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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 4, Slice 1, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 1
+       "Bisharin" to "Bohea"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2010 [EBook #33550]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE BLEACHING: "Coal gas mixed with air is sent under pressure
+      through pipe a into the burners b, b, where the mixture burns with
+      an intense heat." 'into' amended from 'ino'.
+
+    ARTICLE BLUEBEARD: "BLUEBEARD, the monster of Charles Perrault's
+      tale of Barbe Bleue, who murdered his wives and hid their bodies in
+      a locked room. Perrault's tale was first printed in his Histoires
+      et contes du temps passé (1697)." 'temps' amended from 'tems'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME IV, SLICE I
+
+             Bisharin to Bohea
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  BISHÂRÎN                          BLENDE
+  BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY          BLENHEIM
+  BISHOP, ISABELLA                  BLENNERHASSETT, HARMAN
+  BISHOP                            BLERA
+  BISHOP AUCKLAND                   BLESSINGTON, MARGUERITE
+  BISHOP'S CASTLE                   BLIDA
+  BISHOP STORTFORD                  BLIGH, WILLIAM
+  BISKRA                            BLIND, MATHILDE
+  BISLEY                            BLIND HOOKEY
+  BISMARCK, OTTO LEOPOLD VON        BLINDING
+  BISMARCK (North Dakota, U.S.A.)   BLINDMAN'S-BUFF
+  BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO              BLINDNESS
+  BISMILLAH                         BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON
+  BISMUTH                           BLISTER
+  BISMUTHITE                        BLIZZARD
+  BISMYA                            BLOCK, MARK ELIEZER
+  BISON                             BLOCK, MAURICE
+  BISQUE                            BLOCK
+  BISSELL, GEORGE EDWIN             BLOCKADE
+  BISSEXT                           BLOCKHOUSE
+  BISTRE                            BLOEMAERT, ABRAHAM
+  BIT                               BLOEMEN, JAN FRANS VAN
+  BITHUR                            BLOEMFONTEIN
+  BITHYNIA                          BLOET, ROBERT
+  BITLIS                            BLOIS, LOUIS DE
+  BITONTO                           BLOIS
+  BITSCH                            BLOIS (Countship of)
+  BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS     BLOMEFIELD, FRANCIS
+  BITTERFELD                        BLOMFIELD, SIR ARTHUR WILLIAM
+  BITTERLING                        BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES
+  BITTERN (bird)                    BLOMFIELD, EDWARD VALENTINE
+  BITTERN (liquor)                  BLONDEL, DAVID
+  BITTERS                           BLONDEL, JACQUES FRANÇOIS
+  BITUMEN                           BLONDIN
+  BITURIGES                         BLOOD
+  BITZIUS, ALBRECHT                 BLOOD-LETTING
+  BIVOUAC                           BLOOD-MONEY
+  BIWA                              BLOODSTONE
+  BIXIO, NINO                       BLOOM
+  BIZERTA                           BLOOMER, AMELIA JENKS
+  BIZET GEORGES                     BLOOMFIELD, MAURICE
+  BJÖRNEBORG                        BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT
+  BJÖRNSON, BJÖRNSTJERNE            BLOOMFIELD
+  BLACHFORD, FREDERIC ROGERS        BLOOMINGTON (Illinois, U.S.A.)
+  BLACK, ADAM                       BLOOMINGTON (Indiana, U.S.A.)
+  BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN          BLOOMSBURG
+  BLACK, JOSEPH                     BLOUNT, CHARLES
+  BLACK, WILLIAM                    BLOUNT, EDWARD
+  BLACK APE                         BLOUNT, THOMAS
+  BLACKBALL                         BLOUNT, SIR THOMAS POPE
+  BLACKBERRY                        BLOUNT, WILLIAM
+  BLACKBIRD                         BLOUSE
+  BLACK BUCK                        BLOW, JOHN
+  BLACKBURN, COLIN BLACKBURN        BLOW-GUN
+  BLACKBURN, JONATHAN               BLOWITZ, HENRI GEORGES ADOLPHE DE
+  BLACKBURN                         BLOWPIPE
+  BLACKBURNE, FRANCIS               BLÜCHER, GEBHARD LEBERECHT VON
+  BLACKCOCK                         BLUE
+  BLACK COUNTRY, THE                BLUEBEARD
+  BLACK DROP                        BLUE-BOOK
+  BLACKFOOT                         BLUESTOCKING
+  BLACK FOREST                      BLUFF
+  BLACK HAWK                        BLUM, ROBERT FREDERICK
+  BLACKHEATH                        BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH
+  BLACK HILLS                       BLUMENTHAL, LEONHARD
+  BLACKIE, JOHN STUART              BLUNDERBUSS
+  BLACK ISLE                        BLUNT, JOHN HENRY
+  BLACKLOCK, THOMAS                 BLUNT, JOHN JAMES
+  BLACKMAIL                         BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN
+  BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD            BLUNTSCHLI, JOHANN KASPAR
+  BLACKMORE, RICHARD DODDRIDGE      BLYTH
+  BLACK MOUNTAIN                    B'NAI B'RITH, INDEPENDENT ORDER OF
+  BLACKPOOL                         BOA
+  BLACK ROD                         BOABDIL
+  BLACK SEA (body of water)         BOADICEA
+  BLACK SEA (district of Russia)    BOAR
+  BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM           BOARD
+  BLACK VEIL                        BOARDING-HOUSE
+  BLACKWATER                        BOARDING-OUT SYSTEM
+  BLACKWATER FEVER                  BOARDMAN, GEORGE DANA
+  BLACKWELL, THOMAS                 BOASE, HENRY SAMUEL
+  BLACKWOOD, WILLIAM                BOAT
+  BLADDER                           BOATSWAIN
+  BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES     BOBBILI
+  BLADDER-WORT                      BOBBIO
+  BLADES, WILLIAM                   BOBER
+  BLAENAVON                         BOBRUISK
+  BLAGOVYESHCHENSK                  BOCAGE, MANUEL MARIA BARBOSA DE
+  BLAIKIE, WILLIAM GARDEN           BOCAGE
+  BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE           BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI
+  BLAINVILLE, HENRI DUCROTAY DE     BOCCALINI, TRAJANO
+  BLAIR, FRANCIS PRESTON            BOCCHERINI, LUIGI
+  BLAIR, HUGH                       BOCCHUS
+  BLAIR, JAMES                      BOCHART, SAMUEL
+  BLAIR, ROBERT                     BOCHOLT
+  BLAIR ATHOLL                      BOCHUM
+  BLAIRGOWRIE                       BÖCKH, PHILIPP AUGUST
+  BLAKE, EDWARD                     BÖCKLIN, ARNOLD
+  BLAKE, ROBERT                     BOCLAND
+  BLAKE, WILLIAM                    BOCSKAY, STEPHEN
+  BLAKELOCK, RALPH ALBERT           BODE, JOHANN ELERT
+  BLAKENEY, WILLIAM BLAKENEY        BODEL, JEHAN
+  BLAKESLEY, JOSEPH WILLIAMS        BODENBACH
+  BLAMIRE, SUSANNA                  BODENSTEDT, FRIEDRICH MARTIN VON
+  BLANC, LOUIS                      BODHI VAMSA
+  BLANC, MONT                       BODICHON, BARBARA LEIGH SMITH
+  BLANCHARD, SAMUEL LAMAN           BODIN, JEAN
+  BLANCHE, JACQUES ÉMILE            BODKIN
+  BLANCHE OF CASTILE                BODLE
+  BLANCH FEE                        BODLEY, GEORGE FREDERICK
+  BLANDFORD                         BODLEY, SIR THOMAS
+  BLANDRATA, GIORGIO                BODMER, JOHANN JAKOB
+  BLANE, SIR GILBERT                BODMIN
+  BLANFORD, WILLIAM THOMAS          BODÖ
+  BLANK                             BODONI, GIAMBATTISTA
+  BLANKENBERGHE                     BODY-SNATCHING
+  BLANKENBURG                       BOECE, HECTOR
+  BLANKETEERS                       BOEHM, SIR JOSEPH EDGAR
+  BLANK VERSE                       BOEHM VON BAWERK, EUGEN
+  BLANQUI, JERÔME ADOLPHE           BOEHME, JAKOB
+  BLANQUI, LOUIS AUGUSTE            BOEOTIA
+  BLANTYRE (town of Central Africa) BOER
+  BLANTYRE (parish of Scotland)     BOERHAAVE, HERMANN
+  BLARNEY                           BOETHUS
+  BLASHFIELD, EDWIN HOWLAND         BOETIUS, ANICIUS MANLIUS SEVERINUS
+  BLASIUS, SAINT                    BOG
+  BLASPHEMY                         BOGATZKY, KARL HEINRICH VON
+  BLASS, FRIEDRICH                  BOGHAZ KEUI
+  BLASTING                          BOGIE
+  BLAUBEUREN                        BOGNOR
+  BLAVATSKY, HELENA PETROVNA        BOGÓ
+  BLAYDES, FREDERICK HENRY MARVELL  BOGODUKHOV
+  BLAYDON                           BOGOMILS
+  BLAYE-ET-STE LUCE                 BOGORODSK
+  BLAZE                             BOGOS
+  BLAZON                            BOGOTÁ
+  BLEACHING                         BOGRA
+  BLEAK                             BOGUE, DAVID
+  BLEEK, FRIEDRICH                  BOGUS
+  BLEEK, WILHELM HEINRICH IMMANUEL  BOHEA
+
+
+
+
+BISHÂRÎN (the anc. _Ichthyophagi_), a nomad tribe of African "Arabs," of
+Hamitic origin, dwelling in the eastern part of the Nubian desert. In
+the middle ages they were known as Beja (q.v.), and they are the most
+characteristic of the Nubian "Arabs." With the Abâbda and Hadendoa they
+represent the Blemmyes of classical writers. Linguistically and
+geographically the Bishârîn form a connecting link between the Hamitic
+populations and the Egyptians. Nominally they are Mahommedans. They,
+however, preserve some non-Islamic religious practices, and exhibit
+traces of animal-worship in their rule of never killing the serpent or
+the partridge, which are regarded as sacred.
+
+
+
+
+BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855), English musical composer, was born
+in London on the 18th of November 1786. He received his artistic
+training from Francisco Bianchi, and in 1804 wrote the music to a piece
+called _Angelina_, which was performed at Margate. His next composition
+was the music to the ballet of _Tamerlan et Bajazet_, produced in 1806
+at the King's theatre. This proved successful, and was followed within
+two years by several others, of which _Caractacus_, a pantomimic ballet,
+written for Drury Lane, may be named. In 1809 his first opera, _The
+Circassian's Bride_, was produced at Drury Lane; but unfortunately the
+theatre was burned down after one performance, and the score of the work
+perished in the flames. His next work of importance, the opera of _The
+Maniac_, written for the Lyceum in 1810, established his reputation, and
+probably secured for him an appointment for three years as composer for
+Covent Garden theatre. The numerous works--operas, burlettas, cantatas,
+incidental music to Shakespeare's plays, &c.--which he composed while in
+this position, are in great part forgotten. The most successful
+were--_The Virgin of the Sun_ (1812), _The Miller and his Men_ (1813),
+_Guy Mannering_ and _The Slave_ (1816), _Maid Marian_ and _Clari_,
+introducing the well-known air of "Home, Sweet Home" (1822). In 1825
+Bishop was induced by Elliston to transfer his services from Covent
+Garden to the rival house in Drury Lane, for which he wrote with unusual
+care the opera of _Aladdin_, intended to compete with Weber's _Oberon_,
+commissioned by the other house. The result was a failure, and with
+_Aladdin_ Bishop's career as an operatic composer may be said to close.
+On the formation of the Philharmonic Society (1813) Bishop was appointed
+one of the directors, and he took his turn as conductor of its concerts
+during the period when that office was held by different musicians in
+rotation. In 1830 he was appointed musical director at Vauxhall; and it
+was in the course of this engagement that he wrote the popular song "My
+Pretty Jane." His sacred cantata, _The Seventh Day_, was written for the
+Philharmonic Society and performed in 1833. In 1839 he was made bachelor
+in music at Oxford. In 1841 he was appointed to the Reid chair of music
+in the university of Edinburgh, but he resigned the office in 1843. He
+was knighted in 1842, being the first musician who ever received that
+honour. In 1848 he succeeded Dr Crotch in the chair of music at Oxford.
+The music for the ode on the occasion of the installation of Lord Derby
+as chancellor of the university (1853) proved to be his last work. He
+died on the 30th of April 1855 in impoverished circumstances, though few
+composers ever made more by their labours. Bishop was twice married: to
+Miss Lyon and Miss Anne Rivière. Both he and his wives were singers. His
+name lives in connexion with his numerous glees, songs and smaller
+compositions. His melodies are clear, flowing, appropriate and often
+charming; and his harmony is always pure, simple and sweet.
+
+
+
+
+BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904), English traveller and author, daughter of
+the Rev. Edward Bird, rector of Tattenhall, Cheshire, was born in
+Yorkshire on the 15th of October 1832. Isabella Bird began to travel
+when she was twenty-two. Her first book, _The Englishwoman in America_
+(1856), consisted of her correspondence during a visit to Canada
+undertaken for her health. She visited the Rocky Mountains, the South
+Pacific, Australia and New Zealand, producing some brightly written
+books of travel. But her reputation was made by the records of her
+extensive travels in Asia: _Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_ (2 vols., 1880),
+_Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan_ (2 vols., 1891), _Among the Tibetans_
+(1894), _Korea and her Neighbours_ (2 vols., 1898), _The Yangtze Valley
+and Beyond_ (1899), _Chinese Pictures_ (1900). She married in 1881 Dr
+John Bishop, an Edinburgh physician, and was left a widow in 1886. In
+1892 she became the first lady fellow of the Royal Geographical Society,
+and in 1901 she rode a thousand miles in Morocco and the Atlas
+Mountains. She died in Edinburgh on the 7th of October 1904.
+
+  See Anna M. Stoddart, _The Life of Isabella Bird_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+BISHOP (A.S. _bisceop_, from Lat. _episcopus_, Gr. [Greek: episkopos],
+"overlooker" or "overseer"), in certain branches of the Christian
+Church, an ecclesiastic consecrated or set apart to perform certain
+spiritual functions, and to exercise oversight over the lower clergy
+(priests or presbyters, deacons, &c.). In the Catholic Church bishops
+take rank at the head of the sacerdotal hierarchy, and have certain
+spiritual powers peculiar to their office, but opinion has long been
+divided as to whether they constitute a separate order or form merely a
+higher degree of the order of priests (_ordo sacerdotium_).
+
+
+  Roman Catholic.
+
+In the Roman Catholic Church the bishop belongs to the highest order of
+the hierarchy, and in this respect is the peer even of the pope, who
+addresses him as "venerable brother." By the decree of the council of
+Trent he must be thirty years of age, of legitimate birth, and of
+approved learning and virtue. The method of his selection varies in
+different countries. In France, under the Concordat, the sovereign--and
+under the republic the president--had the right of nomination. The same
+is true of Austria (except four sees), Bavaria, Spain and Portugal. In
+some countries the bishop is elected by the cathedral chapter (as in
+Württemberg), or by the bishops of the provinces (as in Ireland). In
+others, as in Great Britain, the United States of America and Belgium,
+the pope selects one out of a list submitted by the chapter. In all
+cases the nomination or election is subject to confirmation by the Holy
+See. Before this is granted the candidate is submitted to a double
+examination as to his fitness, first by a papal delegate at his place of
+residence (_processus informativus in partibus electi_), and afterwards
+by the Roman Congregation of Cardinals assigned for this purpose
+(_processus electionis definitivus in curia_). In the event of both
+processes proving satisfactory, the bishop-elect is confirmed,
+preconized, and so far promoted that he is allowed to exercise the
+rights of jurisdiction in his see. He cannot, however, exercise the
+functions proper to the episcopal _order_ (_potestas ordinis_) until his
+consecration, which ordinarily takes place within three months of his
+confirmation. The bishop is consecrated, after taking the oath of
+fidelity to the Holy See, and subscribing the profession of faith, by a
+bishop appointed by the pope for the purpose, assisted by at least two
+other bishops or prelates, the main features of the act being the laying
+on of hands, the anointing with oil, and the delivery of the pastoral
+staff and other symbols of the office. After consecration the new bishop
+is solemnly enthroned and blesses the assembled congregation.
+
+The _potestas ordinis_ of the bishop is not peculiar to the Roman
+Church, and, in general, is claimed by all bishops, whether Oriental or
+Anglican, belonging to churches which have retained the Catholic
+tradition in this respect. Besides the full functions of the
+presbyterate, or priesthood, bishops have the sole right (1) to confer
+holy orders, (2) to administer confirmation, (3) to prepare the holy
+oil, or chrism, (4) to consecrate sacred places or utensils (churches,
+churchyards, altars, &c.), (5) to give the benediction to abbots and
+abbesses, (6) to anoint kings. In the matter of their rights of
+jurisdiction, however, Roman Catholic bishops differ from others in
+their peculiar responsibility to the Holy See. Some of their powers of
+legislation and administration they possess _motu proprio_ in virtue of
+their position as diocesan bishops, others they enjoy under special
+faculties granted by the Holy See; but all bishops are bound, by an oath
+taken at the time of their consecration, to go to Rome at fixed
+intervals (_visitare sacra limina apostolorum_) to report in person, and
+in writing, on the state of their dioceses.
+
+The Roman bishop ranks immediately after the cardinals; he is styled
+_reverendissimus_, _sanctissimus_ or _beatissimus_. In English the style
+is "Right Reverend"; the bishop being addressed as "my lord bishop."
+
+The insignia (_pontificalia_ or pontificals) of the Roman Catholic
+bishop are (1) a ring with a jewel, symbolizing fidelity to the church,
+(2) the pastoral staff, (3) the pectoral cross, (4) the vestments,
+consisting of the caligae, stockings and sandals, the tunicle, and
+purple gloves, (5) the mitre, symbol of the royal priesthood, (6) the
+throne (cathedra), surmounted by a baldachin or canopy, on the gospel
+side of the choir in the cathedral church.
+
+
+  Anglican.
+
+The spiritual function and character of the Anglican bishops, allowing
+for the doctrinal changes effected at the Reformation, are similar to
+those of the Roman. They alone can administer the rite of confirmation,
+ordain priests and deacons, and exercise a certain dispensing power. In
+the established Church of England the appointment of bishops is vested
+effectively in the crown, though the old form of election by the
+cathedral chapter is retained. They must be learned presbyters at least
+thirty years of age, born in lawful wedlock, and of good life and
+behaviour. The mode of appointment is regulated by 25 Henry VIII. c. 20,
+re-enacted in 1 Elizabeth c. 1 (Act of Supremacy 1558). On a vacancy
+occurring, the dean and chapter notify the king thereof in chancery, and
+pray leave to make election. A licence under the Great Seal to proceed
+to the election of a bishop, known as the _congé d'eslire_, together
+with a letter missive containing the name of the king's nominee, is
+thereupon sent to the dean and chapter, who are bound under the
+penalties of _Praemunire_ to proceed within twelve days to the election
+of the person named in it. In the event of their refusing obedience or
+neglecting to elect, the bishop may be appointed by letters patent under
+the Great Seal without the form of election. Upon the election being
+reported to the crown, a mandate issues from the crown to the archbishop
+and metropolitan, requesting him and commanding him to confirm the
+election, and to invest and consecrate the bishop-elect. Thereupon the
+archbishop issues a commission to his vicar-general to examine formally
+the process of the election of the bishop, and to supply by his
+authority all defects in matters of form, and to administer to the
+bishop-elect the oaths of allegiance, of supremacy and of canonical
+obedience (see CONFIRMATION OF BISHOPS). In the disestablished and
+daughter Churches the election is by the synod of the Church, as in
+Ireland, or by a diocesan convention, as in the United States of
+America.
+
+In the Church of England the _potestas ordinis_ is conferred by
+consecration. This is usually carried out by an archbishop, who is
+assisted by two or more bishops. The essential "form" of the
+consecration is in the simultaneous "laying on of hands" by the
+consecrating prelates. After this the new bishop, who has so far been
+vested only in a rochet, retires and puts on the rest of the episcopal
+habit, viz. the chimere. After consecration the bishop is competent to
+exercise all the spiritual functions of his office; but a bishopric in
+the Established Church, being a barony, is under the guardianship of the
+crown during a vacancy, and has to be conferred afresh on each new
+holder. A bishop, then, cannot enter into the enjoyment of the
+temporalities of his see, including his rights of presentation to
+benefices, before doing homage to the king. This is done in the ancient
+feudal form, surviving elsewhere only in the conferring of the M.A.
+degree at Cambridge. The bishop kneels before the king, places his hands
+between his, and recites an oath of temporal allegiance; he then kisses
+hands.
+
+Besides the functions exercised in virtue of their order, bishops are
+also empowered by law to exercise a certain jurisdiction over all
+consecrated places and over all ordained persons. This jurisdiction they
+exercise for the most part through their consistorial courts, or through
+commissioners appointed under the Church Discipline Act of 1840. By the
+Clergy Discipline Act of 1892 it was decreed that the trial of clerks
+accused of unfitness to exercise the cure of souls should be before the
+consistory court with five assessors. Under the Public Worship
+Regulation Act of 1874, which gave to churchwardens and aggrieved
+parishioners the right to institute proceedings against the clergy for
+breaches of the law in the conduct of divine service, a discretionary
+right was reserved to the bishop to stay proceedings.
+
+The bishops also exercise a certain jurisdiction over marriages,
+inasmuch as they have by the canons of the Church of England a power of
+dispensing with the proclamation of banns before marriage. These
+dispensations are termed marriage licences, and their legal validity is
+recognised by the Marriage Act of 1823. The bishops had formerly
+jurisdiction over all questions touching the validity of marriages and
+the status of married persons, but this jurisdiction has been
+transferred from the consistorial courts of the bishops to a court of
+the crown by the Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857. They have in a similar
+manner been relieved of their jurisdiction in testamentary matters, and
+in matters of defamation and of brawling in churches; and the only
+jurisdiction which they continue to exercise over the general laity is
+with regard to their use of the churches and churchyards. The
+churchwardens, who are representative officers of the parishes, are also
+executive officers of the bishops in all matters touching the decency
+and order of the churches and of the churchyards, and they are
+responsible to the bishops for the due discharge of their duties; but
+the abolition of church rates has relieved the churchwardens of the most
+onerous part of their duties, which was connected with the stewardship
+of the church funds of their parishes.
+
+The bishops are still authorized by law to dedicate and set apart
+buildings for the solemnization of divine service, and grounds for the
+performance of burials, according to the rites and ceremonies of the
+Church of England; and such buildings and grounds, after they have been
+duly consecrated according to law, cannot be diverted to any secular
+purpose except under the authority of an act of parliament.
+
+The bishops of England have also jurisdiction to examine clerks who may
+be presented to benefices within their respective dioceses, and they are
+bound in each case by the 95th canon of 1604 to inquire and inform
+themselves of the sufficiency of each clerk within twenty-eight days,
+after which time, if they have not rejected him as insufficiently
+qualified, they are bound to institute him, or to license him, as the
+case may be, to the benefice, and thereupon to send their mandate to the
+archdeacon to induct him into the temporalities of the benefice. Where
+the bishop himself is patron of a benefice within his own diocese he is
+empowered to collate a clerk to it,--in other words, to confer it on the
+clerk without the latter being presented to him. Where the clerk himself
+is patron of the living, the bishop may institute him on his own
+petition. (See BENEFICE.)
+
+As spiritual peers, bishops of the Church of England have (subject to
+the limitations stated below) seats in the House of Lords, though
+whether as barons or in their spiritual character has been a matter of
+dispute. The latter, however, would seem to be the case, since a bishop
+was entitled to his writ of summons after confirmation and before doing
+homage for his barony. Doubts having been raised whether a bishop of the
+Church of England, being a lord of parliament, could resign his seat in
+the Upper House, although several precedents to that effect are on
+record, a statute of the realm, which was confined to the case of the
+bishops of London and Durham, was passed in 1856, declaring that on the
+resignation of their sees being accepted by their respective
+metropolitans, those bishops should cease to sit as lords of parliament,
+and their sees should be filled up in the manner provided by law in the
+case of the avoidance of a bishopric. In 1869 the Bishops' Resignation
+Act was passed. It provided that, on any bishop desiring to retire on
+account of age or incapacity, the sovereign should be empowered to
+declare the see void by an order in council, the retiring bishop of
+archbishop to be secured the use of the episcopal residence for life and
+a pension of one-third of the revenues of the see, or £2000, whichever
+sum should prove the larger. Other sections defined the proceedings for
+proving, in case of need, the incapacity of a bishop, provided for the
+appointment of coadjutors and defined their status (Phillimore i. 82).
+
+In view of the necessity for increasing the episcopate in the 19th
+century and the objection to the consequent increase of the spiritual
+peers in the Upper House, it was finally enacted by the Bishoprics Act
+of 1878 that only the archbishops and the bishops of London, Winchester
+and Durham should be always entitled to writs summoning them to the
+House of Lords. The rest of the twenty-five seats are filled up, as a
+vacancy occurs, according to seniority of consecration.
+
+Bishops of the Church of England rank in order of precedency immediately
+above barons. They may marry, but their wives as such enjoy no title or
+precedence. Bishops are addressed as "Right Reverend" and have legally
+the style of "Lord," which, as in the case of Roman Catholic bishops in
+England, is extended to all, whether suffragans or holders of colonial
+bishoprics, by courtesy.
+
+The insignia of the Anglican bishop are the rochet and the chimere, and
+the episcopal throne on the gospel side of the chancel of the cathedral
+church. The use of the mitre, pastoral staff and pectoral cross, which
+had fallen into complete disuse by the end of the 18th century, has been
+now very commonly, though not universally, revived; and, in some cases,
+the interpretation put upon the "Ornaments rubric" by the modern High
+Church school has led to a more complete revival of the pre-Reformation
+vestments.
+
+
+  Orthodox Eastern.
+
+In the Orthodox Church of the East and the various communions springing
+from it, the _potestas ordinis_ of the bishop is the same as in the
+Western Church. Among his qualifications the most peculiar is that he
+must be unmarried, which, since the secular priests are compelled to
+marry, entails his belonging to the "black clergy" or monks. The
+insignia of an oriental bishop, with considerable variation in form, are
+essentially the same as those of the Catholic West.
+
+
+  Subordinate bishops.
+
+Besides bishops presiding over definite sees, there have been from time
+immemorial in the Christian Church bishops holding their jurisdiction in
+subordination to the bishop of the diocese. (1) The oldest of these were
+the _chorepiscopi_ ([Greek: taes choras episkopoi]), i.e. country
+bishops, who were delegated by the bishops of the cities in the early
+church to exercise jurisdiction in the remote towns and villages as
+these were converted from paganism. Their functions varied in different
+times and places, and by some it has been held that they were originally
+only presbyters. In any case, this class of bishops, which had been
+greatly curtailed in the East in A.D. 343 by the council of Laodicea,
+was practically extinct everywhere by the 10th century. It survived
+longest in Ireland, where in 1152 a synod, presided over by the papal
+legate, decreed that, after the death of the existing holders of the
+office, no more should be consecrated. Their place was taken by
+arch-presbyters and rural deans. (2) The _Episcopi regionarii_, or
+_gentium_, were simply missionary bishops without definite sees. Such
+were, at the outset, Boniface, the apostle of Germany, and Willibrord,
+the apostle of the Frisians. (3) Bishops _in partibus infidelium_ were
+originally those who had been expelled from their sees by the pagans,
+and, while retaining their titles, were appointed to assist diocesan
+bishops in their work. In later times the custom arose of consecrating
+bishops for this purpose, or merely as an honorary distinction, with a
+title derived from some place once included within, but now beyond the
+bounds of Christendom. (4) _Coadjutor bishops_ are such as are appointed
+to assist the bishop of the diocese when incapacitated by infirmity or
+by other causes from fulfilling his functions alone. Coadjutors in the
+early church were appointed with a view to their succeeding to the see;
+but this, though common in practice, is no longer the rule. In the
+Church of England the appointment and rights of coadjutor bishops were
+regulated by the Bishops' Resignation Act of 1869. Under this act the
+coadjutor bishop has the right of succession to the see, or in the case
+of the archiepiscopal sees and those of London, Winchester and Durham,
+to the see vacated by the bishop, translated from another diocese to
+fill the vacancy. (5) _Suffragan bishops_ (_episcopi sufraganei_ or
+_auxiliares_) are those appointed to assist diocesan bishops in their
+pontifical functions when hindered by infirmity, public affairs or other
+causes. In the Roman Church the appointment of the suffragan rests with
+the pope, on the petition of the bishop, who must prove that such is the
+custom of the see, name a suitable priest and guarantee his maintenance.
+The suffragan is given a title _in partibus_, but never that of
+archbishop, and the same title is never given to two suffragans in
+succession. In the Church of England the status of suffragan bishops was
+regulated by the Act 26 Henry VIII. c. 14. Under this statute, which,
+after long remaining inoperative, was amended and again put into force
+by the Suffragans' Nomination Act of 1888, every archbishop and bishop,
+being disposed to have a suffragan to assist him, may name two honest
+and discreet spiritual persons for the crown to give to one of them the
+title, name, style and dignity of a bishop of any one of twenty-six sees
+enumerated in the statute, as the crown may think convenient. The crown,
+having made choice of one of such persons, is empowered to present him
+by letters patent under the great seal to the metropolitan, requiring
+him to consecrate him to the same name, title, style and dignity of a
+bishop; and the person so consecrated is thereupon entitled to exercise,
+under a commission from the bishop who has nominated him, such authority
+and jurisdiction, within the diocese of such bishop, as shall be given
+to him by the commission, and no other.
+
+
+  Lutheran churches.
+
+The title of bishop survived the Reformation in certain of the Lutheran
+churches of the continent, in Denmark, Norway, Finland, Sweden and
+Transylvania; it was temporarily restored in Prussia in 1701, for the
+coronation of King Frederick I., again between 1816 and 1840 by
+Frederick William III., and in Nassau in 1818. In these latter cases,
+however, the title bishop is equivalent to that of "superintendent," the
+form most generally employed. The Lutheran bishops, as a rule, do not
+possess or claim unbroken "apostolic succession"; those of Finland and
+Sweden are, however, an exception. The Lutheran bishops of Transylvania
+sit, with the Roman and Orthodox bishops, in the Hungarian Upper House.
+In some cases the secularization of episcopal principalities at the
+Reformation led to the survival of the title of bishop as a purely
+secular distinction. Thus the see of Osnabrück (Osnaburgh) was occupied,
+from the peace of Westphalia to 1802, alternately by a Catholic and a
+Protestant prince. From 1762 to 1802 it was held by Frederick, duke of
+York, the last prince-bishop. Similarly, the bishopric of Schwerin
+survived as a Protestant prince-bishopric until 1648, when it was
+finally secularized and annexed to Mecklenburg, and the see of Lübeck
+was held by Protestant "bishops" from 1530 till its annexation to
+Oldenburg in 1803.[1]
+
+In other Protestant communities, e.g. the Moravians, the Methodist
+Episcopal Church and the Mormons, the office and title of bishop have
+survived, or been created. Their functions and status will be found
+described in the accounts of the several churches.
+
+  See Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_, s. "Bischof" and "Weihen";
+  Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, vol. ii.; Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_,
+  s. "Bischof" (the author rather arbitrarily classes Anglican with
+  Lutheran bishops as not bishops in any proper sense at all);
+  Phillimore's _Ecclesiastical Law_; the articles ORDER, HOLY;
+  VESTMENTS; ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION; EPISCOPACY.     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The title prince-bishop, attached in Austria to the sees of
+    Laibach, Seckau, Gurk, Brixen, Trent and Lavant, and in Prussia to
+    that of Breslau, no longer implies any secular jurisdiction, but is
+    merely a title of honour recognized by the state, owing either to the
+    importance of the sees or for reasons purely historical.
+
+
+
+
+BISHOP AUCKLAND, a market town in the Bishop Auckland parliamentary
+division of Durham, England, 11 m. S.S.W. of the city of Durham, the
+junction of several branches of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 11,969. It is beautifully situated on an eminence near
+the confluence of the Wear and the Gaunless. The parish church is 1 m.
+distant, at Auckland St Andrews, a fine cruciform structure, formerly
+collegiate, in style mainly Early English, but with earlier portions.
+The palace of the bishops of Durham, which stands at the north-east end
+of the town, is a spacious and splendid, though irregular pile The site
+of the palace was first chosen by Bishop Anthony Beck, in the time of
+Edward I. The present building covers about 5 acres, and is surrounded
+by a park of 800 acres. On the Wear 1½ m. above Bishop Auckland there is
+a small and very ancient church at Escomb, massively built and tapering
+from the bottom upward. It is believed to date from the 7th century, and
+some of the stones are evidently from a Roman building, one bearing an
+inscription. These, no doubt, came from Binchester, a short distance up
+stream, where remains of a Roman fort (_Vinovia_) are traceable. It
+guarded the great Roman north road from York to Hadrian's wall. The
+industrial population of Bishop Auckland is principally employed in the
+neighbouring collieries and iron works.
+
+
+
+
+BISHOP'S CASTLE, a market town and municipal borough in the southern
+parliamentary division of Shropshire, England; the terminus of the
+Bishop's Castle light railway from Craven Arms. Pop. (1901) 1378. It is
+pleasantly situated in a hilly district to the east of Clun Forest,
+climbing the flank and occupying the summit of an eminence. Of the
+castle of the bishops of Hereford, which gave the town its name, there
+are only the slightest fragments remaining. The town has some
+agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 1867 acres.
+
+  Bishop's Castle was included in the manor of Lydbury, which belonged
+  to the church of Hereford before the Conquest. The castle, at first
+  called Lydbury Castle, was built by one of the bishops of Hereford
+  between 1085 and 1154, to protect his manor from the Welsh, and the
+  town which sprang up round the castle walls acquired the name of
+  Bishop's Castle in the 13th century. In 1292 the bishop claimed to
+  have a market every Friday, a fair on the eve, day and morrow of the
+  Decollation of St John, and assize of bread and ale in Bishop's
+  Castle, which his predecessors had held from time immemorial. Ten
+  years later he received a grant from Richard II. of a market every
+  Wednesday and a fair on the 2nd of November and two days following.
+  Although the town was evidently a borough by the 13th century, since
+  the burgesses are mentioned as early as 1292, it has no charter
+  earlier than the incorporation charter granted by Queen Elizabeth in
+  1572. This was confirmed by James I. in 1617 and by James II. in 1688.
+  In 1584 Bishop's Castle returned two members to parliament, and was
+  represented until 1832, when it was disfranchised.
+
+
+
+
+BISHOP STORTFORD, a market town in the Hertford parliamentary division
+of Hertfordshire, England; 30½ m. N.N.E. from London by the Cambridge
+line of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7143.
+It lies on the river Stort, close to the county boundary with Essex, and
+has water-communication with London through the Lea and Stort
+Navigation. The church of St Michael, standing high above the valley, is
+a fine embattled Perpendicular building with western tower and spire.
+The high school, formerly the grammar school, was founded in the time of
+Elizabeth. Here were educated Sir Henry Chauncy, an early historian of
+Hertfordshire (d. 1719), and Cecil Rhodes, who was born at Bishop
+Stortford in 1853. There are a Nonconformist grammar school, a diocesan
+training college for mistresses, and other educational establishments.
+The industries include brewing and malting, coach-building, lime-burning
+and founding, and there are important horse and cattle markets.
+
+  Before the Conquest the manor of Bishop Stortford is said to have
+  belonged to Eddeva the Fair, wife of Harold, who sold it to the bishop
+  of London, from whom it was taken by William the Conqueror. William
+  restored it after a few years, and with it gave the bishop a small
+  castle called Waytemore, of which there are scanty remains. The
+  dungeon of this castle, called "Bishop's Hole" or "Bishop's Prison,"
+  was used as an ecclesiastical prison until the 16th century. The town
+  now possesses no early incorporation charters, and although both
+  Chauncy and Salmon in their histories of Hertfordshire state that it
+  was created a borough by charter of King John in 1206, the charter
+  cannot now be found. The first mention of Bishop Stortford as a
+  borough occurs in 1311, in which year the burgesses returned two
+  members to parliament. The town was represented from that date until
+  1332, and again in 1335-1336, but the privilege was then allowed to
+  lapse and has never been revived.
+
+
+
+
+BISKRA, a town of Algeria, in the arrondissement of Batna, department of
+Constantine, 150 m. S.W. of the city of Constantine and connected with
+it and with Philippeville by rail. It lies in the Sahara 360 ft. above
+the sea, on the right bank of the Wad Biskra, a river which, often
+nearly dry for many months in the year, becomes a mighty torrent after
+one or two days' rain in winter. The name Biskra applies to a union of
+five or six villages of the usual Saharan type, scattered through an
+oasis 3 m. in length by less than 1 m. broad, and separated by huge
+gardens full of palm and olive trees. The houses are built of hardened
+mud, with doors and roof of palm wood. The foreign settlement is on the
+north of the oasis; it consists of a broad main street, the rue Berthe
+(from which a few side streets branch at right angles), lined with
+European houses, the whole in the style of a typical French winter
+resort, a beautiful public garden, with the church in the centre, an
+arcade, a pretentious _mairie_ in pseudo-Moorish style with entrance
+guarded by terra-cotta lions, some good shops, a number of excellent
+hotels and cafes, a casino, clubs, and, near by, a street of dancing and
+singing girls of the tribe of Walad-Nail. East of the public garden is
+Fort St Germain, named after an officer killed in the insurrection of
+the Zaatcha in 1849; it is capable of resisting any attack of the Arabs,
+and extensive enough to shelter the whole of the civil population, who
+took refuge therein during the rebellion of 1871. It contains barracks,
+hospital and government offices. To the south-east lies the Villa Landon
+with magnificent gardens filled with tropical plants. The population
+(1906) of the chief settlement was 4218, of the whole oasis 10,413.
+
+From November to April the climate of Biskra is delightful. Nowhere in
+Algeria can be found more genial temperature or clearer skies, and while
+in summer the thermometer often registers 110° F. in the shade, and 90°
+at night, the pure dryness of the air in this practically rainless
+region makes the heat endurable. The only drawback to the climat is the
+prevalence of high cold winds in winter. These winds cause temperatures
+as low as 36°, but the mean reading, on an average of ten years, is 73°.
+
+In the oasis are some 200,000 fruit trees, of which about 150,000 are
+date-palms, the rest being olives, pomegranates and apricots. In the
+centre of the oasis is the old kasbah or citadel.
+
+In 1844 the duc d'Aumale occupied this fort, and here, on the night of
+the 12th of May of that year, the 68 men who formed the French garrison
+were, with one exception, massacred by Arabs. In the fort are a few
+fragments of Roman work--all that remains of the Roman post Ad Piscinam.
+
+Biskra is the capital of the Ziban (plural of Zab), a race of mixed
+Berber and Arab origin, whose villages extend from the southern slopes
+of the Aures to the Shat Melrir. These villages, built in oases dotted
+over the desert, nestle in groves of date-palms and fruit trees and
+waving fields of barley. The most interesting village is that of Sidi
+Okba, 12 m. south-east of Biskra. It is built of houses of one story
+made of sun-dried bricks. The mosque is square, with a flat roof
+supported on clay columns, and crowned by a minaret. In the north-west
+corner of the mosque is the tomb of Sidi Okba, the leader of the Arabs
+who in the 1st century of the Hegira conquered Africa for Islam from
+Egypt to Tangier. Sidi Okba was killed by the Berbers near this place in
+A.D. 682. On his tomb is the inscription in Cufic characters, "This is
+the tomb of Okba, son of Nafi. May God have mercy upon him." No older
+Arabic inscription is known to exist in Africa.
+
+
+
+
+BISLEY, a village of Surrey, England, 3½ m. N.W. of Woking. The ranges
+of the National Rifle Association were transferred from Wimbledon here
+in 1890. (See RIFLE.)
+
+
+
+
+BISMARCK, OTTO EDUARD LEOPOLD VON, PRINCE, duke of Lauenburg
+(1815-1898), German statesman, was born on the 1st of April 1815, at the
+manor-house of Schönhausen, his father's seat in the mark of
+Brandenburg. The family has, since the 14th century, belonged to the
+landed gentry, and many members had held high office in the kingdom of
+Prussia. His father (d. 1845), of whom he always spoke with much
+affection, was a quiet, unassuming man, who retired from the army in
+early life with the rank of captain of cavalry (_Rittmeister_). His
+mother, a daughter of Mencken, cabinet secretary to the king, was a
+woman of strong character and ability, who had been brought up at Berlin
+under the "Aufklärung." Her ambition was centred in her sons, but
+Bismarck in his recollections of his childhood missed the influences of
+maternal tenderness. There were several children of the marriage, which
+took place in 1806, but all died in childhood except Bernhard
+(1810-1893), Otto, and one sister, Malvina (b. 1827), who married in
+1845 Oscar von Arnim. Young Bismarck was educated in Berlin, first at a
+private school, then at the gymnasium of the Graue Kloster (Grey
+Friars). At the age of seventeen he went to the university of Göttingen,
+where he spent a little over a year; he joined the corps of the
+Hannoverana and took a leading part in the social life of the students.
+He completed his studies at Berlin, and in 1835 passed the examinations
+which admitted him to the public service. He was intended for the
+diplomatic service, but spent some months at Aix-la-Chapelle in
+administrative work, and then was transferred to Potsdam and the
+judicial side. He soon retired from the public service; he conceived a
+great distaste for it, and had shown himself defective in discipline and
+regularity. In 1839, after his mother's death, he undertook, with his
+brother, the management of the family estates in Pomerania; at this time
+most of the estate attached to Schönhausen had to be sold. In 1844,
+after the marriage of his sister, he went to live with his father at
+Schönhausen. He and his brother took an active part in local affairs,
+and in 1846 he was appointed _Deichhauptmann_, an office in which he was
+responsible for the care of the dykes by which the country, in the
+neighbourhood of the Elbe, was preserved from inundation. During these
+years he travelled in England, France and Switzerland. The influence of
+his mother, and his own wide reading and critical character, made him at
+one time inclined to hold liberal opinions on government and religion,
+but he was strongly affected by the religious revival of the early years
+of the reign of Frederick William IV.; his opinions underwent a great
+change, and under the influence of the neighbouring country gentlemen he
+acquired those strong principles in favour of monarchical government as
+the expression of the Christian state, of which he was to become the
+most celebrated exponent. His religious convictions were strengthened by
+his marriage to Johanna von Puttkamer, which took place in 1847.
+
+
+  Parliamentary career.
+
+In the same year he entered public life, being chosen as substitute for
+the representative of the lower nobility of his district in the
+estates-general, which were in that year summoned to Berlin. He took his
+seat with extreme right, and distinguished himself by the vigour and
+originality with which he defended the rights of the king and the
+Christian monarchy against the Liberals. When the revolution broke out
+in the following year he offered to bring the peasants of Schönhausen to
+Berlin in order to defend the king against the revolutionary party, and
+in the last meeting of the estates voted in a minority of two against
+the address thanking the king for granting a constitution. He did not
+sit in any of the assemblies summoned during the revolutionary year, but
+took a very active part in the formation of a union of the Conservative
+party, and was one of the founders of the _Kreuzzeitung_, which has
+since then been the organ of the Monarchical party in Prussia. In the
+new parliament which was elected at the beginning of 1849, he sat for
+Brandenburg, and was one of the most frequent and most incisive speakers
+of what was called the Junker party. He took a prominent part in the
+discussions on the new Prussian constitution, always defending the power
+of the king. His speeches of this period show great debating skill,
+combined with strong originality and imagination. His constant theme
+was, that the party disputes were a struggle for power between the
+forces of revolution, which derived their strength from the fighters on
+the barricades, and the Christian monarchy, and that between these
+opposed principles no compromise was possible. He took also a
+considerable part in the debates on the foreign policy of the Prussian
+government; he defended the government for not accepting the Frankfort
+constitution, and opposed the policy of Radowitz, on the ground that the
+Prussian king would be subjected to the control of a non-Prussian
+parliament. The only thing, he said, that had come out of the
+revolutionary year unharmed, and had saved Prussia from dissolution and
+Germany from anarchy, was the Prussian army and the Prussian civil
+service; and in the debates on foreign policy he opposed the numerous
+plans for bringing about the union of Germany, by subjecting the crown
+and Prussia to a common German parliament. He had a seat in the
+parliament of Erfurt, but only went there in order to oppose the
+constitution which the parliament had framed. He foresaw that the policy
+of the government would lead it into a position when it would have to
+fight against Austria on behalf of a constitution by which Prussia
+itself would be dissolved, and he was, therefore, one of the few
+prominent politicians who defended the complete change of front which
+followed the surrender of Olmütz.
+
+
+  Diplomatic career.
+
+It was probably his speeches on German policy which induced the king to
+appoint him Prussian representative at the restored diet of Frankfort in
+1851. The appointment was a bold one, as he was entirely without
+diplomatic experience, but he justified the confidence placed in him.
+During the eight years he spent at Frankfort he acquired an unrivalled
+knowledge of German politics. He was often used for important missions,
+as in 1852, when he was sent to Vienna. He was entrusted with the
+negotiations by which the duke of Augustenburg was persuaded to assent
+to the arrangements by which he resigned his claims to Schleswig and
+Holstein. The period he spent at Frankfort, however, was of most
+importance because of the change it brought about in his own political
+opinions. When he went to Frankfort he was still under the influence of
+the extreme Prussian Conservatives, men like the Gerlachs, who regarded
+the maintenance of the principle of the Christian monarchy against the
+revolution as the chief duty of the Prussian government. He was prepared
+on this ground for a close alliance with Austria. He found, however, a
+deliberate intention on the part of Austria to humble Prussia, and to
+degrade her from the position of an equal power, and also great jealousy
+of Prussia among the smaller German princes, many of whom owed their
+thrones to the Prussian soldiers, who, as in Saxony and Baden, had
+crushed the insurgents. He therefore came to the conclusion that if
+Prussia was to regain the position she had lost she must be prepared for
+the opposition of Austria, and must strengthen herself by alliances with
+other powers. The solidarity of Conservative interests appeared to him
+now a dangerous fiction. At the time of the Crimean War he advocated
+alliance with Russia, and it was to a great extent owing to his advice
+that Prussia did not join the western powers. Afterwards he urged a good
+understanding with Napoleon, but his advice was met by the insuperable
+objection of King Frederick William IV. to any alliance with a ruler of
+revolutionary origin.
+
+The change of ministry which followed the establishment of a regency in
+1857 made it desirable to appoint a new envoy at Frankfort, and in 1858
+Bismarck was appointed ambassador at St Petersburg, where he remained
+for four years. During this period he acquired some knowledge of
+Russian, and gained the warm regard of the tsar, as well as of the
+dowager-empress, herself a Prussian princess. During the first two years
+he had little influence on the Prussian government; the Liberal
+ministers distrusted his known opinions on parliamentary government, and
+the monarchical feeling of the prince regent was offended by Bismarck's
+avowed readiness for alliance with the Italians and his disregard of the
+rights of other princes. The failure of the ministry, and the
+estrangement between King William and the Liberal party, opened to him
+the way to power. Roon, who was appointed minister of war in 1861, was
+an old friend of his, and through him Bismarck was thenceforward kept
+closely informed of the condition of affairs in Berlin. On several
+occasions the prospect of entering the ministry was open to him, but
+nothing came of it, apparently because he required a free hand in
+foreign affairs, and this the king was not prepared to give him. When an
+acute crisis arose out of the refusal of parliament, in 1862, to vote
+the money required for the reorganization of the army, which the king
+and Roon had carried through, he was summoned to Berlin; but the king
+was still unable to make up his mind to appoint him, although he felt
+that Bismarck was the only man who had the courage and capacity for
+conducting the struggle with parliament. He was, therefore, in June,
+made ambassador at Paris as a temporary expedient. There he had the
+opportunity for renewing the good understanding with Napoleon which had
+been begun in 1857. He also paid a short visit to England, but it does
+not appear that this had any political results. In September the
+parliament, by a large majority, threw out the budget, and the king,
+having nowhere else to turn for help, at Roon's advice summoned Bismarck
+to Berlin and appointed him minister president and foreign minister.
+
+
+  Ministry.
+
+Bismarck's duty as minister was to carry on the government against the
+wishes of the lower house, so as to enable the king to complete and
+maintain the reorganized army. The opposition of the House was supported
+by the country and by a large party at court, including the queen and
+crown prince. The indignation which his appointment caused was intense;
+he was known only by the reputation which in his early years he had won
+as a violent ultra-Conservative, and the apprehensions were increased by
+his first speech, in which he said that the German question could not be
+settled by speeches and parliamentary decrees, but only by blood and
+iron. His early fall was predicted, and it was feared that he might
+bring down the monarchy with him. Standing almost alone he succeeded in
+the task he had undertaken. For four years he ruled without a budget,
+taking advantage of an omission in the constitution which did not
+specify what was to happen in case the crown and the two Houses could
+not agree on a budget. The conflict of the ministers and the House
+assumed at times the form of bitter personality hostility; in 1863 the
+ministers refused any longer to attend the sittings, and Bismarck
+challenged Virchow, one of his strongest opponents, to a duel, which,
+however, did not take place. In 1852 he had fought a duel with pistols
+against Georg von Vindre, a political opponent. In June 1863, as soon as
+parliament had risen, Bismarck published ordinances controlling the
+liberty of the press, which, though in accordance with the letter,
+seemed opposed to the intentions of the constitution, and it was on this
+occasion that the crown prince, hitherto a silent opponent, publicly
+dissociated himself from the policy of his father's ministers. Bismarck
+depended for his position solely on the confidence of the king, and the
+necessity for defending himself against the attempts to destroy this
+confidence added greatly to the suspiciousness of his nature. He was,
+however, really indispensable, for his resignation must be followed by a
+Liberal ministry, parliamentary control over the army, and probably the
+abdication of the king. Not only, therefore, was he secure in the
+continuance of the king's support, but he had also the complete control
+of foreign affairs. Thus he could afford to ignore the criticism of the
+House, and the king was obliged to acquiesce in the policy of a minister
+to whom he owed so much.
+
+
+  Foreign policy.
+
+He soon gave to the policy of the monarchy a resolution which had long
+been wanting. When the emperor of Austria summoned a meeting of the
+German princes at Frankfort to discuss a reform of the confederation,
+Bismarck insisted that the king of Prussia must not attend. He remained
+away, and his absence in itself made the congress unavailing. There can
+be no doubt that from the time he entered on office Bismarck was
+determined to bring to an issue the long struggle for supremacy in
+Germany between the house of Habsburg and the house of Hohenzollern.
+Before he was able to complete his preparations for this, two unforeseen
+occurrences completely altered the European situation, and caused the
+conflict to be postponed for three years. The first was the outbreak of
+rebellion in Poland. Bismarck, an inheritor of the older Prussian
+traditions, and recollecting how much of the greatness of Prussia had
+been gained at the expense of the Poles, offered his help to the tsar.
+By this he placed himself in opposition to the universal feeling of
+western Europe; no act of his life added so much to the repulsion with
+which at this time he was regarded as an enemy of liberty and right. He
+won, however, the gratitude of the tsar and the support of Russia, which
+in the next years was to be of vital service to him. Even more serious
+were the difficulties arising in Denmark. On the death of King Frederick
+VII. in 1863, Prince Frederick of Augustenburg came forward as claimant
+to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which had hitherto been joined
+to the crown of Denmark. He was strongly supported by the whole German
+nation and by many of its princes. Bismarck, however, once more was
+obliged to oppose the current of national feeling, which imperiously
+demanded that the German duchies should be rescued from a foreign yoke.
+Prussia was bound by the treaty of London of 1852, which guaranteed the
+integrity of the Danish monarchy; to have disregarded this would have
+been to bring about a coalition against Germany similar to that of 1851.
+Moreover, he held that it would be of no advantage to Prussia to create
+a new German state; if Denmark were to lose the duchies, he desired that
+Prussia should acquire them, and to recognize the Augustenburg claims
+would make this impossible. His resistance to the national desire made
+him appear a traitor to his country. To check the agitation he turned
+for help to Austria; and an alliance of the two powers, so lately at
+variance, was formed. He then falsified all the predictions of the
+opposition by going to war with Denmark, not, as they had required, in
+support of Augustenburg, but on the ground that the king of Denmark had
+violated his promise not to oppress his German subjects. Austria
+continued to act with Prussia, and, after the defeat of the Danes, at
+the peace of Vienna the sovereignty of the duchies was surrendered to
+the two allies--the first step towards annexation by Prussia. There is
+no part of Bismarck's diplomatic work which deserves such careful study
+as these events. Watched as he was by countless enemies at home and
+abroad, a single false step would have brought ruin and disgrace on
+himself; the growing national excitement would have burst through all
+restraint, and again, as fifteen years before, Germany divided and
+unorganized would have had to capitulate to the orders of foreign powers
+(see SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION).
+
+
+  War with Austria.
+
+The peace of Vienna left him once more free to return to his older
+policy. For the next eighteen months he was occupied in preparing for
+war with Austria. For this war the was alone responsible; he undertook
+it deliberately as the only means of securing Prussian ascendancy in
+Germany. The actual cause of dispute was the disposition of the
+conquered duchies, for Austria now wished to put Augustenburg in as
+duke, a plan to which Bismarck would not assent. In 1865 a provisional
+arrangement was made by the treaty of Gastein, for Bismarck was not yet
+ready. He would not risk a war unless he was certain of success, and for
+this he required the alliance of Italy and French support; both he
+secured during the next year. In October 1865 he visited Napoleon at
+Biarritz and Paris. No formal treaty was made, but Napoleon promised to
+regard favourably an extension of Prussian power in Germany; while
+Bismarck led the emperor to believe that Prussia would help him in
+extending the frontier of France. A treaty of alliance with Italy was
+arranged in the spring of 1866; and Bismarck then with much difficulty
+overcame the reluctance of the king to embark in a war with his old
+ally. The results of the war entirely justified his calculations.
+Prussia, though opposed by all the German states except a few
+principalities in the north, completely defeated all her enemies, and at
+the end of a few weeks the whole of Germany lay at her feet.
+
+
+  Settlement of 1866.
+
+The war of 1866 is more than that of 1870 the crisis of modern German
+history. It finally settled the controversy which had begun more than a
+hundred years before, and left Prussia the dominant power in Germany. It
+determined that the unity of Germany should be brought about not by
+revolutionary means as in 1848, not as in 1849 had been attempted by
+voluntary agreement of the princes, not by Austria, but by the sword of
+Prussia. This was the great work of Bismarck's life; he had completed
+the programme foreshadowed in his early speeches, and finished the work
+of Frederick the Great. It is also the turning-point in Bismarck's own
+life. Having secured the dominance of the crown in Prussia and of
+Prussia in Germany, he could afford to make a reconciliation with the
+parties which had been his chief opponents, and turn to them for help in
+building up a new Germany. The settlement of 1866 was peculiarly his
+work. We must notice, first, how in arranging the terms of peace he
+opposed the king and the military party who wished to advance on Vienna
+and annex part of Austrian Silesia; with greater foresight he looked to
+renewing the old friendship with Austria, and insisted (even with the
+threat of resignation) that no territory should be demanded. The
+southern states he treated with equal moderation, and thereby was able
+to arrange an offensive and defensive alliance with them. On the other
+hand, in order to secure the complete control of North Germany, which
+was his immediate object, he required that the whole of Hanover,
+Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Nassau and the city of Frankfort, as well as the
+Elbe duchies, should be absorbed in Prussia. He then formed a separate
+confederation of the North German states, but did not attempt to unite
+the whole of Germany, partly because of the internal difficulties which
+this would have produced, partly because it would have brought about a
+war with France. In the new confederation he became sole responsible
+minister, with the title _Bundes-Kanzler_; this position he held till
+1890, in addition to his former post of premier minister. In 1871 the
+title was altered to _Reichs-Kanzler_.
+
+The reconciliation with the Prussian parliament he effected by bringing
+in a bill of indemnity for the money which had been spent without leave
+of parliament. The Radicals still continued their opposition, but he
+thereby made possible the formation of a large party of moderate
+Liberals, who thenceforward supported him in his new Nationalist policy.
+He aslo, in the constitution for the new confederation, introduced a
+parliament (_Bundestag_) elected by universal suffrage. This was the
+chief demand of the revolutionists in 1848; it was one to which in his
+early life he had been strongly opposed. His experience at Frankfort had
+diminished his dislike of popular representation, and it was probably to
+the advice of Lassalle that his adoption of universal suffrage was due.
+He first publicly proposed it just before the war; by carrying it out,
+notwithstanding the apprehensions of many Liberal politicians, he placed
+the new constitution on a firmer base than would otherwise have been
+possible.
+
+Up to 1866 he had always appeared to be an opponent of the National
+party in Germany, now he became their leader. His next task was to
+complete the work which was half-finished, and it was this which brought
+about the second of the great wars which he undertook.
+
+
+  Bismarck and France.
+
+The relations with Napoleon III. form one of the most interesting but
+obscurest episodes in Bismarck's career. We have seen that he did not
+share the common prejudice against co-operation with France. He found
+Napoleon willing to aid Prussia as he had aided Piedmont, and was ready
+to accept his assistance. There was this difference, that he asked only
+for neutrality, not armed assistance, and it is improbable that he ever
+intended to alienate any German territory; he showed himself, however,
+on more than one occasion, ready to discuss plans for extending French
+territory, on the side of Belgium and Switzerland. Napoleon, who had not
+anticipated the rapid success of Prussia, after the battle of Königgratz
+at the request of Austria came forward as mediator, and there were a few
+days during which it was probable that Prussia would have to meet a
+French attempt to dictate terms of peace. Bismarck in this crisis by
+deferring to the emperor in appearance avoided the danger, but he knew
+that he had been deceived, and the cordial understanding was never
+renewed. Immediately after an armistice had been arranged, Benedetti, at
+the orders of the French government, demanded as recompense a large
+tract of German territory on the left bank of the Rhine. This Bismarck
+peremptorily refused, declaring that he would rather have war. Benedetti
+then made another proposal, submitting a draft treaty by which France
+was to support Prussia in adding the South German states to the new
+confederation, and Germany was to support France in the annexation of
+Luxemburg and Belgium. Bismarck discussed, but did not conclude the
+treaty; he kept, however, a copy of the draft in Benedetti's
+handwriting, and published it in _The Times_ in the summer of 1870 so as
+to injure the credit of Napoleon in England. The failure of the scheme
+made a contest with France inevitable, at least unless the Germans were
+willing to forgo the purpose of completing the work of German unity, and
+during the next four years the two nations were each preparing for the
+struggle, and each watching to take the other at a disadvantage.
+
+
+  The Ems telegram.
+
+It is necessary, then, to keep in mind the general situation in
+considering Bismarck's conduct in the months immediately preceding the
+war of 1870. In 1867 there was a dispute regarding the right to garrison
+Luxemburg. Bismarck then produced the secret treaties with the southern
+states, an act which was, as it were, a challenge to France by the whole
+of Germany. During the next three years the Ultramontane party hoped to
+bring about an anti-Prussian revolution, and Napoleon was working for an
+alliance with Austria, where Beust, an old opponent of Bismarck's, was
+chancellor. Bismarck was doubtless well informed as to the progress of
+the negotiations, for he had established intimate relations with the
+Hungarians. The pressure at home for completing the work of German unity
+was so strong that he could with difficulty resist it, and in 1870 he
+was much embarrassed by a request from Baden to be admitted to the
+confederation, which he had to refuse. It is therefore not surprising
+that he eagerly welcomed the opportunity of gaining the goodwill of
+Spain, and supported by all the means in his power the offer made by
+Marshal Prim that Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern should be chosen king
+of that country. It was only by his urgent and repeated representations
+that the prince was persuaded against his will to accept. The
+negotiations were carried out with the greatest secrecy, but as soon as
+the acceptance was made known the French government intervened and
+declared that the project was inadmissable. Bismarck was away at Varzin,
+but on his instructions the Prussian foreign office in answer to
+inquiries denied all knowledge or responsibility. This was necessary,
+because it would have caused a bad impression in Germany had he gone to
+war with France in support of the prince's candidature. The king, by
+receiving Benedetti at Ems, departed from the policy of reserve Bismarck
+himself adopted, and Bismarck (who had now gone to Berlin) found himself
+in a position of such difficulty that he contemplated resignation. The
+French however, by changing and extending their demands enabled him to
+find a cause of war of such nature that the whole of Germany would be
+united against French agression. France asked for a letter of apology,
+and Benedetti personally requested from the king a promise that he would
+never allow the candidature to be resumed. Bismarck published the
+telegram in which this information and the refusal of the king were
+conveyed, but by omitting part of the telegram made it appear that the
+request and refusal had both been conveyed in a more abrupt form than
+had really been the case.[1] But even apart from this, the publication
+of the French demand, which could not be complied with, must have
+brought about a war.
+
+In the campaign of 1870-71 Bismarck accompanied the headquarters of the
+army, as he had done in 1866. He was present at the battle of Gravelotte
+and at the surrender of Sedan, and it was on the morning of the 2nd of
+September that he had his famous meeting with Napoleon after the
+surrender of the emperor. He accompanied the king to Paris, and spent
+many months at Versailles. Here he was occupied chiefly with the
+arrangments for admitting the southern states to the confederation, and
+the establishment of the empire. He also underwent much anxiety lest the
+efforts of Thiers to bring about an interference by the neutral powers
+might be successful. He had to carry on the negotiations with the French
+preliminary to the surrender of Paris, and to enforce upon them the
+German terms of peace.
+
+
+  After 1870.
+
+For Bismarck's political career after 1870 we must refer to the article
+GERMANY, for he was thenceforward entirely absorbed in the affairs of
+his country. The foreign policy he controlled absolutely. As chancellor
+he was responsible for the whole internal policy of the empire, and his
+influence is to be seen in every department of state, especially,
+however, in the great change of policy after 1878. During the earlier
+period the estrangement from the Conservatives, which had begun in 1866,
+became very marked, and brought about a violent quarrel with many of his
+old friends, which culminated in the celebrated Arnim trial. He incurred
+much criticism during the struggle with the Roman Catholic Church, and
+in 1873 he was shot at and slightly wounded by a youth called Rullmann,
+who professed to be an adherent of the Clerical party. Once before, in
+1866, just before the outbreak of war, his life had been attempted by a
+young man called Cohen, a native of Württemberg, who wished to save
+Germany from a fratricidal war. In 1872 he retired from the presidency
+of the Prussian ministry, but returned after a few months. On several
+occasions he offered to retire, but the emperor always refused his
+consent, on the last time with the word "Never." In 1877 he took a long
+leave of absence for ten months. His health at this time was very bad.
+In 1878 he presided over the congress of Berlin. The following years
+were chiefly occupied, besides foreign affairs, which were always his
+first care, with important commercial reforms, and he held at this time
+also the office of Prussian minister of trade in addition to his other
+posts. During this period his relations with the Reichstag were often
+very unsatisfactory, and at no time did he resort so freely to
+prosecutions in the law-courts in order to injure his opponents, so that
+the expression _Bismarck-Beleidigung_ was invented. He was engaged at
+this time in a great struggle with the Social-Democrats, whom he tried
+to crush by exceptional penal laws. The death of the emperor William in
+1888 made a serious difference in his position. He had been bound to him
+by a long term of loyal service, which had been rewarded with equal
+loyalty. For his relations to the emperors Frederick and William II.,
+and for the events connected with his dismissal from office in March
+1890, we must refer to the articles under those names.
+
+After his retirement he resided at Friedrichsruh, near Hamburg, a house
+on his Leuenburg estates. His criticisms of the government, given
+sometimes in conversation, sometimes in the columns of the _Hamburger
+Nachrichten_, caused an open breach between him and the emperor; and the
+new chancellor, Count Caprivi, in a circular despatch which was
+afterwards published, warned all German envoys that no real importance
+must be attached to what he said. When he visited Vienna for his son's
+wedding the German ambassador, Prince Reuss, was forbidden to take any
+notice of him. A reconciliation was effected in 1893. In 1895 his
+eightieth birthday was celebrated with great enthusiasm: the Reichstag
+alone, owing to the opposition of the Clericals and the Socialists,
+refused to vote an address. In 1891 he had been elected a member of the
+Reichstag, but he never took his seat. He died at Friedrichsruh on the
+31st of July 1898.
+
+Bismarck was made a count in 1865; in 1871 he received the rank of Fürst
+(prince). On his retirement the emperor created him duke of Lauenburg,
+but he never used the title, which was not inherited by his son. In 1866
+he received £60,000 as his share of the donation voted by the Reichstag
+for the victorious generals. With this he purchased the estate of Varzin
+in Pomerania, which henceforth he used as a country residence in
+preference to Schönhausen. In 1871 the emperor presented him with a
+large part of the domains of the duchy of Lauenburg. On his seventieth
+birthday a large sum of money (£270,000) was raised by public
+subscription, of which half was devoted to repurchasing the estate of
+Schönhausen for him, and the rest was used by him to establish a fund
+for the assistance of schoolmasters. As a young man he was an officer in
+the Landwehr and militia, and in addition to his civil honours he was
+eventually raised to the rank of general. Among the numerous orders he
+received we may mention that he was the first Protestant on whom the
+pope bestowed the order of Christ; this was done after the cessation of
+the Kulturkampf and the reference of the dispute with Spain concerning
+the Caroline Islands to the arbitration of the pope.
+
+Bismarck's wife died in 1894. He left one daughter and two sons. Herbert
+(1840-1904), the elder, was wounded at Mars-le-Tour, afterwards entered
+the foreign office, and acted as private secretary to his father
+(1871-1881). In 1882 he became councillor to the embassy at London, in
+1884 was transferred to St Petersburg, and in 1885 became
+under-secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1884 he had been
+elected to the Reichstag, but had to resign his seat when, in 1886, he
+was made secretary of state for foreign affairs and Prussian minister.
+He conducted many of the negotiations with Great Britain on colonial
+affairs. He retired in 1890 at the same time as his father, and in 1893
+was again elected to the Reichstag. He married Countess Margarete Hoyos
+in 1892, and died on the 18th of September 1904. He left two daughters
+and three sons, of whom the eldest, Otto Christian Archibald (b. 1897),
+succeeded to the princely title. The second son, Wilhelm, who was
+president of the province of Prussia, died in 1901. By his wife, Sybilla
+von Arnim-Kröchlendorff, he left three daughters and a son, Count
+Nikolaus (b. 1896).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The literature on Bismarck's life is very extensive, and
+  it is only possible to enumerate a few of the most important books.
+  The first place belongs to his own works. These include his own
+  memoirs, published after his death, under the title _Gedanken und
+  Erinnerungen_; there is an English translation, _Bismarck: his
+  Reflections and Reminiscences_ (London, 1898). They are incomplete,
+  but contain very valuable discussions on particular points. The
+  speeches are of the greatest importance both for his character and for
+  political history; of the numerous editions that by Horst Kehl, in 12
+  vols. (Stuttgart, 1892-1894), is the best; there is a cheap edition in
+  Reclam's _Universalbibliothek._ Bismarck was an admirable
+  letter-writer, and numbers of his private letters have been published;
+  a collected edition has been brought out by Horst Kohl. His letters to
+  his wife were published by Prince Herbert Bismarck (Stuttgart, 1900).
+  A translation of a small selection of the private letters was
+  published in 1876 by F. Maxse. Of great value for the years 1851-1858
+  is the corrspondence with General L. v. Gerlach, which has been edited
+  by Horst Kohl (3rd ed., Berlin, 1893). A selection of the political
+  letters was also published under the title _Politische Briefe aus den
+  Jahren 1849-1899_ (2nd ed., Berlin, 1890). Of far greater importance
+  are the collections of despatches and state papers edited by Herr v.
+  Poschinger. These include four volumes entitled _Preussen im
+  Bundestag, 1851-1859_ (4 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1885), which contain his
+  despatches during the time he was at Frankfort. Next in importance are
+  two works, _Bismarck als Volkswirth_ and _Aktenstucke zur
+  Wirthschaftspolitik des Fursten Bismarck_, which are part of the
+  collection of state papers, _Akenstucke zur Geschichte der
+  Wirthschaftspolitik in Preussen._ They contain full information on
+  Bismarck's commercial policy, including a number of important state
+  papers. A useful general collection is that by Ludwig Hahn, _Bismarck,
+  sein politisches Leben_, &c. (5 vols., Berlin, 1878-1891), which
+  includes a selection from letters, speeches and newspaper articles.
+  These collections have only been possible owing to the extreme
+  generosity which Bismarck showed in permitting the publication of
+  documents; he always professed to have no secrets. A full account of
+  the diplomatic history from 1863 to 1866 is given by Sybel in _Die
+  Begrundung des deutschen Reichs_ (Munich, 1889-1894), written with the
+  help of the Prussian archives. The last two volumes, covering
+  1866-1870, are of less value, as he was not able to use the archives
+  for this period. Poschinger has also edited a series of works in which
+  anecdotes, minutes of interviews and conversations are recorded; they
+  are, however, of very unequal value. They are _Bismarck und die
+  Parlamentarier, Furst Bismarck und der Bundesrath, Die Ansprache des
+  Fursten Bismarck, Neue Tischgesprache_, and _Bismarck und die
+  Diplomaten_. Selections from these have been published in English by
+  Charles Lowe, _The Tabletalk of Prince Bismarck_, and by Sidney
+  Whitman, _Conversations with Bismarck_. By far the fullest guide to
+  Bismarck's life is Horst Kohl's _Furst Bismarck, Regesten zu einer
+  wissenschaftlichen Biographie_ (Leipzig, 1891-1892), which contains a
+  record of Bismarck's actions on each day, with references to and
+  extracts from his letters and speeches. For the works of Moritz Busch,
+  which contain graphic pictures of his daily life, see the article
+  BUSCH. Further materials were published periodically in the
+  _Bismarck-Jahrbuch_, edited by Horst Kohl (Berlin, 1894-1896;
+  Stuttgart, 1897-1899). Herr v. Poschinger also brought out a _Bismarck
+  Portfeuille_. Of German biographies may be mentioned Hans Blum,
+  _Bismarck und seine Zeit_ (6 vols., Munich, 1894-1895), with a volume
+  of appendices, &c. (1898); Heyck, _Bismarck_ (Bielefeld, 1898);
+  Kreutzer, _Otto von Bismarck_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1900);
+  Klein-Hattingen, _Bismarck und seine Welt, 1815-1871_, Bd. i. (Berlin,
+  1902); Lenz, _Geschichte Bismarcks_ (Leipzig, 1902); Penzler, _Furst
+  Bismarck nach seiner Entlassung_ (7 vols., ib. 1897-1898); Liman, one
+  volume under the same title (ib. 1901). There are English biographies
+  by Charles Lowe, _Bismarck, a Political Biography_ (revised edition in
+  1 vol., 1895), by James Headlam (1899), and by F. Stearns
+  (Philadelphia, 1900). A useful bibliography of all works on Bismarck
+  up to 1895 is Paul Schulze and Otto Koller's _Bismarck-Literatur_
+  (Leipzig, 1896).     (J. W. He.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] It was not till many years later that our knowledge of these
+    events (which is still incomplete) was established; in 1894 the
+    publication of the memoirs of the king of Rumania showed, what had
+    hitherto been denied, that Bismarck had taken a leading part in
+    urging the election of the prince of Hohenzollern. It was in 1892
+    that the language used by Bismarck himself made it necessary for the
+    German government to publish the original form of the Ems telegram.
+
+
+
+
+BISMARCK, the capital of North Dakota, U.S.A., and the county-seat of
+Burleigh county, on the E. bank of the Missouri river, in the S. central
+part of the state. Pop. (1890) 2186, (1900) 3319, of whom 746 were
+foreign-born, (1905) 4913, (1910) 5443. It is on the main line of the
+Northern Pacific, and on the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie
+railways; and steamboats run from here to Mannhaven, Mercer county, and
+Fort Yates, Morton county. The city is about 1650 ft. above sea-level.
+It contains the state capitol, the state penitentiary, a U.S. land
+office, a U.S. surveyor-general's office, a U.S. Indian school and a
+U.S. weather station; about a mile S. of the city is Fort Lincoln, a
+United States army post. Bismarck is the headquarters for navigation of
+the upper Missouri river, is situated in a good agricultural region, and
+has a large wholesale trade, shipping grain, hides, furs, wool and coal.
+It was founded in 1873, and was chartered as a city in 1876; from 1883
+to 1889 it was the capital of Dakota Territory, on the division of which
+it became the capital of North Dakota.
+
+
+
+
+BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO, the collective name of a large number of islands
+lying N. and N.E. of New Guinea, between 1° and 7° S., and 146° and 153°
+E., belonging to Germany. The largest island is New Pomerania, and the
+archipelago also includes New Mecklenburg, New Hanover, with small
+attendant islands, the Admiralty Islands and a chain of islands off the
+coast of New Guinea, the whole system lying in the form of a great
+amphitheatre of oval shape. The archipelago was named in honour of the
+first chancellor of the German empire, after a German protectorate had
+been declared in 1884. (See ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, NEW MECKLENBURG, NEW
+POMERANIA, NEW GUINEA.)
+
+
+
+
+BISMILLAH, an Arabic exclamation, meaning "in the name of God."
+
+
+
+
+BISMUTH, a metallic chemical element; symbol Bi, atomic weight 208.5 (O
+= 16). It was probably unknown to the Greeks and Romans, but during the
+middle ages it became quite familiar, notwithstanding its frequent
+confusion with other metals. In 1450 Basil Valentine referred to it by
+the name "wismut," and characterized it as a metal; some years later
+Paracelsus termed it "wissmat," and, in allusion to its brittle nature,
+affirmed it to be a "bastard" or "half-metal"; Georgius Agricola used
+the form "wissmuth," latinized to "bisemutum," and also the term
+"plumbum cineareum." Its elementary nature was imperfectly understood;
+and the impure specimens obtained by the early chemists explain, in some
+measure, its confusion with tin, lead, antimony, zinc and other metals;
+in 1595 Andreas Libavius confused it with antimony, and in 1675 Nicolas
+Lemery with zinc. These obscurities began to be finally cleared up with
+the researches of Johann Heinrich Pott (1692-1777), a pupil of Stahl,
+published in his _Exercitationes chemicae de Wismutho_ (1769), and of N.
+Geoffroy, son of Claude Joseph Geoffroy, whose contribution to our
+knowledge of this metal appeared in the _Mémoires de l'académie
+française_ for 1753. Torbern Olof Bergman reinvestigated its properties
+and determined its reactions; his account, which was published in his
+_Opuscula_, contains the first fairly accurate description of the metal.
+
+_Ores and Minerals._--The principal source of bismuth is the native
+metal, which is occasionally met with as a mineral, usually in
+reticulated and arborescent shapes or as foliated and granular masses
+with a crystalline fracture. Although bismuth is readily obtained in
+fine crystals by artificial means, yet natural crystals are rare and
+usually indistinct; they belong to the rhombohedral system and a
+cube-like rhombohedron with interfacial angles of 92° 20' is the
+predominating form. There is a perfect cleavage perpendicular to the
+trigonal axis of the crystals; the fact that only two (opposite) corners
+of the cube-like crystals can be truncated by cleavage at once
+distinguishes them from true cubes. When not tarnished, the mineral has
+a silver-white colour with a tinge of red, and the lustre is metallic.
+Hardness 2-2½; specific gravity 9.70-9.83. The slight variations in
+specific gravity are due to the presence of small amounts of arsenic,
+sulphur or tellurium, or to enclosed impurities.
+
+Bismuth occurs in metalliferous veins traversing gneiss or clay-slate,
+and is usually associated with ores of silver and cobalt. Well-known
+localities are Schneeberg in Saxony and Joachimsthal in Bohemia; at the
+former it has been found as arborescent groups penetrating brown jasper,
+which material has occasionally been cut and polished for small
+ornaments. The mineral has been found in some Cornish mines and is
+fairly abundant in Bolivia (near Sorata, and at Tasna in Potosi). It is
+the chief commercial source of bismuth.
+
+The oxide, bismuth ochre, Bi2O3, and the sulphide, bismuth glance or
+bismuthite, are also of commercial importance. The former is found,
+generally mixed with iron, copper and arsenic oxides, in Bohemia,
+Siberia, Cornwall, France (Meymac) and other localities; it also occurs
+admixed with bismuth carbonate and hydrate. The hydrated carbonate,
+bismutite, is of less importance; it occurs in Cornwall, Bolivia,
+Arizona and elsewhere.
+
+Of the rarer bismuth minerals we may notice the following:--the complex
+sulphides, copper bismuth glance or wittichenite, BiCu3S3, silver
+bismuth glance, bismuth cobalt pyrites, bismuth nickel pyrites or
+saynite, needle ore (patrinite or aikinite), BiCuPbS3, emplectite,
+CuBiS2, and kobellite, BiAsPb3S6; the sulphotelluride tetradymite; the
+selenide guanajuatite, Bi2Se3, the basic tellurate montanite,
+Bi2(OH)4TeOe; the silicates eulytite and agricolite, Bi4(SiO2)3; and the
+urnayl arsenate walpurgite, Bi(UO2),(OH)24(A3O4)4.
+
+  _Metallurgy._--Bismuth is extracted from its ores by dry, wet, or
+  electro-matallurgical methods, the choice depending upon the
+  composition of the ore and economic conditions. The dry process is
+  more frequently practised, for the easy reducibility of the oxide and
+  sulphide, together with the low melting-point of the metal, renders it
+  possible to effect a ready separation of the metal from the gangue and
+  impurities. The extraction from ores in which the bismuth is present
+  in the metallic condition may be accomplished by a simple liquation,
+  or melting, in which the temperature is just sufficient to melt the
+  bismuth, or by a complete fusion of the ore. The first process never
+  extracts all the bisbuth, as much as one-third being retained in the
+  matte or speiss; the second is more satisfactory, since the extraction
+  is more complete, and also allows the addition of reducing agents to
+  decompose any admixed bismuth oxide or sulphide. In the liquidation
+  process the ore is heated in inclined cylindrical retorts, and the
+  molten metal is tapped at the lower end; the residues being removed
+  from the upper end. The fusion process is preferably carried out in
+  crucible furnaces; shaft furnaces are unsatisfactory on account of the
+  disintegrating action of the molten bismuth on the furnace linings.
+
+  Sulphuretted ores are smelted, either with or without a preliminary
+  calcination, with metallic iron; calcined ores may be smelted with
+  carbon (coal). The reactions are strictly analogous to those which
+  occur in the smelting of galena (see LEAD), the carbon reducing any
+  oxide, either present originally in the ore or produced in the
+  calcination and the iron combining with the sulphur of the bismuthite.
+  A certain amount of bismuth sulphate is always formed during the
+  calcination; this is subsequently reduced to the sulphide and
+  ultimately to the metal in the fusion. Calcination in reverberatory
+  furnaces and a subsequent smelting in the same type of furnace with
+  the addition of about 3% of coal, lime, soda and fluorspar, has been
+  adopted for treating the Bolivian ores, which generally contain the
+  sulphides of bismuth, copper, iron, antimony, lead and a little
+  silver. The lowest layer of the molten mass is principally metallic
+  bismuth, the succeeding layers are a bismuth copper matte, which is
+  subsequently worked up, and a slag. Ores containing the oxide and
+  carbonate are treated either by smelting with carbon or by a wet
+  process.
+
+  In the wet process the ores, in which the bismuth is present as oxide
+  or carbonate, are dissolved out with hydrochloric acid, or, if the
+  bismuth is to be extracted from a matte or alloy, the solvent employed
+  is _aqua regia_ or strong sulphuric acid. The solution of metallic
+  chlorides or sulphates so obtained is precipitated by iron, the
+  metallic bismuth filtered, washed with water, pressed in canvas bags,
+  and finally fused in graphite crucibles, the surface being protected
+  by a layer of charcoal. Another process consists in adding water to
+  the solution and so precipitating the bismuth as oxychloride, which is
+  then converted into the metal.
+
+  The crude metal obtained by the preceding processes is generally
+  contaminated by arsenic, sulphur, iron, nickel, cobalt and antimony,
+  and sometimes with silver or gold. A dry method of purification
+  consists in a liquation on a hearth of peculiar construction, which
+  occasions the separation of the unreduced bismuth sulphide and the
+  bulk of the other impurities. A better process is to remelt the metal
+  in crucibles with the addition of certain refining agents. The details
+  of this process vary very considerably, being conditioned by the
+  composition of the impure metal and the practice of particular works.
+  The wet refining process is more tedious and expensive, and is only
+  exceptionally employed, as in the case of preparing the pure metal or
+  its salts for pharmaceutical or chemical purposes. The basic nitrate
+  is the salt generally prepared, and, in general outline, the process
+  consists in dissolving the metal in nitric acid, adding water to the
+  solution, boiling the precipitated basic nitrate with an alkali to
+  remove the arsenic and lead, dissolving the residue in nitric acid,
+  and reprecipitating as basic nitrate with water. J.F.W. Hampe prepared
+  chemically pure bismuth by fusing the metal with sodium carbonate and
+  sulphur, dissolving the bismuth sulphide so formed in nitric acid,
+  precipitating the bismuth as the basic nitrate, re-dissolving this
+  salt in nitric acid, and then precipitating with ammonia. The bismuth
+  hydroxide so obtained is finally reduced by hydrogen.
+
+  _Properties._--Bismuth is a very brittle metal with a white
+  crystalline fracture and a characteristic reddish-white colour. It
+  crystallizes in rhombohedra belonging to the hexagonal system, having
+  interfacial angles of 87° 40'. According to G.W.A. Kahlbaum, Roth and
+  Siedler (_Ziet. Anorg. Chem. 29_, p. 294), its specific gravity is
+  9.78143; Roberts and Wrightson give the specific gravity of solid
+  bismuth as 9.82, and of molten bismuth as 10.035. It therefore expands
+  on solidification; and as it retains this property in a number of
+  alloys, the metal receives extensive application in forming
+  type-metals. Its melting-point is variously given as 268.3° (F.
+  Rudberg and A.D. von Riemsdijk) and 270.5° (C.C. Person); commercial
+  bismuth melts at 260° (Ledebur), and electrolytic bismuth at 264°
+  (Classen). It vaporizes in a vacuum at 292°, and its boiling-point,
+  under atmospheric pressure, is between 1090° and 1450° (T. Carnelley
+  and W.C. Williams). Regnault determined its specific heat between 0°
+  and 100° to be 0.0308; Kahlbaum, Roth and Siedler (_loc. cit._) give
+  the value 0.03055. Its thermal conductivity is the lowest of all
+  metals, being 18 as compared with silver as 1000; its coefficient of
+  expansion between 0° and 100° is 0.001341. Its electrical conductivity
+  is approximately 1.2, silver at 0° being taken as 100; it is the most
+  diamagnetic substance known, and its thermoelectric properties render
+  it especially valuable for the construction of thermopiles.
+
+  The metal oxidizes very slowly in dry air at ordinary temperatures,
+  but somewhat more rapidly in moist air or when heated. In the last
+  case it becomes coated with a greyish-black layer of an oxide (dioxide
+  (?)), at a red heat the layer consists of the trioxide (Bi2O3); and is
+  yellow or green in the case of pure bismuth, and violet or blue if
+  impure; at a bright red heat it burns with a bluish flame to the
+  trioxide. Bismuth combines directly with the halogens, and the
+  elements of the sulphur group. It readily dissolves in nitric acid,
+  _aqua regia_ and hot sulphuric acid, but tardily in hot hydrochloric
+  acid. It is precipitated as the metal from solutions of its salts by
+  the metals of the alkalis and alkaline earths, zinc, iron, copper, &c.
+  In its chemical affinities it resembles arsenic and antimony; an
+  important distinction is that it forms no hydrogen compound analogous
+  to arsine and stibine.
+
+  _Alloys_.--Bismuth readily forms alloys with other metals. Treated
+  with sodammonium it yields a bluish-black mass, BiNa3, which takes
+  fire in the air and decomposes water. A brittle potassium alloy of
+  silver-white colour and lamellar fracture is obtained by calcining 20
+  parts of bismuth with 16 of cream of tartar at a strong red heat. When
+  present in other metals, even in very small quantity, bismuth renders
+  them brittle and impairs their electrical conductivity. With mercury
+  it forms amalgams. Bismuth is a component of many ternary alloys
+  characterized by their low fusibility and expansion in solidification;
+  many of them are used in the arts (see FUSIBLE METAL).
+
+  _Compounds_.--Bismuth forms four oxides, of which the trioxide, Bi2O3,
+  is the most important. This compound occurs in nature as bismuth
+  ochre, and may be prepared artificially by oxidizing the metal at a
+  red heat, or by heating the carbonate, nitrate or hydrate. Thus
+  obtained it is a yellow powder, soluble in the mineral acids to form
+  soluble salts, which are readily precipitated as basic salts when the
+  solution is diluted. It melts to a reddish-brown liquid, which
+  solidifies to a yellow crystalline mass on cooling. The Hydrate,
+  Bi(OH)3, is obtained as a white powder by adding potash to a solution
+  of a bismuth salt. Bismuth dioxide, BiO or Bi2O2, is said to be formed
+  by the limited oxidation of the metal, and as a brown precipitate by
+  adding mixed solutions of bismuth and stannous chlorides to a solution
+  of caustic potash. Bismuth tetroxide, Bi2O4, sometimes termed bismuth
+  bismuthate, is obtained by melting bismuth trioxide with potash, or by
+  igniting bismuth trioxide with potash and potassium chlorate. It is
+  also formed by oxidizing bismuth trioxide suspended in caustic potash
+  with chlorine, the pentoxide being formed simultaneously; oxidation
+  and potassium ferricyanide simply gives the tetroxide (Hauser and
+  Vanino, _Zeit. Anorg. Chem_., 1904, 39, p. 381). The hydrate,
+  Bi2O4·2H2O, is also known. Bismuth pentoxide, Bi2C5, is obtained by
+  heating bismuthic acid, HBiO3, to 130°C.; this acid (in the form of
+  its salts) being the product of the continued oxidation of an alkaline
+  solution of bismuth trioxide.
+
+  Bismuth forms two chlorides: BiCl2 and BiCl3. The dichloride, BiCl2,
+  is obtained as a brown crystalline powder by fusing the metal with the
+  trichloride, or in a current of chlorine, or by heating the metal with
+  calomel to 250°. Water decomposes it to metallic bismuth and the
+  oxychloride, BiOCl. Bismuth trichloride, BiCl3, was obtained by Robert
+  Boyle by heating the metal with corrosive sublimate. It is the final
+  product of burning bismuth in an excess of chlorine. It is a white
+  substance, melting at 225°-230° and boiling at 435°-441°. With excess
+  of water, it gives a white precipitate of the oxychloride, BiOCl.
+  Bismuth trichloride forms double compounds with hydrochloric acid, the
+  chlorides of the alkaline metals, ammonia, nitric oxide and nitrosyl
+  chloride. _Bismuth trifluoride_, BiF3, a white powder, _bismuth
+  tribromide_, BiBr3, golden yellow crystals, _bismuth iodide_, BiI3,
+  greyish-black crystals, are also known. These compounds closely
+  resemble the trichloride in their methods of preparation and their
+  properties, forming oxyhaloids with water, and double compounds with
+  ammonia, &c.
+
+  _Carbonates_.--The basic carbonate, 2(BiO)2CO3·H2O, obtained as a
+  white precipitate when an alkaline carbonate is added to a solution of
+  bismuth nitrate, is employed in medicine. Another basic carbonate,
+  3(BiO)2CO3·2Bi(OH)3·3H2O, constitutes the mineral bismutite.
+
+  _Nitrates_.--The normal nitrate, Bi(NO3)3·5H2O, is obtained in large
+  transparent asymmetric prisms by evaporating a solution of the metal
+  in nitric acid. The action of water on this solution produces a
+  crystalline precipitate of basic nitrate, probably Bi(OH)2NO3, though
+  it varies with the amount of water employed. This precipitate
+  constitutes the "magistery of bismuth" or "subnitrate of bismuth" of
+  pharmacy, and under the name of pearl white, _blanc d'Espagne_ or
+  _blanc de fard_ has long been used as a cosmetic.
+
+  _Sulphides_.--Bismuth combines directly with sulphur to form a,
+  disulphide, Bi2S2, and a trisulphide, Bi2S3, the latter compound being
+  formed when the sulphur is in excess. A hydrated disulphide,
+  Bi2S2·2H2O, is obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a
+  solution of bismuth nitrate and stannous chloride. Bismuth disulphide
+  is a grey metallic substance, which is decomposed by hydrochloric acid
+  with the separation of metallic bismuth and the formation of bismuth
+  trichloride. Bismuth trisulphide, Bi2S3, constitutes the mineral
+  bismuthite, and may be prepared by direct union of its constituents,
+  or as a brown precipitate by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a
+  solution of a bismuth salt. It is easily soluble in nitric acid. When
+  heated to 200° it assumes the crystalline form of bismuthite. Bismuth
+  forms several oxysulphides: Bi4O3S constitutes the mineral karelinite
+  found at the Zavodinski mine in the Altai; Bi6O3S4 and Bi2O3S have
+  been prepared artificially. Bismuth also forms the sulphohaloids,
+  BiSCl, BiSBr, BiSI, analogous to the oyxhaloids.
+
+  Bismuth sulphate, Bi2(SO4)3, is obtained as a white powder by
+  dissolving the metal or sulphide in concentrated sulphuric acid. Water
+  decomposes it, giving a basic salt, Bi2(SO4)(OH)4, which on heating
+  gives (BiO)2SO4. Other basic salts are known.
+
+  Bismuth forms compounds similar to the trisulphide with the elements
+  selenium and tellurium. The tritelluride constitutes the mineral
+  tetradymite, Bi2Te3.
+
+  _Analysis_.--Traces of bismuth may be detected by treating the
+  solution with excess of tartaric acid, potash and stannous chloride, a
+  precipitate or dark coloration of bismuth oxide being formed even when
+  only one part of bismuth is present in 20,000 of water. The blackish
+  brown sulphide precipitated from bismuth salts by sulphuretted
+  hydrogen is insoluble in ammonium sulphide, but is readily dissolved
+  by nitric acid. The metal can be reduced by magnesium, zinc, cadmium,
+  iron, tin, copper and substances like hypophosphorous acid from acid
+  solutions or from alkaline ones by formaldehyde. In quantitative
+  estimations it is generally weighed as oxide, after precipitation as
+  sulphide or carbonate, or in the metallic form, reduced as above.
+
+  _Pharmacology_.--The salts of bismuth are feebly antiseptic. Taken
+  internally the subnitrate, coming into contact with water, tends to
+  decompose, gradually liberating nitric acid, one of the most powerful
+  antiseptics. The physical properties of the powder also give it a mild
+  astringent action. There are no remote actions.
+
+  _Therapeutics_.--The subnitrate of bismuth is invaluable in certain
+  cases of dyspepsia, and still more notably so in diarrhoea. It owes
+  its value to the decomposition described above, by means of which a
+  powerful antiseptic action is safely and continuously exerted. There
+  is hardly a safer drug. It may be given in drachm doses with impunity.
+  It colours the faeces black owing to the formation of sulphide.
+
+
+
+
+BISMUTHITE, a somewhat rare mineral, consisting of bismuth trisulphide,
+Bi2S3. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and is isomorphous
+with stibnite (Sb2S3), which it closely resembles in appearance. It
+forms loose interlacing aggregates of acicular crystals without terminal
+faces (only in a single instance has a terminated crystal been
+observed), or as masses with a foliated or fibrous structure. An
+important character is the perfect cleavage in one direction parallel to
+the length of the needles. The colour is lead-grey inclining to
+tin-white and often with a yellowish or iridescent tarnish. The hardness
+is 2; specific gravity 6.4-6.5. Bismuthite occurs at several localities
+in Cornwall and Bolivia, often in association with native bismuth and
+tin-ores. Other localities are known; for instance, Brandy Gill in
+Caldbeck Fells, Cumberland, where with molybdenite and apatite it is
+embedded in white quartz. The mineral was known to A. Cronstedt in 1758,
+and was named bismuthine by F.S. Beudant in 1832. This name, which is
+also used in the forms bismuthite and bismuthinite, is rather
+unfortunate, since it is readily confused with bismite (bismuth oxide)
+and bismutite (basic bismuth carbonate), especially as the latter has
+also been used in the form bismuthite. The name bismuth-glance or
+bismutholamprite for the species under consideration is free from this
+objection.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BISMYA, a group of ruin mounds, about 1 m. long and ½ m. wide,
+consisting of a number of low ridges, nowhere exceeding 40 ft. in
+height, lying in the Jezireh, somewhat nearer to the Tigris than the
+Euphrates, about a day's journey to the south-east of Nippur, a little
+below 32° N. and about 45° 40' E. Excavations conducted here for six
+months, from Christmas of 1903 to June 1904, for the university of
+Chicago, by Dr Edgar J. Banks, proved that these mounds covered the site
+of the ancient city of Adab (Ud-Nun), hitherto known only from a brief
+mention of its name in the introduction to the Khammurabi code (c. 2250
+B.C.). The city was divided into two parts by a canal, on an island in
+which stood the temple, E-mach, with a _ziggurat_, or stage tower. It
+was evidently once a city of considerable importance, but deserted at a
+very early period, since the ruins found close to the surface of the
+mounds belong to Dungi and Ur Gur, kings of Ur in the earlier part of
+the third millennium B.C. Immediately below these, as at Nippur, were
+found the remains of Naram-Sin and Sar-gon, c. 3000 B.C. Below these
+there were still 35 ft. of stratified remains, constituting
+seven-eighths of the total depth of the ruins. Besides the remains of
+buildings, walls, graves, &c., Dr Banks discovered a large number of
+inscribed clay tablets of a very early period, bronze and stone tablets,
+bronze implements and the like. But the two most notable discoveries
+were a complete statue in white marble, apparently the most ancient yet
+found in Babylonia (now in the museum in Constantinople), bearing the
+inscription--"E-mach, King Da-udu, King of Ud-Nun"; and a temple refuse
+heap, consisting of great quantities of fragments of vases in marble,
+alabaster, onyx, porphyry and granite, some of which were inscribed, and
+others engraved and inlaid with ivory and precious stones.
+     (J. P. Pe.)
+
+
+
+
+BISON, the name of the one existing species of European wild ox, _Bos
+(Bison) bonasus_, known in Russian as _zubr_. Together with the nearly
+allied New World animal known in Europe as the (North) American bison,
+but in its own country as "buffalo," and scientifically as _Bos (Bison)
+bison_, the bison represents a group of the ox tribe distinguished from
+other species by the greater breadth and convexity of the forehead,
+superior length of limb, and the longer spinal processes of the dorsal
+vertebrae, which, with the powerful muscles attached for the support of
+the massive head, form a protuberance or hump on the shoulders. The
+bisons have also fourteen pairs of ribs, while the common ox has only
+thirteen. The forehead and neck of both species are covered with long,
+shaggy hair of a dark brown colour; and in winter the whole of the neck,
+shoulders and hump are similarly clothed, so as to form a curly, felted
+mane. This mane in the European species disappears in summer; but in the
+American bison it is to a considerable extent persistent.
+
+The bison is now the largest European quadruped, measuring about 10 ft.
+long, exclusive of the tail, and standing nearly 6 ft. high. Formerly it
+was abundant throughout Europe, as is proved by the fossil remains of
+this or a closely allied form found on the continent and in England,
+associated with those of the extinct mammoth and rhinoceros. Caesar
+mentions the bison as abounding, along with the extinct aurochs or wild
+ox, in the forests of Germany and Belgium, where it appears to have been
+occasionally captured and afterwards exhibited alive in the Roman
+amphitheatres. At that period, and long after, it seems to have been
+common throughout central Europe, as we learn from the evidence of
+Herberstein in the 16th century. Nowadays bison are found in a truly
+wild condition only in the forests of the Caucasus, where they are
+specially protected by the Russian government. There is, however, a
+herd, somewhat in the condition of park-animals, in the forest of
+Byelovitsa, in Lithuania, where it is protected by the tsar, but
+nevertheless is gradually dying out. In 1862 the Lithuanian bisons
+numbered over 1200, but by 1872 they had diminished to 528, and in 1892
+there were only 491. The prince of Pless has a small herd at Promnitz,
+his Silesian estate, founded by the gift of a bull and three cows by
+Alexander II. in 1855, his herd being the source of the menagerie
+supply.
+
+Bison feed on a coarse aromatic grass, and browse on the leaves, shoots,
+bark and twigs of trees.
+
+The American bison is distinguished from its European cousin by the
+following among other features: The hind-quarters are weaker and fall
+away more suddenly, while the withers are proportionately higher.
