Contemporary with him +were the brothers John and Robert Adam, who built +much, and began to introduce a severity of treatment and +a fineness of detail which correspond to some extent to +the French style of Louis XVI. The interior decorations +in plaster by these architects are of great elegance and +often found in old houses in London, as in Hanover +Square, on the Adelphi Terrace, and elsewhere. The +list of the eighteenth century architects closes with the +names of Sir Robert Taylor and the two Dances, one of +whom built the Mansion House and the other Newgate; +and Stuart, who built several country mansions, but who +is best known for the magnificent work on the antiquities +of Athens, which he and Revett published together in +1762, and which went far to create a revolution in public +taste; for before the close of the century there was +a general cry for making every building and every +ornamental detail purely and solely Greek.</p> + +<p>The architects above named, and others of less note were +much employed during the eighteenth century in the +erection of large country houses of Italian, usually Palladian +design, many of them extremely incongruous and +unsatisfactory. Here and there a design better than the +average was obtained, but as a rule these stately but cold +buildings are very far inferior to the picturesque and +home-like manors and mansions built during the reigns +of Elizabeth and James I.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 314px;"> +<a name="fig83" id="fig83"></a> +<img src="images/agr133.jpg" width="314" height="500" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 83.—Houses at Chester. (16th Century.)</p> + +<p>It is worth notice that the picturesque element, inherited +from the Gothic architecture of the middle ages, which +before the eighteenth century had completely vanished +from our public buildings, and the mansions of the wealthy +did not entirely die out of works executed in remote places. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>225]</a></span> +In the half-timbered manors and farmhouses which +abound in Lancashire, Cheshire, Shropshire, and Staffordshire, +and in other minor works, we always find a tinge, +sometimes a very full colouring, of the picturesque and the +irregular; the gables are sharp, upper storeys overhang, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>226]</a></span> +the treatment of the timbers is thoroughly Gothic (Fig. <a href="#fig83">83</a>); +so are the mouldings, transoms and mullions to the windows, +and barge boards to the roofs. In the reign of James I. +a mode of enriching the exteriors of dwelling-houses, as +well as their ceilings, chimney-pieces, &c., with ornaments +modelled in plaster came in, and though the remaining +specimens are from year to year disappearing, yet in +some old towns (<i>e.g.</i> in Ipswich) examples of this sort of +treatment (known as Jacobean) still linger.</p> + +<p>In Queen Anne’s reign a semi-Gothic version of Renaissance +architecture was practised, to which great attention +has been directed in the present day. The Queen Anne +style is usually carried out in brickwork, executed in red +bricks and often most admirable in its workmanship. +Pilasters, cornices, and panels are executed in cut bricks, +and for arches, niches, and window heads very finely +jointed bricks are employed. The details are usually +Renaissance, but of debased character; a crowning cornice +of considerable projection under a high-pitched hipped +roof (<i>i.e.</i> one sloping back every way like a truncated +pyramid) is commonly employed; so also are gables of +broken outline. Dormer windows rich and picturesque, and +high brick chimneys are also employed; so are bow windows, +often carried on concave corbels of a clumsy form. Prominence +is given in this style to the joiner’s work; the +windows, which are usually sash windows, are heavily +moulded and divided into small squares by wooded sash bars. +The doors have heavily moulded panels, and are often surmounted +by pediments carried by carved brackets or by +pilasters; in the interiors the woodwork of staircases +such as the balusters, newel posts, and handrails is treated +in a very effective and well considered way, the greater +part of the work being turned on the lathe and enriched +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>227]</a></span> +with mouldings extremely well designed for execution in +that manner. By this style and the modifications of it +which were more or less practised till they finally died +out, the traditional picturesqueness of English architecture +which it had inherited from the middle ages was kept +alive, so that it has been handed down, in certain localities +almost, if not quite, to the present century.</p> + + +<h3><a name="chap13a" id="chap13a"></a>SCOTLAND.</h3> + +<p>The architecture of Scotland during the sixteenth and +succeeding centuries possesses exceptional interest. It +was the case here, as it had been in England, that the most +important buildings of the time were domestic; the erection +of churches and monasteries had ceased.</p> + +<p>The castles and semi-fortified houses of Scotland form a +group apart, possessing strongly-marked and well-defined +character; they are designed in a mixed style in which the +Gothic elements predominated over the classic ones. But +the Scottish domestic Gothic, from which the new style +was partly derived, had borne little or no resemblance to +the florid Tudor of England. It was the severe and simple +architecture of strongholds built with stubborn materials, +and on rocky sites, where there was little inducement to +indulge in decoration. Dunstaffnage or Kilchurn Castles +may be referred to as examples of these plain, gloomy +keeps with their stepped gables, small loops for windows, +and sometimes angle turrets.</p> + +<p>The classic elements of the style were not drawn (as had +been the case in England) direct from Italy, but came from +France. The Scotch, during their long struggles with the +English, became intimately allied with the French, and it +is therefore not surprising that Scottish Baronial architecture +should resemble the early Renaissance of French +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>228]</a></span> +châteaux very closely. The hardness of the stone in which +the Scotch masons wrought forbade their attempting the +extremely delicate detail of the François I. ornament, +executed as it is in fine, easily-worked stone of smooth texture; +and the difference in the climate of the two countries +justified in Scotland a boldness which would have appeared +exaggerated and extreme in France. Accordingly the style +in passing from one country to the other has changed its +details to no inconsiderable extent.</p> + +<p>Many castles were erected in the sixteenth and following +centuries in Scotland, or were enlarged and altered; the +most characteristic features in almost all of them are short +round angle turrets, thrown out upon bold corbellings near +the upper part of towers and other square masses. These +are often capped by pointed roofs; and the corbels which +carry them, and which are always of bold, vigorous character, +are frequently enriched by a kind of cable ornament, +which is very distinctive. Towers of circular plan, +like bastions, and projecting from the general line of the +walls, or at the angles, constantly occur. They are frequently +crowned by conical roofs, but sometimes (as at +Fyvie Castle) they are made square near the top by means +of a series of corbels, and finished with gables or otherwise. +Parapets are in general use, and are almost always battlemented. +Roofs, when visible, are of steep pitch, and their +gables are almost always of stepped outline, while dormer +windows, frequently of fantastic form, are not infrequent. +Chimneys are prominent and lofty. Windows are square-headed, +and, as a rule, small; sometimes they retain the +Gothic mullions and transom, but in many cases these +features are absent. Doorways are generally arched, and +not often highly ornamented.</p> + +<p>Cawdor Castle, Glamis Castle, Fyvie Castle, Castle +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>229]</a></span> +Fraser, the old portions of Dunrobin Castle, Tyninghame +House, the extremely picturesque palace at Falkland, and +a considerable part of Stirling Castle, may be all quoted +as good specimens of this thoroughly national style, but +it would be easy to name two or three times as many +buildings nearly, if not quite, equal to these in architectural +merit.</p> + +<p>Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh, may be quoted (with part +of Holyrood Palace) as showing the style of the seventeenth +century. Heriot’s Hospital was built between the +years 1628 and 1660. It is built round a great quadrangle, +and has square towers at the four corners, each +relieved by small corbelled angle turrets. The entrance +displays columns and an entablature of debased but not +unpleasing Renaissance architecture, and the building +altogether resembles an English Elizabethan or Jacobean +building to a greater extent than most Scottish designs.</p> + +<p>When this picturesque style, which appears indeed to +have retained its hold for long, at last died out, very little +of any artistic value was substituted for it. Late in the +eighteenth century, it is true, the Brothers Adam erected +public buildings in Edinburgh and Glasgow, and carried +out various works of importance in a classic style which +has certainly some claim to respect; but if correct it was +tame and uninteresting, and a poor exchange for the +vigorous vitality which breathes in the works of the +architects of the early Renaissance in Scotland.</p> + + +<h3><a name="chap13b" id="chap13b"></a>SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.