+Especially characteristic is the great mass of brown or blackish brown
+hair clothing the head, neck and forepart of the body. The shape of the
+skull and horns is also different; the horns themselves being shorter,
+thicker, blunter and more sharply curved, while the forehead of the
+skull is more convex and the sockets of the eyes are more distinctly
+tubular. This species formerly ranged over a third of North America in
+countless numbers, but is now practically extinct. The great herd was
+separated into a northern and southern division by the completion of
+the Union Pacific railway, and the annual rate of destruction from 1870
+to 1875 has been estimated at 2,500,000 head. In 1880 the completion of
+the Northern Pacific railway led to an attack upon the northern herd.
+The last of the Dakota bisons were destroyed by Indians in 1883, leaving
+then less than 1000 wild individuals in the United State.
+
+A count which was concluded at the end of February 1903, put the number
+of captive bisons at 1119, of which 969 were in parks and zoological
+gardens in the United States, 41 in Canada and 109 in Europe. At the
+same time it was estimated that there were 34 wild bison in the United
+States and 600 in Canada.
+
+In England small herds are kept by the duke of Bedford at Woburn Abbey,
+Bedfordshire, and by Mr C.J. Leyland at Haggerston Castle,
+Northumberland.
+
+Two races of the American bison have been distinguished--the typical
+prairie form, and the woodland race, _B. bison athabascae_; but the two
+are very similar.     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+BISQUE (a French word of unknown origin, formerly spelt in English
+"bisk"), a term for odds given in the games of tennis, lawn tennis,
+croquet and golf; in the two former a bisque is one point to be taken at
+any time during a "set" at the choice of the receiver of the odds, while
+in croquet and golf it is one extra stroke to be taken similarly during
+a game. The name is given, in cookery, to a thick soup, made
+particularly of crayfish or lobsters.
+
+
+
+
+BISSELL, GEORGE EDWIN (1839-   ), American sculptor, son of a quarryman
+and marble-cutter, was born at New Preston, Connecticut, on the 16th of
+February 1839. During the Civil War he served as a private in the 23rd
+Connecticut volunteers in the Department of the Gulf (1862-1863), and on
+being mustered out became acting assistant paymaster in the South
+Atlantic squadron. At the close of the war he joined his father in
+business. He studied the art of sculpture abroad in 1875-1876, and lived
+much in Paris during the years 1883-1896, with occasional visits to
+America. Among his more important works are the soldiers' and sailors'
+monument, and a statue of Colonel Chatfield, at Waterbury, Connecticut;
+and statues of General Gates at Saratoga, New York, of Chancellor John
+Watts in Trinity churchyard, New York City; of Colonel Abraham de
+Peyster in Bowling Green, New York City; of Abraham Lincoln at
+Edinburgh; of Burns and "Highland Mary," in Ayr, Scotland; of Chancellor
+James Kent, in the Congressional library, Washington; and of President
+Arthur in Madison Square, New York City.
+
+
+
+
+BISSEXT, or BISSEXTUS (Lat. _bis_, twice; _sextus_, sixth), the day
+intercalated by the Julian calendar in the February of every fourth year
+to make up the six hours by which the solar year was computed to exceed
+the year of 365 days. The day was inserted after the 24th of February,
+i.e. the 6th day before the calends (1st) of March; there was
+consequently, besides the _sextus_, or sixth before the calends, the
+_bis-sextus_ or "second sixth," our 25th of February. In modern usage,
+with the exception of ecclesiastical calendars, the intercalary day is
+added for convenience at the end of the month, and years in which
+February has 29 days are called "bissextile," or leap-years.
+
+
+
+
+BISTRE, the French name of a brown paint made from the soot of wood, now
+largely superseded by Indian ink.
+
+
+
+
+BIT (from the verb "to bite," either in the sense of a piece bitten off,
+or an act of biting, or a thing that bites or is bitten), generally, a
+piece of anything; the word is, however, used in various special senses,
+all derivable from its origin, either literally or metaphorically. The
+most common of these are (1) its use as the name of various tools, e.g.
+centre-bit; (2) a horse's "bit," or the metal mouth-piece of the bridle;
+(3) in money, a small sum of money of varying value (e.g.
+threepenny-bit), especially in the West Indies and southern United
+States.
+
+
+
+
+BITHUR, a town in the Cawnpore district of the United Provinces of
+India, 12 m. N.W. of Cawnpore city. Pop. (1901) 7173. It is chiefly
+notable for its connexion with the mutiny of 1857. The last of the
+peshwas, Baji Rao, was banished to Bithur, and his adopted son, the Nana
+Sahib, made the town his head-quarters. It was captured by Havelock on
+the 19th of July 1857, when the Nana's palaces were destroyed.
+
+
+
+
+BITHYNIA ([Greek: Bituvia]), an ancient district in the N.W. of Asia
+Minor, adjoining the Propontis, the Thracian Bosporus and the Euxine.
+According to Strabo it was bounded on the E. by the river Sangarius; but
+the more commonly received division extended it to the Parthenius, which
+separated it from Paphlagonia, thus comprising the district inhabited by
+the Mariandyni. On the W. and S.W. it was separated from Mysia by the
+river Rhyndacus; and on the S. it adjoined Phrygia Epictetus and
+Galatia. It is in great part occupied by mountains and forests, but has
+valleys and districts near the sea-coast of great fertility. The most
+important mountain range is the (so-called) "Mysian" Olympus (7600 ft.),
+which towers above Brusa and is clearly visible as far away as
+Constantinople (70 m.). Its summits are covered with snow for a great
+part of the year. East of this the range now called Ala-Dagh extends far
+above 100 m. from the Sangarius to Paphlagonia. Both of these ranges
+belong to that border of mountains which bounds the great tableland of
+Asia Minor. The country between them and the coast, covered with forests
+and traversed by few lines of route, is still imperfectly known. But the
+broad tract which projects towards the west as far as the shores of the
+Bosporus, though hilly and covered with forests--the Turkish Aghatch
+Denizi, or "The Ocean of Trees"--is not traversed by any mountain chain.
+The west coast is indented by two deep inlets, (1) the northernmost, the
+Gulf of Ismid (anc. Gulf of Astacus), penetrating between 40 and 50 m.
+into the interior as far as Ismid (anc. Nicomedia), separated by an
+isthmus of only about 25 m. from the Black Sea; (2) the Gulf of Mudania
+or Gemlik (Gulf of Cius), about 25 m. long. At its extremity is situated
+the small town of Gemlik (anc. Cius) at the mouth of a valley,
+communicating with the lake of Isnik, on which was situated Nicaea.
+
+The principal rivers are the Sangarius (mod. Sakaria), which traverses
+the province from south to north; the Rhyndacus, which separated it from
+Mysia; and the Billaeus (Filiyas), which rises in the Ala-Dagh, about 50
+m. from the sea, and after flowing by Boli (anc. Claudiopolis) falls
+into the Euxine, close to the ruins of the ancient Tium, about 40 m.
+north-east of Heraclea, having a course of more than 100 m. The
+Parthenius (mod. Bartan), the boundary of the province towards the east,
+is a much less considerable stream.
+
+The natural resources of Bithynia are still imperfectly developed. Its
+vast forests would furnish an almost inexhaustible supply of timber, if
+rendered accessible by roads. Coal also is known to exist near Eregli
+(Heraclea). The valleys towards the Black Sea abound in fruit trees of
+all kinds, while the valley of the Sangarius and the plains near Brusa
+and Isnik (Nicaea) are fertile and well cultivated. Extensive
+plantations of mulberry trees supply the silk for which Brusa has long
+been celebrated, and which is manufactured there on a large scale.
+
+According to ancient authors (Herodotus, Xenophon, Strabo, &c.), the
+Bithynians were an immigrant Thracian tribe. The existence of a tribe
+called Thyni in Thrace is well attested, and the two cognate tribes of
+the Thyni and Bithyni appear to have settled simultaneously in the
+adjoining parts of Asia, where they expelled or subdued the Mysians,
+Caucones, and other petty tribes, the Mariandyni alone maintaining
+themselves in the north-east. Herodotus mentions the Thyni and Bithyni
+as existing side by side; but ultimately the latter must have become the
+more important, as they gave their name to the country. They were
+incorporated by Croesus with the Lydian monarchy, with which they fell
+under the dominion of Persia (546 B.C.), and were included in the
+satrapy of Phrygia, which comprised all the countries up to the
+Hellespont and Bosporus. But even before the conquest by Alexander the
+Bithynians appear to have asserted their independence, and successfully
+maintained it under two native princes, Bas and Zipoetes, the last of
+whom transmitted his power to his son Nicomedes I., the first to assume
+the title of king. This monarch founded Nicomedia, which soon rose to
+great prosperity, and during his long reign (278-250 B.C.), as well as
+those of his successors, Prusias I., Prusias II. and Nicomedes II.
+(149-91 B.C.), the kingdom of Bithynia held a considerable place among
+the minor monarchies of Asia. But the last king, Nicomedes III., was
+unable to maintain himself against Mithradates of Pontus, and, after
+being restored to his throne by the Roman senate, he bequeathed his
+kingdom by will to the Romans (74 B.C.). Bithynia now became a Roman
+province. Its limits were frequently varied, and it was commonly united
+for administrative purposes with the province of Pontus. This was the
+state of things in the time of Trajan, when the younger Pliny was
+appointed governor of the combined provinces (103-105 A.D.), a
+circumstance to which we are indebted for valuable information
+concerning the Roman provincial administration. Under the Byzantine
+empire Bithynia was again divided into two provinces, separated by the
+Sangarias, to the west of which the name of Bithynia was restricted.
+
+The most important cities were Nicomedia and Nicaea, which disputed with
+one another the rank of capital. Both of these were founded after
+Alexander the Great; but at a much earlier period the Greeks had
+established on the coast the colonies of Cius (afterwards Prusias, mod.
+Gemlik); Chalcedon, at the entrance of the Bosporus, nearly opposite
+Constantinople; and Heraclea Pontica, on the Euxine, about 120 m. east
+of the Bosporus. All these rose to be flourishing places of trade, as
+also Prusa at the foot of M. Olympus (see BRUSA). The only other places
+of importance at the present day are Ismid (Nicomedia) and Scutari.
+
+  See C. Texier, _Ásie Mineure_ (Paris, 1839); G. Perrot, _Calatie et
+  Bithynie_ (Paris, 1862); W. von Diest in _Petermanns Mittheilungen_,
+  Ergansungshelt, 116 (Gotha, 1895).     (E. H. B.; F. W. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+BITLIS, or BETLIS (Arm. _Paghesh_), the chief town of a vilayet of the
+same name in Asiatic Turkey, situated at an altitude of 4700 ft. in the
+deep, narrow valley of the Bitlis Chai, a tributary of the Tigris. The
+main part of the town and the bazaars are crowded alongside the stream,
+while suburbs with scattered houses among orchards and gardens extend up
+two tributary streams. The houses are massive and well built of a soft
+volcanic tufa, and with their courtyards and gardens climbing up the
+hillsides afford a striking picture. At the junction of two streams in
+the centre of the town is a fine old castle, partly ruined, which,
+according to local tradition, occupies the site of a fortress built by
+Alexander the Great. It is apparently an Arab building, as Arabic
+inscriptions appear on the walls, but as the town stands on the
+principal highway between the Van plateau and the Mesopotamian plain it
+must always have been of strategic importance. The bazaars are crowded,
+covered across with branches in summer, and typical of a Kurdish town.
+The population numbers 35,000, of whom about 12,000 are Armenians and
+the remainder are Kurds or of Kurdish descent.
+
+Kurdish beys and sheids have much influence in the town and wild
+mountain districts adjoining, while the Sasun mountains, the scene of
+successive Armenian revolutions of late years, are not far off to the
+west. The town was ruled by a semi-independent Kurdish bey as late as
+1836. There are some fine old mosques and _medresses_ (colleges), and
+the Armenians have a large monastery and churches. There are British,
+French and Russian consuls in the town, and a branch of the American
+Mission with schools is established also. The climate is healthy and the
+thermometer rarely falls below 0° Fahr., but there is a heavy snowfall
+and the narrow streets are blocked for some five months in the year.
+
+A good road runs southward down the pass, passing after a few miles some
+large chalybeate and sulphur springs. Roads also lead north to Mush and
+Erzerum and along the lake to Van. Postal communication is through
+Erzerum with Trebizond. Tobacco of an inferior quality is largely grown,
+and the chief industry is the weaving of a coarse red cloth. Manna and
+gum tragacanth are also collected. Fruit is also plentiful, and there
+are many vineyards close by.
+
+The Bitlis vilayet comprises a very varied section of Asiatic Turkey, as
+it includes the Mush plain and the plateau country west of Lake Van, as
+well as a large extent of wild mountain districts inhabited by turbulent
+Kurds and Armenians on either side of the central town of Bitlis, also
+some of the lower country about Sairt along the left bank of the main
+stream of the Tigris. The mountains have been little explored, but are
+believed to be rich in minerals, iron, lead, copper, traces of gold and
+many mineral springs are known to exist.     (F. R. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BITONTO (anc. _Butunti_), a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in
+the province of Bari, 10 m. west by steam tramway from Bari. Pop. (1901)
+30,617. It was a place of no importance in classical times. Its medieval
+walls are still preserved. Its cathedral is one of the finest examples
+of the Romanesque architecture of Apulia, and has escaped damage from
+later restorations. The palazzo Sylos-Labini has a fine Renaissance
+court of 1502.
+
+
+
+
+BITSCH (Fr. _Bitche_), a town of Germany, in Alsace-Lorraine, on the
+Horn, at the foot of the northern slope of the Vosges between Hagenau
+and Saargemund. Pop. (1905) 4000. There are a Roman Catholic and a
+Protestant church, a classical school and an academy of forestry. The
+industries include shoe-making and watch-making, and there is some trade
+in grain and timber. The town of Bitsch, which was formed out of the
+villages of Rohr and Kaltenhausen in the 17th century, derives its name
+from the old stronghold (mentioned in 1172 as Bytis Castrum) standing on
+a rock some 250 ft. above the town. This had long given its name to the
+countship of Bitsch, which was originally in the possession of the dukes
+of Lorraine. In 1297 it passed by marriage to Eberhard I. of
+Zweibrücken, whose line became extinct in 1569, when the countship
+reverted to Lorraine. It passed with that duchy to France in 1766. After
+that date the town rapidly increased in population. The citadel, which
+had been constructed by Vauban on the site of the old castle after the
+capture of Bitsch by the French in 1624, had been destroyed when it was
+restored to Lorraine in 1698. This was restored and strengthened in 1740
+into a fortress that proved impregnable in all succeeding wars. The
+attack upon it by the Prussians in 1793 was repulsed; in 1815 they had
+to be content with blockading it; and in 1870, though it was closely
+invested by the Germans after the battle of Wörth, it held out until the
+end of the war. A large part of the fortification is excavated in the
+red sandstone rock, and rendered bomb-proof; a supply of water is
+secured to the garrison by a deep well in the interior.
+
+
+
+
+BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867-   ), American sculptor, was born in
+Vienna on the 6th of December 1867. After studying art there, in 1889 he
+removed to the United States, where he became naturalized. In America he
+gained great popularity as a sculptor, and in 1906-1907 was president of
+the National Sculpture Society, New York. Among his principal works are:
+the Astor memorial gates, Trinity church, New York; "Elements Controlled
+and Uncontrolled," on the Administration Building at the Chicago
+Exposition; a large relief, "Triumph of Civilization," in the
+waiting-room of the Broad Street station of the Pennsylvania railway in
+Philadelphia; decorations for the Dewey Naval Arch in New York City; the
+"Standard Bearers," at the Pan-American Exposition grounds; a sitting
+statue and a bust of Dr Pepper, provost of the University of
+Pennsylvania; and the Villard and Hubbard memorials in the New York
+chamber of commerce.
+
+
+
+
+BITTERFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, 26 m.
+N. from Leipzig by rail, on the river Mulde, and an important junction
+of railways from Leipzig and Halle to Berlin. Pop. (1900) 11,839. It
+manufactures drain-pipes, paper-roofing and machinery, and has
+saw-mills. Several coal-mines are in the vicinity. The town was built by
+a colony of Flemish immigrants in 1153. It was captured by the landgrave
+of Meissen in 1476, and belonged thenceforth to Saxony, until it was
+ceded to Prussia in 1815. Owing to its pleasant situation and
+accessibility, it has become a favourite residence of business men of
+Leipzig and Halle.
+
+
+
+
+BITTERLING (_Rhodeus amarus_), a little carp-like fish of central
+Europe, belonging to the Cyprinid family. In it we have a remarkable
+instance of symbiosis. The genital papilla of the female acquires a
+great development during the breeding season and becomes produced into a
+tube nearly as long as the fish itself; this acts as an ovipositor by
+means of which the comparatively few and large eggs (3 millimetres in
+diameter) are introduced through the gaping valves between the branchiae
+of pond mussels (_Unio_ and _Anodonta_), where, after being inseminated,
+they undergo their development, the fry leaving their host about a month
+later. The mollusc reciprocates by throwing off its embryos on the
+parent fish, in the skin of which they remain encysted for some time,
+the period of reproduction of the fish and the mussel coinciding.
+
+
+
+
+BITTERN, a genus of wading birds, belonging to the family _Ardeidae_,
+comprising several species closely allied to the herons, from which they
+differ chiefly in their shorter neck, the back of which is covered with
+down, and the front with long feathers, which can be raised at pleasure.
+They are solitary birds, frequenting countries possessing extensive
+swamps and marshy grounds, remaining at rest by day, concealed among the
+reeds and bushes of their haunts, and seeking their food, which consists
+of fish, reptiles, insects and small quadrupeds, in the twilight. The
+common bittern (_Botaurus stellaris_) is nearly as large as the heron,
+and is widely distributed over the eastern hemisphere. Formerly it was
+common in Britain, but extensive drainage and persecution have greatly
+dimished its numbers and it is now only an uncertain visitor. Not a
+winter passes without its appearing in some numbers, when its uncommon
+aspect, its large size, and beautifully pencilled plumage cause it to be
+regarded as a great prize by the lucky gun-bearer to whom it falls a
+victim. Its value as a delicacy for the table, once so highly esteemed,
+has long vanished. The old fable of this bird inserting its beak into a
+reed or plunging it into the ground, and so causing the booming sound
+with which its name will always be associated, is also exploded, and
+nowadays indeed so few people in Britain have ever heard its loud and
+awful voice, which seems to be uttered only in the breeding-season, and
+is therefore unknown in a country where it no longer breeds, that
+incredulity as to its booming at all has in some quarters succeeded the
+old belief in this as in other reputed peculiarities of the species. The
+bittern in the days of falconry was strictly preserved, and afforded
+excellent sport. It sits crouching on the ground during the day, with
+its bill pointing in the air, a position from which it is not easily
+roused, and even when it takes wing, its flight is neither swift nor
+long sustained. When wounded it requires to be approached with caution,
+as it will then attack either man or dog with its long sharp bill and
+its acute claws. It builds a rude nest among the reeds and flags, out of
+materials which surround it, and the female lays four or five eggs of a
+brownish olive. During the breeding season it utters a booming noise,
+from which it probably derives its generic name, _Botaurus_, and which
+has made it in many places an object of superstitious dread. Its plumage
+for the most part is of a pale buff colour, rayed and speckled with
+black and reddish brown. The American bittern (_Botaurus lentiginosus_)
+is somewhat smaller than the European species, and is found throughout
+the central and southern portions of North America. It also occurs in
+Britain as an occasional straggler. It is distinguishable by its uniform
+greyish-brown primaries, which want the tawny bars that characterize _B.
+stellaris_. Both species are good eating.
+
+[Illustration: Bittern.]
+
+
+
+
+BITTERN (from "bitter"), the mother liquor obtained from sea-water or
+brines after the separation of the sodium chloride (common salt) by
+crystallization. It contains various magnesium salts (sulphate,
+chloride, bromide and iodide) and is employed commercially for the
+manufacture of Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate) and bromine. The same
+term is applied to a mixture of quassia, iron sulphate, _cocculus
+indicus_, liquorice, &c., used in adulterating beer.
+
+
+
+
+BITTERS, the name given to aromatized (generally alcoholic) beverages
+containing a bitter substance or substances, used as tonics, appetizers
+or digestives. The bitterness is imparted by such substances as bitter
+orange rind, gentian, rhubarb, quassia, cascarilla, angostura, quinine
+and cinchona. Juniper, cinnamon, carraway, camomile, cloves and other
+flavouring agents are also employed in conjunction with the bitter
+principles, alcohol and sugar. Some bitters are prepared by simple
+maceration and subsequent filtration (see LIQUEURS), others by the more
+complicated distillation process. Those prepared by the latter process
+are the finer commercial articles. Bitters are usually sold under the
+name of the substance which has been used to give them the predominant
+flavour, such as orange, angostura or peach bitters, &c. The alcoholic
+strength of bitters varies, but is generally in the neighbourhood of 40%
+of alcohol. Some bitters, although possessing tonic properties, may be
+regarded as beverages pure and simple, notwithstanding the fact that
+they are seldom consumed in an undiluted state; others again, are
+obviously medicinal preparations and should be treated as such.
+
+
+
+
+BITUMEN, the name applied by the Romans to the various descriptions of
+natural hydrocarbons, the word _petroleum_ not being used in classical
+Latin. In its widest sense it embraces the whole range of these
+substances, including _natural gas_, the more or less liquid
+descriptions of _petroleum_, and the solid forms of _asphalt, albertite,
+gilsonite_ or _uintahite, elaterite, ozokerite_ and _hatchettite_. To
+distinguish bitumen intermediate in consistency between asphalt and the
+more liquid kinds of crude petroleum, the term _maltha_ (Latin) is
+frequently employed. The bitumens of chief commercial importance may be
+grouped under the three headings of (1) _natural gas_, (2) _petroleum_,
+and (3) _asphalt_, and will be found fully described under these titles.
+In the scriptures there are numerous references to bitumen, among which
+the following may be quoted:--In Genesis ix. 3, we are told that in the
+building of the tower of Babel "slime had they for mortar," and in
+Genesis xiv. 10, that the vale of Siddim "was full of slime-pits," the
+word _slime_ in the latter quotation from our version appearing as
+_bitumen_ in the Vulgate. Herodotus alludes to the use of the bitumen
+brought down by the Is, a tributary of the Euphrates, as mortar in
+building the walls of Babylon. Diodorus, Curtius, Josephus, Bochart and
+others make similar mention of this use of bitumen, and Vitruvius tells
+us that it was employed in admixture with clay.
+
+In its various forms, bitumen is one of the most widely distributed of
+substances. It occurs, though sometimes only in small quantity, in
+almost every part of the globe, and throughout the whole range of
+geological strata, from the Laurentian rocks to the most recent members
+of the Quaternary period. Although the gaseous and liquid forms of
+bitumen may be regarded as having been formed in the strata in which
+they are found or as having been received into such strata shortly after
+formation, the semi-solid and solid varieties may be considered to have
+been produced by the oxidation and evaporation of liquid petroleum
+escaping from underlying or better preserved deposits into other strata,
+or into fissures where atmospheric action and loss of the more volatile
+constituents can take place. It should, however, be stated that there is
+some difference of opinion as to the precise manner of production of
+some of the solid forms of bitumen, and especially of ozokerite.
+     (B. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BITURIGES, a Celtic people, according to Livy (v. 34) the most powerful
+in Gaul in the time of Tarquinius Priscus. At some period unknown they
+split up into two branches--Bituriges Cubi and Bituriges Vivisci. The
+name is supposed to mean either "rulers of the world" or "perpetual
+kings."
+
+The Bituriges Cubi, called simply Bituriges by Caesar, in whose time
+they acknowledged the supremacy of the Aedui, inhabited the modern
+diocese of Bourges, including the departments of Cher and Indre, and
+partly that of Allier. Their chief towns were Avaricum (Bourges),
+Argentomagus (Argenton-sur-Creuse), Neriomagus (Néris-les-Bains),
+Noviodunum (perhaps Villate). At the time of the rebellion of
+Vercingetoix (52 B.C.), Avaricum, after a desperate resistance, was
+taken by assault, and the inhabitants put to the sword. In the following
+year, the Bituriges submitted to Caesar, and under Augustus they were
+incorporated (in 28 B.C.) in Aquitania. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ iv. 109)
+speaks of them as _liberi_, which points to their enjoying a certain
+amount of independence under Roman government. The district contained a
+number of iron works, and Caesar says they were skilled in driving
+galleries and mining operations.
+
+The Biturgies Vivisci occupied the strip of land between the sea and the
+left bank of the Garonne, comprising the greater part of the modern
+department of Gironde. Their capital was Burdigala (Bordeaux), even then
+a place of considerable importance and a wine-growing centre. Like the
+Cubi, they also are called _liberi_ by Pliny.
+
+  See A. Desjardins, _Géographie historique de la Gaule romaine_, ii.
+  (1876-1893); A. Longnon, _Géographie de la Gaule on VI^e siècle_
+  (1878); A. Hohler, _Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz_; T.R. Holmes,
+  _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_ (1899).
+
+
+
+
+BITZIUS, ALBRECHT (1797-1854), Swiss novelist, best known by his pet
+name of "Jeremias Gotthelf," was born on the 4th of October 1797 at
+Morat, where his father was pastor. In 1804 the home was moved to
+Utzenstorf, a village in the Bernese Emmenthal. Here young Bitzius grew
+up, receiving his early education and consorting with the boys of the
+village, as well as helping his father to cultivate his glebe. In 1812
+he went to complete his education at Bern, and in 1820 was received as a
+pastor. In 1821 he visited the university of Göttingen, but returned
+home in 1822 to act as his father's assistant. On his father's death
+(1824) he went in the same capacity to Herzogenbuchsee, and later to
+Bern (1829). Early in 1831 he went as assistant to the aged pastor of
+the village of Lützelflüh, in the Upper Emmenthal (between Langnau and
+Burgdorf), being soon elected his successor (1832) and marrying one of
+his granddaughters (1833). He spent the rest of his life there, dying on
+the 22nd of October 1854, and leaving three children (the son was a
+pastor, the two daughters married pastors). His first work, the
+_Bauernspiegel_, appeared in 1837. It purported to be the life of
+Jeremias Gotthelf, narrated by himself, and this name was later adopted
+by the author as his pen name. It is a living picture of Bernese (or,
+strictly speaking, Emmenthal) village life, true to nature, and not
+attempting to gloss over its defects and failings. It is written (like
+the rest of his works) in the Bernese dialect of the Emmenthal, though
+it must be remembered that Bitzius was not (like Auerbach) a peasant by
+birth, but belonged to the educated classes, so that he reproduces what
+he had seen and learnt, and not what he had himself personally
+experienced. The book was a great success, as it was a picture of real
+life, and not of fancifully beribboned 18th-century villagers. Among his
+later tales are the _Leiden und Freuden eines Schulmeisters_
+(1838-1839), _Uli der Knecht_ (1841), with its continuation, _Uli der
+Pachter_ (1849), _Anne Babi Jowager_ (1843-1844), _Käthi die
+Grossmutter_ (1847), _Die Käserei in der Vehfreude_ (1850), and the
+_Erlebnisse eines Schuldenbauers_ (1854). He published also several
+volumes of shorter tales. One slight drawback to some of his writings is
+the echo of local political controversies, for Bitzius was a Whig and
+strongly opposed to the Radical party in the canton, which carried the
+day in 1846.
+
+  Lives by C. Manuel, in the Berlin edition of Bitzius's works (Berlin,
+  1861), and by J. Ammann in vol. i. (Bern, 1884) of the _Sammlung
+  Bernischer Biographien_. His works were issued in 24 vols. at Berlin,
+  1856-1861, while 10 vols., giving the original text of each story,
+  were issued at Bern, 1898-1900 (edition not to be completed).
+       (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BIVOUAC (a French word generally said to have been introduced during the
+Thirty Years' War, perhaps derived from _Beiwacht_, extra guard),
+originally, a night-watch by a whole army under arms to prevent
+surprise. In modern military parlance the word is used to mean a
+temporary encampment in the open field without tents, as opposed to
+"billets" or "cantonment" on the one hand and "camp" on the other. The
+use of bivouacs permits an army to remain closely concentrated for all
+emergencies, and avoids the necessity for numerous wagons carrying
+tents. Constant bivouacs, however, are trying to the health of men and
+horses, and this method of quartering is never employed except when the
+military situation demands concentration and readiness. Thus the
+outposts would often have to bivouac while the main body of the army lay
+in billets.
+
+
+
+
+BIWA, a lake in the province of Omi, Japan. It measures 36 m. in length
+by 12 m. in extreme breadth, has an area of 180 sq. m., is about 330 ft.
+above sea-level, and has an extreme depth of some 300 ft. There are a
+few small islands in the lake, the principal being Chikubu-shima at the
+northern end.
+
+Tradition alleges that Lake Biwa and the mountain of Fuji were produced
+simultaneously by an earthquake in 286 B.C. On the west of the lake the
+mountains Hiei-zan and Hira-yama slope down almost to its margin, and on
+the east a wide plain extends towards the boundaries of the province of
+Mino. It is drained by a river flowing out of its southern end, and
+taking its course into the sea at Osaka. This river bears in succession
+the names of Seta-gawa, Uji-gawa and Yodo-gawa. The lake abounds with
+fish, and the beauty of its scenery is remarkable. Small steamboats ply
+constantly to the points of chief interest, and around its shores are to
+be viewed the _Omi-no-hakkei_, or "eight landscapes of Omi"; namely, the
+lake silvering under an autumn moon as one looks down from Ishi-yama;
+the snow at eve on Hira-yama; the glow of sunset at Seta; the groves and
+classic temple of Mii-dera as the evening bell sounds; boats sailing
+home from Yabase; cloudless peaks at Awazu; rain at nightfall over
+Karasaki; and wild geese sweeping down to Katata. The lake is connected
+with Kyoto by a canal constructed in 1890, and is thus brought into
+water communication with Osaka.
+
+
+
+
+BIXIO, NINO (1821-1873), Italian soldier, was born on the 2nd of October
+1821. While still a boy he was compelled by his parents to embrace a
+maritime career. After numerous adventures he returned to Italy in 1846,
+joined the Giovine Italia, and, on 4th November 1847, made himself
+conspicuous at Genoa by seizing the bridle of Charles Albert's horse and
+crying, "Pass the Ticino, Sire, and we are all with you." He fought
+through the campaign of 1848, became captain under Garibaldi at Rome in
+1849, taking prisoners an entire French battalion, and gaining the gold
+medal for military valour. In 1859 he commanded a Garibaldian battalion,
+and gained the military cross of Savoy. Joining the Marsala expedition
+in 1860, he turned the day in favour of Garibaldi at Calatafimi, was
+wounded at Palermo, but recovered in time to besiege Reggio in Calabria
+(21st of August 1860), and, though again wounded, took part in the
+battle of Volturno, where his leg was broken. Elected deputy in 1861, he
+endeavoured to reconcile Cavour and Garibaldi. In 1866, at the head of
+the seventh division, he covered the Italian retreat from Custozza,
+ignoring the Austrian summons to surrender. Created senator in February
+1870, he was in the following September given command of a division
+during the movement against Rome, took Cività Vecchia, and participated
+in the general attack upon Rome (20th September 1870). He died of
+cholera at Achin Bay in Sumatra _en route_ for Batavia, whither he had
+gone in command of a commercial expedition (16th December 1873).
+
+
+
+
+BIZERTA (properly pronounced Ben Zert; Fr. _Bizerte_), a seaport of
+Tunisia, in 37° 17' N., 9° 50' E. Pop. about 12,000. Next to Toulon,
+Bizerta is the most important naval port of France in the Mediterranean.
+It occupies a commanding strategical position in the narrowest part of
+the sea, being 714 m. E. of Gibraltar, 1168 m. W.N.W. of Port Said, 240
+m. N.W. of Malta, and 420 m. S. by E. of Toulon. It is 60 m. by rail
+N.N.W. of Tunis. The town is built on the shores of the Mediterranean at
+the point where the Lake of Bizerta enters the sea through a natural
+channel, the mouth of which has been canalized. The modern town lies
+almost entirely on the north side of the canal. A little farther north
+are the ancient citadel, the walled "Arab" town and the old harbour
+(disused). The present outer harbour covers about 300 acres and is
+formed by two converging jetties and a breakwater. The north jetty is
+4000 ft. long, the east jetty 3300 ft., and the breakwater--which
+protects the port from the prevalent north-east winds--2300 ft. long.
+The entrance to the canal is in the centre of the outer harbour. The
+canal is 2600 ft. long and 787 ft. wide on the surface. Its banks are
+lined with quays, and ships drawing 26 ft. of water can moor alongside.
+At the end of the canal is a large commercial harbour, beyond which the
+channel opens into the lake--in reality an arm of the sea--roughly
+circular in form and covering about 50 sq. m., two-thirds of its waters
+having a depth of 30 to 40 ft. The lake, which merchant vessels are not
+allowed to enter, contains the naval port and arsenal. There is a
+torpedo and submarine boat station on the north side of the channel at
+the entrance to the lake, but the principal naval works are at Sidi
+Abdallah at the south-west corner of the lake and 10 m. from the open
+sea. Here is an enclosed basin covering 123 acres with ample quayage,
+dry docks and everything necessary to the accommodation, repair,
+revictualling and coaling of a numerous fleet. Barracks, hospitals and
+waterworks have been built, the military town, called Ferryville, being
+self-contained.
+
+Fortifications have been built for the protection of the port. They
+comprise (a) the older works surrounding the town; (b) a group of coast
+batteries on the high ground of Cape Bizerta or Guardia, 4 m.
+north-north-west of the town; these are grouped round a powerful fort
+called Jebel Kebir, and have a command of 300 to 800 ft. above
+sea-level; (c) another group of batteries on the narrow ground between
+the sea and the lake to the east of the town; the highest of these is
+the Jebel Tuila battery 265 ft. above sea-level.
+
+The LAKE OF BIZERTA, called Tinja by the Arabs, abounds in excellent
+fish, especially mullets, the dried roe of which, called _botargo_, is
+largely exported, and the fishing industry employs a large proportion of
+the inhabitants. The western shore of the lake is low, and in many
+places is covered with olive trees to the water's edge. The
+south-eastern shores are hilly and wooded, and behind them rises a range
+of picturesque hills. A narrow and shallow channel leads from the
+western side of the lake into another sheet of water, the Lake of
+Ishkul, so called from Jebel Ishkul, a hill on its southern bank 1740
+ft. high. The Lake of Ishkul is nearly as large as the first lake, but
+is very shallow. Its waters are generally sweet.
+
+Bizerta occupies the site of the ancient Tyrian colony, Hippo Zarytus or
+Diarrhytus, the harbour of which, by means of a spacious pier,
+protecting it from the north-east wind, was rendered one of the safest
+and finest on this coast. The town became a Roman colony, and was
+conquered by the Arabs in the 7th century. The place thereafter was
+subject either to the rulers of Tunis or of Constantine, but the
+citizens were noted for their frequent revolts. They threw in their lot
+(c. 1530) with the pirate Khair-ed-Din, and subsequently received a
+Turkish garrison. Bizerta was captured by the Spaniards in 1535, but not
+long afterwards came under the Tunisian government. Centuries of neglect
+followed, and the ancient port was almost choked up, though the value of
+the fisheries saved the town from utter decay. Its strategical
+importance was one of the causes which led to the occupation of Tunisia
+by the French in 1881. In 1890 a concession for a new canal and harbour
+was granted to a company, and five years later the new port was formally
+opened. Since then the canal has been widened and deepened, and the
+naval port at Sidi Abdallah created.
+
+
+
+
+BIZET [ALEXANDRE CÉSAR LÉOPOLD] GEORGES (1838-1875), French musical
+composer, was born at Bougival, near Paris, on the 25th of October 1838,
+the son of a singing-master. He displayed musical ability at an early
+age, and was sent to the Paris Conservatoire, where he studied under
+Halévy and speedily distinguished himself, carrying off prizes for organ
+and fugue, and finally in 1857, after an ineffectual attempt in the
+previous year, the Grand Prix de Rome for a cantata called _Cloris et
+Clotilde_. A success of a different kind also befell him at this time.
+Offenbach, then manager of the Théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens, had
+organized a competition for an operetta, in which young Bizet was
+awarded the first prize in conjunction with Charles Lecocq, each of them
+writing an operetta called _Docteur Miracle_. After the three years
+spent in Rome, an obligation imposed by the French government on the
+winners of the first prize at the Conservatoire, Bizet returned to
+Paris, where he achieved a reputation as a pianist and accompanist. On
+the 23rd of September 1863 his first opera, _Les Pêcheurs de perles_,
+was brought out at the Théâtre Lyrique, but owing possibly to the
+somewhat uninteresting nature of the story, the opera did not enjoy a
+very long run. The qualities displayed by the composer, however, were
+amply recognized, although the music was stated, by some critics, to
+exhibit traces of Wagnerian influence. Wagnerism at that period was a
+sort of spectre that haunted the imagination of many leading members of
+the musical press. It sufficed for a work to be at all out of the common
+for the epithet "Wagnerian" to be applied to it. The term, it may be
+said, was intended to be condemnatory, and it was applied with little
+understanding as to its real meaning. The score of the _Pêcheurs de
+perles_ contains several charming numbers; its dreamy melodies are well
+adapted to fit a story laid in Eastern climes, and the music reveals a
+decided dramatic temperament. Some of its dances are now usually
+introduced into the fourth act of _Carmen_.
+
+On the 3rd of June 1865 Bizet married a daughter of his old master,
+Halévy. His second opera, _La Jolie Fitte de Perth_, produced at the
+Théâtre Lyrique on 26th December 1867, was scarcely a step in advance.
+The libretto was founded on Sir Walter Scott's novel, but the opera
+lacks unity of style, and its pages are marred by concessions to the
+vocalist. One number has survived, the characteristic Bohemian dance
+which has been interpolated into the fourth act of _Carmen_. In his
+third opera Bizet returned to an oriental subject. _Djamileh_, a one-act
+opera given at the Opéra Comique on the 22nd of May 1872, is certainly
+one of his most individual efforts. Again were accusations of Wagnerism
+hurled at the composer's head, and _Djamileh_ did not achieve the
+success it undoubtedly deserved. The composer was more fortunate with
+the incidental music he wrote to Alphonse Daudet's drama,
+_L'Arlésienne_, produced in October 1872. Different numbers from this,
+arranged in the form of suites, have often been heard in the
+concert-room. Rarely have poetry and imagination been so well allied as
+in these exquisite pages, which seem to reflect the sunny skies of
+Provence.
+
+Bizet's masterpiece, _Carmen_, was brought out at the Opéra Comique on
+the 3rd of March 1875. It was based on a version by Meilhac and Halévy
+of a study by Prosper Mérimée--in which the dramatic element was
+obscured by much descriptive writing. The detection of the drama
+underlying this psychological narrative was in itself a brilliant
+discovery, and in reconstructing the story in dramatic form the authors
+produced one of the most famous libretti in the whole range of opera.
+Still more striking than the libretto was the music composed by Bizet,
+in which the peculiar use of the flute and of the lowest notes of the
+harp deserves particular attention.
+
+On the 3rd of June, three months after the production of _Carmen_ in
+Paris, the genial composer expired after a few hours' illness from a
+heart affection. Before dying he had the satisfaction of knowing that
+_Carmen_ had been accepted for production at Vienna. After the Austrian
+capital came Brussels, Berlin and, in 1878, London, when _Carmen_ was
+brought out at Her Majesty's theatre with immense success. The influence
+exercised by Bizet on dramatic music has been very great, and may be
+discerned in the realistic works of the young Italian school, as well as
+in those of his own countrymen.
+
+
+
+
+BJÖRNEBORG (Finnish, _Pori_), a district town of Finland, province of
+Åbo-Björneborg, on the E. coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, at the mouth of
+the Kumo. Lat. 51° 8' N., long. 46° 0' E. Pop. (1904) 16,053, mostly
+Swedes. Large vessels cannot enter its roadstead, and stop at Räfsö. The
+town has shipbuilding wharves, machine works, and several tanneries and
+brick-works, and has a total trade of over 16,000,000 marks, the chief
+export being timber.
+
+
+
+
+BJÖRNSON, BJÖRNSTJERNE (1832-1910), Norwegian poet, novelist and
+dramatist, was born on the 8th of December 1832 at the farmstead of
+Björngen, in Kvikne, in Österdal, Norway. In 1837 his father, who had been
+pastor of Kvikne, was transferred to the parish of Noesset, in Romsdal; in
+this romantic district the childhood of Björnson was spent. After some
+teaching at the neighbouring town of Molde, he was sent at the age of
+seventeen to a well-known school in Christiania to study for the
+university; his instinct for poetry was already awakened, and indeed he
+had written verses from his eleventh year. He matriculated at the
+university of Christiania in 1852, and soon began to work as a journalist,
+especially as a dramatic critic. In 1857 appeared _Synnöve Solbakken_, the
+first of Björnson's peasant-novels; in 1858 this was followed by _Arne_,
+in 1860 by _A Happy Boy_, and in 1868 by _The Fisher Maiden_. These are
+the most important specimens of his _bonde-fortaellinger_ or
+peasant-tales--a section of his literary work which has made a profound
+impression in his own country, and has made him popular throughout the
+world. Two of the tales, _Arne_ and _Synnöve Solbakken_, offer perhaps
+finer examples of the pure peasant-story than are to be found elsewhere in
+literature.
+
+Björnson was anxious "to create a new saga in the light of the peasant,"
+as he put it, and he thought this should be done, not merely in prose
+fiction, but in national dramas or _folke-stykker_. The earliest of
+these was a one-act piece the scene of which is laid in the 12th
+century, _Between the Battles_, was written in 1855, but not produced
+until 1857. He was especially influenced at this time by the study of
+Baggesen and Ochlenschläger, during a visit to Copenhagen 1856-1857.
+_Between the Battles_ was followed by _Lame Hulda_ in 1858, and _King
+Sverre_ in 1861. All these efforts, however, were far excelled by the
+splendid trilogy of _Sigurd the Bastard_, which Björnson issued in 1862.
+This raised him to the front rank among the younger poets of Europe. His
+_Sigurd the Crusader_ should be added to the category of these heroic
+plays, although it was not printed until 1872.
+
+At the close of 1857 Björnson had been appointed director of the theatre
+at Bergen, a post which he held, with much journalistic work, for two
+years, when he returned to the capital. From 1860 to 1863 he travelled
+widely throughout Europe. Early in 1865 he undertook the management of
+the Christiania theatre, and brought out his popular comedy of _The
+Newly Married_ and his romantic tragedy of _Mary Stuart in Scotland_.
+Although Björnson has introduced into his novels and plays songs of
+extraordinary beauty, he was never a very copious writer of verse; in
+1870 he published his _Poems and Songs_ and the epic cycle called
+_Arnljot Gelline_; the latter volume contains the magnificent ode called
+"Bergliot," Björnson's finest contribution to lyrical poetry. Between
+1864 and 1874, in the very prime of life, Björnson displayed a
+slackening of the intellectual forces very remarkable in a man of his
+energy; he was indeed during these years mainly occupied with politics,
+and with his business as a theatrical manager. This was the period of
+Björnson's most fiery propaganda as a radical agitator. In 1871 he began
+to supplement his journalistic work in this direction by delivering
+lectures over the length and breadth of the northern countries. He
+possessed to a surprising degree the arts of the orator, combined with a
+magnificent physical prestige. From 1873 to 1876 Björnson was absent
+from Norway, and in the peace of voluntary exile he recovered his
+imaginative powers. His new departure as a dramatic author began with _A
+Bankruptcy_ and _The Editor_ in 1874, social dramas of an extremely
+modern and realistic cast.
+
+The poet now settled on his estate of Aulestad in Gausdal. In 1877 he
+published another novel, _Magnhild_--an imperfect production, in which
+his ideas on social questions were seen to be in a state of
+fermentation, and gave expression to his republican sentiments in the
+polemical play called _The King_, to a later edition of which he
+prefixed an essay on "Intellectual Freedom," in further explanation of
+his position. _Captain Mansana_, an episode of the war of Italian
+independence, belongs to 1878. Extremely anxious to obtain a full
+success on the stage, Björnson concentrated his powers on a drama of
+social life, _Leonardo_ (1879), which raised a violent controversy. A
+satirical play, _The New System_, was produced a few weeks later.
+Although these plays of Björnson's second period were greatly discussed,
+none of them (except _A Bankruptcy_) pleased on the boards. When once
+more he produced a social drama, _A Gauntlet_, in 1883, he was unable to
+persuade any manager to stage it, except in a modified form, though this
+play gives the full measure of his power as a dramatist. In the autumn
+of the same year, Björnson published a mystical or symbolic drama
+_Beyond our Powers_, dealing with the abnormal features of religious
+excitement with extraordinary force; this was not acted until 1899, when
+it achieved a great success.
+
+Meanwhile, Björnson's political attitude had brought upon him a charge
+of high treason, and he took refuge for a time in Germany, returning to
+Norway in 1882. Convinced that the theatre was practically closed to
+him, he turned back to the novel, and published in 1884, _Flags are
+Flying in Town and Port_, embodying his theories on heredity and
+education. In 1889 he printed another long and still more remarkable
+novel, _In God's Way_, which is chiefly concerned with the same
+problems. The same year saw the publication of a comedy, _Geography and
+Love_, which continues to be played with success. A number of short
+stories, of a more or less didactic character, dealing with startling
+points of emotional experience, were collected in 1894; among them those
+which produced the greatest sensation were _Dust, Mother's Hands_, and
+_Absalom's Hair_. Later plays were a political tragedy called _Paul
+Lange and Tora Parsberg_ (1898), a second part of _Beyond our Powers_
+(1895), _Laboremus_ (1901), _At Storhove_ (1902), and _Daglannet_
+(1904). In 1899, at the opening of the National theatre, Björnson
+received an ovation, and his saga-drama of _Sigurd the Crusader_ was
+performed.
+
+A subject which interested him greatly, and on which he occupied his
+indefatigable pen, was the question of the _bonde-maal_, the adopting of
+a national language for Norway distinct from the _dansk-norsk_
+(Dano-Norwegian), in which her literature has hitherto been written.
+Björnson's strong and sometimes rather narrow patriotism did not blind
+him to the fatal folly of such a proposal, and his lectures and
+pamphlets against the _maal-straev_ in its extreme form did more than
+anything else to save the language in this dangerous moment. Björnson
+was one of the original members of the Nobel committee, and was
+re-elected in 1900. In 1903 he was awarded the Nobel prize for
+literature. Björnson had done as much as any other man to rouse
+Norwegian national feeling, but in 1903, on the verge of the rupture
+between Norway and Sweden, he preached conciliation and moderation to
+the Norwegians. He was an eloquent advocate of Pan-Germanism, and,
+writing to the _Figaro_ in 1905, he outlined a Pan-Germanic alliance of
+northern Europe and North America. He died on the 26th of April 1910.
+
+  See Björnson's _Samlede Vaerker_ (Copenhagen, 1900-1902, 11 vols.);
+  _The Novels of Björnstjerne Björnson_ (1894, &c.), edited by Edmund
+  Gosse; G. Brandes, _Critical Studies_ (1899); E. Tissot, _Le drame
+  norvégien_ (1893); C.D. af Wirsén, _Kritiker_ (1901); Chr. Collin,
+  _Björnstjerne Björnson_ (2 vols., German ed., 1903), the most complete
+  biography and criticism at present available; and B. Halvorsen, _Norsk
+  Forfatter Lexikon_ (1885).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+BLACHFORD, FREDERIC ROGERS, BARON (1811-1889), British civil servant,
+eldest son of Sir Frederick Leman Rogers, 7th Bart. (whom he succeeded
+in the baronetcy in 1851), was born in London on the 31st of January
+1811. He was educated at Eton and Oriel college, Oxford, where he had a
+brilliant career, winning the Craven University scholarship, and taking
+a double first-class in classics and mathematics. He became a fellow of
+Oriel (1833), and won the Vinerian scholarship (1834), and fellowship
+(1840). He was called to the bar in 1837, but never practised. At school
+and at Oxford he was a contemporary of W.E. Gladstone, and at Oxford he
+began a lifelong friendship with J.H. Newman and R.W. Church; his
+classical and literary tastes, and his combination of liberalism in
+politics with High Church views in religion, together with his good
+social position and interesting character, made him an admired member of
+their circles. For two or three years (1841-1844) he wrote for _The
+Times_, and he helped to found _The Guardian_ in 1846; he also did a
+good deal to assist the Tractarian movement. But he eventually settled
+down to the life of a government official. He began in 1844 as registrar
+of joint-stock companies, and in 1846 became commissioner of lands and
+emigration. Between 1857 and 1859 he was engaged in government missions
+abroad, connected with colonial questions, and in 1860 he was appointed
+permanent under-secretary of state for the colonies. Sir Frederic Rogers
+was the guiding spirit of the colonial office under six successive
+secretaries of state, and on his retirement in 1871 was raised to the
+peerage as Baron Blachford of Wisdome, a title taken from his place in
+Devonshire. He died on the 21st of November 1889.
+
+  A volume of his letters, edited by G.E. Marindin (1896), contains an
+  interesting Life, partly autobiographical.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874), Scottish publisher, founder of the firm of A. &
+C. Black, the son of a builder, was born in Edinburgh on the 20th of
+February 1784. After serving his apprenticeship to the bookselling trade
+in Edinburgh and London, he began business for himself in Edinburgh in
+1808. By 1826 he was recognized as one of the principal booksellers in
+the city; and a few years later he was joined in business by his nephew
+Charles. The two most important events connected with the history of the
+firm were the publication of the 7th, 8th and 9th editions of the
+_Encyclopaedia Brittannica_, and the purchase of the stock and copyright
+of the Waverley Novels. The copyright of the _Encyclopaedia_ passed into
+the hands of Adam Black and a few friends in 1827. In 1851 the firm
+bought the copyright of the Waverley Novels for £27,000; and in 1861
+they became the proprietors of De Quincey's works. Adam Black was twice
+lord provost of Edinburgh, and represented the city in parliament from
+1856 to 1865. He retired from business in 1865, and died on the 24th of
+January 1874. He was succeeded by his sons, who removed their business
+in 1895 to London. There is a bronze statue of Adam Black in East
+Princes Street Gardens, Edinburgh.
+
+  See _Memoirs of Adam Black_, edited by Alexander Nicholson (2nd ed.,
+  Edinburgh, 1885).
+
+
+
+
+BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810-1883), American lawyer and statesman, was
+born in Stony Creek township, Somerset county, Pennsylvania, on the 10th
+of January 1810. He was largely self-educated, and before he was of age
+was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar. He gradually became one of the
+leading American lawyers, and in 1851-1857 was a member of the supreme
+court of Pennsylvania (chief-justice 1851-1854). In 1857 he entered
+President Buchanan's cabinet as attorney-general of the United States.
+In this capacity he successfully contested the validity of the
+"California land claims"--claims to about 19,000 sq. m. of land,
+fraudulently alleged to have been granted to land-grabbers and others by
+the Mexican government prior to the close of the Mexican War. From the
+17th of December 1860 to the 4th of March 1861 he was secretary of
+state. Perhaps the most influential of President Buchanan's official
+advisers, he denied the constitutionality of secession, and urged that
+Fort Sumter be properly reinforced and defended. "For ... the vigorous
+assertion at last in word and in deed that the United States is a
+nation," says James Ford Rhodes, "for pointing out the way in which the
+authority of the Federal government might be exercised without
+infringing on the rights of the states, the gratitude of the American
+people is due to Jeremiah S. Black." He became reporter to the Supreme
+Court of the United States in 1861, but after publishing the reports for
+the years 1861 and 1862 he resigned, and devoted himself almost
+exclusively to his private practice, appearing in such important cases
+before the Supreme Court as the one known as _Ex-Parte Milligan_, in
+which he ably defended the right of trial by jury, the McCardle case and
+the _United States_ v. _Blyew et al_. After the Civil War he vigorously
+opposed the Congressional plan of reconstructing the late Confederate
+states, and himself drafted the message of President Johnson, vetoing
+the Reconstruction Act of the 2nd of March 1867. Black was also for a
+short time counsel for President Andrew Johnson, in his trial on the
+article of impeachment, before the United States Senate, and for William
+W. Belknap (1829-1890), secretary of war from 1869 to 1876, who in 1876
+was impeached on a charge of corruption; and with others he represented
+Samuel J. Tilden during the contest for the presidency between Tilden
+and Hayes (see ELECTORAL COMMISSION). He died at Brockie, Pennsylvania,
+on the 19th of August 1883.
+
+  See _Essays and Speeches of Jeremiah S. Black, with a Biographical
+  Sketch_ (New York, 1885), by his son, C.F. Black.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK, JOSEPH (1728-1799), Scottish chemist and physicist, was born in
+1728 at Bordeaux, where his father--a native of Belfast but of Scottish
+descent--was engaged in the wine trade. At the age of twelve he was sent
+to a grammar school in Belfast, whence he removed in 1746 to study
+medicine in Glasgow. There he had William Cullen for his instructor in
+chemistry, and the relation between the two soon became that of
+professor and assistant rather than of master and pupil. The action of
+lithontriptic medicines, especially lime-water, was one of the questions
+of the day, and through his investigations of this subject Black was led
+to the chemical discoveries associated with his name. The causticity of
+alkaline bodies was explained at that time as depending on the presence
+in them of the principle of fire, "phlogiston"; quicklime, for instance,
+was chalk which had taken up phlogiston, and when mild alkalis such as
+sodium or potassium carbonate were causticized by its aid, the
+phlogiston was supposed to pass from it to them. Black showed that on
+the contrary causticization meant the loss of something, as proved by
+loss of weight; and this something he found to be an "air," which,
+because it was fixed in the substance before it was causticized, he
+spoke of as "fixed air." Taking _magnesia alba_, which he distinguished
+from limestone with which it had previously been confused, he showed
+that on being heated it lost weight owing to the escape of this fixed
+air (named carbonic acid by Lavoisier in 1781), and that the weight was
+regained when the calcined product was made to reabsorb the fixed air
+with which it had parted. These investigations, by which Black not only
+gave a great impetus to the chemistry of gases by clearly indicating the
+existence of a gas distinct from common air, but also anticipated
+Lavoisier and modern chemistry by his appeal to the balance, were
+described in the thesis _De humore acido a cibis orto, et magnesia
+alba_, which he presented for his doctor's degree in 1754; and a fuller
+account of them was read before the Medical Society of Edinburgh in June
+1753, and published in the following year as _Experiments upon magnesia,
+quicklime and some other alkaline substances_.
+
+It is curious that Black left to others the detailed study of this
+"fixed air" he had discovered. Probably the explanation is pressure of
+other work. In 1756 he succeeded Cullen as lecturer in chemistry at
+Glasgow, and was also appointed professor of anatomy, though that post
+he was glad to exchange for the chair of medicine. The preparation of
+lectures thus took up much of his time, and he was also gaining an
+extensive practice as a physician. Moreover, his attention was engaged
+on studies which ultimately led to his doctrine of latent heat. He
+noticed that when ice melts it takes up a quantity of heat without
+undergoing any change of temperature, and he argued that this heat,
+which as was usual in his time he looked upon as a subtle fluid, must
+have combined with the particles of ice and thus become latent in its
+substance. This hypothesis he verified quantitatively by experiments,
+performed at the end of 1761. In 1764, with the aid of his assistant,
+William Irvine (1743-1787), he further measured the latent heat of
+steam, though not very accurately. This doctrine of latent heat he
+taught in his lectures from 1761 onwards, and in April 1762 he described
+his work to a literary society in Glasgow. But he never published any
+detailed account of it, so that others, such as J.A. Deluc, were able to
+claim the credit of his results. In the course of his inquiries he also
+noticed that different bodies in equal masses require different amounts
+of heat to raise them to the same temperature, and so founded the
+doctrine of specific heats; he also showed that equal additions or
+abstractions of heat produced equal variations of bulk in the liquid of
+his thermometers. In 1766 he succeeded Cullen in the chair of chemistry
+in Edinburgh, where he devoted practically all his time to the
+preparation of his lectures. Never very robust, his health gradually
+became weaker and ultimately he was reduced to the condition of a
+valetudinarian. In 1795 he received the aid of a coadjutor in his
+professorship, and two years later he lectured for the last time. He
+died in Edinburgh on the 6th of December 1799 (not on the 26th of
+November as stated in Robison's life).
+
+As a scientific investigator, Black was conspicuous for the carefulness
+of his work and his caution in drawing conclusions. Holding that
+chemistry had not attained the rank of a science--his lectures dealt
+with the "effects of heat and mixture"--he had an almost morbid horror
+of hasty generalization or of anything that had the pretensions of a
+fully fledged system. This mental attitude, combined with a certain lack
+of initiative and the weakness of his health, probably prevented him
+from doing full justice to his splendid powers of experimental research.
+Apart from the work already mentioned he published only two papers
+during his life-time--"The supposed effect of boiling on water, in
+disposing it to freeze more readily" (_Phil. Trans._, 1775), and "An
+analysis of the waters of the hot springs in Iceland" (_Trans. Roy. Soc.
+Ed._, 1794).
+
+  After his death his lectures were written out from his own notes,
+  supplemented by those of some of his pupils, and published with a
+  biographical preface by his friend and colleague, Professor John
+  Robison (1739-1805), in 1803 as _Lectures on the Elements of
+  Chemistry, delivered in the University of Edinburgh_.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898), British novelist, was born at Glasgow on the
+9th of November 1841. His early ambition was to be a painter, but he
+made no way, and soon had recourse to journalism for a living. He was at
+first employed in newspaper offices in Glasgow, but obtained a post on
+the _Morning Star_ in London, and at once proved himself a descriptive
+writer of exceptional vivacity. During the war between Prussia and
+Austria in 1866 he represented the _Morning Star_ at the front, and was
+taken prisoner. This paper shortly afterwards failed, and Black joined
+the editorial staff of the _Daily News_. He also edited the _Examiner_,
+at a time when that periodical was already moribund. After his first
+success in fiction, he gave up journalism, and devoted himself entirely
+to the production of novels. For nearly thirty years he was successful
+in retaining the popular favour. He died at Brighton on the 10th of
+December 1898, without having experienced any of that reaction of the
+public taste which so often follows upon conspicuous successes in
+fiction. Black's first novel, _James Merle_, published in 1864, was a
+complete failure; his second, _Love or Marraige_ (1868), attracted but
+very slight attention. _In Silk Attire_ (1869) and _Kilmeny_ (1870)
+marked a great advance on his first work, but in 1871 _A Daughter of
+Heth_ suddenly raised him to the height of popularity, and he followed
+up this success by a string of favourites. Among the best of his books
+are _The Strange Adventures of a Phaeton_ (1872); _A Princess of Thule_
+(1874); _Madcap Violet_ (1876); _Macleod of Dare_ (1878); _White Wings_
+(1880); _Sunrise_ (1880); _Shandon Bells_ (1883); _Judith Shakespeare_
+(1884); _White Heather_ (1885); _Donald Ross of Heimra_ (1891);
+_Highland Cousins_ (1894); and _Wild Eelin_ (1898). Black was a
+thoroughgoing sportsman, particularly fond of fishing and yachting, and
+his best stories are those which are laid amid the breezy mountains of
+his native land, or upon the deck of a yacht at sea off its wild coast.
+His descriptions of such scenery are simple and picturesque. He was a
+word-painter rather than a student of human nature. His women are
+stronger than his men, and among them are many wayward and lovable
+creatures; but subtlety of intuition plays no part in his
+characterization. Black also contributed a life of Oliver Goldsmith to
+the _English Men of Letters_ series.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK APE, a sooty, black, short-tailed, and long-faced representative
+of the macaques, inhabiting the island of Celebes, and generally
+regarded as forming a genus by itself, under the name of _Cynopithecus
+niger_, but sometimes relegated to the rank of a subgenus of _Macacus_.
+The nostrils open obliquely at some distance from the end of the snout,
+and the head carries a crest of long hair. There are several local
+races, one of which was long regarded as a separate species under the
+name of the Moor macaque, _Macacus maurus_. (See PRIMATES.)
+
+
+
+
+BLACKBALL, a token used for voting by ballot against the election of a
+candidate for membership of a club or other association. Formerly white
+and black balls about the size of pigeons' eggs were used respectively
+to represent votes for and against a candidate for such election; and
+although this method is now generally obsolete, the term "blackball"
+survives both as noun and verb. The rules of most clubs provide that a
+stated proportion of "blackballs" shall exclude candidates proposed for
+election, and the candidates so excluded are said to have been
+"blackballed"; but the ballot (q.v.) is now usually conducted by a
+method in which the favourable and adverse votes are not distinguished
+by different coloured balls at all. Either voting papers are employed,
+or balls--of which the colour has no significance--are cast into
+different compartments of a ballot-box according as they are favourable
+or adverse to the candidate.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKBERRY, or BRAMBLE, known botanically as _Rubus fruticosus_ (natural
+order Rosaceac), a native of the north temperate region of the Old
+World, and abundant in the British Isles as a copse and hedge-plant. It
+is characterized by its prickly stem, leaves with usually three or five
+ovate, coarsely toothed stalked leaflets, many of which persist through
+the winter, white or pink flowers in terminal clusters, and black or
+red-purple fruits, each consisting of numerous succulent drupels crowded
+on a dry conical receptacle. It is a most variable plant, exhibiting
+many more or less distinct forms which are regarded by different
+authorities as sub-species or species. In America several forms of the
+native blackberry, _Rubus nigrobaccus_ (formerly known as _R.
+villosus_), are widely cultivated; it is described as one of the most
+important and profitable of bush-fruits.
+
+  For details see F.W. Card in L.H. Bailey's _Cyclopedia of American
+  Horticulture_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+BLACKBIRD (_Turdus merula_), the name commonly given to a well-known
+British bird of the _Turdidae_ family, for which the ancient name was
+ousel (q.v.), Anglo-Saxon _ósle_, equivalent of the German _Amsel_, a
+form of the word found in several old English books. The plumage of the
+male is of a uniform black colour, that of the female various shades of
+brown, while the bill of the male, especially during the breeding
+season, is of a bright gamboge yellow. The blackbird is of a shy and
+restless disposition, courting concealment, and rarely seen in flocks,
+or otherwise than singly or in pairs, and taking flight when startled
+with a sharp shrill cry. It builds its nest in March, or early in April,
+in thick bushes or in ivy-clad trees, and usually rears at least two
+broods each season. The nest is a neat structure of coarse grass and
+moss, mixed with earth, and plastered internally with mud, and here the
+female lays from four to six eggs of a blue colour speckled with brown.
+The blackbird feeds chiefly on fruits, worms, the larvae of insects and
+snails, extracting the last from their shells by dexterously chipping
+them on stones; and though it is generally regarded as an enemy of the
+garden, it is probable that the amount of damage by it to the fruit is
+largely compensated for by its undoubted services as a vermin-killer.
+The notes of the blackbird are rich and full, but monotonous as compared
+with those of the song-thrush. Like many other singing birds it is, in
+the wild state, a mocking-bird, having been heard to imitate the song
+of the nightingale, the crowing of a cock, and even the cackling of a
+hen. In confinement it can be taught to whistle a variety of tunes, and
+even to imitate the human voice.
+
+The blackbird is found in every country of Europe, even
+breeding--although rarely--beyond the arctic circle, and in eastern Asia
+as well as in North Africa and the Atlantic islands. In most parts of
+its range it is migratory, and in Britain every autumn its numbers
+receive considerable accession from passing visitors. Allied species
+inhabit most parts of the world, excepting Africa south of the Sahara,
+New Zealand and Australia proper, and North America. In some of these
+the legs as well as the bill are yellow or orange; and in a few both
+sexes are glossy black. The ring-ousel, _Turdus torquatus_, has a dark
+bill and conspicuous white gorget, whence its name. It is rarer and more
+local than the common blackbird, and occurs in England only as a
+temporary spring and autumn visitor.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK BUCK (_Antilope cervicapra_), the Indian Antelope, the sole
+species of its genus. This antelope, widely distributed in India, with
+the exception of Ceylon and the region east of the Bay of Bengal, stands
+about 32 in. high at the shoulder; the general hue is brown deepening
+with age to black; chest, belly and inner sides of limbs pure white, as
+are the muzzle and chin, and an area round the eyes. The horns are long,
+ringed, and form spirals with from three to five turns. The doe is
+smaller in size, yellowish-fawn above, and this hue obtains also in
+young males. These antelopes frequent grassy districts and are usually
+found in herds. Coursing black-buck with the cheeta (q.v.) is a
+favourite Indian sport.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKBURN, COLIN BLACKBURN, BARON (1813-1896), British judge, was born
+in Selkirkshire in 1813, and educated at Eton and at Trinity College,
+Cambridge, taking high mathematical honours in 1835. He was called to
+the bar in 1838, and went the northern circuit. His progress was at
+first slow, and he employed himself in reporting and editing, with T.F.
+Ellis, eight volumes of the highly-esteemed Ellis and Blackburn reports.
+His deficiency in all the more brilliant qualities of the advocate
+almost confined his practice to commercial cases, in which he obtained
+considerable employment in his circuit; but he continued to belong to
+the outside bar, and was so little known to the legal world that his
+promotion to a puisne judgeship in the court of queen's bench in 1859
+was at first ascribed to Lord Campbell's partiality for his countrymen,
+but Lord Lyndhurst, Lord Wensleydale and Lord Cranworth came forward to
+defend the appointment. Blackburn himself is said to have thought that a
+county court judgeship was about to be offered him, which he had
+resolved to decline. He soon proved himself one of the soundest lawyers
+on the bench, and when he was promoted to the court of appeal in 1876
+was considered the highest authority on common law. In 1876 he was made
+a lord of appeal and a life peer. Both in this capacity and as judge of
+the queen's bench he delivered many judgments of the highest importance,
+and no decisions have been received with greater respect. In 1886 he was
+appointed a member of the commission charged to prepare a digest of the
+criminal law, but retired on account of indisposition in the following
+year. He died at his country residence, Doonholm in Ayrshire, on the 8th
+of January 1896. He was the author of a valuable work on the _Law of
+Sales_.
+
+  See _The Times_, 10th of January 1896; E. Manson, _Builders of our
+  Law_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+BLACKBURN, JONATHAN (c. 1700-c. 1765), American portrait painter, was
+born in Connecticut. He seems to have been the son of a painter, and to
+have had a studio in Boston in 1750-1765; among his patrons were many
+important early American families, including the Apthorps, Amorys,
+Bulfinches, Lowells, Ewings, Saltonstalls, Winthrops, Winslows and
+Otises of Boston. Some of his portraits are in the possession of the
+public library of Lexington, Massachusetts, and of the Massachusetts
+Historical Society, but most of them are privately owned and are
+scattered over the country, the majority being in Boston. John Singleton
+Copley was his pupil, and it is said that he finally left his studio in
+Boston, through jealousy of Copley's superior success. He was a good
+portrait painter, and some of his pictures were long attributed to
+Copley.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKBURN, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Lancashire,
+England, 210 m. N.W. by N. from London, and 24½ N.N.W. from Manchester,
+served by the Lancashire & Yorkshire and the London & North Western
+railways, with several lines from all parts of the county. Pop. (1891)
+120,064; (1901) 127,626. It lies in the valley of a stream called in
+early times the Blackeburn, but now known as the Brook. The hills in the
+vicinity rise to some 900 ft., and among English manufacturing towns
+Blackburn ranks high in beauty of situation. Besides numerous churches
+and chapels the public buildings comprise a large town hall (1856),
+market house, exchange, county court, municipal offices, chamber of
+commerce, free library, and, outside the town, an infirmary. There are
+an Elizabethan grammar school, in modern buildings (1884) and an
+excellent technical school. The Corporation Park and Queen's Park are
+well laid out, and contain ornamental waters. There is an efficient
+tramway service, connecting the town with Darwen, 5 m. south. The cotton
+industry employs thousands of operatives, the iron trade is also very
+considerable, and many are engaged in the making of machines; but a
+former woollen manufacture is almost extinct. Blackburn's speciality in
+the cotton industry is weaving. Coal, lime and building stone are
+abundant in the neighbourhood. Blackburn received a charter of
+incorporation in 1851, and is governed by a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42
+councillors. The county borough was created in 1888. The parliamentary
+borough, which returns two members, is coextensive with the municipal,
+and lies between the Accrington and Darwen divisions of the county.
+Area, 7432 acres.
+
+Blackburn is of considerable antiquity; indeed, the 6th century is
+allocated to the original foundation of a church on the site of the
+present parish church. Of another church on this site Cranmer was rector
+after the Reformation. Blackburn was for some time the chief town of a
+district called Blackburnshire, and as early as the reign of Elizabeth
+ranked as a flourishing market town. About the middle of the 17th
+century it became famous for its "checks," which were afterwards
+superseded by a similar linen-and-cotton fabric known as "Blackburn
+greys." In the 18th century the ability of certain natives of the town
+greatly fostered its cotton industry; thus James Hargreaves here
+probably invented his spinning jenny about 1764, though the operatives,
+fearing a reduction of labour, would have none of it, and forced him to
+quit the town for Nottingham. He was in the employment of Robert Peel,
+grandfather of the prime minister of that name, who here instituted the
+factory system, and as the director of a large business carefully
+fostered the improvement of methods.
+
+  See W.A. Abram, _History of Blackburn_ (Blackburn, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+BLACKBURNE, FRANCIS (1782-1867), lord chancellor of Ireland, was born at
+Great Footstown, Co. Meath, Ireland, on the 11th of November 1782.
+Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, he was called to the English bar in
+1805, and practised with great success on the home circuit. Called to
+the Irish bar in 1822, he vigorously administered the Insurrection Act
+in Limerick for two years, effectually restoring order in the district.
+In 1826 he became a serjeant-at-law, and in 1830, and again, in 1841,
+was attorney-general for Ireland. In 1842 he became master of the rolls
+in Ireland, in 1846 chief-justice of the queen's bench, and in 1852 (and
+again in 1866) lord chancellor of Ireland. In 1856 he was made a lord
+justice of appeal in Ireland. He is remembered as having prosecuted
+O'Connell and presided at the trial of Smith O'Brien. He died on the
+17th of September 1867.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKCOCK (_Tetrao tetrix_), the English name given to a bird of the
+family _Tetraonidae_ or grouse, the female of which is known as the grey
+hen and the young as poults. In size and plumage the two sexes offer a
+striking contrast, the male weighing about 4 lb., its plumage for the
+most part of a rich glossy black shot with blue and purple, the lateral
+tail feathers curved outwards so as to form, when raised, a fan-like
+crescent, and the eyebrows destitute of feathers and of a bright
+vermilion red. The female, on the other hand, weighs only 2 lb., its
+plumage is of a russet brown colour irregularly barred with black, and
+its tail feathers are but slightly forked. The males are polygamous, and
+during autumn and winter associate together, feeding in flocks apart
+from the females; but with the approach of spring they separate, each
+selecting a locality for itself, from which it drives off all intruders,
+and where morning and evening it seeks to attract the other sex by a
+display of its beautiful plumage, which at this season attains its
+greatest perfection, and by a peculiar cry, which Selby describes as "a
+crowing note, and another similar to the noise made by the whetting of a
+scythe." The nest, composed of a few stalks of grass, is built on the
+ground, usually beneath the shadow of a low bush or a tuft of tall
+grass, and here the female lays from six to ten eggs of a dirty-yellow
+colour speckled with dark brown. The blackcock then rejoins his male
+associates, and the female is left to perform the labours of hatching
+and rearing her young brood. The plumage of both sexes is at first like
+that of the female, but after moulting the young males gradually assume
+the more brilliant plumage of their sex. There are also many cases on
+record, and specimens may be seen in the principal museums, of old
+female birds assuming, to a greater or less extent, the plumage of the
+male. The blackcock is very generally distributed over the highland
+districts of northern and central Europe, and in some parts of Asia. It
+is found on the principal heaths in the south of England, but is
+specially abundant in the Highlands of Scotland.
+
+[Illustration: Blackcock. ]
+
+
+
+
+BLACK COUNTRY, THE, a name commonly applied to a district lying
+principally in S. Staffordshire, but extending into Worcestershire and
+Warwickshire, England. This is one of the chief manufacturing centres in
+the United Kingdom, and the name arises from the effect of numerous
+collieries and furnaces, which darken the face of the district, the
+buildings and the atmosphere. Coal, ironstone and clay are mined in
+close proximity, and every sort of iron and steel goods is produced. The
+district extends 15 m. N.W. from Birmingham, and includes Smethwick,
+West Bromwich, Dudley, Oldbury, Sedgley, Tipton, Bilston, Wednesbury,
+Wolverhampton and Walsall as its most important centres. The ceaseless
+activity of the Black Country is most readily realized when it is
+traversed, or viewed from such an elevation as Dudley Castle Hill, at
+night, when the glare of furnaces appears in every direction. The
+district is served by numerous branches of the Great Western, London &
+North Western, and Midland railways, and is intersected by canals, which
+carry a heavy traffic, and in some places are made to surmount physical
+obstacles with remarkable engineering skill, as in the case of the
+Castle Hill tunnels at Dudley. Among the numerous branches of industry
+there are several characteristic of certain individual centres. Thus,
+locks are a specialty at Wolverhampton and Willenhall, and keys at
+Wednesfield; horses' bits, harness-fittings and saddlery at Walsall and
+Bloxwich, anchors and cables at Tipton, glass at Smethwick, and nails
+and chains at Cradley.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK DROP, in astronomy, an apparent distortion of the planet Mercury
+or Venus at the time of internal contact with the limb of the sun at the
+beginning or end of a transit. It has been in the past a source of much
+perplexity to observers of transits, but is now understood to be a
+result of irradiation, produced by the atmosphere or by the aberration
+of the telescope.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKFOOT (_Siksika_), a tribe and confederacy of North American Indians
+of Algonquian stock. The name is explained as an allusion to their
+leggings being observed by the whites to have become blackened by
+marching over the freshly burned prairie. Their range was around the
+headwaters of the Missouri, from the Yellowstone northward to the North
+Saskatchewan and westward to the Rockies. The confederacy consisted of
+three tribes, the Blackfoot or Siksika proper, the Kaina and the Piegan.
+During the early years of the 19th century the Blackfoots were one of
+the strongest Indian confederacies of the north-west, numbering some
+40,000. At the beginning of the 20th century there were about 5000, some
+in Montana and some in Canada.
+
+  See Jean L'Heureux, _Customs and Religious Ideas of Blackfoot Indians
+  in J.A.I._, vol. xv. (1886); G.B. Grinnell, _Blackfoot Lodge Tales_
+  (1892); G. Catlin, _North American Indians_ (1876); _Handbook of
+  American Indians_ (Washington, 1907), under "Siksika."
+
+
+
+
+BLACK FOREST (Ger. _Schwarzwald_; the _Silva Marciana_ and _Abnoba_ of
+the Romans), a mountainous district of south-west Germany, having an
+area of 1844 sq. m., of which about two-thirds lie in the grand duchy of
+Baden and the remaining third in the kingdom of Württemberg. Bounded on
+the south and west by the valley of the Rhine, to which its declivities
+abruptly descend, and running parallel to, and forming the counterpart
+of the Vosges beyond, it slopes more gently down to the valley of the
+Neckar in the north and to that of the Nagold (a tributary of the
+Neckar) on the north-east. Its total length is 100 m., and its breadth
+varies from 36 m. in the south to 21 in the centre and 13 in the north.
+The deep valley of the Kinzig divides it laterally into halves, of which
+the southern, with an average elevation of 3000 ft., is the wilder and
+contains the loftiest peaks, which again mostly lie towards the western
+side. Among them are the Feldberg (4898 ft.), the Herzogenhorn (4600),
+the Blössling (4260) and the Blauen (3820). The northern half has an
+average height of 2000 ft. On the east side are several lakes, and here
+the majority of the streams take their rise. The configuration of the
+hills is mainly conical and the geological formation consists of gneiss,
+granite (in the south) and red sandstone. The district is poor in
+minerals; the yield of silver and copper has almost ceased, but there
+are workable coal seams near Offenburg, where the Kinzig debouches on
+the plain. The climate in the higher districts is raw and the produce is
+mostly confined to hardy cereals, such as oats. But the valleys,
+especially those on the western side, are warm and healthy, enclose good
+pasture land and furnish fruits and wine in rich profusion. They are
+clothed up to a height of about 2000 ft. with luxuriant woods of oak and
+beech, and above these again and up to an elevation of 4000 ft.,
+surrounding the hills with a dense dark belt, are the forests of fir
+which have given the name to the district. The summits of the highest
+peaks are bare, but even on them snow seldom lies throughout the summer.
+
+The Black Forest produces excellent timber, which is partly sawn in the
+valleys and partly exported down the Rhine in logs. Among other
+industries are the manufactures of watches, clocks, toys and musical
+instruments. There are numerous mineral springs, and among the watering
+places Baden-Baden and Wildbad are famous. The towns of Freiburg,
+Rastatt, Offenburg and Lahr, which lie under the western declivities,
+are the chief centres for the productions of the interior.
+
+The Black Forest is a favourite tourist resort and is opened up by
+numerous railways. In addition to the main lines in the valleys of the
+Rhine and Neckar, which are connected with the towns lying on its
+fringe, the district is intersected by the Schwarzwaldbahn from
+Offenburg to Singen, from which various small local lines ramify.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK HAWK [Ma'katawimesheka'ka, "Black Sparrow Hawk"], (1767-1838),
+American Indian warrior of the Sauk and Fox tribes, was born at the Sauk
+village on Rock river, near the Mississippi, in 1767. He was a member of
+the Thunder gens of the Sauk tribe, and, though neither an hereditary
+nor an elected chief, was for some time the recognized war leader of the
+Sauk and Foxes. From his youth he was intensely bloodthirsty and hostile
+to the Americans. Immediately after the acquisition of "Louisiana," the
+Federal government took steps for the removal of the Sauk and Foxes, who
+had always been a disturbing element among the north-western Indians, to
+the west bank of the Mississippi river. As early as 1804, by a treaty
+signed at St Louis on the 3rd of November, they agreed to the removal in
+return for an annuity of $1000. British influences were still strong in
+the upper Mississippi valley and undoubtedly led Black Hawk and the
+chiefs of the Sauk and Fox confederacy to repudiate this agreement of
+1804, and subsequently to enter into the conspiracy of Tecumseh and take
+part with the British in the war of 1812. The treaties of 1815 at
+Portage des Sioux (with the Foxes) and of 1816 at St Louis (with the
+Sauk) substantially renewed that of 1804. That of 1816 was signed by
+Black Hawk himself, who declared, however, when in 1823 Chief Keokuk and
+a majority of the two nations crossed the river, that the consent of the
+chiefs had been obtained by fraud. In 1830 a final treaty was signed at
+Prairie du Chien, by which all title to the lands of the Sauk and Foxes
+east of the Mississippi was ceded to the government, and provision was
+made for the immediate opening of the tract to settlers. Black Hawk,
+leading the party in opposition to Keokuk, at once refused to accede to
+this cession and threatened to retaliate if his lands were invaded. This
+precipitated what is known as the Black Hawk War. Settlers began pouring
+into the new region in the early spring of 1831, and Black Hawk in June
+attacked several villages near the Illinois-Wisconsin line. After
+massacring several isolated families, he was driven off by a force of
+Illinois militia. He renewed his attack in the following year (1832),
+but after several minor engagements, in most of which he was successful,
+he was defeated (21st of July) at Wisconsin Heights on the Wisconsin
+river, opposite Prairie du Sac, by Michigan volunteers under Colonels
+Henry Dodge and James D. Henry, and fleeing westward was again
+decisively defeated on the Mississippi at the mouth of the Bad Axe river
+(on the 1st and 2nd of August) by General Henry Atkinson. His band was
+completely dispersed, and he himself was captured by a party of
+Winnebagoes. At Fort Armstrong, Rock Island, on the 21st of September, a
+treaty was signed, by which a large tract of the Sauk and Fox territory
+was ceded to the United States; and the United States granted to them a
+reservation of 400 sq. m., the payment of $20,000 a year for thirty
+years, and the settlement of certain traders' claims against the tribe.
+With several warriors Black Hawk was sent to Fortress Monroe, Virginia,
+where he was confined for a few weeks; afterwards he was taken by the
+government through the principal Eastern cities. On his release he
+settled in 1837 on the Sauk and Fox reservation on the Des Moines river,
+in Iowa, where he died on the 3rd of October 1838.
+
+  See Frank E. Stevens, _The Black Hawk War_ (Chicago, 1903); R.G.
+  Thwaites, "The Story of the Black Hawk War" in vol. xii. of the
+  _Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin_; J.B.
+  Patterson, _Life of Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak or Black Hawk_ (Boston,
+  1834), purporting to be Black Hawk's story as told by himself; and
+  Benjamin Drake, _Life of Black Hawk_ (Cincinnati, 1846).
+
+
+
+
+BLACKHEATH, an open common in the south-east of London, England, mainly
+in the metropolitan borough of Lewisham. This high-lying tract was
+crossed by the Roman Watling Street from Kent, on a line approximating
+to that of the modern Shooter's Hill; and was a rallying ground of Wat
+Tyler (1381), of Jack Cade (1450), and of Audley, leader of the Cornish
+rebels, defeated and captured here by the troops of Henry VII. in 1497.
+It also witnessed the acclamations of the citizens of London on the
+return of Henry V. from the victory of Agincourt, the formal meeting
+between Henry VIII. and Anne of Cleves, and that between the army of
+the restoration and Charles II. The introduction into England of the
+game of golf is traditionally placed here in 1608, and attributed to
+King James I. and his Scottish followers. The common, the area of which
+is 267 acres, is still used for this and other pastimes. For the
+residential district to which Blackheath gives name, see LEWISHAM.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK HILLS, an isolated group of mountains, covering an area of about
+6000 sq. m. in the adjoining corners of South Dakota and Wyoming, U.S.A.
+They rise on an average some 2000 ft. above their base, the highest
+peak, Harney, having an altitude above the sea of 7216 ft. They are
+drained and in large part enclosed by the North (or Belle Fourche) and
+South forks of the Cheyenne river (at whose junction a fur-trading post
+was established about 1830); and are surrounded by semi-arid, alkaline
+plains lying 3000 to 3500 ft. above the sea. The mass has an elliptical
+shape, its long axis, which extends nearly N.N.W.-S.S.E., being about
+120 m. and its shorter axis about 40 m. long. The hills are formed by a
+short, broad, anticlinal fold, which is flat or nearly so on its summit.
+From this fold the stratified beds have in large part been removed, the
+more recent having been almost entirely eroded from the elevated mass.
+The edges of these are now found encircling the mountains and forming a
+series of fairly continuous rims of hog-backs. The carboniferous and
+older stratified beds still cover the west half of the hills, while from
+the east half they have been removed, exposing the granite. Scientific
+exploration began in 1849, and systematic geological investigation about
+1875. Rich gold placers had already been discovered, and in 1875 the
+Sioux Indians within whose territory the hills had until then been
+included, were removed, and the lands were open to white settlers.
+Subsequently low-grade quartz mines were found and developed, and have
+furnished a notable part of the gold supply of the country (about
+$100,000,000 from 1875 to 1901). The output is to-day relatively small
+in comparison with that of many other fields, but there are one or two
+permanent gold mines of great value working low-grade ore. The silver
+product from 1879 to 1901 was about $4,154,000. Deposits of copper, tin,
+iron and tungsten have been discovered, and a variety of other mineral
+products (graphite, mica, spodumene, coal, petroleum, &c.). In sharp
+contrast to the surrounding plains the climate is subhumid, especially
+in the higher Harney region. There is an abundance of fertile soil and
+magnificent grazing land. A third of the total area is covered with
+forests of pine and other trees, which have for the most part been made
+a forest-reserve by the national government. Jagged crags, sudden
+abysses, magnificent canyons, forests with open parks, undulating hills,
+mountain prairies, freaks of weathering and erosion, and the enclosing
+lines of the successive hog-backs afford scenery of remarkable variety
+and wild beauty. There are several interesting limestone caverns, and
+Sylvan Lake, in the high mountain district, is an important resort.
+
+  See the publications of the United States Geological Survey
+  (especially Professional Paper No. 26, _Economic Resources of the
+  Northern Black Hills_, 1904), and of the South Dakota School of Mines
+  (Bulletin No. 4, containing a history and bibliography of Black Hills
+  investigations); also R.L. Dodge, _The Black Hills: A Minute
+  Description_ ... (New York, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+BLACKIE, JOHN STUART (1809-1895), Scottish scholar and man of letters,
+was born in Glasgow on the 28th of July 1809. He was educated at the New
+Academy and afterwards at the Marischal College, in Aberdeen, where his
+father was manager of the Commerical Bank. After attending classes at
+Edinburgh University (1825-1826), Blackie spent three years at Aberdeen
+as a student of theology. In 1829 he went to Germany, and after studying
+at Göttingen and Berlin (where he came under the influence of Heeren,
+Ottfried Müller, Schleiermacher, Neander and Böckh) he accompanied
+Bunsen to Italy and Rome. The years spent abroad extinguished his former
+wish to enter the Church, and at his father's desire he gave himself up
+to the study of law. He had already, in 1824, been placed in a lawyer's
+office, but only remained there six months. By the time he was admitted
+a member of the Faculty of Advocates (1834) he had acquired a strong
+love of the classics and a taste for letters in general. A translation
+of _Faust_, which he published in 1834, met with considerable success.
+After a year or two of desultory literary work he was (May 1839)
+appointed to the newly-instituted chair of Humanity (Latin) in the
+Marischal College.
+
+Difficulties arose in the way of his installation, owing to the action
+of the Presbytery on his refusing to sign unreservedly the Confession of
+Faith; but these were eventually overcome, and he took up his duties as
+professor in November 1841. In the following year he married. From the
+first his professorial lectures were conspicuous for the unconventional
+enthusiasm with which he endeavoured to revivify the study of the
+classics; and his growing reputation, added to the attention excited by
+a translation of Aeschylus which he published in 1850, led to his
+appointment in 1852 to the professorship of Greek at Edinburgh
+University, in succession to George Dunbar, a post which he continued to
+hold for thirty years. He was somewhat erratic in his methods, but his
+lectures were a triumph of influential personality. A journey to Greece
+in 1853 prompted his essay _On the Living Language of the Greeks_, a
+favourite theme of his, especially in his later years; he adopted for
+himself a modern Greek pronunciation, and before his death he endowed a
+travelling scholarship to enable students to learn Greek at Athens.
+Scottish nationality was another source of enthusiasm with him; and in
+this connexion he displayed real sympathy with Highland home life and
+the grievances of the crofters. The foundation of the Celtic chair at
+Edinburgh University was mainly due to his efforts. In spite of the many
+calls upon his time he produced a considerable amount of literary work,
+usually on classical or Scottish subjects, including some poems and
+songs of no mean order. He died in Edinburgh on the 2nd of March 1895.
+Blackie was a Radical and Scottish nationalist in politics, but of a
+fearlessly independent type; he was one of the "characters" of the
+Edinburgh of the day, and was a well-known figure as he went about in
+his plaid, worn shepherd-wise, wearing a broad-brimmed hat, and carrying
+a big stick. His published works include (besides several volumes of
+verse) _Homer and the Iliad_ (1866), maintaining the unity of the poems;
+_Four Phases of Morals: Socrates, Aristotle, Christianity,
+Utilitarianism_ (1871); _Essay on Self-Culture_ (1874); _Horae
+Hellenicae_ (1874); _The Language and Literature of the Scottish
+Highlands_ (1876); _The Natural History of Atheism_ (1877); _The Wise
+Men of Greece_ (1877); _Lay Sermons_ (1881); _Altavona_ (1882); _The
+Wisdom of Goethe_ (1883); _The Scottish Highlanders and the Land Laws_
+(1885); _Life of Burns_ (1888); _Scottish Song_ (1889); _Essays on
+Subjects of Moral and Social Interest_ (1890); _Christianity and the
+Ideal of Humanity_ (1893). Amongst his political writings may be
+mentioned a pamphlet _On Democracy_ (1867), _On Forms of Government_
+(1867), and _Political Tracts_ (1868).
+
+  See Anna M. Stoddart, _John Stuart Blackie_ (1895); A. Stodart-Walker,
+  _Selected Poems of J.S. Blackie_, with an appreciation (1896); Howard
+  Angus Kennedy, _Professor Blackie_ (1895).
+
+
+
+
+BLACK ISLE, THE, a district in the east of the county of Ross and
+Cromarty, Scotland, bounded N. by Cromarty Firth, E. by Moray Firth, S.
+by Inner Moray Firth (or Firth of Inverness) and Beauly Firth, and W. by
+the river Conon and the parish of Urray. It is a diamond-shaped
+peninsula jutting out from the mainland in a north-easterly direction,
+the longer axis, from Muir of Ord station to the South Sutor at the
+entrance to Cromarty Firth, measuring 20 m., and the shorter, from
+Ferryton Point to Craigton-Point, due north and south, 12 m., and it has
+a coastline of 52 m. Originally called Ardmeanach (Gaelic _ard_, height;
+_manaich_, monk, "the monk's height," from an old religious house on the
+finely-wooded ridge of Mulbuie), it derived its customary name from the
+fact that, since snow does not lie in winter, the promontory looks black
+while the surrounding country is white. Within its limits are comprised
+the parishes of Urquhart and Logie Wester, Killearnan, Knockbain (Gaelic
+_cnoc_, hill; _bàn_, white), Avoch (pron. Auch), Rosemarkie, Resolis
+(Gaelic _rudha_ or _ros soluis_, "cape of the light") or Kirkmichael and
+Cromarty. The Black Isle branch of the Highland railway runs from Muir
+of Ord to Fortrose; steamers connect Cromarty with Invergordon and
+Inverness, and Fortrose with Inverness; and there are ferries, on the
+southern coast, at North Kessock (for Inverness) and Chanonry (for Fort
+George), and, on the northern coast, at Alcaig (for Dingwall),
+Newhallpoint (for Invergordon), and Cromarty (for Nigg). The principal
+towns are Cromarty and Fortrose. Rosehaugh, near Avoch, belonged to Sir
+George Mackenzie, founder of the Advocates' library in Edinburgh, who
+earned the sobriquet of "Bloody" from his persecution of the
+Covenanters. Redcastle, on the shore, near Killearnan church, dates from
+1179 and is said to have been the earliest inhabited house in the north
+of Scotland. On the forfeiture of the earldom of Ross it became a royal
+castle (being visited by Queen Mary), and afterwards passed for a period
+into the hands of the Mackenzies of Gairloch. The chief industries are
+agriculture--high farming flourishes owing to the great fertility of the
+peninsula--sandstone-quarrying and fisheries (mainly from Avoch). The
+whole district, though lacking water, is picturesque and was once
+forested. The Mulbuie ridge, the highest point of which is 838 ft. above
+the sea, occupies the centre and is the only elevated ground.
+Antiquarian remains are somewhat numerous, such as forts and cairns in
+Cromarty parish, and stone circles in Urquhart and Logie Wester and
+Knockbain parishes, the latter also containing a hut circle and rock
+fortress.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKLOCK, THOMAS (1721-1791), Scottish poet, the son of a bricklayer,
+was born at Annan, in Dumfriesshire, in 1721. When not quite six months
+old he lost his sight by smallpox, and his career is largely interesting
+as that of one who achieved what he did in spite of blindness. Shortly
+after his father's death in 1740, some of Blacklock's poems began to be
+handed about among his acquaintances and friends, who arranged for his
+education at the grammar-school, and subsequently at the university of
+Edinburgh, where he was a student of divinity. His first volume of Poems
+was published in 1746. In 1754 he became deputy librarian for the
+Faculty of Advocates, by the kindness of Hume. He was eventually
+estranged from Hume, and defended James Beattie's attack on that
+philosopher. Blacklock was among the first friends of Burns in
+Edinburgh, being one of the earliest to recognize his genius. He was in
+1762 ordained minister of the church of Kirkcudbright, a position which
+he soon resigned; in 1767 the degree of doctor in divinity was conferred
+on him by Marischal College, Aberdeen. He died on the 7th of July 1791.
+
+  An edition of his poems in 1793 contains a life by Henry Mackenzie.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKMAIL, a term, in English law, used in three special meanings, at
+different times. The usual derivation of the second half of the word is
+from Norman Fr. _maille (medalia_; cf. "medal"), small copper coin; the
+_New English Dictionary_ derives from "mail" (q.v.), meaning rent or
+tribute. (1) The primary meaning of "blackmail" was rent paid in labour,
+grain or baser metal (i.e. money other than sterling money), called
+_reditus nigri_, in contradistinction to rent paid in silver or white
+money (_mailles blanches_). (2) In the northern counties of England
+(Northumberland, Westmorland and the bishopric of Durham) it signified a
+tribute in money, corn, cattle or other consideration exacted from
+farmers and small owners by freebooters in return for immunity from
+robbers or moss-troopers. By a statute of 1601 it was made a felony
+without benefit of clergy to receive or pay such tribute, but the
+practice lingered until the union of England and Scotland in 1707. (3)
+The word now signifies extortion of money or property by threats of
+libel, presecution, exposure, &c. See such headings as COERCION,
+CONSPIRACY, EXTORTION, and authorities quoted under CRIMINAL LAW.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD (c. 1650-1729), English physician and writer, was
+born at Corsham, in Wiltshire, about 1650. He was educated at
+Westminster school and St Edmund Hall, Oxford. He was for some time a
+schoolmaster, but finally, after graduating in medicine at Padua, he
+settled in practice as a physician in London. He supported the
+principles of the Revolution, and was accordingly knighted in 1697. He
+held the office of physician in ordinary both to William III. and Anne,
+and died on the 9th of October 1729. Blackmore had a passion for
+writing epics. _Prince Arthur, an Heroick Poem in X Books_ appeared in
+1695, and was followed by six other long poems before 1723. Of these
+_Creation_ ... (1712), a philosophic poem intended to refute the atheism
+of Vanini, Hobbes and Spinoza, and to unfold the intellectual philosophy
+of Locke, was the most favourably received. Dr Johnson anticipated that
+this poem would transmit the author to posterity "among the first
+favourites of the English muse," while John Dennis went so far as to
+describe it as "a philosophical poem, which has equalled that of
+Lucretius in the beauty of its versification, and infinitely surpassed
+it in the solidity and strength of its reasoning." These opinions have
+not been justified, for the poem, like everything else that Blackmore
+wrote, is dull and tedious. His _Creation_ appears in Johnson's and
+Anderson's collections of the British poets. He left also works on
+medicine and on theological subjects.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKMORE, RICHARD DODDRIDGE (1825-1900), English novelist, was born on
+the 7th of June 1825 at Longworth, Berkshire, of which village his
+father was curate in charge. He was educated at Blundell's school,
+Tiverton, and Exeter College, Oxford, where he obtained a scholarship.
+In 1847 he took a second class in classics. Two years later he entered
+as a student at the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in 1852.
+His first publication was a volume of _Poems by Melanter_ (1854), which
+showed no particular promise, nor did the succeeding volume, _Epullia_
+(1855), suggest that Blackmore had the makings of a poet. He was
+nevertheless enthusiastic in his pursuit of literature; and when, a few
+years later, the complete breakdown of his health rendered it clear that
+he must remove from London, he determined to combine a literary life in
+the country with a business career as a market-gardener. He acquired
+land at Teddington, and set earnestly to work, the literary fruits of
+his new surroundings being a translation of the _Georgics_, published in
+1862. In 1864 he published his first novel, _Clara Vaughan_, the merits
+of which were promptly recognized. _Cradock Nowell_ (1866) followed, but
+it was in 1869 that he suddenly sprang into fame with _Lorna Doone_.
+This fine story was a pioneer in the romantic revival; and appearing at
+a jaded hour, it was presently recognized as a work of singular charm,
+vigour and imagination. Its success could scarcely be repeated, and
+though Blackmore wrote many other capital stories, of which the best
+known are _The Maid of Sker_ (1872), _Christowell_ (1880), _Perlycross_
+(1894), _Tales from the Telling House_ (1896) and _Dariel_ (1897), he
+will always be remembered almost exclusively as the author of _Lorna
+Doone_. He continued his quiet country life to the last, and died at
+Teddington on the 20th of January 1900, in his seventy-fifth year.
+_Lorna Doone_ has the true out-of-door atmosphere, is shot through and
+through with adventurous spirit, and in its dramatic moments shows both
+vigour and intensity. The heroine, though she is invested with qualities
+of faëry which are scarcely human, is an idyllic and haunting figure;
+and John Ridd, the bluff hero, is, both in purpose and achievement, a
+veritable giant of romance. The story is a classic of the West country,
+and the many pilgrimages that are made annually to the Doone Valley (the
+actual characteristics of which differ materially from the descriptions
+given in the novel) are entirely inspired by the buoyant imagination of
+Richard Blackmore. A memorial window and tablet to his memory were
+erected in Exeter cathedral in 1904.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK MOUNTAIN, a mountain range and district on the Hazara border of
+the North-West Frontier Province of India. It is inhabited by Yusafzai
+Pathans. The Black Mountain itself has a total length of 25 to 30 m.,
+and an average height of 8000 ft. above the sea. It rises from the Indus
+basin near the village of Kiara, up to its watershed by Bruddur; thence
+it runs north-west by north to the point on the crest known as
+Chittabut. From Chittabut the range runs due north, finally descending
+by two large spurs to the Indus again. The tribes which inhabit the
+western face of the Black Mountain are the Hassanzais (2300 fighting
+men), the Akazais (1165 fighting men) and the Chagarzais (4890 fighting
+men), all sub-sections of the Yusafzai Pathans. It was in this district
+that the Hindostani Fanatics had their stronghold, and they were
+responsible for much of the unrest on this part of the border.