</h3> + +<p>In the Spanish peninsula, Renaissance architecture ran +through three phases, very strongly distinguished from +one another, each being marked by peculiarities of more +than ordinary prominence. The early stage, to which the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>230]</a></span> +Spaniards give the name of Plateresco, exhibits the same +sort of fusion of Gothic with classic which we find in +France and Scotland. The masses are often simple, but +the individual features are overladen with an extravagant +amount of ornament, and, as in France, many things which +are essentially Gothic, such as pinnacles, gargoyles, and +parapets, are retained. The Renaissance style was introduced +at the latter part of the fifteenth century, and a +very considerable number of buildings to which the description +given above will apply were erected prior to +the middle of the sixteenth. Among these may be enumerated +the cathedral at Granada, the Hospital of Santa Cruz +at Toledo (1504-1514), the dome of Burgos Cathedral +(1567), the Cathedral of Malaga, San Juan della Penitencia +at Toledo (1511), the façade of the Alcazar at Toledo +(1548), the Town Hall (1551), and Casa Zaporta (1560) at +Zarragoza, and the Town Hall of Seville (1559).</p> + +<p>A great number of tombs, staircases, doorways, and +other smaller single features, executed during this period +from the designs of good artists, are to be found scattered +through the country. “These Renaissance monuments +exhibit an extraordinary degree of variety in their +ornaments, which are of the most fantastic nature; an +exuberant fancy would seem to have sought a vent, especially +in the sculptured ornament of the style, which though +at times crowded, overladen, and we must add disfigured +by the most grotesque ideas, is very striking for its +originality and excellent workmanship.”—(<small>M. D. W.</small>)</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 412px;"> +<a name="fig84" id="fig84"></a> +<img src="images/agr134.jpg" width="412" height="600" alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="caption">Fig. 84.—The Alcazar at Toledo. (Begun 1568.)</p> + +<p>The second phase of Spanish architecture was marked +by a plain and simple dignity, equally in contrast with the +Plateresco which had preceded it and with the extravagant +style to which it at length gave place. The earliest +architect who introduced into Spain an architectural style +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231"><!-- original location of Fig. 84 --></a></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>232]</a></span> +founded on the best examples of Italy, was Juan Baptista +de Toledo. He in the year 1563 commenced the Escurial +Palace—the Versailles of Spain; but the principal part +of the building was erected by his more celebrated pupil, +Juan de Herrera, who carried on the works during the +years from 1567 to 1579. This building, one of the most +extensive palaces in Europe, is noble in its external +aspect from a distance, thanks to its great extent, its fine +central dome, and its many towers, but it is disappointing +when approached. Of the interior the most noteworthy +feature is a magnificently decorated church, of great size +and unusual arrangement; and this dignified central feature +has raised the Escurial, in spite of many faults, to the +position of the most famous and probably most deservedly +admired among the great Renaissance palaces of Europe.</p> + +<p>By the same architect numerous buildings were erected, +among others the beautiful, if somewhat cold, arcaded +interior of the Alcazar of Toledo (Fig. <a href="#fig84">84</a>), which may be +taken as a fair specimen of the noble qualities to be found +in his dignified and comparatively simple designs. About +the middle of the sixteenth century Charles V. erected his +palace at Granada; but here the architecture is strongly +coloured by Italian or French examples, and much of +the building resembles Perrault’s work at the Louvre +very closely. Herrera and his school were probably too +severe in taste to suit the fancy of their countrymen, for +Spanish architecture in the eighteenth century fell a victim +to debased forms and a fantastic and exaggerated style +of ornament. Churriguera was the architect who has the +credit of having introduced this unfortunate third manner, +and has lent it his name. For a time “Churriguerismo” +found general acceptance, and the century closed under its +influence.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>233]</a></span> +We must not pass over the excellent and varied Renaissance +towers and steeples of Spain in silence. They are +not unlike Wren’s spires in general idea; they are to be +met with in many parts of the country attached to the +churches, and their variety and picturesqueness increase +the claim of Spanish architecture to our respect.</p> + + +<p class="smlpadt">The one Renaissance building in Portugal which has +been much illustrated, and is spoken of in high terms, +is the Convent at Mafra, a building of the eighteenth +century, of great extent and picturesque effect. Great skill +is shown in dealing with the unwieldy bulk of an overgrown +establishment which does not yield even to the +Escurial in point of extent. We are, however, up to the +present time without the means of forming an opinion +upon the nature and value of the architecture of Portugal +as a whole.</p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 208px;"> +<img src="images/agr135.jpg" width="208" height="150" +alt="Ornamental foliage pattern" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234"><!-- Blank page --></a></span></p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>235]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="head09" id="head09"></a> +<img src="images/agr136.jpg" width="500" height="106" +alt="From a frieze at Venice" /> +</div> + +<h2>INDEX.</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>See also <a href="#contents"><span class="smcap">Contents</span></a> at beginning.</i></p> + +<p class="center"> +<a href="#A">A</a> <a href="#B">B</a> <a href="#C">C</a> +<a href="#D">D</a> <a href="#E">E</a> <a href="#F">F</a> +<a href="#G">G</a> <a href="#H">H</a> <a href="#I">I</a> +<a href="#J">J</a> <a href="#K">K</a> <a href="#L">L</a> +<a href="#M">M</a> <a href="#N">N</a> <a href="#O">O</a> +<a href="#P">P</a> <a href="#R">R</a> <a href="#S">S</a> +<a href="#T">T</a> <a href="#V">V</a> <a href="#W">W</a> +</p> + +<p class="index"><a name="A" id="A"></a> +Adam, John and Robert, <a href="#Page_224">223</a>.</p> + +<p>Alberti, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p> + +<p>Amiens Cathedral, <a href="#fig34">76</a>, <a href="#fig35">78</a>.</p> + +<p>Andernach, Church at, <a href="#Page_95">96</a>.</p> + +<p>Anne, Queen, Style of, <a href="#Page_226">225</a>.</p> + +<p>Arnstein Abbey, <a href="#Page_95">94</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="B" id="B"></a> +Baptista, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</p> + +<p>Batalha, Monastery at, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#fig60">153</a>.</p> + +<p>Beauvais Cathedral, <i>Interior</i>, <a href="#fig38">86</a>.</p> + +<p>Belgium and Netherlands, <i>Gothic</i>, <a href="#chap06a">87</a>.</p> + +<p>—— <i>Renaissance</i>, <a href="#chap12a">206</a>.</p> + +<p>Bernini, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, +<a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p> + +<p>Blenheim, <a href="#Page_222">221</a>.</p> + +<p>Blois, Château of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</p> + +<p>Blois, Capital from St. Nicholas, <a href="#fig37">84</a>.</p> + +<p>Bourges, House of Jaques Cœur, <a href="#fig07">15</a>.</p> + +<p>Bramante, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, +<a href="#fig66">180</a>.</p> + +<p>Brunelleschi, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p> + +<p>Buttresses, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="C" id="C"></a> +Caen, Saint Pierre at, <a href="#fig13">37</a>.</p> + +<p>Cambridge, King’s College, <a href="#fig28">63</a>.</p> + +<p>Campaniles in Italy, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</p> + +<p>Capitals, Gothic, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p> + +<p>Certosa, near Pavia, <a href="#frontispiece"><i>frontispiece</i></a>, <a href="#fig69">183</a>.</p> + +<p>Chambers, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_223">222</a>.</p> + +<p>Chambord, Château of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</p> + +<p>Chartres, Stained glass at, <a href="#fig29">65</a>, <a href="#head05">69</a>.</p> + +<p>Chester, Old Houses at, <a href="#fig14">38</a>, <a href="#fig83">224</a>.</p> + +<p>Churriguera, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_232">230</a>.</p> + +<p>Colmar, Window at, <a href="#fig77">206</a>.</p> + +<p>Cologne Cathedral, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#fig46">104</a>.</p> + +<p>Columns and Piers, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p> + +<p>Cortona, Pietro da, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</p> + +<p>Cremona, Palace at, <a href="#fig50">117</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="D" id="D"></a> +Dantzic, Zeughaus at, <a href="#fig78">203</a>.</p> + +<p>De Caumont. <i>Abécédaire</i>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</p> + +<p>Decorated style of Architecture, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p> + +<p>Delorme, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_215">214</a>.</p> + +<p>Domestic Buildings, <i>Gothic</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="E" id="E"></a> +Early English Architecture, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p> + +<p>Eltham Palace, Roof of, <a href="#fig22">53</a>.</p> + +<p>England, Gothic Architecture in, <a href="#chap03">21</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Renaissance in, <a href="#chap13">213</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="F" id="F"></a> +Florence, Cathedral at, <a href="#fig51">121</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Pandolfini Palace, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#fig63">173</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Riccardi Palace, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Strozzi Palace, <a href="#fig61">169</a>.</p> + +<p>Fontevrault, Church at, <a href="#fig31">70</a>.</p> + +<p>France, Gothic Architecture in, <a href="#chap06">69</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Renaissance in, <a href="#chap12">193</a>.