+
+The Black Mountain is chiefly notable for four British expeditions:--
+
+1. Under Lieut.-Colonel F. Mackeson, in 1852-53, against the Hassanzais.
+The occasion was the murder of two British customs officers. A force of
+3800 British troops traversed their country, destroying their villages
+and grain, &c.
+
+2. Under Major-General A.T. Wilde, in 1868. The occasion was an attack
+on a British police post at Oghi in the Agror Valley by all three
+tribes. A force of 12,500 British troops entered the country and the
+tribes made submission.
+
+3. The First Hazara Expedition in 1888. The cause was the constant raids
+made by the tribes on villages in British territory, culminating in an
+attack on a small British detachment, in which two English officers were
+killed. A force of 12,500 British troops traversed the country of the
+tribes, and severely punished them. Punishment was also inflicted on the
+Hindostani Fanatics of Palosi.
+
+4. The Second Hazara Expedition of 1891. The Black Mountain tribes fired
+on a force within British limits. A force of 7300 British troops
+traversed the country. The tribesmen made their submission and entered
+into an agreement with government to preserve the peace of the border.
+
+The Black Mountain tribes took no part in the general frontier rising of
+1897, and after the disappearance of the Hindostani Fanatics they sank
+into comparative unimportance.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKPOOL, a municipal and county borough and seaside resort in the
+Blackpool parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 46 m. N. of
+Liverpool, served by the Lancashire & Yorkshire, and London & North
+Western railways. Pop. (1891) 23,846; (1901) 47,346. The town, which is
+quite modern, contains many churches and chapels of all denominations, a
+town hall, public libraries, the Victoria hospital, three piers,
+theatres, ball-rooms, and other places of public amusement, including a
+lofty tower, resembling the Eiffel Tower of Paris. The municipality
+maintains an electric tram service. There are handsome promenades along
+the sea front, which command fine views. Extensive works upon these,
+affording a sea front unsurpassed by that of any English watering-place,
+were completed in 1905. The beach is sandy and the bathing good. The
+borough was created in 1876 (county borough, 1904), and is governed by a
+mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, exclusive of foreshore,
+3496 acres; including foreshore, 4244 acres.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK ROD (more fully, "Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod "), an official
+of the House of Lords, instituted in 1350. His appointment is by royal
+letters patent, and his title is due to his staff of office, an ebony
+stick surmounted with a gold lion. He is a personal attendant of the
+sovereign in the Upper House, and is also usher of the order of the
+Garter, being doorkeeper at the meetings of the knights' chapter. He is
+responsible for the maintenance of order in the House of Lords, and on
+him falls the duty of arresting any peer guilty of breach of privilege
+or other offence of which the House takes cognizance. But the duty which
+brings him most into prominence is that of summoning the Commons and
+their speaker to the Upper House to hear a speech from the throne or the
+royal assent given to bills. If the sovereign is present in parliament,
+Black Rod _commands_ the attendance of the gentlemen of the Commons, but
+when lords commissioners represent the king, he only _desires_ such
+attendance. Black Rod is on such occasions the central figure of a
+curious ceremony of much historic significance. As soon as the
+attendants of the House of Commons are aware of his approach, they close
+the doors in his face. Black Rod then strikes three times with his
+staff, and on being asked "Who is there?" replies "Black Rod." Being
+then admitted he advances to the bar of the House, makes three
+obeisances and says, "Mr Speaker, the king commands this honourable
+House to attend his majesty immediately in the House of Lords." This
+formality originated in the famous attempt of Charles I. to arrest the
+five members, Hampden, Pym, Holies, Hesilrige and Strode, in 1642.
+Indignant at this breach of privilege, the House of Commons has ever
+since maintained its right of freedom of speech and uninterrupted debate
+by the closing of the doors on the king's representative.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK SEA (or EUXINE; anc. _Pontus Euxinus_),[1] a body of water lying
+almost entirely between the latitudes 41º and 45º N., but extending to
+about 47º N. near Odessa. It is bounded N. by the southern coast of
+Russia; W. by Rumania, Turkey and Bulgaria; S. and E. by Asia Minor. The
+northern boundary is broken at Kertch by a strait entering into the Sea
+of Azov, and at the junction of the western and southern boundary is the
+Bosporus, which unites the Black Sea with the Mediterranean through the
+Sea of Marmora and the Dardanelles. The 100-fathom line is about 10 to
+20 m. from the shore except in the north-west corner between Varna and
+Sevastopol, where it extends 140 m. seawards. The greatest depth is 1030
+fathoms (1227 Russian fathoms) near the centre, there being only one
+basin. The steepest incline outside 100 fathoms is to the south-east of
+the Crimea and at Amastra; the incline to the greater depths is also
+steep off the Caucasus and between Trebizond and Batum. The conditions
+that prevail in the Black Sea are very different from those of the
+Mediterranean or any other sea. The existence of sulphuretted hydrogen
+in great quantities below 100 fathoms, the extensive chemical
+precipitation of calcium carbonate, the stagnant nature of its deep
+waters, and the absence of deep-sea life are conditions which make it
+impossible to discuss it along with the physical and biological
+conditions of the Mediterranean proper.
+
+The depths of the Black Sea are lifeless, higher organic life not being
+known to exist below 100 fathoms. Fossiliferous remains of _Dreissena_,
+_Cardium_ and other molluscs have, however, been dredged up, which help
+to show that conditions formerly existed in the Black Sea similar to
+those that exist at the present day in the Caspian Sea. According to N.
+Andrusov, when the union of the Black Sea with the Mediterranean through
+the Bosporus took place, salt water rushed into it along the bottom of
+the Bosporus and killed the fauna of the less saline waters. This gave
+rise to a production of sulphuretted hydrogen which is found in the
+deposits, as well as in the deeper waters.
+
+Observations in temperature and salinity have only been taken during
+summer. During summer the surface salinity of the Black Sea is from 1.70
+to 2.00% down to 50 fathoms, whereas in the greater depths it attains a
+salinity of 2.25%. The temperature is rather remarkable, there being an
+intermediate cold layer between 25 and 50 fathoms. This is due to the
+sinking of the cold surface water (which in winter reaches
+freezing-point) on to the top of the denser more saline water of the
+greater depths. There is thus a minimum circulation in the greater
+depths causing there uniformity of temperature, an absence of the
+circulation of oxygen by other means than diffusion, and a protection of
+the sulphuretted hydrogen from the oxidation which takes place in
+homologous situations in the open ocean. The temperature down to 25
+fathoms is from 78.3º to 46.2º F., and in the cold layer, between 25 and
+50 fathoms, is from 46.2º to 43.5º F., rising again in greater depths to
+48.2º F.
+
+The _Sea of Marmora_ may be looked upon as an arm of the Aegean Sea and
+thus part of the Mediterranean proper. Its salinity is comparable to
+that of the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, which is greater than
+that of the Black Sea, viz. 4%. Similar currents exist in the Bosporus
+to those of the Strait of Gibraltar. Water of less salinity flows
+outwards from the Black Sea as an upper current, and water of greater
+salinity from the Sea of Marmora flows into the Black Sea as an
+under-current. This under-current flows towards Cape Tarhangut, where it
+divides into a left and right branch. The left branch is appreciably
+noticed near Odessa and the north-west corner; the right branch sweeps
+past the Crimea, strikes the Caucasian shore (where it comes to the
+surface running across, but not into, the south-east corner of the Black
+Sea), and finally disperses flowing westwards along the northern coast
+of Asia Minor between Cape Jason and Sinope. This current causes a
+warmer climate where it strikes. So marked is this current that it has
+to be taken into account in the navigation of the Black Sea.
+
+The _Sea of Azov_ is exceedingly shallow, being only about 6 fathoms in
+its deepest part, and it is largely influenced by the river Don. Its
+water is considerably fresher than the Black Sea, varying from 1.55 to
+0.68%. It freezes more readily and is not affected by the Mediterranean
+current.
+
+  See N. Andrusov, "Physical Exploration of the Black Sea," in
+  _Geographical Journal_, vol. i. p. 49.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The early Greek navigators gave it the epithet of _axenus_, i.e.
+    unfriendly to strangers, but as Greek colonies sprang up on the
+    shores this was changed to _euxinus_, friendly to strangers.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK SEA (Russ. _Chernomorskaya_), a military district of the province of
+Kuban, formerly an independent province of Transcaucasia, Russia; it
+includes the narrow strip of land along the N.E. coast of the Black Sea
+from Novorossiysk to the vicinity of Pitsunda, between the sea and the
+crest of the main range of the Caucasus. Area, 2836 sq. m. Pop. (1897)
+54,228; (1906, estimate) 71,900. It is penetrated by numerous spurs of
+this range, which strike the sea abruptly at right angles to the coast,
+and in many cases plunge down into it sheer. Owing to its southern
+exposure, its sheltered position, and a copious rainfall, vegetation, in
+part of a sub-tropical character, grows in great profusion. In
+consequence, however, of the mountainous character of the region, it is
+divided into a large number of more or less isolated districts, and there
+is little intercourse with the country north of the Caucasus, the passes
+over the range being few and difficult (see CAUCASUS). But since the
+Russians became masters of this region, its former inhabitants (Circassian
+tribes) have emigrated in thousands, so that the country is now only
+thinly inhabited. It is divided into three districts--Novorossiysk, with
+the town (pop. in 1897, 16,208) of the same name, which acts as the
+capital of the Black Sea district; Velyaminovsk; and Sochi. Novorossiysk
+is connected by rail, at the west end of the Caucasus, with the
+Rostov-Vladikavkaz line, and a mountain road leads from Velyaminovsk (or
+Tuapse) to Maikop in the province of Kuban.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM (1723-1780), English jurist, was born in London,
+on the 10th of July 1723. His parents having died when he was young, his
+early education, under the care of his uncle, Dr Thomas Bigg, was
+obtained at the Charterhouse, from which, at the age of fifteen, he was
+sent to Pembroke College, Oxford. He was entered in the Middle Temple in
+1741. In 1744 he was elected a fellow of All Souls' College. From this
+period he divided his time between the university and the Temple, where
+he took chambers in order to attend the law courts. In 1746 he was
+called to the bar. Though but little known or distinguished as a
+pleader, he was actively employed, during his occasional residences at
+the university, in taking part in the internal management of his
+college. In May 1749, as a small reward for his services, and to give
+him further opportunities of advancing the interests of the college,
+Blackstone was appointed steward of its manors. In the same year, on the
+resignation of his uncle, Seymour Richmond, he was elected recorder of
+the borough of Wallingford in Berkshire. In 1750 he became doctor of
+civil law. In 1753 he decided to retire from London work to his
+fellowship and an academical life, still continuing the practice of his
+profession as a provincial counsel.
+
+His lectures on the laws of England appear to have been an early and
+favourite idea; for in the Michaelmas term immediately after he
+abandoned London, he entered on the duty of reading them at Oxford; and
+we are told by the author of his _Life_, that even at their
+commencement, the high expectations formed from the acknowledged
+abilities of the lecturer attracted to these lectures a very crowded
+class of young men of the first families, characters and hopes. Bentham,
+however, declares that he was a "formal, precise and affected
+lecturer--just what you would expect from the character of his
+writings--cold, reserved and wary, exhibiting a frigid pride." It was
+not till the year 1758 that the lectures in the form they now bear were
+read in the university. Blackstone, having been unanimously elected to
+the newly-founded Vinerian professorship, on the 25th of October read
+his first introductory lecture, afterwards prefixed to the first volume
+of his celebrated _Commentaries_. It is doubtful whether the
+_Commentaries_ were originally intended for the press; but many
+imperfect and incorrect copies having got into circulation, and a
+pirated edition of them being either published or preparing for
+publication in Ireland, the author thought proper to print a correct
+edition himself, and in November 1765 published the first volume, under
+the title of _Commentaries on the Laws of England_. The remaining parts
+of the work were given to the world in the course of the four succeeding
+years. It may be remarked that before this period the reputation which
+his lectures had deservedly acquired for him had induced him to resume
+practice in London; and, contrary to the general order of the
+profession, he who had quitted the bar for an academic life was sent
+back from the college to the bar with a considerable increase of
+business. He was likewise elected to parliament, first for Hindon, and
+afterwards for Westbury in Wilts; but in neither of these departments
+did he equal the expectations which his writings had raised. The part he
+took in the Middlesex election drew upon him many attacks as well as a
+severe animadversion from the caustic pen of "Junius." This circumstance
+probably strengthened the aversion he professed to parliamentary
+attendance, "where," he said, "amidst the rage of contending parties, a
+man of moderation must expect to meet with no quarter from any side." In
+1770 he declined the place of solicitor-general; but shortly afterwards,
+on the promotion of Sir Joseph Yates to a seat in the court of common
+pleas, he accepted a seat on the bench, and on the death of Sir Joseph
+succeeded him there also. He died on the 14th of February 1780.
+
+The design of the _Commentaries_ is exhibited in his first Vinerian
+lecture printed in the introduction to them. The author there dwells on
+the importance of noblemen, gentlemen and educated persons generally
+being well acquainted with the laws of the country; and his treatise,
+accordingly, is as far as possible a popular exposition of the laws of
+England. Falling into the common error of identifying the various
+meanings of the word law, he advances from the law of nature (being
+either the revealed or the inferred will of God) to municipal law, which
+he defines to be a rule of civil conduct prescribed by the supreme power
+in a state commanding what is right and prohibiting what is wrong. On
+this definition he founds the division observed in the _Commentaries_.
+The objects of law are rights and wrongs. Rights are either rights of
+persons or rights of things. Wrongs are either public or private. These
+four headings form respectively the subjects of the four books of the
+_Commentaries_.
+
+Blackstone was by no means what would now be called a scientific jurist.
+He has only the vaguest possible grasp of the elementary conceptions of
+law. He evidently regards the law of gravitation, the law of nature, and
+the law of England, as different examples of the same principle--as
+rules of action or conduct imposed by a superior power on its subjects.
+He propounds in terms the doctrine that municipal or positive laws
+derive their validity from their conformity to the so-called law of
+nature or law of God. "No human laws," he says, "are of any validity if
+contrary to this." His distinction between rights of persons and rights
+of things, implying, as it would appear, that things as well as persons
+have rights, is attributable to a misunderstanding of the technical
+terms of the Roman law. In distinguishing between private and public
+wrongs (civil injuries and crimes) he fails to seize the true principle
+of the division. Austin, who accused him of following slavishly the
+method of Hale's _Analysis of the Law_, declares that he "blindly adopts
+the mistakes of his rude and compendious model; missing invariably, with
+a nice and surprising infelicity, the pregnant but obscure suggestions
+which it proffered to his attention, and which would have guided a
+discerning and inventive writer to an arrangement comparatively just."
+By the want of precise and closely-defined terms, and his tendency to
+substitute loose literary phrases, he falls occasionally into
+irreconcilable contradictions. Even in discussing a subject of such
+immense importance as equity, he hardly takes pains to discriminate
+between the legal and popular senses of the word, and, from the small
+place which equity jurisprudence occupies in his arrangement, he would
+scarcely seem to have realized its true position in the law of England.
+Subject, however, to these strictures the completeness of the treatise,
+its serviceable if not scientific order, and the power of lucid
+exposition possessed by the author demand emphatic recognition.
+Blackstone's defects as a jurist are more conspicuous in his treatment
+of the underlying principles and fundamental divisions of the law than
+in his account of its substantive principles.
+
+Blackstone by no means confines himself to the work of a legal
+commentator. It is his business, especially when he touches on the
+framework of society, to find a basis in history and reason for all the
+most characteristic English institutions. There is not much either of
+philosophy or fairness in this part of his work. Whether through the
+natural conservatism of a lawyer, or through his own timidity and
+subserviency as a man and a politician, he is always found to be a
+specious defender of the existing order of things. Bentham accuses him
+of being the enemy of all reform, and the unscrupulous champion of every
+form of professional chicanery. Austin says that he truckled to the
+sinister interests and mischievous prejudices of power, and that he
+flattered the overweening conceit of the English in their own
+institutions. He displays much ingenuity in giving a plausible form to
+common prejudices and fallacies; but it is by no means clear that he was
+not imposed upon himself. More undeniable than the political fairness of
+the treatise is its merits as a work of literature. It is written in a
+most graceful and attractive style, and although no opportunity of
+embellishment has been lost, the language is always simple and clear.
+Whether it is owing to its literary graces, or to its success in
+flattering the prejudices of the public to which it was addressed, the
+influence of the book in England has been extraordinary. Not lawyers
+only, and lawyers perhaps even less than others, accepted it as an
+authoritative revelation of the law. It performed for educated society
+in England much the same service as was rendered to the people of Rome
+by the publication of their previously unknown laws. It is more correct
+to regard it as a handbook of the law for laymen than as a legal
+treatise; and as the first and only book of the kind in England it has
+been received with somewhat indiscriminating reverence. It is certain
+that a vast amount of the constitutional sentiment of the country has
+been inspired by its pages. To this day Blackstone's criticism of the
+English constitution would probably express the most profound political
+convictions of the majority of the English people. Long after it has
+ceased to be of much practical value as an authority in the courts, it
+remains the arbiter of all public discussions on the law or the
+constitution. On such occasions the _Commentaries_ are apt to be
+construed as strictly as if they were a code. It is curious to observe
+how much importance is attached to the _ipsissima verba_ of a writer who
+aimed more at presenting a picture intelligible to laymen than at
+recording the principles of the law with technical accuracy of detail.
+
+  See also the article ENGLISH LAW.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK VEIL, in the Roman Catholic Church, the symbol of the most
+complete renunciation of the world and adoption of a nun's life. On the
+appointed day the nun goes through all the ritual of the marriage
+ceremony, after a solemn mass at which all the inmates of the convent
+assist. She is dressed in bridal white with wreath and veil, and
+receives a wedding-ring, as spouse of the Church. Afterwards she
+presides at a wedding-breakfast, at which a bride-cake is cut. She thus
+bids adieu to all her friends, and having previously taken the white
+veil, the betrothal, she now assumes the black, and for ever forswears
+the world and its pleasures. Her hair is cut short, and her bridal robes
+are exchanged for the sombre religious habit. Her wedding-ring, however,
+she continues to wear, and it is buried with her.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKWATER, the name of a number of rivers and streams in England,
+Scotland and Ireland. The Blackwater in Essex, which rises near Saffron
+Walden, has a course of about 40 m. to the North Sea. The most important
+river of the name is in southern Ireland, rising in the hills on the
+borders of the counties Cork and Kerry, and flowing nearly due east for
+the greater part of its course, as far as Cappoquin, where it turns
+abruptly southward, and discharges through an estuary into Youghal Bay.
+The length of its valley (excluding the lesser windings of the river)
+is about 90 m., and the drainage area about 1300 sq. m. It is navigable
+only for a few miles above the mouth, but its salmon fisheries are both
+attractive to sportsmen and of considerable commercial value. The
+scenery of its banks is at many points very beautiful.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKWATER FEVER, a disease occurring in tropical countries and
+elsewhere, which is often classed with malaria (q.v.). It is
+characterized by irregular febrile paroxysms, accompanied by rigors,
+bilious vomiting, jaundice and haemoglobinuria (Sambon). It has a wide
+geographical distribution, including tropical Africa, parts of Asia, the
+West Indies, the southern United States, and--in Europe--Greece, Sicily
+and Sardinia; but its range is not coextensive with malaria. Malarial
+parasites have occasionally been found in the blood. Some authorities
+believe it to be caused by the excessive use of quinine, taken to combat
+malaria. This theory has had the support of Koch, but it is not
+generally accepted. If it were correct, one would expect blackwater
+fever to be regularly prevalent in malarial countries and to be more or
+less coextensive with the use of quinine, which is not at all the case.
+It often resembles yellow fever, but the characteristic black vomit of
+yellow fever rarely occurs in blackwater fever, while the black urine
+from which the latter derives its name is equally rare in the former.
+According to the modern school of tropical parasitology, blackwater
+fever is neither a form of malaria nor produced by quinine, but a
+specific disease due to a protozoal parasite akin to that which causes
+the redwater fever of cattle.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKWELL, THOMAS (1701-1757), Scottish classical scholar, was born at
+Aberdeen on the 4th of August 1701. He took the degree of M.A. at the
+Marischal College in 1718. He was appointed professor of Greek in 1723,
+and was principal of the institution from 1748 until his death on the
+8th of March 1757. In 1735 his first work, _An Inquiry into the Life and
+Writings of Homer_, was published anonymously. It was reprinted in 1736,
+and followed (in 1747) by _Proofs of the Enquiry into Homer's Life and
+Writings_, a translation of the copious notes in foreign languages which
+had previously appeared. This work, intended to explain the causes of
+the superiority of Homer to all the poets who preceded or followed him,
+shows considerable research, and contains many curious and interesting
+details; but its want of method made Bentley say that, when he had gone
+through half of it, he had forgotten the beginning, and, when he had
+finished the reading of it, he had forgotten the whole. Blackwell's next
+work (also published anonymously in 1748) was _Letters Concerning
+Mythology_. In 1752 he took the degree of doctor of laws, and in the
+following year published the first volume of _Memoirs of the Court of
+Augustus_; the second volume appeared in 1755, the third in 1764
+(prepared for the press, after Blackwell's death, by John Mills). This
+work shows considerable originality and erudition, but is even more
+unmethodical than his earlier writings and full of unnecessary
+digressions. Blackwell has been called the restorer of Greek literature
+in the north of Scotland; but his good qualities were somewhat spoiled
+by pomposity and affectation, which exposed him to ridicule.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKWOOD, WILLIAM (1776-1834), Scottish publisher, founder of the firm
+of William Blackwood & Sons, was born of humble parents at Edinburgh on
+the 20th of November 1776. At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to
+a firm of booksellers in Edinburgh, and he followed his calling also in
+Glasgow and London for several years. Returning to Edinburgh in 1804, he
+opened a shop in South Bridge Street for the sale of old, rare and
+curious books. He undertook the Scottish agency for John Murray and
+other London publishers, and gradually drifted into publishing on his
+own account, removing in 1816 to Princes Street. On the 1st of April
+1817 was issued the first number of the _Edinburgh Monthly Magazine_,
+which on its seventh number, bore the name of _Blackwood's_ as the
+leading part of the title. "Maga," as this magazine soon came to be
+called, was the organ of the Scottish Tory party, and round it gathered
+a host of able writers. William Blackwood died on the 16th of September
+1834, and was succeeded by his two sons, Alexander and Robert, who
+added a London branch to the firm. In 1845 Alexander Blackwood died, and
+shortly afterwards Robert.
+
+A younger brother, John Blackwood (1818-1879), succeeded to the
+business; four years later he was joined by Major William Blackwood, who
+continued in the firm until his death in 1861. In 1862 the major's elder
+son, William Blackwood (b. 1836), was taken into partnership. John
+Blackwood was a man of strong personality and great business
+discernment; it was in the pages of his magazine that George Eliot's
+first stories, _Scenes of Clerical Life_, appeared. He also inaugurated
+the "Ancient Classics for English readers" series. On his death Mr
+William Blackwood was left in sole control of the business. With him
+were associated his nephews, George William and J.H. Blackwood, sons of
+Major George Blackwood, who was killed at Maiwand in 1880.
+
+  See _Annals of a Publishing House; William Blackwood and his Sons_ ...
+  (1897-1898), the first two volumes of which were written by Mrs
+  Oliphant; the third, dealing with John Blackwood, by his daughter, Mrs
+  Gerald Porter.
+
+
+
+
+BLADDER (from A.S. _blaeddre_, connected with _blawan_, to blow, cf.
+Ger. _blase_), the membranous sac in animals which receives the urine
+secreted from the kidneys. The word is also used for any similar sac,
+such as the gall-bladder, the swim-bladder in fishes, or the small
+vesicle in various seaweeds.
+
+
+
+
+BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES. The urinary bladder in man (for the
+anatomy see URINARY SYSTEM), being the temporary reservoir of the renal
+secretion, and, as such, containing the urine for longer or shorter
+periods, is liable to various important affections. These are dealt with
+in the first part of this article. The diseases of the prostate are so
+intimately allied that they are best considered, as in the subsequent
+section, as part of the same subject.
+
+
+_Diseases of the Bladder._
+
+  Cystitis.
+
+_Cystitis_, or inflammation of the bladder, which may be acute or
+chronic, is due to the invasion of the mucous lining by micro-organisms,
+which gain access either from the urethra, the kidneys or the
+blood-stream. It is easy to see how the diplococci of gonorrhoea may
+infect the bladder-membrane by direct extension of the inflammation, and
+how the bacilli which are swarming in the neighbouring bowel may find
+access to the urethra or bladder when the intervening tissues have been
+rendered penetrable by a wound or by inflammation. Sometimes, however,
+especially in the female, the germs from the large intestine enter the
+bladder by way of the vulva and the urethra.
+
+Any condition leading to disturbance of the function of the bladder,
+such as enlargement of the prostate, stricture of the urethra, stone, or
+injury, may cause cystitis by preparing the way for bacillary invasion.
+The bacilli of tuberculosis and of typhoid fever may set up cystitis by
+coming down into the bladder from the kidneys with the urine, or they
+reach it by the blood-stream, or invade it by the urethra. Another way
+of cystitis being set up is by the introduction of the germs of
+suppuration by a catheter or bougie sweeping them in from the urethra;
+or the instrument itself may be unsterilized and dirty and so may
+introduce them. It used formerly to be thought that wet or cold was
+enough to cause inflammation of the bladder, but the probability is that
+this acts only by lowering the resistance of the lining membrane of the
+bladder, and preparing it for the invasion of the germs which were
+merely waiting for an opportunity. In the same way, gout or injury may
+lead to the lurking bacilli being enabled to effect their attack. But in
+every case disease-germs are the cause of the trouble, and they may be
+found in the urine. The first effect of inflammation is to render the
+bladder irritable, so that as soon as a few drops of urine have
+collected, the individual has intense or uncontrollable desire to
+micturate. The effort may be very painful and may be accompanied by
+bleeding from the overloaded blood-vessels of the inflamed membrane. In
+addition to blood, pus is likely to be found in the urine, which by this
+time is alkaline and ammoniacal, and teeming with micro-organisms. As
+regards _treatment_, the patient should be at once sent to bed in a warm
+room, and should sit several times a day in a very hot hip-bath. When
+he has got back to bed, a fomentation under oil-silk, or some other
+waterproof material, should be placed over the lower part of the
+abdomen. The diet should be milk (diluted with hot or cold water),
+barley-water, and bread and butter; no alcoholic drink should be
+allowed. If the urine is acid, bicarbonate of soda may be given, or
+citrate of soda; if alkaline, urotropine--a derivative of formic
+aldehyde--may prove a useful urinary disinfectant. If the straining and
+distress are great, a suppository of ¼ or ½ a grain of morphia may be
+introduced into the rectum every two or three hours. The bowels must be
+kept freely open. If the urine is foul, the bladder should be frequently
+washed out by a soft catheter and two or three feet of india-rubber
+tubing with a funnel at the other end, weak and abundant hot lotions of
+Sanitas or Condy's fluid being used.
+
+_Chronic cystitis_ is the condition left when the acute symptoms have
+passed away, but it is liable at any moment to resume the acute
+condition. If the cystitis is very intractable, refusing to yield to hot
+irrigations, and to washings with nitrate of silver lotion, it may be
+advisable to open the bladder from the front, and to explore, treat,
+drain and rest it.
+
+In _tuberculous cystitis_ there is added to the symptoms the discovery
+of the bacilli of tuberculosis in the urine, and cystoscopic examination
+may reveal the presence of tubercles of the mucous membrane or even of
+ulceration. The patient is probably losing weight, and he may present
+foci of tuberculosis at the back of the testicle, the lung or kidney, or
+in a joint or bone, or in a lymphatic gland. _Treatment_ is rebellious
+and unpromising. Washings and lotions give but temporary relief, and if
+the bladder is opened for rest, and for a more direct treatment, the
+germs of suppuration may enter, and, working in conjunction with the
+bacilli, may cause great havoc. Koch's tuberculin treatment should
+certainly be given a trial. This consists of the injection into the body
+of an emulsion of dead tubercle bacilli which have been sterilized by
+heat. As a result of this injection the blood sets to work to form an
+"opsonin"--a protective material which so modifies the disease-germs as
+to render them attractive to the white corpuscles of the patient's blood
+(phagocytes), which then seize upon and destroy them. Sir A.E. Wright
+has devised a delicate method of examination of the blood (the
+calculation of the opsonic index) which tells when the tuberculin
+injections should be resorted to and when withheld (see BLOOD).
+
+
+  Stone.
+
+_Calculi and Gravel._--Uric acid is deposited from the urine either as
+small crystals resembling cayenne pepper, or else, in combination with
+soda and ammonia, as an amorphous "brick-dust" deposit, which, on
+cooling, leaves a red stain on the bottom of the vessel, soluble in hot
+water. These substances are derived from the disintegration of
+nitrogenized food taken in excess of demand, and from the breaking down
+of the human tissues. They occur therefore in fevers, in wasting
+diseases, and in the normal subject after excessive muscular exercises,
+especially if these exercises have been accompanied with so much
+perspiration that the excess of water from the blood has escaped by the
+skin rather than by the kidneys. The abundance of this deposit is in
+accordance with the amount of heat developed and work done in the body,
+and corresponds with the dust and ashes raked out of the fire-box of the
+locomotive after a long run. But supposing that the uric acid débris
+continues to be excessive, the risk of the formation of renal or vesical
+calculi becomes considerable, and it may be advisable to place the
+patient on a restricted nitrogenized diet, to induce him to drink large
+quantities of water, and to keep his bowels so loose with watery
+laxatives, such as Epsom salts or sulphate of soda, that the waste
+products of his body are made to escape by the bowels rather than by the
+kidneys. In addition to the salts just mentioned, an occasional dose of
+blue pill will prove helpful. A course of treatment at Contrexéville or
+Carlsbad may be taken with advantage.
+
+Alkaline urine is unable to hold the phosphates of ammonia and magnesia
+in solution, so they are deposited in abundance either in the kidney or
+bladder. If the voided urine is allowed to stand in a tall glass they
+sink to the bottom with pus and mucus in a cloudy deposit. To remedy
+this condition it is necessary to treat the cystitis with which the
+bacterial decomposition of the urine is associated. It may be that a
+calculus of acid urine, such as one of uric acid or oxalate of lime, has
+been resting in the bladder and keeping up incessant irritation, and
+that the micro-organisms of decomposition or suppuration have found
+their way to the mucous lining of the bladder from either the bowel, the
+urethra or the blood-stream; undergoing cultivation there they break up
+the urea into carbonate of ammonia and so render the urine alkaline.
+This alkaline urine deposits its phosphates, which light upon the
+calculus and encrust it with a mortary shell, which may go on increasing
+in size until it may even fill the bladder. Sometimes the nucleus of a
+calculus is a chip of bone or a blood-clot, or some foreign substance
+which has been introduced into the bladder. Sooner or later the urine
+becomes alkaline and the calculus is encrusted with lime salts.
+
+When urine contains a larger amount of chemical constituents than it can
+conveniently hold in solution, a certain quantity crystallizes out, and
+may be deposited in the kidney or in the bladder. If the crystals run
+together in the kidney the resulting concretion may either remain in
+that organ or may find its way into the bladder, where it may remain to
+form the nucleus of a larger vesical calculus, or, especially in the
+case of females, it may, while still small, escape from the bladder
+during micturition.
+
+In children, in whom there is a rapid disintegration of nitrogenized
+tissues, a uric acid calculus in escaping from the bladder may block the
+urethra and give rise to sudden retention of urine. On introducing a
+metal "sound," the surgeon may strike the stone, and if it happens to be
+near the bladder he may push it back and subsequently remove it by
+crushing. But if it has made its way some distance along the urethra, so
+that he can feel it from the outside, he should remove it by a clean
+incision.
+
+A stone in the bladder worries the nerves of the mucous membrane, and,
+giving them the impression that the bladder contains much water, causes
+the desire and need for micturition to be constant. The irritation
+causes an excessive secretion of mucus, just as a piece of grit under
+the eyelid causes a constant running from the eye. So the urine, if
+allowed to stand, gives a copious deposit. During micturition the
+contracting bladder bruises its congested blood-vessels against the
+stone, so that towards the end of micturition blood appears in the
+urine. Lastly, cystitis occurs, and the urine contains fetid pus. A
+stone in the bladder gives rise to pain at the end of the penis, and it
+is apt suddenly to stop the flow of urine during micturition.
+
+The association of any of these symptoms leads the surgeon to suspect
+the presence of a stone in the bladder, and he confirms his suspicions
+by introducing a slender steel rod, a "sound," by which he strikes and
+feels the stone. Further confirmation may be obtained by the help of the
+X-rays, or, in the adult, by using a cystoscope. In a child the stone
+may often be felt by a finger in the rectum, the front of the bladder
+being pressed by a hand on the lower part of the abdomen. The
+_cystoscope_ is a straight, hollow metal tube about the size of a long
+cedar pencil, which the surgeon introduces into the adult bladder, which
+has already been filled with warm boracic lotion. Down the tube run two
+fine wires which control a minute electric lamp at the bladder end of
+the instrument. At that end also is a small glass window which prevents
+the fluid escaping by the tube, and also a prism; at the other end of
+the tube is an eye-piece. By the use of this slender speculum the
+practised surgeon can recognize the presence of tubercle or tuberculous
+ulceration of the bladder, stone, or other foreign material, and
+innocent or malignant growths. He can also watch the urine entering the
+bladder by the openings of the ureters, and determine from which kidney
+blood or pus is coming.
+
+The _treatment_ of stone in the bladder is governed by various
+conditions. Speaking generally, the surgeon prefers to introduce a
+lithotrite and crush the stone into small fragments, and then to flush
+out the fragments by using a full-sized, hollow metal catheter and an
+india-rubber wash-bottle. Even in children this operation may generally
+be adopted with success, the stone being crushed to atoms and the
+fragments being washed out to the last small chip. But if the stone is
+a very hard one (as are some of the oxalate of lime calculi), or if it
+is very large, or if the bladder or the prostate gland is in a state of
+advanced disease, or if the urethra is not roomy enough to admit
+instruments of adequate calibre, the crushing operation (_lithotrity_)
+must be deemed unsuitable, and the stone must be removed by a cutting
+operation (_lithotomy_).
+
+_Lithotomy_.--Cutting for stone has been long practised; but up to the
+beginning of the 19th century it was performed only by a few men, who,
+bolder than their contemporaries, had specially worked at that operation
+and had attained celebrity as skilful lithotomists. Patients went long
+distances to be operated on by them, and certain of the older surgeons,
+as William Cheselden, performed a large number of operations with most
+excellent results. The operation was by an incision from the perineum,
+and is ordinarily spoken of as _lateral_ lithotomy. It was splendidly
+designed, and gave good results, especially in children. But it is now a
+thing of the past, having almost entirely given place to the _high_ or
+_supra-pubic_ operation. In the high operation the patient, being duly
+prepared, is placed upon his back and the bladder is washed out with hot
+boracic lotion, and when the lotion returns quite clean a final
+injection is made until the bladder is felt rising above the pubes. Then
+the india-rubber tube is removed from the silver catheter by which the
+injection has been made, and the end of the catheter is plugged by a
+spigot. An incision is then made in the middle line of the abdomen over
+the bladder region. The incision must be kept as low as possible, so
+that the bladder may be reached below the peritoneum, which, higher up,
+gives it an external, serous coat. As the bladder is approached, a good
+many veins are seen to be in the way, some of which have to be wounded.
+The bladder-wall is recognized by its coarse network of pale muscular
+fibres, through which, on each side of the middle line, a strong suture
+is passed, so that when the bladder is opened and the lotion comes
+rushing out, the opening which has been made into the bladder may not
+sink into the depths of the pelvis. A finger introduced into the bladder
+makes out the exact size and position of the stone, or stones, and the
+removal is effected by special forceps. Bleeding having ceased, the
+bladder-wound is partly or entirely closed by sutures and allowed to
+fall into the pelvis, the catheter having been removed. It is advisable
+to leave a drainage tube in the abdominal wound for a while, so that if
+urine leaks from the bladder-wound it may find a ready escape to the
+dressings.
+
+_Litholapaxy_.--Lithotrity consists of two parts--the crushing of the
+stone, and the removal of the detritus. The two stages are now carried
+out at one "sitting," without an interval being allowed between them, as
+was formerly the practice, and the term "litholapaxy" designates this
+method. The patient having been anaesthetized, 10 oz. of hot boracic
+lotion are injected, and the crushing instrument, the lithotrite, is
+then passed into the bladder. The lithotrite has two blades, a "male"
+and a "female," the latter fenestrated, the former solid with its
+surface notched. When the stone is fixed between the blades the screw is
+used, and great pressure is applied evenly, gradually and continuously
+to the stone. The lithotrite is made of very tough steel, so that hard
+stones may be crushed without danger of the instrument breaking or
+bending. Care must be taken not to catch the bladder-wall with the
+lithotrite. This danger is avoided by raising the point of the
+lithotrite immediately after grasping the stone and before crushing. The
+stone breaks into two or more pieces, and these fragments must be
+crushed, one by one, until they are powdered fine enough to escape by
+the large evacuating catheter. If the stone be large and hard, half an
+hour or longer may be required to crush it sufficiently fine. When the
+surgeon fails to catch any more large pieces, the presumption is that
+the stone has been thoroughly broken up. The lithotrite is then
+withdrawn and the detritus is washed out by an "aspirator," which
+consists of a stiff elastic ball which is connected with a trap, into
+which fragments of stone fall so as not to pass out on the instrument
+being used at later periods in the operation. A large catheter, with the
+eye very near the end of the short curve, is passed into the bladder;
+the aspirator, full of boracic lotion, is attached to the catheter, and
+a few ounces of the fluid are expressed from the aspirator into the
+bladder by squeezing the rubber ball. When the pressure is taken off the
+ball, it dilates and draws the fluid out of the bladder, and with it
+some of the detritus, which falls into the trap. This is repeated until
+all the fragments have been removed. After the operation the patient
+sometimes suffers from discomfort. His urine should be drawn off by a
+soft catheter at regular intervals for a few days. If the pain be
+severe, it can generally be relieved by fomentations. The patient must
+be kept in bed after the operation, and in cases where the stone has
+been large and the bladder irritable, the surgeon should insist on his
+remaining there for at least a week; in those cases which go on
+favourably the patients are soon able to perform their ordinary duties.
+Fatal terminations, however, do now and again occur from suppression of
+urine, the result of the old-standing kidney disease which so often
+complicates these cases.
+
+To Brigade-Surgeon Lieutenant-Colonel Dennis Francis Keegan, of the
+Indian Medical Service, is due the fact that the operation of crushing
+and promptly removing all fragments of a vesical calculus is as well
+suited for boys as for men. In entire opposition to long-standing
+European prejudices, Keegan's operation is now firmly and permanently
+established. The old operation (Cheselden's) of cutting a stone out
+through the bottom of a boy's bladder is now seldom resorted to, and if
+a stone in a boy is found too large or too hard to lend itself to the
+crushing operation, it is removed by a vertical incision through the
+lower part of the anterior wall of the abdomen, as described above. For
+a successful performance of the crushing operation in a boy a small
+lithotrite has, of course, to be used, and it must be of the very best
+English make. The operation has to be done with the utmost gentleness
+and thoroughness, not a particle of the crushed stone being left in the
+bladder, since otherwise the piece left becomes the nucleus of a fresh
+stone and the trouble recurs.
+
+The treatment of vesical calculi by other means than operative surgery
+is of little value. Attempts have been made to dissolve them by internal
+remedies, or by the injection of chemical agents into the bladder; but,
+although such methods have for a time been apparently successful, they
+have invariably been found worthless for removing calculi once actually
+formed. Nevertheless, much can be done towards _preventing_ the
+formation of calculi in those who have a tendency to their formation, by
+attention to diet, by taking proper exercise, and by the internal
+administration of drugs.
+
+  _Rupture of the bladder_ may be caused by a kick or blow over the
+  upper part of the abdomen, or by a wheel passing over it; or it may be
+  a complication of fracture of the pelvis. If the rupture is in that
+  part of the bladder which is uncovered by the peritoneum, the
+  extravasated urine may be cut down upon and let out with good prospect
+  of success; but if the rupture is in the upper or hinder part of the
+  bladder the urine is let loose into the general peritoneal cavity and
+  sets up peritonitis, which is more than likely to prove fatal. If the
+  surgeon knows that the bladder is ruptured he should operate at once
+  in order to provide escape for the urine, and also to sew up the rent.
+  If the possibility of the bladder being ruptured be even suspected,
+  the surgeon should pass a catheter. Perhaps he draws off an ounce or
+  two of blood-stained urine. This makes him doubly suspicious, so he
+  injects into the bladder five, eight or ten ounces of warm boracic
+  lotion, and, leaving it there for a few minutes, he measures the
+  amount which he is able afterwards to withdraw; if he finds that a
+  certain amount is lost he is assured that a leakage has taken place
+  and he at once proceeds to operate. If only the diagnosis is made
+  promptly, and the operation is at once undertaken, the outlook is not
+  unfavourable. A generation or so back nearly all the cases of rupture
+  of bladder ended fatally.
+
+  _Villous disease_ of the bladder is innocent; that is to say, it does
+  not spread to the neighbouring structures or implicate the lymphatic
+  glands. The villi are slender, branched, filamentous processes which,
+  springing from the floor of the bladder, float in the urine like
+  seaweed. They are freely supplied with blood-vessels, so that when a
+  piece of a villus is broken off there is likely to be blood in the
+  urine. Indeed, painless haemorrhage is one of the characteristic
+  features of the disease, and when fragments of the "seaweed" are found
+  in the urine the diagnosis is clear. If the bladder is opened from the
+  front, as already described, the villi may be nipped off by special
+  forceps and the disease permanently cured.
+
+  _Malignant disease_ of the bladder is almost always the warty form of
+  cancer known as epithelioma. It springs as a sessile growth from the
+  mucous membrane of the floor near the opening of one of the ureters,
+  and, worrying the sensory nerves, causes irritability of the bladder
+  and incontinence of urine. In due course septic germs reach the
+  bladder, either from the urethra, the bowel, the kidneys or the
+  blood-stream, and cystitis sets in. When ulceration has taken place,
+  blood occurs in the urine, and the patient--generally beyond middle
+  age--suffers dull or lancinating pains. Eventually the rectum may also
+  be involved and the distress becomes extreme. The presence of the
+  growth may be determined by sounding the bladder, by the cystoscope,
+  and by the finger in the rectum. If the growth invades the outlet,
+  retention of urine may occur, and the surgeon may be compelled to open
+  the bladder from the front of the abdomen. In cases where operation is
+  out of the question, washing the bladder with hot boracic lotion may
+  give great relief. The treatment of cancer of the bladder by operation
+  is, as a rule, unsatisfactory, because of the close proximity of the
+  growth to the ureters and to the rectum. If, however, the disease were
+  recognized early and had not invaded the neighbouring structures, and
+  if it were upon the upper or the anterior part of the bladder, its
+  removal might be hopefully undertaken.
+
+  _Hypertrophy and Dilatation._--When there is long-continued
+  obstruction to the flow of urine, as in stricture of the urethra, or
+  enlargement of the prostate, the bladder-wall becomes much thickened,
+  the muscular fibres increasing both in size and number; the condition
+  is known as "hypertrophy." Hypertrophy may be accompanied by
+  dilatation of the bladder, a condition which the bladder may assume
+  when the voiding of its contents is interfered with for a length of
+  time.
+
+  _Paralysis_ of the bladder is a want of contractile power in the
+  muscular fibres of the bladder-wall. It may result from injuries
+  whereby the spinal cord is lacerated or pressed upon, so that the
+  micturition centre, which is situated in the lumbar region, is thrown
+  out of working order. The result may be either retention or
+  incontinence of urine; sometimes there is at first retention, which
+  later is followed by incontinence. Paralysis is also met with in
+  certain nervous diseases, as in locomotor ataxia, and in various
+  cerebral lesions, as in apoplexy.
+
+  _Atony_ of the bladder is a paresis or partial paralysis. It is due to
+  a want of tone in the muscular fibres, and is frequently the result of
+  over-distension of the bladder, such as may occur in cases of
+  enlargement of the prostate. The patient is unable to empty the
+  bladder, and the condition of atony gets increasingly worse.
+
+  In both paralysis and atony the indication is carefully to prevent
+  over-distension by the urine being retained too long, and at the same
+  time to treat by appropriate means the cause which has produced or is
+  keeping up the condition.
+
+  _Incontinence of urine_ may occur in the adult or in the child, but is
+  due to widely different causes in the two cases. In the child it may
+  be simply a bad habit, the child not having been properly trained; but
+  more frequently there is a want of control in the micturition-centre,
+  so that the child passes its water unwittingly, especially during the
+  night. In adults it is not so much a condition of incontinence in the
+  sense of water being passed against the will, but is a suggestion that
+  the bladder is already full, the water which passes being the overflow
+  from a too full reservoir. It is usually caused by an obstruction
+  external to the bladder, e.g. enlarged prostate or stricture of the
+  urethra; a calculus may produce the condition. In the child an attempt
+  must be made to improve the tone of the micturition-centre by the use
+  of belladonna or strychnine internally, and of a blister or faradism
+  externally over the lumbar region, and every effort should be made to
+  train the child to pass water at stated times and regular intervals.
+  In the adult the cause which produces the over-distension must be
+  removed if possible; but, as a rule, the patient has to be provided
+  with a catheter, which he can pass before the bladder has filled to
+  overflowing. A soft flexible catheter should be given in preference to
+  a rigid or semi-rigid one. The best form is the red-rubber catheter,
+  and he should be taught the need of keeping it absolutely clean. In
+  the case of children incontinence of urine means irritability; in
+  adults it means overflow.
+
+  The condition termed by Sir James Paget _stammering micturition_ is
+  analogous to speech stammering, and occurs in those who are nervous
+  and easily put out. It would seem to be due to the sphincter of the
+  bladder not relaxing synchronously with the contraction of the
+  detrusor, and is sometimes caused by external irritation, such as
+  preputial adhesions. Occasionally not a drop of urine can be passed,
+  or a little passes and then a sudden stoppage occurs; the more the
+  patient strains the worse he becomes, until at last there is complete
+  retention of urine. The trouble can sometimes be cured by the removal
+  of irritating causes, and in these cases, as well as in those in which
+  no such cause can be discovered, care should be taken to avoid those
+  difficulties which have given rise to the patient's worst failures. If
+  at any time he should fail to perform the act of micturition, he ought
+  not to strain, but should quietly wait for a little before making any
+  further effort. Regularity in the times of making water is also of
+  much importance.
+
+  _Retention of urine_ may occur in paralysis of the bladder, or in
+  conditions where the patient is suffering from an illness which blunts
+  the nervous sensibility, such as apoplexy, concussion of the brain,
+  or typhoid fever. It is, however, more commonly due to obstruction
+  anterior to the bladder, as in stricture of the urethra or enlargement
+  of the prostate. The distended bladder can be felt as a rounded
+  swelling above the pubes, and perhaps reaching to the level of the
+  navel. Percussion over it gives a dull note. When the bladder is
+  distended, it is necessary to evacuate it as soon as possible. If
+  there is no obstruction to the flow of urine, the retention being due
+  to atony or paralysis, a soft catheter is passed and the water drawn
+  off. But when there is an obstruction which cannot be overcome,
+  aspiration has to be resorted to, the needle of the aspirator being
+  pushed through the abdominal wall into the bladder. The point of
+  puncture in the abdominal wall is in the middle line a few inches
+  above the symphysis pubis. The bladder may be emptied in this way very
+  many times in the same person with only good result.
+
+
+_Diseases of Prostate Gland._
+
+The prostate gland may become acutely inflamed as the result of the
+backward extension of gonorrhoeal inflammation of the urethra; it may
+also be attacked by the germs of ordinary suppuration as well as by the
+bacilli of tuberculosis. A sudden enlargement of a large gland lying
+against the outlets of the bladder and the bowel renders micturition
+difficult, painful or impossible, and interferes with defaecation.
+Pressure of the seat of the chair upon the perineum also causes
+distress, so the man sits sideways and on the edge of the seat. If
+abscess forms, it should be incised from the perineum; if allowed to run
+its course it may burst into the bladder, the urethra or the rectum, and
+set up serious complication. The treatment of prostatitis (inflammation
+of the prostate) consists in rest in bed, sitz-baths and fomentations.
+If retention of urine takes place a soft catheter must be passed. In the
+early stage of an acute attack a dozen leeches upon the perineum may do
+good. The bowels must be kept freely open, and from time to time, as the
+pain demands, a morphia suppository may be introduced into the bowel.
+
+  _Chronic prostatitis_ is a legacy from a recent or long-past attack of
+  gonorrhoea. The enlargement gives rise to a feeling of weight and
+  fulness in the perineum, irritability of the bladder, and a gleety
+  urethral discharge. Manual examination reveals the presence of a
+  large, hard mass in front of the bladder, and in the mass there can
+  often be felt softish or tender areas which seem to threaten abscess.
+  On urine being passed into a glass, a cloudiness is seen, and material
+  like pieces of vermicelli or broken threads may be noticed. These are
+  the castings from the long tubular glands, and are characteristic of
+  chronic inflammation of the prostate. The occasional passage of a
+  large metal bougie, the use of weak lotions of nitrate of silver, the
+  administration of quinine and iron, and the application of blisters to
+  the perineum, may be tried as circumstances direct. The patient should
+  lead a quiet life, free from sexual excitement. Horse-exercise,
+  cycle-riding, rough games and alcohol should be avoided.
+
+_Enlargement of the prostate_ exists in a considerable proportion of men
+of about sixty years of age and onward. It consists of an uncontrolled
+growth of the normal muscular and glandular tissue of the prostate,
+interfering with, or absolutely stopping, the outflow of the urine.
+Gently pushing the bladder upwards and backwards, it increases the
+length of the urethra, so that in order to draw off retained urine the
+catheter must be longer than ordinary, but inasmuch as there is no
+actual narrowing of the passage it may be of full calibre. The beak
+should be well turned up so that it may ride in front of, and surmount,
+the median enlargement. Because of the thick, ring-like mass of new
+tissue around the outlet of the bladder, there is difficulty in
+micturition, and because the muscular bladder wall is now unable to
+contract upon all its contents a certain amount of urine is retained. As
+the enlarged prostate bulges up in the floor of the bladder, a pouch or
+hollow forms behind it, from which the muscular wall is unable to
+dislodge the stagnant urine. This keeps up constant irritation, and if
+by chance the germs of decomposition find their way thither, cystitis
+sets in and the patient's condition becomes serious, not only because of
+the risk to which his tired and irritated kidneys are submitted, but
+because of the possibility of a phosphatic stone being formed in the
+bladder. The seriousness of enlargement of the prostate does not depend
+upon the size of the growth so much as upon the inability of the patient
+to empty his bladder completely.
+
+  The surgeon forms his estimate of the size of the prostate by rectal
+  examination. But sometimes a patient has retention of urine from
+  enlarged prostate, when by this method of manual examination the
+  amount of increase appears quite unimportant. The explanation is that
+  the enlargement is chiefly confined to a small piece of the gland
+  which protrudes like a tongue into the water-way. Robert McGill of
+  Leeds was the first surgeon to remove by a supra-pubic operation this
+  tongue-like process of new prostatic growth. Attempts had sometimes
+  been made to get rid of it by instrumentation through the urethra, but
+  they had not met with much success.
+
+  When the surgeon has made out the existence of an enlargement of the
+  prostate, the next thing is to find to what extent this interferes
+  with the bladder being emptied. To do this, he asks the patient to
+  pass as much water as he is able, and then with due precautions
+  introduces a soft catheter and measures the amount of urine which he
+  thus draws off--half an ounce, an ounce, two ounces, however much it
+  may be. It is this "residual urine" which causes the annoyance and the
+  danger of enlarged prostate, and unless arrangements can be made for
+  its regular withdrawal serious trouble is almost certain to ensue. The
+  passing of a large catheter may have the effect of so opening up the
+  water-way that, at any rate for a time, the irritability of the
+  bladder may cease, in which case the patient may be instructed in the
+  art of passing a catheter for himself. Or the surgeon may find that in
+  addition to the regular passing of a large catheter an occasional
+  washing-out of the bladder with hot boracic lotion is all that is
+  needed in the way of active treatment. At the same time, however, the
+  patient is placed upon a plain and wholesome diet with little or no
+  alcohol, and he is instructed to lead in every respect a regular and
+  quiet life. To many men with enlarged prostate the passing of an
+  instrument night and morning is no great hardship, while to others the
+  idea of leading what is called a "catheter life" appears intolerable,
+  or, having for a time been patiently carried out, is found not only
+  severely trying but greatly disappointing.
+
+  In some people the very first passing of a catheter sets up a local
+  and constitutional disturbance, the bladder being rendered irritable
+  and intolerant, the temperature going up, and shiverings and
+  perspirations manifesting themselves. This condition was formerly
+  called "catheter fever," and was looked upon as something mysterious
+  and peculiar. It is now generally understood to be the result of
+  septic inoculation of the interior of the bladder.
+
+  Lastly, in other persons the passing of the catheter is attended with
+  so much difficulty, distress or bleeding, that something more helpful
+  and effectual is urgently called for.
+
+_Operative Treatment._--It has long been known that large tumours of the
+uterus sometimes dwindle if the ovaries are removed by operation, and
+Professor William White of Philadelphia thought that prostatic growths
+might be similarly influenced by the removal of the testicles. Beyond
+question considerable improvement has followed this operation in cases
+of enlargement of the prostate, especially where the enlargement seemed
+to be general, soft and vascular. A similar though perhaps a slower
+effect is produced when the duct of the testis, the vas deferens, is
+divided on each side of the body. If there is no great urgency about the
+case this treatment may well be tried, the bladder being all the while
+duly emptied by catheter and washed by irrigation. But if the case is
+urgent, there being difficulty or bleeding with the passing of the
+catheter, the bladder being excessively irritable and the urine foul, a
+more radical measure is needed. The best operation is that upon the
+lines laid down by Robert McGill, who opened the bladder through the
+anterior abdominal wall and removed that part of the prostate gland
+which was blocking the water-way. McGill's operation was improved upon
+by Eugene Fuller of New York, who, in 1895, published a full account of
+his procedure.[1] Having opened the bladder from the front (as in
+supra-pubic lithotomy), he introduced his left index finger into the
+rectum and thrust the prostate gland towards the right index finger,
+which was then in the bladder. With the nail of that finger, or with the
+end of a pair of scissors, he made a rent in the mucous membrane of the
+bladder and the capsule of the gland, and then shelled out the mass of
+new tissue which had caused the prostatic enlargement. This operation is
+called "prostatectomy," which means the removal of the prostate gland.
+The prostate gland, however, is not removed, but only a muscular and
+glandular mass (adenoma), which, growing within the prostatic capsule,
+encircles the urethra and squeezes the original gland tissue out of
+existence. Following on the lines of McGill and Fuller, P.J. Freyer has
+done excellent work in England towards placing this operation upon a
+sound basis.
+
+Subsequently to the operation the bladder enjoys complete and needful
+rest, and the kidneys, which previously were in a condition of perpetual
+disturbance, improve in working power. The wound in the bladder and in
+the abdominal wall gradually closes; the function of the bladder
+returns, and the patient is soon able to go back to his usual occupation
+in greatly improved health and vigour. The operation is, necessarily, a
+serious one, and the age of the patient, the condition of his bladder,
+of his kidneys, and of his blood-vessels, require to be taken into
+consideration; still, the operation gives an excellent account of itself
+in statistics, and if a practical surgeon advises a patient to accept
+its risks his counsel may well be followed.
+
+  _Malignant disease of the prostate_ is distinguished from senile
+  glandular enlargement by the rapidity of its growth, by the freeness
+  of the bleeding which is associated with the introduction of a
+  catheter, and by the marked wasting which the individual undergoes.
+  Unfortunately, by the time that the cancerous nature of the disease is
+  definitely recognized, the prospect of relief being afforded by
+  operation is small.     (E. O.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Diseases of the Genito-urinary System_, by Eugene Fuller, M.D.
+    (London and New York, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+BLADDER-WORT, the name given to a submerged water plant, _Utricularia
+vulgaris_, with finely divided leaves upon which are borne small
+bladders provided with trap-door entrances which open only inwards.
+Small crustaceans and other aquatic animals push their way into the
+bladders and are unable to escape. The products of the decay of the
+organisms thus captured are absorbed into the plant by star-shaped hairs
+which line the interior of the bladder. In this way the plant is
+supplied with nitrogenous food from the animal kingdom. Bladder-wort
+bears small, yellow, two-lipped flowers on a stem which rises above the
+surface of the water. It is found in pools and ditches in the British
+Isles, and is widely distributed in the north temperate zone. The genus
+contains about two hundred species in tropical and temperate regions.
+
+[Illustration: A, Bladder of _Utricularia neglecta_ (after Darwin),
+enlarged. B, stellate hairs from interior of bladder of _U. vulgaris_.]
+
+
+
+
+BLADES, WILLIAM (1824-1890), English printer and bibliographer, was born
+at Clapham, London, on the 5th of December 1824. In 1840 he was
+apprenticed to his father's printing business in London, being
+subsequently taken into partnership. The firm was afterwards known as
+Blades, East & Blades. His interest in printing led him to make a study
+of the volumes produced by Caxton's press, and of the early history of
+printing in England. His _Life and Typography of William Caxton,
+England's First Printer_, was published in 1861-1863, and the
+conclusions which he set forth were arrived at by a careful examination
+of types in the early books, each class of type being traced from its
+first use to the time when, spoilt by wear, it passed out of Caxton's
+hands. Some 450 volumes from the Caxton Press were thus carefully
+compared and classified in chronological order. In 1877 Blades took an
+active part in organizing the Caxton celebration, and strongly supported
+the foundation of the Library Association. He was a keen collector of
+old books, prints and medals. His publications relate chiefly to the
+early history of printing, the _Enemies of Books_, his most popular
+work, being produced in 1881. He died at Sutton in Surrey on the 27th of
+April 1890.
+
+
+
+
+BLAENAVON, or BLAENAFON, an urban district in the northern parliamentary
+division of Monmouthshire, England, 15 m. N. by W. of Newport, on the
+Great Western, London & North Western and Rhymney railways. Pop. (1901)
+10,869. It lies in the uppermost part of the Afon Lwyd valley, at an
+elevation exceeding 1000 ft., in a wild and mountainous district, on the
+eastern edge of the great coal and iron mining region of Glamorganshire
+and Monmouthshire. There are very extensive iron and steel works, with
+blast furnaces and rolling mills in the district, which employ the large
+industrial population.
+
+
+
+
+BLAGOVYESHCHENSK, a town of East Siberia, chief town of the Amur
+government, on the left bank of the Amur, near its confluence with the
+Zeya in 50° 15' N. lat. and 127° 38' E. long., 610 m. by river above
+Khabarovsk. Founded in 1856, the town had, in 1900, 37,368 inhabitants,
+and is the seat of the bishop of Amur and Kamchatka. There are steam
+flour-mills and ironworks. It is a centre for tea exported to Russia,
+cattle brought from Transbaikalia and Mongolia for the Amur, and for
+grain.
+
+
+
+
+BLAIKIE, WILLIAM GARDEN (1820-1899), Scottish divine, was born on the
+5th of February 1820, at Aberdeen, where his father had been the first
+provost of the reformed corporation. After studying at the Marischal
+College, where Alexander Bain and David Masson were among his
+contemporaries, he went in 1839 to Edinburgh to complete his theological
+course under Thomas Chalmers. In 1842 he was presented to the living of
+Drumblade by Lord Kintore, with whose family he was connected. The
+Disruption controversy reached its climax immediately afterwards, and
+Blaikie, whose sympathies were entirely with Chalmers, was one of the
+474 ministers who signed the deed of demission and gave up their
+livings. He was Free Church minister at Pilrig, between Edinburgh and
+Leith, from 1844 to 1868. Keenly interested in questions of social
+reform, his first publication was a pamphlet, which was afterwards
+enlarged into a book called _Better Days for Working People_. It
+received public commendation from Lord Brougham, and 60,000 copies were
+sold. He formed an association for providing better homes for working
+people, and the Pilrig Model Buildings were erected. He also undertook
+the editorship of the _Free Church Magazine_, and then that of the
+_North British Review_, which he carried on until 1863. In 1864 he was
+asked to undertake the Scottish editorship of the _Sunday Magazine_, and
+for this magazine much of his most characteristic literary work was
+done, especially in the editorial notes, then a new feature in magazine
+literature.
+
+In 1868 Blaikie was called to the chair of apologetics and pastoral
+theology at New College, Edinburgh. In dealing with the latter subject
+he was seen at his very best. He had wide experience, a comprehensive
+grasp of facts, abundant sympathy, an extensive knowledge of men, and a
+great capacity for teaching. In 1870 he was one of two representatives
+chosen from the Free Church of Scotland to attend the united general
+assembly of the Presbyterian churches of the United States. He prolonged
+his visit to make a thorough acquaintance with American Presbyterianism,
+and this, followed by a similar tour in Europe, fitted him to become the
+real founder of the Presbyterian Alliance. Much of his strength in the
+later years of life was given to this work. In 1892 he was elected to
+the chairmanship of the general assembly, the last of the moderators who
+had entered the church before the disruption. In 1897 he resigned his
+professorship, and died on the 11th of June 1899.
+
+Blaikie was an ardent philanthropist, and an active and intelligent
+temperance reformer, in days when this was far from easy. He raised
+£14,000 for the relief of the Waldensian churches. Although he took an
+active part in the affairs of his denomination, he was not a mere
+ecclesiastic. He had a keen eye for the evidences of spiritual growth or
+decline, and emphasized the need of maintaining a high level of
+spiritual life. He welcomed Moody to Scotland, and the evangelist made
+his headquarters with him during his first visit. His best books are
+_The Work of the Ministry--A Manual of Homiletic and Pastoral Theology_
+(1873); _The Books of Samuel_ in the _Expositors' Bible Series_ (2
+vols.); _The Personal Life of David Livingstone_ (1880); _After Fifty
+Years_ (1893), an account of the Disruption Movement in the form of
+letters of a grandfather; _Thomas Chalmers_ (1896).     (D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE (1830-1893), American statesman, was born in
+West Brownsville, Pennsylvania, on the 31st of January 1830, of sturdy
+Scottish-Irish stock on the side of his father. He was the
+great-grandson of Colonel Ephraim Blaine (1741-1804), who during the
+War of Independence served in the American army, from 1778 to 1782 as
+commissary-general of the Northern Department. With many early evidences
+of literary capacity and political aptitude, J.G. Blaine graduated at
+Washington College in Washington, Pennsylvania, in 1847, and
+subsequently taught successively in the Military Institute, Georgetown,
+Kentucky, and in the Institution for the Blind at Philadelphia. During
+this period, also, he studied law. Settling in Augusta, Maine, in 1854,
+he became editor of the _Kennebec Journal_, and subsequently of the
+_Portland Advertiser_. But his editorial work was soon abandoned for a
+more active public career. He was elected to the lower house of the
+state legislature in 1858, and served four years, the last two as
+speaker. He also became chairman of the Republican state committee in
+1859, and for more than twenty years personally directed every campaign
+of his party.
+
+In 1862 he was elected to Congress, serving in the House thirteen years
+(December 1863 to December 1876), followed by a little over four years
+in the Senate. He was chosen speaker of the House in 1869 and served
+three terms. The House was the fit arena for his political and
+parliamentary ability. He was a ready and powerful debater, full of
+resource, and dexterous in controversy. The tempestuous politics of the
+war and reconstruction period suited his aggressive nature and
+constructive talent. The measures for the rehabilitation of the states
+that had seceded from the Union occupied the chief attention of Congress
+for several years, and Blaine bore a leading part in framing and
+discussing them. The primary question related to the basis of
+representation upon which they should be restored to their full rank in
+the political system. A powerful section contended that the basis should
+be the body of legal voters, on the ground that the South could not then
+secure an increment of political power on account of the emancipated
+blacks unless these blacks were admitted to political rights. Blaine, on
+the other hand, contended that representation should be based on
+population instead of voters, as being fairer to the North, where the
+ratio of voters varied widely, and he insisted that it should be
+safeguarded by security for impartial suffrage. This view prevailed, and
+the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution was substantially Blaine's
+proposition. In the same spirit he opposed a scheme of military
+governments for the southern states, unless associated with a plan by
+which, upon the acceptance of prescribed conditions, they could release
+themselves from military rule and resume civil government. He was the
+first in Congress to oppose the claim, which gained momentary and
+widespread favour in 1867, that the public debt, pledged in coin, should
+be paid in greenbacks. The protection of naturalized citizens who, on
+return to their native land, were subject to prosecution on charges of
+disloyalty, enlisted his active interest and support, and the agitation,
+in which he was conspicuous, led to the treaty of 1870 between the
+United States and Great Britain, which placed adopted and native
+citizens on the same footing.
+
+As the presidential election of 1876 approached, Blaine was clearly the
+popular favourite of his party. His chance for securing the nomination,
+however, was materially lessened by persistent charges which were
+brought against him by the Democrats that as a member of Congress he had
+been guilty of corruption in his relations with the Little Rock & Fort
+Smith and the Northern Pacific railways.[1] By the majority of
+Republicans, at least, he was considered to have cleared himself
+completely, and in the Republican national convention he missed by only
+twenty-eight votes the nomination for president, being finally beaten by
+a combination of the supporters of all the other candidates. Thereupon
+he entered the Senate, where his activity was unabated. Currency
+legislation was especially prominent. Blaine, who had previously opposed
+greenback inflation now resisted depreciated silver coinage. He was the
+earnest champion of the advancement of American shipping, and advocated
+liberal subsidies, insisting that the policy of protection should be
+applied on sea as well as on land. The Republican national convention
+of 1880, divided between the two nearly equal forces of Blaine and
+General U.S. Grant--John Sherman of Ohio also having a considerable
+following--struggled through thirty-six ballots, when the friends of
+Blaine, combining with those of Sherman, succeeded in nominating General
+James A. Garfield. In the new administration Blaine became secretary of
+state, but, owing to the assassination of President Garfield and the
+reorganization of the cabinet by President Chester A. Arthur, he held
+the office only until December 1881. His brief service was distinguished
+by several notable steps. In order to promote the friendly understanding
+and co-operation of the nations on the American continents he projected
+a Pan-American congress, which, after being arranged for, was frustrated
+by his retirement. He also sought to secure a modification of the
+Clayton-Bulwer treaty, and in an extended correspondence with the
+British government strongly asserted the policy of an exclusive American
+control of any isthmian canal which might be built to connect the
+Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
+
+With undiminished hold on the imagination and devotion of his followers
+he was nominated for president in 1884. After a heated canvass, in which
+he made a series of brilliant speeches, he was beaten by a narrow margin
+in New York. By many, including Blaine himself, the defeat was
+attributed to the effect of a phrase, "Rum, Romanism and Rebellion,"
+used by a clergyman, Rev. Samuel D. Burchard (1812-1891), on the 29th of
+October 1884, in Blaine's presence, to characterize what, in his
+opinion, the Democratic party stood for. The phrase was not Blaine's,
+but his opponents made use of it to misrepresent his attitude toward the
+Roman Catholics, large numbers of whom are supposed, in consequence, to
+have withdrawn their support. Refusing to be a presidential candidate in
+1888, he became secretary of state under President Harrison, and resumed
+his work which had been interrupted nearly eight years before. The
+Pan-American congress, then projected, now met in Washington, and
+Blaine, as its master spirit, presided over and guided its deliberation
+through its session of five months. Its most important conclusions were
+for reciprocity in trade, a continental railway and compulsory
+arbitration in international complications. Shaping the tariff
+legislation for this policy, Blaine negotiated a large number of
+reciprocity treaties which augmented the commerce of his country. He
+upheld American rights in Samoa, pursued a vigorous diplomacy with Italy
+over the lynching of eleven Italians, all except three of them American
+naturalized citizens, in New Orleans on the 14th of May 1891, held a
+firm attitude during the strained relations between the United States
+and Chile (growing largely out of the killing and wounding of American
+sailors of the U.S. ship "Baltimore" by Chileans in Valparaiso on the
+16th of October 1891), and carried on with Great Britain a resolute
+controversy over the seal fisheries of Bering Sea,--a difference
+afterwards settled by arbitration. He resigned on the 4th of June 1892,
+on the eve of the meeting of the Republican national convention, wherein
+his name was ineffectually used, and he died at Washington, D.C., on the
+27th of January 1803.
+
+During his later years of leisure he wrote _Twenty Years of Congress_
+(1884-1886), a brilliant historical work in two volumes. Of singularly
+alert faculties, with a remarkable knowledge of the men and history of
+his country, and an extraordinary memory, his masterful talent for
+politics and state-craft, together with his captivating manner and
+engaging personality, gave him, for nearly two decades, an unrivalled
+hold upon the fealty and affection of his party.
+
+  See the _Biography of James G. Blaine_ (Norwich, Conn., 1895) by Mary
+  Abigail Dodge ("Gail Hamilton"), and, in the "American Statesmen
+  Series," _James G. Blaine_ (Boston, 1905) by C.E. Stanwood; also Mrs
+  Blaine's _Letters_ (1908).     (C. E. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This attack led to a dramatic scene in the House, in which Blaine
+    fervidly asseverated his denial.
+
+
+
+
+BLAINVILLE, HENRI MARIE DUCROTAY DE (1777-1850), French naturalist, was
+born at Arques, near Dieppe, on the 12th of September 1777. About 1796
+he went to Paris to study painting, but he ultimately devoted himself to
+natural history, and attracted the attention of Baron Cuvier, for whom
+he occasionally lectured at the Collège de France and at the Athenaeum.
+In 1812 he was aided by Cuvier to obtain the chair of anatomy and
+zoology in the Faculty of Sciences at Paris, but subsequently an
+estrangement grew up between the two men and ended in open enmity. In
+1825 Blainville was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences; and in
+1830 he was appointed to succeed J.B. Lamarck in the chair of natural
+history at the museum. Two years later, on the death of Cuvier, he
+obtained the chair of comparative anatomy, which he continued to occupy
+for the space of eighteen years, proving himself no unworthy successor
+to his great teacher. He died at Paris on the 1st of May 1850. Besides
+many separate memoirs, he was the author of _Prodrome d'une nouvelle
+distribution méthodique du règne animal_ (1816); _Ostéographic ou
+description iconographique comparée du squelette, &c._ (1839-1864);
+_Faune française_ (1821-1830); _Corns de physiologie générale et
+comparée_ (1833); _Manuel de malacologie et de conchyliologie_
+(1825-1827); _Histoire des sciences de l'organisme_ (1845).
+
+
+
+
+BLAIR, FRANCIS PRESTON (1791-1876), American journalist and politician,
+was born at Abingdon, Virginia, on the 12th of April 1791. He removed to
+Kentucky, graduated at Transylvania University in 1811, took to
+journalism, and was a contributor to Amos Kendall's paper, the _Argus_,
+at Frankfort. In 1830, having become an ardent follower of Andrew
+Jackson, he was made editor of the Washington _Globe_, the recognized
+organ of the Jackson party. In this capacity, and as a member of
+Jackson's "Kitchen Cabinet," he long exerted a powerful influence; the
+_Globe_ was the administration organ until 1841, and the chief
+Democratic organ until 1845; Blair ceased to be its editor in 1849. In
+1848 he actively supported Martin Van Buren, the Free Soil candidate,
+for the presidency, and in 1852 he supported Franklin Pierce, but soon
+afterwards helped to organize the new Republican party, and presided at
+its preliminary convention at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in February 1856.
+He was influential in securing the nomination of John C. Frémont at the
+June convention (1856), and of Abraham Lincoln in 1860. After Lincoln's
+re-election in 1864 Blair thought that his former close personal
+relations with the Confederate leaders might aid in bringing about a
+cessation of hostilities, and with Lincoln's consent went unofficially
+to Richmond and induced President Jefferson Davis to appoint
+commissioners to confer with representatives of the United States. This
+resulted in the futile "Hampton Roads Conference" of the 3rd of February
+1865 (see LINCOLN, ABRAHAM). After the Civil War Blair became a
+supporter of President Johnson's reconstruction policy, and eventually
+rejoined the Democratic party. He died at Silver Spring, Maryland, on
+the 18th of October 1876.
+
+His son, MONTGOMERY BLAIR (1813-1883), politician and lawyer, was born
+in Franklin county, Kentucky, on the 10th of May 1813. He graduated at
+West Point in 1835, but, after a year's service in the Seminole War,
+left the army, studied law, and began practice at St Louis, Missouri.
+After serving as United States district attorney (1839-1843), as mayor
+of St Louis (1842-1843), and as judge of the court of common pleas
+(1843-1849), he removed to Maryland (1852), and devoted himself to law
+practice principally in the Federal supreme court. He was United States
+solicitor in the court of claims from 1855 until 1858, and was
+associated with George T. Curtis as counsel for the plaintiff in the
+Dred Scott case in 1857. In 1860 he took an active part in the
+presidential campaign in behalf of Lincoln, in whose cabinet he was
+postmaster-general from 1861 until September 1864, when he resigned as a
+result of the hostility of the Radical Republican faction, who
+stipulated that Blair's retirement should follow the withdrawal of
+Frémont's name as a candidate for the presidential nomination in that
+year. Under his administration such reforms and improvements as the
+establishment of free city delivery, the adoption of a money order
+system, and the use of railway mail cars were instituted --the last
+having been suggested by George B. Armstrong (d. 1871), of Chicago, who
+from 1869 until his death was general superintendent of the United
+States railway mail service. Differing from the Republican party on the
+reconstruction policy, Blair gave his adherence to the Democratic party
+after the Civil War. He died at Silver Spring, Maryland, on the 27th of
+July 1883.
+
+Another son, FRANCIS PRESTON BLAIR, jun. (1821-1875), soldier and
+political leader, was born at Lexington, Kentucky, on the 19th of
+February 1821. After graduating at Princeton in 1841 he practised law in
+St Louis, and later served in the Mexican War. He was ardently opposed
+to the extension of slavery and supported Martin Van Buren, the Free
+Soil candidate for the presidency in 1848. He served from 1852 to 1856
+in the Missouri legislature as a Free Soil Democrat, in 1856 joined the
+Republican party, and in 1857-1860 and 1861-1862 was a member of
+Congress, where he proved an able debater. Immediately after South
+Carolina's secession, Blair, believing that the southern leaders were
+planning to carry Missouri into the movement, began active efforts to
+prevent it and personally organized and equipped a secret body of 1000
+men to be ready for the emergency. When hostilities became inevitable,
+acting in conjunction with Captain (later General) Nathaniel Lyon, he
+suddenly transferred the arms in the Federal arsenal at St Louis to
+Alton, Illinois, and a few days later (May 10, 1861) surrounded and
+captured a force of state guards which had been stationed at Camp
+Jackson in the suburbs of St Louis with the intention of seizing the
+arsenal. This action gave the Federal cause a decisive initial advantage
+in Missouri. Blair was promoted brigadier-general of volunteers in
+August 1862 and a major-general in November 1862. In Congress as
+chairman of the important military affairs committee his services were
+of the greatest value. He commanded a division in the Vicksburg campaign
+and in the fighting about Chattanooga, and was one of Sherman's corps
+commanders in the final campaigns in Georgia and the Carolinas. In 1866
+like his father and brother he opposed the Congressional reconstruction
+policy, and on that issue left the Republican party. In 1868 he was the
+Democratic candidate for vice-president on the ticket with Horatio
+Seymour. In 1871-1873 he was a United States senator from Missouri. He
+died in St Louis, on the 8th of July 1875.
+
+
+
+
+BLAIR, HUGH (1718-1800), Scottish Presbyterian divine, was born on the
+7th of April 1718, at Edinburgh, where his father was a merchant.
+Entering the university in 1730 he graduated M.A. in 1739; his thesis,
+_De Fundamentis et Obligations Legis Naturae_, contains an outline of
+the moral principles afterwards unfolded in his sermons. He was licensed
+to preach in 1741, and a few months later the earl of Leven, hearing of
+his eloquence, presented him to the parish of Collessie in Fife. In 1743
+he was elected to the second charge of the Canongate church, Edinburgh,
+where he ministered until removed to Lady Yester's, one of the city
+churches, in 1754. In 1757 the university of St Andrews conferred on him
+the degree of D.D., and in the following year he was promoted to the
+High Church, Edinburgh, the most important charge in Scotland. In 1759
+he began, under the patronage of Lord Kames, to deliver a course of
+lectures on composition, the success of which led to the foundation of a
+chair of rhetoric and _belles lettres_ in the Edinburgh University. To
+this chair he was appointed in 1762, with a salary of £70 a year. Having
+long taken interest in the Celtic poetry of the Highlands, he published
+in 1763 a laudatory _Dissertation_ on Macpherson's _Ossian_, the
+authenticity of which he maintained. In 1777 the first volume of his
+_Sermons_ appeared. It was succeeded by four other volumes, all of which
+met with the greatest success. Samuel Johnson praised them warmly, and
+they were translated into almost every language of Europe. In 1780
+George III. conferred upon Blair a pension of £200 a year. In 1783 he
+retired from his professorship and published his _Lectures on Rhetoric_,
+which have been frequently reprinted. He died on the 27th of December
+1800. Blair belonged to the "moderate" or latitudinarian party, and his
+_Sermons_ have been criticized as wanting in doctrinal definiteness. His
+works display little originality, but are written in a flowing and
+elaborate style. He is remembered chiefly by the place he fills in the
+literature of his time. _Blair's Sermons_ is a typical religious book of
+the period that preceded the Anglican revival.
+
+  See J. Hall, _Account of Life and Writings of Hugh Blair_ (1807).
+
+
+
+
+BLAIR, JAMES (1656-1743), American divine and educationalist, was born
+in Scotland, probably at Edinburgh, in 1656. He graduated M.A. at
+Edinburgh University in 1673, was beneficed in the Episcopal Church in
+Scotland, and for a time was rector of Cranston Parish in the diocese of
+Edinburgh. In 1682 he left Scotland for England, and three years later
+was sent by the bishop of London, Henry Compton, as a missionary to
+Virginia. He soon gained great influence over the colonists both in
+ecclesiastical and in civil affairs, and, according to Prof. Moses Coit
+Tyler, "probably no other man in the colonial time did so much for the
+intellectual life of Virginia." He was the minister of Henrico parish
+from 1685 until 1694, of the Jamestown church from 1694 until 1710, and
+of Bruton church at Williamsburg from 1710 until his death. From 1689
+until his death he was the commissary of the bishop of London for
+Virginia, the highest ecclesiastical position in the colony, his duties
+consisting "in visiting the parishes, correcting the lives of the
+clergy, and keeping them orderly." In 1693, by the appointment of King
+William III., he became a member of the council of Virginia, of which he
+was for many years the president. Largely because of charges brought
+against them by Blair, Governor Sir Edmund Andros, Lieutenant-governor
+Francis Nicholson, and Lieutenant-governor Alexander Spotswood were
+removed in 1698, 1705 and 1722 respectively. Blair's greatest service to
+the colony was rendered as the founder, and the president from 1693
+until his death, of the College of William and Mary, for which he
+himself secured a charter in England. "Thus, James Blair may be called,"
+says Tyler, "the creator of the healthiest and most extensive
+intellectual influence that was felt in the Southern group of colonies
+before the Revolution." He died on the 18th of April 1743, and was
+buried at Jamestown, Va. He published a collection of 117 discourses
+under the title _Our Saviour's Divine Sermon on the Mount_ (4 vols.,
+1722; second edition, 1732), and, in collaboration with Henry Hartwell
+and Edward Chilton, a work entitled _The Present State of Virginia and
+the College_ (1727; written in 1693), probably the best account of the
+Virginia of that time.
+
+  See Daniel E. Motley's _Life of Commissary James Blair_ (Baltimore,
+  1901; series xix. No. 10, of the Johns Hopkins University Studies in
+  Historical and Political Science), and, for a short sketch and an
+  estimate, M.C. Tyler's _A History of American Literature, 1607-1765_
+  (New York, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+BLAIR, ROBERT (1699-1746), Scottish poet, eldest son of the Rev. Robert
+Blair, one of the king's chaplains, was born at Edinburgh in 1699. He
+was educated at Edinburgh University and in Holland, and in 1731 was
+appointed to the living of Athelstaneford in East Lothian. He married in
+1738 Isabella, daughter of Professor William Law. The possession of a
+small fortune gave him leisure for his favourite pursuits, gardening and
+the study of English poets. He died at Athelstaneford on the 4th of
+February 1746. His only considerable work, _The Grave_ (1743), is a poem
+written in blank verse of great vigour and freshness, and is much less
+conventional than its gloomy subject might lead one to expect. Its
+religious subject no doubt contributed to its great popularity,
+especially in Scotland; but the vogue it attained was justified by its
+picturesque imagery and occasional felicity of expression. It inspired
+William Blake to undertake a series of twelve illustrative designs,
+which were engraved by Louis Schiavonetti, and published in 1808.
+
+  See the biographical introduction prefixed to his _Poetical Works_, by
+  Dr Robert Anderson, in his _Poets of Great Britain_, vol. viii.
+  (1794.)
+
+
+
+
+BLAIR ATHOLL (Gaelic _blair_, "a plain"), a village and parish of
+Perthshire, Scotland, 35¼ m. N.W. of Perth by the Highland railway. Pop.
+(1901) 367; of parish, 1722. It is situated at the confluence of the
+Tilt and the Garry. The oldest part of Blair Castle, a seat of the duke
+of Atholl, dates from 1269; as restored and enlarged in 1869-1872 from
+the plans of David Bryce, R.S.A., it is a magnificent example of the
+Scottish baronial style. It was occupied by the marquess of Montrose
+prior to the battle of Tippermuir in 1644, stormed by the Cromwellians
+in 1653, and garrisoned on behalf of James II. in 1689. The Young
+Pretender stayed in it in 1743, and the duke of Cumberland in 1746. The
+body of Viscount Dundee, conveyed hither from the battlefield of
+Killiecrankie, was buried in the church of Old Blair, in which a
+monument was erected to his memory in 1889 by the 7th duke of Atholl.
+The grounds surrounding the castle are among the most beautiful in the
+Highlands. A golf course has been laid down south-east of the village,
+between the railway and the Garry, and every September a great display
+of Highland games is held. Ben-y-gloe (3671 ft. high), the scene of the
+hunt given in 1529 by the earl of Atholl in honour of James V. and the
+queen dowager, may be climbed by way of Fender Burn, a left-hand
+tributary of the Tilt. The falls of Fender, near the old bridge of Tilt,
+are eclipsed by the falls of Bruar, 4 m. west of Blair Atholl, formed by
+the Bruar, which, rising in Ben Dearg (3304 ft.), flows into the Garry
+after an impetuous course of 10 m.
+
+
+
+
+BLAIRGOWRIE, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, situated on the
+Ericht. Pop. (1901) 3378. It is the terminus of a branch line of the
+Caledonian railway from Coupar Angus, from which it is 4¾ m. distant,
+and is 16 m. N. by E. of Perth by road. The town is entirely modern, and
+owes its progress to the water-power supplied by the Ericht for linen
+and jute factories. There are also sawmills, breweries and a large
+factory for bee appliances. Strawberries, raspberries and other fruits
+are largely grown in the neighbourhood. A park was presented to the town
+in 1892. On the left bank of the Ericht, opposite Blairgowrie, with
+which it is connected by a four-arched bridge, stands the town and
+police burgh of Rattray (pop. 2019), where there are flax and jute
+mills. Donald Cargill the Covenanter, who was executed at Edinburgh, was
+a native of the parish. Four miles west of Blairgowrie, on the coach
+road to Dunkeld, lies Loch Clunie, of some interest historically. On a
+crannog in the lake are the ruins of a small castle which belonged to
+James ("the Admirable") Crichton, and the large mound near the loch was
+the site of the castle in which Edward I. lodged on one of his Scottish
+expeditions.
+
+
+
+
+BLAKE, EDWARD (1833-   ), Irish-Canadian statesman, eldest son of
+William Hume Blake of Cashel Grove, Co. Galway, who settled in Canada in
+1832, and there became a distinguished lawyer and chancellor of Ontario,
+was born on the 13th of October 1833 at Adelaide in Middlesex county,
+Ontario. Educated at Upper Canada College and the university of Toronto,
+Blake was called to the bar in 1856 and quickly obtained a good
+practice, becoming Q.C. in 1864. In 1867 he was elected member for West
+Durham in the Dominion parliament, and for South Bruce in the provincial
+legislature, in which he became leader of the Liberal opposition two
+years later. On the defeat of John Sandfield Macdonald's government in
+1871 Blake became prime minister of Ontario, but resigned this office
+the same year in consequence of the abolition of dual representation. He
+declined the leadership of the Liberal party in the Dominion parliament,
+but, having taken an active part in bringing about the overthrow of Sir
+John Macdonald's ministry in 1873, joined the Liberal cabinet of
+Alexander Mackenzie, though without portfolio or salary. Impaired health
+soon compelled him to resign, and to take the voyage to Europe; on his
+return in 1875 he rejoined the cabinet as minister of justice, in which
+office it fell to him to take the chief part in framing the constitution
+of the supreme court of Canada. Continued ill-health compelled him in
+1877 again to seek rest in Europe, having first exchanged the portfolio
+of justice for the less exacting office of president of the council.
+During his absence the Liberal government was driven from power by the
+elections of 1878; and Blake himself, having failed to secure
+re-election, was for a short time without a seat in parliament. From
+1880 to 1887 he was leader of the opposition, being succeeded on his
+resignation of the position in the latter year by Mr (afterwards Sir)
+Wilfrid Laurier. In 1892 he became a member of the British House of
+Commons as an Irish Nationalist, being elected for South Longford. But
+he did not fulfil the expectations which had been formed on the strength
+of his colonial reputation; he took no very prominent part in debate,
+and gave little evidence of his undoubted oratorical gifts. In 1907 he
+retired from public life. In 1858 he had married Margaret, daughter of
+Benjamin Cronyn, first bishop of Huron.
+
+  See John Charles Dent, _The Last Forty Years: Canada Since the Union
+  of 1841_ (2 vols., Toronto, 1881); J.S. Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier
+  and the Liberal Party_ (2 vols., London, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+BLAKE, ROBERT (1509-1657), English parliamentarian and admiral, was born
+at Bridgwater in Somersetshire. The day of his birth is not known, but
+he was baptized on the 27th of September 1599. Blake was the eldest son
+of a well-to-do merchant, and received his early education at the
+grammar school of Bridgwater. In 1615 he was sent to Oxford, entering at
+first St Alban's Hall, but removing afterwards to Wadham College, then
+recently founded. He remained at the university till 1625, but failed to
+obtain any college preferment. Nothing is known of his life with
+certainty for the next fifteen years. An anonymous Dutch writer, in the
+_Hollandische Mercurius_ (1652), represents him as saying that he had
+lived in Schiedam "for five or six years" in his youth. He doubtless
+engaged in trade, and apparently with success. When, after eleven years
+of kingship without parliaments, a parliament was summoned to meet in
+April 1640, Blake was elected to represent his native borough. This
+parliament, named "the Short," was dissolved in three weeks, and the
+career of Blake as a politician was suspended. Two years later the
+inevitable conflict began. Blake declared for the Parliament, and served
+under Sir John Horner. In 1643 he was entrusted with the command of one
+of the forts of Bristol. This he stoutly held during the siege of the
+town by Prince Rupert, and earned the approval of parliament by refusing
+to surrender his post till duly informed of the capitulation. In 1644 he
+gained high distinction by the resolute defence of Lyme in Dorsetshire.
+The siege was raised on the 23rd of May, and on the 8th of July Blake
+took Taunton by surprise, and notwithstanding its imperfect defences and
+inadequate supplies, held the town for the Parliament against two sieges
+by the Royalists until July 1645, when it was relieved by Fairfax. In
+1645 he re-entered parliament as member for Taunton, when the Royalist
+Colonel Windham was expelled.
+
+He adhered to the Parliamentary party after the king's death, and within
+a month (February 1649) was appointed, with Colonels Dean and Popham, to
+the command of the fleet, under the title of General of the Sea. In
+April he was sent in pursuit of Prince Rupert, who with the Royalist
+fleet had entered the harbour of Kinsale in Ireland. There he blockaded
+the prince for six months; and when the latter, in want of provisions,
+and hopeless of relief, succeeded in making his escape with the fleet
+and in reaching the Tagus, Blake followed him thither, and again
+blockaded him for some months. The king of Portugal refusing permission
+for Blake to attack his enemy, the latter made reprisals by falling on
+the Portuguese fleet, richly laden, returning from Brazil. He captured
+seventeen ships and burnt three, bringing his prizes home without
+molestation. After revictualling his fleet, he sailed again, captured a
+French man-of-war, and then pursued Prince Rupert, who had been asked to
+go away by the Portuguese and had entered the Mediterranean. In November
+1650 Blake destroyed the bulk of the Royalist squadron near Cartagena.
+The thanks of parliament were voted to Blake, and he received a grant of
+£1000. He was continued in his office of admiral and general of the sea;
+and in May following he took, in conjunction with Ayscue, the Scilly
+Islands. For this service the thanks of parliament were again awarded
+him, and he was soon after made a member of the council of state.
+
+In 1652 war broke out with the Dutch, who had made great preparations
+for the conflict. In March the command of the fleet was given to Blake
+for nine months; and in the middle of May the Dutch fleet of forty-five
+ships, led by their great admiral Tromp, appeared in the Downs. Blake,
+who had only twenty ships, sailed to meet them, and the battle took
+place off Dover on the 19th of May. The Dutch were defeated in an
+engagement of four or five hours, lost two ships, and withdrew under
+cover of darkness. Attempts at accommodation were made by the states,
+but they failed. Early in July war was formally declared, and in the
+same month Blake captured a large part of the Dutch fishery-fleet and
+the twelve men-of-war that formed their convoy. On the 28th of September
+Blake and Penn again encountered the Dutch fleet, now commanded by De
+Ruyter and De Witt, off the Kentish Knock, defeated it, and chased it
+for two days. The Dutch took refuge in Goree. A third battle was fought
+near the end of November. By this time the ships under Blake's command
+had been reduced in number to forty, and nearly the half of these were
+useless for want of seamen. Tromp, who had been reinstated in command,
+appeared in the Downs, with a fleet of eighty ships besides ten
+fireships. Blake, nevertheless, risked a battle off Dungeness, but was
+defeated, and withdrew into the Thames. The English fleet having been
+refitted, put to sea again in February 1653; and on the 18th Blake, at
+the head of eighty ships, encountered Tromp in the Channel. The Dutch
+force, according to Clarendon, numbered 100 ships of war, but according
+to the official reports of the Dutch, only seventy. The battle was
+severe, and continued through three days, the Dutch, however,
+retreating, and taking refuge in the shallow waters off the French
+coast. In this action Blake was severely wounded. The three English
+admirals put to sea again in May; and on the 3rd and 4th of June another
+battle was fought near the North Foreland. On the first day Dean and
+Monk were repulsed by Tromp; but on the second day the scales were
+turned by the arrival of Blake, and the Dutch retreated to the Texel.
+
+Ill-health now compelled Blake to retire from the service for a time,
+and he did not appear again on the seas for about eighteen months;
+meanwhile he sat as a member of the Little Parliament (Barebones's). In
+November 1654 he was selected by Cromwell to conduct a fleet to the
+Mediterranean to exact compensation from the duke of Tuscany, the
+knights of Malta, and the piratical states of North Africa, for wrongs
+done to English merchants. This mission he executed with his accustomed
+spirit and with complete success. Tunis alone dared to resist his
+demands, and Tunis paid the penalty of the destruction of its two
+fortresses by English guns. In the winter of 1655-1656, war being
+declared against Spain, Blake was sent to cruise off Cadiz and the
+neighbouring coasts, to intercept the Spanish shipping. One of his
+captains captured a part of the Plate fleet in September 1656. In April
+1657 Blake, then in very ill health, suffering from dropsy and scurvy,
+and anxious to have assistance in his arduous duties, heard that the
+Plate fleet lay at anchor in the bay of Santa Cruz, in the island of
+Teneriffe. The position was a very strong one, defended by a castle and
+several forts with guns. Under the shelter of these lay a fleet of
+sixteen ships drawn up in crescent order. Captain Stayner was ordered to
+enter the bay and fall on the fleet. This he did. Blake followed him.
+Broadsides were poured into the castle and the forts at the same time;
+and soon nothing was left but ruined walls and charred fragments of
+burnt ships. The wind was blowing hard into the bay; but suddenly, and
+fortunately for the heroic Blake, it shifted, and carried him safely out
+to sea. "The whole action," says Clarendon, "was so incredible that all
+men who knew the place wondered that any sober man, with what courage
+soever endowed, would ever have undertaken it; and they could hardly
+persuade themselves to believe what they had done; while the Spaniards
+comforted themselves with the belief that they were devils and not men
+who had destroyed them in such a manner." The English lost one ship and
+200 men killed and wounded. The thanks of parliament were voted to
+officers and men; and a very costly jewel (diamond ring) was presented
+to Blake, "as a testimony," says Cromwell in his letter of 10th June,
+"of our own and the parliament's good acceptance of your carriage in
+this action." "This was the last action of the brave Blake."
+
+After again cruising for a time off Cadiz, his health failing more and
+more, he was compelled to make homewards before the summer was over. He
+died at sea, but within sight of Plymouth, on the 17th of August 1657.
+His body was brought to London and embalmed, and after lying in state at
+Greenwich House was interred with great pomp and solemnity in
+Westminster Abbey. In 1661 Charles II. ordered the exhumation of
+Blake's body, with those of the mother and daughter of Cromwell and
+several others. They were cast out of the abbey, and were reburied in
+the churchyard of St Margaret's. "But that regard," says Johnson, "which
+was denied his body has been paid to his better remains, his name and
+his memory. Nor has any writer dared to deny him the praise of
+intrepidity, honesty, contempt of wealth, and love of his country."
+Clarendon bears the following testimony to his excellence as a
+commander:--"He was the first man that declined the old track, and made
+it apparent that the science might be attained in less time than was
+imagined. He was the first man that brought ships to contemn castles on
+the shore, which had ever been thought very formidable, but were
+discovered by him to make a noise only, and to fright those who could be
+rarely hurt by them."
+
+  A life of Blake is included in the work entitled _Lives, English and
+  Foreign_. Dr Johnson wrote a short life of him, and in 1852 appeared
+  Hepworth Dixon's fuller narrative, _Robert Blake, Admiral and General
+  at Sea_. Much new matter for the biography of Blake will be found in
+  the _Letters and Papers Relating to the First Dutch War_, edited by
+  S.R. Gardiner for the Navy Records Society (1898-1899.)
+
+
+
+
+BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827), English poet and painter, was born in
+London, on the 28th of November 1757. His father, James Blake, kept a
+hosier's shop in Broad Street, Golden Square; and from the scanty
+education which the young artist received, it may be judged that the
+circumstances of the family were not very prosperous. For the facts of
+William Blake's early life the world is indebted to a little book,
+called _A Father's Memoirs on a Child_, written by Dr Malkin in 1806.
+Here we learn that young Blake quickly developed a taste for design,
+which his father appears to have had sufficient intelligence to
+recognize and assist by every means in his power. At the age of ten the
+boy was sent to a drawing school kept by Henry Pars in the Strand, and
+at the same time he was already cultivating his own taste by constant
+attendance at the different art sale rooms, where he was known as the
+"little connoisseur." Here he began to collect prints after
+Michelangelo, and Raphael, Dürer and Heemskerk, while at the school in
+the Strand he had the opportunity of drawing from the antique. After
+four years of this preliminary instruction Blake entered upon another
+branch of art study. In 1777 he was apprenticed to James Basire, an
+engraver of repute, and with him he remained seven years. His
+apprenticeship had an important bearing on Blake's artistic education,
+and marks the department of art in which he was made technically
+proficient. In 1778, at the end of his apprenticeship, he proceeded to
+the school of the Royal Academy, where he continued his early study from
+the antique, and had for the first time an opportunity of drawing from
+the living model.