</p> + +<p>Francis the First of France, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</p> + +<p>Friburg Cathedral, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="G" id="G"></a> +Gables in Gothic Architecture, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p> + +<p>Germany, Gothic Architecture in, <a href="#chap07">93</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Renaissance, <a href="#chap12b">209</a>.</p> + +<p>Ghent, Tower at, <a href="#fig40">90</a>.</p> + +<p>Gibbs, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_223">222</a>.</p> + +<p>Giotto’s Campanile at Florence, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p> + +<p>Gothic, The word, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p> + +<p>Goujon, Jean, <i>Sculptor</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="H" id="H"></a> +Haddon Hall, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</p> + +<p>Havenius of Cleves, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_215">214</a>.</p> + +<p>Hawksmoor, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_222">221</a>.</p> + +<p>Heidelberg, Castle of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_210">209</a>.</p> + +<p>Herrera, Juan de, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_232">217</a>.</p> + +<p>Holland House, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="I" id="I"></a> +Italy, Gothic Architecture in, <a href="#chap08">112</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Renaissance in, <a href="#chap11">165</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="J" id="J"></a> +John of Padua, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_215">214</a>.</p> + +<p>Jones, Inigo, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_218">217</a>.</p> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>236]</a></span></p> + +<p class="index"><a name="K" id="K"></a> +Kent, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_223">222</a>.</p> + +<p>Kuttenberg, St. Barbara at, <a href="#fig43">99</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="L" id="L"></a> +Lescot, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</p> + +<p>Leyden, Council-house at, <a href="#fig79">210</a>.</p> + +<p>Lichfield Cathedral, West Door, <a href="#fig01">5</a>.</p> + +<p>Lincoln Cathedral, General view, <a href="#fig12">35</a>.</p> + +<p>Lippi Annibale, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</p> + +<p>Lisieux, Old Houses at, <a href="#fig15">41</a>.</p> + +<p>Loches, Doorway at, <a href="#fig32">72</a>.</p> + +<p>London, St. Paul’s Cathedral, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="M" id="M"></a> +Maderno, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</p> + +<p>Mafra, Convent at, <a href="#Page_233">232</a>.</p> + +<p>Mansard, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</p> + +<p>Michelangelo <i>as an Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, +<a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</p> + +<p>Michelozzo, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p> + +<p>Middleburgh, Town Hall at, <a href="#fig39">89</a>.</p> + +<p>Milan Cathedral, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p> + +<p>Misereres in Wells Cathedral, <a href="#tail02">68</a>, <a href="#tail03">92</a>.</p> + +<p>Mouldings, Gothic, <a href="#Page_61">62</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="N" id="N"></a> +Nuremberg, St. Sebald’s at, <a href="#fig49">109</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="O" id="O"></a> +Oakham, Decorated Spire of, <a href="#fig25">60</a>.</p> + +<p>Ogee-shaped arch, <a href="#fig54">129</a>.</p> + +<p>Oppenheim, St. Catherine at, <a href="#fig48">107</a>.</p> + +<p>Orleans, Capital from house at, <a href="#fig72">197</a>.</p> + +<p>Orleans, Window at, <a href="#fig71">196</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="P" id="P"></a> +Pavia, Certosa, near, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#fig69">188</a>.</p> + +<p>Palladio, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, +<a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p> + +<p>Paris, Cathedral of Notre Dame, <a href="#fig33">74</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Hôtel des Invalides at, <a href="#fig76">205</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Louvre, Capital from, <a href="#fig75">202</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Louvre, Pavillon Richelieu, <a href="#fig73">199</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Pantheon at, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Tuileries, by Delorme, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p> + +<p>Perpendicular Architecture, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> + +<p>Peruzzi, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</p> + +<p>Peterborough Cathedral, Plan, <a href="#fig02">6</a>.</p> + +<p>Pisano, Nicola, <i>Sculptor</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p> + +<p>Plateresco, <i>Spanish</i>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</p> + +<p>Principles of Gothic Design, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="R" id="R"></a> +Raphael <i>as an Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</p> + +<p>Renaissance Architecture, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p> + +<p>Regensburg (Ratisbon), Well at, <a href="#fig10">20</a>.</p> + +<p>Rheims Cathedral, Piers, <a href="#fig36">80</a>.</p> + +<p>Rome, Monument in Santa Maria del Popolo, <a href="#fig65">179</a>.</p> + +<p>Rome, Palazzo Giraud, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#fig66">180</a>.</p> + +<p>—— St. Peter’s, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, +<a href="#fig64">177</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Villa Medici, <a href="#fig70">191</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="S" id="S"></a> +Saint Gall Manuscript, The, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p> + +<p>Salisbury Cathedral, Section, <a href="#fig03">7</a>.</p> + +<p>Saint Iago di Compostella, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p> + +<p>Sangallo, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</p> + +<p>Sansovino, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_183">184</a>.</p> + +<p>Scamozzi, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_183">184</a>.</p> + +<p>Scotland, Cawdor Castle, <a href="#Page_229">227</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Dunrobin Castle, <a href="#Page_229">228</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Heriot’s Hospital, <a href="#Page_229">228</a>.</p> + +<p>Schalaburg, Castle of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</p> + +<p>Schwartz-Rheindorff, Church at, <a href="#Page_100">101</a>.</p> + +<p>Serlio, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</p> + +<p>Seville, The Giralda at, <a href="#fig59">140</a>.</p> + +<p>Siena Cathedral, <a href="#fig52">123</a>.</p> + +<p>Spain, Gothic Architecture in, <a href="#chap08a">137</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Renaissance in, <a href="#chap13b">228</a>.</p> + +<p>Spires, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</p> + +<p>Stained Glass, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p> + +<p>Strasburg Cathedral, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="T" id="T"></a> +Thann, Doorway at, <a href="#fig47">106</a>.</p> + +<p>Tivoli, Window from, <a href="#fig56">134</a>.</p> + +<p>Toledo, Alcazar at, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Cathedral, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p> + +<p>Towers and Spires, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</p> + +<p>Tracery, Venetian, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p> + +<p>Tudor Architecture, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="V" id="V"></a> +Vanbrugh, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_222">221</a>.</p> + +<p>Venice, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p> + +<p>Venice, Church of Redentore, <a href="#fig68">186</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Ducal Palace at, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Palaces on Grand Canal, <a href="#fig09">18</a>.</p> + +<p>Vienna, St. Stephen at, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p> + +<p>Vignola, <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, +<a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p> + + +<p class="index"><a name="W" id="W"></a> +Warboys, Early English Spire, <a href="#fig24">59</a>.</p> + +<p>Warwick Castle, Plan, <a href="#fig08">16</a>.</p> + +<p>Wells Cathedral, Nave, <a href="#fig05">9</a>.</p> + +<p>Westminster Abbey, Plan, <a href="#fig06">11</a>.</p> + +<p>Westminster Abbey, Carving, <a href="#fig30">67</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Henry VII.’s Chapel, <a href="#fig23">57</a>.</p> + +<p>—— Triforium, <a href="#fig19">49</a>.</p> + +<p>Windows, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, +<a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p> + +<p>Window, Italian Gothic, <a href="#fig56">134</a>, <a href="#fig57">136</a>.</p> + +<p>Worcester Cathedral, Choir, <a href="#fig04">9</a>.</p> + +<p>Wren, Sir C., <i>Architect</i>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, +<a href="#Page_218">217</a>, <a href="#Page_221">220</a>.</p> + + +<p class="center padtop padbase vsmlfont">LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p class="center"><i>Now in course of Publication.</i></p> + +<p class="center lrgfont padtop">A NEW SERIES</p> + +<p class="center smlfont">OF</p> + +<p class="center xlrgfont">ILLUSTRATED TEXT-BOOKS</p> + +<p class="center smlfont">OF</p> + +<p class="center xlrgfont">ART EDUCATION,</p> + +<p class="center lrgfont">EDITED BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R.A.</p> + +<p class="center">Each volume contains numerous illustrations, and is strongly bound for the +use of students. Price 5<i>s.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><i>To be issued in the following Divisions:—</i></p> + + +<p class="center"><i>PAINTING.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang">* <b>CLASSIC and ITALIAN.</b> By <span class="smcap">Edward J. Poynter</span>, R.A., and <span class="smcap">Percy +R. Head</span>, Lincoln College, Oxford.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>GERMAN, FLEMISH, and DUTCH.</b> By <span class="smcap">H. Wilmot Buxton</span>, M.A.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>FRENCH and SPANISH.