+
+This is in brief all that is known of Blake's artistic education. That
+he ever, at the academy or elsewhere, systematically studied painting we
+do not know; but that he had already begun the practice of water colour
+for himself is ascertained. So far, however, the course of his training
+in art schools, and under Basire, was calculated to render him
+proficient only as a draughtsman and an engraver. He had learned how to
+draw, and he had mastered besides the practical difficulties of
+engraving, and with these qualifications he entered upon his career. In
+1780 he exhibited a picture in the Royal Academy Exhibition, conjectured
+to have been executed in water colours, and he continued to contribute
+to the annual exhibitions up to the year 1808. In 1782 he married
+Catherine Boucher, the daughter of a market-gardener at Battersea, with
+whom he lived always on affectionate terms, and the young couple after
+their marriage established themselves in Green Street, Leicester Fields.
+Blake had already become acquainted with some of the rising artists of
+his time, amongst them Stothard, Flaxman and Fuseli, and he now began to
+see something of literary society. At the house of the Rev. Henry
+Mathew, in Rathbone Place, he used to recite and sometimes to sing poems
+of his own composition, and it was through the influence of this
+gentleman, combined with that of Flaxman, that Blake's first volume of
+poetry was printed and published in 1783. From this time forward the
+artist came before the world in a double capacity. By education as well
+as native talent, he was pledged to the life of a painter, and these
+_Poetical Sketches_, though they are often no more than the utterances
+of a boy, are no less decisive in marking Blake as a future poet.
+
+For a while the two gifts are exhibited in association. To the close of
+his life Blake continued to print and publish, after a manner of his
+own, the inventions of his verse illustrated by original designs, but
+there is a certain period in his career when the union of the two gifts
+is peculiarly close, and when their service to one another is
+unquestionable. In 1784 Blake, moving from Green Street, set up in
+company with a fellow-pupil, Parker, as print-seller and engraver next
+to his father's house in Broad Street, Golden Square, but in 1787 this
+partnership was severed, and he established an independent business in
+Poland Street. It was from this house, and in 1787, that the _Songs of
+Innocence_ were published, a work that must always be remarkable for
+beauty both of verse and of design, as well as for the singular method
+by which the two were combined and expressed by the artist. Blake became
+in fact his own printer and publisher. He engraved upon copper, by a
+process devised by himself, both the text of his poems and the
+surrounding decorative design, and to the pages printed from the copper
+plates an appropriate colouring was afterwards added by hand. The poetic
+genius already discernible in the first volume of _Poetical Sketches_ is
+here more decisively expressed, and some of the songs in this volume
+deserve to take rank with the best things of their kind in our
+literature. In an age of enfeebled poetic style, when Wordsworth, with
+more weighty apparatus, had as yet scarcely begun his reform of English
+versification, Blake, unaided by any contemporary influence, produced a
+work of fresh and living beauty; and if the _Songs of Innocence_
+established Blake's claim to the title of poet, the setting in which
+they were given to the world proved that he was also something more. For
+the full development of his artistic powers we have to wait till a later
+date, but here at least he exhibits a just and original understanding of
+the sources of decorative beauty. Each page of these poems is a study of
+design, full of invention, and often wrought with the utmost delicacy of
+workmanship. The artist retained to the end this feeling for decorative
+effect; but as time went on, he considerably enlarged the imaginative
+scope of his work, and decoration then became the condition rather than
+the aim of his labour.
+
+Notwithstanding the distinct and precious qualities of this volume, it
+attracted but slight attention, a fact perhaps not very wonderful, when
+the system of publication is taken into account. Blake, however,
+proceeded with other work of the same kind. The same year he published
+_The Book of Thel_, more decidedly mystic in its poetry, but scarcely
+less beautiful as a piece of illumination; _The Marriage of Heaven and
+Hell_ followed in 1790; and in 1793 there are added _The Gates of
+Paradise_, _The Vision of the Daughters of Albion_, and some other
+"Prophetic Books." It becomes abundantly clear on reaching this point in
+his career that Blake's utterances cannot be judged by ordinary rules.
+The _Songs of Experience_, put forth in 1794 as a companion to the
+earlier _Songs of Innocence_, are for the most part intelligible and
+coherent, but in these intervening works of prophecy, as they were
+called by the author, we get the first public expression of that phase
+of his character and of his genius upon which a charge of insanity has
+been founded. The question whether Blake was or was not mad seems likely
+to remain in dispute, but there can be no doubt whatever that he was at
+different periods of his life under the influence of illusions for which
+there are no outward facts to account, and that much of what he wrote is
+so far wanting in the quality of sanity as to be without a logical
+coherence. On the other hand, it is equally clear that no madness
+imputed to Blake could equal that which would be involved in the
+rejection of his work on this ground. The greatness of Blake's mind is
+even better established than its frailty, and in considering the work
+that he has left we must remember that it is by the sublimity of his
+genius, and not by any mental defect, that he is most clearly
+distinguished from his fellows. With the publication of the _Songs of
+Experience_ Blake's poetic career, so far at least as ordinary readers
+are concerned, may be said to close. A writer of prophecy he continued
+for many years, but the works by which he is best known in poetry are
+those earlier and simpler efforts, supplemented by a few pieces taken
+from various sources, some of which were of later production. But
+although Blake the poet ceases in a general sense at this date, Blake
+the artist is only just entering upon his career. In the _Songs of
+Innocence_ and _Experience_, and even in some of the earlier _Books of
+Prophecy_, the two gifts worked together in perfect balance and harmony;
+but at this point the supremacy of the artistic faculty asserts itself,
+and for the remainder of his life Blake was pre-eminently a designer and
+engraver. The labour of poetical composition continues, but the product
+passes beyond the range of general comprehension; while, with apparent
+inconsistency, the work of the artist gains steadily in strength and
+coherence, and never to the last loses its hold upon the understanding.
+It may almost be said without exaggeration that his earliest poetic
+work, _The Songs of Innocence_, and nearly his latest effort in design,
+the illustrations to _The Book of Job_, take rank among the sanest and
+most admirable products of his genius. Nor is the fact, astonishing
+enough at first sight, quite beyond a possible explanation. As Blake
+advanced in his poetic career, he was gradually hindered and finally
+overpowered by a tendency that was most serviceable to him in design.
+His inclination to substitute a symbol for a conception, to make an
+image do duty for an idea, became an insuperable obstacle to literary
+success. He endeavoured constantly to treat the intellectual material of
+verse as if it could be moulded into sensuous form, with the inevitable
+result that as the ideas to be expressed advanced in complexity and
+depth of meaning, his poetic gifts became gradually more inadequate to
+the task of interpretation. The earlier poems dealing with simpler
+themes, and put forward at a time when the bent of the artist's mind was
+not strictly determined, do not suffer from this difficulty; the
+symbolism then only enriches an idea of no intellectual intricacy; but
+when Blake began to concern himself with profounder problems the want of
+a more logical understanding of language made itself strikingly
+apparent. If his ways of thought and modes of workmanship had not been
+developed with an intensity almost morbid, he would probably have been
+able to distinguish and keep separate the double functions of art and
+literature. As it is, however, he remains as an extreme illustration of
+the ascendancy of the artistic faculty. For this tendency to translate
+ideas into image, and to find for every thought, however simple or
+sublime, a precise and sensuous form, is of the essence of pure artistic
+invention. If this be accepted as the dominant bent of Blake's genius,
+it is not so wonderful that his work in art should have strengthened in
+proportion as his poetic powers waned; but whether the explanation
+satisfies all the requirements of the case or not, the fact remains, and
+cannot be overlooked by any student of Blake's career.
+
+In 1796 Blake was actively employed in the work of illustration.
+Edwards, a bookseller of New Bond Street, projected a new edition of
+Young's _Night Thoughts_, and Blake was chosen to illustrate the work.
+It was to have been issued in parts, but for some reason not very clear
+the enterprise failed, and only a first part, including forty-three
+designs, was given to the world. These designs were engraved by Blake
+himself, and they are interesting not only for their own merit but for
+the peculiar system by which the illustration has been associated with
+the text. It was afterwards discovered that the artist had executed
+original designs in water-colour for the whole series, and these
+drawings, 537 in number, form one of the most interesting records of
+Blake's genius. Gilchrist, the painter's biographer, in commenting upon
+the engraved plates, regrets the absence of colour, "the use of which
+Blake so well understood, to relieve his simple design and give it
+significance," and an examination of the original water-colour drawings
+fully supports the justice of his criticism. Soon after the publication
+of this work Blake was introduced by Flaxman to the poet Hayley, and in
+the year 1801 he accepted the suggestion of the latter, that he should
+take up his residence at Felpham in Sussex. The mild and amiable poet
+had planned to write a life of Cowper, and for the illustration of this
+and other works he sought Blake's help and companionship. The residence
+at Felpham continued for three years, partly pleasant and partly irksome
+to Blake, but apparently not very profitable to the progress of his art.
+One of the annoyances of his stay was a malicious prosecution for
+treason set on foot by a common soldier whom Blake had summarily ejected
+from his garden; but a more serious drawback was the increasing
+irritation which the painter seems to have experienced from association
+with Hayley. In 1804 Blake returned to London, to take up his residence
+in South Moulton Street, and as the fruit of his residence in Felpham,
+he published, in the manner already described, the prophetic books
+called the _Jerusalem_, _The Emanation of the Giant Albion_, and
+_Milton_. The first of these is a very notable performance in regard to
+artistic invention. Many of the designs stand out from the text in
+complete independence, and are now and then of the very finest quality.
+
+In the years 1804-1805 Blake executed a series of designs in
+illustration of Robert Blair's _The Grave_, of much beauty and grandeur,
+though showing stronger traces of imitation of Italian art than any
+earlier production. These designs were purchased from the artist by an
+adventurous and unscrupulous publisher, Cromek, for the paltry sum of
+£21, and afterwards published in a series of engravings by Schiavonetti.
+Despite the ill treatment Blake received in the matter, and the other
+evils, including a quarrel with his friend Stothard as to priority of
+invention of a design illustrating the Canterbury Pilgrims, which his
+association with Cromek involved, the book gained for him a larger
+amount of popularity than he at any other time secured. Stothard's
+picture of the Canterbury Pilgrims was exhibited in 1807, and in 1809
+Blake, in emulation of his rival's success, having himself painted in
+water-colour a picture of the same subject, opened an exhibition, and
+drew up a _Descriptive Catalogue_, curious and interesting, and
+containing a very valuable criticism of Chaucer.
+
+The remainder of the artist's life is not outwardly eventful. In 1813 he
+formed, through the introduction of George Cumberland of Bristol, a
+valuable friendship with John Linnell and other rising water-colour
+painters. Amongst the group Blake seems to have found special sympathy
+in the society of John Varley, who, himself addicted to astrology,
+encouraged Blake to cultivate his gift of inspired vision; and it is
+probably to this influence that we are indebted for several curious
+drawings made from visions, especially the celebrated "ghost of a flea"
+and the very humorous portrait of the builder of the Pyramids. In 1821
+Blake removed to Fountain Court, in the Strand, where he died on the
+12th of August 1827. The chief work of these last years was the splendid
+series of engraved designs in illustration of the book of Job. Here we
+find the highest imaginative qualities of Blake's art united to the
+technical means of expression which he best understood. Both the
+invention and the engraving are in all ways remarkable, and the series
+may fairly be cited in support of a very high estimate of his genius.
+None of his works is without the trace of that peculiar artistic
+instinct and power which seizes the pictorial element of ideas, simple
+or sublime, and translates them into the appropriate language of sense;
+but here the double faculty finds the happiest exercise. The grandeur of
+the theme is duly reflected in the simple and sublime images of the
+artist's design, and in the presence of these plates we are made to feel
+the power of the artist over the expressional resources of human form,
+as well as his sympathy with the imaginative significance of his
+subject.
+
+  A life of Blake, with selections from his works, by Alexander
+  Gilchrist, was published in 1863 (new edition by W.G. Robertson,
+  1906); in 1868 A.C. Swinburne published a critical essay on his
+  genius, remarkable for a full examination of the Prophetic Books, and
+  in 1874 William Michael Rossetti published a memoir prefixed to an
+  edition of the poems. In 1893 appeared _The Works of William Blake_,
+  edited by E.J. Ellis and W.B. Yeats. But for a long time all the
+  editors paid too little attention to a correct following of Blake's
+  own MSS. The text of the poems was finally edited with exemplary care
+  and thoroughness by John Sampson in his edition of the _Poetical
+  Works_ (1905), which has rescued Blake from the "improvements" of
+  previous editors. See also _The Letters of_ ~~ _William Blake,
+  together with a Life by Frederick Tatham_; edited by A.G.B. Russell
+  (1906); and Basil de Selincourt, _William Blake_ (1909).
+       (J. C. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BLAKELOCK, RALPH ALBERT (1847-   ), American painter, was born in New
+York, on the 15th of October, 1847. He graduated at the College of the
+City of New York in 1867. In art he was self-taught and markedly
+original. Until ill-health necessitated the abandonment of his
+profession, he was a most prolific worker, his subjects including
+pictures of North American Indian life, and landscapes--notably such
+canvases as "The Indian Fisherman"; "Ta-wo-koka: or Circle Dance";
+"Silvery Moonlight"; "A Waterfall by Moonlight"; "Solitude"; and
+"Moonlight on Long Island Sound."
+
+
+
+
+BLAKENEY, WILLIAM BLAKENEY, BARON (1672-1761), British soldier, was born
+at Mount Blakeney in Limerick in 1672. Destined by his father for
+politics, he soon showed a decided preference for a military career, and
+at the age of eighteen headed the tenants in defending the Blakeney
+estate against the Rapparees. As a volunteer he went to the war in
+Flanders, and at the siege of Venlo in 1702 won his commission. He
+served as a subaltern throughout Marlborough's campaigns, and is said to
+have been the first to drill troops by signal of drum or colour. For
+many years after the peace of Utrecht he served unnoticed, and was
+sixty-five years of age before he became a colonel. This neglect, which
+was said to be due to the hostility of Lord Verney, ceased when the duke
+of Richmond was appointed colonel of Blakeney's regiment, and
+thenceforward his advance was rapid. Brigadier-general in the Cartagena
+expedition of 1741, and major-general a little later, he distinguished
+himself by his gallant and successful defence of Stirling Castle against
+the Highlanders in 1745. Two years later George II. made him
+lieutenant-general and lieutenant-governor of Minorca. The governor of
+that island never set foot in it, and Blakeney was left in command for
+ten years.
+
+In 1756 the Seven Years' War was preluded by a swift descent of the
+French on Minorca. Fifteen thousand troops under marshal the duc de
+Richelieu, escorted by a strong squadron under the marquis de la
+Gallisonnière, landed on the island on the 18th of April, and at once
+began the siege of Fort St Philip, where Blakeney commanded at most some
+5000 soldiers and workmen. The defence, in spite of crumbling walls and
+rotted gun platforms, had already lasted a month when a British fleet
+under vice-admiral the Hon. John Byng appeared. La Gallisonnière and
+Byng fought, on the 20th of May, an indecisive battle, after which the
+relieving squadron sailed away and Blakeney was left to his fate. A
+second expedition subsequently appeared off Minorca, but it was then too
+late, for after a heroic resistance of seventy-one days the old general
+had been compelled to surrender the fort to Richelieu (April 18-June 28,
+1756). Only the ruined fortifications were the prize of the victors.
+Blakeney and his little garrison were transported to Gibraltar with
+absolute liberty to serve again. Byng was tried and executed; Blakeney,
+on his return to England, found himself the hero of the nation. Rewards
+came freely to the veteran. He was made colonel of the Enniskillen
+regiment of infantry, knight of the Bath, and Baron Blakeney of Mount
+Blakeney in the Irish peerage. A little later Van Most's statue of him
+was erected in Dublin, and his popularity continued unabated for the
+short remainder of his life. He died on the 20th of September 1761, and
+was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+
+  See _Memoirs of General William Blakeney_ (1757).
+
+
+
+
+BLAKESLEY, JOSEPH WILLIAMS (1808-1885), English divine, was born in
+London on the 6th of March 1808, and was educated at St Paul's school,
+London, and at Corpus Christi and Trinity Colleges, Cambridge. In 1831
+he was elected a fellow, and in 1839 a tutor of Trinity. In 1833 he took
+holy orders, and from 1845 to 1872 held the college living of Ware,
+Hertfordshire. Over the signature "Hertfordshire Incumbent" he
+contributed a large number of letters to _The Times_ on the leading
+social and political subjects of the day, and he also wrote many reviews
+of books for that paper. In 1863 he was made a canon of Canterbury, and
+in 1872 dean of Lincoln. Dean Blakesley was the author of the first
+English _Life of Aristotle_ (1839), an edition of Herodotus (1852-1854)
+in the _Bibliotheca Classica_, and _Four Months in Algeria_ (1859). He
+died on the 18th of April 1885.
+
+
+
+
+BLAMIRE, SUSANNA (1747-1794), English poet, daughter of a Cumberland
+yeoman, was born at Cardew Hall, near Dalston, in January 1747. Her
+mother died while she was a child, and she was brought up by her aunt, a
+Mrs Simpson of Thackwood, who sent her niece to the village school at
+Raughton Head. Susanna Blamire's earliest poem is "Written in a
+Churchyard, on seeing a number of cattle grazing," in imitation of Gray.
+She lived an uneventful life among the farmers of the neighbourhood, and
+her gaiety and good-humour made her a favourite in rustic society. In
+1767 her elder sister Sarah married Colonel Graham of Gartmore. "An
+Epistle to her friends at Gartmore" gives a playful description of the
+monotonous simplicity of her life. To her Perthshire visits her songs in
+the Scottish vernacular are no doubt partly due. Her chief friend was
+Catharine Gilpin of Scaleby Castle. The two ladies spent the winters
+together in Carlisle, and wrote poems in common. Susanna Blamire died in
+Carlisle on the 5th of April 1794. The poems which were not collected
+during her lifetime, were first published in 1842 by Henry Lonsdale as
+_The Poetical Works of Miss Susanna Blamire, "the Muse of Cumberland,"_
+with a memoir by Mr Patrick Maxwell. Some of her songs rank among the
+very best of north-country lyrics. "And ye shall walk in silk attire"
+and "What ails this heart o' mine," are well known, and were included in
+Johnson's _Scots' Musical Museum_.
+
+
+
+
+BLANC, (JEAN JOSEPH CHARLES) LOUIS (1811-1882), French politician and
+historian, was born on the 29th of October 1811 at Madrid, where his
+father held the post of inspector-general of finance under Joseph
+Bonaparte. Failing to receive aid from Pozzo di Borgo, his mother's
+uncle, Louis Blanc studied law in Paris, living in poverty, and became a
+contributor to various journals. In the _Revue du progrès_, which he
+founded, he published in 1839 his study on _L'Organisation du travail_.
+The principles laid down in this famous essay form the key to Louis
+Blanc's whole political career. He attributes all the evils that afflict
+society to the pressure of competition, whereby the weaker are driven to
+the wall. He demanded the equalization of wages, and the merging of
+personal interests in the common good--"_à chacun selon ses besoins, de
+chacun selon ses facultés_." This was to be effected by the
+establishment of "social workshops," a sort of combined co-operative
+society and trade-union, where the workmen in each trade were to unite
+their efforts for their common benefit. In 1841 he published his
+_Histoire de dix ans 1830-1840_, an attack upon the monarchy of July. It
+ran through four editions in four years.
+
+In 1847 he published the two first volumes of his _Histoire de la
+Revolution Française_. Its publication was interrupted by the revolution
+of 1848, when Louis Blanc became a member of the provisional government.
+It was on his motion that, on the 25th of February, the government
+undertook "to guarantee the existence of the workmen by work"; and
+though his demand for the establishment of a ministry of labour was
+refused--as beyond the competence of a provisional government--he was
+appointed to preside over the government labour commission (_Commission
+du Gouvernement pour les travailleurs_) established at the Luxembourg to
+inquire into and report on the labour question. On the 10th of May he
+renewed, in the National Assembly, his proposal for a ministry of
+labour, but the temper of the majority was hostile to socialism, and the
+proposal was again rejected. His responsibility for the disastrous
+experiment of the national workshops he himself denied in his _Appel aux
+honnêtes gens_ (Paris, 1849), written in London after his flight; but by
+the insurgent mob of the 15th of May and by the victorious Moderates
+alike he was regarded as responsible. Between the _sansculottes_, who
+tried to force him to place himself at their head, and the national
+guards, who maltreated him, he was nearly done to death. Rescued with
+difficulty, he escaped with a false passport to Belgium, and thence to
+London; in his absence he was condemned by the special tribunal
+established at Bourges, _in contumaciam_, to deportation. Against trial
+and sentence he alike protested, developing his protest in a series of
+articles in the _Nouveau Monde_, a review published in Paris under his
+direction. These he afterwards collected and published as _Pages de
+l'histoire de la revolution de 1848_ (Brussels, 1850).
+
+During his stay in England he made use of the unique collection of
+materials for the revolutionary period preserved at the British Museum
+to complete his _Histoire de la Révolution Française_ 12 vols.
+(1847-1862). In 1858 he published a reply to Lord Normanby's _A Year of
+Revolution in Paris_ (1858), which he developed later into his _Histoire
+de la révolution de 1848_ (2 vols., 1870-1880). As far back as 1839
+Louis Blanc had vehemently opposed the idea of a Napoleonic restoration,
+predicting that it would be "despotism without glory," "the Empire
+without the Emperor." He therefore remained in exile till the fall of
+the Second Empire in September 1870, after which he returned to Paris
+and served as a private in the national guard. On the 8th of February
+1871 he was elected a member of the National Assembly, in which he
+maintained that the republic was "the necessary form of national
+sovereignty," and voted for the continuation of the war; yet, though a
+member of the extreme Left, he was too clear-minded to sympathize with
+the Commune, and exerted his influence in vain on the side of
+moderation. In 1878 he advocated the abolition of the presidency and the
+senate. In January 1879 he introduced into the chamber a proposal for
+the amnesty of the Communists, which was carried. This was his last
+important act. His declining years were darkened by ill-health and by
+the death, in 1876, of his wife (Christina Groh), an Englishwoman whom
+he had married in 1865. He died at Cannes on the 6th of December 1882,
+and on the 12th of December received a state funeral in the cemetery of
+Père-Lachaise.
+
+Louis Blanc possessed a picturesque and vivid style, and considerable
+power of research; but the fervour with which he expressed his
+convictions, while placing him in the first rank of orators, tended to
+turn his historical writings into political pamphlets. His political and
+social ideas have had a great influence on the development of socialism
+in France. His _Discours politiques_ (1847-1881) was published in 1882.
+His most important works, besides those already mentioned, are _Lettres
+sur l'Angleterre_ (1866-1867), _Dix années de l'histoire de
+l'Angleterre_ (1879-1881), and _Questions d'aujourd'hui et de demain_
+(1873-1884).
+
+  See L. Fiaux, _Louis Blanc_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+BLANC, MONT, the culminating point (15,782 ft.) of the mountain range of
+the same name, which forms part of the Pennine Alps, and is divided
+unequally between France, Italy and Switzerland. The actual highest
+summit is wholly French and is the loftiest peak in the Alps, and in
+Europe also, if certain peaks in the Caucasus be excluded. At Geneva the
+mountain was in former days named the Montagne Maudite, but the present
+name seems to have been always used locally. On the north is the valley
+of Chamonix, and on the east the head of the valley of Aosta. Among the
+great glaciers which stream from the peak the most noteworthy are those
+of Bossons and Taconnaz (northern slope) and of Brenva and Miage
+(southern slope). The first ascent was made in 1786 by two Chamonix men,
+Jacques Balmat and Dr Michel Paccard, and the second in 1787 by Balmat
+with two local men. Later in 1787 H.B. de Saussure made the third
+ascent, memorable in many respects, and was followed a week later by
+Colonel Beaufoy, the first Englishman to gain the top. These ascents
+were all made from Chamonix, which is still the usual starting point,
+though routes have been forced up the peak from nearly every side, those
+on the Italian side being much steeper than that from Chamonix. The
+ascent from Chamonix is now frequently made in summer (rarely in winter
+also), but, owing to the great height of the mountain, the view is
+unsatisfactory, though very extensive (Lyons is visible). There is an
+inn at the Grands Mulets (9909 ft.). In 1890 M. Vallot built an
+observatory and shelter hut (14,312 ft.) on the Bosses du Dromadaire
+(north-west ridge of the mountain), and in 1893 T.J.C. Janssen
+constructed an observatory just below the very summit.
+
+  See C. Durier, _Le Mont Blanc_ (4th ed., Paris, 1897); C.E. Mathews,
+  _The Annals of Mont Blanc_ (London, 1898); P. Güssfeldt, _Der
+  Montblanc_, (Berlin, 1894, also a French translation, Geneva, 1899);
+  L. Kurz, _Climbers' Guide to the Chain of Mont Blanc_, section vi.
+  (London, 1892); L. Kurz and X. Imfeld, _Carte de la chaine du Mont
+  Blanc_ (1896, new edition 1905).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BLANCHARD, SAMUEL LAMAN (1804-1845), British author and journalist, the
+son of a painter and glazier, was born at Great Yarmouth on the 15th of
+May 1804. He was educated at St Olave's school, Southwark, and then
+became clerk to a proctor in Doctors' Commons. At an early age he
+developed literary tastes, contributing dramatic sketches to a paper
+called _Drama_. For a short time he was a member of a travelling
+dramatic company, but subsequently became a proof-reader in London, and
+wrote for the _Monthly Magazine_. In 1827 he was made secretary of the
+Zoological Society, a post which he held for three years. In 1828 he
+published _Lyric Offerings_, dedicated to Charles Lamb. He had a very
+varied journalistic experience, editing in succession the _Monthly
+Magazine_, the _True Sun_, the _Constitutional_, the _Court Journal_,
+the _Courier_, and _George Cruikshank's Omnibus_; and from 1841 till his
+death he was connected with the _Examiner_. In 1846 Bulwer-Lytton
+collected a number of his prose-essays under the title _Sketches of
+Life_, to which a memoir of the author was prefixed. His verse was
+collected in 1876 by Blanchard Jerrold. Over-work broke down his
+strength, and, unnerved by the death of his wife, he died by his own
+hand on the 15th of February 1845.
+
+His eldest son, SIDNEY LAMAN BLANCHARD, who was the author of _Yesterday
+and To-day in India_, died in 1883.
+
+
+
+
+BLANCHE, JACQUES ÉMILE (1861-   ), French painter, was born in Paris. He
+enjoyed an excellent cosmopolitan education, and was brought up at Passy
+in a house once belonging to the princesse de Lamballe, which still
+retained the atmosphere of 18th-century elegance and refinement and
+influenced his taste and work. Although he received some instruction in
+painting from Gervex, he may be regarded as self-taught. He acquired a
+great reputation as a portrait painter; his art is derived from French
+and English sources, refined, sometimes super-elegant, but full of
+character. Among his chief works are his portraits of his father, of
+Pierre Louÿs, the Thaulow family, Aubrey Beardsley and Yvette Guilbert.
+
+
+
+
+BLANCHE OF CASTILE (1188-1252), wife of Louis VIII. of France, third
+daughter of Alphonso VIII., king of Castile, and of Eleanor of England,
+daughter of Henry II., was born at Valencia. In consequence of a treaty
+between Philip Augustus and John of England, she was betrothed to the
+former's son, Louis, and was brought to France, in the spring of 1200,
+by John's mother Eleanor. On the 22nd of May 1200 the treaty was finally
+signed, John ceding with his niece the fiefs of Issoudun and Graçay,
+together with those that André de Chavigny, lord of Châteauroux, held in
+Berry, of the English crown. The marriage was celebrated the next day,
+at Portmort on the right bank of the Seine, in John's domains, as those
+of Philip lay under an interdict.
+
+Blanche first displayed her great qualities in 1216, when Louis, who on
+the death of John claimed the English crown in her right, invaded
+England, only to find a united nation against him. Philip Augustus
+refused to help his son, and Blanche was his sole support. The queen
+established herself at Calais and organized two fleets, one of which was
+commanded by Eustace the Monk, and an army under Robert of Courtenay;
+but all her resolution and energy were in vain. Although it would seem
+that her masterful temper exercised a sensible influence upon her
+husband's gentler character, her role during his reign (1223-1226) is
+not well known. Upon his death he left Blanche regent and guardian of
+his children. Of her twelve or thirteen children, six had died, and
+Louis, the heir--afterwards the sainted Louis IX.,--was but twelve years
+old. The situation was critical, for the hard-won domains of the house
+of Capet seemed likely to fall to pieces during a minority. Blanche had
+to bear the whole burden of affairs alone, to break up a league of the
+barons (1226), and to repel the attack of the king of England (1230).
+But her energy and firmness overcame all dangers. There was an end to
+the calumnies circulated against her, based on the poetical homage
+rendered her by Theobald IV., count of Champagne, and the prolonged
+stay in Paris of the papal legate, Romano Bonaventura, cardinal of Sant'
+Angelo. The nobles were awed by her warlike preparations or won over by
+adroit diplomacy, and their league was broken up. St Louis owed his
+realm to his mother, but he himself always remained somewhat under the
+spell of her imperious personality. After he came of age (1236) her
+influence upon him may still be traced. In 1248 she again became regent,
+during Louis IX.'s absence on the crusade, a project which she had
+strongly opposed. In the disasters which followed she maintained peace,
+while draining the land of men and money to aid her son in the East. At
+last her strength failed her. She fell ill at Melun in November 1252,
+and was taken to Paris, but lived only a few days. She was buried at
+Maubuisson.
+
+  Besides the works of Joinville and William of Nangis, see Élie Berger,
+  "Histoire de Blanche de Castille, reine de France," in _Bibliothèque
+  des écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome_, vol. lxx. (Paris, 1895);
+  Le Nain de Tillemont, "Vie de Saint Louis," ed. by J. de Gaulle for
+  the _Société de l'histoire de France_ (6 vols., 1847-1851); and Paulin
+  Paris, "Nouvelles recherches sur les moeurs de la reine Blanche et de
+  Thibaud," in _Cabinet historique_ (1858).
+
+
+
+
+BLANCH FEE, or BLANCH HOLDING (from Fr. _blanc_, white), an ancient
+tenure in Scottish land law, the duty payable being in silver or white
+money in contradistinction to gold. The phrase was afterwards applied to
+any holding of which the quit-rent was merely nominal, such as a penny,
+a peppercorn, &c.
+
+
+
+
+BLANDFORD, or BLANDFORD FORUM, a market town, and municipal borough in
+the northern parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, on the
+Stour, 19 m. N.W. of Bournemouth by the Somerset & Dorset railway. Pop.
+(1901) 3649. The town is ancient, but was almost wholly destroyed by
+fire in the 18th century. The church of St Peter and St Paul, a
+classical building, was built in 1732. There are a grammar-school
+(founded in 1521 at Milton Abbas, transferred to Blandford in 1775), a
+Blue Coat school (1729), and other educational charities. Remnants of a
+mansion of the 14th century, Damory Court, are seen in a farmhouse, and
+an adjoining Perpendicular chapel is used as a barn. There are numerous
+early earthworks on the chalk hills in the neighbourhood. The fine
+modern mansion of Bryanston, in the park adjoining the town, is the seat
+of Lord Portman. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and
+12 councillors. Area, 145 acres.
+
+
+
+
+BLANDRATA, or BIANDRATA, GIORGIO (c. 1515-1588), Italian physician and
+polemic, who came of the De Blandrate family, powerful from the early
+part of the 13th century, was born at Saluzzo, the youngest son of
+Bernardino Blandrata. He graduated in arts and medicine at Montpellier
+in 1533, and specialized in the functional and nervous disorders of
+women. In 1544 he made his first acquaintance with Transylvania; in 1553
+he was with Alciati in the Grisons; in 1557 he spent a year at Geneva,
+in constant intercourse with Calvin, who distrusted him. He attended the
+English wife (Jane Stafford) of Count Celso Massimiliano Martinengo,
+preacher of the Italian church at Geneva, and fostered anti-trinitarian
+opinions in that church. In 1558 he found it expedient to remove to
+Poland, where he became a leader of the heretical party at the synods of
+Pinczów (1558) and Ksionzh (1560 and 1562). His point was the
+suppression of extremes of opinion, on the basis of a confession
+literally drawn from Scripture. He obtained the position of court
+physician to the queen dowager, the Milanese Bona Sforza. She had been
+instrumental in the burning (1539) of Catharine Weygel, at the age of
+eighty, for anti-trinitarian opinions; but the writings of Ochino had
+altered her views, which were now anti-Catholic. In 1563 Blandrata
+transferred his services to the Transylvanian court, where the daughters
+of his patroness were married to ruling princes. He revisited Poland
+(1576) in the train of Stephen Báthory, whose tolerance permitted the
+propagation of heresies; and when (1579) Christopher Báthory introduced
+the Jesuits into Transylvania, Blandrata found means of conciliating
+them. Throughout his career he was accompanied by his two brothers,
+Ludovico and Alphonso, the former being canon of Saluzzo. In
+Transylvania, Blandrata co-operated with Francis Dávid (d. 1579), the
+anti-trinitarian bishop, but in 1578 two circumstances broke the
+connexion. Blandrata was charged with "Italian vice"; Dávid renounced
+the worship of Christ. To influence Dávid, Blandrata sent for Faustus
+Socinus from Basel. Socinus was Dávid's guest, but the discussion
+between them led to no result. At the instance of Blandrata, Dávid was
+tried and condemned to prison at Déva (in which he died) on the charge
+of innovation. Having amassed a fortune, Blandrata returned to the
+communion of Rome. His end is obscure. According to the Jesuit, Jacob
+Wujek, he was strangled by a nephew (Giorgio, son of Alphonso) in May
+1588. He published a few polemical writings, some in conjunction with
+Dávid.
+
+  See Malacarne, _Commentario delle Opere e delle Vicende di G.
+  Blandrata_ (Padova, 1814); Wallace, _Anti-trinitarian Biography_, vol.
+  ii. (1850).     (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+BLANE, SIR GILBERT (1740-1834), Scottish physician, was born at
+Blanefield, Ayrshire, on the 29th of August 1749. He was educated at
+Edinburgh university, and shortly after his removal to London became
+private physician to Lord Rodney, whom he accompanied to the West Indies
+in 1779. He did much to improve the health of the fleet by attention to
+the diet of the sailors and by enforcing due sanitary precautions, and
+it was largely through him that in 1795 the use of lime-juice was made
+obligatory throughout the navy as a preventive of scurvy. Enjoying a
+number of court and hospital appointments he built up a good practice
+for himself in London, and the government constantly consulted him on
+questions of public hygiene. He was made a baronet in 1812 in reward for
+the services he rendered in connexion with the return of the Walcheren
+expedition. He died in London on the 26th of June 1834. Among his works
+were _Observations on the Diseases of Seamen_ (1795) and _Elements of
+Medical Logic_ (1819).
+
+
+
+
+BLANFORD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1832-1905), English geologist and naturalist,
+was born in London on the 7th of October 1832. He was educated in
+private schools in Brighton and Paris, and with a view to the adoption
+of a mercantile career spent two years in a business house at Civita
+Vecchia. On returning to England in 1851 he was induced to enter the
+newly established Royal School of Mines, which his younger brother Henry
+F. Blanford (1834-1893), afterwards head of the Indian Meteorological
+Department, had already joined; he then spent a year in the mining
+school at Freiburg, and towards the close of 1854 both he and his
+brother obtained posts on the Geological Survey of India. In that
+service he remained for twenty-seven years, retiring in 1882. He was
+engaged in various parts of India, in the Raniganj coalfield, in Bombay,
+and in the coalfield near Talchir, where boulders considered to have
+been ice-borne were found in the Talchir strata--a remarkable discovery
+confirmed by subsequent observations of other geologists in equivalent
+strata elsewhere. His attention was given not only to geology but to
+zoology, and especially to the land-mollusca and to the vertebrates. In
+1866 he was attached to the Abyssinian expedition, accompanying the army
+to Mágdala and back; and in 1871-1872 he was appointed a member of the
+Persian Boundary Commission. The best use was made of the exceptional
+opportunities of studying the natural history of those countries. For
+his many contributions to geological science Dr Blanford was in 1883
+awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London; and for
+his labours on the zoology and geology of British India he received in
+1901 a royal medal from the Royal Society. He had been elected F.R.S. in
+1874, and was chosen president of the Geological Society in 1888. He was
+created C.I.E. in 1904. He died in London on the 23rd of June 1905. His
+principal publications were: _Observations on the Geology and Zoology of
+Abyssinia_ (1870), and _Manual of the Geology of India_, with H.B.
+Medlicott (1879).
+
+  Biography, with bibliography and portrait, in _Geological Magazine_,
+  January 1905.
+
+
+
+
+BLANK (from the Fr. _blanc_, white), a word used in various senses based
+on that of "left white," i.e. requiring something to be filled in; thus
+a "blank cheque" is one which requires the amount to be inserted, an
+insurance policy in blank, where the name of the beneficiary is lacking,
+"blank verse" (_q.v_.) verse without rhyme, "blank cartridge" that
+contains only powder and no ball or shot. The word is also used, as a
+substantive, for a ticket in a lottery or sweepstake which does not
+carry a number or the name of a horse running or for an unstamped metal
+disc in coining.
+
+
+
+
+BLANKENBERGHE, a seaside watering-place on the North Sea in the province
+of West Flanders, Belgium, 12 m. N.E. of Ostend, and about 9 m. N.W. of
+Bruges, with which it is connected by railway. It is more bracing than
+Ostend, and has a fine parade over a mile in length. During the season,
+which extends from June to September, it receives a large number of
+visitors, probably over 60,000 altogether, from Germany as well as from
+Belgium. There is a small fishing port as well as a considerable
+fishing-fleet. Two miles north of this place along the dunes is
+Zeebrugge, the point at which the new ship-canal from Bruges enters the
+North Sea. Fixed population (1904) 5925.
+
+
+
+
+BLANKENBURG. (1) A town and health resort of Germany, in the duchy of
+Brunswick, at the N. foot of the Harz Mountains, 12 m. by rail S.W. from
+Halberstadt. Pop. (1901) 10,173. It has been in large part rebuilt since
+a fire in 1836, and possesses a castle, with various collections, a
+museum of antiquities, an old town hall and churches. There are
+pine-needle baths and a hospital for nervous diseases. Gardening is a
+speciality. In the vicinity is a cliff or ridge of rock called
+Teufelsmauer (Devil's wall), from which fine views are obtained across
+the plain and into the deep gorges of the Harz Mountains.
+
+(2) Another BLANKENBURG, also a health-resort, is situated in
+Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Thuringia, at the confluence of the rivers Rinne
+and Schwarza, and at the entrance of the Schwarzatal. Its environs are
+charming, and to the north of it, on an eminence, rise the fine ruins of
+the castle of Greifenstein, built by the German king Henry I., and from
+1275 to 1583 the seat of a cadet branch of the counts of Schwarzburg.
+
+
+
+
+BLANKETEERS, the nickname given to some 5000 operatives who on the 10th
+of March 1817 met in St Peter's Field, near Manchester, to march to
+London, each carrying blankets or rugs. Their object was to see the
+prince regent and lay their grievances before him. The Habeas Corpus Act
+was suspended, and the leaders were seized and imprisoned. The bulk of
+the demonstration yielded at once. The few stragglers who persisted in
+the march were intercepted by troops, and treated with considerable
+severity. Eventually the spokesmen had an interview with the ministers,
+and some reforms were the result.
+
+
+
+
+BLANK VERSE, the unrhymed measure of iambic decasyllable in five beats
+which is usually adopted in English epic and dramatic poetry. The
+epithet is due to the absence of the rhyme which the ear expects at the
+end of successive lines. The decasyllabic line occurs for the first time
+in a Provençal poem of the 10th century, but in the earliest instances
+preserved it is already constructed with such regularity as to suggest
+that it was no new invention. It was certainly being used almost
+simultaneously in the north of France. Chaucer employed it in his
+_Compleynte to Pitie_ about 1370. In all the literatures of western
+Europe it became generally used, but always with rhyme. In the beginning
+of the 16th century, however, certain Italian poets made the experiment
+of writing decasyllabics without rhyme. The tragedy of _Sophonisba_
+(1515) of G.G. Trissino (1478-1550) was the earliest work completed in
+this form; it was followed in 1525 by the didactic poem _Le Api_ (The
+Bees), of Giovanni Rucellai (1475-1525), who announced his intention of
+writing _"Con verso Etrusco dalle rime sciolto,"_ in consequence of
+which expression this kind of metre was called _versi sciolti_ or blank
+verse. In a very short time this form was largely adopted in Italian
+dramatic poetry, and the comedies of Ariosto, the _Aminta_ of Tasso and
+the _Pastor Fido_ of Guarini are composed in it. The iambic blank verse
+of Italy was, however, mainly hendecasyllabic, not decasyllabic, and
+under French influences the habit of rhyme soon returned.
+
+Before the close of Trissino's life, however, his invention had been
+introduced into another literature, where it was destined to enjoy a
+longer and more glorious existence. Towards the close of the reign of
+Henry VIII., Henry Howard, earl of Surrey, translated two books of the
+_Aeneid_ into English rhymeless verse, "drawing" them "into a strange
+metre." Surrey's blank verse is stiff and timid, permitting itself no
+divergence from the exact iambic movement:--
+
+  "Who can express the slaughter of that night,
+   Or tell the number of the corpses slain,
+   Or can in tears bewail them worthily?
+   The ancient famous city falleth down,
+   That many years did hold such seignory."
+
+Surrey soon found an imitator in Nicholas Grimoald, and in 1562 blank
+verse was first applied to English dramatic poetry in the _Gorboduc_ of
+Sackville and Norton. In 1576, in the _Steel Glass_ of Gascoigne, it was
+first used for satire, and by the year 1585 it had come into almost
+universal use for theatrical purposes. In Lyly's _The Woman in the Moon_
+and Peek's _Arraignment of Paris_ (both of 1584) we find blank verse
+struggling with rhymed verse and successfully holding its own. The
+earliest play written entirely in blank verse is supposed to be _The
+Misfortunes of Arthur_ (1587) of Thomas Hughes. Marlowe now immediately
+followed, with the magnificent movement of his _Tamburlaine_ (1589),
+which was mocked by satirical critics as "the swelling bombast of
+bragging blank verse" (Nash) and "the spacious volubility of a drumming
+decasyllable" (Greene), but which introduced a great new music into
+English poetry, in such "mighty lines" as
+
+  "Still climbing after knowledge infinite,
+   And always moving as the restless spheres,"
+
+or:--
+
+  "See where Christ's blood streams in the firmament!"
+
+Except, however, when he is stirred by a particularly vivid emotion, the
+blank verse of Marlowe continues to be monotonous and uniform. It still
+depends too exclusively on a counting of syllables. But Shakespeare,
+after having returned to rhyme in his earliest dramas, particularly in
+_The Two Gentlemen of Verona_, adopted blank verse conclusively about
+the time that the career of Marlowe was closing, and he carried it to
+the greatest perfection in variety, suppleness and fulness. He released
+it from the excessive bondage that it had hitherto endured; as Robert
+Bridges has said, "Shakespeare, whose early verse may be described as
+syllabic, gradually came to write a verse dependent on stress." In
+comparison with that of his predecessors and successors, the blank verse
+of Shakespeare is essentially regular, and his prosody marks the
+admirable mean between the stiffness of his dramatic forerunners and the
+laxity of those who followed him. Most of Shakespeare's lines conform to
+the normal type of the decasyllable, and the rest are accounted for by
+familiar and rational rules of variation. The ease and fluidity of his
+prosody were abused by his successors, particularly by Beaumont and
+Fletcher, who employed the soft feminine ending to excess; in Massinger
+dramatic blank verse came too near to prose, and in Heywood and Shirley
+it was relaxed to the point of losing all nervous vigour.
+
+The later dramatists gradually abandoned that rigorous difference which
+should always be preserved between the cadence of verse and prose, and
+the example of Ford, who endeavoured to revive the old severity of blank
+verse, was not followed. But just as the form was sinking into dramatic
+desuetude, it took new life in the direction of epic, and found its
+noblest proficient in the person of John Milton. The most intricate and
+therefore the most interesting blank verse which has been written is
+that of Milton in the great poems of his later life. He reduced the
+elisions, which had been frequent in the Elizabethan poets, to law; he
+admitted an extraordinary variety in the number of stresses; he
+deliberately inverted the rhythm in order to produce particular effects;
+and he multiplied at will the caesurae or breaks in a line. Such verses
+as
+
+  "Arraying with reflected purple and gold--
+   Shoots invisible virtue even to the deep--
+   Universal reproach, far worse to bear--
+   Me, me only, just object of his ire"--
+
+are not mistaken in rhythm, nor to be scanned by forcing them to obey
+the conventional stress. They are instances, and _Paradise Lost_ is
+full of such, of Milton's exquisite art in ringing changes upon the
+metrical type of ten syllables, five stresses and a rising rhythm, so as
+to make the whole texture of the verse respond to his poetical thought.
+Writing many years later in _Paradise Regained_ and in _Samson
+Agonistes_, Milton retained his system of blank verse in its general
+characteristics, but he treated it with increased dryness and with a
+certain harshness of effect. It is certainly in his biblical drama that
+blank verse has been pushed to its most artificial and technical
+perfection, and it is there that Milton's theories are to be studied
+best; yet it must be confessed that learning excludes beauty in some of
+the very audacious irregularities which he here permits himself in
+_Samson Agonistes_. Such lines as
+
+  "Made arms ridiculous, useless the forgery--
+   My griefs not only pain me as a lingering disease--
+   Drunk with idolatry, drunk with wine--
+   Justly, yet despair not of his final pardon"--
+
+are constructed with perfect comprehension of metrical law, yet they
+differ so much from the normal structure of blank verse that they need
+to be explained, and to imitate them would be perilous. A persistent
+weakness in the third foot has ever been the snare of English blank
+verse, and it is this element of monotony and dulness which Milton is
+ceaselessly endeavouring to obviate by his wonderful inversions,
+elisions and breaks.
+
+After the Restoration, and after a brief period of experiment with
+rhymed plays, the dramatists returned to the use of blank verse, and in
+the hands of Otway, Lee and Dryden, it recovered much of its
+magnificence. In the 18th century, Thomson and others made use of a very
+regular and somewhat monotonous form of blank verse for descriptive and
+didactic poems, of which the _Night Thoughts_ of Young is, from a
+metrical point of view, the most interesting. With these poets the form
+is little open to licence, while inversions and breaks are avoided as
+much as possible. Since the 18th century, blank verse has been subjected
+to constant revision in the hands of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Shelley,
+Keats, Tennyson, the Brownings and Swinburne, but no radical changes, of
+a nature unknown to Shakespeare and Milton, have been introduced into
+it.
+
+  See J.A. Symonds, _Blank Verse_ (1895); Walter Thomas, _Le Décasyllabe
+  romain et sa fortune en Europe_ (1904); Robert Bridges _Milton's
+  Prosody_ (1894); Ed. Guest, _A History of English Rhythms_ (1882); J.
+  Motheré, _Les Théories du vers héreoïque anglais_ (1886); J. Schipper,
+  _Englische Metrik_ (1881-1888).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+BLANQUI, JERÔME ADOLPHE (1798-1854), French economist, was born at Nice
+on the 21st of November 1798. Beginning life as a schoolmaster in Paris,
+he was attracted to the study of economics by the lectures of J.B. Say,
+whose pupil and assistant he became. Upon the recommendation of Say he
+was in 1825 appointed professor of industrial economy and of history at
+the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. In 1833 he succeeded Say as
+professor of political economy at the same institution, and in 1838 was
+elected a member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. In
+1838 appeared his most important work, _Histoire de l'économie politique
+en Europe, depuis les anciens jusqu'à nos jours_. He was indefatigable
+in research, and for the purposes of his economic inquiries travelled
+over almost the whole of Europe and visited Algeria and the East. He
+contributed much to our knowledge of the conditions of the
+working-classes, especially in France. Other works of Blanqui were _De
+la situation économique et morale de l'Espagne en 1846; Résumé de
+l'histoire du commerce et de l'industrie_ (1826); _Précis élémentaire
+d'économie politique_ (1826); _Les Classes ouvrières en France_ (1848).
+
+
+
+
+BLANQUI, LOUIS AUGUSTE (1805-1881), French publicist, was born on the
+8th of February 1805 at Puget-Théniers, where his father, Jean Dominique
+Blanqui, was at that time sub-prefect. He studied both law and medicine,
+but found his real vocation in politics, and at once constituted himself
+a champion of the most advanced opinions. He took an active part in the
+revolution of July 1830, and continuing to maintain the doctrine of
+republicanism during the reign of Louis Philippe, was condemned to
+repeated terms of imprisonment. Implicated in the armed outbreak of the
+Société des Saisons, of which he was a leading spirit, he was in the
+following year, 1840, condemned to death, a sentence that was afterwards
+commuted to imprisonment for life. He was released by the revolution of
+1848, only to resume his attacks on existing institutions. The
+revolution, he declared, was a mere change of name. The violence of the
+_Société républicaine centrale_, which was founded by Blanqui to demand
+a modification of the government, brought him into conflict with the
+more moderate Republicans, and in 1849 he was condemned to ten years'
+imprisonment. In 1865, while serving a further term of imprisonment
+under the Empire, he contrived to escape, and henceforth continued his
+propaganda against the government from abroad, until the general amnesty
+of 1869 enabled him to return to France. Blanqui's leaning towards
+violent measures was illustrated in 1870 by two unsuccessful armed
+demonstrations: one on the 12th of January at the funeral of Victor
+Noir, the journalist shot by Pierre Bonaparte; the other on the 14th of
+August, when he led an attempt to seize some guns at a barrack. Upon the
+fall of the Empire, through the revolution of the 4th of September,
+Blanqui established the club and journal _La patrie en danger_. He was
+one of the band that for a moment seized the reins of power on the 31st
+of October, and for his share in that outbreak he was again condemned to
+death on the 17th of March of the following year. A few days afterwards
+the insurrection which established the Commune broke out, and Blanqui
+was elected a member of the insurgent government, but his detention in
+prison prevented him from taking an active part. Nevertheless he was in
+1872 condemned along with the other members of the Commune to
+transportation; but on account of his broken health this sentence was
+commuted to one of imprisonment. In 1879 he was elected a deputy for
+Bordeaux; although the election was pronounced invalid, Blanqui was set
+at liberty, and at once resumed his work of agitation. At the end of
+1880, after a speech at a revolutionary meeting in Paris, he was struck
+down by apoplexy, and expired on the 1st of January 1881. Blanqui's
+uncompromising communism, and his determination to enforce it by
+violence, necessarily brought him into conflict with every French
+government, and half his life was spent in prison. Besides his
+innumerable contributions to journalism, he published an astronomical
+work entitled _L'Éternité par les astres_ (1872), and after his death
+his writings on economic and social questions were collected under the
+title of _Critique sociale_ (1885).
+
+  A biography by G. Geffroy, _L'Enfermé_ (1897), is highly coloured and
+  decidedly partisan.
+
+
+
+
+BLANTYRE, the chief town of the Nyasaland protectorate, British Central
+Africa. It is situated about 3000 ft. above the sea in the Shiré
+Highlands 300 m. by river and rail N.N.W. of the Chínde mouth of the
+Zambezi. Pop. about 6000 natives and 100 whites. It is the headquarters
+of the principal trading firms and missionary societies in the
+protectorate. It is also a station on the African trans-continental
+telegraph line. The chief building is the Church of Scotland church, a
+fine red brick building, a mixture of Norman and Byzantine styles, with
+lofty turrets and white domes. It stands in a large open space and is
+approached by an avenue of cypresses and eucalyptus. The church was
+built entirely by native labour. Blantyre was founded in 1876 by
+Scottish missionaries, and is named after the birthplace of David
+Livingstone.
+
+
+
+
+BLANTYRE (Gaelic, "the warm retreat"), a parish of Lanarkshire,
+Scotland. Pop. (1901) 14,145. The parish lies a few miles south-east of
+Glasgow, and contains High Blantyre (pop. 2521), Blantyre Works (or Low
+Blantyre), Stonefield and several villages. The whole district is rich
+in coal, the mining of which is extensively carried on. Blantyre Works
+(pop. 1683) was the birthplace of David Livingstone (1813-1873) and his
+brother Charles (1821-1873), who as lads were both employed as piecers
+in a local cotton-mill. The scanty remains of Blantyre Priory, founded
+towards the close of the 13th century, stand on the left bank of the
+Clyde, almost opposite the beautiful ruins of Bothwell Castle. High
+Blantyre and Blantyre Works are connected with Glasgow by the Caledonian
+railway. Stonefield (pop. 7288), the most populous place in the parish,
+entirely occupied with mining, lies between High Blantyre and Blantyre
+Works, Calderwood Castle on Rotten Calder Water, near High Blantyre, is
+situated amid picturesque scenery.
+
+
+
+
+BLARNEY, a small town of Co. Cork, Ireland, in the mid parliamentary
+division, 5 m. N.W. of the city of Cork on the Cork & Muskerry light
+railway. Pop. (1901) 928. There is a large manufacture of tweed. The
+name "blarney" has passed into the language to denote a peculiar kind of
+persuasive eloquence, alleged to be characteristic of the natives of
+Ireland. The "Blarney Stone," the kissing of which is said to confer
+this faculty, is pointed out within the castle. The origin of this
+belief is not known. The castle, built c. 1446 by Cormac McCarthy, was
+of immense strength, and parts of its walls are as much as 18 ft. thick.
+To its founder is traced by some the origin of the term "blarney," since
+he delayed by persuasion and promises the surrender of the castle to the
+lord president. Richard Millikin's song, "The Groves of Blarney" (c.
+1798), contributed to the fame of the castle, which is also bound up
+with the civil history of the county and the War of the Great Rebellion.
+
+
+
+
+BLASHFIELD, EDWIN HOWLAND (1848-   ), American artist, was born on the
+15th of December 1848 in New York City. He was a pupil of Bonnat in
+Paris, and became (1888) a member of the National Academy of Design in
+New York. For some years a genre painter, he later turned to decorative
+work, marked by rare delicacy and beauty of colouring. He painted mural
+decorations for a dome in the manufacturers' building at the Chicago
+Exposition of 1893; for the dome of the Congressional library,
+Washington; for the capitol at St Paul, Minnesota; for the Baltimore
+court-house; in New York City for the Appellate court house, the grand
+ball-room of the Waldorf-Astoria hotel, the Lawyers' club, and the
+residences of W.K. Vanderbilt and Collis P. Huntington; and in
+Philadelphia for the residence of George W. Drexel. With his wife he
+wrote _Italian Cities_ (1900) and edited Vasari's _Lives of the
+Painters_ (1896), and was well known as a lecturer and writer on art. He
+became president of the Society of Mural Painters, and of the Society of
+American Artists.
+
+
+
+
+BLASIUS (or BLAISE), SAINT, bishop of Sebaste or Sivas in Asia Minor,
+martyred under Diocletian on the 3rd of February 316. The Roman Catholic
+Church holds his festival on the 3rd of February, the Orthodox Eastern
+Church on the 11th. His flesh is said to have been torn with
+woolcombers' irons before he was beheaded, and this seems to be the only
+reason why he has always been regarded as the patron saint of
+woolcombers. In pre-Reformation England St Blaise was a very popular
+saint, and the council of Oxford in 1222 forbade all work on his
+festival. Owing to a miracle which he is alleged to have worked on a
+child suffering from a throat affection, who was brought to him on his
+way to execution, St Blaise's aid has always been held potent in throat
+and lung diseases. The woolcombers of England still celebrate St
+Blaise's day with a procession and general festivities. He forms one of
+a group of fourteen (i.e. twice seven) saints, who for their help in
+time of need have been associated as objects of particularly devoted
+worship in Roman Catholic Germany since the middle of the 15th century.
+
+  See William Hone, _Every Day Book_, i. 210.
+
+
+
+
+BLASPHEMY (through the Fr. from Gr. [Greek: blasphaemia], profane
+language, slander, probably derived from root of [Greek: blaptein], to
+injure, and [Greek: phaemae], speech), literally, defamation or evil
+speaking, but more peculiarly restricted to an indignity offered to the
+Deity by words or writing. By the Mosaic law death by stoning was the
+punishment for blasphemy (Lev. xxiv. 16). The 77th Novel of Justinian
+assigned death as the penalty, as did also the Capitularies. The common
+law of England treats blasphemy as an indictable offence. All
+blasphemies against God, as denying His being, or providence, all
+contumelious reproaches of Jesus Christ, all profane scoffing at the
+Holy Scriptures, or exposing any part thereof to contempt or ridicule,
+are punishable by the temporal courts with fine, imprisonment and also
+infamous corporal punishment. An act of Edward VI. (1547; repealed 1553
+and revived 1558) enacts that persons reviling the sacrament of the
+Lord's Supper, by contemptuous words or otherwise, shall suffer
+imprisonment. Persons denying the Trinity were deprived of the benefit
+of the Act of Toleration by an act of 1688. An act of 1697-1698,
+commonly called the Blasphemy Act, enacts that if any person, educated
+in or having made profession of the Christian religion, should by
+writing, preaching, teaching or advised speaking, deny any one of the
+Persons of the Holy Trinity to be God, or should assert or maintain that
+there are more gods than one, or should deny the Christian religion to
+be true, or the Holy Scriptures to be of divine authority, he should,
+upon the first offence, be rendered incapable of holding any office or
+place of trust, and for the second incapable of bringing any action, of
+being guardian or executor, or of taking a legacy or deed of gift, and
+should suffer three years' imprisonment without bail. It has been held
+that a person offending under the statute is also indictable at common
+law (_Rex_ v. _Carlisle_, 1819, where Mr Justice Best remarks, "In the
+age of toleration, when that statute passed, neither churchmen nor
+sectarians wished to protect in their infidelity those who disbelieved
+the Holy Scriptures"). An act of 1812-1813 excepts from these enactments
+"persons denying as therein mentioned respecting the Holy Trinity," but
+otherwise the common and the statute law on the subject remain as
+stated. In the case of _Rex_ v. _Woolston_ (1728) the court declared
+that they would not suffer it to be debated whether to write against
+Christianity in _general_ was not an offence punishable in the temporal
+courts at common law, but they did not intend to include disputes
+between learned men on _particular_ controverted points.
+
+The law against blasphemy has practically ceased to be put in active
+operation. In 1841 Edward Moxon was found guilty of the publication of a
+blasphemous libel (Shelley's _Queen Mab_), the prosecution having been
+instituted by Henry Hetherington, who had previously been condemned to
+four months' imprisonment for a similar offence, and wished to test the
+law under which he was punished. In the case of _Cowan_ v. _Milbourn_
+(1867) the defendant had broken his contract to let a lecture-room to
+the plaintiff, on discovering that the intended lectures were to
+maintain that "the character of Christ is defective, and his teaching
+misleading, and that the Bible is no more inspired than any other book,"
+and the court of exchequer held that the publication of such doctrine
+was blasphemy, and the contract therefore illegal. On that occasion the
+court reaffirmed the dictum of Chief Justice Hale, that Christianity is
+part of the laws of England. The commissioners on criminal law (sixth
+report) remark that "although the law forbids _all_ denial of the being
+and providence of God or the Christian religion, it is only when
+irreligion assumes the form of an insult to God and man that the
+interference of the criminal law has taken place." In England the last
+prominent prosecution for blasphemy was the case of _R._ v. _Ramsey &
+Foote_, 1883, 48 L.T. 739, when the editor, publisher and printer of the
+_Freethinker_ were sentenced to imprisonment; but police court
+proceedings were taken as late as 1908 against an obscure Hyde Park
+orator who had become a public nuisance.
+
+Profane cursing and swearing is made punishable by the Profane Oaths Act
+1745, which directs the offender to be brought before a justice of the
+peace, and fined five shillings, two shillings or one shilling,
+according as he is a gentleman, below the rank of gentleman, or a common
+labourer, soldier, &c.
+
+By the law of Scotland, as it originally stood, the punishment of
+blasphemy was death, but by an act of 1825, amended in 1837, blasphemy
+was made punishable by fine or imprisonment or both.
+
+In France, blasphemy (which included, also, speaking against the Holy
+Virgin and the saints, denying one's faith, or speaking with impiety of
+holy things) was from very early times punished with great severity. The
+punishment was death in various forms, burning alive, mutilation,
+torture or corporal punishment. In the United States the common law of
+England was largely followed, and in most of the states, also, statutes
+were enacted against the offence, but, as in England, the law is
+practically never put in force. In Germany, the punishment for
+blasphemy is imprisonment varying from one day to three years, according
+to the gravity of the offence. To constitute the offence, the blasphemy
+must be uttered in public, be offensive in character, and have wounded
+the religious susceptibilities of some other person. In Austria, whoever
+commits blasphemy by speech or writing is liable to imprisonment for any
+term from six months up to ten years, according to the seriousness of
+the offence.
+
+
+
+
+BLASS, FRIEDRICH (1843-1907), German classical scholar, was born on the
+22nd of January 1843 at Osnabrück. After studying at Göttingen and Bonn
+from 1860 to 1863, he lectured at several gymnasia and at the university
+of Königsberg. In 1876 he was appointed extraordinary professor of
+classical philology at Kiel, and ordinary professor in 1881. In 1892 he
+accepted a professorship at Halle, where he died on the 5th of March
+1907. He frequently visited England, and was intimately acquainted with
+leading British scholars. He received an honorary degree from Dublin
+University in 1892, and his readiness to place the results of his
+labours at the disposal of others, together with the courtesy and
+kindliness of his disposition, won the respect of all who knew him.
+Blass is chiefly known for his works in connexion with the study of
+Greek oratory: _Die griechische Beredsamkeit von Alexander bis auf
+Augustus_ (1865); _Die attische Beredsamkeit_ (1868-1880; 2nd ed.,
+1887-1898), his greatest work; editions for the Teubner series of
+Andocides (1880), Antiphon (1881), Hypereides (1881, 1894), Demosthenes
+(Dindorf's ed., 1885), Isocrates (1886), Dinarchus (1888), Demosthenes
+(Rehdantz' ed., 1893), Aeschines (1896), Lycurgus, _Leocrates_ (1902);
+_Die Rhythmen der attischen Kunstprosa_ (1901); _Die Rhythmen der
+asianischen und römischen Kunstprosa_ (1905). Among his other works are
+editions of Eudoxus of Cnidus (1887), the [Greek: Athaenaion politeia]
+(4th ed., 1903), a work of great importance, and Bacchylides (3rd. ed.,
+1904); _Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Griechisch_ (1902; Eng. trans,
+by H. St John Thackeray, 1905); _Hermeneutik und Kritik and
+Paläographie, Buchwesen, und Handschriftenkunde_ (vol. i. of Müller's
+_Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, 1891); _Über die
+Aussprache des Griechischen_ (1888; Eng. trans, by W.J. Purton, 1890);
+_Die Interpolationen in der Odyssee_ (1904); contributions to Collitz's
+_Sammlung der griechischen Dialektinschriften_; editions of the texts of
+certain portions of the New Testament (Gospels and _Acts_). His last
+work was an edition of the _Choephori_ (1906).
+
+  See notices in the _Academy_, March 16, 1907 (J.P. Mahaffy);
+  _Classical Review_, May 1907 (J.E. Sandys), which contains also a
+  review of _Die Rhythmen der asianischen und römischen Kunstprosa_.
+
+
+
+
+BLASTING, the process of rending or breaking apart a solid body, such as
+rock, by exploding within it or in contact with it some explosive
+substance. The explosion is accompanied by the sudden development of gas
+at a high temperature and under a tension sufficiently great to overcome
+the resistance of the enclosing body, which is thus shattered and
+disintegrated. Before the introduction of explosives, rock was
+laboriously excavated by hammer and chisel, or by the ancient process of
+"fire-setting," i.e. building a fire against the rock, which, on
+cooling, splits and flakes off. To hasten disintegration, water was
+often applied to the heated rock, the loosened portion being afterwards
+removed by pick or hammer and wedge. In modern times blasting has become
+a necessity for the excavation of rock and other hard material, as in
+open surface cuts, quarrying, tunnelling, shaft-sinking and mining
+operations in general.
+
+For blasting, a hole is generally drilled to receive the charge of
+explosive. The depth and diameter of the hole and the quantity of
+explosive used are all variable, depending on the character of the rock
+and of the explosive, the shape of the mass to be blasted, the presence
+or absence of cracks or fissures, and the position of the hole with
+respect to the free surface of the rock. The shock of a blast produces
+impulsive waves acting radially in all directions, the force being
+greatest at the centre of explosion and varying inversely as the square
+of the distance from the charge. This is evidenced by the observed
+facts. Immediately surrounding the explosive, the rock is often finely
+splintered and crushed. Beyond this is a zone in which it is completely
+broken and displaced or projected, leaving an enveloping mass of more
+or less ragged fractured rock only partially loosened. Lastly, the
+diminishing waves produce vibrations which are transmitted to
+considerable distances. Theoretically, if a charge of explosive be fired
+in a solid material of perfectly homogeneous texture and at a proper
+distance from the free surface, a conical mass will be blown out to the
+full depth of the drill hole, leaving a funnel-shaped cavity. No rock,
+however, is of uniform mineralogical and physical character, so that in
+practice there is only a rough approximation to the conical crater, even
+under the most favourable conditions. Generally, the shape of the mass
+blasted out is extremely irregular, because of the variable texture of
+the rock and the presence of cracks, fissures and cleavage planes. The
+ultimate or resultant useful effect of the explosion of a confined
+charge is in the direction where the least resistance is presented. In
+the actual work of rock excavation it is only by trial, or by deductions
+based on experience, that the behaviour of a given rock can be
+determined and the quantity of explosive required properly proportioned.
+
+Blasting, as usually carried on, comprises several operations: (1)
+drilling holes in the rock to be blasted; (2) placing in the hole the
+charge of explosive, with its fuze; (3) tamping the charge, i.e.
+compacting it and filling the remainder of the hole with some suitable
+material for preventing the charge from blowing out without breaking the
+ground; (4) igniting or detonating the charge; (5) clearing away the
+broken material. The holes for blasting are made either by hand, with
+hammer and drill or jumper, or by machine drill, the latter being driven
+by steam, compressed air, or electricity, or, in rare cases, by
+hydraulic power. Drill holes ordinarily vary in diameter from 1 to 3
+in., and in depth from a few inches up to 15 or 20 ft. or more. The
+deeper holes are made only in surface excavation of rock, the shallower,
+to a maximum depth of say 12 ft., being suitable for tunnelling and
+mining operations.
+
+  _Hand Drilling_.--The work is either "single-hand" or "double-hand."
+  In single-hand drilling, the miner wields the hammer with one hand,
+  and with the other holds the drill or "bit," rotating it slightly
+  after every blow in order to keep the hole round and prevent the drill
+  from sticking fast; in double-hand work, one man strikes, while the
+  other holds and rotates the drill. For large and deep holes, two
+  hammermen are sometimes employed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Sledge-hammer.]
+
+  A miner's drill is a steel bar, occasionally round but generally of
+  octagonal cross-section, one end of which is forged out to a cutting
+  edge (fig. 1). The edge of the drill is made either straight, like
+  that of a chisel, or with a convex curve, the latter shape being best
+  for very hard rock. For hard rock the cutting edge should be rather
+  thicker and blunter, and therefore stronger, than for soft rock.
+  Drills are made of high-grade steel, as they must be tempered
+  accurately and uniformly. The diameter of drill steel for hand work is
+  usually from ¾ to 1 in., and the length of cutting edge, or gauge, of
+  the drill is always greater than the diameter of the shank, in the
+  proportion of from 7.4 to 4.3. Holes over 10 or 12 in. deep generally
+  require the use of a set of drills of different lengths and depending
+  in number on the depth required. The shortest drill, for starting the
+  hole, has the widest cutting edge, the edges of the others being
+  successively narrower and graduated to follow each other properly, as
+  drill after drill is dulled in deepening the hole. Thus the hole
+  decreases in diameter as it is made deeper. The miner's hammer (fig.
+  2) ranges in weight from 3½ to 4½ lb. for single-hand drilling, up to
+  8 or 10 lb. for double-hand. If the hole is directed downward, a
+  little water is poured into it at intervals, to keep the cutting edge
+  of the drill cool and make a thin mud of the cuttings. From time to
+  time the hole is cleaned out by the "scraper" or "spoon," a long
+  slender iron bar, forged in the shape of a hollow semi-cylinder, with
+  one end flattened and turned over at right angles. If the hole is
+  directed steeply upward and the rock is dry, the cuttings will run out
+  continuously during the drilling; otherwise the scraper is necessary,
+  or a small pipe with a plunger like a syringe is used for washing out
+  the cuttings. The "jumper" is a long steel bar, with cutting edges on
+  one or both ends, which is alternately raised and dropped in the hole
+  by one or two men. In rock work the jumper is rarely used except for
+  holes directed steeply downward, though for coal or soft shale or
+  slate it may be employed for drilling holes horizontally or upward.
+  Other tools used in connexion with rock-drilling are the pick and gad.
+
+  Holes drilled by hand usually vary in depth from say 18 to 36 in.,
+  according to the nature of the rock and purpose of the work, though
+  deeper holes are often made. For soft rock, single-hand drilling is
+  from 20 to 30% cheaper than double-hand, but this difference does not
+  hold good for the harder rocks. For these double-hand drilling is
+  preferable, and may even be essential, to secure a reasonable speed of
+  work.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 3.--Ingersoll-Sergeant Mining Drill.]
+
+  _Machine Drills._--The introduction of machine drills in the latter
+  part of the 19th century exerted an important influence on the work of
+  rock excavation in general, and specially on the art of mining. By
+  their use many great tunnels and other works involving rock excavation
+  under adverse conditions have been rapidly and successfully carried
+  out. Before the invention of machine drills such work progressed
+  slowly and with difficulty. Nearly all machine drills are of the
+  reciprocating or percussive type, in which the drill bit is firmly
+  clamped to the piston rod and delivers a rapid succession of strong
+  blows on the bottom of the hole. The ordinary compressed air drill
+  (which may, for surface work, be operated also by steam) may be taken
+  as an illustration. The piston works in a cylinder, provided with a
+  valve motion somewhat similar to that of a steam-engine, together with
+  an automatic device for producing the necessary rotation of the piston
+  and drill bit. While at work the machine is mounted on a heavy tripod
+  (fig. 3); or, if underground, sometimes on an iron column or bar,
+  firmly wedged in position between the roof and floor, or side walls,
+  of the tunnel or mine working. As the hole is deepened, the entire
+  drill head is gradually fed forward on its support by a screw feed, a
+  succession of longer and longer drill bits being used as required.
+
+  Among the numerous types and makes of percussion drill may be named
+  the following:--Adelaide, Climax, Darlington, Dubois-François,
+  Ferroux, Froelich, Hirnant, Ingersoll, Jeffrey, Leyner, McKiernan,
+  Rand, Schram, Sergeant, Sullivan and Wood.
+
+  [Illustration: Figs. 4 and 5.--Darlington's Rock Drill.]
+
+  One of the simplest of the machine drills is the Darlington (figs. 4
+  and 5): a is the cylinder; b, piston rod; c, bit; d, d, air inlets,
+  either being used according to the position of the drill while at
+  work; h, piston; j, rifle-bar for rotating piston and bit; k, ratchet
+  attached to j; l, brass nut, screwed into h, and in which j works; f,
+  chuck for holding drill-bit; n, air port communicating between ends of
+  cylinder, front and back of piston; o, exhaust port. This machine has
+  no valve. From its construction, the compressed air (or steam) is
+  always acting on the annular shoulder round the forward end of the
+  piston. The piston is thereby forced back on the in-stroke until the
+  port n is uncovered. This admits the compressed air to the rear end of
+  the cylinder, and as the area of this end of the piston is much
+  greater than that of the shoulder on the other end, the piston is
+  driven forward and strikes its blow. When it has advanced far enough
+  to cover the exhaust port o, the air behind the piston is exhausted,
+  and, under the constant inward pressure noted above, the stroke is
+  reversed. The rotation of piston and bit is caused by the rifle-bar j.
+  On the outward stroke, j, with its ratchet k, is free to turn under a
+  couple of pawls and springs, and consequently the piston delivers its
+  blow without rotation. On the inward stroke the ratchet is held fast
+  by the pawls, and the piston and bit are forced to rotate through a
+  small part of a revolution. The cylinder is fed forward with respect
+  to the shell r, by rotating the handle p, which works a long screw-bar
+  engaging with a nut on the under side of the cylinder. The shell r is
+  bolted to the clamp s, which in turn is mounted on the hollow column
+  or bar g, or on a tripod, according to the character of the work. By
+  means of the adjustable clamp s, the machine can be set for drilling a
+  hole in any desired direction. The drill makes from 400 to 800 strokes
+  per minute.
+
+  The "New Ingersoll" drill, which may be taken as an example of the
+  numerous machines in which valves are used, is shown in section in
+  fig. 6. The steam or compressed air is distributed through the ports
+  alternately to the ends of the cylinder, by the reciprocations of a
+  spool-valve working in a chest mounted on the cylinder. The movements
+  of this valve are caused by the strokes of the main piston, which, by
+  means of the wide annular groove around the middle of the piston,
+  alternately open and close the spool-valve exhaust ports. Fig. 3 shows
+  the Ingersoll "Light Mining drill," as mounted on a tripod, and in
+  position for drilling a hole vertically downward. In the Leyner drill
+  the drill-bit is not connected to the piston, but is struck a quick
+  succession of blows by the latter. An important feature of this
+  machine is the provision for directing a stream of water into the hole
+  for clearing out the cuttings. For this purpose the shank of the
+  drill-bit is perforated longitudinally, the water being supplied under
+  pressure from a small tank, to which compressed air is led.
+
+  A rock drill of entirely different design, the Brandt, has been
+  successfully used in Europe for driving railway tunnels. It is
+  operated by hydraulic power, the pressure water being supplied by a
+  pump. The hollow drill-bit, which has a serrated cutting edge, is
+  forced under heavy pressure against the bottom of the hole, and is
+  rotated slowly--at six to eight revolutions per minute--by a pair of
+  small hydraulic cylinders, thus grinding and crushing the rock instead
+  of chipping it. The bottom of the hole is kept clean and the drill-bit
+  cooled by a stream of water passing down through its hollow shank. On
+  account of its size and weight, this machine is not suitable for mine
+  work.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--New Ingersoll Drill.]
+
+  Most of the machine drills are made in a number of sizes, from 2 in.
+  up to 5 in. diameter of cylinder, the larger sizes being capable of
+  drilling holes 5 in. diameter and 30 ft. deep. They range in weight
+  from say 95 to 690 lb. for the drill head (unmounted), the tripods
+  weighing from 40 to 260 lb., exclusive of the weights placed for
+  stability on the tripod legs (fig. 3). The sizes in most common use
+  for mining are from 2½ in. to 3-1/8 in. diameter of cylinder. In rock
+  of average hardness the best drills make from 4 to 7.5 linear ft. of
+  hole per hour. For use in narrow veins, or other confined workings
+  underground, several extremely small and light compressed air drills
+  have been introduced, as, for example, the Franke and Wonder, the
+  first of which weighs complete only 16 lb., and the second 18 lb.
+  These drills are held in the hands of the miner in the required
+  position, and strike a rapid succession of light blows. A large number
+  of mechanical drills operated by hand power have been invented. Some
+  imitate hand-drilling in the mode of delivering the blow; in others
+  the drill-bit is caused to reciprocate by means of combinations of
+  crank and spring. None of these machines is entirely satisfactory, and
+  but few are in use.
+
+  Among percussion rock-drills operated by electricity are the Bladray,
+  Box, Durkee, Marvin and Siemens-Halske. The Marvin drill works with a
+  solenoid; most of the others have crank and spring movements for
+  producing the reciprocations of the piston. Power is furnished by a
+  small electric motor, either mounted on the machine itself, as with
+  the Box drill, or more often standing on the ground and transmitting
+  its power through a flexible shaft. Although rather frequently used,
+  electric percussion drills cannot yet be considered entirely
+  successful, at least for mine service, in competition with compressed
+  air machines. Another type of electric drill, however, has been
+  successfully used in collieries, viz. rotary auger drills, mounted on
+  light columns and driven through gearing by diminutive motors. These
+  are intended for boring in coal, slate or other similar soft material.
+  Hand augers resembling a carpenter's brace and bit are also often used
+  in collieries.
+
+  Whatever may be the method of drilling, after the hole has been
+  completed to the depth required, it is finally cleaned out by a
+  scraper or swab; or, when compressed air drills are used, by a jet of
+  air directed into the hole by a short piece of pipe connected through
+  a flexible hose with the compressed air supply pipe. The hole is then
+  ready for the charge.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  _Location and Arrangement of Holes._--For hand drilling in mining the
+  position of the holes is determined largely by the character and shape
+  of the face of rock to be blasted. The miner observes the joints and
+  cracks of the rock, placing the holes to take advantage of them and so
+  obtain the best result from the blast. In driving a tunnel or drift,
+  as in figs. 7 and 8, the rock joints can be made of material
+  assistance by beginning with hole No. 1 and following in succession by
+  Nos. 2, 3 and 4. Frequently the ore, or vein matter, is separated from
+  the wall-rock by a thin, soft layer of clay (D, D, fig. 8). This would
+  act almost as a free face, and the first holes of the round would be
+  directed at an angle towards it, for blasting out a wedge; after which
+  the positions of the other holes would be chosen.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  When machine drills are employed, less attention is given to natural
+  cracks or joints, chiefly because when the drill is once set up
+  several holes at different angles can be drilled in succession by
+  merely swinging the cylinder of the machine into a new position with
+  respect to its mounting. According to one method, the holes are placed
+  with some degree of symmetry, in roughly concentric rings, as shown by
+  figs. 9 and 10. The centre holes are blasted first, and are followed
+  by the others in one or more volleys as indicated by the dotted lines.
+  Another method is the "centre cut," in which the holes are drilled in
+  parallel rows on each side of the centre line of the tunnel, drift or
+  shaft. Those in the two rows nearest the middle are directed towards
+  each other, and enclose a prism of rock, which is first blasted put by
+  heavy charges, after which the rows of side holes will break with
+  relatively light charges.
+
+  _Explosives._--A great variety of explosives are in use for blasting
+  purposes. Up to 1864, gunpowder was the only available explosive, but
+  in that year Alfred Nobel first applied nitroglycerin for blasting,
+  and in 1867 invented dynamite. This name was originally applied to his
+  mixture of nitroglycerin with kieselguhr, but now includes also other
+  mechanical mixtures or chemical compounds which develop a high
+  explosive force as compared with gunpowder. Besides these there are
+  the so-called flameless or safety explosives, used in collieries where
+  inflammable gases are given off from the coal.
+
+  Gunpowder, or black powder, is seldom used for rock-blasting, except
+  in quarrying building-stone, where slow explosives of relatively low
+  power are desirable to avoid shattering the stone, and in such
+  collieries as do not require the use of safety explosives. Gunpowder
+  is exploded by deflagration, by means of a fuze, and exerts a
+  comparatively slow and rending force. The high explosives, on the
+  other hand, are exploded by detonation, through the agency of a fuze
+  and fulminating cap, exerting a quick, shattering, rather than a
+  rending force. Dynamites and flameless explosives are made in a
+  variety of strengths, and are packed in waterproofed cartridges of
+  different sizes. The grades of dynamite most commonly employed contain
+  from 35 to 60% of nitroglycerin; the stronger are used for tough rock
+  or deep holes, or for holes unfavourably placed in narrow mine
+  workings, as sometimes in shaft-sinking or tunnelling. When of good
+  quality high explosives are safer to handle than gunpowder, as they
+  cannot be ignited by sparks and are not so easily exploded. The
+  ordinary dynamites used in mining are about four times as powerful as
+  gunpowder.
+
+  Nitroglycerin in its liquid form is now rarely used for blasting,
+  partly because its full strength is not often necessary but chiefly
+  because of the difficulty and danger of transporting, handling and
+  charging it. If employed at all, it is charged in thin tinned plate
+  cases or rubber-cloth cartridges.
+
+  _Blasting with Black Powder._--The powder is coarse-grained, usually
+  from 1/8 to 3/16 in. in size, and is charged in paper cartridges, 8 to
+  10 in. long and of a proper diameter to fit loosely in the drill hole.
+  A piece of fuze, long enough to reach a little beyond the mouth of the
+  hole, is inserted in the cartridge and tied fast. For wet holes
+  paraffined paper is used, the miner waterproofing the joints with
+  grease. When more than one cartridge is required for the blast, that
+  which has the fuze attached is usually charged last. The cartridges
+  are carefully rammed down by a wooden tamping bar and the remainder of
+  the hole filled with tamping. This consists of finely broken rock, dry
+  clay or other comminuted material, carefully compacted by the tamping
+  bar on top of the charge. The fuze is a cord, having in the centre a
+  core of gunpowder, enclosed in several layers of linen or hemp
+  waterproofed covering. It is ignited by the miner's candle or lamp, or
+  by a candle end so placed at the mouth of the hole that the flame must
+  burn its way through the fuze covering. As the fuze burns slowly, at
+  the rate of 2 or 3 ft. per minute, the miner uses a sufficient length
+  to allow him to reach a place of safety.
+
+  For blasting in coal, "squibs" instead of fuzes are often used. A
+  squib is simply a tiny paper rocket, about 1/8 in. diameter by 3 in.
+  long, containing fine gunpowder and having a sulphur slow-match at one
+  end. It is fired into the charge through a channel in the tamping.
+  This channel may be formed by a piece of ¼ in. gas pipe, tamped in the
+  hole and reaching the charge; or a "needle," a long taper iron rod, is
+  laid longitudinally in the hole, with its point entering the charge,
+  and after the tamping is finished, by carefully withdrawing the needle
+  a little channel is left, through which the squib is fired. In this
+  connexion it may be noted that for breaking ground in gassy collieries
+  several substitutes for explosives have been used to a limited extent,
+  e.g. plugs of dry wood driven tightly into a row of drill holes, and
+  which on being wetted swell and split the coal; quicklime cartridges,
+  which expand powerfully on the application of water; simple wedges,
+  driven by hammer into the drill holes; multiple wedges, inserted in
+  the holes and operated by hydraulic pressure from a small hand
+  force-pump.
+
+  _Blasting with High Explosives._--High explosives are fired either by
+  ordinary fuze and detonating cap or by electric fuze. Detonating caps
+  of ordinary strength contain 10 to 15 grains of fulminating mixture.
+  The cap is crimped tight on the end of the fuze, embedded in the
+  cartridge, and on being exploded by fire from the fuze detonates the
+  charge. The number of cartridges charged depends on the depth of hole,
+  the length of the line of least resistance, and the toughness and
+  other characteristics of the rock. Each cartridge should be solidly
+  tamped, and, to avoid waste spaces in the hole, which would reduce the
+  effect of the blast, it is customary to split the paper covering
+  lengthwise with a knife. This allows the dynamite to spread under the
+  pressure of the tamping bar. The cap is often placed in the cartridge
+  preceding the last one charged, but it is better to insert it last, in
+  a piece of cartridge called a "primer." Though the dynamites are not
+  exploded by sparks, they should nevertheless always be handled
+  carefully. It is not so essential to fill the hole completely and so
+  thoroughly to compact the tamping, as in charging black powder,
+  because of the greater rapidity and shattering force of the explosion
+  of dynamite; tamping, however, should never be omitted, as it
+  increases the efficiency of the blast. In exploding dynamite, strong
+  caps, containing say 15 grains of fulminating powder, produce the best
+  results. Weaker caps are not economical, as they do not produce
+  complete detonation of the dynamite. This is specially true if the
+  weather be cold. Dynamite then becomes less sensitive, and the
+  cartridges should be gently warmed before charging, to a temperature
+  of not more than 80° F. Poisonous fumes are often produced by the
+  explosion of the nitroglycerin compounds. These are probably largely
+  due to incomplete detonation, by which part of the nitroglycerin is
+  vaporized or merely burned. This is most likely to occur when the
+  dynamite is chilled, or of poor quality, or when the cap is too weak.
+  There is generally but little inconvenience from the fumes, except in
+  confined underground workings, where ventilation is imperfect.
+
+  Like nitroglycerin, the common dynamites freeze at a temperature of
+  from 42° to 46° F. They are then comparatively safe, and so far as
+  possible should be transported in the frozen state. At very low
+  temperatures dynamite again becomes somewhat sensitive to shock. When
+  it is frozen at ordinary temperatures even the strongest detonating
+  caps fail to develop the full force. In thawing dynamite, care must be
+  exercised. The fact that a small quantity will often burn quietly has
+  led to the dangerously mistaken notion that mere heating will not
+  cause explosion. It is chiefly a question of temperature. If the
+  quantity ignited by flame be large enough to heat the entire mass to
+  the detonating point (say 360° F.) before all is consumed, an
+  explosion will result. Furthermore, dynamite, when even moderately
+  heated, becomes extremely sensitive to shocks. There are several
+  accepted modes of thawing dynamite: (1) In a water bath, the
+  cartridges being placed in a vessel surrounded on the sides and bottom
+  by warm water contained in a larger enclosing vessel. The warm water
+  may be renewed from time to time, or the water bath placed over a
+  candle or small lamp, _not_ on a stove. (2) In two vessels, similar to
+  the above, with the space between them occupied by air, provided the
+  heat applied can be definitely limited, as by using a candle. (3) When
+  large quantities of dynamite are used a supply may be kept on shelves
+  in a wooden room or chamber, warmed by a stove, or by a coil of pipe
+  heated by exhaust steam from an engine. Live steam should not be used,
+  as the heat might become excessive. Thawing should always take place
+  slowly, never before an open fire or by direct contact with a stove or
+  steam pipes and care must be taken that the heat does not rise high
+  enough to cause sweating or exudation of liquid nitroglycerin from the
+  cartridges, which would be a source of danger.
+
+  For the storage of explosives at mines, &c., proper magazines must be
+  provided, situated in a safe place, not too near other buildings, and
+  preferably of light though fireproof construction. Masonry magazines,
+  though safer from some points of view, may be the cause of greater
+  damage in event of an explosion, because the brick or stones act as
+  projectiles. Isolated and abandoned mine workings, if dry, are
+  sometimes used as magazines.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 11. Electrical Fuze.]
+
+  Firing blasts by electricity has a wide application for both surface
+  and underground work. An electrical fuze (fig. 11) consists of a pair
+  of fine, insulated copper wires, several feet long and about 1/40 of
+  an inch in diameter, with their bare ends inserted in a detonating
+  cap. For firing, the fuze wires are joined to long leading wires,
+  connected with some source of electric current. By joining the fuze
+  wires in series or in groups, any number of holes may be fired
+  simultaneously, according to the current available. A round of holes
+  fired in this way, as for driving tunnels, sinking shafts, or in large
+  surface excavations, produces better results, both in economy of
+  explosive and effect of the blast, than when the holes are fired
+  singly or in succession. Also, the miners are enabled to prepare for
+  the blast with more care and deliberation, and then to reach a place
+  of safety before the current is transmitted. Another advantage is that
+  there is no danger of a hole "hanging fire," which sometimes causes
+  accidents in using ordinary fuzes.
+
+  Hanging fire may be due to a cut, broken or damaged powder fuze, which
+  may smoulder for some time before communicating fire to the charge.
+  "Miss-fires," which also are of not infrequent occurrence with both
+  ordinary and electric fuzes, are cases where explosion from any cause
+  fails to take place. After waiting a sufficient length of time before
+  approaching the charged hole, the miner carefully removes the tamping
+  down to within a few inches of the explosives and inserts and fires
+  another cartridge, the concussion usually detonating the entire
+  charge. Sometimes another hole is drilled near the one which has
+  missed. No attempt to remove the old charge should ever be made.
+
+  High tension electricity, generated by a frictional machine, provided
+  with a condenser, was formerly much used for blasting. The bare ends
+  of the fuze wires in the detonating cap are placed say 1/8 in. apart,
+  leaving a gap across which a spark is discharged, passing through a
+  priming charge of some sensitive composition. The priming is not only
+  combustible but also a conductor of electricity, such as an intimate
+  mixture of potassium chlorate with copper sulphide and phosphide. By
+  the combustion of the priming the fulminate mixture in the cap is
+  detonated. As these fuzes are more apt to deteriorate when exposed to
+  dampness than fuzes for low-tension current, and the generating
+  machine is rather clumsy and fragile, low-tension current is more
+  generally employed. It may be generated by a small, portable dynamo,
+  operated by hand, or may be derived from a battery or from any
+  convenient electric circuit. The ends of the fuze wires in the
+  detonating cap are connected by a fine platinum filament (fig. 11),
+  embedded in a guncotton priming on top of the fulminating mixture, and
+  explosion results from the heat generated by the resistance opposed to
+  the passage of the current through the filament. Blasting machines are
+  made in several sizes, the smaller ones being capable of firing
+  simultaneously from ten to twenty holes. The fuzes must obviously be
+  of uniform electrical resistance, to ensure that all the connected
+  charges will explode simultaneously. The premature explosion of any
+  one of the fuzes would break the circuit.
+
+  In the actual operations of blasting, definite rules for the
+  proportioning of the charges are rarely observed, and although the
+  blasts made by a skilful miner seldom fail to do their work, it is a
+  common fault that too much, rather than too little, explosive is used.
+  The high explosives are specially liable to be wasted, probably
+  through lack of appreciation of their power as compared with that of
+  black powder. Among the indications of excessive charges are the
+  production of much finely broken rock or of crushed and splintered
+  rock around the bottom of the hole, and excessive displacement or
+  projection of the rock broken by the blast. In beginning any new piece
+  of work, such waste may be avoided or reduced by making trial shots
+  with different charges and depths of hole, and noting the results;
+  also by letting contracts under which the workmen pay for the
+  explosive. In surface rock excavation the location and determination
+  of the depth of the holes and the quantity of explosive used, are
+  occasionally put in charge of one or more skilled men, who direct the
+  work and are responsible for the results obtained.
+
+  Blasting in surface excavations and quarries is sometimes done on an
+  immense scale--called "mammoth blasting." Shafts are sunk, or tunnels
+  driven, in the mass of rock to be blasted, and, connected with them, a
+  number of chambers are excavated to receive the charges of explosive.
+  The preparation for such blasts may occupy months, and many tons of
+  gunpowder or dynamite are at times exploded simultaneously, breaking
+  or dislodging thousands, or even hundreds of thousands, of tons of
+  rock. This method is adopted for getting stone cheaply, as for
+  building macadamized roads, dams and breakwaters, obtaining limestone
+  for blast furnace flux, and occasionally in excavating large railway
+  cuttings. It is also applied in submarine blasting for the removal of
+  reefs obstructing navigation, and sometimes for loosening extensive
+  banks of partly cemented gold-bearing gravel, preparatory to washing
+  by hydraulic mining.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For further information on drilling and blasting
+  see:--Callon, _Lectures on Mining_ (1876), vol. i. chs. v. and vi.;
+  Foster, _Text-book of Ore and Stone Mining_, (1900), ch. iv.; Hughes,
+  _Text-book of Coal Mining_ (1901), ch. iii.; H.S. Drinker,
+  _Tunnelling, Explosive Compounds and Rock Drills_ (1878); M.C.
+  Ihlseng, _Manual of Mining_ (1905), pp. 596-696; Köhler, _Der
+  Bergbaukunde_ (1897), pp. 104-208; Daw, _The Blasting of Rock_ (1898);
+  Prelini, _Earth and Rock Excavation_ (1905), chs. v., vi. and vii.;
+  Gillette, _The Excavation of Rock_ (1904); Guttmann, _Blasting_
+  (1892); Spon's _Dictionary of Engineering_, art. "Boring and
+  Blasting"; Eissler, _Modern High Explosives_ (1893), pts. ii. and
+  iii.; Walke, _Lectures on Explosives_ (1897), chs. xix.-xxii. Also:
+  _Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng._ (London), vol. lxxxv. p. 264; _Trans. Inst.
+  Min. Eng._ (England), vols. xiv., xv. and xvi. (arts, by W. Maurice),
+  vol. xxvi. pp. 322, 348, vol. xxiv. p. 526 and vol. xxv. p. 108;
+  _Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng._, vol. xxvii. p. 530; _Trans. Amer. Inst.
+  Min. Eng._, vol. xviii. p. 370, vol. xxix p. 405 and vol. xxxiv. p.
+  871; _South Wales Inst. Eng._ (1888); _Jour. Ass. Eng. Socs._, vol.
+  vii. p. 58; _Jour. Chem. Met. and Mining Soc. of South Africa_, August
+  1905; _School of Mines Quarterly_, N.Y., vol. ix. p. 308; _Colliery
+  Guardian_, April 15, 1898, and February 6, 1903; _Mines and Minerals_,
+  February 1905, p. 348, January 1906, p. 259, and April 1906, p. 393;
+  _Eng. and Mining Jour._, April 19, 1902, p. 552; _The Engineer_,
+  February 24, 1905; _Elec. Rev._, June 9, 1899; _Eng. News_, vol.
+  xxxii. p. 249, and August 3, 1905; _Gluckauf_, September 28, 1901, and
+  July 5, 1902; _Österr. Zeitschr. f. Berg- u. Hüttenwesen_, May 18, 25,
+  1901, April 18, 1903 and November, 18, 1905; _Annales des mines_, vol.
+  xviii. pp. 217-248.     (R. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+BLAUBEUREN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, 12 m. W.
+of Ulm, with which it is connected by railway. Pop. (1900) 3114. It is
+romantically situated in a wild and deep valley of the Swabian Alps at
+an altitude of 1600 ft. and is partly surrounded by ancient walls. Of
+the three churches (two Evangelical and one Roman Catholic) the most
+remarkable is the abbey church (_Klosterkirche_), a late Gothic building
+dating from 1465-1496, the choir of which contains beautiful 15th
+century carved choir-stalls and a fine high altar with a triptych
+(1496). The choir only is used for service (Protestant), the nave being
+used as a gymnasium. The town church (_Stadtkirche_) also has a fine
+altar with triptych. The Benedictine abbey, founded in 1095, was used
+after the Reformation as a school, and is now an Evangelical theological
+seminary. There are two hospitals in the town.
+
+
+
+
+BLAVATSKY, HELENA PETROVNA (1831-1891), Russian theosophist, was born at
+Ekaterinoslav, on the 31st of July (O.S.) 1831, the daughter of Colonel
+Peter Hahn, a member of a Mecklenburg family, settled in Russia. She
+married in her seventeenth year a man very much her senior, Nicephore
+Blavatsky, a Russian official in Caucasia, from whom she was separated
+after a few months; in later days, when seeking to invest herself with a
+halo of virginity, she described the marriage as a nominal one. During
+the next twenty years Mme Blavatsky appears to have travelled widely in
+Canada, Texas, Mexico and India, with two attempts on Tibet. In one of
+these she seems to have crossed the frontier alone in disguise, been
+lost in the desert, and, after many adventures, been conducted back by a
+party of horsemen. The years from 1848 to 1858 were alluded to
+subsequently as "the veiled period" of her life, and she spoke vaguely
+of a seven years' sojourn in "Little and Great Tibet," or preferably of
+a "Himalayan retreat." In 1858 she revisited Russia, where she created a
+sensation as a spiritualistic medium. About 1870 she acquired
+prominence among the spiritualists of the United States, where she
+lived for six years, becoming a naturalized citizen. Her leisure was
+occupied with the study of occult and kabbalistic literature, to which
+she soon added that of the sacred writings of India, through the medium
+of translations. In 1875 she conceived the plan of combining the
+spiritualistic "control" with the Buddhistic legends about Tibetan
+sages. Henceforth she determined to exclude all control save that of two
+Tibetan adepts or "mahatmas." The mahatmas exhibited their "astral
+bodies" to her, "precipitated" messages which reached her from the
+confines of Tibet in an instant of time, supplied her with sound
+doctrine, and incited her to perform tricks for the conversion of
+sceptics. At New York, on the 17th of November 1875, with the aid of
+Colonel Henry S. Olcott, she founded the "Theosophical Society" with the
+object of (1) forming a universal brotherhood of man, (2) studying and
+making known the ancient religions, philosophies and sciences, (3)
+investigating the laws of nature and developing the divine powers latent
+in man. The Brahmanic and Buddhistic literature supplied the society
+with its terminology, and its doctrines were a curious amalgam of
+Egyptian, kabbalistic, occultist, Indian and modern spiritualistic ideas
+and formulas. Mme Blavatsky's principal books were _Isis Unveiled_ (New
+York, 1877), _The Secret Doctrine, the Synthesis of Science, Religion
+and Philosophy_ (1888), _The Key to Theosophy_ (1891). The two first of
+these are a mosaic of unacknowledged quotations from such books as
+K.R.H. Mackenzie's _Royal Masonic Encyclopaedia_, C.W. King's
+_Gnostics_, Zeller's _Plato_, the works on magic by Dunlop, E. Salverte,
+Joseph Ennemoser, and Des Mousseaux, and the mystical writings of
+Eliphas Levi (L.A. Constant). _A Glossary of Theosophical Terms_
+(1890-1892) was compiled for the benefit of her disciples. But the
+appearance of Home's _Lights and Shadows of Spiritualism_ (1877) had a
+prejudicial effect upon the propaganda, and Heliona P. Blavatsky (as she
+began to style herself) retired to India. Thence she contributed some
+clever papers, "From the Caves and Jungles of Hindostan" (published
+separately in English, London, 1892) to the _Russky Vyestnik_. Defeated
+in her object of obtaining employment in the Russian secret service, she
+resumed her efforts to gain converts to theosophy. For this purpose the
+exhibition of "physical phenomena" was found necessary. Her jugglery was
+cleverly conceived, but on three occasions was exposed in the most
+conclusive manner. Nevertheless, her cleverness, volubility, energy and
+will-power enabled her to maintain her ground, and when she died on the
+8th of May 1891 (White Lotus Day), at the theosophical headquarters in
+the Avenue Road, London, she was the acknowledged head of a community
+numbering not far short of 100,000, with journalistic organs in London,
+Paris, New York and Madras.