</b> By <span class="smcap">Gerard Smith</span>, Exeter College, Oxford.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>ENGLISH and AMERICAN.</b> By <span class="smcap">H. Wilmot Buxton</span>, M.A.</p> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><i>ARCHITECTURE.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang"><b>CLASSIC and EARLY CHRISTIAN.</b> By <span class="smcap">T. Roger Smith</span>, F.R.I.B.A.</p> + +<p class="hang">* <b>GOTHIC and RENAISSANCE.</b> By <span class="smcap">T. Roger Smith</span>, F.R.I.B.A.</p> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><i>SCULPTURE.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang"><b>ANTIQUE: EGYPTIAN and GREEK.</b> By <span class="smcap">George Redford</span>, F.R.C.S.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>RENAISSANCE and MODERN.</b> By <span class="smcap">George Redford</span>, F.R.C.S.</p> +</div> + + +<p class="center"><i>ORNAMENT.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="hang"><b>DECORATION IN COLOUR.</b> By <span class="smcap">George Aitchison</span>, M.A.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENT.</b> With numerous Illustrations.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center padbase">* <i>These Divisions are now ready.</i></p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 392px;"> +<a name="endpaper" id="endpaper"></a> +<img src="images/agr137.jpg" width="392" height="600" +alt="From a tapestry in Hardwick Hall" /> +</div> + + + +<div class="bbox"> +<p><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p> + +<p>Minor punctuation errors have been repaired.</p> + +<p>Hyphenation and accent usage has been made consistent.</p> + +<p>Spelling was made consistent as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Page <a href="#Page_xxxvii">xxxvii</a>—Transome amended to Transom—"<span class="smcap">Transom.</span>—A horizontal bar +(usually of stone) ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_xl">xl</a>—Hardwicke amended to Hardwick—"<span class="smcap">The End-papers are from a Tapestry +in Hardwick Hall.</span>"</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_198">198</a>—di amended to da—"... built from the designs of Pietro da Cortona, ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_217">217</a>—transomes amended to transoms—"... and with mullions and transoms, ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_217">217</a>—transomes amended to transoms—"... large windows divided by mullions and +transoms, ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_224">224</a>—Cotemporary amended to Contemporary—"Contemporary with him were the +brothers John and Robert Adam, ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_226">226</a>—transomes amended to transoms—"... so are the mouldings, transoms and +mullions to the windows, ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_236">236</a>—Middleburg amended to Middleburgh—"Middleburgh, Town Hall at, 89."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_236">236</a>—Nícolo amended to Nicola—"Pisano, Nicola, <i>Sculptor</i>, 120."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_236">236</a>—Strassburg amended to Strasburg—"Strasburg Cathedral, 98."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_236">236</a>—Van Brugh amended to Vanbrugh—"Vanbrugh, <i>Architect</i>, 221."</p> +</div> + +<p>The following amendments have been made:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Page <a href="#Page_x">x</a>—omitted page number added—"3. <span class="smcap">Scotland</span>, <span class="smcap">Wales</span>, +and <span class="smcap">Ireland</span> 91"</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_xxiv">xxiv</a>—frize amended to frieze—"... the architrave, which rests on +the columns, the frieze and the cornice."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_xxiv">xxiv</a>—The entry for Entablature originally followed Embattled. It has been +moved to the correct place in the glossary.</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_xxv">xxv</a>—Styl amended to Style—"<span class="smcap">François I. Style.</span>—The +early Renaissance architecture of France during part of the sixteenth century."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_xxvii">xxvii</a>—Lintol amended to Lintel—"<span class="smcap">Lintel.</span>—The stone or beam +covering a doorway ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_12">12</a>—arrangment amended to arrangement—"The whole arrangement of pier +and arch ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_25">25</a>—ierced amended to pierced—"Parapet pierced with quatrefoils and +flowing tracery."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_30">30</a>—repeated 'and' deleted—"... Gothic dwelling-houses of the fourteenth +and fifteenth centuries exist, ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_36">36</a>—constrast amended to contrast—"... is to combine and yet contrast +its horizontal and vertical elements."