+
+  Much information respecting her will be found in V.S. Solovyov's
+  _Modern Priestess of Isis_, translated by Walter Leaf (1895), in
+  Arthur Lillie's _Madame Blavatsky and Her Theosophy_ (1895), and in
+  the report made to the Society for Psychical Research by the Cambridge
+  graduate despatched to investigate her doings in India. See also the
+  article THEOSOPHY.
+
+
+
+
+BLAYDES, FREDERICK HENRY MARVELL (1818-1908), English classical scholar,
+was born at Hampton Court Green, on the 29th of September 1818, being a
+collateral descendant of Andrew Marvell, the satirist and friend of
+Milton. He was educated at St Peter's school, York, and Christ Church,
+Oxford. He was Hertford scholar in 1838, took a second class in literae
+humaniores in 1840, and was subsequently elected to a studentship at
+Christ Church. In 1842 he took orders, and from 1843 to 1886 was vicar
+of Harringworth in Northamptonshire. During a long life he devoted
+himself almost entirely to the study of the Greek dramatists. His
+editions and philological papers are remarkable for bold conjectural
+emendations of corrupt (and other) passages. His distinction was
+recognized by his being made an honorary LL.D. of Dublin, Ph.D. of the
+university of Buda Pest and a fellow of the royal society of letters at
+Athens. He died at Southsea on the 7th of September 1908.
+
+  His works include:--Aristophanes: _Comedies and Fragments_, with
+  critical notes and commentary (1880-1893); _Clouds, Knights, Frogs,
+  Wasps_ (1873-1878); _Opera Omnia_, with critical notes (1886);
+  Sophocles; _Oedipus Coloneus, Oedipus Tyrannus_ and _Antigone_ (in
+  the Bibliotheca Classica, 1859); _Philoctetes_ (1870), _Trachiniae_
+  (1871), _Electra_ (1873), _Ajax_ (1875), _Antigone_ (1005); Aeschylus:
+  _Agamemnon_ (1898), _Choephori_ (1899), _Eumenides_ (1900),
+  _Adversaria Critica in Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta_ (1890); _in
+  Tragicorum Graec. Frag._ (1894), _in Aeschylum_ (1895), _in Varios
+  Poetas Graecos et Latinos_ (1898), _in Aristophanem_ (1899), _in
+  Sophoclem_ (1899), _in Euripidem_ (1901), _in Herodotum_ (1901);
+  _Analecta Comica Graeca_ (1905); _Analecta Tragica Graeca_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+BLAYDON, an urban district in the Chester-le-Street parliamentary
+division of Durham, England, on the Tyne, 4 m. W. of Newcastle by a
+branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1881) 10,687; (1901) 19,617.
+The chief industries are coal-mining, iron-founding, pipe, fire-brick,
+chemical manure and bottle manufactures. In the vicinity is the
+beautiful old mansion of Stella, and below it Stellaheugh, to which the
+victorious Scottish army crossed from Newburn on the Northumberland bank
+in 1640, after which they occupied Newcastle.
+
+
+
+
+BLAYE-ET-STE LUCE, a town of south-western France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Gironde, on the right bank of the
+Gironde (here over 2 m. wide), 35 m. N. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906)
+of the town, 3423; of the commune, 4890. The town has a citadel built by
+Vauban on a rock beside the river, and embracing in its enceinte ruins
+of an old Gothic château. The latter contains the tomb of Caribert, king
+of Toulouse, and son of Clotaire II. Blaye is also defended by the Fort
+Pâté on an island in the river and the Fort Médoc on its left bank, both
+of the 17th century. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has
+tribunals of first instance and of commerce and a communal college. It
+has a small river-port, and carries on trade in wine, brandy, grain,
+fruit and timber. The industries include the building of small vessels,
+distilling, flour-milling, and the manufacture of oil and candles. Fine
+red wine is produced in the district.
+
+In ancient times Blaye (_Blavia_) was a port of the Santones. Tradition
+states that the hero Roland was buried in its basilica, which was on the
+site of the citadel. It was early an important stronghold which played
+an important part in the wars against the English and the Religious
+Wars. The duchess of Berry was imprisoned in its fortress in 1832-1833.
+
+
+
+
+BLAZE (A.-S. _blaese_, a torch), a fire or bright flame; more nearly
+akin to the Ger. _blass_, pale or shining white, is the use of the word
+for the white mark on the face of a horse or cow, and the American use
+for a mark made on a tree by cutting off a piece of the bark. The word
+"to blaze," in the sense of to noise abroad, comes from the A.-S.
+_blaesan_, to blow, cf. the Ger. _blasen_; in sense, if not in origin,
+it is confused with "blazon" in heraldry.
+
+
+
+
+BLAZON, a heraldic shield, a coat of arms properly "described" according
+to the rules of heraldry, hence a proper heraldic description of such a
+coat. The O. Fr. _blason_ seems originally to have meant simply a shield
+as a means of defence and not a shield-shaped surface for the display of
+armorial bearings, but this is difficult to reconcile with the generally
+accepted derivation from the Ger. _blasen_, to blow, proclaim, English
+"blaze," to noise abroad, to declare. In the 16th century the heraldic
+term, and "blaze" and "blazon" in the sense of proclaim, had much
+influence on each other.
+
+
+
+
+BLEACHING, the process of whitening or depriving objects of colour, an
+operation incessantly in activity in nature by the influence of light,
+air and moisture. The art of bleaching, of which we have here to treat,
+consists in inducing the rapid operation of whitening agencies, and as
+an industry it is mostly directed to cotton, linen, silk, wool and other
+textile fibres, but it is also applied to the whitening of paper-pulp,
+bees'-wax and some oils and other substances. The term bleaching is
+derived from the A.-S. _blaecan_, to bleach, or to fade, from which also
+comes the cognate German word _bleichen_, to whiten or render pale.
+Bleachers, down to the end of the 18th century, were known in England as
+"whitsters," a name obviously derived from the nature of their calling.
+
+The operation of bleaching must from its very nature be of the same
+antiquity as the work of washing textures of linen, cotton or other
+vegetable fibres. Clothing repeatedly washed, and exposed in the open
+air to dry, gradually assumes a whiter and whiter hue, and our ancestors
+cannot have failed to notice and take advantage of this fact. Scarcely
+anything is known with certainty of the art of bleaching as practised by
+the nations of antiquity. Egypt in early ages was the great centre of
+textile manufactures, and her white and coloured linens were in high
+repute among contemporary nations. As a uniformly well-bleached basis is
+necessary for the production of a satisfactory dye on cloth, it may be
+assumed that the Egyptians were fairly proficient in bleaching, and that
+still more so were the Phoenicians with their brilliant and famous
+purple dyes. We learn, from Pliny, that different plants, and likewise
+the ashes of plants, which no doubt contained alkali, were employed as
+detergents. He mentions particularly the _Struthium_ as much used for
+bleaching in Greece, a plant which has been identified by some with
+_Gypsophila Struthium_. But as it does not appear from John Sibthorp's
+_Flora Graeca_, edited by Sir James Smith, that this species is a native
+of Greece, Dr Sibthorp's conjecture that the _Struthium_ of the ancients
+was the _Saponaria officinalis_, a plant common in Greece, is certainly
+more probable.
+
+In modern times, down to the middle of the 18th century, the Dutch
+possessed almost a monopoly of the bleaching trade although we find
+mention of bleach-works at Southwark near London as early as the middle
+of the 17th century. It was customary to send all the brown linen, then
+largely manufactured in Scotland, to Holland to be bleached. It was sent
+away in the month of March, and not returned till the end of October,
+being thus out of the hands of the merchant more than half a year.
+
+The Dutch mode of bleaching, which was mostly conducted in the
+neighbourhood of Haarlem, was to steep the linen first in a waste lye,
+and then for about a week in a potash lye poured over it boiling hot.
+The cloth being taken out of this lye and washed, was next put into
+wooden vessels containing buttermilk, in which it lay under a pressure
+for five or six days. After this it was spread upon the grass, and kept
+wet for several months, exposed to the sunshine of summer.
+
+In 1728 James Adair from Belfast proposed to the Scottish Board of
+Manufactures to establish a bleachfield in Galloway; this proposal the
+board approved of, and in the same year resolved to devote £2000 as
+premiums for the establishment of bleachfields throughout the country.
+In 1732 a method of bleaching with kelp, introduced by R. Holden, also
+from Ireland, was submitted to the board; and with their assistance
+Holden established a bleachfield for prosecuting his process at
+Pitkerro, near Dundee.
+
+The bleaching process, as at that time performed, was very tedious,
+occupying a complete summer. It consisted in steeping the cloth in
+alkaline lyes for several days, washing it clean, and spreading it upon
+the grass for some weeks. The steeping in alkaline lyes, called
+_bucking_, and the bleaching on the grass, called _crofting_, were
+repeated alternately for five or six times. The cloth was then steeped
+for some days in sour milk, washed clean and crofted. These processes
+were repeated, diminishing every time the strength of the alkaline lye,
+till the linen had acquired the requisite whiteness.
+
+For the first improvement in this tedious process, which was faithfully
+copied from the Dutch bleachfields, manufacturers were indebted to Dr
+Francis Home of Edinburgh, to whom the Board of Trustees paid £100 for
+his experiments in bleaching. He proposed to substitute water acidulated
+with sulphuric acid for the sour milk previously employed, a suggestion
+made in consequence of the new mode of preparing sulphuric acid,
+contrived some time before by Dr John Roebuck, which reduced the price
+of that acid to less than one-third of what it had formerly been. When
+this change was first adopted by the bleachers, there was the same
+outcry against its corrosive effects as arose when chlorine was
+substituted for crofting. A great advantage was found to result from the
+use of sulphuric acid, which was that a souring with sulphuric acid
+required at the longest only twenty-four hours, and often not more than
+twelve; whereas, when sour milk was employed, six weeks, or even two
+months, were requisite, according to the state of the weather. In
+consequence of this improvement, the process of bleaching was shortened
+from eight months to four, which enabled the merchant to dispose of his
+goods so much the sooner, and consequently to trade with less capital.
+
+No further modification of consequence was introduced in the art till
+the year 1787, when a most important change was initiated by the use of
+chlorine (q.v.), an element which had been discovered by C.W. Scheele in
+Sweden about thirteen years before. The discovery that this gas
+possesses the property of destroying vegetable colours, led Berthollet
+to suspect that it might be introduced with advantage into the art of
+bleaching, and that it would enable practical bleachers greatly to
+shorten their processes. In a paper on chlorine or oxygenated muriatic
+acid, read before the Academy of Sciences at Paris in April 1785, and
+published in the _Journal de Physique_ for May of the same year (vol.
+xxvi. p. 325), he mentions that he had tried the effect of the gas in
+bleaching cloth, and found that it answered perfectly. This idea is
+still further developed in a paper on the same substance, published in
+the _Journal de Physique_ for 1786. In 1786 he exhibited the experiment
+to James Watt, who, immediately upon his return to England, commenced a
+practical examination of the subject, and was accordingly the person who
+first introduced the new method of bleaching into Great Britain. We find
+from Watt's own testimony that chlorine was practically employed in the
+bleachfield of his father-in-law, Mr Macgregor, in the neighbourhood of
+Glasgow, in March 1787. Shortly thereafter the method was introduced at
+Aberdeen by Messrs Gordon, Barron & Co., on information received from De
+Saussure through Professor Patrick Copland of Aberdeen. Thomas Henry of
+Manchester was the first to bleach with chlorine in the Lancashire
+district, and to his independent investigations several of the early
+improvements in the application of the material were due.
+
+In these early experiments, the bleacher had to make his own chlorine
+and the goods were bleached either by exposing them in chambers to the
+action of the gas or by steeping them in its aqueous solution. If we
+consider the inconveniences which must have arisen in working with such
+a pungent substance as free chlorine, with its detrimental effect on the
+health of the work-people, it will be readily understood that the
+process did not at first meet with any great amount of success. The
+first important improvement was the introduction in 1792 of _eau de
+Javel_, which was prepared at the Javel works near Paris by absorbing
+chlorine in a solution of potash (1 part) in water (8 parts) until
+effervescence began. The greatest impetus to the bleaching industry was,
+however, given by the introduction in 1799 of chloride of lime, or
+bleaching-powder, by Charles Tennant of Glasgow, whereby the bleacher
+was supplied with a reagent in solid form which contained up to
+one-third of its weight of available chlorine. Latterly frequent
+attempts have been made to replace bleaching-powder by hypochlorite of
+soda, which is prepared by the bleacher as required, by the electrolytic
+decomposition of a solution of common salt in specially constructed
+cells, but up to the present this mode of procedure has met with only a
+limited success (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE).
+
+
+_Bleaching of Cotton._
+
+Cotton is bleached in the raw state, as yarn and in the piece. In the
+raw state, and as yarn, the only impurities present are those which are
+naturally contained in the fibres and which include cotton wax, fatty
+acids, pectic substances, colouring matters, albuminoids and mineral
+matter, amounting in all to some 5% of the weight of the material. Both
+in the raw state and in the manufactured condition cotton also contains
+small black particles which adhere firmly to the material and are
+technically known as "motes." These consist of fragments of the cotton
+seed husk, which cannot be completely removed by mechanical means. The
+bleaching of cotton pieces is more complicated, since the bleacher is
+called upon to remove the sizing materials with which the manufacturer
+strengthens the warp before weaving (see below).
+
+In principle, the bleaching of cotton is a comparatively simple process
+in which three main operations are involved, viz. (1) boiling with an
+alkali; (2) bleaching the organic colouring matters by means of a
+hypochlorite or some other oxidizing agent; (3) souring, i.e. treating
+with weak hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. For loose cotton and yarn
+these three operations are sufficient, but for piece goods a larger
+number of operations is usually necessary in order to obtain a
+satisfactory result.
+
+  _Loose Cotton._--The bleaching of loose or raw cotton previous to
+  spinning is only carried out to a very limited extent, and consists
+  essentially in first steeping the material in a warm solution of soda
+  for some hours, after which it is washed and treated with a solution
+  of bleaching powder or sodium hypochlorite. It is then again washed,
+  soured with weak sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, and ultimately washed
+  free from acid. Careful treatment is necessary in order to avoid any
+  undue matting of the fibres, while any drastic treatment, such as
+  heating with caustic soda and soap, as used for other cotton
+  materials, cannot be employed, since the natural wax would thereby be
+  removed, and this would detract from the spinning qualities of the
+  fibre. In case the cotton is not intended to be spun, but is to serve
+  for cotton wool or for the manufacture of gun cotton, more drastic
+  treatment can be employed, and is, in fact, desirable. Thus, cotton
+  waste is first extracted with petroleum spirit or some other suitable
+  solvent, in order to remove any mineral oil or grease which may be
+  present. It is then boiled with dilute caustic soda and resin soap,
+  washed, bleached white with bleaching-powder, washed, soured and
+  finally washed free from acid. In these operations, a certain amount
+  of matting is unavoidable, and it is consequently necessary to open
+  out the material after drying, in scutchers.
+
+  _Cotton Yarn._--Cotton yarn is bleached in the form of cops, hanks or
+  warps. In principle the processes employed are the same in each case,
+  but the machinery necessarily differs. Most yarn is bleached in the
+  hank, and it will suffice to give an account of this process only. The
+  sequence of operations is the same as in the bleaching of cotton
+  waste, and these can be conducted for small lots in an ordinary
+  rectangular wooden vat as used in dyeing, in which the yarn is
+  suspended in the liquor from poles which rest with their ends on the
+  two longer sides of the vat. For bleaching yarn in bulk, however, this
+  mode of procedure would involve so much manual labour that the process
+  would become too expensive. It is, therefore, mainly with the object
+  of economy that machinery has been introduced, by means of which large
+  quantities can be dealt with at a time.
+
+  The first operation, viz. that of boiling in alkali, is carried out in
+  a "kier," a large, egg-ended, upright cylindrical vessel, constructed
+  of boiler-plate and capable of treating from one to three tons of yarn
+  at a time. In construction, the kiers used for yarn bleaching are
+  similar in construction to those used for pieces (see below). The yarn
+  to be bleached is evenly packed in the kier, and is then boiled by
+  means of steam with the alkaline lye (3-4% of soda ash or 2% caustic
+  soda on the weight of the cotton being usually employed) for periods
+  varying from six to twelve hours. It is essential that a thorough
+  circulation of the liquor should be maintained during the boiling, and
+  this is effected either by means of a steam injector, or in other
+  ways. As a rule low pressure kiers (working up to 10 lb. pressure) are
+  employed for yarn bleaching, though some bleachers prefer to use high
+  pressure kiers for the purpose.
+
+  When the boiling has continued for the requisite time (6-8 hours), the
+  steam is shut off, and the kier liquor blown off, when the yarn is
+  washed in the kier by filling the latter with water and then running
+  off, this operation being repeated two or three times. The hanks are
+  now transferred to a stone cistern provided with a false bottom, from
+  beneath which a pipe connects the cistern with a well situated below
+  the floor line. The well contains a solution of bleaching-powder,
+  usually of 2° Tw. strength, and this is drawn up by means of a
+  centrifugal brass pump and showered over the top of the goods through
+  a perforated wooden tray, passing then by gravitation through the
+  goods back into the well. The circulation is maintained for one and a
+  half to two hours, when the yarn will be found to be white. The
+  bleaching-powder solution is now allowed to drain off, and water is
+  circulated through the cistern to wash out what bleaching powder
+  remains in the goods. The souring is next carried out either in the
+  same or in a separate cistern by circulating hydrochloric or sulphuric
+  acid of 2° Tw. for about half an hour. This is also allowed to drain,
+  and the yarn is thoroughly washed to remove all acid, when it is taken
+  out and wrung or hydroextracted. At this stage the yarn may be dyed in
+  light or bright shades without further treatment, but if it is to be
+  sold as white yarn, it is blued. The blueing may either be effected by
+  dyeing or tinting with a colouring matter like Victoria blue 4R or
+  acid violet, or by treatment in wash stocks with a suspension of
+  ultramarine in weak soap until the colour is uniformly distributed
+  throughout the material. The yarn is now straightened out and dried.
+
+  The bleaching of cotton yarn is a very straightforward process, and it
+  is very seldom that either complications or faults arise, providing
+  that reasonable care and supervision are exercised.
+
+  The _raison d'être_ of the various operations is comparatively simple.
+  The effect of boiling with alkali is to remove the pectic acid, the
+  fatty acids, part of the cotton wax and the bulk of the colouring
+  matter, while the albuminoids are destroyed and the motes swelled up.
+  If soap be used along with the alkali, the whole of the wax is removed
+  by emulsification. In the operation of bleaching proper, the calcium
+  hypochlorite of the chloride of lime through coming into contact with
+  the carbonic acid of the atmosphere suffers decomposition according to
+  the equation, Ca(OCl)2 + CO2 + H2O -> CaCO3 + 2HOCl, and the
+  hypochlorous acid thus liberated destroys the colouring matter still
+  remaining from the first operation, by oxidation. At the same time the
+  motes which were swelled up by the alkali are broken up into small
+  fragments and are thus removed. In the operation of souring, the lime
+  which has been deposited on the fibres during the treatment with
+  bleaching powder is dissolved, while at the same time any other
+  metallic oxides (iron, copper, &c.) are removed.
+
+  _Cotton Pieces._--By far the largest bulk of cotton is bleached in the
+  piece, as it can be more conveniently and more economically dealt with
+  in this form than in any other. Though similar in principle to yarn
+  bleaching, the process of piece bleaching is somewhat more complex
+  because the pieces contain in addition to the natural impurities of
+  the cotton a considerable amount of foreign matter in the form of size
+  which has been incorporated with the warp before weaving, with the
+  object of strengthening it. This size consists essentially of starch
+  (farina), with additions of tallow, zinc chloride, and occasionally
+  other substances such as paraffin wax, magnesium chloride, soap, &c.,
+  all of which must be removed if a perfect bleach is to result.
+  Besides, mineral oil stains from the machinery of the weaving-shed are
+  of common occurrence in piece goods.
+
+  Cotton pieces are bleached either for whites, for prints or for dyed
+  goods. The processes employed for these different classes vary but
+  slightly and only in detail. The most drastic bleach is that required
+  for goods which are subsequently to be printed. For dyed goods, the
+  main object is not so much to obtain a perfect white as to remove any
+  impurities which might interfere with the dyeing, while avoiding the
+  formation of any oxycellulose. In bleaching for whites ("market
+  bleaching") it is essential that the white should be as perfect as
+  possible, and such goods are consequently invariably blued after
+  bleaching.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Section of a Dash-wheel.]
+
+  For small lots (1-20 pieces) the bleaching can be conducted on very
+  simple machinery. Thus many small piece dyers conduct the whole of
+  their bleaching on the jigger, a simple form of dyeing machine on
+  which most cotton piece goods are dyed (see DYEING). For muslins,
+  laces and other very light fabrics, which will not stand rough
+  handling, the operations are conducted mainly by hand, washing being
+  effected in the dash-wheel (fig. 1), which consists of a cylindrical
+  box, revolving on its axis. It has four divisions, as shown by the
+  dotted lines, and an opening into each division. A number of pieces
+  are put into each, abundance of water is admitted behind, and the
+  knocking of the pieces as they alternately dash from one side of the
+  division to the other during the revolution of the wheel effects the
+  washing. The process lasts from four to six minutes.
+
+  For velveteens, corduroys, heavy drills, pocketings and other fabrics
+  in which creasing has to be avoided as much as possible, the so-called
+  "open bleach" is resorted to, which differs from the ordinary process
+  chiefly in that the goods are treated throughout at full width.
+
+  The great bulk of cotton pieces is bleached in rope form, i.e.
+  stitched together end to end and laterally collapsed, so that they
+  will pass through a ring of 4 to 5 in. in diameter.
+
+  The first operation which the goods undergo on arriving in the
+  grey-room of the bleachworks is that of stamping with tar or some
+  other indelible material in order that they may be identified after
+  passing through the whole process. They are then stitched together end
+  to end by means of special sewing machines, the stitch being of such a
+  nature (chain stitch) that the thread can be ripped out at one pull at
+  the end of the operations.
+
+  _Singeing._--In the condition in which the pieces leave the loom and
+  come into the hands of the bleacher, the surface of the fabric is seen
+  to be covered with a _nap_ of projecting fibres which gives it a downy
+  appearance. For some classes of goods this is not a disadvantage, but
+  in the majority of cases, especially for prints where a clean surface
+  is essential, the nap is removed before bleaching. This is usually
+  effected by running the pieces at full width over a couple of arched
+  copper plates heated to a full red heat by direct fire. An arrangement
+  of the kind is shown in fig. 2, in which the singe-plates, a and b,
+  are mounted over the flues of a coal fire. The plate b is most highly
+  heated, a being at the end of the flue farthest removed from the
+  fire. The cloth enters over a rail A, and in passing over the plate a
+  is thoroughly dried and prepared for the singeing it receives when it
+  comes to the highly-heated plate b. A block d, carrying two rails in
+  the space between the plates, can be raised or lowered so as to
+  increase or lessen the pressure of the cloth against the plates, or,
+  if necessary, to lift it quite free of contact with them.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of Singe-stove.]
+
+  The pieces on leaving the singeing machine are passed either through a
+  water trough or through a steam box with the object of extinguishing
+  sparks, and are then plaited down. The speed at which the pieces
+  travel over the singe plates is necessarily considerable and varies
+  with different classes of material.[1]
+
+  In lieu of plates, a cast-iron cylinder is sometimes employed ("roller
+  singeing"), the heating being effected by causing the flame of the
+  fire to be drawn through the roller, which is carried on two small
+  rollers at each end and revolves slowly in the reverse direction to
+  that followed by the piece, thus exposing continuously a freshly
+  heated surface and avoiding uneven cooling.
+
+  For figured pieces which have an uneven surface, it is obvious that
+  plate or roller singeing would only affect the portions which project
+  most, leaving the rest untouched. For such goods, "gas singeing" is
+  employed, which consists in running the pieces over a non-luminous gas
+  flame, the breadth of which slightly exceeds that of the piece, or in
+  drawing the flame right through the piece.[2] The construction of an
+  ordinary gas singeing apparatus is seen in section in fig. 3. Coal gas
+  mixed with air is sent under pressure through pipe a into the burners
+  b, b, where the mixture burns with an intense heat. The cloth travels
+  in the direction of the arrows, and in passing over the small nap
+  rollers c comes into contact with the flame four times in succession
+  before leaving the machine.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Gas Singeing Apparatus.]
+
+  Gas singeing is also used for plain goods, and being cleaner and under
+  better control has largely replaced plate singeing.
+
+  At this stage the goods which have been browned on the surface by
+  singeing are ready for the bleaching operations. A great many
+  innovations have been introduced in recent years in the bleaching of
+  calico, but although it is generally admitted that in point of view of
+  time and economy many of these processes offer considerable
+  advantages, the old process, in which a lime boil precedes the other
+  operations, is still the one which is most largely employed by
+  bleachers in England. In this, the sequence of operations is the
+  following--
+
+  _Grey Washing._--This operation (which is sometimes omitted) simply
+  consists in running the pieces through an ordinary washing machine (as
+  shown in fig. 5) through water in order to wet them out. On leaving
+  the machine they are piled in a heap and left over night, when
+  fermentation sets in, which results in the starch being to a large
+  extent hydrolysed and rendered soluble in water.
+
+  _Lime Boil._--In this operation, which is also known as _bowking_
+  (Ger. _beuchen_), the pieces are first run through milk of lime
+  contained in an ordinary washing machine and of such a strength that
+  they take up about 4% of their weight of lime (CaO). They are then run
+  over winches and guided through smooth porcelain rings ("pot-eyes")
+  into the kier, where they are evenly packed by boys who enter the
+  vessel through the manhole at the top. It is of the greatest
+  importance that the goods should be evenly packed, for, if channels or
+  loosely-packed places are left, the liquor circulating through the
+  kier, when boiling is subsequently in progress, will follow the line
+  of least resistance, and the result is an uneven treatment. Of the
+  numerous forms of kier in use, the injector kier is the one most
+  generally adopted. This consists of an egg-ended cylindrical vessel
+  constructed of stout boiler plate and shown in sectional elevation in
+  fig. 4. The kier is from 10 to 12 ft. in height and from 6 to 7 ft. in
+  diameter, and stands on three iron legs riveted to the sides, but not
+  shown in the figure. The bottom exit pipe E is covered with a
+  shield-shaped false bottom of boiler plate, or (and this is more
+  usual) the whole bottom of the kier is covered with large rounded
+  stones from the river bed, the object in either case being simply to
+  provide space for the accumulation of liquor and to prevent the pipe E
+  being blocked. The cloth is evenly packed up to within about 3 to 4
+  ft. of the manholes M, when lime water is run in through the liquor
+  pipe until the level of the liquid reaches within about 2 ft. of the
+  top of the goods. The manholes are now closed, and steam is turned on
+  at the injector J by opening the valve v. The effect of this is to
+  suck the liquor through E, and to force it up through pipe P into the
+  top of the kier, where it dashes against the umbrella-shaped shield U
+  and is distributed over the pieces, through which it percolates, until
+  on arriving at E it is again carried to the top of the kier, a
+  continuous circulation being thus effected. As the circulation
+  proceeds, the steam condensing in the liquor rapidly heats the latter
+  to the boil, and as soon as, in the opinion of the foreman, all air
+  has been expelled, the blow-through tap is closed and the boiling is
+  continued for periods varying from six to twelve hours under 20-60 lb.
+  pressure. Steam is now turned off, and by opening the valve V the
+  liquor, which is of a dark-brown colour, is forced out by the pressure
+  of the steam it contains.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 4.--High Pressure Blow-through Kier.]
+
+  The pieces are now run through a continuous washing machine, which is
+  provided with a plentiful supply of water. The machine, which is shown
+  in fig. 5, consists essentially of a wooden vat, over which there is a
+  pair of heavy wooden (sycamore) bowls or squeezers. The pieces enter
+  the machine at each end, as indicated by the arrows, and pass rapidly
+  through the bowls down to the bottom of the vat over a loose roller,
+  thence between the first pair of guide pegs through the bowls again,
+  and travel thus in a spiral direction until they arrive at the middle
+  of the machine, when they leave at the side opposite to that on which
+  they entered. The same type of machine is used for liming, chemicking,
+  and souring.
+
+  The next operation is the "grey sour," in which the goods are run
+  through a washing machine containing hydrochloric acid of 2° Tw.
+  strength, with the object of dissolving out the lime which the goods
+  retain in considerable quantity after the lime boil. The goods are
+  then well washed, and are now boiled again in the ash bowking kier,
+  which is similar in construction to the lime kier, with soda ash (3%)
+  and a solution of rosin (1½%) in caustic soda (1¼%) for eight to ten
+  hours. For white bleaching the rosin soap is omitted, soda ash alone
+  being employed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 5.--Roller Washing Machine.]
+
+  The pieces are now washed free from alkali and the bleaching proper or
+  "chemicking" follows. This operation may be effected in various ways,
+  but the most efficient is to run the goods in a washing machine
+  through bleaching powder solution at ½°-1° Tw., and allow them to lie
+  loosely piled over night, or in some cases for a longer period. They
+  are now washed, run through dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid at
+  2° Tw. ("white sour") and washed again. Should the white not appear
+  satisfactory at this stage (and this is usually the case with very
+  heavy or dense materials), they are boiled again in soda ash,
+  chemicked with bleaching powder at 1/8° Tw. or even weaker, soured
+  and washed. It is of the utmost importance that the final washing
+  should be as thorough as possible, in order to completely remove the
+  acid, for if only small quantities of the latter are left in the
+  goods, they are liable to become tender in the subsequent drying,
+  through formation of hydrocellulose.
+
+  The modern processes of bleaching cotton pieces differ from the one
+  described above, chiefly in that the lime boil is entirely dispensed
+  with, its place being taken by a treatment in the kier with caustic
+  soda (or a mixture of caustic soda and soda ash) and resin soap. The
+  best known and probably the most widely practised of these processes
+  is one which was worked out by the late M. Horace Koechlin in
+  conjunction with Sir William Mather, and this differs from the old
+  process not only in the sequence of the operations but also in the
+  construction of the kier. This consists of a horizontal egg-ended
+  cylinder, and is shown in transverse and longitudinal sections in
+  figs. 6 and 7. One of the ends E constitutes a door which can be
+  raised or lowered by means of the power-driven chain C. The goods to
+  be bleached are packed in wagons W outside the kier, and when filled
+  these are pushed home into the kier, so that the pipes p fit with
+  their flanges on to the fixed pipes at the bottom of the kier. The
+  heating is effected by means of steam pipes at the lowest extremity of
+  the kier, while the circulation of the liquor is brought about by
+  means of the centrifugal pump P, which draws the liquor through the
+  pipes p from beneath the false bottoms of the wagons and showers it
+  over distributors D on to the goods. By this mode of working a
+  considerable economy is effected in point of time, as the kier can be
+  worked almost continuously; for as soon as one lot of goods has been
+  boiled, the wagons are run out and two freshly-packed wagons take
+  their place. The following is the sequence of operations:--The goods
+  are first steeped over night in dilute sulphuric acid, after which
+  they are washed and run through old kier liquor from a previous
+  operation. They are then packed evenly in the wagons which are pushed
+  into the kier, and, the door having been closed, they are boiled for
+  about eight hours at 7-15 lb. pressure with a liquor containing soda
+  ash, caustic soda, resin soap and a small quantity of sulphite of
+  soda. The rest of the operations (chemicking, souring and washing) are
+  the same as in the old process.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Mather Kier, cross section.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--The Mather Kier, longitudinal section.]
+
+  A somewhat different principle is involved in the Thies-Herzig
+  process. In this the kier is vertical, and the circulation of the
+  liquor is effected by means of a centrifugal or other form of pump,
+  while the heating of the liquor is brought about outside the kier in a
+  separate vessel between the pump and the kier by means of indirect
+  steam. The sequence of operations is similar to that adopted in the
+  Mather-Koechlin process, differing chiefly from the latter in the
+  first operation, which consists in running the goods, after singeing,
+  through very dilute boiling sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, containing
+  in either case a small proportion of hydrofluoric acid, and then
+  running them through a steam box, the whole operation lasting from
+  twenty to sixty seconds.
+
+  Bleached by any of the above processes, the cloth is next passed over
+  a mechanical contrivance known as a "scutcher," which opens it out
+  from the rope form to its full breadth, and is then dried on a
+  continuous drying machine. Fig. 8 shows the appearance and
+  construction of an improved form of the horizontal drying machine,
+  which is in more common use for piece goods than the vertical form.
+  The machine consists essentially of a series of copper or tinned iron
+  cylinders, which are geared together so as to run at a uniform speed.
+  Steam at 10-15 lb. pressure is admitted through the journalled
+  bearings at one side of the machine, and the condensed water is forced
+  out continuously through the bearings at the other side. The pieces
+  pass in the direction of the arrow (fig. 9) over a scrimp rail or
+  expanding roller round the first cylinder, then in a zigzag direction
+  over all succeeding cylinders, and ultimately leave the machine dry,
+  being mechanically plaited down at the other end.
+
+  If the bleaching process has been properly conducted, the pieces
+  should not only show a uniform pure white colour, but their strength
+  should remain unimpaired. Careful experiments conducted by the late
+  Mr. Charles O'Neill showed in fact that carefully bleached cotton may
+  actually be stronger than in the unbleached condition, and this result
+  has since been corroborated by others. Excessive blueing, which is
+  frequently resorted to in order to cover the defects of imperfect
+  bleaching, can readily be detected by washing a sample of the material
+  in water, or, better still, in water containing a little ammonia, and
+  then comparing with the original. The formation of oxycellulose during
+  the bleaching process may either take place in boiling under pressure
+  with lime or caustic soda in consequence of the presence of air in the
+  kier, or through excessive action of bleaching powder, which may
+  either result from the latter not being properly dissolved or being
+  used too strong. Its detection may be effected by dyeing a sample of
+  the bleached cotton in a cold, very dilute solution of methylene blue
+  for about ten minutes, when any portions of the fabric in which the
+  cellulose has been converted into oxycellulose will assume a darker
+  colour than the rest. The depth of the colour is at the same time an
+  indication of the extent to which such conversion has taken place.
+  Most bleached cotton contains some oxycellulose, but as long as the
+  formation has not proceeded far enough to cause tendering, its
+  presence is of no importance in white goods. If, on the other hand,
+  the cotton has to be subsequently dyed with direct cotton colours (see
+  DYEING), the presence of oxycellulose may result in uneven dyeing.
+  Tendering of the pieces, due to insufficient washing after the final
+  souring operation, is a common defect in bleached goods. As a rule the
+  free acid can be detected by extracting the tendered material with
+  distilled water and adding to the extract a drop of methyl orange
+  solution, when the latter will turn pink if free acid be present.
+  Other defects which may occur in bleached goods are iron stains,
+  mineral oil stains, and defects due to the addition of paraffin wax in
+  the size.
+
+
+_Bleaching of Linen._
+
+The bleaching of linen is a much more complicated and tedious process
+than the bleaching of cotton. This is due in part to the fact that in
+linen the impurities amount to 20% or more of the weight of the fibre,
+whereas in cotton they do not usually exceed 5%. Furthermore these
+impurities, which include colouring matter, intracellular substances and
+a peculiar wax known as "flax wax," are more difficult to attack than
+those which are present in cotton, and the difficulty is still further
+enhanced in the case of piece goods owing to their dense or impervious
+character.
+
+Till towards the end of the 18th century the bleaching of linen both in
+the north of Ireland and in Scotland was accomplished by bowking in
+cows' dung and souring with sour milk, the pieces being exposed to light
+on the grass between these operations for prolonged periods.
+Subsequently potash and later on soda was substituted for the cows'
+dung, while sour milk was replaced by sulphuric acid. This "natural
+bleach" is still in use in Holland, a higher price being paid for linen
+bleached in this way than for the same material bleached with the aid of
+bleaching powder. In the year 1744 Dr. James Ferguson of Belfast
+received a premium of £300 from the Irish Linen Board for the
+application of lime in the bleaching of linen. Notwithstanding this
+reward, the use of lime in the bleaching of linen was for a long time
+afterwards forbidden in Ireland under statutory penalties, and so late
+as 1815 Mr Barklie, a respectable linen bleacher of Linen Vale, near
+Keady, was "prosecuted for using lime in the whitening of linens in his
+bleachyard."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Mather & Platt's Horizontal Drying Machine.]
+
+The methods at present employed for the bleaching of linen are, except
+in one or two unimportant particulars, the same as were used in the
+middle of the 19th century. In principle they resemble those used in
+cotton bleaching, but require to be frequently repeated, while an
+additional operation, which is a relic of the old-fashioned process,
+viz. that of "grassing" or "crofting," is still essential for the
+production of the finest whites. Considerably more care has to be
+exercised in linen bleaching than is the case with cotton, and the
+process consequently necessitates a greater amount of manual labour. The
+practical result of this is that whereas cotton pieces can be bleached
+and finished in less than a week, linen pieces require at least six
+weeks. Many attempts have naturally been made to shorten and cheapen the
+process, but without success. The use of stronger reagents and more
+drastic treatment, which would at first suggest itself, incurs the risk
+of injury to the fibre, not so much in respect to actual tendering as to
+the destruction of its characteristic gloss, while if too drastic a
+treatment is employed at the beginning the colouring matter is liable to
+become set in the fibre, and it is then almost impossible to remove it.
+Among the many modern improvements which have been suggested, mention
+may be made of the use of hypochlorite of soda in place of bleaching
+powder, the use of oil in the first treatment in alkali (Cross &
+Parkes), while de Keukelaere suggests the use of sodium sulphide for
+this purpose. With the object of dispensing with the operation of
+grassing, which besides necessitating much manual labour is subject to
+the influences of the atmospheric conditions, Siemens & Halske of Berlin
+have suggested exposure of the goods in a chamber to the action of
+electrolytically prepared ozone. Jardin seeks to achieve the same object
+by steeping the linen in dilute nitric acid.
+
+Since the qualities of linen which are submitted to the bleacher vary
+considerably, and the mode of treatment has to be varied accordingly, it
+is not possible to give more than a bare outline of linen bleaching.
+
+  Linen is bleached in the yarn and in the piece. Whenever one of the
+  operations is repeated, the strength of the reagent is successively
+  diminished. In yarn-bleaching the sequence of the operations is about
+  as follows:--(1) Boil in kier with soda ash. (2) Reel in bleaching
+  powder. This operation, which is peculiar to linen bleaching, consists
+  in suspending the hanks from a square roller into bleaching powder
+  solution contained in a shallow stone trough. The roller revolves
+  slowly, so that the hanks, while passing continuously through the
+  bleaching powder, are for the greater part of the time being exposed
+  to the air. (3) Sour in sulphuric acid. (4) Scald in soda ash. (The
+  term "scalding" means boiling in a kier.) (5) Reel in bleaching
+  powder. (6) Sour in sulphuric acid. (7) Scald in soda ash. (8) Dip,
+  i.e. steep in bleaching powder. (9) Sour in sulphuric acid. (10) Scald
+  in soda ash. (11) Dip in bleaching powder. (12) Sour in sulphuric
+  acid. For a full white, two more operations are usually required, viz.
+  (13) scald in soda ash, and (14) dip in bleaching powder. Washing
+  intervenes between all these operations.
+
+  Pieces are not stamped as in the case of cotton, but thread-marked by
+  hand with cotton dyed Turkey red. They are then sewn together end to
+  end, and subjected to the following operations:--
+
+  Boil with lime in kier.
+
+  The pieces are now separated and made up into bundles (except in the
+  case of very light linens, which may pass through the whole of the
+  operations in rope form) and soured with sulphuric acid.
+
+  First lye boil with soda ash and caustic soda.
+
+  Second lye boil. For some classes of goods no less than six lye boils
+  may be required.
+
+  Grass between lye boils (according to their number).
+
+  Rub with rubbing boards. This is also a speciality in linen bleaching,
+  and consists of a mechanical treatment with soft soap, the object of
+  which is to remove black stains in the yarn.
+
+  Bleach with hypochlorite of soda.
+
+  Scald. The two latter treatments are repeated three to five times,
+  each series constituting a "turn." Grassing intervenes between each
+  turn, and in some instances the pieces are rubbed before the last soda
+  boil.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Diagram showing the Horizontal Drying Machine
+  threaded with Cloth.]
+
+  The pieces are next steeped in large vessels (kiers) in weak
+  hypochlorite of soda, and then in weak sulphuric acid, these
+  treatments being repeated several times.
+
+  Ultimately the goods are mill-washed, blued with smalt and dried.
+
+
+_Bleaching of other Vegetable Textile Fabrics._
+
+_Hemp_ may be bleached by a process similar to that used for linen, but
+this is seldom done owing to the expense entailed. _China grass_ is
+bleached like cotton. _Jute_ contains in its raw state a considerable
+amount of colouring matter and intracellular substance. Since the
+individual fibres are very short, the complete removal of the latter
+would be attended by a disintegration of the material. Although it is
+possible to bleach jute white, this is seldom if ever carried out on a
+large scale owing to the great expense involved. A half-bleach on jute
+is obtained by steeping the goods alternately in bleaching powder (or
+hypochlorite of soda) and sulphuric acid, washing intervening. For a
+cream these treatments are repeated.
+
+
+_Bleaching of Straw._
+
+In the Luton district, straw is bleached principally in the form of
+plait, in which form it is imported. The bleaching is effected by
+steeping the straw for periods varying from twelve hours to several days
+in fairly strong alkaline peroxide of hydrogen. The number of baths
+depends upon the quality of straw and the degree of whiteness required.
+Good whites are thus obtained, and no further process would be necessary
+if the hats had not subsequently to be "blocked" or pressed at a high
+temperature which brings about a deterioration of the colour. After
+bleaching with peroxide and drying, the straw consequently undergoes a
+further process of sulphuring, i.e. exposure to gaseous sulphurous acid.
+Panama hats are bleached after making up, but in this case only peroxide
+of hydrogen is used and a very lengthy treatment entailing sometimes
+fourteen days' steeping is required.
+
+
+_Bleaching of Wool._
+
+In the condition in which it is delivered to the manufacturers wool is
+generally a very impure article, even if it has been washed on the
+sheep's back before shearing. The impurities which it contains consist
+in the main of the natural grease (in reality a kind of wax) exuded from
+the skin of the sheep and technically known as the "yolk," the dried-up
+perspiration from the body of the sheep; technically called "suint," and
+dust, dirt, burrs, &c., which mechanically adhere to the sticky surfaces
+of the fibres. In this condition wool is quite unfit for any
+manufacturing purposes and must be cleansed before any mechanical
+operations can be commenced. Formerly the washing was effected in stale
+urine, which owed its detergent properties mainly to the presence of
+ammonium carbonate. The stale urine or _lant_ was diluted with four to
+five times its bulk of water, and in this liquor, heated to 40°-50° C.,
+the washing was effected.
+
+At the present day this method has been entirely abandoned, the washing
+or "scouring" being effected with soap, assisted by ammonia, potash,
+soda or silicate of soda. The finest qualities of wool are washed with
+soft soap and potash, while for inferior qualities, cheaper detergents
+are employed. The operation is in principle perfectly simple, the wool
+being submerged in the warm soap solution, where it is moved about with
+forks and then taken out and allowed to drain. A second treatment in
+weaker soap serves to complete the process. In dealing with large
+quantities, wool-washing machines are employed, which consist
+essentially of long cast-iron troughs which contain the soap solution.
+The wool to be washed is fed in at one end of the machine and is slowly
+propelled to the other end by means of a system of mechanically-driven
+forks or rakes. As it passes from the machine, it is squeezed through a
+pair of rollers. Three such machines are usually required for efficient
+washing, the first containing the strongest and the third the weakest
+soap.
+
+The washing of wool is in the main a mechanical process, in which the
+water dissolves out the suint while the soap emulsifies the yolk and
+thus removes it from the fibre. The attendant earthy impurities pass
+mechanically into the surrounding liquid and are swilled away.
+
+In some works the wool is washed first with water alone, the aqueous
+extract thus obtained being evaporated to dryness and the residue
+calcined. A very good quality of potash is thus obtained as a
+by-product. In many works in Yorkshire and elsewhere, the dirty soap
+liquors obtained in wool-washing are not allowed to run to waste, but
+are run into tanks and there treated with sulphuric acid. The effect of
+this treatment is to decompose the soap, and the fatty acids along with
+the wool-grease rise as a magma to the surface. The purified product is
+known in the trade as "Yorkshire grease."
+
+Attempts have been made from time to time to extract the natural grease
+from wool by means of organic solvents, such as carbon bisulphide,
+carbon tetrachloride, petroleum spirit, &c., but have not met with much
+success.
+
+Worsted yarn spun on the English system, as well as woollen yarn and
+fabrics made from them, contain oil which has been incorporated with the
+wool to facilitate the spinning. This oil must be got rid of previous to
+bleaching, and this is effected by scouring in warm soap with or without
+the assistance of alkalis.
+
+  The actual bleaching of wool may be effected in two ways, viz. by
+  treating the material either with sulphurous acid or with hydrogen
+  peroxide. Sulphurous acid may either be applied in the gaseous form or
+  in solution as bisulphite of soda. In working by the first method,
+  which is technically known as "stoving," the scoured yarn is wetted in
+  very weak soap containing a small amount of blue colouring matter,
+  wrung or hydro-extracted and then suspended in a chamber or stove.
+  Sulphur contained in a vessel on the floor of the chamber is now
+  lighted, and the door having been closed, is allowed to burn itself
+  out. The goods are left thus exposed to the sulphur dioxide overnight,
+  when they are taken out and washed in water. For piece goods a
+  somewhat different arrangement is employed, the pieces passing through
+  a slit into a chamber supplied with sulphur dioxide, then slowly up
+  and down over a large number of rollers and ultimately emerging again
+  at the same slit. Wool may also be bleached by steeping in a fairly
+  strong solution of bisulphite of soda and then washing well in water.
+  Wool bleached with sulphurous acid or bisulphite is readily affected
+  by alkalis, the natural yellow colour returning on washing with soap
+  or soda. A more permanent bleach is obtained by steeping the wool in
+  hydrogen peroxide (of 12 volumes strength), let down with about three
+  times its bulk of water and rendered slightly alkaline with ammonia or
+  silicate of soda. Black or brown wools cannot be bleached white, but
+  when treated with peroxide they assume a golden colour, a change which
+  is frequently desired in human hair.
+
+
+_Bleaching of Silk._
+
+In raw silk, the fibre proper is uniformly coated with a proteid
+substance known as _silk-gum, silk-glue_ or _sericine_ which amounts to
+19-25% of the weight of the material, and it is only after the removal
+of this coating that the characteristic properties of the fibre become
+apparent. This is effected by the process of "discharging" or
+"boiling-off," which consists in suspending the hanks of raw silk over
+poles or sticks in a vat containing a strong hot soap solution (30% of
+soap on the weight of the silk). The liquor is kept just below boiling
+point for two or three hours, the hanks being turned from time to time.
+During the process, the sericine at first swells up considerably, the
+fibres becoming slippery, but as the operation proceeds it passes into
+solution. It is important that only soft water should be used for
+boiling-off since calcareous impurities are liable to mar the lustre of
+the silk.
+
+The silk is now rinsed in weak soda solution and wrung. In this
+condition it is suitable for being dyed, but if it is to be bleached,
+the hanks are tied up loosely with smooth tape, put into coarse linen
+bags to prevent the silk becoming entangled, and boiled again in soap
+solution which is half as strong as that used in the first operation.
+The hanks are now taken out, rinsed in a weak soda solution, washed in
+water and wrung.
+
+The actual bleaching of silk is usually effected by stoving as in the
+case of wool, with this difference, that the operation is repeated
+several times and blueing or tinting with other colours is effected
+after bleaching. Silk may also be bleached with peroxide of hydrogen,
+but this method is only used for certain qualities of spun silk and for
+tussore.
+
+  _Ornamental feathers_ are best bleached by steeping in peroxide of
+  hydrogen, rendered slightly alkaline by the addition of ammonia. The
+  same treatment is applied to the bleaching of _ivory_. If peroxide of
+  hydrogen could be prepared at a moderate cost, it would doubtless find
+  a much more extensive application in bleaching, since it combines
+  efficiency with safety, and gives good results with both vegetable and
+  animal substances.     (E. K.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Besides being used for cotton goods, plate singeing is also
+    employed for certain classes of worsted goods (alpacas, bunting,
+    &c.), and for most union goods (cotton warp and worsted weft).
+
+  [2] A machine working on this principle has been constructed by F.
+    Binder, and the makers of the machine (Messrs Mather & Platt, Ltd.)
+    claim that it does better service than the machines constructed on
+    the older principle.
+
+
+
+
+BLEAK, or BLICK (_Alburnus lucidus_), a small fish of the Cyprinid
+family, allied to the bream and the minnow, but with a more elongate
+body, resembling a sardine. It is found in European streams, and is
+caught by anglers, being also a favourite in aquariums. The well-known
+and important industry of "Essence Orientale" and artificial pearls,
+carried on in France and Germany with the crystalline silvery colouring
+matter of the bleak, was introduced from China about the middle of the
+17th century.
+
+
+
+
+BLEEK, FRIEDRICH (1793-1859), German Biblical scholar, was born on the
+4th of July 1793, at Ahrensbök, in Holstein, a village near Lübeck. His
+father sent him in his sixteenth year to the gymnasium at Lübeck, where
+he became so much interested in ancient languages that he abandoned his
+idea of a legal career and resolved to devote himself to the study of
+theology. After spending some time at the university of Kiel, he went to
+Berlin, where, from 1814 to 1817, he studied under De Wette, Neander and
+Schleiermacher. So highly were his merits appreciated by his
+professors--Schleiermacher was accustomed to say that he possessed a
+special _charisma_ for the science of "Introduction"--that in 1818 after
+he had passed the examinations for entering the ministry he was recalled
+to Berlin as _Repetent_ or tutorial fellow in theology, a temporary post
+which the theological faculty had obtained for him. Besides discharging
+his duties in the theological seminary, he published two dissertations
+in Schleiermacher's and G.C.F. Lücke's _Journal_(1819-1820,1822), one on
+the origin and composition of the Sibylline Oracles "Über die Entstehung
+und Zusammensetzung der Sibyllinischen Orakel," and another on the
+authorship and design of the Book of Daniel, "Über Verfasser und Zweck
+des Buches Daniel." These articles attracted much attention, and were
+distinguished by those qualities of solid learning, thorough
+investigation and candour of judgment which characterized all his
+writings. Bleek's merits as a rising scholar were recognized by the
+minister of public instruction, who continued his stipend as _Repetent_
+for a third year, and promised further advancement in due time. But the
+attitude of the political authority underwent a change. De Wette was
+dismissed from his professorship in 1819, and Bleek, a favourite pupil,
+incurred the suspicion of the government as an extreme democrat. Not
+only was his stipend as _Repetent_ discontinued, but his nomination to
+the office of professor extraordinarius, which had already been signed
+by the minister Karl Altenstein, was withheld. At length it was found
+that Bleek had been confounded with a certain Baueleven Blech, and in
+1823 he received the appointment.
+
+During the six years that Bleek remained at Berlin, he twice declined a
+call to the office of professor ordinarius of theology, once to
+Greifswald and once to Königsberg. In 1829, however, he was induced to
+accept Lücke's chair in the recently-founded university of Bonn, and
+entered upon his duties there in the summer of the same year. For thirty
+years he laboured with ever-increasing success, due not to any
+attractions of manner or to the enunciation of novel or bizarre
+opinions, but to the soundness of his investigations, the impartiality
+of his judgments, and the clearness of his method. In 1843 he was raised
+to the office of consistorial councillor, and was selected by the
+university to hold the office of rector, a distinction which has not
+since been conferred upon any theologian of the Reformed Church. He died
+suddenly of apoplexy on the 27th of February 1859.
+
+Bleek's works belong entirely to the departments of Biblical criticism
+and exegesis. His views on questions of Old Testament criticism were
+"advanced" in his own day; for on all the disputed points concerning the
+unity and authorship of the books of the Old Covenant he was opposed to
+received opinion. But with respect to the New Testament his position was
+conservative. An opponent of the Tübingen school, his defence of the
+genuineness and authenticity of the gospel of St. John is among the
+ablest that have been written; and although on some minor points his
+views did not altogether coincide with those of the traditional school,
+his critical labours on the New Testament must nevertheless be regarded
+as among the most important contributions to the maintenance of orthodox
+opinions. His greatest work, his commentary on the epistle to the
+Hebrews (_Brief an die Hebräer erläutert durch Einleitung, Übersetzung,
+und fortlaufenden Commentar_, in three parts, 1828, 1836 and 1840) won
+the highest praise from men like De Wette and Fr. Delitzsch. This work
+was abridged by Bleek for his college lectures, and was published in
+that condensed form in 1868. In 1846 he published his contributions to
+the criticism of the gospels (_Beiträge zur Evangelien Kritik_, pt. i.),
+which contained his defence of St John's gospel, and arose out of a
+review of J.H.A. Ebrard's _Wissenschaftliche Kritik der Evangelischen
+Geschichte_ (1842).
+
+  After his death were published:--(1) His _Introduction to the Old
+  Testament_ (_Einleitung in das Alte Testament_), (3rd ed., 1869); Eng.
+  trans. by G.H. Venables (from 2nd ed., 1869); in 1878 a new edition
+  (the 4th) appeared under the editorship of J. Wellhausen, who made
+  extensive alterations and additions; (2) his _Introduction to the New
+  Testament_ (3rd ed., W. Mangold, 1875), Eng. trans. (from 2nd German
+  ed.) by William Urwick (1869, 1870); (3) his _Exposition of the First
+  Three Gospels_ (_Synoptische Erklarung der drei ersten Evangelien_),
+  by H. Holtzmann (1862); (4) his _Lectures on the Apocalypse_
+  (_Vorlesungen über die Apokalypse_), (Eng. trans. 1875). Besides these
+  there has also appeared a small volume containing _Lectures on
+  Colossians, Philemon and Ephesians_ (Berlin, 1865). Bleek also
+  contributed many articles to the _Studien und Kritiken_. For further
+  information as to Bleek's life and writings, see Kamphausen's article
+  in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_; Frédéric Lichtenberger's
+  _Histoire des idées religieuses en Allemagne_, vol. iii.; Diestel's
+  _Geschichte des Allen Testamentes_ (1869); and T.K. Cheyne's _Founders
+  of Old Testament Criticism_ (1893).
+
+
+
+
+BLEEK, WILHELM HEINRICH IMMANUEL (1827-1875), German philologist, son of
+Friedrich Bleek, was born in 1827 at Berlin. He studied first at Bonn
+and afterwards at Berlin, where his attention was directed towards the
+philological peculiarities of the South African languages. In his
+doctor's dissertation (Bonn, 1851), _De nominum generibus linguarum
+Africae Australis_, he endeavoured to show that the Hottentot language
+was of North African descent. In 1854 his health prevented him
+accompanying Dr W.B. Baikie in the expedition to the Niger; but in the
+following year he accompanied Bishop Colenso to Natal, and was enabled
+to prosecute his researches into the language and customs of the
+Kaffirs. Towards the close of 1856 he settled at Cape Town, and in 1857
+was appointed interpreter by Sir George Grey. In 1859 he was compelled
+by ill health to visit Europe, and on his return in the following year
+he was made librarian of the valuable collection of books presented to
+the colony by Sir George Grey. In 1869 he visited England, where the
+value of his services was recognized by a pension from the civil list.
+He died at Cape Town on the 17th of August 1875. His works, which are of
+considerable importance for African and Australian philology, consist of
+the _Vocabulary of the Mozambique Language_ (London, 1856); _Handbook of
+African, Australian and Polynesian Philology_ (Cape Town and London, 3
+vols., 1858-1863); _Comparative Grammar of, the South African Languages_
+(vol. i., London, 1869); _Reynard the Fox in South Africa, or Hottentot
+Fables and Tales_ (London, 1864); _Origin of Language_ (London, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+BLENDE, or SPHALERITE, a naturally occurring zinc sulphide, ZnS, and an
+important ore of zinc. The name blende was used by G. Agricola in 1546,
+and is from the German _blenden_, to blind, or deceive, because the
+mineral resembles lead ore in appearance but contains no lead, and was
+consequently often rejected as worthless. Sphalerite, introduced by E.F.
+Glocker in 1847, has the same meaning ([Greek: sphaleros], deceptive),
+and so have the miners' terms "mock ore," "false lead," and "blackjack."
+The term "blende" was at one time used in a generic sense, and as such
+enters into the construction of several old names of German origin; the
+species under consideration is therefore sometimes distinguished as
+zinc-blende.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. ]
+
+Crystals of blende belong to that subclass of the cubic system in which
+there are six planes of symmetry parallel to the faces of the rhombic
+dodecahedron and none parallel to the cubic faces; in other words, the
+crystals are cubic with inclined hemihedrism, and have no centre of
+symmetry. The fundamental form is the tetrahedron. Fig. 1 shows a
+combination of two tetrahedra, in which the four faces of one
+tetrahedron are larger than the four faces of the other: further, the
+two sets of faces differ in surface characters, those of one set being
+dull and striated, whilst those of the other set are bright and smooth.
+A common form, shown in fig. 2, is a combination of the rhombic
+dodecahedron with a three-faced tetrahedron y (311); the six faces
+meeting in each triad axis are often rounded together into low conical
+forms. The crystals are frequently twinned, the twin-axis coinciding
+with a triad axis; a rhombic dodecahedron so twinned (fig. 3) has no
+re-entrant angles. An important character of blende is the perfect
+dodecahedral cleavage, there being six directions of cleavage parallel
+to the faces of the rhombic dodecahedron, and angles between which are
+60°.
+
+When chemically pure, which is rarely the case, blende is colourless and
+transparent; usually, however, the mineral is yellow, brown or black,
+and often opaque, the depth of colour and degree of transparency
+depending on the amount of iron present. The streak, or colour of the
+powder, is brownish or light yellow, rarely white. The lustre is
+resinous to adamantine, and the index of refraction high (2.369 for
+sodium light). The substance is usually optically isotropic, though
+sometimes it exhibits anomalous double refraction; fibrous zinc sulphide
+which is doubly refracting is to be referred to the hexagonal species
+wurtzite. The specific gravity is 4.0, and the hardness 4. Crystals
+exhibit pyroelectrical characters, since they possess four uniterminal
+triad axes of symmetry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+Crystals of blende are of very common occurrence, but owing to twinning
+and distortion and curvature of the faces, they are often rather complex
+and difficult to decipher. For this reason the mineral is not always
+readily recognized by inspection, though the perfect dodecahedral
+cleavage, the adamantine lustre, and the brown streak are characters
+which may be relied upon. The mineral is also frequently found massive,
+with a coarse or fine granular structure and a crystalline fracture;
+sometimes it occurs as a soft, white, amorphous deposit resembling
+artificially precipitated zinc sulphide. A compact variety of a pale
+liver-brown colour and forming concentric layers with a reniform surface
+is known in Germany as _Schalenblende_ or _Leberblende_.
+
+A few varieties of blende are distinguished by special names, these
+varieties depending on differences in colour and chemical composition. A
+pure white blende from Franklin in New Jersey is known as cleiophane;
+snow-white crystals are also found at Nordmark in Vermland, Sweden.
+Black blende containing ferrous sulphide, in amounts up to 15 or 20%
+isomorphously replacing zinc sulphide, is known as marmatite (from
+Marmato near Guayabal in Colombia, South America) and christophite (from
+St Christophe mine at Breitenbrunn near Eibenstock in Saxony).
+Transparent blende of a red or reddish-brown colour, such as that found
+near Holywell in Flintshire, is known as "ruby-blende" or "ruby-zinc."
+Pribramite is the name given to a cadmiferous blende from Pribram in
+Bohemia. Other varieties contain small amounts of mercury, tin,
+manganese or thallium. The elements gallium and indium were discovered
+in blende.
+
+Blende occurs in metalliferous veins, often in association with galena,
+also with chalcopyrite, barytes, fluorspar, &c. In ore-deposits
+containing both lead and zinc, such as those filling cavities in the
+limestones of the north of England and of Missouri, the galena is
+usually found in the upper part of the deposit, the blende not being
+reached until the deeper parts are worked. Blende is also found
+sporadically in sedimentary rocks; for example, in nodules of
+clay-ironstone in the Coal Measures, in the cement-doggers of the Lias,
+and in the casts of fossil shells. It has occasionally been found on the
+old timbers of mines. In these cases the zinc sulphide has probably
+arisen from the reduction of sulphate by organic matter.
+
+Localities for fine crystallized specimens are numerous. Mention may be
+made of the brilliant black crystals from Alston Moor in Cumberland, St
+Agnes in Cornwall and Derbyshire. Yellow crystals are found at
+Kapnik-Bánya, near Nagy-Bánya in Hungary. Transparent yellow cleavage
+masses of large size occur in limestone in the zinc mines at Picos de
+Europa in the province of Santander, Spain. Beautiful isolated
+tetrahedra of transparent yellow blende are found in the snow-white
+crystalline dolomite of the Binnenthal in the Valais, Switzerland.
+     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BLENHEIM (Ger. _Blindheim_), a village of Bavaria, Germany, in the
+district of Swabia, on the left bank of the Danube, 30 m. N.E. from Ulm
+by rail, a few miles below Höchstädt. Pop. 700. It was the scene of the
+defeat of the French and Bavarians under Marshals Tallard and Marsin, on
+the 13th of August 1704, by the English and the Austrians under the duke
+of Marlborough and Prince Eugene. In consideration of his military
+services and especially his decisive victory, a princely mansion was
+erected by parliament for the duke of Marlborough near Woodstock in
+Oxfordshire, England, and was named Blenheim Palace after this place.
+
+The battle of Blenheim is also called Höchstädt, but the title accepted
+in England has the advantage that it distinguishes this battle from that
+won on the same ground a year previously, by the elector of Bavaria over
+the imperial general Styrum (9-20 September 1703), and from the fighting
+between the Austrians under Krag and the French under Moreau in June
+1800 (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS). The ground between the hills and
+the marshy valley of the Danube forms a defile through which the main
+road from Donauwörth led to Ulm; parallel streams divide the narrow
+plain into strips. On one of these streams, the Nebel, the French and
+Bavarians (somewhat superior in numbers) took up their position facing
+eastward, their right flank resting on the Danube, their left in the
+under-features of the hilly ground, and their front covered by the
+Nebel, on which were the villages of Oberglau, Unterglau and Blenheim.
+The imperialist army of Eugene and the allies under Marlborough (52,000
+strong) encamped 5 m. to the eastward along another stream, their flanks
+similarly protected. On the 2nd-13th of August 1704 Eugene and
+Marlborough set their forces in motion towards the hostile camps;
+several streams had to be crossed on the march, and it was seven o'clock
+(five hours after moving off) when the British of Marlborough's left
+wing, next the Danube, deployed opposite Blenheim, which Tallard
+thereupon garrisoned with a large force of his best infantry, aided by a
+battery of 24-pounder guns. The French and Bavarians were taken somewhat
+by surprise, and were arrayed in two separate armies, each with its
+cavalry on the wings and its foot in the centre. Thus the centre of the
+combined forces consisted of the cavalry of Marsin's right and of
+Tallard's left.
+
+Here was the only good ground for mounted troops, and Marlborough
+followed Tallard's example when forming up to attack, but it resulted
+from the dispositions of the French marshal that this weak point of
+junction of his two armies was exactly that at which decisive action was
+to be expected. Tallard therefore had a few horse on his right between
+the Danube and Blenheim, a mass of infantry in his centre at Blenheim
+itself, and a long line of cavalry supported by a few battalions forming
+his left wing in the plain, and connecting with the right of Marsin's
+army. This army was similarly drawn up. The cavalry right wing was in
+the open, the French infantry near Oberglau, which was strongly held,
+the Bavarian infantry next on the left, and finally the Bavarian cavalry
+with a force of foot on the extreme left in the hills. The elector of
+Bavaria commanded his own troops in person. Marlborough and Eugene on
+their part were to attack respectively Tallard and Marsin. The right
+wing under Eugene had to make a difficult march over broken ground
+before it could form up for battle, and Marlborough waited, with his
+army in order of battle between Unterglau and Blenheim, until his
+colleague should be ready. At 12.30 the battle opened. Lord Cutts, with
+a detachment of Marlborough's left wing, attacked Blenheim with the
+utmost fury. A third of the leading brigade (British) was killed and
+wounded in the vain attempt to break through the strong defences of the
+village, and some French squadrons charged upon it as it retired; a
+colour was captured in the _mêlée_, but a Hessian brigade in second line
+drove back the cavalry and retook the colour. After the repulse of these
+squadrons, in which some British cavalry from the centre took part,
+Cutts again moved forward. The second attack, though pressed even more
+fiercely, fared no better than the first, and the losses were heavier
+than before. The duke then ordered Cutts to observe the enemy in
+Blenheim, and concentrated all his attention on the centre. Here,
+between Unterglau and Blenheim, preparations were being made, under
+cover of artillery, for the crossing of the Nebel, and farther up-stream
+a corps was sent to attack Oberglau. This attack failed completely, and
+it was not until Marlborough himself, with fresh battalions, drove the
+French back into Oberglau that the allies were free to cross the Nebel.
+
+In the meanwhile the first line of Marlborough's infantry had crossed
+lower down, and the first line of cavalry, following them across, had
+been somewhat severely handled by Tallard's cavalry. The squadrons under
+the Prussian general Bothmar, however, made a dashing charge, and
+achieved considerable temporary success. Eugene was now closely engaged
+with the elector of Bavaria, and both sides were losing heavily. But
+Eugene carried out his holding attack successfully. Marsin dared not
+reinforce Tallard to any extent, and the duke was preparing for the
+grand attack. His whole force, except the detachment of Cutts, was now
+across the Nebel, and he had formed it in several lines with the cavalry
+in front. Marlborough himself led the cavalry; the French squadrons
+received the attack at the halt, and were soon broken. Marsin's right
+swung back towards its own army. Those squadrons of Tallard's left which
+retained their order fell back towards the Danube, and a great gap was
+opened in the centre of the defence, through which the victorious
+squadrons poured. Wheeling to their left the pursuers drove hundreds of
+fugitives into the Danube, and Eugene was now pressing the army of
+Marsin towards Marlborough, who re-formed and faced northward to cut off
+its retreat. Tallard was already a prisoner, but in the dusk and
+confusion Marsin slipped through between the duke and Eugene. General
+Churchill, Marlborough's brother, had meanwhile surrounded the French
+garrison of Blenheim; and after one or two attempts to break out,
+twenty-four battalions of infantry and four regiments of dragoons, many
+of them the finest of the French army, surrendered.
+
+The losses of the allies are stated at 4500 killed and 7500 wounded
+(British 670 killed and 1500 wounded). Of the French and Bavarians
+11,000 men, 100 guns and 200 colours and standards were taken; besides
+the killed and wounded, the numbers of which vere large but
+uncertain--many were drowned in the Danube. Marsin's army, though it
+lost heavily, was drawn off in good order; Tallard's was almost
+annihilated.
+
+
+
+
+BLENNERHASSETT, HARMAN (1765-1831), Irish-American lawyer, son of an
+Irish country gentleman of English stock settled in Co. Kerry, was born
+on the 8th of October 1765. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin,
+and in 1790 was called to the Irish bar. After living for several years
+on the continent, he married in 1796 his niece, Margaret Agnew, daughter
+of Robert Agnew, the lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Man. Ostracised
+by their families for this step the couple decided to settle in America,
+where Blennerhassett in 1798 bought an island in the Ohio river about 2
+m. below Parkersburg, West Virginia. Here in 1805 he received a visit
+from Aaron Burr (q.v.), in whose conspiracy he became interested,
+furnishing liberal funds for its support, and offering the use of his
+island as a rendezvous for the gathering of arms and supplies and the
+training of volunteers. When the conspiracy collapsed, the mansion and
+island were occupied and plundered by the Virginia militia.
+Blennerhassett fled, was twice arrested and remained a prisoner until
+after Burr's release. The island was then abandoned, and Blennerhassett
+was in turn a cotton planter in Mississippi, and a lawyer (1819-1822) in
+Montreal, Canada. After returning to Ireland, he died in the island of
+Guernsey on the 2nd of February 1831. His wife, who had considerable
+literary talent and who published _The Deserted Isle_ (1822) and _The
+Widow of the Rock and Other Poems_ (1824), returned to the United States
+in 1840, and died soon afterward in New York City while attempting to
+obtain through Congress payment for property destroyed on the island.
+
+  See William H. Safford, _Life of Harman Blennerhassett_ (Cincinnati,
+  1853); W.H. Safford (editor), _The Blennerhassett Papers_ (Cincinnati,
+  1864); and "The True Story of Harman Blennerhassett," by Therese
+  Blennerhassett-Adams, in the _Century Magazine_ for July 1901, vol.
+  lxii.
+
+
+
+
+BLERA (mod. _Bieda_), an ancient Etruscan town on the Via Clodia, about
+32 m. N.N.W. of Rome. It was of little importance, and is only mentioned
+by geographers and in inscriptions. It is situated on a long, narrow
+tongue of rock at the junction of two deep glens. Some remains of the
+town walls still exist, and also two ancient bridges, both belonging to
+the Via Clodia, and many tombs hewn in the rock--small chambers
+imitating the architectural forms of houses, with beams and rafters
+represented in relief. See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of
+Etruria_, i. 207. There was another Blera in Apulia, on the road from
+Venusia to Tarentum.
+
+
+
+
+BLESSINGTON, MARGUERITE, COUNTESS OF (1789-1849), Irish novelist and
+miscellaneous writer, daughter of Edmund Power, a small landowner, was
+born near Clonmel, Co. Tipperary, Ireland, on the 1st of September 1789.
+Her childhood was made unhappy by her father's character and
+poverty,--and her early womanhood wretched by her compulsory marriage at
+the age of fifteen to a Captain Maurice St Leger Farmer, whose drunken
+habits brought him at last as a debtor to the king's bench prison,
+where, in October 1817, he died. His wife had left him some time before,
+and in February 1818 she married Charles John Gardiner, earl of
+Blessington. Of rare beauty, charm and wit, she was no less
+distinguished for her generosity and for the extravagant tastes which
+she shared with her husband, which resulted in encumbering his estates
+with a load of debt. In the autumn of 1822 they went abroad, spent four
+months of the next year at Genoa in close intimacy with Byron, and
+remained on the continent till Lord Blessington's death in May 1829.
+Some time before this they had been joined by Count D'Orsay, who in 1827
+married Lady Harriet Gardiner, Lord Blessington's only daughter by a
+former wife. D'Orsay, who had soon separated from his wife, now
+accompanied Lady Blessington to England and lived with her till her
+death. Their home, first at Seamore Place, and afterwards Gore House,
+Kensington, became a centre of attraction for whatever was distinguished
+in literature, learning, art, science and fashion. After her husband's
+death she supplemented her diminished income by contributing to various
+periodicals as well as by writing novels. She was for some years editor
+of _The Book of Beauty_ and _The Keepsake_, popular annuals of the day.
+In 1834 she published her _Conversations with Lord Byron_. Her _Idler in
+Italy_ (1839-1840), and _Idler in France_ (1841) were popular for their
+personal gossip and anecdote, descriptions of nature and sentiment.
+Early in 1849, Count D'Orsay left Gore House to escape his creditors;
+the furniture and decorations were sold, and Lady Blessington joined the
+count in Paris, where she died on the 4th of June 1849.
+
+  Her _Literary Life and Correspondence_ (3 vols.), edited by R.R.
+  Madden, appeared in 1855. Her portrait was painted in 1808 by Sir
+  Thomas Lawrence.
+
+
+
+
+BLIDA, a town of Algeria, in the department of Algiers, 32 m. by railway
+S.W. from Algiers, on the line to Oran. Pop. (1906) 16,866. It lies
+surrounded with orchards and gardens, 630 ft. above the sea, at the base
+of the Little Atlas, on the southern edge of the fertile plain of the
+Metija, and the right bank of the Wad-el-Kebir affluent of the Chiffa.
+The abundant water of this stream provides power for large corn mills
+and several factories, and also supplies the town, with its numerous
+fountains and irrigated gardens. Blida is surrounded by a wall of
+considerable extent, pierced by six gates, and is further defended by
+Fort Mimieh, crowning a steep hill on the left bank of the river. The
+present town, French in character, has well-built modern streets with
+many arcades, and numbers among its buildings several mosques and
+churches, extensive barracks and a large military hospital. The
+principal square, the place d'Armes, is surrounded by arcaded houses and
+shaded by trees. The centre of a fertile district, and a post on one of
+the main routes in the country, Blida has a flourishing trade, chiefly
+in oranges and flour. The orange groves contain over 50,000 trees, and
+in April the air for miles round is laden with the scent of the orange
+blossoms. In the public gardens is a group of magnificent olive trees.
+The products of the neighbouring cork trees and cedar groves are a
+source of revenue to the town. In the vicinity are the villages of
+Joinville and Montpensier, which owe their origin to military camps
+established by Marshal Valée in 1838; and on the road to Medea are the
+tombs of the marabout Mahommed-el-Kebir, who died in 1580, and his two
+sons.
+
+Blida, _i.e. boleida_, diminutive of the Arab word _belad_, city,
+occupies the site of a military station in the time of the Romans, but
+the present town appears to date from the 16th century. A mosque was
+built by order of Khair-ed-din Barbarossa, and under the Turks the town
+was of some importance. In 1825 it was nearly destroyed by an
+earthquake, but was speedily rebuilt on a site about a mile distant from
+the ruins. It was not till 1838 that it was finally held by the French,
+though they had been in possession for a short time eight years before.
+In April 1906 it was chosen as the place of detention of Behanzin, the
+ex-king of Dahomey, who died in December of that year.
+
+Blida is the chief town of a commune of the same name, having (1906) a
+population of 33,332.
+
+
+
+
+BLIGH, WILLIAM (1754-1817), English admiral, was born of a good Cornish
+family in 1754. He accompanied Captain Cook in his second expedition
+(1772-1774) as sailing-master of the "Resolution." During the voyage,
+the bread-fruit, already known to Dampier, was found by them at
+Otaheite; and after seeing service under Lord Howe and elsewhere,
+"Bread-fruit Bligh," as he was nicknamed, was despatched at the end of
+1787 to the Pacific in command of H.M.S. "Bounty," for the purpose of
+introducing it into the West Indies from the South Sea Islands. Bligh
+sailed from Otaheite, after remaining there about six months; but, when
+near the Friendly Islands, a mutiny (April 28, 1789) broke out on board
+the "Bounty," headed by Fletcher Christian, the master's mate, and
+Bligh, with eighteen others, was set adrift in the launch. The mutineers
+themselves settled on Pitcairn Island (q.v.), but some of them were
+afterwards captured, brought to England and in three cases executed.
+This mutiny, which forms the subject of Byron's Island, did not arise so
+much from tyranny on the part of Bligh as from attachments contracted
+between the seamen and the women of Otaheite. After suffering severely
+from hunger, thirst and storms, Bligh and his companions landed at Timor
+in the East Indies, having performed a voyage of about 4000 m. in an
+open boat. Bligh returned to England in 1790, and he was soon afterwards
+appointed to the "Providence," in which he effected the purpose of his
+former appointment by introducing the bread-fruit tree into the West
+India Islands. He showed great courage at the mutiny of the Nore in
+1797, and in the same year took part in the battle of Camperdown, where
+Admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch under De Winter. In 1801 he commanded
+the "Glatton" (54) at the battle of Copenhagen, and received the
+personal commendations of Nelson. In 1805 he was appointed "captain
+general and governor of New South Wales." As he made himself intensely
+unpopular by the harsh exercise of authority, he was deposed in January
+1808 by a mutiny headed by Major George Johnston of the 102nd foot, and
+was imprisoned by the mutineers till 1810. He returned to England in
+1811, was promoted to rear-admiral in that year, and to vice-admiral in
+1814. Major Johnston was tried by court martial at Chelsea in 1811, and
+was dismissed the service. Bligh, who was an active, persevering and
+courageous officer, died in London in 1817.
+
+
+
+
+BLIND, MATHILDE (1841-1896), English author, was born at Mannheim on the
+21st of March 1841. Her father was a banker named Cohen, but she took
+the name of Blind after her step-father, the political writer, Karl
+Blind (1826-1907), one of the exiled leaders of the Baden insurrection
+in 1848-1849, and an ardent supporter of the various 19th-century
+movements for the freedom and autonomy of struggling nationalities. The
+family was compelled to take refuge in England, where Mathilde devoted
+herself to literature and to the higher education of women. She produced
+also three long poems, "The Prophecy of St Oran" (1881), "The Heather on
+Fire" (1886), an indignant protest against the evictions in the
+Highlands, and "The Ascent of Man" (1888), which was to be the epic of
+the theory of evolution. She wrote biographies of George Eliot (1883)
+and Madame Roland (1886), and translated D.F. Strauss's _The Old Faith
+and the New_ (1873-1874) and the _Memoirs of Marie Bashkirtseff_ (1890).
+She died on the 26th of November 1896, bequeathing her property to
+Newnham College, Cambridge.
+
+  A complete edition of her poems was edited by Mr Arthur Symons in
+  1900, with a biographical introduction by Dr Richard Garnett.
+
+
+
+
+BLIND HOOKEY, a game of chance, played with a full pack of cards. The
+deal, which is an advantage, is decided as at whist, the cards being
+shuffled and cut as at whist. The dealer gives a parcel of cards to each
+player including himself. Each player puts the amount of his stake on
+his cards, which he must not look at. The dealer has to take all bets.
+He then turns up his parcel, exposing the bottom card. Each player in
+turn does the same, winning or losing according as his cards are higher
+or lower than the dealer's. Ties pay the dealer. The cards rank as at
+whist. The suits are of no importance, the cards taking precedence
+according to their face-value.
+
+
+
+
+BLINDING, a form of punishment anciently common in many lands, being
+inflicted on thieves, adulterers, perjurers and other criminals. The
+inhabitants of Apollonia (Illyria) are said to have inflicted this
+penalty on their "watch" when found asleep at their posts. It was
+resorted to by the Roman emperors in their persecutions of the
+Christians. The method of destroying the sight varied. Sometimes a
+mixture of lime and vinegar, or barely scalding vinegar alone, was
+poured into the eyes. Sometimes a rope was twisted round the victim's
+head till the eyes started out of their sockets. In the middle ages the
+punishment seems to have been changed from total blindness to a
+permanent injury to the eyes, amounting, however, almost to blindness,
+produced by holding a red-hot iron dish or basin before the face. Under
+the forest laws of the Norman kings of England blinding was a common
+penalty. Shakespeare makes King John order his nephew Arthur's eyes to
+be burnt out.
+
+
+
+
+BLINDMAN'S-BUFF (from an O. Fr. word, _buffe_, a blow, especially a blow
+on the cheek), a game in which one player is blindfolded and made to
+catch and identify one of the others, who in sport push him about and
+"buffet" him.
+
+
+
+
+BLINDNESS, the condition of being blind (a common Teutonic word), i.e.
+devoid of sight (see also VISION; and EYE: _Diseases_). The data
+furnished in various countries by the census of 1901 showed generally a
+decrease in blindness, due to the progress in medical science, use of
+antiseptics, better sanitation, control of infectious diseases, and
+better protection in shops and factories. Blindness is much more common
+in hot countries than in temperate and cold regions, but Finland and
+Iceland are exceptions to the general rule.[1] In hot countries the eyes
+are affected by the glaring sunlight, the dust and the dryness of the
+air. From statistics in Italy, France and Belgium, localities on the
+coast seem to have more blind persons than those at a distance from the
+sea.
+
+The following table gives the number of blind persons as reported in the
+census of each country. Unless otherwise stated, it refers to the
+statistics of 1900.
+
+  +----------------------------------+--------+----------------+
+  |                                  | Total  |    Number      |
+  |             Country.             | Number.|  per Million   |
+  |                                  |        | of Population. |
+  +----------------------------------+--------+----------------+
+  | Austria                          | 14,582 |      540       |
+  | Belgium                          |   3448 |      487       |
+  | Canada                           |   3279 |      610       |
+  | Denmark                          |   1047 |      427       |
+  | England                          | 25,317 |      778       |
+  | France                           | 27,174 |      698       |
+  | Finland[2]                       |   3229 |     1191       |
+  | Germany                          | 34,334 |      609       |
+  | Hungary                          | 19,377 |     1006       |
+  | Ireland                          |   4263 |      954       |
+  | Italy                            | 38,160 |     1175       |
+  | Holland (1890)                   |   2114 |      414       |
+  | Norway                           |   1879 |      838       |
+  | Portugal                         |   5650 |     1040       |
+  | Sweden                           |   3413 |      664       |
+  | Switzerland (1895)               |   2107 |      722       |
+  | Scotland                         |   3253 |      727       |
+  | Spain (1877)                     | 24,608 |     1006       |
+  | Russia                           |   · ·  | about 2000     |
+  | United States (corrected census) | 85,662 |     1125       |
+  +----------------------------------+--------+----------------+
+
+
+CAUSES AND PREVENTION
+
+There are many cases of complete or partial blindness which might have
+been prevented, and a knowledge of the best methods of prevention and
+cure should be spread as widely as possible. Magnus, Bremer, Steffen and
+Rössler are of opinion that 40% of the cases of blindness might have
+been prevented. Hayes gives 33.35% as positively avoidable, 38.75%
+possibly avoidable, and 46.27% as a conservative estimate. Cohn regards
+blindness as certainly preventable in 33%, as probably preventable in
+43%, and as quite unpreventable in only 24%. If we take the lowest of
+these figures, and assume that 400 out of every 1000 blind persons might
+have been saved from such a calamity, we realize the importance of
+preventative measures. For the physiology and pathology of the eye
+generally, see VISION and EYE.
+
+
+  Ophthalmia.
+
+The great majority of these cases are due to infantile purulent
+ophthalmia. This arises from inoculation of the eyes with hurtful
+material at time of birth. If the contagious discharges are allowed to
+remain, violent inflammation is set up which usually ends in the loss of
+sight. It depends on the presence of a microbe, and the effective
+application of a weak solution of nitrate of silver is curative, if made
+in a proper manner at an early period of the case. In Germany, midwives
+are expressly prohibited by law from treating any affection of the eyes
+or eyelids of infants, however slight. On the appearance of the first
+symptoms, they are required to represent to the parents, or others in
+charge, that medical assistance is urgently needed, or, if necessary,
+they are themselves to report to the local authorities and the district
+doctor. Neglect of these regulations entails liability to punishment.
+Eleven of the United States of America have enacted laws requiring that,
+if one or both eyes of an infant should become inflamed, swollen or
+reddened at any time within two weeks of its birth, it shall be the duty
+of the midwife or nurse having charge of such infant to report in
+writing within six hours, to the health officer or some legally
+qualified physician, the fact that such inflammation, swelling or
+redness exists. The penalty for failure to comply is fine or
+imprisonment.
+
+The following weighty words, from a paper prepared by Dr Park Lewis, of
+Buffalo, N.Y., for the American Medical Association, show that laws are
+not sufficient to prevent evil, unless supported by strong public
+sentiment:--
+
+  "When an enlightened, civilized and progressive nation quietly and
+  passively, year after year, permits a multitude of its people
+  unnecessarily to become blind, and more especially when one-quarter
+  of these are infants, the reason for such a startling condition of
+  affairs demands explanation. That such is the fact, practically all
+  reliable ophthalmologists agree.
+
+  "From a summary of carefully tabulated statistics it has been
+  demonstrated that at least four-tenths of all existing blindness might
+  have been avoided had proper preventative or curative measures been
+  employed, while one-quarter of this, or one-tenth of the whole, is due
+  to _ophthalmia neonatorum_, an infectious, preventable and almost
+  absolutely curable disease. Perhaps this statement will take on a new
+  meaning when it is added that there are in the state of New York alone
+  more than 6000, and in the United States more than 50,000 blind
+  people; of these 600 in the one state, and 5000 in the country, would
+  have been saved from lives of darkness and unhappiness, in having lost
+  all the joys that come through sight, and of more or less complete
+  dependence--for no individual can be as self-sufficient without as
+  with eyes--if a simple, safe and easily applied precautionary measure
+  had been taken at the right time and in the right way to prevent this
+  affliction. The following three vital facts are not questioned, but
+  are universally accepted by those qualified to know:--
+
+  "1. The ophthalmia of infancy is an infectious germ disease.
+
+  "2. By the instillation of a silver salt in the eyes of a new-born
+  infant the disease is prevented from developing in all but an
+  exceedingly small number of the cases in which it would otherwise have
+  appeared.
+
+  "3. In practically all those few exceptional cases the disease is
+  absolutely curable, if like treatment is employed at a sufficiently
+  early period.
+
+  "Since these facts are no longer subjects of discussion, but are
+  universally accepted by all educated medical men, the natural inquiry
+  follows: Why, as a common-sense proposition, are not these simple,
+  harmless, preventive measures invariably employed, and why, in
+  consequence of this neglect, does a nation sit quietly and
+  indifferently by, making no attempt to prevent this enormous and
+  needless waste of human eyes?
+
+  "The reasons are three-fold, and lie--first, with the medical
+  profession; second, with the lay public; third, with the state.
+
+  "For the education of its blind children annually New York alone pays
+  _per capita_ at least $350, and a yearly gross sum amounting to much
+  more than $100,000. If, as sometimes happens, the blind citizen is a
+  dependent throughout a long life, the cost of maintenance is not less
+  than $10,000, and the mere cost in money will be multiplied many times
+  in that a productive factor, by reason of blindness, has been removed
+  from the community.
+
+  "If, therefore, as an economic proposition, it were realized how
+  vitally it concerns the state that not one child shall needlessly
+  become blind, thereby increasing the public financial burden, there is
+  no doubt that early and effective measures would be instituted to
+  protect the state from this unnecessary and extravagant expenditure of
+  public funds.
+
+  "Eleven states have passed legislative enactments requiring that the
+  midwife shall report each case to the proper health authority, and
+  affixing a penalty for the failure to do so. As has been intimated,
+  however, it is not by any means always under the ministration of
+  midwives that these cases occur, and, like all laws behind which is
+  not a strong and well-informed public sentiment, this law is rarely
+  enforced. A more effective method must be devised. Every physician
+  having to do with the parturient woman, every obstetrician, every
+  midwife, must be frequently and constantly advised of the dangers and
+  possibilities of this disease, the necessity of prevention, and the
+  value of early and correct treatment. They must then have placed in
+  their hands, ready for instant use, a safe and efficient preparation,
+  issued by the health authorities as a guarantee as to its quality and
+  efficiency.
+
+  "An important step was taken in this direction when a resolution was
+  passed by the House of Delegates at the annual meeting of the New York
+  State Medical Society, requesting the various health officers of the
+  state to include _ophthalmia neonatorum_ among contagious diseases
+  which must be reported to the local boards of health.
+
+  "The second essential, in order that the cause of infantile ophthalmia
+  be abolished, is that a solution of the necessary silver salt be
+  prepared under the authority of somebody capable of inspiring
+  universal confidence, and that it be distributed by the health
+  department of every state gratuitously to every obstetrician,
+  physician or midwife qualified to care for the parturient woman. The
+  nature of the solution, together with the character of the descriptive
+  card which should accompany it, should be determined by a committee,
+  chosen by the president of the American Medical Association, which
+  should have among its members at least one representative
+  ophthalmologist, one obstetrician and one sanitarian. The conclusions
+  of this committee should be reported back to the House of Delegates,
+  so that the preparation and its text should carry with it, on the
+  great authority of this association, the assurance that the solution
+  is entirely safe and necessary, and that its use should invariably be
+  part of the toilet of every new-born child. The solution, probably
+  silver nitrate, could be put up either by the state itself or by some
+  trustworthy pharmacist, at an insignificant cost; its purity and
+  sterility should be vouched for by the board of health of the state.
+  It should be enclosed in specially prepared receptacles, each
+  containing a special quantity, and so arranged that it may be used
+  drop by drop. These, properly enclosed, accompanied by a brief lucid
+  explanation of the danger of the disease, the necessity of this
+  germicide, the method of its employment, and the right subsequent care
+  of the eyes, should be sent to the obstetrician on the receipt of each
+  birth certificate.
+
+  "I have said that responsibility for the indifference that is annually
+  resulting in such frightful disaster lies primarily with the state,
+  the public and the medical profession.
+
+  "The state is already aroused to the necessity of taking effective
+  measures to wipe out this controllable plague. Bills have been
+  introduced in the legislature of Massachusetts and of New York,
+  providing for the appointment of commissions for the blind, one of
+  whose duties will be to study the causes of unnecessary blindness and
+  to suggest preventative measures."
+
+
+  Trachoma.
+
+One of the most common diseases of the eye is trachoma, often called
+"granular lids," because the inner surface of the lid seems to be
+covered with little granulations. The disease sometimes lasts for years
+without causing blindness, though it gives rise to great irritation. It
+is generally attended by a discharge, which is highly contagious,
+producing the same disease if it gets into other eyes. Want of
+cleanliness is one of the most important factors in the propagation of
+trachoma, hence its great prevalence in Oriental countries. Trachoma is
+very prevalent in Egypt, where those suffering from total or partial
+blindness are said to amount to 10% of the population. During Napoleon's
+Egyptian campaign, nearly every soldier, out of an army of 32,000 men,
+was affected. During the following twenty years the disease spread
+through almost all European armies. In the Belgian army, there was one
+trachomatous soldier out of every five, and up to 1834 no less than 4000
+soldiers had lost both eyes and 10,000 one eye. It is a disease which is
+very common in workhouse schools, orphan asylums and similar
+establishments. Unlike ophthalmia of new-born children, it is difficult
+to cure, and a total separation of the diseased from the healthy
+children should be effected.
+
+
+  Sympathetic inflammation.
+
+About one-half of those who are blinded by injuries lose the second eye
+by sympathetic ophthalmia. It is a constant source of danger to those
+who retain an eye blinded by injury. Blindness from this cause can be
+prevented by the removal of the injured eye, but unfortunately the
+proposal often meets with opposition from the patient.
+
+
+  Glaucoma.
+
+Glaucoma is a disease which almost invariably leads to total blindness;
+but in most cases it can be arrested by a simple operation if the case
+is seen sufficiently early.
+
+
+  Short-sight.
+
+Myopia, or "short-sight," makes itself apparent in children between the
+ages of seven and nine. Neglect of a year or two may do serious
+mischief. Short-sight, when not inherited, is produced by looking
+intently and continuously at near objects. Children should be encouraged
+to describe objects at a distance, with which they are unacquainted, and
+parents should choose out-door occupations and amusements for children
+who show a tendency to shortsightedness.
+
+A report was issued in 1906, by the school board of Glasgow, as to an
+investigation by Dr H. Wright Thomas, ophthalmic surgeon, regarding the
+eyesight of school children, which includes the following passage. Dr
+Wright Thomas states that the teachers tested the visual acuteness of
+52,493 children, and found 18,565, or 35%, to be below what is regarded
+as the normal standard. He examined the 18,565 defectives by
+retinoscopy, and found that 11,209, or 21% of the whole, had ocular
+defects. The proportion of these cases was highest in the poor and
+closely-built districts and in old schools, and was lowest in the
+better-class schools and those near the outskirts of the city. Defective
+vision, apart from ocular defect, seems to be due partly to want of
+training of the eyes for distant objects and partly to exhaustion of the
+eyes, which is easily induced when work is carried on in bad light, or
+the nutrition of the children is defective from bad feeding and
+unhealthy surroundings. Regarding training of the eyes for distant
+objects, much might be done in the infant department by the total
+abolition of sewing, which is definitely hurtful to such young eyes, and
+the substitution of competitive games involving the recognition of
+small objects at a distance of 20 ft. or more. An annual testing by the
+teachers, followed by medical inspection of the children found
+defective, would soon cause all existing defects to be corrected, and
+would lead to the detection of those which develop during school life.
+
+
+HISTORY OF INSTITUTIONS
+
+Although there is a record of a hospital established by St Basil at
+Caesarea, Cappadocia, in the 4th century, a refuge by the hermit St
+Lymnee (d. c. 455) at Syr, Syria, in the 5th century, and an institution
+by St Bertrand, bishop of Le Mans, in the 7th century, the first public
+effort to benefit the blind was the founding of a hospital at Paris, in
+1260, by Louis IX., for 300 blind persons. The common legend is that he
+founded it as an asylum for 300 of his soldiers who had become blinded
+in the crusade in Egypt, but the statutes of the founder are preserved,
+and no mention is made of crusaders. This Hospice des Quinze-Vingts,
+increased by subsequent additions to its funds, still assists the adult
+blind of France. The pensioners are divided into two classes--those who
+are inmates of the hospital (300), and those who receive pensions in the
+form of out-door relief. All appointments to inmates or pensions are
+vested in the minister of the Interior, and applicants must be of French
+nationality, totally blind and not less than forty years of age.
+
+From the time of St Louis to the 18th century, there are records of
+isolated cases of blind persons who were educated, and of efforts to
+devise tangible apparatus to assist them.
+
+Girolamo Cardan, the 16th-century Italian physician, conceived the idea
+that the blind could be taught to read and write by means of touch.
+About 1517 Francesco Lucas in Spain, and Rampazetto in Italy, made use
+of large letters cut in wood for instructing the blind. In 1646 a book,
+on the condition of the blind, was written by an Italian, and published
+in Italian and French, under the title of _L'Aveugle affligé et
+consolé_. In 1670 a book was written on the instruction of the blind by
+Lana Terzi, the Jesuit. In 1676 Jacques Bernoulli, the Swiss savant,
+taught a blind girl to read, but the means of her instruction were not
+made known. In 1749 D. Diderot wrote his _Lettre sur les aveugles à
+l'usage de ceux qui voient_, to show how far the intellectual and moral
+nature of man is modified by blindness. Dr S.G. Howe, who many years
+after translated and printed the "Letter" in embossed type,
+characterizes it as abounding with errors of fact and inference, but
+also with beauties and suggestions. The heterodox speculations contained
+in his "Letter on the Blind" caused Diderot to be imprisoned three
+months in the Bastille. He was released because his services were
+required for the forthcoming _Encyclopaedia_. Rousseau visited Diderot
+in prison, and is reported to have suggested a system of embossed
+printing. J. Locke, G.W. Leibnitz, Molineau and others discussed the
+effect of blindness on the human mind. In Germany, Weissembourg had used
+signs in relief and taught Mlle Paradis.
+
+Prior to the 18th century, blind beggars existed in such numbers that
+they struggled for standing room in positions favourable for asking
+alms. Their very affliction led to their being used as spectacles for
+the amusement of the populace. The degraded state of the masses of the
+blind in France attracted the attention of Valentin Haüy. In 1771, at
+the annual fair of St Ovid, in Paris, an innkeeper had a group of blind
+men attired in a ridiculous manner, decorated with peacock tails, asses'
+ears, and pasteboard spectacles without glasses, in which condition they
+gave a burlesque concert, for the profit of their employer. This sad
+scene was repeated day after day, and greeted with loud laughter by the
+gaping crowds. Among those who gazed at this outrage to humanity was the
+philanthropist Valentin Haüy, who left the disgraceful scene full of
+sorrow. "Yes," he said to himself, "I will substitute truth for this
+mocking parody. I will make the blind to read, and they shall be enabled
+to execute harmonious music." Haüy collected all the information he
+could gain respecting the blind, and began teaching a blind boy who had
+gained his living by begging at a church door. Encouraged by the
+success of his pupil, Haüy collected other blind persons, and in 1785
+founded in Paris the first school for the blind (the Institution
+Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles), and commenced the first printing in
+raised characters. In 1786, before Louis XVI. and his court at
+Versailles, he exhibited the attainments of his pupils in reading,
+writing, arithmetic, geography and music, and in the same year published
+an account of his methods, entitled _Essai sur l'education des
+aveugles_. As the novelty wore off, contributions almost came to an end,
+and the Blind School must have ceased to exist, had it not been taken,
+in 1791, under the protection of the state.
+
+The emperor of Russia, and later the dowager empress, having learned of
+Haüy's work, invited him to visit St Petersburg for the purpose of
+establishing a similar institution in the Russian capital. On his
+journey Haüy was invited by the king of Prussia to Charlottenburg. He
+took part in the deliberations of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, and
+as a result a school was founded there.