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_39">39</a>—storys amended to storeys—"... and sometimes also the basement +storeys, ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_46">46</a>—and amended to end—"... occupying the eastern end of one of the +transepts ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_82">82</a>—semi-circula amended to semicircular—"... and the roofs of +semicircular and circular apses, ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_88">88</a>—achitecture amended to architecture—"... their architecture, though +certainly Gothic, is debased in style."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_114">114</a>—laboration amended to elaboration—"... remarkable specimens of the +ornamental elaboration which can be accomplished in brickwork."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_142">142</a>—Ths amended to The—"The great church at Batalha ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_159">159</a>—omitted 'the' added before building—"... in his treatment of the same +part of the building ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_176">176</a>—repeated 'is' deleted—"... as long as the building is seen in front ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_186">186</a>—builing amended to building—"... lofty pilasters to include two storeys +of the building ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_194">194</a>—first amended to First—"...than the best specimens of the style of +Francis the First ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_226">226</a>—82 amended to 83—"... the treatment of the timbers is +thoroughly Gothic (Fig. 83); ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_230">230</a>—archiect amended to architect—"The earliest architect who introduced +into Spain an architectural style ..."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_233">233</a>—picuresque amended to picturesque—"... a building of the eighteenth +century, of great extent and picturesque effect."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_235">235</a>—page references put into numerical order—"Brunelleschi, +<i>Architect</i>, 120, 166."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_235">235</a>—137 amended to 173—"Florence ... —— Pandolfini Palace, 170, 173."</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_235">235</a>—omitted 7 added—"Haddon Hall, 17."</p> +</div> + +<p>Illustrations have been moved where necessary so that they are not +in the middle of a paragraph.</p> + +<p>There was an error in the List of Illustrations. The original read:</p> + +<div class="centered"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Extract from table of contents as originally printed"> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">66.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Palazzo Giraud, Rome. By Bramante. (1506.)</td> + <td class="tdrb">180</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">67.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">The Church of St. Francesco, at Ferrara. Interior</td> + <td class="tdrb">183</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">68.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Italian Shell Ornament</td> + <td class="tdrb">184</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">69.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">The Church of the Redentore, Venice. (1576.)</td> + <td class="tdrb">186</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">70.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Certosa near Pavia. Part of West Front. (Begun 1473.)</td> + <td class="tdrb">189</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">70<span class="smcap">a</span>.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Early Renaissance Corbel</td> + <td class="tdrb">192</td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td class="tdrt">71.</td> + <td class="tdinlsc">Window from a House at Orleans. (Early 16th Century.)</td> + <td class="tdrb">195</td> + </tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>The listed Fig. 67 does not appear anywhere in the text. The List of Illustrations +has been amended to accurately list the figures in the main body of the book, by +removing the erroneous listing, renumbering the figures as necessary, including +a previously omitted figure, <span class="smcap">Fig. 70.—Villa Medici—On the Pincian Hill +near Rome. By Annibale Lippi (now the <span class="nosc"><i>Académie Française</i></span>). (<small>A.D.</small> +1540.)</span>, and amending the page numbers.</p> + +<p>Alphabetic links have been added to the index for ease of navigation.</p> + +<p>The advertising material has been moved to the end of the book.</p> + +<p>Omitted page numbers were blank pages or full page illustrations (moved for this +e-text) in the original.</p> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Architecture, by Thomas Roger Smith + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHITECTURE *** + +***** This file should be named 33837-h.htm or 33837-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/8/3/33837/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Sam W. and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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