+
+Edward Rushton, a blind man, was the projector of the first institution
+for the blind in England--the School for the Indigent Blind, Liverpool.
+In 1790 Rushton suggested to the literary and philosophical society of
+which he was a member, the establishment of a benefit club for the
+indigent blind. The idea was communicated to his friend, J. Christie, a
+blind musician, and the latter thought the scheme should also include
+the instruction of young blind persons. They circulated letters amongst
+individuals who would be likely to give their assistance, and the Rev.
+Henry Dannett warmly advocated the undertaking. It was mainly due to his
+co-operation and zeal that Messrs Rushton and Christie's plan was
+carried out, and the Liverpool asylum was opened in 1791. Thomas
+Blacklock of Edinburgh, a blind poet and scholar, translated Haüy's work
+on the _Education of the Blind_. He interested Mr David Millar, a blind
+gentleman, the Rev. David Johnston and others in the subject, and after
+Blacklock's death the Edinburgh Asylum for the Relief of the Indigent
+and Industrious Blind was established (1793). Institutions were
+established in the United Kingdom in the following order:--
+
+  School for the Indigent Blind, Liverpool             1791
+  Royal Blind Asylum, Edinburgh                        1793
+  Bristol Asylum                                       1793
+  School for the Indigent Blind Southwark (now
+    removed to Leatherhead)                            1799
+  Norwich Asylum and School                            1805
+  Richmond Asylum, Dublin                              1810
+  Aberdeen Asylum                                      1812
+  Molyneux Asylum, Dublin                              1815
+  Glasgow Asylum and School                            1827
+  Belfast School                                       1831
+  Wilberforce School, York                             1833
+  Limerick Asylum                                      1834
+  London Society for Teaching the Blind to Read, St
+    John's Wood, N.                                    1838
+  Royal Victoria School for the Blind,
+    Newcastle-on-Tyne                                  1838
+  West of England Institute for the Blind, Exeter      1838
+  Henshaw's Blind Asylum, Manchester                   1839
+  County and City of Cork Asylum                       1840
+  Catholic Asylum, Liverpool                           1841
+  Brighton Asylum                                      1842
+  Midland Institute for the Blind, Nottingham          1843
+  General Institute for the Blind, Birmingham          1848
+  Macan Asylum, Armagh                                 1854
+  St Joseph's Asylum, Dublin                           1858
+  St Mary's Asylum, Dublin                             1858
+  Institute for the Blind, Devonport                   1860
+  South Devon and Cornwall Institute for the Blind,
+    Plymouth                                           1860
+  School for the Blind, Southsea                       1864
+  Institute for the Blind, Dundee                      1865
+  South Wales Institute for the Blind, Swansea         1865
+  School for the Blind, Leeds                          1866
+  College for the Sons of Gentlemen, Worcester         1866
+  Northern Counties Institute for the Blind, Inverness 1866
+  Royal Normal College and Academy of Music for the
+    Blind, Upper Norwood                               1872
+  School for the Blind, Sheffield                      1879
+  Barclay Home and School for Blind Girls, Brighton    1893
+  Homes for Blind Children, Preston                    1895
+  North Stafford School, Stoke-on-Trent                1897
+
+
+Many of the early institutions were asylums, and to the present day
+schools for the blind are regarded by the public as asylums rather than
+as educational establishments. With nearly all these schools workshops
+were connected. In 1856 Miss Gilbert, the blind daughter of the bishop
+of Chichester, established a workshop in Berners Street, London, and
+since that date workshops have been started in many of the provincial
+towns.
+
+After the beginning of the 19th century, institutions for the blind were
+established in various parts of Europe. The institution at Vienna was
+founded in 1804 by Dr W. Klein, a blind man, and he remained at its head
+for fifty years. That of Berlin was established in 1806, Amsterdam,
+Prague and Dresden in 1808, Copenhagen in 1811. There are more than 150
+on the European continent, most of them receiving aid from the
+government, and being under government supervision.
+
+The first school for the blind in the United States was founded in
+Boston, Mass., chiefly through the efforts of Dr John D. Fisher, a young
+physician who visited the French school. It was incorporated in 1829,
+and in honour of T.H. Perkins (1764-1854) who gave his mansion to the
+institution was named the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts Asylum
+(now School) for the Blind. Aid was granted by the state from the
+beginning. In 1831 Dr Samuel G. Howe (q.v.) was appointed director,
+and held that position for nearly forty-four years; being succeeded by
+his son-in-law Michael Anagnos (d. 1906), who established a kindergarten
+for the blind at Jamaica Plain, in connexion with the Perkins
+Institution. Dr Howe was interested in many charitable and sociological
+movements, but his life-work was on behalf of the blind. One of his most
+notable achievements was the education of Laura Bridgman (q.v.) who
+was deaf, dumb and blind, and this has since led to the education of
+Helen Keller and other blind deaf-mutes. The New York Institution was
+incorporated in 1831, and the Pennsylvania Institution was founded at
+Philadelphia by the Society of Friends in 1833. The Ohio was founded at
+Columbus in 1837, Virginia at Staunton in 1839, Kentucky at Louisville
+in 1842, Tennessee at Nashville in 1844, and now every state in the
+Union makes provision for the education of the blind.
+
+
+STATISTICS
+
+  England and Wales.
+
+In England and Wales the total number of persons returned in 1901 as
+afflicted with blindness was 25,317, being in the proportion of 778 per
+million living, or 1 blind person in every 1285 of the population. The
+following table shows that the proportion of blind persons to population
+has diminished at each successive enumeration since 1851, in which year
+particulars of those afflicted in this manner were ascertained for the
+first time. It will, however, be noted that, although the decrease in
+the proportion of blind in the latest intercensal period was still
+considerable, yet the rate of decrease which had obtained between 1871
+and 1891 was not maintained.--
+
+  +------+-----------+-------------------+-------------------+
+  | Year.| Number of | Blind per Million | Persons Living to |
+  |      |   Blind.  | of the Population | one Blind Person. |
+  +------+-----------+-------------------+-------------------+
+  | 1851 |  18,306   |       1021        |         979       |
+  | 1861 |  19,352   |        964        |        1037       |
+  | 1871 |  21,590   |        951        |        1052       |
+  | 1881 |  22,832   |        879        |        1138       |
+  | 1891 |  23,467   |        809        |        1236       |
+  | 1901 |  25,317   |        778        |        1285       |
+  +------+-----------+-------------------+-------------------+
+
+The following table, which gives the proportions of blind per million
+living at the earlier age-groups, shows that in the decennium 1891-1901,
+as also in recent previous intercensal periods, there was a decrease in
+the proportion of blind children in England and Wales generally; it thus
+lends support to the contention, in the _General Report_ for 1891, that
+the decrease was due either to the lesser prevalence, or to the more
+efficient treatment, of purulent ophthalmia and other infantile maladies
+which may result in blindness.
+
+  +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |   Age-Period.  | 1851 | 1861 | 1871 | 1881 | 1891 | 1901 |
+  +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  | Under 5 years  | 198  | 196  | 185  | 166  | 155  | 129  |
+  |      5-10      | 297  | 256  | 259  | 288  | 188  | 192  |
+  |     10-15      | 365  | 366  | 359  |  "   | 290  | 323  |
+  |     15-20      | 416  | 415  | 404  | 388  | 370  | 239  |
+  |     20-25      | 481  | 443  | 451  | 422  | 385  | 359  |
+  +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  | Total under 25 | 339  | 322  | 317  | 298  | 269  | 261  |
+  +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+In 1886 a royal commission on the blind, deaf and dumb was appointed by
+the government, and, after taking much valuable evidence, issued an
+exhaustive and instructive report. Following on the practical
+recommendations submitted by this commission, the Elementary Education
+(Blind and Deaf Children) Act 1893, was passed, under which the
+education of the blind became for the first time compulsory. In terms of
+this statute, the school authorities were made responsible for the
+provision of suitable elementary education for blind children up to
+sixteen years of age, and grants of £3, 3s. for elementary subjects, and
+of £2, 2s. for industrial training, were contributed by the state
+towards the cost of educating children in schools certified as efficient
+within the meaning of the Elementary Education Act 1876. The principal
+aim of the Education Act of 1893 was to supply education in some useful
+profession or trade which will enable the blind to earn their livelihood
+and to become useful citizens; but the weak spot was that no provision
+was made therein for the completion of their education and industrial
+training after the age of sixteen.
+
+In England and Wales, in 1907, there were twenty-four resident schools
+and forty-three workshops for the blind. In many of the large towns, day
+classes for the education of blind children have been established by
+local education authorities. There are forty-six home teaching
+societies, who send teachers to visit the blind in their homes, to teach
+adults who wish to learn to read, to act as colporteurs, to lend and
+exchange useful books, and to act as Scripture readers to those who are
+aged and infirm. All the home teaching societies for the blind and many
+public libraries lend embossed books. The public library at Oxford has
+nearly 400 volumes of classical works for the use of university
+students.
+
+A society was instituted in 1847 by Dr W. Moon for stereotyping and
+embossing the Scriptures and other books in "Moon" type. The type has
+been adapted to over 400 languages and dialects. After Dr Moon's death
+in 1884 the work was carried on by his daughter, Miss Adelaide Moon, and
+the books are much used by the adult blind.
+
+In 1868 Dr T.R. Armitage, being aware of the great improvements which
+had been made in the education of the blind in other countries, founded
+the British and Foreign Blind Association. This association was formed
+for the purpose of promoting the education and employment of the blind,
+by ascertaining what had been done in these respects in various
+countries, by endeavouring to supply deficiencies where these were found
+to exist, and by attempting to bring about greater harmony of action
+between the different existing schools and institutions. It gave a new
+impetus to the education and training of the blind in the United
+Kingdom. At that time their education was in a state of chaos. The
+Bible, or a great part of it, had been printed in five different
+systems. The founders took as an axiom that the relative merits of the
+various methods of education through the sense of touch should be
+decided by those and those only who have to rely on this sense. The
+council, who were all totally or partially blind, spent two years in
+comparing the different systems of embossed print. In 1869 and 1870 Dr
+Armitage corresponded with Dr J.R. Russ in regard to the New York Point.
+No trouble was spared to arrive at a right conclusion. The Braille
+system was finally adopted, and the association at once became a centre
+for supplying frames for writing Braille, printed books, maps, music and
+other educational apparatus for the blind. All books printed by the
+association are printed from stereotyped plates embossed by blind
+copyists. About 3000 separate works, varying in length from 1 to 12
+volumes, have been copied by hand to meet the requirements of public
+libraries and individuals. About 700 ladies, who give their services,
+make the first Braille copy of these books, and they are recopied by
+blind scribes, chiefly women and girls, who are paid for their work.
+
+The National Lending library, London, was founded in 1882. It has over
+5500 volumes in Braille and other types. Books are forwarded to all
+parts of the United Kingdom.
+
+There are fourteen magazines published in embossed type in the United
+Kingdom.
+
+There are thirty-six pension societies--the principal are
+Hetherington's, Day's, the Clothworkers', the Cordwainers', the National
+Blind Relief Society, Royal Blind Pension Society and Indigent Blind
+Visiting Society.
+
+The Gardner Trust administers the income of £300,000 left by Henry
+Gardner in 1879. The income is used for instructing the blind in the
+profession of music, in suitable trades, handicrafts and professions
+other than music, for pensions, and free grants to institutions and
+individuals for special purposes.
+
+
+    Scotland.
+
+  According to the census of 1901, Scotland had 3253 (or 727 per
+  million) blind persons, as against 2797 in 1891, but in a paper read
+  at the conference in Edinburgh, 1906, the superintendent of the
+  Glasgow Mission to the Out-door Blind stated that there were 758
+  employed or being educated in institutions, and 3238 known as
+  "out-door blind," making a total of 3996. There are in Scotland ten
+  missions, so distributed as to cover the whole country, and regular
+  visits are made as far north as the Orkney and Shetland Islands. In
+  carrying on the work, there are twenty-four paid missionaries or
+  teachers and a large number of voluntary helpers. These societies
+  originated in a desire to teach the blind to read in their own homes,
+  and to provide them with the Scriptures and other religious books, but
+  the social, intellectual and temporal needs of the blind also receive
+  a large share of attention. These teachers afford the best means of
+  circulating embossed literature, therefore the library committee of
+  the Glasgow corporation has agreed to purchase books and place them in
+  the mission library instead of in the public library. As the
+  institutions provide for only a small number of the blind, strenuous
+  efforts are made by the committee and teachers of missions to find
+  some employment for the many adults who come under their care.
+
+  In Glasgow, a ladies' auxiliary furnishes work for 150 knitters, and
+  takes the responsibility of disposing of their work. In Scotland there
+  are five schools for the young blind, and in connexion with each is a
+  workshop for adults. In Edinburgh the school is at West Craigmillar,
+  and the workshop in the city, but both are under the same board of
+  directors.
+
+
+    Ireland.
+
+  According to the census of 1901, there were 4253 totally blind persons
+  in Ireland, a proportion of 954 per million, as against 1135 in 1891.
+  Of these, 2430 were over 60 years of age and 11 over 100. These
+  figures do not include the partially blind, who numbered 1217. The
+  fact that so many aged blind persons are to be found in Ireland is
+  doubtless due to an ophthalmic epidemic which occurred during the
+  Irish famine. There are twelve institutions, a home mission and home
+  teaching society; nine of these institutions are asylums, that system
+  having been largely adopted in Ireland. The scarcity of manufacturing
+  industries, except in a few northern counties, entails a lack of work
+  suited to the blind. The Elementary Education Act (Blind and Deaf)
+  does not extend to Ireland.
+
+  The following table gives the number of blind in age-groups in 1901:--
+
+    +---------------+---------+----------------+---------+
+    |  Age-Period.  | Number. |   Age-Period.  | Number. |
+    +---------------+---------+----------------+---------+
+    | Under 5 years |    10   |      50-55     |   392   |
+    |      5-10     |    38   |      55-60     |   314   |
+    |     10-15     |    64   |      60-65     |   617   |
+    |     15-20     |    73   |      65-70     |   382   |
+    |     20-25     |    95   |      70-75     |   540   |
+    |     25-30     |   116   |      75-80     |   306   |
+    |     30-35     |   146   |      80-85     |   372   |
+    |     35-40     |   146   |      85-90     |   118   |
+    |     40-45     |   205   | 95 and upwards |    95   |
+    |     45-50     |   224   |                |         |
+    +---------------+---------+----------------+---------+
+
+
+    British Colonies.
+
+  In the Dominion of Canada, South Africa, the states of the Australian
+  Commonwealth and New Zealand, provision is made by the government for
+  the education of the young blind, and in some cases for training the
+  adults in handicrafts. Embossed literature is carried free of expense,
+  and on the Victorian railways no charge is made for the guide who
+  accompanies a blind person.
+
+  The following were the census returns for 1901:--
+
+    Victoria           1082      Tasmania        173
+    New South Wales     884      New Zealand     274 (1891)
+    South Australia     315      Natal            68
+    Queensland          209      Cape Colony    2802 (1904)
+    West Australia      121      Canada         3279
+
+  In Australia there are institutions for the blind at Melbourne,
+  Sydney, Adelaide, Brighton, Brisbane and Maylands near Perth. In New
+  Zealand the institution is at Auckland.
+
+  In Cape Colony between 1875 and 1891, there was an extraordinary
+  increase in blindness, but between 1891 and 1904 the rate per 10,000
+  has decreased 23.78%. There is an institution at Worcester for
+  deaf-mutes and blind, founded in 1881. It is supported by a government
+  grant, fees and subscription.
+
+  Schools for the blind were established by the Dominion government at
+  Brantford, Ontario (1871), and Halifax, Nova Scotia (1867).
+
+  In Montreal there are two private institutions, the M'Kay Institute
+  for Protestant Deaf-Mutes and Blind, and a school for Roman Catholic
+  children under the charge of the Sisters of Charity.
+
+
+  United States.
+
+In the United States the education of the blind is not regarded as a
+charity, but forms part of the educational system of the country, and is
+carried on at the public expense. According to the _Annual Report_ of
+the Commissioner of Education for 1908, there were 40 state schools,
+with 4340 pupils. The value of apparatus, grounds and buildings was
+$9,201,161. For salaries and other expenditure, the aggregate was
+$1,460,732. The United States government appropriates $10,000 annually
+for printing embossed books, which are distributed among the different
+state schools for the blind. Beside these state schools, there are
+workshops for the blind subsidized by the state government or the
+municipality. Commissions composed of able men have recently been
+appointed in several of the states to take charge of the affairs of the
+blind from infancy to old age. The exhaustive summary of the 12th census
+enables these commissions to communicate with every blind person in
+their respective states.
+
+At the 12th census a change was made in the plan for securing the
+returns, and the work of the enumerators was restricted to a brief
+preliminary return, showing only the name, sex, age, post office
+address, and nature of the existing defects in all persons alleged to be
+blind or deaf. Dr Alexander Graham Bell, of Washington, D.C., was
+appointed expert special agent of the census office for the preparation
+of a report on the deaf and blind. He was empowered to conduct in his
+own name a correspondence relating to this branch of the census inquiry.
+A circular containing eighteen questions was addressed to every blind
+person given in the census, and from the data contained in the replies
+the following tables (I., II., III., IV.) have been compiled.
+
+TABLE I.--_The Blind, by Degree of Blindness and Sex._
+
+  +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+
+  |                            |  The   |   The   |    The    |
+  |            Sex.            | Blind. | Totally | Partially |
+  |                            |        |  Blind. |   Blind.  |
+  +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+
+  | Number--                   |        |         |           |
+  |    Total                   | 64,763 | 35,645  |  29,118   |
+  |      Male                  | 37,054 | 20,144  |  16,190   |
+  |      Female                | 27,709 | 15,501  |  12,208   |
+  +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+
+  | Per cent distribution--    |        |         |           |
+  |    Total                   |  100.0 |  100.0  |   100.0   |
+  |      Male                  |   57.2 |   56.5  |    58.1   |
+  |      Female                |   42.8 |   43.5  |    41.9   |
+  |                            |        |         |           |
+  | Number per 1,000,000       |        |         |           |
+  |   population of same sex-- |        |         |           |
+  |    Both sexes              |    852 |    469  |     383   |
+  |      Male                  |    955 |    519  |     436   |
+  |      Female                |    745 |    417  |     328   |
+  +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+
+
+TABLE II.--_The Blind, by Degree of Blindness, Age-Periods, Colour and
+Nativity._
+
+  +--------------------------+----------+----------------------------+----------+
+  |                          |          |           White.           |          |
+  | Degree of Blindness and  |   All    +--------+---------+---------+ Coloured.|
+  |        Age-Period.       | Classes. | Total. | Native. | Foreign-|          |
+  |                          |          |        |         |  born.  |          |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+
+  | Number--                 |          |        |         |         |          |
+  |   The blind              |  64,763  | 56,535 | 45,479  | 10,694  |   8228   |
+  |     Under 20 years       |   8,308  |  7,252 |  6,937  |    231  |   1056   |
+  |     20 years and over    |  56,165  | 49,067 | 38,388  | 10,420  |   7098   |
+  |     Age unknown          |     290  |    216 |    154  |     43  |     74   |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+
+  |   The totally blind      |  35,645  | 30,359 | 23,636  |  6,511  |   5286   |
+  |     Under 20 years       |   4,123  |  3,543 |  3,377  |    129  |    580   |
+  |     20 years and over    |  31,363  | 26,704 | 20,179  |  6,636  |   4639   |
+  |     Age unknown          |     159  |    112 |     80  |     19  |     27   |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+
+  |   The partially blind    |  29,118  | 26,176 | 21,843  |  4,183  |   2942   |
+  |     Under 20 years       |   4,185  |  3,709 |  3,560  |    102  |    476   |
+  |     20 years and over    |  24,802  | 22,363 | 18,209  |  4,057  |   2439   |
+  |     Age unknown          |     131  |    104 |     74  |     24  |     27   |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+
+  | Number per 1,000,000     |          |        |         |         |          |
+  |  population of same age--|          |        |         |         |          |
+  |   The blind              |     852  |    846 |    804  |  1,047  |    896   |
+  |     Under 20 years       |     247  |    250 |    248  |    215  |    229   |
+  |     20 years and over    |   1,334  |  1,305 |  1,348  |  1,143  |   1574   |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+
+  |   The totally blind      |     469  |    454 |    418  |    637  |    576   |
+  |     Under 20 years       |     123  |    122 |    121  |    120  |    126   |
+  |     20 years and over    |     745  |    710 |    708  |    698  |   1033   |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+
+  |   The partially blind    |     383  |    392 |    386  |    410  |    320   |
+  |     Under 20 years       |     124  |    128 |    127  |     95  |    103   |
+  |     20 years and over    |     589  |    595 |    639  |    445  |    541   |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+
+
+  The enumerators reported a total of 101,123 persons alleged to be
+  blind as defined in the instructions contained in the schedules, but
+  this number was greatly reduced as a result of the correspondence
+  directly with the individuals, 8842 reporting that the alleged defect
+  did not exist, and 6544 that they were blind only in one eye but were
+  able to see with the other, and hence did not come within the scope of
+  the inquiry. No replies were received in 19,884 cases in which
+  personal schedules were sent, although repeated inquiries were made;
+  consequently these cases were dropped. In 380 cases the personal
+  schedules returned were too incomplete for use, and in 75 cases
+  duplication was discovered. The number of cases remaining for
+  statistical treatment, after making the eliminations and corrections,
+  was 64,763, representing 35,645 totally blind, and 29,118 partially
+  blind. This number, however, can be considered only as the minimum, as
+  an unknown proportion of the blind were not located by the
+  enumerators, and doubtless a considerable proportion of the 19,884
+  persons who failed to return the personal schedules should be included
+  in the total.
+
+  "Blindness, either total or partial, is so largely a defect of the
+  aged, and occurs with so much greater frequency as the age advances
+  and the population diminishes, that in any comparison of the
+  proportion of the blind in the general population of different
+  classes, such as native and foreign-born whites, or white and
+  coloured, the age distribution of the population of each class should
+  be constantly borne in mind. The differences in this respect account
+  for many of the differences in the gross ratios, and it is only when
+  ratios are compared for classes of population of identical ages that
+  their relative liability to blindness can be properly inferred."
+
+  Table II. shows the classification, by degree of blindness, of the
+  blind under twenty years of age, twenty years of age and over, and of
+  unknown age, with respect to colour and nativity, with the number at
+  the specified ages per million of population in the same age-group.
+
+  The relationship or consanguinity of parents of the 64,763 blind was
+  reported in 56,507 cases, in 2527 (or 4.5%) of which the parents were
+  related as cousins.
+
+  In 57,726 cases the inquiry as to the existence of blind relatives was
+  answered; 10,967 (or 19%) of this number reported that they had blind
+  relatives.
+
+  Of the 2527 blind persons whose parents were cousins, 993 (or 39.3%)
+  had blind relatives,--844 having blind brothers, sisters or ancestors,
+  and 149 having blind collateral relatives or descendants.
+
+  Of the 53,980 blind whose parents were not related, 9490 (or 17.6%)
+  had blind relatives, 7395 having blind brothers, sisters or ancestors,
+  and 2095 having blind collateral relatives or descendants.
+
+  It was found that, of the 2527 blind whose parents were cousins, 632
+  (or 25%) were congenitally blind, of whom 350 (or 55.4%) had also
+  blind relatives of the classes specified; while, among the 53,980
+  whose parents were not so related, the number of congenitally blind
+  was 3666 (or but 6.8%), of whom only 1023 (or 27.9%) had blind
+  relatives.
+
+
+    France.
+
+  In 1883 the number of blind in France was estimated at 32,056, the
+  total population of the country being 38,000,000; 2548 of the blind
+  were under, and 29,508 above, 21 years of age; of the former 857 were
+  receiving instruction in 21 schools supported by the state, by the
+  city of Paris, by some of the departments, and by some religious
+  bodies. The four Parisian institutions are the Institution Nationale
+  des Jeunes Aveugles, the École Braille (founded in 1883), the
+  Établissement des Soeurs Aveugles de St Paul (founded in 1852), and
+  that of the Frères de Saint Jean de Dieu (founded in 1875).
+
+  TABLE III.--_The Blind, by Degree of Blindness and Age-Periods._
+
+    +--------------------------+----------+----------+-----------+
+    |                          |   The    |   The    |    The    |
+    |      Age-Period.         |  Blind.  | Totally  | Partially |
+    |                          |          |  Blind.  |   Blind.  |
+    +--------------------------+----------+----------+-----------+
+    | Number--                 |          |          |           |
+    |   All Ages               |  64,763  |  35,645  |  29,118   |
+    |     Under 10 years       |   2,307  |   1,262  |   1,045   |
+    |        10-19 years       |   6,001  |   2,861  |   3,140   |
+    |        20-29   "         |   4,861  |   2,851  |   2,010   |
+    |        30-39   "         |   5,024  |   3,077  |   1,947   |
+    |        40-49   "         |   6,504  |   3,778  |   2,726   |
+    |        50-59   "         |   8,530  |   4,791  |   3,739   |
+    |        60-69   "         |  10,507  |   5,835  |   4,672   |
+    |        70-79   "         |  11,421  |   6,132  |   5,289   |
+    |        80-89   "         |   7,490  |   3,885  |   3,605   |
+    |        90-99   "         |   1,596  |     851  |     745   |
+    |     100 years and over   |     232  |     163  |      69   |
+    |     Age unknown          |     290  |     159  |     131   |
+    | Number per 1,000,000     |          |          |           |
+    |  population of same age--|          |          |           |
+    |   All ages               |     852  |     469  |     383   |
+    |     Under 10 years       |     128  |      70  |      58   |
+    |        10-19 years       |     384  |     183  |     201   |
+    |        20-29   "         |     351  |     206  |     145   |
+    |        30-39   "         |     478  |     293  |     185   |
+    |        40-49   "         |     845  |     491  |     354   |
+    |        50-59   "         |   1,655  |     930  |     725   |
+    |        60-69   "         |   3,396  |   1,886  |   1,510   |
+    |        70-79   "         |   8,136  |   4,368  |   3,768   |
+    |        80-89   "         |  22,022  |  11,423  |  10,599   |
+    |        90-99   "         |  52,746  |  28,125  |  24,621   |
+    |     100 years and over   |  66,210  |  46,518  |  19,692   |
+    |     Age unknown          |   1,446  |     793  |     653   |
+    +--------------------------+----------+----------+-----------+
+
+
+    Germany.
+
+  The number of the blind in Germany was about 39,000, or 870 per
+  million in 1885. The number of institutions was 28, nearly all being
+  educational, with a total of 2139 pupils. All these institutions,
+  except two which are supported entirely by private munificence, are
+  largely assisted by the state, the communes or the provinces.
+  Seventeen of them derive their entire requirements from the state, so
+  that they are quite independent of private charity, while the
+  remainder are only supplemented from public funds so far as the
+  private contributions fall short of the expenses.
+
+
+    Saxony system.
+
+  The following extracts were made from an official communication from
+  Hofrath Büttner, director of the institution for the blind in Dresden,
+  to the royal commission, concerning the care and supervision
+  (_Fürsorge_) of the blind after their discharge from the
+  institution:--
+
+  "When twenty years of age, the blind are usually discharged from the
+  institution. Long experience has taught us that the care and
+  supervision of the blind after their discharge from the institution
+  are quite as important as their education and training in the
+  institution. It would, in our opinion, be unjust to remove them from
+  their sad surroundings, educate and accustom them to higher wants, and
+  then allow them to sink backward into their former miserable way of
+  life. After much deliberation it was decided to remain in connexion
+  with the discharged blind, to visit them in their places of abode, to
+  learn their wants, to study the difficulties which they experienced in
+  supporting themselves independently, and, as far as possible, to
+  remove their grievances. Director Georgi began this work in 1843.
+  Director Reinhard continued it from 1867 to 1879, and the present
+  director has followed the same path. With the knowledge of these
+  difficulties the _Fürsorge_ (care) for discharged blind steadily
+  advanced, and has won the confidence of the Saxon people. It was
+  decided that, on the discharge of the blind person, the director
+  should select a trustworthy person, residing in his future place of
+  abode, to give him advice and practical help, to protect him from
+  imposition, and to keep up communication with the director. If this
+  guardian is unable to advise or help, he then writes to the director,
+  who, if necessary, comes to the place, and this is all the easier as
+  he travels free on all railways in Saxony. The result of these visits,
+  as well as all communications from the guardian, the letters from the
+  blind person, and every document relating to him, are entered in a
+  register kept at the institution. These guardians are respectable,
+  benevolent, practical men, capable of procuring custom for their
+  wards. But there was no doubt that, in spite of these arrangements,
+  the discharged blind were unable to support themselves without the
+  assistance of capital, whether in money or outfit. The blind man can
+  do as good work as the man who can see; but as a rule he does not work
+  so quickly, and if the man who is not blind has to use every exertion
+  to support himself and his family, the blind man to do the same
+  requires some special help, without which he will either not be able
+  to compete, or will have to lead a life of great privation.
+
+  "The first difficulty when a blind pupil is starting in life is to
+  provide himself with the necessary tools and material. These the
+  institution supplies to him, and continues through life to afford him
+  moral and material help; and by this means the greater part of the
+  blind are enabled to save money for sickness and old age. Those who
+  cannot return to their relations cannot at once meet all their
+  expenses, and the weak and old need special help. A part of the money
+  for their board and lodging is paid for those who have to be settled
+  in other places on account of the death or untrustworthiness of their
+  relatives.
+
+  "The fund for the discharged blind is administered by the director of
+  the institution. The number of those assisted amounts at present to
+  about 400, who live respectably in all parts of Saxony, are almost
+  self-supporting, and feel themselves free men. For, just as a son does
+  not feel galled by a gift from his father, so they are not ashamed to
+  receive assistance from their second paternal home, the institution."
+
+
+    Holland.
+
+  The number of the blind in Holland, according to the census of the 1st
+  of December 1869, was 1593, or one in every 2247 of the general
+  population. The Protestants and Roman Catholics were about equally
+  balanced. No cognizance was taken of the blind in the census of 1879.
+  There is only one blind institution, that of Amsterdam, with 60
+  pupils, with a preparatory school at Benuchem (with 20 pupils) and an
+  asylum for adults with 52 inmates (unmarried). Besides these, there
+  are workshops at Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Hague, Utrecht and
+  Middelburg.
+
+
+    Denmark.
+
+  According to the census of 1870, there were in Denmark 1249 blind (577
+  males and 672 females), or one blind for every 1428 persons. One
+  institution has been established by government, i.e. the Royal
+  Institution for the Blind, at Copenhagen; 100 children, aged 10 and
+  upwards, are here educated. There is a preparatory school for blind
+  children under 10 years of age, and an asylum for blind females, most
+  of whom are former pupils of the royal school. An association for
+  promoting the self-dependence of the blind assists not only former
+  pupils of the school but every blind man or woman willing and able to
+  work.
+
+  TABLE IV.--_The Blind, by Consanguinity of Parents, Degree of
+  Blindness, and Blind Relatives of Other Classes._
+
+    +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+
+    |                     |        |          |          |No Blind |       |
+    |                     |        |          |Collateral|Relatives|       |
+    |   Consanguinity     |        |  Blind   |Relatives |or Rela- |  Not  |
+    |    of Parents.      | Total. | Brothers,|  or De-  |tives by |Stated.|
+    |                     |        |Sisters or|scendants |Marriage |       |
+    |                     |        |Ancestors.|  alone,  |  alone, |       |
+    |                     |        |          |  Blind.  |  Blind. |       |
+    +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+
+    |All Classes--        |        |          |          |         |       |
+    |  The blind          | 64,763 |   8629   |   2338   | 46,759  | 7037  |
+    |    Totally blind    | 35,645 |   4378   |   1215   | 25,349  | 3703  |
+    |    Partially blind  | 29,118 |   4251   |   1123   | 20,410  | 3334  |
+    +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+
+    |Parents cousins--    |        |          |          |         |       |
+    |  The blind          |  2,527 |    844   |    149   |  1,456  |   78  |
+    |    Totally blind    |  1,291 |    435   |     78   |    739  |   39  |
+    |    Partially blind  |  1,236 |    409   |     71   |    717  |   39  |
+    +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+
+    |Parents not cousins--|        |          |          |         |       |
+    |  The blind          | 53,980 |   7395   |   2095   | 43,368  | 1122  |
+    |    Totally blind    | 29,892 |   3720   |   1090   | 24,541  |  541  |
+    |    Partially blind  | 24,088 |   3675   |   1005   | 18,827  |  581  |
+    +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+
+    |Consanguinity of par-|        |          |          |         |       |
+    |  ents not stated--  |        |          |          |         |       |
+    |  The blind          |  8,256 |    390   |     94   |  1,935  | 5837  |
+    |    Totally blind    |  4,462 |    223   |     47   |  1,069  | 3123  |
+    |    Partially blind  |  3,794 |    167   |     47   |    866  | 2714  |
+    +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+
+
+
+    Sweden.
+
+  The number of blind persons in Sweden, according to the census of
+  December 1880, was 3723, being at the rate of one blind person for
+  every 1226 of the general population. At the beginning of the year
+  1879, the instruction of the blind in Sweden was completely separated
+  from that of the deaf and dumb, on the grounds that it hindered the
+  intellectual development of the blind--a conclusion which experience
+  shows to be tolerably correct. Since July 1888 the Royal Institution
+  of the Blind has obtained a new building at Tomteboda, near Stockholm.
+
+
+    Norway.
+
+  The law of the 8th of July 1881, concerning the instruction of
+  abnormal children, has imposed on the state the duty of establishing a
+  sufficient number of schools for the blind in Norway as well as for
+  the other abnormal children. All the blind of the country, from 9
+  years of age until the age of 21, are compelled to be educated, with a
+  maximum of 8 years of instruction for each pupil.
+
+
+    Finland.
+
+  The census of 1873 showed that in Finland there were 7959 blind in a
+  total population of about 2,000,000 inhabitants, the proportion
+  reaching the very high figure of one for every 251 of the total
+  population. Nevertheless there were only 160 of school age. For these
+  there are two institutions, one at Helsingfors where the instruction
+  is given in the Swedish language, and where there are about 12 pupils,
+  and another at Kuopio, where the instruction is given in the Finnish
+  language, and where the pupils number about 30.
+
+
+    Austria.
+
+  According to information received from the I.R. Central Commission for
+  Statistics, the number of blind in the provinces represented in the
+  Austrian Reichsrath amounted to 15,582 in the year 1884. Of these,
+  2345 were children up to 15 years of age, namely 433 below 5, 779 from
+  5 to 10, and 1113 from 10 to 15 years. The total number of
+  institutions for blind children in Austria amounts to 8. The blind
+  children of school age who are not placed in special institutions are
+  compulsorily taught in the public general free schools, as far as
+  practicable. The number of blind in the whole dominion of the crown of
+  St Stephen was 208,391.
+
+
+    Italy.
+
+  The number of blind persons in Italy was 21,718, according to the
+  census of 1881, and those of school age were estimated to form 25% of
+  the whole, or about 5429 in number. But no special cognizance of the
+  blind is taken in the government census. There are 20 institutions,
+  schools and workshops for the blind.
+
+
+    Russia.
+
+  Statistics with regard to the number and condition of the blind in the
+  Russian empire are of a very limited character, and it is only of late
+  years that any attempt has been made to draw up any accurate returns
+  with regard to them. The total number of the blind throughout the
+  empire is generally reckoned at from 160,000 to 200,000, thus making
+  1600 to 2000 per million inhabitants. In Russia there are 21
+  institutions for the support of the blind.
+
+
+    Egypt
+
+  "In Egypt the blind are very numerous in comparison with other
+  countries, and although no exact statistics are at present obtainable
+  on this point, it is computed that the proportion is at least one
+  totally blind person to every 50 of the population. This is
+  principally the result of acute ophthalmia occurring in infancy, and
+  it is fostered by the superstitious observance which prevents the
+  mothers from washing their children from the time of birth until they
+  are two years old, at which late date only they are weaned. There is
+  also a great deal of infection carelessly and ignorantly conveyed
+  direct from eye to eye, by means of unwashed fingers, and this is
+  accountable for the occurrence of much more eye-disease than any that
+  may be caused by the proverbial flies. The only employment followed by
+  the blind, both Mahommedan and Coptic (or native Christian), and that
+  only to a limited extent, is recitation aloud--the former repeating
+  portions of the Koran at funerals, and the latter chanting the
+  church-ritual in their services; the blind girls and women are without
+  occupation. Practically no education is given to the blind as a class,
+  and anything which they learn has to be acquired orally by frequent
+  repetition. The blind were not always so completely neglected, as the
+  native ecclesiastical authorities (Wakf) gave an annual grant of £2000
+  for the continued maintenance of a school for the blind and the deaf
+  and dumb in Cairo, which taught about 80 day-pupils; the latter years
+  of the school were passed under the ministry of education, and it was
+  ultimately discontinued. Such a condition of affairs appealed to Dr
+  T.R. Armitage, and explains his motive in trying to establish some
+  proper means for affording the blind in Egypt the necessary scholastic
+  instruction and other training. In Egypt, as in other countries, it is
+  occasionally very difficult, and takes some time, to start any
+  enterprise such as this on a satisfactory and practical footing, and
+  it was left for Mrs T.R. Armitage to be the means of successfully
+  carrying out her husband's wishes in this particular. In 1900 Mrs
+  Armitage asked Dr Kenneth Scott to prepare a scheme for the education
+  and welfare of the blind in Egypt, on lines suggested to her. This,
+  through the British and Foreign Blind Association, was submitted to
+  Queen Victoria, who graciously commanded it to be sent, through the
+  foreign office, to the khedive, who in mark of approbation and
+  encouragement generously gave a handsome donation towards its
+  realization. The Institution for the Blind was established at Zeitoun,
+  Cairo, early in the year 1901, through funds provided by Mrs T.R.
+  Armitage. The object of the institution, which is wholly unsectarian
+  in character, is to educate and train the blind mentally and
+  physically and in industrial occupations, and at the same time to
+  improve their moral standard, so that eventually they may become in
+  great measure, or even completely, self-supporting." (Dr Kenneth
+  Scott.)
+
+
+    India.
+
+  India has a large proportion of blind inhabitants, ranging from one in
+  600 in some provinces, to one in 400 in others, with a total of more
+  than half a million. Until recently, little had been done in the way
+  of organized effort to educate them, though many of the missionaries
+  had helped individual cases. At Amritsar a large and well-organized
+  work for the blind has been carried on for many years. This school has
+  now been moved to Rajpur, and helps 70 blind women and children. In
+  1903 a government school and hospital were established at Bombay as a
+  memorial to Queen Victoria. Reading, writing, arithmetic, tailoring,
+  typewriting, carpentering, lathe-work and carpet-weaving are taught.
+  There are small schools at Parantij, Calcutta, Palancottah, Calicut,
+  Coorg, Chota-Nagpur, and at Moulmein in Burma. The memorial to Queen
+  Victoria in Ceylon took the form of work for the blind. J. Knowles,
+  with the help of L. Garthwaite of the Indian Civil Service, devised a
+  scheme of oriental Braille, which has been adopted by the British and
+  Foreign Bible Society for the production of the Scriptures in Eastern
+  languages.
+
+
+    China.
+
+  Blindness is very prevalent in China, and to eye-diseases, neglect and
+  dirt, must be added leprosy and smallpox as causes. Blind beggars may
+  be seen on every highway, clamouring for alms. As in India their
+  pitiful condition attracted the attention of the missionaries. W.H.
+  Murray, a Scottish missionary in Peking, made a simple and ingenious
+  adaptation of the Braille symbols to the complicated system of Chinese
+  printing, in which over 4000 characters are required. It was necessary
+  to represent at least 408 sounds, and each one was given a
+  corresponding Braille number. When a pupil reads the number he knows
+  instantly the sound for which it stands. A school for the blind was
+  established at Peking, and the version of the Scriptures printed at
+  Peking can be read in all the provinces where the Northern Mandarin
+  dialect is spoken (see Miss Gordon Cumming, _The Inventor of the
+  Numeral Type for China_). A Braille code has recently been arranged
+  for Mandarin, based on a system of initials and finals, by Miss
+  Garland of the China Inland Mission. At Foochow there is a large
+  school for boys and girls in connexion with the Church Missionary
+  Society. At Ningpo, Amoy, Canton and Fukien work for the blind is
+  carried on by the missionaries.
+
+
+    Japan.
+
+  The blind in Japan have long been trained in massage, acupuncture and
+  music, and until recently, with few exceptions, none but the blind
+  engaged in these occupations. From three to five years are required to
+  become proficient in massage, but a blind person is then able to
+  support himself. In Yokohama, with a population of half a million,
+  there are 1000 men and women engaged in massage, and all but about 100
+  of these are blind. In 1878 a school for the blind and deaf-mutes was
+  established in Kyoto, and soon after one in Tokyo. Japan has four
+  schools for the blind, and seven combined schools for the blind and
+  deaf-mutes.
+
+
+    Palestine.
+
+  As in other Eastern countries, blindness is very prevalent in
+  Palestine. Ophthalmic hospitals and medical attendance are now
+  available in the larger towns, and the missionary schools have done
+  much to inculcate habits of cleanliness, therefore there is a slight
+  decrease in the number of the blind. The home and school for blind
+  girls in Jerusalem is the outcome of a day school opened in 1896 by an
+  American missionary. There is also a small school at Urfa under the
+  auspices of the American mission in that town.
+
+
+EDUCATION
+
+  Early training.
+
+As more sensations are received through the eye than through any other
+organ, the mind of a blind child is vacant, and the training should
+begin early or the mind will degenerate. Indirectly the loss of sight
+results in inaction. If no one encourages a blind child to move, he will
+sit quietly in a corner, and when he leaves his seat will move timidly
+about. This want of activity produces bad physical effects, and further
+delays mental growth. The blind are often injured, some of them ruined
+for life, through the ignorance and mistaken kindness of their friends
+during early childhood. They should be taught to walk, to go up and down
+stairs, to wash, dress and feed themselves.
+
+They should be carefully taught correct postures and attitudes, and to
+avoid making grimaces. They should be told the requirements of social
+conventions which a seeing child learns through watching his elders.
+They have no consciousness that their habits are disagreeable, and the
+earlier unsightly mannerisms are corrected the better. It is a fallacy
+to suppose that the other senses of the blind are naturally sharper than
+those of the seeing. It is only when the senses of hearing and touch
+have been cultivated that they partially replace sight, and such
+cultivation can begin with very young children.
+
+Blind children have a stronger claim upon the public for education than
+other children, because they start at a disadvantage in life, they carry
+a burden in their infirmity, they come mostly of poor parents, and
+without special instruction and training they are almost certain to
+become a public charge during life.
+
+Public authorities should adopt the most efficient plan for preparing
+blind children to become active, independent men and women, rather than
+consider the cheapest and easiest method of educating them. We cannot
+afford to give the blind an education that is not the best of its kind
+in the trade or profession they will have to follow. There are many
+seeing persons with little education who are useful citizens and
+successful in various industries, but an uneducated blind person is
+helpless, and must become dependent.
+
+The surroundings of the blind do not favour the development of activity,
+self-reliance and independence. Parents and friends find it easier to
+attend to the wants and requirements of their blind children than to
+teach them to be self-helpful in the common acts of everyday life. A
+mistaken kindness leads the friends to guard every movement and prevent
+physical exertion. As a rule, the vitality of the blind is much below
+the average vitality of seeing persons, and any system of education
+which does not recognize and overcome this defect will be a failure. It
+is the lack of energy and determination, not the want of sight, that
+causes so many failures among the blind.
+
+
+  Physical training.
+
+A practical system of education, which has for its object to make the
+blind independent and self-sustaining, must be based upon a
+comprehensive course of physical development. A blind man who has
+received mechanical training, general education, or musical instruction,
+without physical development, is like an engine provided with everything
+necessary except motive power.
+
+Schools for the blind should be provided with well-equipped gymnasia,
+and the physical training should include various kinds of mass and
+apparatus work. Large and suitable playgrounds are also essential.
+Besides a free space where they can run and play, it should have a
+supply of swings, tilts, jumping-boards, stilts, chars-à-bancs,
+skittle-alleys, &c. Any game that allows of sides being taken adds
+greatly to the enjoyment, and is a powerful incentive to play. The
+pupils should be encouraged to enter into various competitions, as
+walking, running, jumping, leap-frog, sack-racing, shot-pitching,
+tug-of-war, &c. Cycling, rowing, swimming and roller-skating are not
+only beneficial but most enjoyable.
+
+
+  Mental training.
+
+The subjects in the school curriculum should be varied according to the
+age and capacity of the pupils, but those which cultivate the powers of
+observation and the perceptive faculties should have a first place.
+Object lessons or nature study should have a large share of attention.
+Few people realize that a blind child knows nothing of the size, shape
+and appearance of common objects that lie beyond the reach of his arm.
+When he has once been shown how to learn their characteristics, he will
+go on acquiring a knowledge of his surroundings unaided by a teacher.
+Again, a careful drill in mental arithmetic, combining accuracy with
+rapidity, is essential. A good command of English should be cultivated
+by frequent exercises in composition, and by committing to memory
+passages of standard prose and poetry. In his secondary course, the
+choice of subjects must depend upon his future career. Above all,
+stimulate a love of good reading.
+
+
+  Early manual training.
+
+From the earliest years manual dexterity should be cultivated by
+kindergarten work, modelling, sewing, knitting and sloyd. Blind children
+who have not had the advantage of this early handwork find much more
+difficulty when they begin a regular course in technical training. Early
+manual training cultivates the perceptive faculties, gives activity to
+the body, and prepares the hands and finger for pianoforte-playing,
+pianoforte-tuning and handicrafts.
+
+
+  Choice of occupation
+
+Besides a good general education, the blind must have careful and
+detailed training in some handicraft, or thorough preparation for some
+profession. The trades and professions open to them are few, and if they
+fail in one of these they cannot turn quickly to some other line of work.
+Those who have charge of their education should avail themselves of the
+knowledge that has been gained in all countries, in order to decide
+wisely in regard to the trade or occupation for which each pupil should
+be prepared. It may be some kind of handicraft, pianoforte-tuning,
+school-teaching, or the profession of music; the talent and ability of
+each child should be carefully considered before finally deciding his
+future occupation. The failure to give the blind a practical education
+often means dependence through life.
+
+
+  Pianoforte-tuning.
+
+Pianoforte-tuning as an employment for the blind originated in Paris.
+About 1830 Claud Montal and a blind fellow-pupil attempted to tune a
+piano. The seeing tuner in charge of the school pianos complained to the
+director, and they were forbidden to touch the works, but the two
+friends procured an old piano and continued their efforts. Finally, the
+director, convinced of their skill, gave them charge of all the school
+pianos, and classes were soon started for the other pupils. When Montal
+left the institution he encountered great prejudice, but his skill in
+tuning became known to the professors of the Conservatoire, and his work
+rapidly increased and success was assured. Montal afterwards established
+a manufactory, and remained at its head for many years. Tuning is an
+excellent employment for the blind, and one in which they have certain
+advantages. The seeing who excel in the business go through a long
+apprenticeship, and one must give the blind even more careful
+preparation. They must work a number of hours daily, under suitable
+tuition, for several years. After a careful examination by an expert
+pianoforte-tuning authority, every duly qualified tuner should be
+furnished with an official certificate of proficiency, and tuners who
+cannot take the required examinations ought not to be allowed to impose
+upon the public.
+
+
+  Musical training.
+
+Music in its various branches, when properly taught, is the best and
+most lucrative employment for the blind. To become successful in the
+profession, it is necessary for the blind to have opportunities of
+instruction, practice, study, and hearing music equal to those afforded
+the seeing, with whom they will have to compete in the open market. If
+the blind musician is to rise above mediocrity, systematic musical
+instruction in childhood is indispensable, and good instruction will
+avail little unless the practice is under constant and judicious
+supervision. The musical instruction, in its several branches of
+harmony, pianoforte, organ and vocal culture, must be addressed to the
+mind, not merely to the ear. This is the only possible method by which
+musical training can be made of practical use to the blind. The blind
+music teacher or organist must have a well-disciplined mind, capable of
+analysing and dealing with music from an intellectual point of view. If
+the mental faculties have not been developed and thoroughly disciplined,
+the blind musician, however well he may play or sing, will be a failure
+as a teacher. The musical instruction must be more thorough, more
+analytical, more comprehensive, than corresponding instruction given to
+seeing persons. In 1871 Dr Armitage published a book on the education
+and employment of the blind, in which he stated that of the blind
+musicians trained in the United Kingdom not more than one-half per cent
+were able to support themselves, whereas of those trained in the Paris
+school 30% supported themselves fully, and 30% partially, by the
+profession of music.
+
+
+  Royal Normal College.
+
+To provide a better education and improve the musical training of the
+blind, the Royal Normal College was established in 1872.[3] Its object
+was to afford the young blind a thorough general and musical education,
+to qualify them to earn a living by various intellectual pursuits,
+especially as organists, pianists, teachers and pianoforte-tuners. From
+the first, the founders of the college maintained that the blind could
+only be made self-sustaining by increasing their intelligence, bodily
+activity and dexterity, by inculcating business habits, by arousing
+their self-respect, and by creating in their minds a belief in the
+possibility of future self-maintenance. A kindergarten department was
+opened in 1881. In July 1896 Queen's Scholarship examinations were held
+at the Royal Normal College, for the first time, for blind students, and
+the institution recognized by the Education Department as a training
+college for blind school-teachers.
+
+
+  Educational needs.
+
+From the first day a pupil enters school until he finishes his course of
+training, care must be taken to implant business habits. Blind children
+are allowed to be idle and helpless at home; they do not learn to
+appreciate the value of time, and in after years this is one of the most
+difficult lessons to inculcate. Having drifted through childhood, they
+are content to drift through life. The important habits of punctuality,
+regularity and precision should be cultivated in all the arrangements
+and requirements. A great effort should be made to lift the blind from
+pauperism. As soon as pupils enter a school, all semblance of pauper
+origin should be removed. They must be inspired with a desire for
+independence and a belief in its possibility. In the public mind
+blindness has been so long and closely associated with dependence and
+pauperism that schools for the blind, even the most progressive, have
+been regarded hitherto as asylums rather than educational
+establishments. A sad mistake in the training of the blind is the lack
+of an earnest effort to improve their social condition. The fact that
+their education has been left to charity has helped to keep them in the
+ranks of dependents.
+
+The question of day-classes versus boarding-schools has been much
+discussed. It is claimed by some that a blind child gains more
+independence if kept at home and educated in a school with the seeing.
+This theory is not verified by practical experience. At home its
+blindness makes the child an exception, and often it takes little or no
+part in the active duties of everyday life. Again, in a class of seeing
+children the blind member is treated as an exception. The memory is
+cultivated at the expense of the other faculties, and the facility with
+which it recites in certain subjects causes it to make a false estimate
+of its attainments. The fundamental principles in different branches are
+imperfectly understood, from the failure to follow the illustrations of
+the teacher. In the playgrounds, a few irrepressibles join in active
+games, but most of the blind children prefer a quiet corner.
+
+For the sake of economy, schools for deaf-mutes and the blind are
+sometimes united. As the requirements of the two classes are entirely
+separate and distinct, the union is undesirable, whether for general
+education or industrial training. The plan was tried in America, but has
+been given up in most of the states. To meet the difficulty of proper
+classification with small numbers, blind boys and girls are taught in
+the same classes. The acquaintances then made lead to intimacy in later
+years and foster intermarriage among the blind. Intermarriage among the
+blind is a calamity, both for them and for their children; some who
+might have been successful business men are to-day begging in the
+streets in consequence of intermarriage.
+
+In every school or class there will be a certain number of young blind
+children who, from neglect, want of food, or other causes, are feeble in
+body and defective in intellect; such children are a great burden in any
+class or school, and require special treatment and instruction.
+Educational authorities should unite and have one or two schools in a
+healthful locality for mentally defective blind children.
+
+More and more, in educational work for the seeing, there is a tendency
+to specialize, and thus enable each student to have the best possible
+instruction in the subjects that bear most directly on his future
+calling. To prepare the blind for self-maintenance, there should be an
+equally careful study of the ability of each child.
+
+A scheme of education which has for its object to make the blind a
+self-sustaining class should include: kindergarten schools for children
+from 5 to 8 years of age; preparatory schools from 8 to 11; intermediate
+schools from 11 to 14. At 14 an intelligent opinion can be formed in
+regard to the future career of the pupils. They will fall naturally into
+the following categories:--(a) A certain number will succeed better in
+handicraft than in any other calling, and should be drafted into a
+suitable mechanical school. (b) A few will have special gifts for
+general business, and should be educated accordingly. (c) A few will
+have the ability and ambition to prepare for the university, and the
+special college should afford them the most thorough preparation for the
+university examinations. (d) Some will have the necessary talent,
+combined with the requisite character and industry, to succeed in the
+musical profession; in addition to a liberal education, these should
+have musical instruction, equal to that given to the seeing, in the best
+schools of music. (e) Some may achieve excellent success as
+pianoforte-tuners, and in a pianoforte-tuning school strict business
+habits should be cultivated, and the same attention to work required as
+is demanded of seeing workmen in well-regulated pianoforte factories.
+
+The United Kingdom stands almost alone in allowing the education of the
+blind to depend upon charity. In the United States, each state
+government not only makes liberal provision for the education and
+training of the blind, but most of them provide grounds, buildings and a
+complete equipment in all departments. Although it costs much more _per
+capita_, from £40 to £60 per annum, the blind are as amply provided with
+the means of education as the seeing. The government of the United
+States appropriates $10,000 per annum for printing embossed books for
+the blind. Most of the European countries and the English colonies
+provide by taxation for the education of the blind.
+
+
+TYPES
+
+The earliest authentic records of tangible letters for the blind
+describe a plan of engraving the letters upon blocks of wood, the
+invention of Francesco Lucas, a Spaniard, who dedicated it to Philip II.
+of Spain in the 16th century. In 1640 Pierre Moreau, a writing-master in
+Paris, cast a movable leaden type for the use of the blind, but being
+without means to carry out his plan, abandoned it. Pins inserted in
+cushions were next tried, and large wooden letters. After these came a
+contrivance of Du Puiseaux, a blind man, who had metal letters cast and
+set them in a small frame with a handle. Whilst these experiments were
+going on in France, attempts had also been made in Germany. R.
+Weissembourg (a resident of Mannheim), who lost his sight when about
+seven years of age, made use of letters cut in cardboard, and afterwards
+pricked maps in the same material. By this method he taught Mlle
+Paradis, the talented blind musician and the friend of Valentin Haüy.
+
+To Haüy belongs the honour of being the first to emboss paper as a means
+of reading for the blind; his books were embossed in large and small
+italics, from movable type set by his pupils. The following is an
+account of the origin of his discovery. Haüy's first pupil was François
+Lesueur, a blind boy whom he found begging at the porch door of St
+Germain des Prés. While Lesueur was sorting the papers on his teacher's
+desk, he came across a card strongly indented by the types in the press.
+The blind lad showed his master he could decipher several letters on the
+card. Immediately Haüy traced with the handle of his pen some signs on
+paper. The boy read them, and the result was printing in relief, the
+greatest of Haüy's discoveries. In 1821 Lady Elizabeth Lowther brought
+embossed books and types from Paris, and with the types her son, Sir
+Charles Lowther, Bart., printed for his own use the Gospel of St
+Matthew. The work of Haüy was taken up by Mr Gall of Edinburgh, Mr
+Alston of Glasgow, Dr Howe of Boston, Mr Friedlander of Philadelphia,
+and others. In 1827 James Gall of Edinburgh embossed some elementary
+works, and published the Gospel of St John in 1834. His plan was to use
+the common English letter and replace curves by angles.
+
+In 1832 the Edinburgh Society of Arts offered a gold medal for the best
+method of printing for the blind, and it was awarded to Dr Edmond Fry of
+London, whose alphabet consisted of ordinary capital letters without
+their small strokes. In 1836 the Rev. W. Taylor of York and John Alston
+in Glasgow began to print with Fry's type. Mr Alston's appeal for a
+printing fund met with a hearty response, and a grant of £400 was made
+by the treasury; in 1838 he completed the New Testament, and at the end
+of 1840 the whole Bible was published in embossed print. In 1833
+printing for the blind was commenced in the United States at Boston and
+Philadelphia. Dr S.G. Howe in Boston used small English letters without
+capitals, angles being employed instead of curves, while J.R.
+Friedlander in Philadelphia used only Roman capitals. About 1838 T.M.
+Lucas of Bristol, a shorthand writer, and J.H. Frere of Blackheath, each
+introduced an alphabet of simpler forms, and based their systems on
+stenography. In 1847 Dr Moon of Brighton brought out a system which
+partially retains the outline of the Roman letters. This type is easily
+read by the adult blind, and is still much used by the home teaching
+societies. The preceding methods are all known as line types, but the
+one which is now in general use is a point type.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Moon Alphabet.]
+
+In the early part of the 19th century Captain Charles Barbier, a French
+officer, substituted embossed dots for embossed lines. The slate for
+writing was also invented by him.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.
+
+Apparatus for writing Braille.
+
+Braille Alphabet. The black dots represent the raised points of the sign
+in their position in relation to the group of six.]
+
+Barbier arranged a table of speech sounds, consisting of six lines with
+six sounds in each line. His rectangular cell contained two vertical
+rows of six points each. The number of points in the left-hand row
+indicates in which horizontal line, and that in the right-hand row in
+which vertical line, of the printed table the speech sound is to be
+found.
+
+Louis Braille, a pupil and afterwards a professor of the Institution
+Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles, Paris, studied all the various methods in
+which arbitrary characters were used. Barbier's letter, although it gave
+a large number of combinations, was too long to be covered by the finger
+in reading, and Louis Braille reduced the number of dots. In 1834
+Braille perfected his system. Dr Armitage considered it was the greatest
+advance that had ever been made in the education of the blind.
+
+The Braille alphabet consists of varying combinations of six dots in an
+oblong, of which the vertical side contains three, and the horizontal
+two dots.
+
+  · ·
+  · ·
+  · ·
+
+There are 63 possible combinations of these six dots, and after the
+letters of the alphabet have been supplied, the remaining signs are used
+for punctuation, contractions, &c.
+
+  "For writing, a ruler is used, consisting of a metal bed either
+  grooved or marked by groups of little pits, each group consisting of
+  six; over this bed is fitted a brass guide, punched with oblong holes
+  whose vertical diameter is three-tenths of an inch, while the
+  horizontal diameter is two-tenths. The pits are arranged in two
+  parallel lines, and the guide is hinged on the bed in such a way that
+  when the two are locked together the openings in the guide correspond
+  exactly to the pits in the bed. The brass guide has a double row of
+  openings, which enables the writer to write two lines; when these are
+  written, he shifts his guide downwards until two little pins, which
+  project from the under surface at its ends, drop into corresponding
+  holes of a wooden board; then two more lines are written, and this
+  operation is repeated until the bottom of the page is reached. The
+  paper is introduced between the frame and the metal bed. The
+  instrument for writing is a blunt awl, which carries a little cap of
+  paper before it into the grooves or pits of the bed, thereby producing
+  a series of little pits in the paper on the side next the writer. When
+  taken out and turned over, little prominences are felt, corresponding
+  to the pits on the other side. The reading is performed from left to
+  right, consequently the writing is from right to left; but this
+  reversal presents no practical difficulty as soon as the pupil had
+  caught the idea that in reading and writing alike he has to go
+  _forwards_.
+
+  "The first ten letters, from 'a' to 'j,' are formed in the upper and
+  middle grooves; the next ten, from 'k' to 't,' are formed by adding
+  one lower back dot to each letter of the first series; the third row
+  is formed from the first by adding two lower dots to each letter; the
+  fourth row, similarly, by adding one lower front dot.
+
+  "The first ten letters, when preceded by the prefix for numbers, stand
+  for the nine numbers and the cipher. The same signs, written in the
+  lower and middle grooves, instead of the upper and middle, serve for
+  punctuation. The seven last letters of each series stand for the seven
+  musical notes--the first series representing quavers, the second
+  minims, the third semibreves, the fourth crotchets. Rests,
+  accidentals, and every other sign used in music can be readily and
+  clearly expressed without having recourse to the staff of five lines
+  which forms the basis of ordinary musical notation, and which, though
+  it has been reproduced tor the blind, can only be considered as
+  serving to give them an idea of the method employed by the seeing, and
+  cannot, of course, be written. By means of this dotted system, a blind
+  man is able to keep memoranda or accounts, write his own music, emboss
+  his own books from dictation, and carry on correspondence."
+
+The Braille system for literature and music was brought into general use
+in England by Dr T.R. Armitage. Through his wise, untiring zeal and
+noble generosity, every blind man, woman and child throughout the
+English-speaking world can now obtain not only the best literature, but
+the best music.
+
+In America there are two modifications of the point type, known as New
+York point and American braille. In each of these the most frequently
+recurring letters are represented by the least number of dots.
+
+The original Braille is used by the institutions for the blind in the
+British empire, European countries, Mexico, Brazil and Egypt.
+
+
+APPLIANCES FOR EDUCATIONAL WORK
+
+The apparatus for writing point alphabets has already been described.
+Frank H. Hall, former superintendent of the School for the Blind,
+Jacksonville, Ill., U.S.A., has invented a Braille typewriter and
+stereotype maker; the latter embosses metal plates from which any number
+of copies can be printed. An automatic Braille-writer has been brought
+out in Germany, and William B. Wait (principal of the Institution for
+the Blind in New York City) has invented a machine for writing New York
+point. These machines are expensive, but A. Wayne of Birmingham has
+brought out a cheap and effective Braille-writer. H. Stainsby, secretary
+of the Birmingham institution, and Wayne have invented a machine for
+writing Braille shorthand.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Arithmetic Board, Pin and Characters. A, Shape
+of opening in the board for pin; B and C, pin.]
+
+Many boards have been constructed to enable the blind to work
+arithmetical problems. The one which is most used was invented by the
+Rev. W. Taylor. The board has star-shaped openings in which a square pin
+fits in eight different positions. The pin has on one end a plain ridge
+and on the other a notched ridge; sixteen characters can be formed with
+the two ends. The board is also used for algebra, another set of type
+furnishing the algebraic symbols.
+
+Books are prepared with raised geometrical diagrams; figures can be
+formed with bent wires on cushions, or on paper with a toothed wheel
+attached to one end of a pair of compasses.
+
+Geography is studied by means of relief maps, manufactured in wood or
+paper. The physical maps and globes prepared for seeing children are
+used also for the blind.
+
+Chiefly owing to the unremitting energy and liberality of Dr T.R.
+Armitage, in connexion with the British and Foreign Blind Association,
+all school appliances for the blind have been greatly improved and
+cheapened.
+
+
+EMPLOYMENT
+
+Reference has been made to the fact that music in its various branches
+furnishes the best and most lucrative employment for the blind. But
+those who have not the ability, or are too old to be trained for music
+or some other profession, must depend upon handicrafts for their
+support. The principal ones taught in the various institutions are the
+making of baskets, brushes, mats, sacks, ships' fenders, brooms and
+mattresses, upholstery, wire-work, chair-caning, wood-chopping, &c.
+Females are taught to make fancy baskets and brushes, chair-caning,
+knitting, netting, weaving, sewing--hand and machine--crocheting, &c. It
+is difficult to find employment for blind girls. It is hoped that
+typewriting and massage will prove remunerative.
+
+The blind, whether educated for the church, trained as teachers,
+musicians, pianoforte-tuners, or for any other trade or occupation,
+generally require assistance at the outset. They need help in finding
+suitable employment, recommendations for establishing a connexion,
+pecuniary assistance in providing outfits of books, tools, instruments,
+&c., help in the selection and purchase of the best materials at the
+lowest wholesale rates, in the sale of their manufactured goods in the
+best markets, and if overtaken by reverses, judicious and timely help
+towards a fresh start. Every institution should keep in touch with its
+old pupils. The superintendent who carefully studies the successes and
+failures of his pupils when they go into the world, will more wisely
+direct the work and energies of his present and future students.
+
+Within recent years great improvements have been made in some of the
+progressive workshops for the blind. At the conference in London in 1902
+Mr T. Stoddart gave the following information in regard to the work in
+Glasgow:--"We are building very extensive additions to our workshops,
+which will enable us to accommodate 600 blind people. We mean to employ
+the most up-to-date methods, and are introducing electric power to drive
+the machinery and light the workshops. We have to do with the average
+blind adult recently deprived of sight after he has attained an age of
+from 25 to 40 or even 50 years. In Glasgow we have developed an industry
+eminently suitable for the employment of the blind, namely, the
+manufacture of new and the remaking of old bedding. There are industries
+which are purely local, where certain articles of manufacture largely
+used in one district are useless, or nearly so, in another; but the
+field in which this industry may be promoted is practically without
+limit. It is perhaps the employment _par excellence_ for the blind, and
+among other advantages it has the following to recommend it: employment
+is provided for the blind of both sexes and of all ages; there is no
+accumulation nor deterioration of stock; it yields an excellent profit,
+and its use is universal. We have been pushing this industry for years,
+our annual turnover in this particular department having exceeded £7000,
+and as we find it so suited to the capabilities of all grades of blind
+people, it is our intention to provide facilities for doing a turnover
+of three times that amount. Instead of the thirty sewing-machines which
+we have at present running by power, we hope to employ 100 blind women.
+At cork-fender-making, also an industry of the most suitable kind, we
+are at present employing about thirty workers. It is also our intention
+to greatly develop and extend our mat-making department."
+
+In the United States many blind persons are engaged in agricultural
+pursuits, and some are very successful in commercial pursuits. When a
+man loses his sight in adult life, if he can possibly follow the
+business in which he has previously been engaged, it is the best course
+for him. In the present day, work in manufactories is subdivided to such
+an extent that often some one portion can be done by a blind person; but
+it needs the interest of some enthusiastic believer in the capabilities
+of the blind to persuade the seeing manager that blind people can be
+safely employed in factories.
+
+In England, at the time of the royal commission of 1889, upwards of 8000
+blind persons, above the age of 21, were in receipt of relief from the
+guardians, of whom no less than 3278 were resident in workhouses or
+workhouse infirmaries. The census returns for 1901 indicate that the
+number at that time was equally large. It would certainly be more
+economical to establish workshops where the able-bodied adult blind can
+be trained in some handicraft and employed.
+
+The papers read at the various conferences show that, even under the
+most favourable circumstances, some are not able to earn enough for
+their support; nevertheless, employment improves their condition; there
+is no greater calamity than to live a life of compulsory idleness in
+total darkness. The cry of the blind is not alms but work. One of the
+workshops in western America has adopted the motto, "Independence
+through Industry," and it should be the aim of every civilized country
+to hasten the time when blindness and pauperism shall no longer be
+synonymous terms.
+
+
+BIOGRAPHY
+
+It may be interesting, in conclusion, to mention some of the names of
+prominent blind people in history:--
+
+  Timoleon (c. 410-336 B.C.), a Greek general.
+
+  Aufidius, a Roman senator.
+
+  Bela II. (d. 1141), king of Hungary.
+
+  John, king of Bohemia (1296-1346), killed in the battle of Crécy.
+
+  John Zizca (c. 1376-1424), Bohemian general.
+
+  Basil III. (d. 1462), prince of Moscow.
+
+  Shah Alam (d. 1806), the last of the Great Moguls.
+
+  Diodorus, the instructor of Cicero.
+
+  Didymus of Alexandria (c. 308-395), mathematician, theologian and
+  linguist.
+
+  Nicase of Malines (d. 1492), professor of law in the university of
+  Cologne. The degree of doctor of divinity was conferred on him by the
+  university of Louvain, and the pope granted a dispensation suspending
+  the law of the Church, that he might be ordained as a priest.
+
+  Ludovico Scapinelli (b. 1585), professor at the universities of
+  Bologna, Modena and Pisa.
+
+  James Schegkius (d. 1587), professor of philosophy and medicine at
+  Tübingen.
+
+  Franciscus Salinas, professor of music at the university of Salamanca,
+  in the 16th century.
+
+  Nicholas Bacon (16th century), doctor of laws in the university of
+  Brussels.
+
+  Count de Pagan of Avignon (b. 1604), mathematician of note.
+
+  John Milton (1608-1674), the poet.
+
+  Rev. Richard Lucas (1648-1715), prebendary of Westminster.
+
+  Nicholas Saunderson (q.v.; 1682-1739).
+
+  John Stanley (1713-1786), Mus. Bac. Oxon., was born in London in 1713.
+  At seven he began to study music, and made such rapid progress that he
+  was appointed organist of All-Hallows, Bread Street, at the age of
+  eleven. He graduated as Mus. Bac. at Oxford when sixteen, and was
+  organist of the Temple church at the age of twenty-one. He composed a
+  number of cantatas, and after the death of Handel he superintended the
+  performance of Handel's oratorios at Covent Garden. He received the
+  degree of doctor of music, and was master of the king's band.
+
+  Leonard Euler (1707-1783), the celebrated mathematician and
+  astronomer.
+
+  John Metcalf (b. 1717), road-builder and contractor.
+
+  Sir John Fielding (d. 1780), eminent lawyer and magistrate.
+
+  Thomas Blacklock (q.v.; 1721-1791), Scottish scholar and poet.
+
+  François Huber (1750-1831), Swiss naturalist, noted for his
+  observations on bees.
+
+  Edward Rushton (b. 1756). At six years of age he entered the Liverpool
+  free grammar school, and at eleven shipped for his first voyage in a
+  West India merchantman. On a later voyage he was shipwrecked, and owed
+  his life to the self-sacrifice of a negro. Rushton and the black man
+  swam for their lives to a floating cask; the negro reached it first,
+  saw Rushton about to sink, pushed the cask to the failing lad, and
+  struck out for the shore, but never reached it. This incident made
+  Rushton an enthusiastic champion through life of the cause of the
+  negro. During a voyage to Dominica malignant ophthalmia broke out
+  among the slave cargo, and Rushton caught the disease by attending
+  them in the hold when all others refused help. This attack deprived
+  him of sight, and cut short a promising nautical career at the age of
+  nineteen. He struggled bravely against difficulties, and besides
+  entering successfully into various literary engagements, maintained
+  himself and family as a bookseller. A volume of his poems containing a
+  memoir was published in 1824.
+
+  Marie Thérèse von Paradis (b. 1759), the daughter of an imperial
+  councillor in Vienna. She was a godchild of the empress Marie Thérèse,
+  and as her parents possessed rank and wealth, no expense was spared in
+  her education. Weissembourg,  a blind man, was her tutor, and she
+  learned to spell with letters cut out of pasteboard, and read words
+  pricked upon cards with pins. She studied the piano with Richter (of
+  Holland) and Kozeluch. She was a highly esteemed pianist, and Mozart
+  wrote a concerto for her; she also attained considerable skill on the
+  organ, in singing and in composition. She made a concert tour of
+  Europe, visiting the principal courts and everywhere achieving great
+  success. She remained four months in England, under the patronage of
+  the queen. On her return to Vienna, through Paris, she met Valentin
+  Haüy. Towards the close of her life she devoted herself to teaching
+  singing and the pianoforte with great success.
+
+  James Holman (q.v.; 1786-1857), traveller.
+
+  William H. Prescott (q.v.; 1796-1859), the American historian.
+
+  Several early 19th-century musicians held situations as organists in
+  London; among them Grenville, Scott, Lockhart, Mather, Stiles and
+  Warne.
+
+  Louis Braille (1809-1852). In 1819 he went to the school for the blind
+  in Paris. He became proficient on the organ, and held a post in one of
+  the Paris churches. While a professor at the Institution Nationale des
+  Jeunes Aveugles, he perfected his system of point writing.
+
+  Alexander Rodenbach, Belgian statesman. When a member of the chamber
+  of deputies, in 1836, he introduced and succeeded in establishing by
+  law the right of blind and deaf-mute children to an education.
+
+  Dr William Moon (1818-1894), the inventor of the type for the blind
+  which bears his name.
+
+  Rev. W.H. Milburn, D.D. (1823-1903), the American chaplain, known in
+  the United States as "The Blind Man Eloquent." He often travelled from
+  thirty to fifty thousand miles a year, speaking and preaching every
+  day. He was three times chaplain of the House of Representatives, and
+  in 1893 was chosen to the chaplaincy of the senate.
+
+  Dr T.R. Armitage (b. 1824). After spending his youth on the continent,
+  he became a medical student, first at King's College, and afterwards
+  at Paris and Vienna. His career promised to be a brilliant one, but at
+  the age of thirty-six failing sight caused him to abandon his
+  profession. For the rest of his life he devoted his time and fortune
+  to the interests of the blind. He reorganized the Indigent Blind
+  Visiting Society, endowed its Samaritan fund, founded the British and
+  Foreign Blind Association, and, in conjunction with the late duke of
+  Westminster and others, founded the Royal Normal College.
+
+  Elizabeth Gilbert (b. 1826), daughter of the bishop of Chichester. She
+  lost her sight at the age of three. She was educated at home, and took
+  her full share of household duties and cares and pleasures. When she
+  was twenty-seven, she began to consider the condition of the poor
+  blind of London. She saw some one must befriend those who had been
+  taught trades, some one who could supply material, give employment or
+  dispose of the articles manufactured. In 1854 her scheme was started,
+  and work was given to six men in their own homes, but the number soon
+  increased. In 1856 a committee was formed, a house converted into a
+  factory, and the Association for Promoting the General Welfare of the
+  Blind was founded.
+
+  Rev. George Matheson, D.D. (b. 1842), preacher and writer of the
+  Church of Scotland. The degree of D.D. was conferred on him by the
+  university of Edinburgh in 1879, and he was appointed Baird Lecturer
+  in 1881, and St Giles' Lecturer in 1882.
+
+  Henry Fawcett (1833-1884), professor of political economy at
+  Cambridge, and postmaster-general.
+
+  W.H. Churchman of Pennsylvania, who was instrumental in establishing
+  the schools for the blind in Tennessee, Indiana and Wisconsin.
+
+  H.L. Hall, founder of the workshops and home for the blind in
+  Philadelphia; by his energetic management he raised the standard of
+  work for the adult blind throughout America.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See also W.H. Levy, _Blindness and the Blind_ (1872);
+  J. Wilson, _Biography of the Blind_ (1838); Dr T.R. Armitage,
+  Education and Employment of the Blind (2nd ed., 1882); R.H. Blair,
+  _Education of the Blind_ (1868); M. Anagnos, _Education of the Blind_
+  (1882); H.J. Wilson, _Institutions, Societies and Classes for the
+  Blind in England and Wales_ (1907); Guillié, _Instruction and
+  Amusements of the Blind_ (1819); Dr W. Moon, _Light for the Blind_
+  (1875); R. Meldrum, _Light on Dark Paths_ (2nd ed., 1891); Dr H. Roth,
+  _Prevention of Blindness_ (1885), and his _Physical Education of the
+  Blind_ (1885); _Report of Royal Commission_ (1889); Gavin Douglas,
+  _Remarkable Blind Persons_ (1829); John Bird, _Social Pathology_
+  (1862); M. de la Sizeranne, _The Blind in Useful Avocations_ (Paris,
+  1881), _True Mission of Smaller Schools_ (Paris, 1884), _The Blind in
+  France_ (Paris, 1885), _Two Years' Study and Work for the Blind_
+  (Paris, 1890), and _The Blind as seen by a Blind Man_ [translated by
+  Dr Park Lewis] (Paris, 1893); Dr Émile Javal, _The Blind Man's World_
+  [translated by Ernest Thomson] (Paris, 1904); Prof. A. Mell,
+  _Encyklopadisches Handbuch des Blindenwesens_ (Vienna, 1899).
+       (F. J. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] There are no late returns for Iceland, but the last available
+    statistics gave 3400 per million. A paper written in 1903 on
+    blindness in Egypt stated that 1 in every 50 of the population was
+    blind.
+
+  [2] Previous returns from Finland have shown a much larger number of
+    blind persons, but these statistics were supplied by the British
+    consul in St Petersburg from the last census.
+
+  [3] Its principal (responsible, with Dr Armitage, the duke of
+    Westminster and others, for its foundation) was Sir F.J. Campbell,
+    LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.S.A., himself a blind man, who, born in Tennessee,
+    U.S.A., in 1832, and educated at the Nashville school, and afterwards
+    in music at Leipzig and Berlin, had from 1858 to 1869 been associated
+    with Dr Howe at the Perkins Institution, Boston. He was knighted in
+    1909.
+
+
+
+
+BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON (1833-   ), American merchant and politician,
+was born at Fall River, Massachusetts, on the 26th of January 1833. He
+was educated in his native city and in New Orleans, where he early
+entered his step-father's counting-house. Returning to Massachusetts in
+1849, he became a clerk and subsequently a junior partner in a prominent
+Boston commercial house. Later he removed to New York City to establish
+a branch of the firm. In 1881 he organized and became president of
+Bliss, Fabyan & Company, one of the largest wholesale dry-goods houses
+in the country. A consistent advocate of the protective tariff, he was
+one of the organizers, and for many years president, of the American
+Protective Tariff League. In politics an active Republican, he was
+chairman of the Republican state committee in 1887 and 1888, and
+contributed much to the success of the Harrison ticket in New York in
+the latter year. He was treasurer of the Republican national committee
+from 1892 to 1904, and was secretary of the interior in President
+McKinley's cabinet from 1897 to 1899.
+
+
+
+
+BLISTER (a word found in many forms in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger.
+_Blase_; it is ultimately connected with the same root as in "blow," cf.
+"bladder"), a small vesicle filled with serous fluid raised on the skin
+by a burn, by rubbing on a hard surface, as on the hand in rowing, or by
+other injury; the term is also used of a similar condition of the skin
+caused artificially, as a counter-irritant in cases of inflammation, by
+the application of mustard, of various kinds of fly (see CANTHARIDES)
+and of other vesicatories. Similar small swellings, filled with fluid or
+air, on plants and on the surface of steel or paint, &c., are also
+called "blisters."
+
+
+
+
+BLIZZARD (origin probably onomatopoeic, cf. "blast," "bluster"), a
+furious wind driving fine particles of choking, blinding snow whirling
+in icy clouds. The conditions to which the name was originally given
+occur with the northerly winds in rear of the cyclones crossing the
+eastern states of America during winter.
+
+
+
+
+BLOCK, MARK ELIEZER (c. 1723-1799), German naturalist, was born at
+Ansbach, of poor Jewish parents, about 1723. After taking his degree as
+doctor at Frankfort-on-Oder he established himself as a physician at
+Berlin. His first scientific work of importance was an essay on
+intestinal worms, which gained a prize from the Academy of Copenhagen,
+but he is best known by his important work on fishes (see ICHTHYOLOGY).
+Bloch was fifty-six when he began to write on ichthyological subjects.
+To begin at his time of life a work in which he intended not only to
+give full descriptions of the species known to him from specimens or
+drawings, but also to illustrate each species in a style truly
+magnificent for his time, was an undertaking the execution of which most
+men would have despaired of. Yet he accomplished not only this task, but
+even more than he at first contemplated. He died at Carlsbad on the 6th
+of August 1799.
+
+
+
+
+BLOCK, MAURICE (1816-1901), French statistician, was born in Berlin of
+Jewish parents on the 18th of February 1816. He studied at Bonn and
+Giessen, but settled in Paris, becoming naturalized there. In 1844 he
+entered the French ministry of agriculture, becoming in 1852 one of the
+heads of the statistical department. He retired in 1862, and thenceforth
+devoted himself entirely to statistical studies, which have gained for
+him a wide reputation. He was elected a member of the Académie des
+Sciences Morales et Politiques in 1880. He died in Paris on the 9th of
+January 1901. His principal works are: _Dictionnaire de l'administration
+française_ (1856); _Statistique de la France_ (1860); _Dictionnaire
+général de la politique_ (1862); _L'Europe polilique et sociale_ (1869);
+_Traité théorique et pratique de statistique_ (1878); Les Progrés de
+l'économie politique depuis Adam Smith_ (1890); he also edited from 1856
+_L'Annuaire de l'économie politique et de la statistique_, and wrote in
+German _Die Bevolkerung des französischen Kaiserreichs_ (1861); Die
+Bevolkerung Spaniens und Portugals_ (1861); and _Die Machtstellung der
+europäischen Staaten_ (1862).
+
+
+
+
+BLOCK (from the Fr. _bloc_, and possibly connected with an Old Ger.
+_Block_, obstruction, cf. "baulk"), a piece of wood. The word is used in
+various senses, e.g. the block upon which people were beheaded, the
+block or mould upon which a hat is shaped, a pulley-block, a
+printing-block, &c. From the sense of a solid mass comes the expression,
+a "block" of houses, i.e. a rectangular space covered with houses and
+bounded by four streets. From the sense of "obstruction" comes a "block"
+in traffic, a block in any proceedings, and the block system of
+signalling on railways.
+
+
+
+
+BLOCKADE (Fr. _blocus_, Ger. _Blokade_), a term used in maritime
+warfare. Originally a blockade by sea was probably nothing more than the
+equivalent in maritime warfare of a blockade or siege on land in which
+the army investing the blockaded or besieged place is in actual physical
+possession of a zone through which it can prevent and forbid ingress and
+egress. An attempt to cross such a zone without the consent of the
+investing army would be an act of hostility against the besiegers. A
+maritime blockade, when it formed part of a siege, would obviously also
+be a close blockade, being part of the military cordon drawn round the
+besieged place. Even from the first, however, differences would begin to
+grow up in the conditions arising out of the operations on land and on
+sea. Thus whereas conveying merchandise across military lines would be a
+deliberate act of hostility against the investing force, a neutral ship
+which had sailed in ignorance of the blockade for the blockaded place
+might in good faith cross the blockade line without committing a hostile
+act against the investing force. With the development of recognition of
+neutral rights the involuntary character of the breach would be taken
+into account, and notice to neutral states and to approaching vessels
+would come into use. With the employment in warfare of larger vessels in
+the place of the more numerous small ones of an earlier age, notice,
+moreover, would tend to take the place of _de facto_ investment, and at
+a time when communication between governments was still slow and
+precarious, such notice would sometimes be given as a possible measure
+of belligerent tactics before the blockade could be actually carried
+out. Out of these circumstances grew up the abuse of "paper blockades."
+
+The climax was reached in the "Continental Blockade" decreed by Napoleon
+in 1806, which continued till it was abolished by international
+agreement in 1812. This blockade forbade all countries under French
+dominion or allied with France to have any communication with Great
+Britain. Great Britain replied in 1807 by a similar measure. The first
+nation to protest against these fictitious blockades was the United
+States. Already in 1800 John Marshall, secretary of state, wrote to the
+American minister in Great Britain pointing out objections which have
+since been universally admitted. In the following interesting passage he
+said:--
+
+  "Ports not effectually blockaded by a force capable of completely
+  investing them have yet been declared in a state of blockade.... If
+  the effectiveness of the blockade be dispensed with, then every port
+  of the belligerent powers may at all times be declared in that state,
+  and the commerce of neutrals be thereby subjected to universal
+  capture. But if this principle be strictly adhered to, the capacity to
+  blockade will be limited by the naval force of the belligerent and, in
+  consequence, the mischief to neutral commerce cannot be very
+  extensive. It is, therefore, of the last importance to neutrals that
+  this principle be maintained unimpaired. I observe that you have
+  pressed this reasoning on the British minister, who replies that an
+  occasional absence of a fleet from a blockaded port ought not to
+  change the state of the place. Whatever force this observation may be
+  entitled to, where that occasional absence has been produced by an
+  accident, as a storm, which for a moment blows off a fleet and forces
+  it from its station, which station it immediately resumes, I am
+  persuaded that where a part of the fleet is applied, though only for a
+  time, to other objects or comes into port, the very principle
+  requiring an effective blockade, which is that the mischief can only
+  be coextensive with the naval force of the belligerent, requires that
+  during such temporary absence the commerce to the neutrals to the
+  place should be free."[1]
+
+  Again in 1803 James Madison wrote to the then American minister in
+  London:--
+
+  "The law of nations requires to constitute a blockade that there
+  should be the presence and position of a force rendering access to the
+  prohibited place manifestly difficult and dangerous."[2]
+
+In 1826 and 1827 Great Britain as well as the United States asserted
+that blockades in order to be binding must be effective. This became
+gradually the recognized view, and when in 1856 the powers represented
+at the congress of Paris inserted in the declaration there adopted that
+"blockades in order to be binding must be effective, that is to say,
+maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access to the coast
+of an enemy," they were merely enunciating a rule which neutral states
+had already become too powerful to allow belligerents to disregard.
+
+Blockade is universally admitted to be a belligerent right to which
+under international law neutrals are obliged to submit. It is now also
+universally admitted that the above-quoted rule of the Declaration of
+Paris forms part of international law, independently of the declaration.
+Being, however, exclusively a belligerent right, it cannot be exercised
+except by a belligerent force. Even a _de facto_ belligerent has the
+right to institute a blockade binding on neutrals if it has the means of
+making it effective, though the force opposed to it may treat the _de
+facto_ belligerent as rebels.
+
+It is also admitted that, being exclusively a belligerent right, it
+cannot be exercised in time of peace, but there has been some
+inconsistency in practice (see PACIFIC BLOCKADE) which will probably
+lead governments, in order to avoid protests of neutral powers against
+belligerent rights being exercised in mere coercive proceedings, to
+exercise all the rights of belligerents and carry on _de facto_ war to
+entitle them to use violence against neutral infringers. This was done
+in the case of the blockade of Venezuela by Great Britain, Germany and
+Italy in 1902-1903.
+
+The points upon which controversy still arises are as to what
+constitutes an "effective" blockade and what a sufficient notice of
+blockade to warrant the penalties of violation, viz. confiscation of the
+ship and of the cargo unless the evidence demonstrates the innocence of
+the cargo owners. A blockade to be effective must be maintained by a
+sufficient force to prevent the entrance of neutral vessels into the
+blockaded port or ports, and it must be duly proclaimed. Subject to
+these principles being complied with, "the question of the legitimacy
+and effectiveness of a blockade is one of fact to be determined in each
+case upon the evidence presented" (Thomas F. Bayard, American secretary
+of state, to Messrs Kamer & Co., 19th of February 1889). The British
+manual of naval prize law sums up the cases in which a blockade, validly
+instituted, ceases to be effectively maintained, as follows:--(1) If the
+blockading force abandons its position, unless the abandonment be merely
+temporary or caused by stress of weather, or (2) if it be driven away by
+the enemy, or (3) if it be negligent in its duties, or (4) if it be
+partial in the execution of its duties towards one ship rather than
+another, or towards the ships of one nation rather than those of
+another. These cases, however, are based on decisions of the British
+admiralty court and cannot be relied on absolutely as a statement of
+international law.
+
+As regards notice the following American instructions vere given to
+blockading officers in June 1898:--
+
+  "Neutral vessels are entitled to notification of a blockade before
+  they can be made prize for its attempted violation. The character of
+  this notification is not material. It may be actual, as by a vessel of
+  the blockading force, or _constructive, as by a proclamation of the
+  government maintaining the blockade, or by common notoriety_. If a
+  neutral vessel can be shown to have had notice of the blockade in any
+  way, she is good prize, and should be sent in for adjudication; but
+  should formal notice not have been given, _the rule of constructive
+  knowledge arising from notoriety_ should be construed in a manner
+  liberal to the neutral.
+
+  "Vessels appearing before a blockaded port, having sailed without
+  notification, are entitled to actual notice by a blockading vessel.
+  They should be boarded by an officer, who should enter in the ship's
+  log the fact of such notice, such entry to include the name of the
+  blockading vessel giving notice, the extent of the blockade, the date
+  and place, verified by his official signature. The vessel is then to
+  be set free; and should she again attempt to enter the same or any
+  other blockaded port as to which she has had notice, she is good
+  prize. Should it appear from a vessel's clearance that she sailed
+  after notice of blockade had been communicated to the country of her
+  port of departure, or _after the fact of blockade had, by a fair
+  presumption, become commonly known_ at that port, she should be sent
+  in as a prize."
+
+The passages in italics are not in accordance with the views held by
+other states, which do not recognize the binding character of a
+diplomatic notification or of constructive notice from notoriety.
+
+The subject was brought up at the second Hague Conference (1907). The
+Italian and Mexican delegations submitted projects, but after a
+declaration by the British delegate in charge of the subject (Sir E.
+Satow) that blockade not having been included in the Russian programme,
+his government had given him no instructions upon it, the subject, at
+his suggestion, was dropped. A _Voeu_, however, was adopted in favour of
+formulating rules on all branches of the laws and customs of naval war,
+and a convention was agreed to for the establishment of an international
+Prize Court (see PRIZE). Under Art. 7 of the latter convention the Court
+was to apply the "rules of international law," and in their absence the
+"general principles of justice and equity." As soon as possible after
+the close of the second Hague Conference the British government took
+steps to call a special conference of the maritime powers, which sat
+from December 4, 1908 to February 26, 1909. Among the subjects dealt
+with was Blockade, the rules relating to which are as follow:--
+
+  Art. 1. A blockade must not extend beyond the ports and coasts
+  belonging to or occupied by the enemy.
+
+  Art. 2. In accordance with the Declaration of Paris of 1856, a
+  blockade, in order to be binding, must be effective--that is to say,
+  it must be maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access
+  to the enemy coastline.
+
+  Art. 3. The question whether a blockade is effective is a question of
+  fact.
+
+  Art. 4. A blockade is not regarded as raised if the blockading force
+  is temporarily withdrawn on account of stress of weather.
+
+  Art. 5. A blockade must be applied impartially to the ships of all
+  nations.
+
+  Art. 6. The commander of a blockading force may give permission to a
+  warship to enter, and subsequently to leave, a blockaded port.
+
+  Art. 7. In circumstances of distress, acknowledged by an officer of
+  the blockading force, a neutral vessel may enter a place under
+  blockade and subsequently leave it, provided that she has neither
+  discharged nor shipped any cargo there.
+
+  Art. 8. A blockade, in order to be binding, must be declared in
+  accordance with Article 9, and notified in accordance with Articles 11
+  and 16.
+
+  Art. 9. A declaration of blockade is made either by the blockading
+  power or by the naval authorities acting in its name. It specifies (1)
+  the date when the blockade begins; (2) the geographical limits of the
+  coastline under blockade; (3) the period within which neutral vessels
+  may come out.
+
+  Art. 10. If the operations of the blockading power, or of the naval
+  authorities acting in its name, do not tally with the particulars,
+  which, in accordance with Article 9 (1) and (2), must be inserted in
+  the declaration of blockade, the declaration is void, and a new
+  declaration is necessary in order to make the blockade operative.
+
+  Art. 11. A declaration of blockade is notified: (1) to neutral powers,
+  by the blockading power by means of a communication addressed to the
+  governments direct, or to their representatives accredited to it; (2)
+  to the local authorities, by the officer commanding the blockading
+  force. The local authorities will, in turn, inform the foreign
+  consular officers at the port or on the coastline under blockade as
+  soon as possible.
+
+  Art. 12. The rules as to declaration and notification of blockade
+  apply to cases where the limits of a blockade are extended, or where a
+  blockade is re-established after having been raised.
+
+  Art. 13. The voluntary raising of a blockade, as also any restriction
+  in the limits of a blockade, must be notified in the manner prescribed
+  by Article 11.
+
+  Art. 14. The liability of a neutral vessel to capture for breach of
+  blockade is contingent on her knowledge, actual or presumptive, of the
+  blockade.
+
+  Art. 15. Failing proof to the contrary, knowledge of the blockade is
+  presumed if the vessel left a neutral port subsequently to the
+  notification of the blockade to the power to which such port belongs,
+  provided that such notification was made in sufficient time.
+
+  Art. 16. If a vessel approaching a blockaded port has no knowledge,
+  actual or presumptive, of the blockade, the notification must be made
+  to the vessel itself by an officer of one of the ships of the
+  blockading force. This notification should be entered in the vessel's
+  logbook, and must state the day and hour, and the geographical
+  position of the vessel at the time. If through the negligence of the
+  officer commanding the blockading force no declaration of blockade has
+  been notified to the local authorities, or if in the declaration, as
+  notified, no period has been mentioned within which neutral vessels
+  may come out, a neutral vessel coming out of the blockaded port must
+  be allowed to pass free.
+
+  Art. 17. Neutral vessels may not be captured for breach of blockade
+  except within the area of operations of the warships detailed to
+  render the blockade effective.
+
+  Art. 18. The blockading forces must not bar access to neutral ports or
+  coasts.
+
+  Art. 19. Whatever may be the ulterior destination of a vessel or of
+  her cargo, she cannot be captured for breach of blockade, if, at the
+  moment, she is on her way to a non-blockaded port.
+
+  Art. 20. A vessel which has broken blockade outwards, or which has
+  attempted to break blockade inwards, is liable to capture so long as
+  she is pursued by a ship of the blockading force. If the pursuit is
+  abandoned, or if the blockade is raised, her capture can no longer be
+  effected.
+
+  Art. 21. A vessel found guilty of breach of blockade is liable to
+  condemnation. The cargo is also condemned, unless it is proved that at
+  the time of the shipment of the goods the shipper neither knew nor
+  could have known of the intention to break the blockade.     (T. Ba.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] John Marshall, secretary of state, to Rufus King, minister to
+    England, 20th of September 1800, Am. State Papers, Class I, For. Rel.
+    II, No. 181, J.B. Moore, _Digest of International Law_, vii. 788.
+
+  [2] James Madison, secretary of state, to Mr Thornton, 27th of
+    October 1803, 14 MS. Dom. Let. 215. Moore, _Digest of International
+    Law_, vii. 789.
+
+
+
+
+BLOCKHOUSE, in fortification, a small roofed work serving as a fortified
+post for a small garrison. The word, common since 1500, is of uncertain
+origin, and was applied to what is now called a _fort d'arrêt_, a
+detached fort blocking the access to a landing, channel, pass, bridge or
+defile. The modern blockhouse is a building, sometimes of two storeys,
+which is loopholed on all sides, and not infrequently, in the case of
+two-storey blockhouses, provided with a _mâchicoulis_ gallery.
+Blockhouses are built of wood, brick, stone, corrugated iron or any
+material available. During the South African War (1899-1902) they were
+often sent from England to the front in ready-made sections.
+
+
+
+
+BLOEMAERT, ABRAHAM (1564-1651), Dutch painter and engraver, was born at
+Gorinchem, the son of an architect. He was first a pupil of Gerrit
+Splinter (pupil of Frans Floris) and of Joos de Beer, at Utrecht. He
+then spent three years in Paris, studying under several masters, and on
+his return to his native country received further training from
+Hieronymus Francken. In 1591 he went to Amsterdam, and four years later
+settled finally at Utrecht, where he became dean of the Gild of St Luke.
+He excelled more as a colourist than as a draughtsman, was extremely
+productive, and painted and etched historical and allegorical pictures,
+landscapes, still-life, animal pictures and flower pieces. Among his
+pupils are his four sons, Hendrick, Frederick, Cornelis and Adriaan (all
+of whom achieved considerable reputation as painters or engravers), the
+two Honthorsts and Jacob G. Cuyp.
+
+
+
+
+BLOEMEN, JAN FRANS VAN (1662-1740), Flemish painter, was born at
+Antwerp, and studied and lived in Italy. At Rome he was styled Orizonte,
+on account of his painting of distance in his landscapes, which are
+reminiscent of Gaspard Poussin and much admired. His brothers Pieter
+(1657-1719), styled Standaart (from his military pictures), and Norbert
+(1670-1746), were also well-known painters.
+
+
+
+
+BLOEMFONTEIN, capital of the Orange Free State, in 29º 8' S., 26º 18' E.
+It is situated on the open veld, surrounded by a few low kopjes, 4518
+ft. above the sea, 105 m. by rail E. by S. of Kimberley, 750 N.E. by E.
+of Cape Town, 450 N. by E. of Port Elizabeth, and 257 S.W. of
+Johannesburg.
+
+Bloemfontein is a very pleasant town, regularly laid out with streets
+running at right angles and a large central market square. Many of the
+houses are surrounded by large wooded gardens. Through the town runs the
+Bloemspruit. After a disastrous flood in 1904 the course of this spring
+was straightened and six stone bridges placed across it. There are
+several fine public buildings, mostly built of red brick and a
+fine-grained white stone quarried in the neighbourhood. The Raadzaal, a
+building in the Renaissance style, faces Market Square. Formerly the
+meeting-place of the Orange Free State Raad, it is now the seat of the
+provincial council. In front of the old Raadzaal (used as law courts) is
+a statue of President Brand. In Douglas Street is an unpretentious
+building used in turn as a church, a raadzaal, a court-house and a
+museum. In it was signed (1854) the convention which recognized the
+independence of the Free State Boers (see ORANGE FREE STATE: _History_).
+Among the churches the most important, architecturally, are the Dutch
+Reformed, a building with two spires, and the Anglican cathedral, which
+has a fine interior. The chief educational establishment is Grey
+University College, built 1906-1908 at a cost of £125,000. It stands in
+grounds of 300 acres, a mile and a half from the town. In the town is
+the original Grey College, founded in 1856 by Sir George Grey, when
+governor of Cape Colony. The post and telegraph office in Market Square
+is one of the finest buildings in the town. The public library is housed
+in a handsome building in Warden Street. Opposite it is the new national
+museum.
+
+Bloemfontein possesses few manufactures, but is the trading centre of
+the province. Having a dry healthy climate, it is a favourite
+residential town and a resort for invalids, being recommended especially
+for pulmonary disease. The mean maximum temperature is 76.7° Fahr., the
+mean minimum 45.8°; the mean annual rainfall about 24 in. There is an
+excellent water-supply, obtained partly from Bloemspruit, but
+principally from the Modder river at Sanna's Post, 22 m. to the east,
+and from reservoirs at Moches Dam and Magdepoort.
+
+The population in 1904 was 33,883, of whom, including the garrison of
+3487, 15,501 were white, compared with a white population of 2077 in
+1890. The coloured inhabitants are mostly Bechuana and Basuto. Most of
+the whites are of British origin, and English is the common language of
+all, including the Dutch.
+
+The _spruit_ or spring which gives its name to the town was called after
+one of the emigrant farmers, Jan Bloem. The town dates from 1846, in
+which year Major H.D. Warden, then British resident north of the Orange,
+selected the site as the seat of his administration. When in 1854
+independence was conferred on the country the town was chosen by the
+Boers as the seat of government. It became noted for the intelligence of
+its citizens, and for the educational advantages it offered at the time
+when education among the Boers was thought of very lightly. In 1892 the
+railway connecting it with Cape Town and Johannesburg was completed.
+During the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 it was occupied by the British
+under Lord Roberts without resistance (13th of March 1900), fourteen
+days after the surrender of General Cronje at Paardeberg. In Market
+Square on the 28th of the following May the annexation of the Orange
+Free State to the British dominions was proclaimed. In 1907 the first
+session of the first parliament elected under the constitution granting
+the colony self-government was held in Bloemfontein. In 1910 when the
+colony became a province of the Union of South Africa under its old
+designation of Orange Free State, Bloemfontein was chosen as the seat of
+the Supreme Court of South Africa. Its growth as a business centre after
+the close of the war in 1902 was very marked. The rateable value
+increased from £709,000 in 1901 to £2,400,000 in 1905.
+
+
+
+
+BLOET, ROBERT (d. 1123), English bishop, was chancellor to William I.
+and Rufus. From the latter he received the see of Lincoln (1093) in
+succession to Remigius. His private character was indifferent; but he
+administered his see with skill and prudence, built largely, and kept a
+magnificent household, which served as a training-school even for the
+sons of nobles. Bloet was active in assisting Henry I. during the
+rebellion of 1102, and became that monarch's justiciar. Latterly,
+however, he fell out of favour, and, although he had been very rich, was
+impoverished by the fines which the king extorted from him. Perhaps his
+wealth was his chief offence in the king's eyes; for he was in
+attendance on Henry when seized with his last illness. He was the patron
+of the chronicler Henry of Huntingdon, whom he advanced to an
+archdeaconry.
+
+  Henry of Huntingdon and W. Malmesbury (_De Gestis Pontificum_) are
+  original authorities. See E.A. Freeman's _William Rufus_; Sir James
+  Ramsay, _The Foundations of England_, vol. ii.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+BLOIS, LOUIS DE (1506-1566), Flemish mystical writer, generally known
+under the name of BLOSIUS, was born in October 1506 at the château of
+Donstienne, near Liége, of an illustrious family to which several
+crowned heads were allied. He was educated at the court of the
+Netherlands with the future emperor Charles V. of Germany, who remained
+to the last his staunch friend. At the age of fourteen he received the
+Benedictine habit in the monastery of Liessics in Hainaut, of which he
+became abbot in 1530. Charles V. pressed in vain upon him the
+archbishopric of Cambrai, but Blosius studiously exerted himself in the
+reform of his monastery and in the composition of devotional works. He
+died at his monastery on the 7th of January 1566.
+
+Blosius's works, which were written in Latin, have been translated into
+almost every European language, and have appealed not only to Roman
+Catholics, but to many English laymen of note, such as W.E. Gladstone
+and Lord Coleridge. The best editions of his collected works are the
+first edition by J. Frojus (Louvain, 1568), and the Cologne reprints
+(1572, 1587). His best-known works are:--the _Institutio Spiritualis_
+(Eng. trans., _A Book of Spiritual Instruction_, London, 1900);
+_Consolatio Pusillanimium_ (Eng. trans., _Comfort for the
+Faint-Hearted_, London, 1903); _Sacellum Animae Fidelis_ (Eng. trans.,
+_The Sanctuary of the Faithful Soul_, London, 1905); all these three
+works were translated and edited by Father Bertrand Wilberforce, O.P.,
+and have been reprinted several times; and especially _Speculum
+Monachorum_ (French trans. by Félicité de Lamennais, Paris, 1809; Eng.
+trans., Paris, 1676; re-edited by Lord Coleridge, London, 1871, 1872,
+and inserted in "Paternoster" series, 1901).
+
+  See Georges de Blois, _Louis de Blois, un Bénédictin au XVI^ème
+  siècle_ (Paris, 1875), Eng. trans. by Lady Lovat (London, 1878, &c.).
+
+
+
+
+BLOIS, a town of central France, capital of the department of
+Loir-et-Cher, 35 m. S.W. of Orleans, on the Orleans railway between that
+city and Tours. Pop. (1906) 18,457. Situated in a thickly-wooded
+district on the right bank of the Loire, it covers the summits and
+slopes of two eminences between which runs the principal thoroughfare of
+the town named after the philosopher Denis Papin. A bridge of the 18th
+century from which it presents the appearance of an amphitheatre, unites
+Blois with the suburb of Vienne on the left bank of the river. The
+streets of the higher and older part of the town are narrow and
+tortuous, and in places so steep that means of ascent is provided by
+flights of steps. The famous château of the family of Orleans (see
+ARCHITECTURE: _Renaissance Architecture in France_), a fine example of
+Renaissance architecture, stands on the more westerly of the two hills.
+It consists of three main wings, and a fourth and smaller wing, and is
+built round a courtyard. The most interesting portion is the north-west
+wing, which was erected by Francis I., and contains the room where
+Henry, duke of Guise, was assassinated by order of Henry III. The
+striking feature of the interior façade is the celebrated spiral
+staircase tower, the bays of which, with their beautifully sculptured
+balustrades, project into the courtyard (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate VIII.
+fig. 84). The north-east wing, in which is the entrance to the castle,
+was built by Louis XII. and is called after him; it contains
+picture-galleries and a museum. Opposite is the Gaston wing, erected by
+Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIII., which contains a
+majestic domed staircase. In the north corner of the courtyard is the
+Salle des États, which, together with the donjon in the west corner,
+survives from the 13th century. Of the churches of Blois, the cathedral
+of St Louis, a building of the end of the 17th century, but in Gothic
+style, is surpassed in interest by St Nicolas, once the church of the
+abbey of St Laumer, and dating from the 12th and 13th centuries. The
+picturesqueness of the town is enhanced by many old mansions, the chief
+of which is the Renaissance Hôtel d'Alluye, and by numerous fountains,
+among which that named after Louis XII. is of very graceful design. The
+prefecture, the law court, the corn-market and the fine stud-buildings
+are among the chief modern buildings.
+
+Blois is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, and a court of assizes. It
+has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a board of
+trade arbitration, a branch of the Bank of France, a communal college
+and training-colleges. The town is a market for the agricultural and
+pastoral regions of Beauce and Sologne, and has a considerable trade in
+grain, the wines of the Loire valley, and in horses and other
+live-stock. It manufactures boots and shoes, biscuits, chocolate,
+upholstering materials, furniture, machinery and earthenware, and has
+vinegar-works, breweries, leather-works and foundries.
+
+Though of ancient origin, Blois is first distinctly mentioned by Gregory
+of Tours in the 6th century, and was not of any importance till the 9th
+century, when it became the seat of a powerful countship (see below). In
+1196 Count Louis granted privileges to the townsmen; the commune, which
+survived throughout the middle ages, probably dated from this time. The
+counts of the Châtillon line resided at Blois more often than their
+predecessors, and the oldest parts of the chateau (13th century) were
+built by them. In 1429 Joan of Arc made Blois her base of operations for
+the relief of Orleans. After his captivity in England, Charles of
+Orleans in 1440 took up his residence in the château, where in 1462 his
+son, afterwards Louis XII., was born. In the 16th century Blois was
+often the resort of the French court. Its inhabitants included many
+Calvinists, and it was in 1562 and 1567 the scene of struggles between
+them and the supporters of the Roman church. In 1576 and 1588 Henry
+III., king of France, chose Blois as the meeting-place of the
+states-general, and in the latter year he brought about the murders of
+Henry, duke of Guise, and his brother, Louis, archbishop of Reims and
+cardinal, in the château, where their deaths were shortly followed by
+that of the queen-mother, Catherine de' Medici. From 1617 to 1619 Marie
+de' Medici, wife of King Henry IV., exiled from the court, lived at the
+château, which was soon afterwards given by Louis XIII. to his brother
+Gaston, duke of Orleans, who lived there till his death in 1660. The
+bishopric dates from the end of the 17th century. In 1814 Blois was for
+a short time the seat of the regency of Marie Louise, wife of Napoleon
+I.
+
+  See L. de la Saussaye, _Blois et ses environs_ (1873); _Histoire du
+  château de Blois_ (1873); L. Bergevin et A. Dupré, _Histoire de Blois_
+  (1847).
+
+
+
+
+BLOIS, COUNTSHIP OF. From 865 to about 940 the countship of Blois was
+one of those which were held in fee by the margrave of Neustria, Robert
+the Strong, and by his successors, the abbot Hugh, Odo (or Eudes),
+Robert II. and Hugh the Great. It then passed, about 940 and for nearly
+three centuries, to a new family of counts, whose chiefs, at first
+vassals of the dukes of France, Hugh the Great and Hugh Capet, became in
+987, by the accession of the Capetian dynasty to the throne of France,
+the direct vassals of the crown. These new counts were orjginally very
+powerful. With the countship of Blois they united, from 940 to 1044,
+that of Touraine, and from about 950 to 1218, and afterwards from 1269
+to 1286, the countship of Chartres remained in their possession.
+
+The counts of Blois of the house of the Theobalds (Thibauds) began with
+Theobald I., the Cheat, who became count about 940. He was succeeded by
+his son, Odo (Eudes) I., about 975. Theobald II., eldest son of Odo I.,
+became count in 996, and was succeeded by Odo II., younger son of Odo
+I., about 1005. Odo II. was one of the most warlike barons of his time.
+With the already considerable domains which he held from his ancestors,
+he united the heritage of his kinsman, Stephen I., count of Troyes. In
+1033 he disputed the crown of Burgundy with the emperor, Conrad the
+Salic, and perished in 1037 while fighting in Lorraine. He was succeeded
+in 1037 by his eldest son, Theobald III., who was defeated by the
+Angevins in 1044, and was forced to give up the town of Tours and its
+dependencies to the count of Anjou. In 1089 Stephen Henry, eldest son of
+Theobald III., became count. He took part in the first crusade, fell
+into the hands of the Saracens, and died in captivity; he married Adela,
+daughter of William I., king of England. In 1102 Stephen Henry was
+succeeded by his son, Theobald IV. the Great, who united the countship
+of Troyes with his domains in 1128. In 1135, on the death of his
+maternal uncle, Henry I., king of England, he was called to Normandy by
+the barons of the duchy, but soon renounced his claims on learning that
+his younger brother, Stephen, had just been proclaimed king of England.
+In 1152 Theobald V. the Good, second son of Theobald IV., became count;
+he died in 1191 in Syria, at the siege of Acre. His son Louis succeeded
+in 1191, took part in the fourth crusade, and after the taking of
+Constantinople was rewarded with the duchy of Nicaea. He was killed at
+the battle of Adrianople in 1205, in which year he was succeeded by his
+son, Theobald VI. the Young, who died childless. In 1218 the countship
+passed to Margaret, eldest daughter of Theobald V., and to Walter
+(Gautier) of Avesnes, her third husband.
+
+The Châtillon branch of the counts of Blois began in 1230 with Mary of
+Avesnes, daughter of Margaret of Blois and her husband, Hugh of
+Châtillon, count of St Pol. In 1241 her brother, John of Châtillon,
+became count of Blois, and was succeeded in 1279 by his daughter, Joan
+of Châtillon, who married Peter, count of Alençon, fifth son of Louis
+IX., king of France. In 1286 Joan sold the countship of Chartres to the
+king of France. Hugh of Châtillon, her first-cousin, became count of
+Blois in 1293, and was succeeded by his son, Guy I., in 1307. In 1342
+Louis II., eldest son of Guy I., died at the battle of Crécy, and his
+brother, Charles of Blois, disputed the duchy of Brittany with John of
+Montfort. Louis III., eldest son of Louis II., became count in 1346, and
+was succeeded by John II., second son of Louis II., in 1372. In 1381 Guy
+II., brother of Louis III. and John II., succeeded in 1381, but died
+childless. Overwhelmed with debt, he had sold the countship of Blois to
+Louis I., duke of Orleans, brother of King Charles VI., who took
+possession of it in 1397.
+
+In 1498 the countship of Blois was united with the crown by the
+accession of King Louis XII., grandson and second successor of Louis I.,
+duke of Orleans.
+
+  See Bernier, _Histoire de Blois_ (1682); La Saussaye, _Histoire de la
+  ville de Blois_ (1846).     (A. Lo.)
+
+
+
+
+BLOMEFIELD, FRANCIS (1705-1752), English topographer of the county of
+Norfolk, was born at Fersfield, Norfolk, on the 23rd of July 1705. On
+leaving Cambridge in 1727 he was ordained, becoming in 1729 rector of
+Hargham, Norfolk, and immediately afterwards rector of Fersfield, his
+father's family living. In 1733 he mooted the idea of a history of
+Norfolk, for which he had begun collecting material at the age of
+fifteen, and shortly afterwards, while collecting further information
+for his book, discovered some of the famous _Paston Letters_. By 1736 he
+was ready to put some of the results of his researches into type. At the
+end of 1739 the first volume of the _History of Norfolk_ was completed.
+It was printed at the author's own press, bought specially for the
+purpose. The second volume was ready in 1745. There is little doubt that
+in compiling his book Blomefield had frequent recourse to the existing
+historical collections of Le Neve, Kirkpatrick and Tanner, his own work
+being to a large extent one of expansion and addition. To Le Neve in
+particular a large share of the credit is due. When half-way through his
+third volume, Blomefield, who had come up to London in connexion with a
+special piece of research, caught smallpox, of which he died on the 16th
+of January 1752. The remainder of his work was published posthumously,
+and the whole eleven volumes were republished in London between 1805 and
+1810.
+
+
+
+
+BLOMFIELD, SIR ARTHUR WILLIAM (1829-1899), English architect, son of
+Bishop C.J. Blomfield, was born on the 6th of March 1829, and educated
+at Rugby and Trinity, Cambridge. He was then articled as an architect to
+P.C. Hardwick, and subsequently obtained a large practice on his own
+account. He became president of the Architectural Association in 1861,
+and a fellow (1867) and vice-president (1886) of the Royal Institute of
+British Architects. In 1887 he became architect to the Bank of England,
+and designed the law courts branch in Fleet Street, and he was
+associated with A.E. Street in the building of the law courts. In 1889
+he was knighted. He died on the 30th of October 1899. He was twice
+married, and brought up two sons, Charles J. Blomfield and Arthur Conran
+Blomfield, to his own profession, of which they became distinguished
+representatives. Among the numerous churches which Sir Arthur Blomfield
+designed, his work at St Saviour's, Southwark, is a notable example of
+his use of revived Gothic, and he was highly regarded as a restorer.
+
+
+
+
+BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES (1786-1857), English divine, was born on the
+29th of May 1786 at Bury St Edmunds. He was educated at the local
+grammar school and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he gained the
+Browne medals for Latin and Greek odes, and carried off the Craven
+scholarship. In 1808 he graduated as third wrangler and first medallist,
+and in the following year was elected to a fellowship at Trinity
+College. The first-fruits of his scholarship was an edition of the
+_Prometheus_ of Aeschylus in 1810; this was followed by editions of the
+_Septem contra Thebas, Persae, Choephorae_, and _Agamemnon_, of
+Callimachus, and of the fragments of Sappho, Sophron and Alcaeus.
+Blomfield, however, soon ceased to devote himself entirely to
+scholarship. He had been ordained in 1810, and held in quick succession
+the livings of Chesterford, Quarrington, Dunton, Great and Little
+Chesterford, and Tuddenham. In 1817 he was appointed private chaplain to
+Wm. Howley, bishop of London. In 1819 he was nominated to the rich
+living of St Botolph's, Bishopsgate, and in 1822 he became archdeacon of
+Colchester. Two years later he was raised to the bishopric of Chester
+where he carried through many much-needed reforms. In 1828 he was
+translated to the bishopric of London, which he held for twenty-eight
+years. During this period his energy and zeal did much to extend the
+influence of the church. He was one of the best debaters in the House of
+Lords, took a leading position in the action for church reform which
+culminated in the ecclesiastical commission, and did much for the
+extension of the colonial episcopate; and his genial and kindly nature
+made him an invaluable mediator in the controversies arising out of the
+tractarian movement. His health at last gave way, and in 1856 he was
+permitted to resign his bishopric, retaining Fulham Palace as his
+residence, with a pension of £6000 per annum. He died on the 5th of
+August 1857. His published works, exclusive of those above mentioned,
+consist of charges, sermons, lectures and pamphlets, and of a _Manual of
+Private and Family Prayers_. He was a frequent contributor to the
+quarterly reviews, chiefly on classical subjects.
+
+  See _Memoirs of Charles James Blomfield, D.D., Bishop of London, with
+  Selections from his Correspondence_, edited by his son, Alfred
+  Blomfield (1863); G.E. Biber, _Bishop Blomfield and his Times_ (1857).
+
+
+
+
+BLOMFIELD, EDWARD VALENTINE (1788-1816), English classical scholar,
+brother of Bishop C.J. Blomfield, was born at Bury St Edmunds on the
+14th of February 1788. Going to Caius College, Cambridge, he was
+thirteenth wrangler in 1811, obtained several of the classical prizes of
+the university, and became a fellow and lecturer at Emmanuel College. In
+1813 he travelled in Germany and made the acquaintance of some of the
+great scholars of Germany. On his return, he published in the _Museum
+Criticum_ (No. ii.) an interesting paper on "The Present State of
+Classical Literature in Germany." Blomfield is chiefly known by his
+translation of Matthiae's _Greek Grammar_ (1819), which was prepared for
+the press by his brother. He died on the 9th of October 1816, his early
+death depriving Cambridge of one who seemed destined to take a high
+place amongst her most brilliant classical scholars.
+
+  See "Memoir of Edward Valentine Blomfield," by Bishop Monk, in _Museum
+  Criticum_, No. vii.
+
+
+
+
+BLONDEL, DAVID (1591-1655), French Protestant clergyman, was born at
+Châlons-sur-Marne in 1591, and died on the 6th of April 1655. In 1650 he
+succeeded G.J. Vossius in the professorship of history at Amsterdam. His
+works were very numerous; in some of them he showed a remarkable
+critical faculty, as in his dissertation on Pope Joan (1647, 1657), in
+which he came to the conclusion, now universally accepted, that the
+whole story is a mere myth. Considerable Protestant indignation was
+excited against him on account of this book.
+
+
+
+
+BLONDEL, JACQUES FRANÇOIS (1705-1774), French architect, began life as
+an architectural engraver, but developed into an architect of
+considerable distinction, if of no great originality. As architect to
+Louis XV. from 1755 he necessarily did much in the rococo manner,
+although it would seem that he conformed to fashion rather than to
+artistic conviction. He was among the earliest founders of schools of
+architecture in France, and for this he was distinguished by the
+Academy; but he is now best remembered by his voluminous work
+_L'Architecture française_, in which he was the continuator of Marot.
+The book is a precious collection of views of famous buildings, many of
+which have disappeared or been remodelled.
+
+
+
+
+BLONDIN (1824-1897), French tight-rope walker and acrobat, was born at
+St Omer, France, on the 28th of February 1824. His real name was Jean
+François Gravelet. When five years old he was sent to the École de
+Gymnase at Lyons and, after six months' training as an acrobat, made his
+first public appearance as "The Little Wonder." His superior skill and
+grace as well as the originality of the settings of his acts, made him a
+popular favourite. He especially owed his celebrity and fortune to his
+idea of crossing Niagara Falls on a tight-rope, 1100 ft. long, 160 ft.
+above the water. This he accomplished, first in 1859, a number of times,
+always with different theatric variations: blindfold, in a sack,
+trundling a wheelbarrow, on stilts, carrying a man on his back, sitting
+down midway while he made and ate an omelette. In 1861 Blondin first
+appeared in London, at the Crystal Palace, turning somersaults on stilts
+on a rope stretched across the central transept, 170 ft. from the
+ground. In 1862 he again gave a series of performances at the Crystal
+Palace, and elsewhere in England, and on the continent. After a period
+of retirement he reappeared in 1880, his final performance being given
+at Belfast in 1896. He died at Ealing, London, on the 19th of February
+1897.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOD, the circulating fluid in the veins and arteries of animals. The
+word itself is common to Teutonic languages; the O. Eng. is _blód_, cf.
+Gothic _bloth_, Dutch _bloed_, Ger. _Blut_. It is probably ultimately
+connected with the root which appears in "blow," "bloom," meaning
+flourishing or vigorous. The Gr. word for blood, [Greek: aima], appears
+as a prefix _haemo-_ in many compound words. As that on which the life
+depends, as the supposed seat of the passions and emotions, and as that
+part which a child is believed chiefly to inherit from its parents, the
+word "blood" is used in many figurative and transferred senses; thus "to
+have his blood," "to fire the blood," "cold blood," "blood-royal,"
+"half" or "whole blood," &c. The expression "blue blood" is from the
+Spanish _sangre azul._ The nobles of Castile claimed to be free from all
+admixture with the darker blood of Moors or Jews, a proof being supposed
+to lie in the blue veins that showed in their fairer skins. The common
+English expletive "bloody," used as an adjective or adverb, has been
+given many fanciful origins; it has been supposed to be a contraction of
+"by our Lady," or an adaptation of the oath common during the 17th
+century, "'sblood," a contraction of "God's blood." The exact origin of
+the expression is not quite clear, but it is certainly merely an
+application of the adjective formed from "blood." The _New English
+Dictionary_ suggests that it refers to the use of "blood" for a young
+rowdy of aristocratic birth, which was common at the end of the 17th
+century, and later became synonymous with "dandy," "buck," &c.; "bloody
+drunk" meant therefore "drunk as a blood," "drunk as a lord." The
+expression came into common colloquial use as a mere intensive, and was
+so used till the middle of the 18th century. There can be little doubt
+that the use of the word has been considerably affected by the idea of
+blood as the vital principle, and therefore something strong, vigorous,
+and parallel as an intensive epithet with such expressions as
+"thundering," "awfully" and the like.
+
+
+ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
+
+In all living organisms, except the most minute, only a minimum number
+of cells can come into immediate contact with the general world, whence
+is to be drawn the food supply for the whole organism. Hence those
+cells--and they are by far the most numerous--which do not lie on the
+food-absorbing surface, must gain their nutriment by some indirect
+means. Further, each living cell produces waste products whose
+accumulation would speedily prove injurious to the cell, hence they must
+be constantly removed from its immediate neighbourhood and indeed from
+the organism as a whole. In this instance again, only a few cells can
+lie on a surface whence such materials can be directly discharged to the
+exterior. Hence the main number of the cells of the organism must depend
+upon some mechanism by which the waste products can be carried away from
+them to that group of cells whose duty it is to modify them, or
+discharge them from the body. These two ends are attained by the aid of
+a circulating fluid, a fluid which is constantly flowing past every cell
+of the body. From it the cells extract the food materials they require
+for their sustenance, and into it they discharge the waste materials
+resulting from their activity. This circulating medium is the blood.
+
+Whilst undoubtedly the two functions of this circulating fluid above
+given are the more prominent, there are yet others of great importance.
+For instance, it is known that many tissues as a result of their activity
+produce certain chemical substances which are of essential importance to
+the life of other tissue cells. These substances--_internal secretions_
+as they are termed--are carried to the second tissue by the blood stream.
+Again, many instances are known in which two distant tissues communicate
+with one another by means of chemical messengers, bodies termed
+_hormones_ ([Greek: ormaein], to stir up), which are produced by one
+group of cells, and sent to the other group to excite them to activity.
+Here, also, the path by which such messengers travel is the blood stream.
+A further and most important manner in which the circulating fluid is
+utilized in the life of an animal is seen in the way in which it is
+employed in protecting the body should it be invaded by micro-organisms.
+
+Hence it is clear that the blood is of the most vital importance to the
+healthy life of the body. But the fact that it is present as a
+circulating medium exposes the animal to a great danger, viz. that it
+may be lost should any vessel carrying it become ruptured. This is
+constantly liable to happen, but to minimize as far as possible any such
+loss, the blood is endowed with the peculiar property of _clotting_,
+i.e. of setting to a solid or stiff jelly by means of which the orifices
+of the torn vessels become plugged and the bleeding stayed.
+
+The performance of these essential functions depends upon the
+maintenance of a continuous flow past all tissue cells, and this is
+attained by the circulatory mechanism, consisting of a central pump, the
+heart, and a system of ramifying tubes, the arteries, through which the
+blood is forced from the heart to every tissue (see VASCULAR SYSTEM). A
+second set of tubes, the veins, collects the blood and returns it to the
+heart. In many invertebrates the circulating fluid is actually poured
+into the tissue spaces from the open terminals of the arteries. From
+these spaces it is in turn drained away by the veins. Such a system is
+termed a _haemolymph system_ and the circulating fluid the haemolymph.
+Here the essential point gained is that the fluid is brought into direct
+contact with the tissue cells. In all vertebrates, the ends of the
+arteries are united to the commencements of the veins by a plexus of
+extremely minute tubes, the capillaries, consequently the blood is
+always retained within closed tubes and never comes into contact with
+the tissue cells. It is while passing through the capillaries that the
+blood performs its work; here the blood stream is at its slowest and is
+brought nearest to the tissue cell, only being separated from it by the
+extremely thin wall of the capillary and by an equally thin layer of
+fluid. Through this narrow barrier the interchanges between cell and
+blood take place.
+
+The advantage gained in the vertebrate animal by retaining the blood in
+a closed system of tubes lies in the great diminution of resistance to
+the flow of blood, and the consequent great increase in rate of flow
+past the tissue cells. Hence any food stuffs which can travel quickly
+through the capillary wall to the tissue cell outside can be supplied in
+proportionately greater quantity within a given time, without requiring
+any very great increase in the concentration of that substance in the
+blood. Conversely, any highly diffusible substance may be withdrawn
+from the tissues by the blood at a similarly increased pace. These
+conditions are more peculiarly of importance for the supply of oxygen
+and the removal of carbonic acid-especially for the former, because the
+amount of it which can be carried by the blood is small. But as the rate
+at which a tissue lives, _i.e_. its activity, depends upon the rate of
+its chemical reactions, and as these are fundamentally oxidative, the
+more rapidly oxygen is carried to a tissue the more rapidly it can live,
+and the greater the amount of work it can perform within a given time.
+The rate of supply is of much less importance in the case of the other
+food substances because they are far more soluble in water, so that the
+supply in sufficient quantity can easily be met by a relatively slow
+blood flow. Hence we find that the gradual evolution of the animal
+kingdom goes hand in hand with the gradual development of a greater
+oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and an increase in the rate of its
+flow.
+
+In the groundwork of a tissue are a number of spaces--the _tissue
+spaces_. They are filled with fluid and intercommunicate freely, finally
+connecting with a number of fine tubes, the lymphatics, through which
+excess of fluid or any solid particles present are drained away. The
+contained fluid acts as an intermediary between the blood and the cell;
+from it, the cell takes its various food stuffs, these having in the
+first instance been derived from the blood, and into it the cell
+discharges its waste products. On the course of the lymphatics a number
+of typical structures, the lymphatic glands, are placed, and the lymph
+has to pass through these structures where any deleterious products are
+retained, and the fluid thus purified is drained away by further
+lymphatics and finally returned to the blood. Thus there is a second
+stream of fluid from the tissues, but one vastly slower than that of the
+blood. The flow is too slow for it to act as the vehicle for the removal
+of those waste products (carbonic acid, &c.) which must of necessity be
+removed quickly. These must be removed by the blood. The same is true
+for the main number of other waste products, which, however, being of
+small molecular size are readily absorbed into the blood stream.
+
+But in addition to fluid, the tissue spaces may at times be found to
+contain solid matter in the form of particles, which may represent the
+debris of destroyed cells, or which are, as is quite commonly the case,
+micro-organisms. Apparently such material cannot be removed from a
+tissue by absorption into the blood stream--indeed in the case of living
+organisms such an absorption would in many instances rapidly prove
+fatal, and special provision is made to prevent such an accident. These,
+therefore, are made to travel along the lymphatic channels, and so,
+before gaining access to the blood stream and thus to the body
+generally, have to run the gauntlet of the protective mechanism provided
+by the lymphatic glands, where in the major number of cases they are
+readily destroyed.
+
+Hence we see that first and foremost we have to regard the blood as a
+food-carrier to all the cells of the body; in the second place as the
+vehicle carrying away most if not all the waste products; in a third
+direction, it is acting as a means for transmitting chemical substances
+manufactured in one tissue to distant cells of the body for whose
+nutrition or excitation they may be essential; and in addition to these
+important functions there is yet another whose value it is almost
+impossible to overestimate, for it plays the essential rôle in rendering
+the animal immune to the attacks of invading organisms. The question of
+immunity is discussed elsewhere, and it is sufficient merely to indicate
+the chief means by which the blood subserves this essential protective
+mechanism. Should living organisms find their way into the surface cells
+or within the tissue spaces, the body fights them in a number of ways,
+(1) It may produce one or more chemical substances capable of
+neutralizing the toxic material produced by the organism. (2) It may
+produce chemical substances which act as poisons to the micro-organism,
+either paralysing it or actually killing it. Or (3) the organism may be
+attacked and taken up into the body of wandering cells, _e.g_. certain
+of the leucocytes, and then digested by them. Such cells are therefore
+called phagocytes ([Greek: Phagein], to eat). Thus, by its power of
+reacting in these ways the body has become capable of withstanding the
+attacks of many different varieties of micro-organisms, of both animal
+and vegetable origin.
+
+_General Properties._--Blood is an opaque, viscid liquid of bright red
+colour possessing a distinct and characteristic odour, especially when
+warm. Its opacity is due to the presence of a very large number of solid
+particles, the blood corpuscles, having a higher refractive index than
+that of the liquid in which they float. The specific gravity in man
+averages about 1.055. The specific gravity of the liquid portion, the
+plasma (Gr. [Greek: plasma], something formed or moulded, [Greek:
+plassein], to mould), is about 1.027, whilst that of the corpuscles
+amounts to 1.088. To litmus it reacts as a weak alkali.
+
+_Blood Plasma._--The plasma is a solution in water of a varied number of
+substances, and as a solvent it confers on the blood its power of acting
+as a carrier of food stuffs and waste products. One important food
+substance, oxygen, is, however, only partly carried in solution, being
+mainly combined with haemoglobin in the red corpuscles. The food stuffs
+carried by the plasma are proteins, carbohydrates, salts and water. The
+main waste products dissolved in it are ammonium carbonate, urea,
+urates, xanthin bases, creatin and small amounts of other nitrogenous
+bodies, carbonic acid as carbonates, other carbon compounds such as
+cholesterin, lecithin and a number of other substances. Thus, if we take
+mammalian blood as a type, the plasma would have the following
+approximate composition:--
+
+  In 1000 grms. plasma--
+    Water                                            901.51
+    Substances not vaporizing at 120° C.--
+      Fibrin                                  8.06
+      Other proteins and organic substances  81.92
+      Inorganic substances--
+        Chlorine                     3.536
+        Sulphuric acid               0.129
+        Phosphoric acid              0.145
+        Potassium                    0.314
+        Sodium                       3.410
+        Calcium                      0.298
+        Magnesium                    0.218
+        Oxygen                       0.455
+                                     -----    8.505
+                                              -----   98.49
+                                                    -------
+                                                    1000.00
+
+_Proteins._--The proteins of the blood plasma belong to the two classes
+of the albumins and the globulins. The globulins present are named
+fibrinogen and serum-globulin; as its name implies, the chief
+physiological property of fibrinogen is that it can give rise to fibrin,
+the solid substance formed when blood clots. It possesses the typical
+properties of a globulin, i.e. it coagulates on heating (in this
+instance at a temperature of 56°C.), and is precipitated by half
+saturating its solution with ammonium sulphate. It differs from other
+globulins in that it is less soluble. It is only present in very small
+quantities, 0.4%. The other globulin, serum-globulin, is not coagulated
+until 75°C. is reached, and we now know that it is in reality a mixture
+of several proteins, but so far these have not been completely separated
+from one another and obtained in a pure form. On dialysing a solution of
+serum-globulin a part is precipitated, and this portion has been termed
+the eu-globulin fraction, the remainder being known, in
+contradistinction, as the pseudo-globulin. Again, on diluting a solution
+and adding a small amount of acetic acid a precipitate is formed which
+in some respects differs from the remainder of the globulin present.
+Whether in these two instances we are dealing with approximately pure
+substances is extremely doubtful. A further important point in connexion
+with the chemistry of the globulins is that dextrose may be found among
+their decomposition products, i.e. that a part of it, or possibly the
+whole, possesses a glucoside character.
+
+Serum-albumin gives all the typical colour and precipitation reactions
+of the albumins. If plasma be weakly acidified with sulphuric acid, then
+treated with crystals of ammonium sulphate until a slight precipitate
+forms, filtered and the filtrate allowed to evaporate very slowly,
+typical crystals of serum-albumin may form. According to many it is a
+uniform and specific substance, but others hold the view that it
+consists of at least three distinct substances, as shown by the fact
+that if a solution be gradually heated coagulation will occur at three
+different temperatures, viz. at 73°, 77° and 84° C. On the other hand
+the close agreement between different analyses of even the amorphous
+preparations points to there being but one serum-albumin.
+
+When blood clots two new proteins make their appearance in the fluid
+part of the blood, or serum, as it is now called. The first of these is
+fibrin ferment (for its origin see section on _Clotting_ below). The
+other, fibrinoglobulin, possesses all the typical characteristics of the
+globulins and coagulates at 64° C.
+
+_Carbohydrates._--Three several carbohydrates are described as occurring
+in plasma, viz. glycogen, animal gum and dextrose. If glycogen is
+present in solution in the plasma it is there in very small quantities
+only, and has probably arisen from the destruction of the white blood
+corpuscles, since some leucocytes undoubtedly contain glycogen. A small
+amount of carbohydrate having the formula for starch and yielding a
+reducing sugar on hydrolysis with acid has also been described. The
+constant carbohydrate constituent of plasma, however, is dextrose. This
+is present to the approximate amount of 0.15% in arterial blood. The
+amount may be much greater in the blood of the portal vein during
+carbohydrate absorption, and according to some observers there is less
+in venous than in arterial blood, but the difference is small and falls
+within the error of observation. The statement that when no absorption
+is taking place the blood of the hepatic vein is richer in dextrose than
+that of the portal vein (Bernard) is denied by Pavy.
+
+_Fats._--Plasma or serum is as a rule quite clear, but after a meal rich
+in fats it may become quite milky owing to the presence of neutral fats
+in a very fine state of subdivision. This suspended fat rapidly
+disappears from the blood after fat absorption has ceased. To some
+extent it varies in composition with that of the fat absorbed, but
+usually consists of the glycerides of the common fatty acids--palmitic,
+stearic and oleic. In addition, there is a small amount of fatty acid in
+solution in the plasma. As to the form in which this occurs there is
+some uncertainty. It is possibly present as a soap or even as a neutral
+fat, since a little can be dissolved in plasma, the solvent substance
+being probably protein or cholesterin. Fatty acids also appear to be
+present to some extent combined with cholesterin forming cholesterin
+esters (about 0.06%).
+
+_Other Organic Compounds._--In addition to the substances above
+described, belonging to the three main classes of food stuffs, there are
+still other organic bodies present in plasma in small amounts, which for
+convenience we may classify as non-nitrogenous and nitrogenous. Among
+the former may be mentioned lactic acid, glycerin, a lipochrome, and
+probably many other substances of a similar type whose separation has
+not yet been effected.
+
+The non-protein nitrogenous constituents consist of the following:
+ammonia as carbonate or carbamate (0.2 to 0.6%), urea (0.02 to 0.05%),
+creatine, creatinine, uric acid, xanthine, hypoxanthine and occasionally
+hippuric acid. Three ferments are also described as being present: (1) a
+glycolytic ferment exerting an action upon dextrose; (2) a lipase or
+fat-splitting ferment; and (3) a diastase capable of converting starch
+into sugar.
+
+_Salts._--The saline constituents of plasma comprise chlorides,
+phosphates, carbonates and possibly sulphates, of sodium, potassium,
+calcium and magnesium. The most abundant metal is sodium and the most
+abundant acid is hydrochloric. These two are present in sufficient
+amount to form about 0.65% of sodium chloride. The phosphate is present
+to about 0.02%. Sulphuric acid is always present if the blood has been
+calcined for the purposes of the analysis, and may then be present to
+about 0.013%. This is, however, probably produced during the destruction
+of the protein, since it has been shown that no sulphate can be removed
+from normal plasma by dialysis. The amount of potassium present (0.03%)
+is less than one-tenth of that of the sodium, and the quantities of
+calcium and magnesium are even less.
+
+_Formed Elements._--When viewed under the microscope the main number of
+these are seen to be small yellow bodies of very uniform size, size and
+shape varying, however, in different animals. When observed in bulk they
+have a red colour, their presence in fact giving the typical colour to
+blood. These are the _red blood corpuscles_ or _erythrocytes_ (Gr.
+[Greek: erythros], red). Mingled with them in the blood are a smaller
+number of corpuscles which possess no colour and have therefore been
+called _white blood corpuscles_ or _leucocytes_ (Gr. [Greek: leukos],
+white). Lastly, there are present a large number of small lens-shaped
+structures, less in number than the red corpuscles, and much more
+difficult to distinguish. These are known as _blood platelets_.
+
+_Red Corpuscles._--These are present in very large numbers and, under
+normal conditions, all possess exactly the same appearance. With rare
+exceptions their shape is that of a biconcave disk with bevelled edges,
+the size varying somewhat in different animals, as is seen in the
+following table which gives their diameters:--
+
+  Man       0.0075 mm.
+  Dog       0.0073 mm.
+  Rabbit    0.0069 mm.
+  Cat       0.0065 mm.
+  Goat      0.0041 mm.
+
+The coloured corpuscles of amphibia as well as of nearly all vertebrates
+below mammals are biconvex and elliptical. The following are the
+dimensions of some of the more common:--
+
+  Pigeon      0.0147 mm. long by 0.0065 mm. wide.
+  Frog        0.0223  "     "    0.0157  "    "
+  Newt        0.0293  "     "    0.0195  "    "
+  Proteus     0.0580  "     "    0.0350  "    "
+  Amphiuma    0.0770  "     "    0.0460  "    "
+
+Their number also varies as follows:--
+
+  Man       4,000,000 to  5,000,000 per cub. mm.
+  Goat      9,000,000 to 10,000,000    "     "
+  Sheep    13,000,000 to 14,000,000    "     "
+  Birds     1,000,000 to  4,000,000    "     "
+  Fish        250,000 to  2,000,000    "     "
+  Frog        500,000 per cub. mm.
+  Proteus      36,000     "    "
+
+In mammals they are apparently homogeneous in structure, have no
+nucleus, but possess a thin envelope. Their specific gravity is
+distinctly higher than that of the plasma (1.088), so that if clotting
+has been prevented, blood on standing yields a large deposit which may
+form as much as half the total volume of the blood.
+
+_Chemical Composition._--On destruction the red corpuscles yield two
+chief proteins, haemoglobin and a nucleo-protein, and a number of other
+substances similar to those usually obtained on the break-down of any
+cellular tissue, such for instance as lecithin, cholesterin and
+inorganic salts. The most important protein is the haemoglobin. To it
+the corpuscle owes its distinctive property of acting as an oxygen
+carrier, for it possesses the power of combining chemically with oxygen
+and of yielding up that same oxygen whenever there is a decrease in the
+concentration of the oxygen in the solvent. Thus in a given solution of
+haemoglobin the amount of it which is combined with oxygen depends
+absolutely on the oxygen concentration. The greatest dissociation of
+oxyhaemoglobin occurs as the oxygen tension falls from about 40 to 20
+mm. of mercury. That the oxygen forms a definite compound with the
+haemoglobin is proved by the fact that haemoglobin thoroughly saturated
+with oxygen (oxyhaemoglobin) has a definite absorption spectrum showing
+two bands between the D and E lines, whilst haemoglobin from which the
+oxygen has been completely removed only gives one band between those
+lines. In association with this, oxyhaemoglobin has a typical bright red
+colour, whereas haemoglobin is dark purple. A further striking
+characteristic of haemoglobin is that it contains iron in its molecule.
+The amount present, though small bears a perfectly definite quantitative
+relation to the amount of oxygen with which the haemoglobin is capable
+of combining (two atoms of oxygen to one of iron). One gram of
+haemoglobin crystals can combine with 1.34 cc. of oxygen. On destruction
+with an acid or alkali, haemoglobin yields a pigment portion, haematin,
+and a protein portion, globin, the latter belonging to the group of the
+histones (Gr. [Greek: istos], web, tissue). In this cleavage the iron
+is found in the pigment. By the use of a strong acid, it may be made to
+yield iron-free pigment, the remainder of the molecule being much
+further decomposed.
+
+_Destruction and Formation._--In the performance of their work the
+corpuscles gradually deteriorate. They are then destroyed, chiefly in
+the liver, but whether the whole of this process is effected by the
+liver alone is not decided. It is proved, however, that the destruction
+of the haemoglobin is entirely effected there. It was for a long time
+considered to be one of the functions of the spleen to examine the red
+corpuscles and to destroy or in some way to mark those no longer fitted
+for the performance of their work. It is proved that the destruction of
+the haemoglobin is entirely effected in the liver, since both the main
+cleavage products may be traced to this organ, which discharges the
+pigmentary portion as the bile pigment, but retains the iron-protein
+moiety at any rate for a time. The amount of bile pigment eliminated
+during the day indicates that the destruction must be considerable, and
+since the number of corpuscles does not vary there must be an equivalent
+formation of new ones. This takes place in the red bone-marrow, where
+special cells are provided for their continuous production. In embryonic
+life their formation is effected in another way. Certain mesodermic
+cells, resembling those of the connective tissue, collect masses of
+haemoglobin, and from these elaborate red blood corpuscles which thus
+come to lie in the fluid part of the cell. By a canalization of the
+branches of these cells which unite with branches of other cells the
+precursors of the blood capillaries are formed.
+
+_White Blood Corpuscles._--These constitute the second important group
+of formed elements in the blood, and number about 12,000 to 20,000 per
+cubic mm. They are typical wandering cells carried to all parts of the
+body by the blood stream, but often leave that stream and gain the
+tissue spaces by passing through the capillary wall. They exist in many
+varieties and were first classified according as, under the microscope,
+they presented a granular appearance or appeared clear. The cells were
+also distinguished from one another according as they possessed fine or
+coarse granules. The granules are confined to the protoplasm of the
+cell, and it has been shown that they differ chemically, because their
+staining properties vary. Thus, some granules select an acid stain, and
+the cells containing them are then designated _acidophile_ or
+_eosinophile_;[1] other granules select a basic stain and are called
+_basophile_, while yet others prefer a neutral stain (_neutrophile_).
+
+In human blood the following varieties of leucocytes may be
+distinguished:--
+
+1. _The Polymorphonuclear Cell._--This possesses a nucleus of very
+complicated outline and a fair amount of protoplasm filled with numbers
+of fine granules which stain with eosin. They vary in size but are
+usually about 0.01 mm. in diameter. They are highly amoeboid and
+phagocytic, and form about 70% of the total number of leucocytes.
+
+2. _The Coarsely Granular Eosinophile Cell._--These large cells contain
+a number of well-defined granules which stain deeply with acid dyes. The
+nucleus is crescentic. The cells amount to about 2% of the total number
+of leucocytes, though the proportion varies considerably. They are
+actively amoeboid.
+
+3. _The Lymphocyte._--This is the smallest leucocyte, being only about
+0.0065 mm. in diameter. It has a large spherical nucleus with a small
+rim of clear protoplasm surrounding it. It forms from 15 to 40% of the
+number of leucocytes, and is less markedly amoeboid than the other
+varieties.
+
+4. _The Hyaline_ (Gr. [Greek: hualinos], glassy, crystalline, [Greek:
+ualos], glass) _cell or macrocyte_ (Gr. [Greek: makros], long or
+large).--This is a cell similar to the last with a spherical, oval or
+indented nucleus, but it has much more protoplasm. It constitutes about
+4% of all the leucocytes and is highly amoeboid and phagocytic.
+
+5. _The Basophile Cell_.--This possesses a spherical nucleus and the
+protoplasm contains a small number of granules staining deeply with
+basic dyes. It is rarely found in the blood of adults except in certain
+diseases.
+
+_Functions._--These cells act as scavengers or as destroyers of living
+organisms that may have gained access to the tissue spaces. They play an
+important part in the chemical processes underlying the phenomena of
+immunity, and some at least are of importance in starting the process of
+clotting.
+
+They are constantly suffering destruction in the performance of their
+work. Many, too, are lost to the body by their passage through the
+different mucous surfaces. Their origin is still obscure in many points.
+The lymphocytes are derived from lymphoid tissue, wherever it exists in
+the different parts of the body. The polymorphonuclear and eosinophile
+cells are derived from the bone-marrow, each by division of specific
+mother cells located in that tissue. The macrocyte is believed by many
+to represent a further stage in the development of the lymphocyte. Their
+rate of formation may be influenced by a variety of conditions--for
+instance, they are found to vary in number according to the diet and
+also, to a considerable extent, in disease.
+
+_Platelets._--The platelets or thrombocytes (Gr. [Greek: thrombos],
+clot) are the third class of formed elements occurring in mammalian
+blood. There are still, however, many observers who consider that
+platelets are not present in the normal circulating blood, but only make
+their appearance after it has been shed or otherwise injured. They are
+minute lens-shaped structures, and may amount to as many as 800,000 per
+cubic mm. Under certain conditions, examination has shown that they are
+protoplasmic and amoeboid, and that each one contains a central body of
+different staining properties from the remainder of the structure. This
+has been regarded by some as a nucleus. On being brought into contact
+with a foreign surface they adhere to it firmly, very rapidly passing
+through a number of phases resulting ultimately in the formation of
+granular debris. In shed blood they tend to collect into groups, and
+during clotting, fibrin filaments may be observed to shoot out from
+these clumps.
+
+_Variations in the Blood of different Animals._--If we contrast the
+blood of different animals of the vertebrate class we find striking
+differences both in microscopic appearances and in chemical properties.
+In the first place, the corpuscles vary in amount and in kind. Thus,
+whilst in a mammal the corpuscles form 40 to 50% of the total volume of
+the blood, in the lower vertebrates the volume is much less, e.g. in
+frogs as low as 25% and in fishes even lower. The deficiency is chiefly
+in the red corpuscles, the ratio of white to red increasing as we
+examine the blood from animals lower in the scale. The corpuscles
+themselves are also found to vary, especially the red ones. In the
+mammal they are biconcave disks with bevelled edges, they do not contain
+a nucleus so that they are not cells. In the bird they are larger,
+ellipsoidal in shape and have a large nucleus in the centre of the cell.
+In reptiles and amphibia the red corpuscles are also nucleated, but the
+_stroma_ portion containing the haemoglobin is arranged in a thickened
+annular part encircling the nucleus. When seen from the flat they are
+oval in section. In fishes the corpuscles show very much the same
+structure. A further very significant difference to be observed between
+the bloods of different vertebrates is in the amount of haemoglobin they
+contain; thus in the lower classes, fishes and amphibia, not only is the
+number of red corpuscles small but the amount of haemoglobin each
+corpuscle contains is relatively low. The concentration of the
+haemoglobin in the corpuscles attains its maximum in the mammal and the
+bird. Since the haemoglobin is practically the same from whatever animal
+it is obtained and can only combine with the same amount of oxygen, the
+oxygen-capacity of the blood of any vertebrate is in direct proportion
+to the amount of haemoglobin it contains. Therefore we see that as we
+ascend the scale in the vertebrate series the oxygen-carrying capacity
+of the blood rises. This increase was a natural preliminary condition
+for the progress of evolution. In order that a more active animal might
+be developed the main essential was that the chemical processes of the
+cell should be carried out more rapidly, and as these processes are
+fundamentally oxidative, increased activity entails an increased rate
+of supply of oxygen. This latter has been brought about in the animal
+kingdom in two ways, first by an increase in the concentration of the
+haemoglobin of the blood effected by an increase both in the number of
+corpuscles and in the amount of haemoglobin contained in each, and
+secondly by an increase in the rate at which the blood has been made to
+pass through the tissues. In the lower vertebrates the blood pressure is
+low and the haemoglobin content of the blood is low, consequently both
+rate of blood-flow and oxygen-content are low. In contrast with this, in
+higher vertebrates the blood pressure is high and the haemoglobin
+content of the blood is high, consequently both rate of blood-flow and
+oxygen-content are high. We must associate with this important step in
+evolution the means employed for the more rapid absorption of oxygen and
+for its increased rate of discharge to the tissues, the most important
+features of which are a diminution in the size of the corpuscle and the
+attainment of its peculiar shape, both resulting in the production of a
+relatively enormous corpuscular surface in a unit volume of blood.
+
+Variations are also found in the white corpuscles as well as in the red,
+but these differences are not so striking and lie chiefly in unimportant
+details of structure of individual cells. Enormous variations are to be
+found in different species of mammals, but the cells generally conform
+to the types of secreting cells or phagocytes.
+
+The platelets also differ in the different species. In the frog, for
+instance, many are spindle-shaped and contain a nucleus-like structure.
+Birds' blood is stated to contain no platelets. The variations in number
+of these bodies have not been satisfactorily ascertained on account of
+the difficulties involved in any attempt to preserve them and to render
+them visible under the microscope.
+
+Differences are also found in the chemical composition of the plasma.
+The chief variation is in the amount of protein present, which attains
+its maximum concentration in birds and mammals, while in reptiles,
+amphibia and fishes it is much less. The bloods of the latter two
+classes are much more watery than that of the mammal. Moreover, it has
+been proved that there are specific differences in the chemical nature
+of the various proteins present even between different varieties of
+mammals. Thus the ratio of the globulin fraction to the albumin fraction
+may vary considerably, and again, one or other of the proteins may be
+quite specific for the animal from which it is derived.
+
+_Clotting._--If a sample of blood be withdrawn from an animal, within a
+short time it undergoes a series of changes and becomes converted into a
+stiff jelly. It is said to _clot_. If the process is watched it is seen
+to start first from the surfaces where it is in contact with any foreign
+body; thence it extends through the blood until the whole mass sets
+solid. A short time elapses before this process commences--a time
+dependent upon two chief conditions, viz. the temperature at which the
+blood is kept and the extent of foreign surface with which it is brought
+into contact. Thus in a mammal the blood clots most quickly at a
+temperature a little above body temperature, while if the blood be
+cooled quickly the clotting is considerably delayed and in the case of
+some animals altogether prevented. For example, human blood kept at body
+temperature clots in three minutes, while if allowed to cool to room
+temperature the first sign of clotting may not make its appearance until
+eight minutes after its removal from the body. The process of clotting
+is also considerably accelerated by making the blood flow in a thin
+stream over a wide surface. The full completion of the process occupies
+some time if the blood be kept quiet, but ultimately the whole mass of
+the blood becomes converted into a solid. At this stage the containing
+vessel may be inverted without any drop of fluid escaping. A short time
+after this stage has been reached drops of a yellow fluid appear upon
+the surface and, increasing in size and number, run together to form a
+layer of fluid separated from the clot. This fluid is termed _serum_;
+its appearance is due to the contraction of the clot, which thus
+squeezes out the fluid from between its solid constituents. Contraction
+continues for about twenty-four hours, at the end of which time a large
+quantity (one-third or more of the total volume) of serum may have been
+separated. The clot contracts uniformly, thus preserving throughout the
+same general shape as that of the vessel in which the blood has been
+collected. Finally the clot swims freely in the serum which it has
+expressed.
+
+The cause of the clot formation has been found to be the precipitation
+of a solid from the liquid plasma of the blood. This solid is in the
+form of very minute threads and hence is termed _fibrin_. The threads
+traverse the mass of blood in every possible direction, interlacing and
+thus confining in their meshes all the solid elements of the blood. Soon
+after their deposition they begin to contract, and as the meshwork they
+form is very minute they carry with them all the corpuscles of the
+blood. These with the fibrin form the shrunken clot.
+
+If the rate at which blood clots be retarded either by cooling or by
+some other process the corpuscles may have time to settle, partially or
+completely, in which case distinct layers may form. The lowermost of
+these contains chiefly the red corpuscles, the second layer may be grey
+owing to the high percentage of leucocytes present, while a third,
+marked by opalescence only, may be very rich in platelets. Above these a
+clear layer of fluid may be found. This is _plasma_. The formation of
+these layers depends solely upon the rate of sedimentation of these
+elements, the rate depending partly upon differences in specific
+gravity, and partly upon the tendency the corpuscles have to run into
+clumps. Horse's blood offers one of the best instances of the clumping
+of red corpuscles, and in this animal sedimentation of the red
+corpuscles is most rapid.
+
+If now such a sedimented blood is allowed to clot the process is found
+to start in the middle two layers, i.e. in those containing the white
+corpuscles and platelets. From these layers it spreads through the rest
+of the liquid, being most retarded, however, in the red corpuscle layer,
+and particularly so if the sedimentation has been very complete. Not
+only does the clotting process start from the layers containing the
+leucocytes and platelets, but in them it also proceeds more quickly.
+These observations clearly indicate that the clotting process is
+initiated by some change starting from these elements.
+
+The object of the clotting of the blood is quite clear. It is to
+prevent, as far as possible, any loss of blood when there is an injury
+to an animal's vessels. The shed blood becomes converted into a solid,
+and this, extending into the interior of the ruptured vessel, forms a
+plug and thus arrests the bleeding. It is found that clotting is
+especially accelerated whenever the blood touches a foreign tissue, for
+instance, the outer layers of a torn blood-vessel wall, muscle tissue,
+&c., i.e. in exactly those conditions in which rapid clotting becomes
+of the greatest importance. Yet another very pregnant fact in connexion
+with clotting is that if an animal be bled rapidly and the blood
+collected in successive samples it is found that those collected last
+clot most quickly. Hence the more excessive the haemorrhage in any case,
+the greater becomes the onset of the natural cure for the bleeding, viz.
+clotting.
+
+When we begin to inquire into the nature of clotting we have to
+determine in the first place whence the fibrin is derived. It has long
+been known that two chemical substances at least are requisite for its
+production. Thus certain fluids are known, e.g. some samples of
+hydrocele or pericardial fluid, which will not clot spontaneously, but
+will clot rapidly when a small quantity of serum or of an old blood-clot
+is added to it. The constituent substance which is present in the
+first-named fluids is known as fibrinogen, and that present in the serum
+or the clot is known as fibrin-ferment or _thrombin_.
+
+Fibrinogen is present in living blood dissolved in the plasma; it is
+also present in such fluids as hydrocele or pericardial effusions,
+which, though capable of clotting, do not clot spontaneously. Thrombin,
+on the other hand, does not exist in living blood, but only makes its
+appearance there after blood is shed. It is not yet certain what is the
+nature of the final reaction between fibrinogen and thrombin. The
+possibilities are, that thrombin may act--(1) by acting upon fibrinogen,
+which it in some way converts into fibrin, (2) by uniting with
+fibrinogen to form fibrin, or (3) by yielding part of itself to the
+fibrinogen which thus becomes converted into fibrin. The experimental
+study of the rate of fibrin formation, when different strengths of
+thrombin solutions are allowed to act upon a fibrinogen solution, leads
+us to the probable conclusion that the first of these three
+possibilities is the correct one, and that thrombin therefore exerts a
+true ferment action upon fibrinogen. It is known that in the reaction,
+in addition to the formation of fibrin, yet another protein makes its
+appearance. This is known as fibrinoglobulin, and apparently it arises
+from the fibrinogen, so that the change would be one of cleavage into
+fibrin and fibrinoglobulin. It is very noteworthy that although the
+amount of fibrin formed during the clotting appears very bulky, yet the
+actual weight is extremely small, not more than 0.4 grms. from 100 cc.
+of blood.
+
+Having ascertained that the clotting is due to the action of thrombin
+upon fibrinogen, we now see that the next step to be explained is the
+origin of thrombin. It has been shown that the final step in its
+formation consists in the combination of another substance, termed
+prothrombin, with calcium. Any soluble calcium salt is found to be
+effective in this respect, and conversely the removal of soluble calcium
+(e.g. by sodium oxalate) will prevent the formation of thrombin and
+therefore of clotting.
+
+In the next place it can be proved that prothrombin does not exist as
+such in circulating blood, so that the problem becomes an inquiry as to
+the origin of prothrombin. Experiment has shown that in its turn
+prothrombin arises from yet another precursor, which is named
+thrombogen, and that thrombogen also is not to be found in circulating
+blood but only makes its appearance after the blood is shed. The
+conversion of thrombogen into prothrombin has been proved to be due to
+the action of a second ferment which has been named thrombokinase, and
+this latter is again absent from living blood. Hence the question
+arises, whence are derived thrombogen and thrombokinase? In the study of
+this question it has been found that if the blood of birds be collected
+direct from an artery through a perfectly clean cannula into a clean and
+dust-free glass vessel, it does not clot spontaneously. The plasma
+collected from such blood is found to contain thrombogen but no
+thrombokinase. A somewhat similar plasma may be prepared from a mammal's
+blood by collecting samples of blood from an artery into vessels which
+have been thoroughly coated with paraffin, though in this instance
+thrombogen may be absent as well as thrombokinase. If plasma containing
+thrombogen but no thrombokinase be treated with a saline extract of any
+tissues it will soon clot. The saline extract contains thrombokinase.
+This ferment can therefore be derived from most tissues, including also
+the white blood corpuscles and the platelets. Thrombogen is produced
+from the leucocytes, but it is not yet certain whether it is also formed
+from the platelets. The discovery of the origin of the thrombokinase
+from tissue cells explains a fact that has long been known, namely, that
+if in collecting blood, it is allowed to flow over cut tissues, clotting
+is most markedly accelerated. The fact that birds' blood if very
+carefully collected will not clot spontaneously tends to prove that
+thrombokinase is not derived from the leucocytes, and makes probable its
+origin from the platelets, for it is known that birds' blood apparently
+does not contain platelets, at any rate in the form in which they are
+found in mammalian blood. When examining the general properties of
+platelets, attention was drawn to the remarkably rapid manner in which
+they undergo change on coming into contact with a foreign surface. It is
+apparently the actual contact which initiates these changes, changes
+which are fundamentally chemical in character, resulting in the
+production of thrombokinase and possibly also of thrombogen.
+
+Thus as our knowledge at present stands the following statement gives a
+recapitulated account of the changes which constitute the many phases of
+clotting. When blood escapes from a blood-vessel it comes into contact
+with a foreign surface, either a tissue or the damaged walls of the cut
+vessel. Very speedily this contact results in the discharge of
+thrombogen and thrombokinase, the former from the white blood corpuscles
+and also possibly from the platelets, the latter from the platelets or
+from the tissue with which the blood comes in contact. The interaction
+of these two bodies next results in the formation of prothrombin, which,
+combining with the calcium of any soluble lime salt present, forms
+thrombin or fibrin-ferment. The last step in the change is the action of
+thrombin upon fibrinogen to form fibrin, and the clot is complete.
+
+The intrinsic value to the animal of these changes is quite plain. The
+power of clotting and thus stopping haemorrhage is of essential
+importance, and yet this clotting must not occur within the living
+blood-vessels, or it would speedily result in death. That the tissues
+should be able to accelerate the process is of very obvious value. That
+the inner lining of the blood-vessels does not act as a foreign tissue
+is possibly due to the extreme smoothness of their surface.
+
+Further, an animal must always be exposed to a possible danger in the
+absorption of some thrombin from a mass of clotted blood still retained
+within the body, and we know that if a quantity of active ferment be
+injected into the blood-stream intravascular clotting does result. Under
+all usual conditions this is obviated, the protective mechanism being of
+a twofold character. First, it is found that thrombin becomes converted
+very quickly into an inactive modification. Serum, for instance, very
+quickly loses its power of inducing clotting in fibrinogen solutions.
+Secondly, the body has been found to possess the power of making a
+substance, antithrombin, which can combine with thrombin forming a
+substance which is quite inactive as far as clotting is concerned.
+Finally, there is evidence that normal blood contains a small quantity
+of this substance, antithrombin, and that under certain conditions the
+amount present may be enormously increased.     (T. G. Br.)
+
+
+_Pathology of the Blood._
+
+The changes in the blood in disease are probably as numerous and varied
+as the diseases which attack the body, for the blood is not only the
+medium of respiration, but also of nutrition, of defence against
+organisms and of many other functions, none of which can be affected
+without corresponding alterations occurring in the circulating fluid.
+The immense majority of these changes are, however, so subtle that they
+escape detection by our present methods. But in certain directions,
+notably in regard to the relations with micro-organisms, changes in the
+blood-plasma can be made out, though they are not associated in all
+cases with changes in the formed elements which float in it, nor with
+any obvious microscopical or chemical alterations.
+
+
+  Immunity.
+
+The phenomena of immunity to the attacks of bacteria or their toxins, of
+agglutinative action, of opsonic action, of the precipitin tests, and of
+haemolysis, are all largely dependent on the inherent or acquired
+characters of the blood serum. It is a commonplace that different people
+vary in their susceptibility to the attacks of different organisms, and
+different species of animals also vary greatly. This "natural immunity"
+is due partly to the power possessed by the leucocytes or white blood
+corpuscles of taking into their bodies and digesting or holding in an
+inert state organisms which reach the blood--phagocytosis,--partly to
+certain bodies in the blood serum which have a bactericidal action, or
+whose presence enables the phagocytes to deal more easily with the
+organisms. This natural immunity can be heightened when it exists, or an
+artificial immunity can be produced in various ways. Doses of organisms
+or their toxins can be injected on one or several occasions, and
+provided that the lethal dose be not reached, in most cases an increased
+power of resistance is produced. The organisms may be injected alive in
+a virulent condition, or with their virulence lessened by heat or cold,
+by antiseptics, by cultivation in the presence of oxygen, or by passage
+through other animals, or they may first be killed, or their toxins
+alone injected. The method chosen in each case depends on the organism
+dealt with. The result of this treatment is that in the animal treated
+protective substances appear in the serum, and these substances can be
+transferred to the serum of another animal or of man; in other words the
+active immunity of the experimental animal can be translated into the
+passive immunity of man. According to the nature of the substances
+injected into the former, its serum may be antitoxic, if it has been
+immunized against any particular toxin, or antibacterial, if against an
+organism. Familiar examples of these are, of the former diphtheria
+antitoxin, of the latter anti-plague and anti-typhoid sera. An antitoxin
+exerts its effects by actual combination with the respective toxin, the
+combination being inert. It is probable that the ultimate source of the
+antitoxin is to be found in the living cells of the tissues and that it
+passes from them into the blood. The action of an antibacterial serum
+depends on the presence in it of a substance known as "immune-body,"
+which has a special affinity and power of combining with the bacterium
+used. In order that it may exert this power it requires the presence of
+a substance normally present in the serum known as "complement." The
+development of these "anti-bodies," though it has been studied mainly in
+connexion with bacteria and their toxins, is not confined to their
+action, but can be demonstrated in regard to many other substances, such
+as ferments, tissue cells, red corpuscles, &c. In some animals, for
+example, the blood serum has the power of dissolving the red corpuscles
+of an animal of different species; e.g. the guinea-pig's serum is
+"haemolytic" to the red corpuscles of the ox. This haemolytic power
+(haemolysis) can be increased by repeated injections of red corpuscles
+from the other animal, in this case also, as in the bacterial case, by
+the production and action of immune-body and complement. The antiserum
+produced in the case of the red corpuscles may sometimes, if injected
+into the first animal, whose red corpuscles were used, cause extensive
+destruction of its red corpuscles, with haemoglobinuria, and sometimes a
+fatal result.
+
+Opsonic action depends on the presence of a substance, the "opsonin," in
+the serum of an immunized animal, which makes the organism in question
+more easily taken up by the phagocytes (leucocytes) of the blood. The
+opsonin becomes fixed to the organisms. It is present to a certain
+extent in normal serum, but can be greatly increased by the process of
+immunization; and the "opsonic index," or relation between the number of
+organisms taken up by leucocytes when treated with the serum of a
+healthy person or "control," and with the serum of a person affected
+with any bacterial disease and under treatment by immunization, is
+regarded by some as representing the degree of immunity produced.
+
+Agglutinative action is evidence of the presence in a serum of a
+somewhat similar set of substances, known as "agglutinins." When a
+portion of an antiserum is added to an emulsion of the corresponding
+organism, the organisms, if they are motile, cease to move, and in any
+case become gathered together into clumps. In all probability several
+different bodies are concerned in this process. This reaction, in its
+practical applications at least, may be regarded as a reaction of
+infection rather than of immunization as ordinarily understood, for it
+is found that the blood serum of patients suffering from typhoid, Malta
+fever, cholera, and many other bacterial diseases, agglutinates the
+corresponding organisms. This fact has come to be of great importance in
+diagnosis.
+
+The precipitin test depends on a somewhat analogous reaction. If the
+serum of an animal be injected repeatedly into another animal of
+different species, a "precipitin" appears in the serum of the animal
+treated, which causes a precipitate when added to the serum of the first
+animal. The special importance of this fact is that it can be utilized
+as a method of distinguishing between human blood and that of animals,
+which is often of importance in medical jurisprudence.
+
+In this summary the facts adduced are practically all biological, and
+are due to the extraordinary activity with which the study of
+bacteriology (q.v.) has been pursued in recent years. The chemistry of
+the blood has not hitherto been found to give information of clinical or
+diagnostic importance, and nothing need here be added to what is said
+above on the physiology of the blood. Enough has been said, however, to
+show the extraordinary complexity of the apparently simple blood serum.
+
+The methods at present employed in examining the blood clinically are:
+the enumeration of the red and white corpuscles per cubic millimetre;
+the estimation of the percentage of haemoglobin and of the specific
+gravity of the blood; the microscopic examination of freshly-drawn blood
+and of blood films made upon cover-glasses, fixed and stained. In
+special cases the alkalinity and the rapidity of coagulation may be
+ascertained, or the blood may be examined bacteriologically. We have no
+universally accepted means of estimating, during life, the total amount
+of blood in the body, though the method of J.S. Haldane and J. Lorrain
+Smith, in which the total oxygen capacity of the blood is estimated, and
+its total volume worked out from that datum, has seemed to promise
+important results (_Journ. of Physiol_. vol. xxv. p. 331, 1900). After
+death the amount of blood sometimes seems to be increased, and
+sometimes, as in "pernicious anaemia," it is certainly diminished. But
+the high counts of red corpuscles which are occasionally reported as
+evidence of plethora or increase of the total blood are really only
+indications of concentration of the fluid except in certain rare cases.
+It is necessary, therefore, in examining blood diseases, to confine
+ourselves to the study of the blood-unit, which is always taken as the
+cubic millimetre, without reference to the number of units in the body.
+
+
+  Anaemia.
+
+_Anaemia_ is often used as a generic term for all blood diseases, for in
+almost all of them the haemoglobin is diminished, either as a result of
+diminution in the number of the red corpuscles in which it is contained,
+or because the individual red corpuscles contain a smaller amount of
+haemoglobin than the normal. As haemoglobin is the medium of respiratory
+interchange, its diminution causes obvious symptoms, which are much more
+easily appreciated by the patient than those caused by alterations in
+the plasma or the leucocytes. It is customary to divide anaemias into
+"primary" and "secondary": the primary are those for which no adequate
+cause has as yet been discovered; the secondary, those whose cause is
+known. Among the former are usually included chlorosis, pernicious
+anaemia, and sometimes the leucocythaemias; among the latter, the
+anaemias due to such agencies as malignant disease, malaria, chronic
+metallic poisoning, chronic haemorrhage, tubercle, Bright's disease,
+infective processes, intestinal parasites, &c. As our knowledge
+advances, however, this distinction will probably be given up, for the
+causes of several of the primary anaemias have been discovered. For
+example, the anaemia due to _bothriocephalus_, an intestinal parasite,
+is clinically indistinguishable from the other forms of pernicious
+anaemia with which it used to be included, and leucocythaemia has been
+declared by Löwit, though probably erroneously, to be due to a blood
+parasite closely related to that of malaria. In all these conditions
+there is a considerable similarity in the symptoms produced and in the
+pathological anatomy. The general symptoms are pallor of the skin and
+mucous membranes, weakness and lassitude, shortness of breath,
+palpitation, a tendency to fainting, and usually also gastro-intestinal
+disturbance, headache and neuralgia. The heart is often dilated, and on
+auscultation the systolic murmurs associated with that condition are
+heard. In fatal cases the internal organs are found to be pale, and very
+often their cells contain an excessive amount of fat. In many anaemias
+there is a special tendency to haemorrhage. Most of the above symptoms
+and organic changes are directly due to diminished respiratory
+interchange from the loss of haemoglobin, and to its effect on the
+various organs involved. The diagnosis depends ultimately in all cases
+upon the examination of the blood.
+
+Though the relative proportions of the leucocytes are probably
+continually undergoing change even in health, especially as the result
+of taking food, the number of red corpuscles remains much more constant.
+Through the agency of some unknown mechanism, the supply of fresh red
+corpuscles from the bone-marrow keeps pace with the destruction of
+effete corpuscles, and in health each corpuscle contains a definite and
+constant amount of haemoglobin. The disturbance of this arrangement in
+anaemia may be due to loss or to increased destruction of corpuscles, to
+the supply of a smaller number of new ones, to a diminution of the
+amount of haemoglobin in the individual new corpuscles, or to a
+combination of these causes. It is most easy to illustrate this by
+describing what happens after a haemorrhage. If this is small, the loss
+is replaced by the fully-formed corpuscles held in reserve in the
+marrow, and there is no disturbance. If it is larger, the amount of
+fluid lost is first made up by fluid drawn from the tissues, so that the
+number of corpuscles is apparently diminished by dilution of the blood;
+the erythroblasts, or formative red corpuscles, of the bone-marrow are
+stimulated to proliferation, and new corpuscles are quickly thrown into
+the circulation. These are apt, however, to be small and to contain a
+subnormal amount of haemoglobin, and it is only after some time that
+they are destroyed and their place taken by normal corpuscles. If the
+loss has been very great, nucleated red corpuscles may even be carried
+into the blood-stream. The blood possesses a great power of recovery, if
+time be given it, because the organ (bone-marrow) which forms so many of
+its elements never, in health, works at high pressure. Only a part of
+the marrow, the so-called red marrow, is normally occupied by
+erythroblastic tissue, the rest of the medullary cavity of the bones
+being taken up by fat. If any long-continued demand for red corpuscles
+is made, the fat is absorbed, and its place gradually taken by red
+marrow. This compensatory change is found in all chronic anaemias, no
+matter what their cause may be, except in some rare cases in which the
+marrow does not react.
+
+It is often very difficult, especially in "secondary" anaemias, to say
+which of the above processes is mainly at work. In acute anaemias, such
+as those associated with septicaemia, there is no doubt that blood
+destruction plays the principal part. But if the cause of anaemia is a
+chronic one, a gastric cancer, for instance, though there may possibly
+be an increased amount of destruction of corpuscles in some cases, and
+though there is often loss by haemorrhage, the cancer interferes with
+nutrition, the blood is impoverished and does not nourish the
+erythroblasts in the marrow sufficiently, and the new corpuscles which
+are turned out are few and poor in haemoglobin. In chronic anaemias,
+regeneration always goes on side by side with destruction, and it is
+important to remember that the state of the blood in these conditions
+gives the measure, not of the amount of destruction which is taking
+place so much as of the amount of regeneration of which the organism is
+capable. The evidence of destruction has often to be sought for in other
+organs, or in secretions or excretions.
+
+Of the so-called primary anaemias the most common is _chlorosis_, an
+anaemia which occurs only in the female sex, between the ages of fifteen
+and twenty-five as a rule. Its symptoms are those caused by a diminution
+of haemoglobin, and though it is never directly fatal, and is extremely
+amenable to treatment with iron preparations, its subjects very
+frequently suffer from relapses at varying intervals after the first
+attack. Its causation is probably complex. Bad hygienic conditions,
+over-fatigue, want of proper food, especially of the iron-containing
+proteids of meat, the strain put upon the blood and blood-forming organs
+by the accession of puberty and the occurrence of menstruation, all
+probably play a part in it. It has also been suggested that internal
+secretions may be concerned in stimulating the bone-marrow, and that in
+the female sex in particular the genital organs may act in this way.
+Imperfect assumption of function by these organs at puberty, caused
+perhaps by some of the above-mentioned conditions, might lead to
+sluggishness in the bone-marrow, and to the supply to the blood of the
+poorly-formed corpuscles deficient in haemoglobin which are
+characteristic of the disease. Chlorosis is the type of anaemias from
+imperfect blood-formation. Lorrain Smith has produced evidence to show
+that the total amount of haemoglobin in the body is not diminished in
+this disease, but that the blood-plasma is greatly increased in amount,
+so that the haemoglobin is diluted and the amount in each blood-unit
+greatly lessened.
+
+_Pernicious anaemia_ is a rarer disease than chlorosis, occurs usually
+later in life, and is distributed nearly equally between the two sexes.
+But it is of great importance because of its almost uniformly fatal
+termination, though its downward course is generally broken by
+temporary improvement on one or more occasions. The symptoms are those
+of a progressive anaemia, in which gastro-intestinal disturbance usually
+plays a large part, and nervous symptoms are common, and they become at
+last much more severe than those of any secondary anaemia. The patient
+may die in the first attack, but more usually, when things seem to be at
+their worst, improvement sets in, either spontaneously or as the result
+of treatment, and the patient slowly regains apparent health. This
+remission may be followed by a relapse, that again by a remission, and
+so on, but as a rule the disease is fatal within, at the outside, two or
+three years.
+
+The prime cause of the disease is not known. It seems probable indeed
+that the causal factors are numerous. Severe malarial infection,
+syphilis, pregnancy, chronic gastro-intestinal disease, chronic
+gas-poisoning, are all, in different cases, known to have been causally
+associated with it, and it is probable that a congenital weakness of the
+bone-marrow has often to do with its production, as in many cases a
+family or hereditary history of the disease can be obtained. The
+condition is now regarded as a chronic toxaemia, partly because of the
+clinical symptoms and pathological appearances, partly because analogous
+conditions can be produced experimentally by such poisons as saponin and
+toluylendiamin, and partly because of the facts of _bothriocephalus_
+anaemia. The site of production of the toxin, or toxins, for it is
+possible that several may have the same effect on the blood, is possibly
+not always the same, but must often be the alimentary canal, as
+_bothriocephalus_ anaemia proves. Not all persons affected with this
+intestinal tapeworm contract the disease, but only those in whose
+intestines the worm is dead and decomposing or sometimes only "sick."
+The expulsion of the worm puts an end to the absorption of the toxin and
+the patients recover. No adequate explanation of the formation of the
+toxin in the immense majority of the cases, in which there is no
+tapeworm, has yet been given. It is certain that no organism as yet
+known is concerned.
+
+This toxaemia affects the marrow and through it the blood, the
+gastro-intestinal apparatus and the nervous system, especially the
+spinal cord, in different proportions in different cases. The effect
+upon the marrow is to alter the type of red corpuscle formation, causing
+a reversion to the embryonic condition, in which the nucleated red
+corpuscles are large (megaloblasts), and the corpuscles in the blood
+formed from them are also large, are apparently ill suited to the needs
+of the adult, and easily break down, as the deposits of iron in the
+liver, spleen, kidneys and marrow prove. Whether this reversion is due
+to an exhaustion of the normal process or to an inhibition of it is not
+definitely known. The result is that the circulating red corpuscles are
+enormously diminished; it is usual to find 1,000,000 or less in the
+cubic millimetre instead of the normal 5,000,000. Though the haemoglobin
+is of course absolutely diminished, it is always, in severe cases,
+present in relatively higher percentage than the red corpuscles, because
+the average red corpuscle is larger and contains more haemoglobin than
+the normal. The large nucleated red corpuscles (megaloblasts) with which
+the marrow is crowded, often appear in the blood.
+
+Other anaemias, such as those known as _lymphadenoma_, or Hodgkin's
+disease, _splenic anaemia_, _chloroma_, _leucanaemia_ and the _anaemia
+pseudo-leucaemica_ of children, need not be described here, as they are
+either rare or their occurrence or nature is still too much under
+discussion.
+
+
+  Leucocytosis.
+
+The number and nature of the leucocytes in the blood bears no constant
+or necessary relation to the number or condition of the red corpuscles,
+and their variations depend on entirely different conditions. The number
+in the cubic millimetre is usually about 7000, but may vary in health
+from 5000 to 10,000. A diminution in their number is known as
+_leucopenia_, and is found in starvation, in some infective diseases, as
+for example in typhoid fever, in malaria and Malta fever, and in
+pernicious anaemia. An increase is very much more frequent, and is known
+as _leucocytosis_, though in this term is usually connoted a relative
+increase in the proportion of the polymorphonuclear neutrophile
+leucocytes. Leucocytosis occurs under a great variety of conditions,
+normally to a slight extent during digestion, during pregnancy, and
+after violent exercise, and abnormally after haemorrhage, in the course
+of inflammations and many infective diseases, in malignant disease, in
+such toxic states as uraemia, and after the ingestion of nuclein and
+other substances. It does not occur in some infective diseases, the most
+important of which are typhoid fever, malaria, influenza, measles and
+uncomplicated tuberculosis. In all cases where it is sufficiently severe
+and long continued, the reserve space in the bone-marrow is filled up by
+the active proliferation of the leucocytes normally found there, and is
+used as a nursery for the leucocytes required in the blood. In many
+cases leucocytosis is known to be associated with the defence of the
+organism from injurious influences, and its amount depends on the
+relation between the severity of the attack and the power of resistance.
+There may be an increase in the proportions present in the blood of
+lymphocytes (_lymphocytosis_), and of eosinophile cells
+(_eosinophilia_). This latter change is associated specially with some
+forms of asthma, with certain skin diseases, and with the presence of
+animal parasites in the body, such as ankylostoma and filaria.
+
+
+  Leucaemia.
+
+The disease in which the number of leucocytes in the blood is greatest
+is _leucocythaemia_ or leucaemia. There are two main forms of this
+disease, in both of which there are anaemia, enlargement of the spleen
+and lymphatic glands, or of either of them, leucocytic hypertrophy of
+the bone-marrow, and deposits of leucocytes in the liver, kidney and
+other organs. The difference lies in the kind of leucocytes present in
+excess in the blood, blood-forming organs and deposits in the tissues.
+In the one form these are lymphocytes, which are found in health mainly
+in the marrow, the blood itself, the lymph glands and in the lymphatic
+tissue round the alimentary canal; in the other they are the kinds of
+leucocytes normally found in the bone-marrow-myelocytes, neutrophile,
+basophile and eosinophile, and polymorphonuclear cells, also
+neutrophile, basophile and eosinophile. The clinical course of the two
+forms may differ. The first, known as lymphatic leucaemia or
+_lymphaemia_, may be acute, and prove fatal in a few weeks or even days
+with rapidly advancing anaemia, or may be chronic and last for one or
+two years or longer. The second, known as spleno-myelogenous leucaemia
+or _myelaemia_, is almost always chronic, and may last for several
+years. Recovery does not take place, though remissions may occur. The
+use of the X-rays has been found to influence the course of this disease
+very favourably. The most recent view of the pathology of the disease is
+that it is due to an overgrowth of the bone-marrow leucocytes, analogous
+in some respects to tumour growth and caused by the removal of some
+controlling mechanism rather than by stimulation. The anaemia
+accompanying the disease is due partly to the leucocyte overgrowth,
+which takes up the space in the marrow belonging of right to red
+corpuscle formation and interferes with it. (G. L. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The suffix _-phile_, Greek [Greek: philein], to love, prefer, is
+    in scientific terminology frequently applied to substances that
+    exhibit such preference for particular stains or reagents, the names
+    of which form the first part of the word.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOD-LETTING. There are certain morbid conditions when a patient may
+obtain marked relief from the abstraction of a certain amount of blood,
+from three or four ounces up to twenty or even thirty in extreme cases.
+This may be effected by venesection, or the application of leeches, or
+more rarely by cupping (q.v.). Unfortunately, in years gone by,
+blood-letting was used to such excess, as a cure for almost every known
+disease, that public opinion is now extremely opposed to it. In certain
+pathological conditions, however, it brings relief and saves life when
+no other means would act with sufficient promptness to take its place.
+
+Venesection, in which the blood is usually withdrawn from the
+median-basilic vein of the arm, has the disadvantage that it can only be
+performed by the medical man, and that the patient's friends are
+generally very much opposed to the idea. But the public are not nearly
+so prejudiced against the use of leeches; and as the nurse in charge can
+be instructed to use these if occasion arises, this is the form of
+blood-letting usually practised to-day. From one to twelve leeches are
+applied at the time, the average leech withdrawing some two drachms of
+blood. Should this prove insufficient, as much again can be abstracted
+by the immediate application of hot fomentations to the wounds. They
+should always be applied over some bony prominence, that pressure may be
+effectively used to stop the haemorrhage afterwards. They should never
+be placed over superficial veins, or where there is much loose
+subcutaneous tissue. If, as is often the case, there is any difficulty
+in making them bite, the skin should be pricked at the desired spot with
+the point of a sterilized needle, and the leech will then attach itself
+without further trouble. Also they must be left to fall off of their own
+accord, the nurse never dragging them forcibly off. If cold and pressure
+fail to stop the subsequent haemorrhage, a little powdered alum or other
+styptic may be inserted in the wound. The following are the main
+indications for their use, though in some cases they are better replaced
+by venesection, (1) For stagnation of blood on the right side of the
+heart with constant dyspnoea, cyanosis, &c. In acute lung disease, the
+sudden obstruction to the passage of blood through the lungs throws such
+an increased strain on the right ventricle that it may dilate to the
+verge of paralysis; but by lessening the total volume of blood, the
+heart's work is lightened for a time, and the danger at the moment tided
+over. This is a condition frequently met with in the early stages of
+acute pneumonia, pleurisy and bronchitis, when the obstruction is in the
+lungs, the heart being normal. But the same result is also met with as a
+result of failure of compensation with back pressure in certain forms of
+heart disease (q.v.). (2) To lower arterial tension. In the early stages
+of cerebral haemorrhage (before coma has supervened), when the heart is
+working vigorously and the tension of the pulse is high, a timely
+venesection may lead to arrest of the haemorrhage by lowering the blood
+pressure and so giving the blood in the ruptured vessel an opportunity
+to coagulate. (3) In various convulsive attacks, as in acute uraemia.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOD-MONEY, colloquially, the reward for betraying a criminal to
+justice. More strictly it is used of the money-penalty paid in old days
+by a murderer to the kinsfolk of his victim. These fines completely
+protected the offender from the vengeance of the injured family. The
+system was common among the Scandinavian and Teutonic races previous to
+the introduction of Christianity, and a scale of payments, graduated
+according to the heinousness of the crime, was fixed by laws, which
+further settled who could exact the blood-money, and who were entitled
+to share it. Homicide was not the only crime thus expiable: blood-money
+could be exacted for all crimes of violence. Some acts, such as killing
+any one in a church or while asleep, or within the precincts of the
+royal palace, were "bot-less"; and the death penalty was inflicted. Such
+a criminal was outlawed, and his enemies could kill him wherever they
+found him.
+
+
+
+
+BLOODSTONE, the popular name of the mineral heliotrope, which is a
+variety of dark green chalcedony or plasma, with bright red spots,
+splashes and streaks. The green colour is due to a chloritic mineral;
+the red to haematite. Some coarse kinds are opaque, resembling in this
+respect jasper, and some writers have sought to restrict the name
+"bloodstone" to green jasper, with red markings, thus making heliotrope
+a translucent and bloodstone an opaque stone, but, though convenient,
+such a distinction is not generally recognized. A good deal of
+bloodstone comes from India, where it occurs in the Deccan traps, and is
+cut and polished at Cambay. The stone is used for seals, knife-handles
+and various trivial ornaments. Bloodstone is not very widely
+distributed, but is found in the basaltic rocks of the Isle of Rum in
+the west of Scotland, and in a few other localities. Haematite (Gr.
+[Greek: aima], blood), or native peroxide of iron, is also sometimes
+called "bloodstone."
+
+
+
+
+BLOOM (from A.S. _blôma_, a flower), the blossom of flowering plants, or
+the powdery film on the skin of fresh-picked fruit; hence applied to the
+surface of newly-minted coins or to a cloudy appearance on the varnish
+of painting due to moisture; also, in metallurgy, a term used of the
+rough billets of iron and steel, which have undergone a preliminary
+hammering or rolling, and are ready for further working.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOMER, AMELIA JENKS (1818-1894), American dress-reformer and women's
+rights advocate, was born at Homer, New York, on the 27th of May 1818.
+After her marriage in 1840 she established a periodical called _The
+Lily_, which had some success. In 1849 she took up the idea--previously
+originated by Mrs Elizabeth Smith Miller--of a reform in woman's dress,
+and the wearing of a short skirt, with loose trousers, gathered round
+the ankles. The name of "bloomers" gradually became popularly attached
+to any divided-skirt or knickerbocker dress for women. Until her death
+on the 30th of December 1894 Mrs Bloomer took a prominent part in the
+temperance campaign and in that for woman's suffrage.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOMFIELD, MAURICE (1855-   ), American Sanskrit scholar, was born on
+the 23rd of February 1855, in Bielitz, Austrian Silesia. He went to the
+United States in 1867, and ten years later graduated from Furman
+University, Greenville, South Carolina. He then studied Sanskrit at
+Yale, under W.D. Whitney, and at Johns Hopkins, to which university he
+returned as associate professor in 1881 after a stay of two years in
+Berlin and Leipzig, and soon afterwards was promoted professor of
+Sanskrit and comparative philology. His papers in the _American Journal
+of Philology_ number a few in comparative linguistics, such as those on
+assimilation and adaptation in congeneric classes of words, and many
+valuable "Contributions to the Interpretation of the Vedas," and he is
+best known as a student of the Vedas. He translated, for Max-Müller's
+_Sacred Books of the East_, the Hymns of the Atharva-Veda (1897);
+contributed to the Bühler-Kielhorn _Grundriss der indo-arischen
+Philologie und Altertumskunde_ the section "The Atharva-Veda and the
+Gopatha Brahmana" (1899); was first to edit the Kauçika-Sutra (1890),
+and in 1907 published, in the Harvard Oriental series, _A Vedic
+Concordance_. In 1905 he published _Cerberus, the Dog of Hades_, a study
+in comparative mythology.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT (1766-1823), English poet, was born of humble parents
+at the village of Honington, Suffolk, on the 3rd of December 1766. He
+was apprenticed at the age of eleven to a farmer, but he was too small
+and frail for field labour, and four years later he came to London to
+work for a shoemaker. The poem that made his reputation, _The Farmer's
+Boy_, was written in a garret in Bell Alley. The manuscript, declined by
+several publishers, fell into the hands of Capell Lofft, who arranged
+for its publication with woodcuts by Bewick in 1800. The success of the
+poem was remarkable, over 25,000 copies being sold in the next two
+years. His reputation was increased by the appearance of his _Rural
+Tales_ (1802), _News from the Farm_ (1804), _Wild Flowers_ (1806) and
+_The Banks of the Wye_ (1811). Influential friends attempted to provide
+for Bloomfield, but ill-health and possibly faults of temperament
+prevented the success of these efforts, and the poet died in poverty at
+Shefford, Bedfordshire, on the 19th of August 1823. His _Remains in
+Poetry and Verse_ appeared in 1824.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOMFIELD, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A., about 12 m. W.
+of New York, and directly adjoining the city of Newark on the N. Pop.
+(1900) 9668, of whom 2267 were foreign-born; (1905, state census)
+11,668; (1910), 15,070. Area, 5.42 sq. m. Bloomfield is served by the
+Erie, and the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railways, and by several
+electric lines connecting with Newark, Montclair, Orange, East Orange
+and other neighbouring places. It is a residential suburb of Newark and
+New York, is the seat of a German theological school (Presbyterian,
+1869) and has the Jarvie Memorial library (1902). There is a Central
+Green, and in 1908 land was acquired for another park. Among the town's
+manufactures are silk and woollen goods, paper, electric elevators,
+electric lamps, rubber goods, safety pins, hats, cream separators,
+brushes and novelties. The value of the town's factory products
+increased from $3,370,924 in 1900 to $4,645,483 in 1905, or 37.8%. First
+settled about 1670-1675 by the Dutch and by New Englanders from the
+Newark colony, Bloomfield was long a part of Newark, the principal
+settlement at first being known as Wardsesson. In 1796 it was named
+Bloomfield in honour of General Joseph Bloomfield (1753-1823), who
+served (1775-1778) in the War of American Independence, reaching the
+rank of major, was governor of New Jersey in 1801-1802 and 1803-1812,
+brigadier-general in the United States army during the War of 1812, and
+a Democratic representative in Congress from 1817 to 1821. The township
+of Bloomfield was incorporated in 1812. From it were subsequently set
+off Belleville (1839), Montclair (1868) and Glen Ridge (1895).
+
+
+
+
+BLOOMINGTON, a city and the county-seat of McLean county, Illinois,
+U.S.A., in the central part of the state, about 125 m. S.W. of Chicago.
+Pop. (1890) 20,484; (1900) 23,286, of whom 3611 were foreign-born, there
+being a large German element; (1910 census) 25,768. The city is served
+by the Chicago & Alton, the Illinois Central, the Cleveland, Chicago,
+Cincinnati & St Louis, and the Lake Erie & Western railways, and by
+electric inter-urban lines. Bloomington is the seat of the Illinois
+Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal, co-educational, founded in
+1850), which comprises a college of liberal arts, an academy, a college
+of law, a college of music and a school of oratory, and in 1907 had 1350
+students. In the town of NORMAL (pop. in 1900, 3795), 2 m. north of
+Bloomington, are the Illinois State Normal University (opened at
+Bloomington in 1857 and removed to its present site in 1860), one of the
+first normal schools in the Middle West, and the state soldiers'
+orphans' home (1869). Bloomington has a public library, and Franklin and
+Miller parks; among its principal buildings are the court house, built
+of marble, and the Y.M.C.A. building. Among the manufacturing
+establishments are foundries and machine shops, including the large
+shops of the Chicago & Alton railway, slaughtering and meat-packing
+establishments, flour and grist mills, printing and publishing
+establishments, a caramel factory and lumber factories. The value of the
+city's factory products increased from $3,011,899 in 1900 to $5,777,000
+in 1905, or 91.8%. There are valuable coal mines in and near the city,
+and the city is situated in a fine farming region. Bloomington derives
+its name from Blooming Grove, a small forest which was crossed by the
+trails leading from the Galena lead mines to Southern Illinois, from
+Lake Michigan to St Louis, and from the Eastern to the far Western
+states. The first settlement was made in 1822, but the town was not
+formally founded until 1831, when it became the county-seat of McLean
+county. The first city charter was obtained in 1850, and in 1857 the
+public school system was established. In 1856 Bloomington was the
+meeting place of a state convention called by the Illinois editors who
+were opposed to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill (see DECATUR). This was the
+first convention of the Republican party in Illinois; among the
+delegates were Abraham Lincoln, Richard Yates, John M. Palmer and Owen
+Lovejoy. The city has been the residence of a number of prominent men,
+including David Davis (1815-1886), an associate justice of the United
+States Supreme Court in 1862-1877, a member of the United States Senate
+in 1877-1883, and president _pro tempore_ of the Senate in 1881-1883;
+Governor John M. Hamilton (1847-1905), Governor Joseph W. Fifer (b.
+1840); and Adlai Ewing Stevenson (b. 1835), a Democratic representative
+in Congress in 1875-1877 and 1879-1881, and vice-president of the United
+States in 1893-1897. Bloomington's prosperity increased after 1867, when
+coal was first successfully mined in the vicinity.
+
+  In the _Transactions_ of the Illinois State Historical Society for
+  1905 may be found a paper, "The Bloomington Convention of 1856 and
+  Those Who Participated in it."
+
+
+
+
+BLOOMINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Monroe county, Indiana,
+U.S.A., about 45 m. S. by W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 4018; (1900)
+6460, including 396 negroes; (1910) 8838. It is served by the Chicago,
+Indianapolis & Louisville and the Indianapolis Southern (Illinois
+Central) railways. Bloomington is the seat of the Indiana University
+(co-educational since 1868), established as a state seminary in 1820,
+and as Indiana College in 1828, and chartered as the State university in
+1838; in 1907-1908 it had 80 instructors, 2051 students, and a library
+of 65,000 volumes; its school of law was established in 1842, suspended
+in 1877 and re-established in 1889; its school of medicine was
+established in 1903; but most of the medical course is given in
+Indianapolis; a graduate school was organized in 1904; and a summer
+school (or summer term of eleven weeks) was first held in 1905. Dr
+David Starr Jordan was the first president of the university in
+1885-1891, when it was thoroughly reorganized and its curriculum put on
+the basis of major subjects and departments. The university's biological
+station is on Winona Lake, Kosciusko county. Among the manufactures of
+Bloomington are furniture and wooden ware. There are valuable limestone
+quarries in the vicinity. The city was first settled about 1818.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOMSBURG, a town and the county-seat of Columbia county, Pennsylvania,
+U.S.A., on Fishing Creek, 2 m. from its confluence with the Susquehanna,
+and about 40 m. S.W. of Wilkes-Barre. Pop. (1890) 4635; (1900) 6170 (213
+foreign-born); (1910) 7413. It is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna &
+Western, the Philadelphia & Reading, and the Bloomsburg & Sullivan and
+the Susquehanna, Bloomsburg & Berwick railways (the last two only 30 m.
+and 39 m. long respectively); and is connected with Berwick, Catawissa
+and Danville by electric lines. The town is built on a bluff commanding
+extensive views. Among the manufactures of Bloomsburg are railway cars,
+carriages, silk and woollen goods, furniture, carpets, wire-drawing
+machines and gun carriages. Iron ore was formerly obtained from the
+neighbouring hills. The town is the seat of a state normal school,
+established as such in 1869. Bloomsburg was laid out as a town in 1802,
+became the county-seat in 1846, and was incorporated in 1870.
+
+
+
+
+BLOUNT, CHARLES (1654-1693), English author, was born at Upper Holloway
+on the 27th of April 1654. His father, Sir Henry Blount (1602-1682), was
+the author of a _Voyage to the Levant_, describing his own travels. He
+gave his son a careful education, and is said to have helped him in his
+_Anima Mundi; or An Historical Narration of the Opinions of the Antients
+concerning Man's Soul after his Life, according to unenlightened Nature_
+(1679), which gave great offence by the sceptical views expressed in it.
+It was suppressed by order of the bishop of London, and even burnt by
+some over-zealous official, but a re-issue was permitted. Blount was an
+admirer of Hobbes, and published his "Last Sayings" (1679), a pamphlet
+consisting of extracts from _The Leviathan. Great is Diana of the
+Ephesians, or the Original of Idolatry, together with the Political
+Institution of the Gentiles' Sacrifices_ (1680) attracted severe
+criticism on the ground that in deprecating the evils of priestcraft
+Blount was attacking Christianity itself. His best-known book, _The Two
+First Books of Philostratus concerning the Life of Apollonius
+Tyaneus_ ... (1680), is said to have been prohibited in 1693, chiefly on
+account of the notes, which are stated by Bayle (note, _s.v.
+Apollonius_) to have been taken mainly from a MS. of Lord Herbert of
+Cherbury. Blount contributed materially to the removal of the
+restrictions on the freedom of the press, with two pamphlets (1693) by
+"Philopatris," mainly derived from Milton's _Areopagitica_. He also laid
+a successful trap for the censor, Edmund Bohun. Under the name of
+"Junius Brutus" he wrote a pamphlet entitled "King William and Queen
+Mary Conquerors." The title-page set forth the theory of the justice of
+title by conquest, which Blount knew to be agreeable to Bohun. It was
+duly licensed, but was ordered by the House of Commons to be burnt by
+the common hangman, as being diametrically opposed to the attitude of
+William's government on the subject. These proceedings showed the
+futility of the censorship, and hastened its overthrow.
+
+Blount had fallen in love with his deceased wife's sister, and, in
+despair of overcoming her scruples as to the legality of such a
+marriage, shot himself in the head. He survived for some time, refusing
+help except from his sister-in-law. Alexander Pope asserted (_Epilogue
+to the Satires_, Note, i. 124) that he wounded himself in the arm,
+pretending to kill himself, and that the result was fatal contrary to
+his expectations. He died in August 1693.
+
+  Shortly before his death a collection of his pamphlets and private
+  papers was printed with a preface by Charles Gildon, under the title
+  of the _Oracles of Reason_. His _Miscellaneous Works_ (1695) is a
+  fuller edition by the same editor.
+
+
+
+
+BLOUNT (or BLUNT), EDWARD (b. 1565?), the printer, in conjunction with
+Isaac Jaggard, of _Mr William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories and
+Tragedies. Published according to the true Originall Copies_ (_1623_),
+usually known as the first folio of Shakespeare. It was produced under
+the direction of John Heming (d. 1630) and Henry Condell (d. 1627), both
+of whom had been Shakespeare's colleagues at the Globe theatre, but as
+Blount combined the functions of printer and editor on other occasions,
+it is fair to conjecture that he to some extent edited the first folio.
+The Stationers' _Register_ states that he was the son of Ralph Blount or
+Blunt, merchant tailor of London, and apprenticed himself in 1578 for
+ten years to William Ponsonby, a stationer. He became a freeman of the
+Stationers' Company in 1588. Among the most important of his
+publications are Giovanni Florio's Italian-English dictionary and his
+translation of Montaigne, Marlowe's _Hero and Leander_, and the _Sixe
+Court Comedies_ of John Lyly. He himself translated _Ars Aulica, or the
+Courtier's Arte_ (1607) from the Italian of Lorenzo Ducci, and
+_Christian Policie_ (1632) from the Spanish of Juan de Santa Maria.
+
+
+
+
+BLOUNT, THOMAS (1618-1679), English antiquarian, was the son of one
+Myles Blount, of Orleton in Herefordshire. He was born at Bordesley,
+Worcestershire. Few details of his life are known. It appears that he
+was called to the bar at the Inner Temple, but, being a zealous Roman
+Catholic, his religion interfered considerably with the practice of his
+profession. Retiring to his estate at Orleton, he devoted himself to the
+study of the law as an amateur, and also read widely in other branches
+of knowledge. He died at Orleton on the 26th of December 1679. His
+principal works are _Glossographia; or, a dictionary interpreting the
+hard words of whatsoever language, now used in our refined English
+tongue_ (1656, reprinted in 1707), which went through several editions
+and remains most amusing and instructive reading; _Nomolexicon: a law
+dictionary interpreting such difficult and, obscure words and terms as
+are found either in our common or statute, ancient or modern lawes_
+(1670; third edition, with additions by W. Nelson, 1717); and _Fragmenta
+Antiquitatis: Ancient Tenures of land, and jocular customs of some
+mannors_ (1679; enlarged by J. Beckwith and republished, with additions
+by H.M. Beckwith, in 1815; again revised and enlarged by W.C. Hazlitt,
+1874). Blount's _Boscobel_ (1651), giving an account of Charles II.'s
+preservation after Worcester, with the addition of the king's own
+account dictated to Pepys, has been edited with a bibliography by C.G.
+Thomas (1894).
+
+
+
+
+BLOUNT, SIR THOMAS POPE (1649-1697), English author, eldest son of Sir
+Henry Blount and brother of Charles Blount (q.v.), was born at Upper
+Holloway on the 12th of September 1649. He succeeded to the estate of
+Tittenhanger on his mother's death in 1678, and in the following year
+was created a baronet. He represented the borough of St Albans in the
+two last parliaments of Charles II. and was knight of the shire from the
+revolution till his death. He married Jane, daughter of Sir Henry
+Caesar, by whom he had five sons and nine daughters. He died at
+Tittenhanger on the 30th of June 1697. His _Censura celebrorum authorum
+sive tractatus in quo varia virorum doctorum de clarissimis cujusque
+seculi scriptoribus judicia traduntur_ (1690) was originally compiled
+for Blount's own use, and is a dictionary in chronological order of what
+various eminent writers have said about one another. This necessarily
+involved enormous labour in Blount's time. It was published at Geneva in
+1694 with all the quotations from modern languages translated into
+Latin, and again in 1710. His other works are _A Natural History,
+containing many not common observations extracted out of the best modern
+writers_ (1693), _De re poetica, or remarks upon Poetry, with Characters
+and Censures of the most considerable Poets_ ... (1694), and _Essays on
+Several Occasions_ (1692). It is on this last work that his claims to be
+regarded as an original writer rest. The essays deal with the perversion
+of learning, a comparison between the ancients and the moderns (to the
+advantage of the latter), the education of children, and kindred topics.
+In the third edition (1697) he added an eighth essay, on religion, in
+which he deprecated the multiplication of ceremonies. He displays
+throughout a hatred of pedantry and convention, which makes his book
+still interesting.
+
+  See A. Kippis, _Biographia Britannica_ (1780), vol. ii. For an account
+  of Blount's family see Robert Clutterbuck. _History and Antiquities of
+  the County of Hertford_ (1815), vol. i. pp. 207-212.
+
+
+
+
+BLOUNT, WILLIAM (1749-1800), American politician, was born in Bertie
+county, North Carolina, on the 26th of March 1749. He was a member of
+the Continental Congress in 1783-1784 and again in 1786-1787, of the
+constitutional convention at Philadelphia in 1787, and of the state
+convention which ratified the Federal constitution for North Carolina in
+1789. From 1790 until 1796 he was, by President Washington's
+appointment, governor of the "Territory South of the Ohio River,"
+created out of land ceded to the national government by North Carolina
+in 1789. He was also during this period the superintendent of Indian
+affairs for this part of the country. In 1791 he laid out Knoxville
+(Tennessee) as the seat of government. He presided over the
+constitutional convention of Tennessee in 1796, and, on the state being
+admitted to the Union, became one of its first representatives in the
+United States Senate. In 1797 his connexion became known with a scheme,
+since called "Blount's Conspiracy," which provided for the co-operation
+of the American frontiersmen, assisted by Indians, and an English force,
+in the seizure on behalf of Great Britain of the Floridas and Louisiana,
+then owned by Spain, with which power England was then at war. As this
+scheme, if carried out, involved the corrupting of two officials of the
+United States, an Indian agent and an interpreter, a breach of the
+neutrality of the United States, and the breach of Article V. of the
+treaty of San Lorenzo el Real (signed on the 27th of October 1795)
+between the United States and Spain, by which each power agreed not to
+incite the Indians to attack the other, Blount was impeached by the
+House of Representatives on the 7th of July 1797, and on the following
+day was formally expelled from the Senate for "having been guilty of
+high misdemeanor, entirely inconsistent with his public trust and duty
+as a senator." On the 29th of January 1798 articles of impeachment were
+adopted by the House of Representatives. On the 14th of January 1799,
+however, the Senate, sitting as a court of impeachment, decided that it
+had no jurisdiction, Blount not then being a member of the Senate, and,
+in the Senate's opinion, not having been, even as a member, a civil
+officer of the United States, within the meaning of the constitution.
+The case is significant as being the first case of impeachment brought
+before the United States Senate. "In a legal point of view, all that the
+case decides is that a senator of the United States who has been
+expelled from his seat is not after such expulsion subject to
+impeachment" (Francis Wharton, _State Trials_). In effect, however, it
+also decided that a member of Congress was not in the meaning of the
+constitution a civil officer of the United States and therefore could
+not be impeached. The "conspiracy" was disavowed by the British
+government, which, however, seems to have secretly favoured it. Blount
+was enthusiastically supported by his constituents, and upon his return
+to Tennessee was made a member and the presiding officer of the state
+senate. He died at Knoxville on the 21st of March 1800.
+
+  For a defence of Blount, see General Marcus J. Wright's _Account of
+  the Life and Services of William Blount_ (Washington, D.C., 1884).
+
+
+
+
+BLOUSE, a word (taken from the French) used for any loosely fitting
+bodice belted at the waist. In France it meant originally the loose
+upper garment of linen or cotton, generally blue, worn by French workmen
+to preserve their clothing, and, by transference, the workman himself.
+
+
+
+
+BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708), English musical composer, was born in 1648,
+probably at North Collingham in Nottinghamshire. He became a chorister
+of the chapel royal, and distinguished himself by his proficiency in
+music; he composed several anthems at an unusually early age, including
+_Lord, Thou hast been our refuge; Lord, rebuke me not_; and the
+so-called "club anthem," _I will always give thanks_, the last in
+collaboration with Pelham Humphrey and William Turner, either in honour
+of a victory over the Dutch in 1665, or--more probably--simply to
+commemorate the friendly intercourse of the three choristers. To this
+time also belongs the composition of a two-part setting of Herrick's
+_Goe, perjur'd man_, written at the request of Charles II. to imitate
+Carissimi's _Dite, o cieli_. In 1669 Blow became organist of Westminster
+Abbey. In 1673 he was made a gentleman of the chapel royal, and in the
+September of this year he was married to Elizabeth Braddock, who died in
+childbirth ten years later. Blow, who by the year 1678 was a doctor of
+music, was named in 1685 one of the private musicians of James II.
+Between 1680 and 1687 he wrote the only stage composition by him of
+which any record survives, the _Masque for the Entertainment of the
+King: Venus and Adonis_. In this Mary Davies played the part of Venus,
+and her daughter by Charles II., Lady Mary Tudor, appeared as Cupid. In
+1687 he became master of the choir of St Paul's church; in 1695 he was
+elected organist of St Margaret's, Westminster, and is said to have
+resumed his post as organist of Westminster Abbey, from which in 1680 he
+had retired or been dismissed to make way for Purcell. In 1699 he was
+appointed to the newly created post of composer to the chapel royal.
+Fourteen services and more than a hundred anthems by Blow are extant. In
+addition to his purely ecclesiastical music Blow wrote _Great sir, the
+joy of all our hearts_, an ode for New Year's day 1681-1682; similar
+compositions for 1683, 1686, 1687, 1688, 1689, 1693 (?), 1694 and 1700;
+odes, &c., for the celebration of St Cecilia's day for 1684, 1691, 1695
+and 1700; for the coronation of James II. two anthems, _Behold, O God,
+our Defender_, and _God spake sometimes in visions_; some harpsichord
+pieces for the second part of Playford's _Musick's Handmaid_ (1869);
+_Epicedium for Queen Mary_ (1695); _Ode on the Death of Purcell_ (1696).
+In 1700 he published his Amphion Anglicus, a collection of pieces of
+music for one, two, three and four voices, with a figured-bass
+accompaniment. A famous page in Burney's _History of Music_ is devoted
+to illustrations of "Dr Blow's Crudities," most of which only show the
+meritorious if immature efforts in expression characteristic of English
+music at the time, while some of them (where Burney says "Here we are
+lost") are really excellent. Blow died on the 1st of October 1708 at his
+house in Broad Sanctuary, and was buried in the north aisle of
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+
+
+
+BLOW-GUN, a weapon consisting of a long tube, through which, by blowing
+with the mouth, arrows or other missiles can be shot accurately to a
+considerable distance. Blow-guns are used both in warefare and the chase
+by the South American Indian tribes inhabiting the region between the
+Amazon and Orinoco rivers, and by the Dyaks of Borneo. In the 18th
+century they were also known to certain North American Indians,
+especially the Choctaws and Cherokees of the lower Mississippi. Captain
+Bossu, in his _Travels through Louisiana_ (1756), says of the Choctaws:
+"They are very expert in shooting with an instrument made of reeds about
+7 ft. long, into which they put a little arrow feathered with the wool
+of the thistle (wild cotton?)." The blow-guns of the South American
+Indians differ in style and workmanship. That of the Macusis of Guiana,
+called _pucuna_, is the most perfect. It is made of two tubes, the inner
+of which, called _oorah_, is a light reed ½ in. in diameter which often
+grows to a length of 15 ft. without a joint. This is enclosed, for
+protection and solidity, in an outer tube of a variety of palm
+(_Iriartella setigera_). The mouth-piece is made of a circlet of
+silk-grass, and the farther end is feruled with a kind of nut, forming a
+sight. A rear open sight is formed of two teeth of a small rodent. The
+length of the _pucuna_ is about 11 ft. and its weight 1½ lb. The arrows,
+which are from 12 to 18 in. long and very slender, are made of ribs of
+the cocorite palm-leaf. They are usually feathered with a tuft of wild
+cotton, but some have in place of the cotton a thin strip of bark curled
+into a cone, which, when the shooter blows into the _pucuna_, expands
+and completely fills the tube, thus avoiding windage. Another kind of
+arrow is furnished with fibres of bark fixed along the shaft, imparting
+a rotary motion to the missile, a primitive example of the theory of the
+rifle. The arrows used in Peru are only a few inches long and as thin as
+fine knitting-needles. All South American blow-gun arrows are steeped in
+poison. The natives shoot very accurately with the _pucuna_ at distances
+up to 50 or 60 yds.
+
+The blow-gun of the Borneo Dyaks, called _sumpitan_, is from 6 to 7 ft.
+long and made of ironwood. The bore, of ½ in., is made with a long
+pointed piece of iron. At the muzzle a small iron hook is affixed, to
+serve as a sight, as well as a spear-head like a bayonet and for the
+same purpose. The arrows used with the _sumpitan_ are about 10 in. long,
+pointed with fish-teeth, and feathered with pith. They are also
+envenomed with poison.
+
+Poisoned arrows are also used by the natives of the Philippine island of
+Mindanao, whose blow-pipes, from 3 to 4 ft. long and made of bamboo, are
+often richly ornamented and even jewelled.
+
+The principle of the blow-gun is, of course, the same as that of the
+common "pea-shooter."
+
+  See _Sport with Rod and Gun in American Woods and Waters_, by A.M.
+  Mayer, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1884); _Wanderings in South America_, &c.,
+  by Charles Waterton (London, 1828); _The Head Hunters of Borneo_, by
+  Carl Bock (London, 1881).
+
+
+
+
+BLOWITZ, HENRI GEORGES STEPHAN ADOLPHE DE (1825-1903), Anglo-French
+journalist, was born, according to the account given in his memoirs, at
+his father's chateau in Bohemia on the 28th of December 1825. At the age
+of fifteen he left home, and travelled over Europe for some years in
+company with a young professor of philology, acquiring a thorough
+knowledge of French, German and Italian and a mixed general education.
+The finances of his family becoming straitened, young Blowitz was on the
+point of starting to seek his fortune in America, when he became
+acquainted in Paris with M. de Falloux, minister of public instruction,
+who appointed him professor of foreign languages at the Tours Lycée,
+whence, after some years, he was transferred to the Marseilles Lycée.
+After marrying in 1859 he resigned his professorship, but remained at
+Marseilles, devoting himself to literature and politics. In 1869
+information which he supplied to a legitimist newspaper at Marseilles
+with regard to the candidature of M. de Lesseps as deputy for that city
+led to a demand for his expulsion from France. He was, however, allowed
+to remain, but had to retire to the country. In 1870 his predictions of
+the approaching fall of the Empire caused the demand for his expulsion
+to be renewed. While his case was under discussion the battle of Sedan
+was fought, and Blowitz effectually ingratiated himself with the
+authorities by applying for naturalization as a French subject. Once
+naturalized, he returned to Marseilles, where he was fortunately able to
+render considerable service to Thiers, who subsequently employed him in
+collecting information at Versailles, and when this work was finished
+offered him the French consulship at Riga. Blowitz was on the point of
+accepting this post when Laurence Oliphant, then Paris correspondent of
+_The Times_, for which Blowitz had already done some occasional work,
+asked him to act as his regular assistant for a time, Frederick Hardman,
+the other Paris correspondent of _The Times_, being absent. Blowitz
+accepted the offer, and when, later on, Oliphant was succeeded by
+Hardman he remained as assistant correspondent. In 1873 Hardman died,
+and Blowitz became chief Paris correspondent to _The Times_. In this
+capacity he soon became famous in the world of journalism and diplomacy.
+In 1875 the duc de Decazcs, then French foreign minister, showed Blowitz
+a confidential despatch from the French ambassador in Berlin (in which
+the latter warned his government that Germany was contemplating an
+attack on France), and requested the correspondent to expose the German
+designs in _The Times_. The publication of the facts effectually aroused
+European public opinion, and any such intention was immediately
+thwarted. Blowitz's most sensational journalistic feat was achieved in
+1878, when his enterprise enabled _The Times_ to publish the whole text
+of the treaty of Berlin at the actual moment that the treaty was being
+signed in Germany. In 1877 and again in 1888 Blowitz rendered
+considerable service to the French government by his exposure of
+internal designs upon the Republic. He died on the 18th of January 1903.
+
+  _My Memoirs_, by H.S. de Blowitz, was published in 1903.
+
+
+
+
+BLOWPIPE, in the arts and chemistry, a tube for directing a jet of air
+into a fire or into the flame of a lamp or gas jet, for the purpose of
+producing a high temperature by accelerating the combustion. The
+blowpipe has been in common use from the earliest times for soldering
+metals and working glass, but its introduction into systematic chemical
+analysis is to be ascribed to A.F. Cronstedt, and not to Anton Swab, as
+has been maintained (see J. Landauer, _Ber_. 26, p. 898). The first work
+on this application of the blowpipe was by G. v. Engeström, and was
+published in 1770 as an appendix to a treatise on mineralogy. Its
+application has been variously improved at the hands of T.O. Bergman,
+J.G. Gahn, J.J. Berzelius, C.F. Plattner and others, but more especially
+by the two last-named chemists.
+
+The simplest and oldest form of blowpipe is a conical brass tube, about
+7 in. in length, curved at the small end into a right angle, and
+terminating in a small round orifice, which is applied to the flame,
+while the larger end is applied to the mouth. Where the blast has to be
+kept up for only a few seconds, this instrument is quite serviceable,
+but in longer chemical operations inconvenience arises from the
+condensation of moisture exhaled by the lungs in the tube. Hence most
+blowpipes are now made with a cavity for retaining the moisture.
+Cronstedt placed a bulb in the centre of his blowpipe. Dr Joseph Black's
+instrument consists of a conical tube of tin plate, with a small brass
+tube, supporting the nozzle, inserted near the wider end, and a
+mouth-piece at the narrow end.
+
+The sizes of orifice recommended by Plattner are 0.4 and 0.5 mm. A
+trumpet mouth-piece is recommended from the support it gives to the
+cheeks when inflated. The mode of blowing is peculiar, and requires some
+practice; an uninterrupted blast is kept up by the muscular action of
+the cheeks, while the ordinary respiration goes on through the nostrils.
+
+If the flame of a candle or lamp be closely examined, it will be seen to
+consist of four parts--(a) a deep blue ring at the base, (b) a dark cone
+in the centre, (c) a luminous portion round this, and (d) an exterior
+pale blue envelope (see FLAME). In blowpipe work only two of these four
+parts are made use of, viz. the pale envelope, for oxidation, and the
+luminous portion, for reduction. To obtain a good _oxidizing flame_, the
+blowpipe is held with its nozzle inserted in the edge of the flame close
+over the level of the wick, and blown into gently and evenly. A conical
+jet is thus produced, consisting of an inner cone, with an outer one
+commencing near its apex--the former, corresponding to (a) in the free
+flame, blue and well defined; the latter corresponding to (d), pale blue
+and vague. The heat is greatest just beyond the point of the inner cone,
+combustion being there most complete. Oxidation is better effected (if a
+very high temperature be not required) the farther the substance is from
+the apex of the inner cone, for the air has thus freer access. To obtain
+a good _reducing flame_ (in which the combustible matter, very hot, but
+not yet burned, is disposed to take oxygen from any compound containing
+it), the nozzle, with smaller orifice, should just touch the flame at a
+point higher above the wick, and a somewhat weaker current of air should
+be blown. The flame then appears as a long, narrow, luminous cone, the
+end being enveloped by a dimly visible portion of flame corresponding to
+that which surrounds the free flame, while there is also a dark nucleus
+about the wick. The substance to be reduced is brought into the luminous
+portion, where the reducing power is strongest.
+
+Various materials are used as supports for substances in the blowpipe
+flame; the principal are charcoal, platinum and glass or porcelain.
+Charcoal is valuable for its infusibility and low conductivity for heat
+(allowing substances to be strongly heated upon it), and for its
+powerful reducing properties; so that it is chiefly employed in testing
+the fusibility of minerals and in reduction. The best kind of charcoal
+is that of close-grained pine or alder; it is cut in short prisms,
+having a flat smooth surface at right angles to the rings of growth. In
+this a shallow hole is made for receiving the substance to be held in
+the flame. Gas-carbon is sometimes used, since it is more permanent in
+the flame than wood charcoal. _Platinum_ is employed in oxidizing
+processes, and in the fusion of substances with fluxes; also in
+observing the colouring effect of substances on the blowpipe flame
+(which effect is apt to be somewhat masked by charcoal). Most commonly
+it is used in the form of wire, with a small bend or loop at the end.
+
+The mouth blowpipe is unsuitable for the production of a large flame,
+and cannot be used for any lengthy operations; hence recourse must be
+made to types in which the air-blast is occasioned by mechanical means.
+The laboratory form in common use consists of a bellows worked by either
+hand or foot, and a special type of gas burner formed of two concentric
+tubes, one conveying the blast, the other the gas; the supply of air and
+gas being regulated by stopcocks. The _hot blast blowpipe_ of T.
+Fletcher, in which the blast is heated by passing through a copper coil
+heated by a separate burner, is only of service when a pointed flame of
+a fairly high temperature is required. Blowpipes in which oxygen is used
+as the blast have been manufactured by Fletcher, Russell & Co., and have
+proved of great service in conducting fusions which require a
+temperature above that yielded by the air-blowpipe.
+
+  For the applications of the blowpipe in chemical analysis see
+  CHEMISTRY: _Analytical_.
+
+
+
+
+BLÜCHER, GEBHARD LEBERECHT VON (1742-1819), Prussian general field
+marshal, prince of Wahlstadt in Silesia, was born at Rostock on the 16th
+of December 1742. In his fourteenth year he entered the service of
+Sweden, and in the Pomeranian campaign of 1760 he was taken prisoner by
+the Prussians. He was persuaded by his captors to enter the Prussian
+service. He took part in the later battles of the Seven Years' War, and
+as a hussar officer gained much experience of light cavalry work. In
+peace, however, his ardent spirit led him into excesses of all kinds,
+and being passed over for promotion he sent in his resignation, to which
+Frederick replied, "Captain Blücher can take himself to the devil"
+(1773). He now settled down to farming, and in fifteen years he had
+acquired an honourable independence. But he was unable to return to the
+army until after the death of Frederick the Great. He was then
+reinstated as major in his old regiment, the Red Hussars. He took part
+in the expedition to Holland in 1787, and in the following year became
+lieutenant-colonel. In 1789 he received the order _pour le mérite_, and
+in 1794 he became colonel of the Red Hussars. In 1793 and 1794 he
+distinguished himself in cavalry actions against the French, and for his
+success at Kirrweiler he was made a major-general. In 1801 he was
+promoted lieutenant-general.
+
+He was one of the leaders of the war party in Prussia in 1805-1806, and
+served as a cavalry general in the disastrous campaign of the latter
+year. At Auerstädt Blücher repeatedly charged at the head of the
+Prussian cavalry, but without success. In the retreat of the broken
+armies he commanded the rearguard of Prince Hohenlohe's corps, and upon
+the capitulation of the main body of Prenzlau he carried off a remnant
+of the Prussian army to the northward, and in the neighbourhood of
+Lübeck he fought a series of combats, which, however, ended in his being
+forced to surrender at Ratkau (November 7, 1806). His adversaries
+testified in his capitulation that it was caused by "want of provisions
+and ammunition." He was soon exchanged for General Victor, and was
+actively employed in Pomerania, at Berlin, and at Königsberg until the
+conclusion of the war. After the war, Blücher was looked upon as the
+natural leader of the patriot party, with which he was in close touch
+during the period of Napoleonic domination. His hopes of an alliance
+with Austria in the war of 1809 were disappointed. In this year he was
+made general of cavalry. In 1812 he expressed himself so openly on the
+alliance of Russia with France that he was recalled from his military
+governorship of Pomerania and virtually banished from the court.
+
+When at last the Napoleonic domination was ended by the outbreak of the
+War of Liberation in 1813, Blücher of course was at once placed in high
+command, and he was present at Lützen and Bautzen. During the armistice
+he worked at the organization of the Prussian forces, and when the war
+was resumed Blücher became commander-in-chief of the Army of Silesia,
+with Gneisenau and Müffling as his principal staff officers, and 40,000
+Prussians and 50,000 Russians under his control. The autumn campaign of
+1813 will be found described in the article NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS, and it
+will here be sufficient to say that the most conspicuous military
+quality displayed by Blücher was his unrelenting energy. The
+irresolution and divergence of interests usual in allied armies found in
+him a restless opponent, and the knowledge that if he could not induce
+others to co-operate he was prepared to attempt the task in hand by
+himself often caused other generals to follow his lead. He defeated
+Marshal Macdonald at the Katzbach, and by his victory over Marmont at
+Möckern led the way to the decisive overthrow of Napoleon at Leipzig,
+which place was stormed by Blücher's own army on the evening of the last
+day of the battle. On the day of Mockern (October 16, 1813) Blücher was
+made a general field marshal, and after the victory he pursued the
+routed French with his accustomed energy. In the winter of 1813-1814
+Blücher, with his chief staff officers, was mainly instrumental in
+inducing the allied sovereigns to carry the war into France itself. The
+combat of Brienne and the battle of La Rothière were the chief incidents
+of the first stage of the celebrated campaign of 1814, and they were
+quickly followed by the victories of Napoleon over Blücher at
+Champaubert, Vauxchamps and Montmirail. But the courage of the Prussian
+leader was undiminished, and his great victory of Laon (March 9 to 10)
+practically decided the fate of the campaign. After this Blücher infused
+some of his own energy into the operations of Prince Schwarzenberg's
+Army of Bohemia, and at last this army and the Army of Silesia marched
+in one body direct upon Paris. The victory of Montmartre, the entry of
+the allies into the French capital, and the overthrow of the First
+Empire were the direct consequences. Blücher was disposed to make a
+severe retaliation upon Paris for the calamities that Prussia had
+suffered from the armies of France had not the allied commanders
+intervened to prevent it. Blowing up the bridge of Jena was said to be
+one of his contemplated acts. On the 3rd of June 1814 he was made prince
+of Wahlstadt (in Silesia on the Katzbach battlefield), and soon
+afterwards he paid a visit to England, being received everywhere with
+the greatest enthusiasm.
+
+After the peace he retired to Silesia, but the return of Napoleon soon
+called him to further service. He was put in command of the Army of the
+Lower Rhine with General Gneisenau as his chief of staff (see WATERLOO
+CAMPAIGN). In the campaign of 1815 the Prussians sustained a very severe
+defeat at the outset at Ligny (June 16), in the course of which the old
+field marshal was ridden over by cavalry charges, his life being saved
+only by the devotion of his aide-de-camp, Count Nostitz. He was unable
+to resume command for some hours, and Gneisenau drew off the defeated
+army. The relations of the Prussian and the English headquarters were at
+this time very complicated, and it is uncertain whether Blücher himself
+was responsible for the daring resolution to march to Wellington's
+assistance. This was in fact done, and after an incredibly severe march
+Blücher's army intervened with decisive and crushing effect in the
+battle of Waterloo. The great victory was converted into a success
+absolutely decisive of the war by the relentless pursuit of the
+Prussians, and the allies re-entered Paris on the 7th of July. Prince
+Blücher remained in the French capital for some months, but his age and
+infirmities compelled him to retire to his Silesian residence at
+Krieblowitz, where he died on the 12th of September 1819, aged
+seventy-seven. He retained to the end of his life that wildness of
+character and proneness to excesses which had caused his dismissal from
+the army in his youth, but however they may be regarded, these faults
+sprang always from the ardent and vivid temperament which made Blücher a
+dashing leader of horse. The qualities which made him a great general
+were his patriotism and the hatred of French domination which inspired
+every success of the War of Liberation. He was twice married, and had,
+by his first marriage, two sons and a daughter. Statues were erected to
+his memory at Berlin, Breslau and Rostock.
+
+  Of the various lives of Prince Blücher, that by Varnhagen von Ense
+  (1827) is the most important. His war diaries of 1793-1794, together
+  with a memoir (written in 1805) on the subject of a national army,
+  were edited by Golz and Ribbentrop (Campagne Journal 1793-4 von _Gl.
+  Lt. v. Blucher_).
+
+
+
+
+BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages), the name of
+a colour, used in many colloquial phrases. From the fact of various
+parties, political and other, having adopted the colour blue as their
+badge, various classes of people have come to be known as "blue" or
+"blues"; thus "true blue" meant originally a staunch Presbyterian, the
+Covenanters having adopted blue as their colour as opposed to red, the
+royal colour; similarly, in the navy, there was in the 18th century a
+"Blue Squadron," Nelson being at one time "Rear-Admiral of the Blue";
+again, in 1690, the Royal Horse Guards were called the "Blues" from
+their blue uniforms, or, from their leader, the earl of Oxford, the
+"Oxford Blues"; also, from the blue ribbon worn by the knights of the
+Garter comes the use of the phrase as the highest mark of distinction
+that can be worn, especially applied on the turf to the winning of the
+Derby. The "blue Peter" is a rectangular blue flag, with a white square
+in the centre, hoisted at the top of the foremast as a signal that a
+vessel is about to leave port. At Oxford and Cambridge a man who
+represents his university in certain athletic sports is called a "blue"
+from the "colours" he is then entitled to wear, dark blue for Oxford and
+light blue for Cambridge.
+
+
+
+
+BLUEBEARD, the monster of Charles Perrault's tale of _Barbe Bleue_, who
+murdered his wives and hid their bodies in a locked room. Perrault's
+tale was first printed in his _Histoires et contes du temps passé_
+(1697). The essentials of the story--Bluebeard's prohibition to his wife
+to open a certain door during his absence, her disobedience, her
+discovery of a gruesome secret, and her timely rescue from death--are to
+be found in other folklore stories, none of which, however, has attained
+the fame of _Bluebeard_. A close parallel exists in an Esthonian legend
+of a husband who had already killed eleven wives, and was prevented from
+killing the twelfth, who had opened a secret room, by a gooseherd, the
+friend of her childhood. In "The Feather Bird" of Grimm's _Hausmärchen_,
+three sisters are the victims, the third being rescued by her brothers.
+Bluebeard, though Perrault does not state the number of his crimes, is
+generally credited with the murder of seven wives. His history belongs
+to the common stock of folklore, and has even been ingeniously fitted
+with a mythical interpretation. In France the Bluebeard legend has its
+local habitation in Brittany, but whether the existing traditions
+connecting him with Gilles de Rais (q.v.) or Comorre the Cursed, a
+Breton chief of the 6th century, were anterior to Perrault's time, we
+have no means of determining. The identification of Bluebeard with
+Gilles de Rais, the _bête d'extermination_ of Michelet's forcible
+language, persists locally in the neighbourhood of the various castles
+of the baron, especially at Machecoul and Tiffauges, the chief scenes of
+his infamous crimes. Gilles de Rais, however, had only one wife, who
+survived him, and his victims were in the majority of cases young boys.
+The traditional connexion may arise simply from the not improbable
+association of two monstrous tales. The less widespread identification
+of Bluebeard with Comorre is supported by a series of frescoes dating
+only a few years later than the publication of Perrault's story, in a
+chapel at St Nicolas de Bieuzy dedicated to St Tryphine, in which the
+tale of Bluebeard is depicted as the story of the saint, who in history
+was the wife of Comorre. Comorre or Conomor had his original
+headquarters at Carhaix, in Finistère. He extended his authority by
+marriage with the widow of Iona, chief of Domnonia, and attempted the
+life of his stepson Judwal, who fled to the Frankish court. About 547 or
+548 he obtained in marriage, through the intercession of St Gildas,
+Tryphine, daughter of Weroc, count of Vannes. The pair lived in peace at
+Castel Finans for some time, but Comorre, disappointed in his ambitions
+in the Vannetais, presently threatened Tryphine. She took flight, but
+her husband found her hiding in a wood, when he gave her a wound on the
+skull and left her for dead. She was tended and restored to health by St
+Gildas, and after the birth of her son retired to a convent of her own
+foundation. Eventually Comorre was defeated and slain by Judwal. In
+legend St Tryphine was decapitated and miraculously restored to life by
+Gildas. Alain Bouchard (_Grandes croniques_, Nantes, 1531) asserts that
+Comorre had already put several wives to death before he married
+Tryphine. In the _Légendes bretonnes_ of the count d'Amezeuil the
+church legend becomes a charming fairy tale.
+
+  See also E.A. Vizetclly, _Bluebeard_ (1902); E. Sidney Hartland, "The
+  Forbidden Chamber," in _Folklore_, vol. iii. (1885); and the editions
+  of the _Contes_ of Charles Perrault (q.v.). Cf. A. France, _Les Sept
+  Femmes de Barbe Bleue_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+BLUE-BOOK, the general name given to the reports and other documents
+printed by order of the parliament of the United Kingdom, so called from
+their being usually covered with blue paper, though some are bound in
+drab and others have white covers. The printing of its proceedings was
+first adopted by the House of Commons in 1681, and in 1836 was commenced
+the practice of selling parliamentary papers to the public. All notices
+of questions, resolutions, votes and proceedings in both Houses of
+Parliament are issued each day during the session; other publications
+include the various papers issued by the different government
+departments, the reports of committees and commissions of inquiry,
+public bills, as well as returns, correspondence, &c., specially ordered
+to be printed by either house. The papers of each session are so
+arranged as to admit of being bound up in regular order, and are well
+indexed. The terms upon which blue-books, single papers, &c., are issued
+to the general public are one halfpenny per sheet of four pages, but for
+an annual subscription of £20 all the parliamentary publications of the
+year may be obtained; but subscriptions can be arranged so that almost
+any particular class of publication can be obtained--for example, the
+daily votes and proceedings can be obtained for an annual subscription
+of £3, the House of Lords papers for £10, or the House of Commons papers
+for £15. Any publication can also be purchased separately.
+
+Most foreign countries have a distinctive colour for the binding of
+their official publications. That of the United Slates varies, but
+foreign diplomatic correspondence is bound in red. The United States
+government publications are not only on sale (as a rule) but are widely
+supplied gratis, with the result that important publications soon get
+out of print, and it is difficult to obtain access to many valuable
+reports or other information, except at a public library. German
+official publications are bound in white; French, in yellow; Austrian,
+in red; Portuguese, in white; Italian, in green; Spanish, in red;
+Mexican, in green; Japanese, in grey; Chinese, in yellow.
+
+
+
+
+BLUESTOCKING, a derisive name for a literary woman. The term originated
+in or about 1750, when Mrs Elizabeth Montagu (q.v.) made a determined
+effort to introduce into society a healthier and more intellectual tone,
+by holding assemblies at which literary conversation and discussions
+were to take the place of cards and gossip. Most of those attending were
+conspicuous by the plainness of their dress, and a Mr Benjamin
+Stillingfleet specially caused comment by always wearing blue or worsted
+stockings instead of the usual black silk. It was in special reference
+to him that Mrs Montagu's friends were called the Bluestocking Society
+or Club, and the women frequenting her house in Hill Street came to be
+known as the "Bluestocking Ladies" or simply "bluestockings." As an
+alternative explanation, the origin of the name is attributed to Mrs
+Montagu's deliberate adoption of blue stockings (in which fashion she
+was followed by all her women friends) as the badge of the society she
+wished to form. She is said to have obtained the idea from Paris, where
+in the 17th century there was a revival of a social reunion in 1590 on
+the lines of that formed in 1400 at Venice, the ladies and men of which
+wore blue stockings. The term had been applied in England as early as
+1653 to the Little Parliament, in allusion to the puritanically plain
+and coarse dress of the members.
+
+
+
+
+BLUFF (a word of uncertain origin; possibly connected with an obsolete
+Dutch word, _blaf_, broad), an adjective used of a ship, meaning broad
+and nearly vertical in the bows; similarly, of a cliff or shore,
+presenting a bold and nearly perpendicular front; of a person,
+good-natured and frank, with a rough or abrupt manner. Another word
+"bluff," perhaps connected with German _verblüffen_, to baffle, meant
+originally a horse's blinker, the corresponding verb meaning to
+blindfold: it survives as a term in such games as poker, where "to
+bluff" means to bet heavily on a hand so as to make an opponent believe
+it to be stronger than it is; hence such phrases as "the game of bluff,"
+"a policy of bluff."
+
+
+
+
+BLUM, ROBERT FREDERICK (1857-1903), American artist, was born in
+Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 9th of July 1857. He was employed for a time in
+a lithographic shop, and studied at the McMicken Art School of Design in
+Cincinnati, and at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in
+Philadelphia, but he was practically self-taught, and early showed great
+and original talent. He settled in New York in 1879, and his first
+published sketches--of Japanese jugglers--appeared in _St Nicholas_. His
+most important work is a large frieze in the Mendelssohn Music Hall, New
+York, "Music and the Dance" (1895). His pen-and-ink work for the Century
+magazine attracted wide attention, as did his illustrations for Sir
+Edwin Arnold's _Japonica_. In the country and art of Japan he had been
+interested for many years. "A Daughter of Japan," drawn by Blum and W.J.
+Baer, was the cover of _Scribner's Magazine_ for May 1893, and was one
+of the earliest pieces of colour-printing for an American magazine. In
+_Scribner's_ for 1893 appeared also his "Artist's Letters from Japan."
+He was an admirer of Fortuny, whose methods somewhat influenced his
+work. Blum's Venetian pictures, such as "A Bright Day at Venice" (1882),
+had lively charm and beauty. He died on the 8th of June 1903 in New York
+City. He was a member of the National Academy of Design, being elected
+after his exhibition in 1892 of "The Ameya"; and was president of the
+Painters in Pastel. Although an excellent draughtsman and etcher, it was
+as a colourist that he chiefly excelled.
+
+
+
+
+BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1752-1840), German physiologist and
+anthropologist, was born at Gotha on the 11th of May 1752. After
+studying medicine at Jena, he graduated doctor at Göttingen in 1775, and
+was appointed extraordinary professor of medicine in 1776 and ordinary
+professor in 1778. He died at Göttingen on the 22nd of January 1840. He
+was the author of _Institutiones Physiologicae_ (1787), and of a
+_Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie_ (1804), both of which were very
+popular and went through many editions, but he is best known for his
+work in connexion with anthropology, of which science he has been justly
+called the founder. He was the first to show the value of comparative
+anatomy in the study of man's history, and his craniometrical researches
+justified his division of the human race into several great varieties or
+families, of which he enumerated five--the Caucasian or white race, the
+Mongolian or yellow, the Malayan or brown race, the Negro or black race,
+and the American or red race. This classification has been very
+generally received, and most later schemes have been modifications of
+it. His most important anthropological work was his description of sixty
+human crania published originally in _fasciculi_ under the title
+_Collectionis suae craniorum diversarum gentium illustratae decades_
+(Göttingen, 1790-1828).
+
+
+
+
+BLUMENTHAL, LEONHARD, COUNT VON (1810-1900), Prussian field marshal, son
+of Captain Ludwig von Blumenthal (killed in 1813 at the battle of
+Dennewitz), was born at Schwedt-on-Oder on the 30th of July 1810.
+Educated at the military schools of Culm and Berlin, he entered the
+Guards as 2nd lieutenant in 1827. After serving in the Rhine provinces,
+he joined the topographical division of the general staff in 1846. As
+lieutenant of the 31st foot he took part in 1848 in the suppression of
+the Berlin riots, and in 1849 was promoted captain on the general staff.
+The same year he served on the staff of General von Bonin in the
+Schleswig-Holstein campaign, and so distinguished himself, particularly
+at Fredericia, that he was appointed chief of the staff of the
+Schleswig-Holstein army. In 1850 he was general staff officer of the
+mobile division under von Tietzen in Hesse-Cassel. He was sent on a
+mission to England in that year (4th class of Red Eagle), and on several
+subsequent occasions. Having attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, he
+was appointed personal adjutant to Prince Frederick Charles in 1859. In
+1860 he became colonel of the 31st, and later of the 71st, regiment. He
+was chief of the staff of the III. army corps when, on the outbreak of
+the Danish War of 1864, he was nominated chief of the general staff of
+the army against Denmark, and displayed so much ability, particularly at
+Düppel and the passage to Alsen island, that he was promoted
+major-general and given the order _pour le mérite_. In the war of 1866
+Blumenthal occupied the post of chief of the general staff to the crown
+prince of Prussia, commanding the 2nd army. It was upon this army that
+the brunt of the fighting fell, and at Königgrätz it decided the
+fortunes of the day. Blumenthal's own part in these battles and in the
+campaign generally was most conspicuous. On the field of Königgrätz the
+crown prince said to his chief of staff, "I know to whom I owe the
+conduct of my army," and Blumenthal soon received promotion to
+lieutenant-general and the oak-leaf of the order _pour le mérite_. He
+was also made a knight of the Hohenzollern Order. From 1866 to 1870 he
+commanded the 14th division at Düsseldorf. In the Franco-German War of
+1870-71 he was chief of staff of the 3rd army under the crown prince.
+Blumenthal's soldierly qualities and talent were never more conspicuous
+than in the critical days preceding the battle of Sedan, and his
+services in the war have been considered as scarcely less valuable and
+important than those of Moltke himself. In 1871 Blumenthal represented
+Germany at the British manoeuvres at Chobham, and was given the command
+of the IV. army corps at Magdeburg. In 1873 he became a general of
+infantry, and ten years later he was made a count. In 1888 he was made a
+general field marshal, after which he was in command of the 4th and 3rd
+army inspections. He retired in 1896, and died at Quellendorf near
+Köthen on the 21st of December 1900.
+
+  Blumenthal's diary of 1866 and 1870-1871 has been edited by his son,
+  Count Albrecht von Blumenthal (_Tagebuch des G.F.M. von Blumenthal_),
+  1902; an English translation (_Journals of Count von Blumenthal_) was
+  published in 1903.
+
+
+
+
+BLUNDERBUSS (a corruption of the Dutch _donder_, thunder, and the Dutch
+_bus_; cf. Ger. _Büchse_, a box or tube, hence a thunder-box or gun), an
+obsolete muzzle-loading firearm with a bell-shaped muzzle. Its calibre
+was large so that it could contain many balls or slugs, and it was
+intended to be fired at a short range, so that some of the charge was
+sure to take effect. The word is also used by analogy to describe a
+blundering and random person or talker.
+
+
+
+
+BLUNT, JOHN HENRY (1823-1884), English divine, was born at Chelsea in
+1823, and before going to the university of Durham in 1850 was for some
+years engaged in business as a manufacturing chemist. He was ordained in
+1852 and took his M.A. degree in 1855, publishing in the same year a
+work on _The Atonement_. He held in succession several preferments,
+among them the vicarage of Kennington near Oxford (1868), which he
+vacated in 1873 for the crown living of Beverston in Gloucestershire. He
+had already gained some reputation as an industrious theologian, and had
+published among other works an annotated edition of the Prayer Book
+(1867), a _History of the English Reformation_ (1868), and a _Book of
+Church Law_ (1872), as well as a useful _Dictionary of Doctrinal and
+Historical Theology_ (1870). The continuation of these labours was seen
+in a _Dictionary of Sects and Heresies_ (1874), an _Annotated Bible_ (3
+vols., 1878-1879), and a _Cyclopaedia of Religion_ (1884), and received
+recognition in the shape of the D.D. degree bestowed on him in 1882. He
+died in London on the 11th of April 1884.
+
+
+
+
+BLUNT, JOHN JAMES (1794-1855), English divine, was born at
+Newcastle-under-Lyme in Staffordshire, and educated at St John's
+College, Cambridge, where he took his degree as fifteenth wrangler and
+obtained a fellowship (1816). He was appointed a Wort's travelling
+bachelor 1818, and spent some time in Italy and Sicily, afterwards
+publishing an account of his journey. He proceeded M.A. in 1819, B.D.
+1826, and was Hulsean Lecturer in 1831-1832 while holding a curacy in
+Shropshire. In 1834 he became rector of Great Oakley in Essex, and in
+1839 was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity at Cambridge. In
+1854 he declined the see of Salisbury, and he died on the 18th of June
+1855. His chief book was _Undesigned Coincidences in the Writings both
+of the Old and New Testaments_ (1833; fuller edition, 1847). Some of
+his writings, among them the _History of the Christian Church during the
+First Three Centuries_ and the lectures _On the Right Use of the Early
+Fathers_, were published posthumously.
+
+  A short memoir of him appeared in 1856 from the hand of William
+  Selwyn, his successor in the divinity professorship.
+
+
+
+
+BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN (1840-   ), English poet and publicist, was born
+on the 17th of August 1840 at Petworth House, Sussex, the son of Francis
+Scawen Blunt, who served in the Peninsular War and was wounded at
+Corunna. He was educated at Stonyhurst and Oscott, and entered the
+diplomatic service in 1858, serving successively at Athens, Madrid,
+Paris and Lisbon. In 1867 he was sent to South America, and on his
+return to England retired from the service on his marriage with Lady
+Anne Noel, daughter of the earl of Lovelace and a grand-daughter of the
+poet Byron. In 1872 he succeeded, by the death of his elder brother, to
+the estate of Crabbet Park, Sussex, where he established a famous stud
+for the breeding of Arab horses. Mr and Lady Anne Blunt travelled
+repeatedly in northern Africa, Asia Minor and Arabia, two of their
+expeditions being described in Lady Anne's _Bedouins of the Euphrates_
+(2 vols., 1879) and _A Pilgrimage to Nejd_ (2 vols., 1881). Mr Blunt
+became known as an ardent sympathizer with Mahommedan aspirations, and
+in his _Future of Islam_ (1888) he directed attention to the forces
+which afterwards produced the movements of Pan-Islamism and Mahdism. He
+was a violent opponent of the English policy in the Sudan, and in _The
+Wind and the Whirlwind_ (in verse, 1883) prophesied its downfall. He
+supported the national party in Egypt, and took a prominent part in the
+defence of Arabi Pasha. _Ideas about India_ (1885) was the result of two
+visits to that country, the second in 1883-1884. In 1885 and 1886 he
+stood unsuccessfully for parliament as a Home Ruler; and in 1887 he was
+arrested in Ireland while presiding over a political meeting in
+connexion with the agitation on Lord Clanricarde's estate, and was
+imprisoned for two months in Kilmainham. His best-known volume of verse,
+_Love Sonnets of Proteus_ (1880), is a revelation of his real merits as
+an emotional poet. _The Poetry of Wilfrid Blunt_ (1888), selected and
+edited by W.E. Henley and Mr George Wyndham, includes these sonnets,
+together with "Worth Forest, a Pastoral," "Griselda" (described as a
+"society novel in rhymed verse"), translations from the Arabic, and
+poems which had appeared in other volumes.
+
+
+
+
+BLUNTSCHLI, JOHANN KASPAR (1808-1881), Swiss jurist and politician, was
+born at Zürich on the 7th of March 1808, the son of a soap and candle
+manufacturer. From school he passed into the _Politische Institut_ (a
+seminary of law and political science) in his native town, and
+proceeding thence to the universities of Berlin and Bonn, took the
+degree of _doctor juris_ in the latter in 1829. Returning to Zurich in
+1830, he threw himself with ardour into the political strife which was
+at the time unsettling all the cantons of the Confederation, and in this
+year published _Über die Verfassung der Stadt Zürich_ (On the
+Constitution of the City of Zurich). This was followed by _Das Volk und
+der Souverän_ (1830), a work in which, while pleading for constitutional
+government, he showed his bitter repugnance of the growing Swiss
+radicalism. Elected in 1837 a member of the Grosser Rath (Great
+Council), he became the champion of the moderate conservative party.
+Fascinated by the metaphysical views of the philosopher Friedrich Rohmer
+(1814-1856), a man who attracted little other attention, he endeavoured
+in _Psychologische Studien über Staat und Kirche_ (1844) to apply them
+to political science generally, and in particular as a panacea for the
+constitutional troubles of Switzerland. Bluntschli, shortly before his
+death, remarked, "I have gained renown as a jurist, but my greatest
+desert is to have comprehended Rohmer." This philosophical essay,
+however, coupled with his uncompromising attitude towards both
+radicalism and ultramontanism, brought him many enemies, and rendered
+his continuance in the council, of which he had been elected president,
+impossible. He resigned his seat, and on the overthrow of the Sonderbund
+in 1847, perceiving that all hope of power for his party was lost, took
+leave of Switzerland with the pamphlet _Stimme eines Schweizers über
+die Bundesreform_ (1847), and settled at Munich, where he became
+professor of constitutional law in 1848.
+
+At Munich he devoted himself with energy to the special work of his
+chair, and, resisting the temptation to identify himself with politics,
+published _Allgemeines Staatsrecht_ (1851-1852); _Lehre vom modernen
+Staat_ (1875-1876); and, in conjunction with Karl Ludwig Theodor Brater
+(1819-1869), _Deutsches Staats-wörterbuch_ (II vols., 1857-1870:
+abridged by Edgar Loening in 3 vols., 1869-1875). Meanwhile he had
+assiduously worked at his code for the canton of Zürich,
+_Privatrechtliches Gesetzbuch für den Kanton Zürich_ (4 vols.,
+1854-1856), a work which was much praised at the time, and which,
+particularly the section devoted to contracts, served as a model for
+codes both in Switzerland and other countries. In 1861 Bluntschli
+received a call to Heidelberg as professor of constitutional law
+(Staatsrecht), where he again entered the political arena, endeavouring
+in his _Geschichte des allgemeinen Staatsrechts und der Politik_ (1864)
+"to stimulate," as he said, "the political consciousness of the German
+people, to cleanse it of prejudices and to further it intellectually."
+In his new home, Baden, he devoted his energies and political influence,
+during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, towards keeping the country
+neutral. From this time Bluntschli became active in the field of
+international law, and his fame as a jurist belongs rather to this
+province than to that of constitutional law. His _Das moderne
+Kriegsrecht_ (1866); _Das moderns Völkerrecht_ (1868), and _Das
+Beuterecht im Krieg_ (1878) are likely to remain invaluable text-books
+in this branch of the science of jurisprudence. He also wrote a pamphlet
+on the "Alabama" case.
+
+Bluntschli was one of the founders, at Ghent in 1873, of the Institute
+of International Law, and was the representative of the German emperor
+at the conference on the international laws of war at Brussels. During
+the latter years of his life he took a lively interest in the
+_Protestantenverein_, a society formed to combat reactionary and
+ultramontane views of theology. He died suddenly at Karlsruhe on the
+21st of October 1881. His library was acquired by Johns Hopkins
+University at Baltimore, U.S.A.
+
+Among his works, other than those before mentioned, may be cited
+_Deutsches Privatrecht_ (1853-1854); _Deutsche Staatslehre für
+Gebildete_ (1874); and _Deutsche Staatslehre und die heutige
+Staatenwelt_ (1880).
+
+  For notices of Bluntschli's life and works see his interesting
+  autobiography, _Denkwurdiges aus meinem Leben_ (1884); von
+  Holtzendorff, _Bluntschli und seine Verdienste um die
+  Staatswissenschaften_ (1882); Brockhaus, _Konversations-Lexicon_
+  (1901); and a biography by Meyer von Kronau, in _Allgemeine deutsche
+  Biographie_.
+
+
+
+
+BLYTH, a market town and seaport of Northumberland, England, in the
+parliamentary borough of Morpeth, 9 m. E.S.E. of that town, at the mouth
+of the river Blyth, on a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of
+urban district (1901) 5472. This is the port for a considerable
+coal-mining district, and its harbour, on the south side of the river,
+is provided with mechanical appliances for shipping coal. There are five
+dry docks, and upwards of 1 ½ m. of quayage. Timber is largely imported.
+Some shipbuilding and the manufacture of rope, sails and ship-fittings
+are carried on, and the fisheries are valuable. Blyth is also in
+considerable favour as a watering-place; there are a pleasant park, a
+pier, protecting the harbour, about 1 m. in length, and a sandy beach
+affording sea-bathing. The river Blyth rises near the village of
+Kirkheaton, and has an easterly course of about 25 m. through a deep,
+well-wooded and picturesque valley.
+
+
+
+
+B'NAI B'RITH (or SONS OF THE COVENANT), INDEPENDENT ORDER OF, a Jewish
+fraternal society. It was founded at New York in 1843 by a number of
+German Jews, headed by Henry Jones, and is the oldest as well as the
+largest of the Jewish fraternal organizations. Its membership in 1908
+was 35,870, its 481 lodges and 10 grand lodges being distributed over
+the United States, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Rumania, Egypt and
+Palestine. Its objects are to promote a high morality among Jews,
+regardless of differences as to dogma and ceremonial customs, and
+especially to inculcate the supreme virtues of charity and brotherly
+love. Political and religious discussions were from the first excluded
+from the debates of the order. In 1851 the first grand lodge was
+established at New York; in 1856, the number of district lodges having
+increased, the supreme authority was vested in a central body consisting
+of one member from each lodge; and by the present constitution, adopted
+in 1868, this authority is vested in a president elected for five years,
+an executive committee and court of appeals (elected as before). The
+first lodge in Germany was instituted at Berlin in 1883. A large number
+of charitable and other public institutions have been established in the
+United States and elsewhere by the order, of which may be mentioned the
+large orphan asylum in Cleveland, the home for the aged and infirm at
+Yonkers, N.Y., the National Jewish hospital for consumptives at Denver,
+and the Maimonides library in New York City. The B'nai B'rith society
+has also co-operated largely with other Jewish philanthropic
+organizations in succouring distressed Israelites throughout the world.
+
+  See the _Jewish Encyclopaedia_ (1902), s.v.
+
+
+
+
+BOA, a name formerly applied to all large serpents which, devoid of
+poison fangs, kill their prey by constriction; but now confined to that
+subfamily of the _Boidae_ which are devoid of teeth in the praemaxilla
+and are without supraorbital bones. The others are known as pythons
+(q.v.). The true boas comprise some forty species; most of them are
+American, but the genus _Eryx_ inhabits North Africa, Greece and
+south-western Asia; the genus _Enygrus_ ranges from New Guinea to the
+Fiji; _Casarea dussumieri_ is restricted to Round Island, near
+Mauritius; and two species of _Boa_ and one of _Corallus_ represent this
+subfamily in Madagascar, while all the other boas live in America,
+chiefly in tropical parts. All _Boidae_ possess vestiges of pelvis and
+hind limbs, appearing externally as claw-like spurs on each side of the
+vent, but they are so small that they are practically without function
+in climbing. The usually short tail is prehensile.
+
+One of the commonest species of the genus _Boa_ is the _Boa
+constrictor_, which has a wide range from tropical Mexico to Brazil. The
+head is covered with small scales, only one of the preoculars being
+enlarged. The general colour is a delicate pale brown, with about a
+dozen and a half darker cross-bars, which are often connected by a still
+darker dorso-lateral streak, enclosing large oval spots. On each side is
+a series of large dark brown spots with light centres. On the tail the
+markings become bolder, brick red with black and yellow. The under parts
+are yellowish with black dots. This species rarely reaches a length of
+more than 10 ft. It climbs well, prefers open forest in the
+neighbourhood of water, is often found in plantations where it retires
+into a hole in the ground, and lives chiefly on birds and small mammals.
+Like most true boas, it is of a very gentle disposition and easily
+domesticates itself in the palm or reed thatched huts of the natives,
+where it hunts the rats during the night.
+
+The term "boa" is applied by analogy to a long article of women's dress
+wound round the neck.
+
+
+
+
+BOABDIL (a corruption of the name Abu Abdullah), the last Moorish king
+of Granada, called _el chico_, the little, and also _el zogoybi_, the
+unfortunate. A son of Muley Abu'l Hassan, king of Granada, he was
+proclaimed king in 1482 in place of his father, who was driven from the
+land. Boabdil soon after sought to gain prestige by invading Castile. He
+was taken prisoner at Lucena in 1483, and only obtained his freedom by
+consenting to hold Granada as a tributary kingdom under Ferdinand and
+Isabella, king and queen of Castile and Aragon. The next few years were
+consumed in struggles with his father and his uncle Abdullah ez Zagal.
+In 1491 Boabdil was summoned by Ferdinand and Isabella to surrender the
+city of Granada, and on his refusal it was besieged by the Castilians.
+Eventually, in January 1492, Granada was surrendered, and the king spent
+some time on the lands which he was allowed to hold in Andalusia.
+Subsequently he crossed to Africa, and is said to have been killed in
+battle fighting for his kinsman, the ruler of Fez. The spot from which
+Boabdil looked for the last time on Granada is still shown, and is known
+as "the last sigh of the Moor" (_el ultimo suspire del Moro_).
+
+  See J.A. Conde, _Dominácion de los Arabes en España_ (Paris, 1840),
+  translated into English by Mrs J. Foster (London, 1854-1855);
+  Washington Irving, _The Alhambra_ (New York, ed. 1880).
+
+
+
+
+BOADICEA, strictly BOUDICCA, a British queen in the time of the emperor
+Nero. Her husband Prasutagus ruled the Iceni (in what is now Norfolk) as
+an autonomous prince under Roman suzerainty. On his death (A.D. 61)
+without male heir, his dominions were annexed, and the annexation was
+carried out brutally. He had by his will divided his private wealth
+between his two daughters and Nero, trusting thereby to win imperial
+favour for his family. Instead, his wife was scourged (doubtless for
+resisting the annexation), his daughters outraged, his chief tribesmen
+plundered. The proud, fierce queen and her people rose, and not alone.
+With them rose half Britain, enraged, for other causes, at Roman rule.
+Roman taxation and conscription lay heavy on the province; in addition,
+the Roman government had just revoked financial concessions made a few
+years earlier, and L. Annaeus Seneca, who combined the parts of a
+moralist and a money-lender, had abruptly recalled large loans made from
+his private wealth to British chiefs. A favourable chance for revolt was
+provided by the absence of the governor-general, Suetonius Paulinus, and
+most of his troops in North Wales and Anglesey. All south-east Britain
+joined the movement. Paulinus rushed back without waiting for his
+troops, but he could do nothing alone. The Britons burnt the Roman
+municipalities of Verulam and Colchester, the mart of London, and
+several military posts, massacred "over 70,000" Romans and Britons
+friendly to Rome, and almost annihilated the Ninth Legion marching from
+Lincoln to the rescue. At last Paulinus, who seems to have rejoined his
+army, met the Britons in the field. The site of the battle is unknown.
+One writer has put it at Chester; others at London, where King's Cross
+had once a narrow escape of being christened Boadicea's Cross, and
+actually for many years bore the name of Battle Bridge, in supposed
+reference to this battle. Probably, however, it was on Watling Street,
+between London and Chester. In a desperate soldiers' battle Rome
+regained the province. Boadicea took poison; thousands of Britons fell
+in the fight or were hunted down in the ensuing guerrilla. Finally, Rome
+adopted a kindlier policy, and Britain became quiet. But the scantiness
+of Romano-British remains in Norfolk may be due to the severity with
+which the Iceni were crushed.
+
+  See Tacitus, _Annals_, xiv.; _Agric_. xv.; Dio lxii. The name Boudicca
+  seems to mean in Celtic much the same as Victoria.     (F. J. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BOAR (O. Eng. _bar_; the word is found only in W. Ger. languages, cf.
+Dutch _beer_, Ger. _Eber_), the name given to the un-castrated male of
+the domestic pig (q.v.), and to some wild species of the family _Suidae_
+(see SWINE). The European wild boar (_Sus scrofa_) is distributed over
+Europe, northern Africa, and central and northern Asia. It has long been
+extinct in the British Isles, where it once abounded, but traces have
+been found of its survival in Chartley Forest, Staffordshire, in an
+entry of 1683 in an account-book of the steward of the manor, and it
+possibly remained till much later in the more remote parts of Scotland
+and Ireland (J.E. Harting, _Extinct British Animals_, 1880). The wild
+boar is still found in Europe, in marshy woodland districts where there
+is plenty of cover, and it is fairly plentiful in Spain, Austria, Russia
+and Germany, particularly in the Black Forest.
+
+From the earliest times, owing to its great strength, speed, and
+ferocity when at bay, the boar has been one of the favourite beasts of
+the chase. Under the old forest laws of England it was one of the
+"beasts of the forest," and, as such, under the Norman kings the
+unprivileged killing of it was punishable by death or the loss of a
+member. It was hunted in England and in Europe on foot and on horseback
+with dogs, while the weapon of attack was always the spear. In Europe
+the wild boar is still hunted with dogs, but the spear, except when used
+in emergencies and for giving the _coup de grâce_, has been given up for
+the gun. It is also shot in great forest drives in Austria, Germany and
+Russia. The Indian wild boar (_Sus cristatus_) is slightly taller than
+_Sus scrofa_, standing some 30 to 40 in. at the shoulder. It is found
+throughout India, Ceylon and Burma. Here the horse and spear are still
+used, and the sport is one of the most popular in India. (See
+PIG-STICKING.)
+
+The boar is one of the four heraldic beasts of venery, and was the
+cognizance of Richard III., king of England. As an article of food the
+boar's head was long considered a special delicacy, and its serving was
+attended with much ceremonial. At Queen's College, Oxford, the dish is
+still brought on Christmas day in procession to the high-table,
+accompanied by the singing of a carol.
+
+
+
+
+BOARD (O. Eng. _bord_), a plank or long narrow piece of timber. The word
+comes into various compounds to describe boards used for special
+purposes, or objects like boards (drawing-board, ironing-board,
+sounding-board, chess-board, cardboard, back-board, notice-board,
+scoring-board). The phrase "to keep one's name on the boards," at
+Cambridge University, signifies to remain a member of a college; at
+Oxford it is "on the books." In bookbinding, pasteboard covers are
+called boards. Board was early used of a table, hence such phrases as
+"bed and board," "board and lodging"; or of a gaming-table, as in the
+phrase "to sweep the board," meaning to pocket all the stakes, hence,
+figuratively, to carry all before one. The same meaning leads to "Board
+of Trade," "Local Government Board," &c.
+
+From the meaning of border or side, and especially ship's side, comes
+"sea-board," meaning sea-coast, and the phrases "aboard" (Fr. _abord_),
+"over-board," "by the board"; similarly "weather-board," the side of a
+ship which is to windward; "larboard and starboard" (the former of
+uncertain origin, Mid. Eng. _laddeboard_ or _latheboard_; the latter
+meaning "steering side," O. Eng. _steorbord_, the rudder of early ships
+working over the steering side), signifying (to one standing at the
+stern and looking forward) the left and right sides of the ship
+respectively.
+
+
+
+
+BOARDING-HOUSE, a private house in which the proprietor provides board
+and lodging for paying guests. The position of a guest in a
+boarding-house differs in English law, to some extent, on the one hand
+from that of a lodger in the ordinary sense of the term, and on the
+other from that of a guest in an inn. Unlike the lodger, he frequently
+has not the exclusive occupation of particular rooms. Unlike the guest
+in an inn, his landlord has no lien upon his property for rent or any
+other debt due in respect of his board (_Thompson v. Lacy_, 1820, 3 B.
+and Ald. 283). The landlord is under an obligation to take reasonable
+care for the safety of property brought by a guest into his house, and
+is liable for damages in case of breach of this obligation (_Scarborough
+v. Cosgrove_, 1905, 2 K.B. 803). Again, unlike the innkeeper, a
+boarding-house keeper does not hold himself out as ready to receive all
+travellers for whom he has accommodation, for which they are ready to
+pay, and of course he is entitled to get rid of any guest on giving
+reasonable notice (see _Lamond v. Richard_, 1897, I Q.B. 541, 548). What
+is reasonable notice depends on the terms of the contract; and, subject
+thereto, the course of payment of rent is a material circumstance (see
+LANDLORD AND TENANT). Apparently the same implied warranty of fitness
+for habitation at the commencement of the tenancy which exists in the
+case of furnished lodgings (see LODGER AND LODGINGS) exists also in the
+case of boarding-houses; and the guest in a boarding-house, like a
+lodger, is entitled to all the usual and necessary conveniences of a
+dwelling-house.
+
+The law of the United States is similar to English law.
+
+Under the French Code Civil, claims for subsistence furnished to a
+debtor and his family during the last year of his life by boarding-house
+keepers (_maîtres de pension_) are privileged over the generality of
+moveables, the privilege being exerciseable after legal expenses,
+funeral expenses, the expenses of the last illness, and the wages of
+servants for the year elapsed and what is due for the current year (art.
+2101 (5)). Keepers of taverns (_aubergistes_) and hotels (_hôteliers_)
+are responsible for the goods of their guests--the committal of which to
+their custody is regarded as a deposit of necessity (_dépôt
+nécessaire_). They are liable for the loss of such goods by theft,
+whether by servants or strangers, but not where the loss is due to
+_force majeure_ (arts. 1952-1954). Their liability for money and bearer
+securities not actually deposited is limited to 1000 francs (law of 18th
+of April 1889). These provisions are reproduced in substance in the
+Civil Codes of Quebec (arts. 1814, 1815, 1994, 2006) and of St Lucia
+(art. 1889). In Quebec, boarding-house keepers have a lien on the goods
+of their guests for the value or price of any food or accommodation
+furnished to them, and have also a right to sell their baggage and other
+property, if the amount remains unpaid for three months, under
+conditions similar to those imposed on innkeepers in England (art. 1816
+A; and see INNS AND INNKEEPERS); also in the Civil Code of St Lucia
+(arts. 1578, 1714, 1715)     (A. W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BOARDING-OUT SYSTEM, in the English poor law, the boarding-out of orphan
+or deserted children with suitable foster-parents. The practice was
+first authorized in 1868, though for many years previously it had been
+carried out by some boards of guardians on their own initiative.
+Boarding-out is governed by two orders of the Local Government Board,
+issued in 1889. The first permits guardians to board-out children within
+their own union, except in the metropolis. The second governs the
+boarding-out of children in localities outside the union. The sum
+payable to the foster-parents is not to exceed 4s. per week for each
+child. The system has been much discussed by authorities on the
+administration of the poor law. It has been objected that few
+working-men with an average-sized family can afford to devote such an
+amount for the maintenance of each child, and that, therefore,
+boarded-out children are better off than the children of the independent
+(Fawcett, _Pauperism_). Working-class guardians, also, do not favour the
+system, being suspicious as to the disinterestedness of the
+foster-parents. On the other hand, it is argued that from the economic
+and educational point of view much better results are obtained by
+boarding-out children; they are given a natural life, and when they grow
+up they are without effort merged in the general population (Mackay,
+_Hist. Eng. Poor Law_). See also POOR LAW.
+
+The "boarding-out" of lunatics is, in Scotland, a regular part of the
+lunacy administration. It has also been successfully adopted in Belgium.
+(See INSANITY.)
+
+
+
+
+BOARDMAN, GEORGE DANA (1801-1831), American Baptist missionary, was born
+at Livermore, Me., and educated at Waterville College and Andover
+Theological Seminary. In 1825 he went to India as a missionary, and in
+1827 to Burma, where his promising work among the Karens was cut short
+by his early death. His widow married another well-known Burmese
+missionary, Adoniram Judson.
+
+His son, GEORGE DANA BOARDMAN, the younger (1828-1903), made the voyage
+from Burma to America alone when six years of age. He graduated in 1852
+at Brown University, and from the Newton Theological Institution in
+1855. He held Baptist pastorates at Rochester (1856-1864), and at
+Philadelphia, and was president of the American Baptist Missionary
+Union, 1880-1884. At Philadelphia he is said to have taken his
+congregation through every verse of the New Testament in 643 Wednesday
+evening lectures, which occupied nearly eighteen years, and afterwards
+to have begun on the Old Testament in similar fashion. Among his
+published works are _Studies in the Model Prayer_ (1879), and
+_Epiphanies of the Risen Lord_ (1879).
+
+
+
+
+BOASE, HENRY SAMUEL (1799-1883), English geologist, the eldest son of
+Henry Boase (1763-1827), banker, of Madron, Cornwall, was born in London
+on the 2nd of September 1799. Educated partly at Tiverton
+grammar-school, and partly at Dublin, where he studied chemistry, he
+afterwards proceeded to Edinburgh and took the degree of M.D. in 1821.
+He then settled for some years as a medical practitioner at Penzance;
+there geology engaged his particular attention, and he became secretary
+of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. The results of his
+observations were embodied in his _Treatise on Primary Geology_ (1834),
+a work of considerable merit in regard to the older crystalline and
+igneous rocks and the subject of mineral veins. In 1837 he removed to
+London, where he remained for about a year, being elected F.R.S. In 1838
+he became partner in a firm of bleachers at Dundee. He retired in 1871,
+and died on the 5th of May 1883.
+
+
+
+
+BOAT (O. Eng. _bát_; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger.
+_boot_, Fr. _bateau_, Ital. _battello_ presents great difficulties;
+Celtic forms are from O. Eng.), a comparatively small open craft for
+conveyance on water, usually propelled by some form of oar or sail.
+
+The origin of the word "boat" is probably to be looked for in the A.S.
+_bât_ = a stem, a stick, a piece of wood. If this be so, the term in its
+inception referred to the material of which the primitive vessel was
+constructed, and in this respect may well be contrasted with the word
+"ship," of which the primary idea was the _process_ by which the
+material was fashioned and adapted for the use of man.
+
+We may assume that primitive man, in his earliest efforts to achieve the
+feat of conveying himself and his belongings by water, succeeded in
+doing so--(1) by fastening together a quantity of material of sufficient
+buoyancy to float and carry him above the level of the water; (2) by
+scooping out a fallen tree so as to obtain buoyancy enough for the same
+purpose. In these two processes is to be found the genesis of both boat
+and ship, of which, though often used as convertible terms, the former
+is generally restricted to the smaller type of vessel such as is dealt
+with in this article. For the larger type the reader is referred to
+SHIP.
+
+Great must have been the triumph of the man who first discovered that
+the rushes or the trunks he had managed to tie together would, propelled
+by a stick or a branch (cf. _ramus_ and _remus_) used as pole or paddle,
+convey him safely across the river or lake, which had hitherto been his
+barrier. But use multiplies wants, discovers deficiencies, suggests
+improvements. Man soon found out that he wanted to go faster than the
+raft would move, that the water washed over and up through it, and this
+need of speed, and of dry carrying power, which we find operative
+throughout the history of the boat down to the present day, drove him to
+devise other modes of flotation as well as to try to improve his first
+invention.
+
+The invention of the hollowed trunk, of the "dug-out" (monoxylon),
+however it came about, whenever and wherever it came into comparison
+with the raft, must have superseded the latter for some purposes, though
+not by any means for all. It was superior to the raft in speed, and was,
+to a certain extent, water-tight. On the other hand it was inferior in
+carrying power and stability. But the two types once conceived had come
+to stay, and to them severally, or to attempts to combine the useful
+properties of both, may be traced all the varieties of vessel to which
+the name of boat may be applied.
+
+The development of the raft is admirably illustrated in the description,
+given us by Homer in the Odyssey, of the construction by the hero
+Ulysses of a vessel of the kind. Floating timber is cut down and
+carefully shaped and planed with axe and adze, and the timbers are then
+exactly fitted face to face and compacted with trenails and dowels, just
+as the flat floor of a lump or lighter might be fashioned and fitted
+nowadays. A platform is raised upon the floor and a bulwark of osiers
+contrived to keep out the wash of the waves (cf. _infra_, Malay boats).
+It seems as if the poet, who was intimately acquainted with the sea ways
+of his time, intended to convey the idea of progress in construction, as
+illustrated by the technical skill of his hero, and the use of the
+various tools with which he supplies him.
+
+On the other hand the dug-out had its limitations. The largest tree that
+could be thrown and scooped out afforded but a narrow space for carrying
+goods, and presented problems as to stability which must have been very
+difficult to solve. The shaping of bow and stern, the bulging out of the
+sides, the flattening of the bottom, the invention of a keel piece, the
+attempt to raise the sides by building up with planks, all led on
+towards the idea of constructing a boat properly so called, or perhaps
+to the invention of the canoe, which in some ways may be regarded as the
+intermediate stage between dug-out and boat.
+
+Meanwhile the raft had undergone improvements such as those which Homer
+indicates. It had arrived at a floor composed of timbers squared and
+shaped. It had risen to a platform, the prototype of a deck. It was but
+a step to build up the sides and turn up the ends, and at this point we
+reach the genesis of ark and punt, of sanpan and junk, or, in other
+words, of all the many varieties of flat-bottomed craft.
+
+When once we have reached the point at which the improvements in the
+construction of the raft and dug-out bring them, as it were, within
+sight of each other, we can enter upon the history of the development of
+boats properly so called, which, in accordance with the uses and the
+circumstances that dictated their build, may be said to be descended
+from the raft or the dug-out, or from the attempt to combine the
+respective advantages of the two original types.
+
+Uses and circumstances are infinite in variety and have produced an
+infinite variety of boats. But we may safely say that in all cases the
+need to be satisfied, the nature of the material available, and the
+character of the difficulties to be overcome have governed the reason
+and tested the reasonableness of the architecture of the craft in use.
+
+It is not proposed in this article to enter at any length into the
+details of the construction of boats, but it is desirable, for the sake
+of clearness, to indicate certain broad distinctions in the method of
+building, which, though they run back into the far past, in some form or
+other survive and are in use at the present day.
+
+The tying of trunks together to form a raft is still not unknown in the
+lumber trade of the Danube or of North America, nor was it in early days
+confined to the raft. It extended to many boats properly so called, even
+to many of those built by the Vikings of old. It may still be seen in
+the Madras surf boats, and in those constructed out of driftwood by the
+inhabitants of Easter Island in the south Pacific. Virgil, who was an
+archaeologist, represents Charon's boat on the Styx as of this
+construction, and notes the defect, which still survives, in the craft
+of the kind when loaded--
+
+                "Gemuit sub pondere cymba
+  Sutilis, et multam accepit rimosa paludem!"
+    _Aen._ vi. 303.
+
+Next to the raft, and to be counted in direct descent from it, comes the
+whole class of flat-bottomed boats including punts and lighters. As soon
+as the method of constructing a solid floor, with trenails and dowels,
+had been discovered, the method of converting it into a water-tight box
+was pursued, sides were attached plank fashion, with strong knees to
+stiffen them, and cross pieces to _yoke_ or _key_ (cf. [Greek: zugon,
+klaeis]) them together. These thwarts once fixed naturally suggested
+seats for those that plied the paddle or the oar. The ends of the vessel
+were shaped into bow or stern, either turned up, or with the side
+planking convergent in stem or stern post, or joined together fore and
+aft by bulkheads fitted in, while interstices were made water-tight by
+caulking, and by smearing with bitumen or some resinous material.
+
+The evolution of the boat as distinct from the punt, or flat-bottomed
+type, and following the configuration of the dug-out in its length and
+rounded bottom, must have taxed the inventive art and skill of
+constructors much more severely than that of the raft. It is possible
+that the coracle or the canoe may have suggested the construction of a
+framework of sufficient stiffness to carry a water-tight wooden skin,
+such as would successfully resist the pressure of wind and water. And in
+this regard two methods were open to the builder, both of which have
+survived to the present day: (1) the construction first of the shell of
+the boat, into which the stiffening ribs and cross ties were
+subsequently fitted; (2) the construction first of a framework of
+requisite size and shape, on to which the outer skin of the boat was
+subsequently attached.
+
+Further, besides the primitive mode of tying the parts together, two
+main types of build must be noticed, in accordance with which a boat is
+said to be either carvel-built or clinker-built. (1) A boat is
+carvel-built when the planks are laid edge to edge so that they present
+a smooth surface without. (2) A boat is clinker-built when each plank is
+laid on so as to overlap the one below it, thus presenting a series of
+ledges running longitudinally.
+
+The former method is said to be of Mediterranean, or perhaps of Eastern
+origin. The latter was probably invented by the old Scandinavian
+builders, and from them handed down through the fishing boats of the
+northern nations to our own time.
+
+
+  Ancient boats.
+
+The accounts of vessels used by the Egyptians and Phoenicians generally
+refer to larger craft which naturally fall under the head of SHIP
+(q.v.). The Nile boats, however, described by Herodotus (ii. 60),
+built of acacia wood, were no doubt of various sizes, some of them quite
+small, but all following the same type of construction, built up brick
+fashion, the blocks being fastened internally to long poles secured by
+cross pieces, and the interstices caulked with papyrus. The ends rose
+high above the water, and to prevent hogging were often attached by a
+truss running longitudinally over crutches from stem to stern.
+
+The Assyrian and Babylonian vessels described by Herodotus (i. 194),
+built up of twigs and boughs, and covered with skins smeared with
+bitumen, were really more like huge coracles and hardly deserve the name
+of boats.
+
+The use of boats by the Greeks and Romans is attested by the frequent
+reference to them in Greek and Latin literature, though, as regards such
+small craft, the details given are hardly enough to form the basis of an
+accurate classification.
+
+We hear of small boats attendant on a fleet ([Greek: kelaetion], Thuc.
+i. 53), and of similar craft employed in piracy (Thuc. iv. 9), and in
+one case of a sculling boat, or pair oar ([Greek: akation amphaerikon],
+Thuc. iv. 67), which was carted up and down between the town of Megara
+and the sea, being used for the purpose of marauding at night. We are
+also familiar with the passage in the Acts (xxvii.) where in the storm
+they had hard work "to come by the boat"; which same boat the sailors
+afterwards "let down into the sea, under colour as though they would
+have cast anchors out of the foreship," and would have escaped to land
+in her themselves, leaving the passengers to drown, if the centurion and
+soldiers acting upon St Paul's advice had not cut off the ropes of the
+boat and let her fall off.
+
+There can be little doubt that boat races were in vogue among the Greeks
+(see Prof. Gardner, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, ii. 91 ff.), and
+probably formed part of the Panathenaic and Isthmian festivals. It is,
+however, difficult to prove that small boats took part in these races,
+though it is not unlikely that they may have done so. The testimony of
+the coins, such as it is, points to galleys, and the descriptive term
+([Greek: neon amilla]) leads to the same conclusion.
+
+It is hardly possible now to define the differences which separated
+[Greek: akatos], [Greek: akation], from [Greek: kelaes], [Greek:
+kelaetion], or from [Greek: lembos] or [Greek: karabos]. They seem all
+to have been rowing boats, probably carvel-built, some with keels
+(_acatii modo carinata_, Plin. ix. 19), and to have varied in size, some
+being simply sculling boats, and others running up to as many as thirty
+oars.
+
+Similarly in Latin authors we have frequent mention of boats
+accompanying ships of war. Of this there is a well-known instance in the
+account of Caesar's invasion of Britain (_B.G._ iv. 26), when the boats
+of the fleet, and the pinnaces, were filled with soldiers and sent to
+assist the Legionaries who were being fiercely attacked as they waded on
+to the shore. There is also an instance in the civil war, which is a
+prototype of a modern attack of torpedo boats upon men of war, when
+Antonius manned the pinnaces of his large ships to the number of sixty,
+and with them attacked and defeated an imprudent squadron of Quadriremes
+(_B.C._ iii. 24). The class of boats so frequently mentioned as
+_actuariae_ seems to have contained craft of all sizes, and to have been
+used for all purposes, whether as pleasure boats or as despatch vessels,
+or for piracy. In fact the term was employed vaguely just as we speak of
+craft in general.
+
+The _lembus_, which is often referred to in Livy and Polybius, seems to
+have been of Illyrian origin, with fine lines and sharp bows. The class
+contained boats of various sizes and with a variable number of oars
+(biremis, Livy xxiv. 40, sexdecim, Livy xxxiv. 35); and it is
+interesting to note the origin in this case, as the invention of the
+light Liburnian galleys, which won the battle of Actium, and altered the
+whole system of naval construction, came from the same seaboard.
+
+Besides these, the piratical _myoparones_ (see Cic. _In Verrem_), and
+the poetical _phaselus_, deserve mention, but here again we are met with
+the difficulty of distinguishing boats from ships. There is also an
+interesting notice in Tacitus (_Hist_. iii. 47) of boats hastily
+constructed by the natives of the northern coast of Asia Minor, which he
+describes as of broad beam with narrow sides (probably meaning that the
+sides "tumbled home"), joined together without any fastenings of brass
+or iron. In a sea-way the sides were raised with planks added till they
+were cased in as with a roof, whence their name _camarae_, and so they
+rolled about in the waves, having prow and stern alike and convertible
+rowlocks, so that it was a matter of indifference and equally safe, or
+perhaps unsafe, whichever way they rowed.
+
+Similar vessels were constructed by Germanicus in his north German
+campaign (_Ann_. ii. 6) and by the Suiones (_Ger_. 44). These also had
+stem and stern alike, and remind us of the old Norse construction, being
+rowed either way, having the oars loose in the rowlock, and not, as was
+usual in the south, attached by a thong to the thowl pin.
+
+Lastly, as a class of boat directly descended from the raft, we may
+notice the flat-bottomed boats or punts or lighters which plied on the
+Tiber as ferry-boats, or carrying goods, which were called _codicariae_
+from _caudex_, the old word for a plank.
+
+It is difficult to trace any order of development in the construction of
+boats during the Byzantine period, or the middle ages. Sea-going vessels
+according to their size carried one or more boats, some of them small
+boats with two or four oars, others boats of a larger size fitted with
+masts and sail as well as with oars. We find _lembus_ and _phaselus_ as
+generic names in the earlier period, but the indications as to size and
+character are vague and variable. The same may be said of the _batelli,
+coquets, chaloupes, chalans, gattes_, &c., of which, in almost endless
+number and variety, the nautical erudition of M. Jal has collected the
+names in his monumental works, _Archéologie navale_ and the _Glossaire
+nautique_.
+
+It is clear, however, that in many instances the names, originally
+applied to boats properly so called, gradually attached themselves to
+larger vessels, as in the case of _chaloupe_ and others, a fact which
+leads to the conclusion that the type of build followed originally in
+smaller vessels was often developed on a larger scale, according as it
+was found useful and convenient, while the name remained the same. Many
+of these types still survive and may be found in the Eastern seas, or in
+the Mediterranean or in the northern waters, each of which has its own
+peculiarities of build and rig.
+
+
+  Existing types.
+
+It would be impossible within our limits to do justice to the number and
+variety of existing types in sea-going boats, and for more detailed
+information concerning them the reader would do well to consult _Mast
+and Sail in Europe and Asia_, by H. Warington Smyth, an excellent and
+exhaustive work, from which much of the information which follows
+regarding them has been derived.
+
+In the Eastern seas the Chinese _sanpan_ is ubiquitous. Originally a
+small raft of three timbers with fore end upturned, it grew into a boat
+in very early times, and has given its name to a very large class of
+vessels. With flat bottom, and considerable width in proportion to its
+length, the normal sanpan runs out into two tails astern, the timbers
+rounding up, and the end being built in like a bulkhead, with room for
+the rudder to work between it and the transom which connects the two
+projecting upper timbers of the stern. Some of them are as much as 30
+ft. in length and 8 to 10 ft. in beam. They are good carriers and
+speedy under sail.
+
+The Chinese in all probability were the earliest of all peoples to solve
+the chief problems of boat building, and after their own fashion to work
+out the art of navigation, which for them has now been set and unchanged
+for thousands of years. They appear to have used the lee-board and
+centre-board in junks and sanpans, and to have extended their trade to
+India and even beyond, centuries before anything like maritime
+enterprise is heard of in the north of Europe.
+
+As regards the practice of long boat racing on rivers or tidal waters
+the Chinese are easily antecedent in time to the rest of the world. On
+great festivals in certain places the Dragon boat race forms part of the
+ceremony. The Dragon boats are just over 73 ft. long, with 4 ft. beam,
+and depth 21 in. The rowing or paddling space is about 63 ft. and the
+number of thwarts 27, thus giving exactly the same number of rowers as
+that of the Zygites in the Greek trireme. The two extremities of the
+boat are much cambered and rise to about 2 ft. above the water. At about
+15 ft. from each end the single plank gives place to three, so as to
+offer a concave surface to the water. The paddle blade is spade-like in
+form and about 6½ in. broad.
+
+Both in Siam and Burma there is a very large river population, and boat
+racing is on festival days a common amusement. The typical craft,
+however, is the Duck-boat, which in the shape of hull is in direct
+contrast to the dug-out form, and primarily intended for sailing. It is
+interesting to note that the Siamese method of slinging and using
+quarter rudders is the oldest used by men in sailing craft, being in
+fact the earliest development from the simple paddle rudder, which has
+in all ages been the first method of steering boats. The king of Siam's
+state barge, we are told, is steered by long paddles, precisely in the
+same way as is figured in the case of the Egyptian boats of the 3rd
+dynasty (6000 B.C.). On the other hand the slung quarter rudders are the
+same in fashion as those used by Roman and Greek merchantmen, by
+Norsemen and Anglo-Saxons, and by medieval seamen down to about the 14th
+century.
+
+The Malays have generally the credit of being expert boat-builders, but
+the local conditions are not such as to favour the construction of a
+good type of boat. "Small displacement, hollow lines, V-shaped sections,
+shallow draught and lack of beam" result in want of stability and
+weatherliness. But it is among them that the ancient process of dug-out
+building still survives and flourishes, preserving all the primitive and
+ingenious methods of hollowing the tree trunk, of forcing its sides
+outwards, and in many cases building them up with added planks, so that
+from the dug-out a regular boat is formed, with increased though limited
+carrying power, increased though still hardly sufficient stability.
+
+To ensure this last very necessary quality many devices and contrivances
+are resorted to.
+
+In some cases (just as Ulysses is described as doing by Homer, _Od_. v.
+256) the boatman fastens bundles of reeds or of bamboos all along the
+sides of his boat. These being very buoyant not only act as a defence
+against the wash of the waves, but are sufficient to keep the boat
+afloat in any sea.
+
+But the most characteristic device is the outrigger, a piece of floating
+wood sharpened at both ends, which is fixed parallel to the longer axis
+of the boat, at a distance of two or three beams, by two or more poles
+laid at right angles to it. This, while not interfering materially with
+the speed of the boat, acts as a counterpoise to any pressure on it
+which would tend, owing to its lack of stability, to upset it, and makes
+it possible for the long narrow dug-out to face even the open sea. It is
+remarkable that this invention, which must have been seen by the
+Egyptians and Phoenicians in very early times, was not introduced by
+them into the Mediterranean. Possibly this was owing to the lack of
+large timber suitable for dug-outs, and the consequent evolution by them
+of boat from raft, with sufficient beam to rely upon for stability.
+
+On the other hand in the boats of India the influence of Egyptian and
+Arab types of build is apparent, and the dinghy of the Hugli is cited
+as being in form strangely like the ancient Egyptian model still
+preserved in the Ghizeh museum. Coming westward the dominant type of
+build is that of the Arab _dhow_, the boat class of which has all the
+characteristics of the larger vessel developed from it, plenty of beam,
+overhanging stem and transom stern. The planking of the shell over the
+wooden frame has a double thickness which conduces to dryness and
+durability in the craft.
+
+On the Nile it is interesting to find the _naggar_ preserving, in its
+construction out of blocks of acacia wood pinned together, the old-world
+fashion of building described by Herodotus. The _gaiassa_ and _dahabiah_
+are too large to be classed as boats, but they and their smaller sisters
+follow the Arab type in build and rig.
+
+It is noteworthy that nothing apparently of the ancient Egyptian or
+classical methods of build survives in the Mediterranean, while the
+records of the development of boat-building in the middle ages are
+meagre and confusing. The best illustrations of ancient methods of
+construction, and of ancient seamanship, are to be found, if anywhere,
+in the East, that conservative storehouse of types and fashions, to
+which they were either communicated, or from which they were borrowed,
+by Egyptians or Phoenicians, from whom they were afterwards copied by
+Greeks and Romans.
+
+In the Mediterranean the chief characteristics of the types belonging to
+it are "carvel-build, high bow, round stern and deep rudder hung on
+stern post outside the vessel."
+
+In the eastern basin the long-bowed wide-sterned _caique_ of the
+Bosporus is perhaps the type of boat best known, but both Greek and
+Italian waters abound with an unnumbered variety of boats of "beautiful
+lines and great carrying power." In the Adriatic, the Venetian gondola,
+and the light craft generally, are of the type developed from the raft,
+flat-bottomed, and capable of navigating shallow waters with minimum of
+draught and maximum of load.
+
+In the western basin the majority of the smaller vessels are of the
+sharp-sterned build. Upon the boats of the _felucca_ class, long vessels
+with easy lines and low free-board, suitable for rowing as well as
+sailing, the influence of the long galley of the middle ages was
+apparent. In Genoese waters at the beginning of the 19th century there
+were single-decked rowing vessels, which preserved the name of galley,
+and were said to be the descendants of the Liburnians that defeated the
+many-banked vessels of Antonius at Actium. But the introduction of steam
+vessels has already relegated into obscurity these memorials of the
+past.
+
+Along the Riviera and the Spanish coast a type of boat is noticeable
+which is peculiar for the inward curve of both stem and stern from a
+keel which has considerable camber, enabling them to be beached in a
+heavy surf.
+
+On the Douro, in Portugal, it is said that the boats which may be seen
+laden with casks of wine, trailing behind them an enormously long
+steering paddle, are of Phoenician ancestry, and that the curious signs,
+which many of them have painted on the cross board over the cabin, are
+of Semitic origin though now undecipherable.
+
+Coming to the northern waters, as with men, so with boats, we meet with
+a totally different type. Instead of the smooth exterior of the
+carvel-build, we have the more rugged form of clinker-built craft with
+great beam, and raking sterns and stems, and a wide flare forward. In
+the most northern waters the strakes of the sea-going boats are wide and
+of considerable thickness, of oak or fir, often compacted with wooden
+trenails, strong and fit to do battle with the rough seas and rough
+usage which they have to endure.
+
+In most of these the origin of form and character is to be sought for in
+the old Viking vessels or long _keeles_ of the 5th century A.D., with
+curved and elevated stem and stern posts, and without decks or, at the
+most, half decked.
+
+In the Baltic and the North Sea most of the fishing boats follow this
+type, with, however, considerable variety in details. It is noticeable
+that here also, as in other parts of the world, and at other times, the
+pressing demand for speed and carrying power has increased the size in
+almost all classes of boats till they pass into the category of ships.
+At the same time the carvel-build is becoming more common, while, in the
+struggle for life, steam and motor power are threatening to obliterate
+the old types of rowing and sailing boats altogether.
+
+Next to the Norse skiff and its descendants, perhaps the oldest type of
+boat in northern waters is to be found in Holland, where the conditions
+of navigation have hardly altered for centuries. It is to the Dutch that
+we chiefly owe the original of our pleasure craft, but, though we have
+developed these enormously, the Dutch boats have remained pretty much
+the same. The clinker-build and the wide rounded bow are now very much
+of the same character as they are represented in the old pictures of the
+17th and 18th centuries.
+
+The development of boat-building in the British Isles during the 19th
+century has been unceasing and would need a treatise to itself to do it
+justice. The expansion of the fishing industry and the pressure of
+competition have stimulated constant improvement in the craft engaged,
+and here also are observable the same tendencies to substitute carvel,
+though it is more expensive, for clinker build, and to increase the
+length and size of the boats, and the gradual supersession of sail and
+oar by steam power. Under these influences we hear of the _fifie_ and
+the _skaffie_ classes, old favourites in northern waters, being
+superseded by the more modern _Zulu_, which is supposed to unite the
+good qualities of both; and these in turn running to such a size as to
+take them outside the category of boats. But even in the case of smaller
+boats the _Zulu_ model is widely followed, so that they have actually
+been imported to the Irish coast for the use of the crofter fishermen in
+the congested districts.
+
+For the Shetland _sexern_ and the broad boats of the Orkneys, and the
+_nabbies_ of the west coast of Scotland, the curious will do well to
+refer to H. Warington Smyth's most excellent account.
+
+On the eastern coast of England the influence of the Dutch type of build
+is manifest in many of the flat-bottomed and mostly round-ended craft,
+such as the Yorkshire _Billyboy_, and partly in the _coble_, which
+latter is interesting as built for launching off beaches against heavy
+seas, and as containing relics of Norse influence, though in the main of
+Dutch origin.
+
+The life-boats of the eastern coast are in themselves an admirable class
+of boat, with fine lines, great length, and shallow draught, wonderful
+in their daring work in foul weather and heavy seas, in which as a rule
+their services are required. Here, however, as in the fishing boats, the
+size is increasing, and steam is appropriating to itself the provinces
+of the sail and the oar.
+
+The wherry of the Norfolk Broads has a type of its own, and is often
+fitted out as a pleasure boat. It is safe and comfortable for inland
+waters, but not the sort of boat to live in a sea-way in anything but
+good weather.
+
+The Thames and its estuary rejoice in a great variety of boats, of which
+the old _Peter_ boat (so called after the legend of the foundation of
+the abbey on Thorney Island) preserved a very ancient type of build,
+shorter and broader than the old Thames pleasure wherry. But these and
+the old _hatch_ boat have now almost disappeared. Possibly survivors may
+still be seen on the upper part of the tidal river. Round the English
+coast from the mouth of the Thames southwards the conditions of landing
+and of hauling up boats above high-water mark affect the type, demanding
+strong clinker-build and stout timbers. Hence there is a strong family
+resemblance in most of the short boats in use from the North Foreland
+round to Brighton. Among these are the life-boats of Deal and the other
+Channel ports, which have done and are still doing heroic work in saving
+life from wrecks upon the Goodwins and the other dangerous shoals that
+beset the narrowing sleeve of the English Channel.
+
+Farther down, along the southern coast, and to the west, where harbours
+are more frequent, a finer and deeper class of boats, chiefly of
+carvel-build, is to be found. The Cornish ports are the home of a great
+boat-building industry, and from them a large number of the finest
+fishing boats in the world are turned out annually. Most of them are
+built with stem and stern alike, with full and bold quarters, and ample
+floor.
+
+It is not possible here to enumerate, much less to describe in detail,
+the variety of types in sea-going boats which have been elaborated in
+England and in America. For this purpose reference should be made to the
+list of works given at the end of the article.
+
+The following is a list of the boats at present used in the royal navy.
+They have all of them a deep fore foot, and with the exception of the
+whalers and Berthon boats, upright stems and transom sterns. The whalers
+have a raking stem and a sharp stern, and a certain amount of sheer in
+the bows.
+
+                                            Length.   Beam.    Depth.
+                                             Feet.   Ft. In.  Ft. In.
+  1a. Dinghy. Freeboard about 9 in.
+        Weight 3 cwt. 2 qr. Between
+        thwarts 2 ft. 9 in. Elm.              13½     4' 8"    2' 2"
+  1b. Skiff dinghy for torpedo boats.
+        Freeboard about 9 in. Carry about
+        ten men in moderate weather.
+        Between thwarts 2 ft. 7½ in.
+        Weight 3 cwt. 4 lb. Yellow pine.      16      4' 6"    1' 10"
+  2a. Whaler for destroyers. 5 in. sheer.
+        Yellow pine.                          25      5' 6"    2'
+  2b. Whaler. Between thwarts 2 ft. 10 in.
+        Freeboard about 12 in. Weight,
+        8 cwt. Strakes No. 13. Lap
+        ¾ in. Elm.                            27      5' 6"    2' 2"
+    (All have bilge strakes with hand-holes.)
+  3. Gig. Between thwarts 2 ft. 9½ in.
+       Weight 8 cwt. 2 qr. 15 lb. 13
+       Strakes. Elm.                          30      5' 6"    2' 2"
+  4. Cutter. Between thwarts 3 ft. 1 in.
+       To carry 49 men. Carvel built.         30      8' 1"    2' 8½"
+  5. Pinnace. Between thwarts 3 ft.
+       Carvel-built. Elm.                     36     10' 2"    3' 5"
+  6. Launch. Between thwarts 3 ft. 1 in.
+       To carry 140 men. Double skin
+       diagonal. Teak.                        42     11' 6"    4' 6"
+  7. Berthon collapsible boats weighing
+       7 cwt. for destroyers.
+
+With the exception of the larger classes, viz. cutters, pinnaces and
+launches, the V-shape of bottom is still preserved, which does not tend
+to stability, and it is difficult to see why the smaller classes have
+not followed the improvement made in their larger sisters.
+
+
+  Pleasure boats and racing.
+
+Though the number and variety of sea-going boats is of much greater
+importance, no account of boats in general would be complete without
+reference to the development of pleasure craft upon rivers and inland
+waters, especially in England, during the past century. There is a
+legend, dating from Saxon times, which tells of King Edgar the Peaceable
+being rowed on the Dee from his palace in Chester to the church of St
+John, by eight kings, himself the ninth, steering this ancient 8-oar;
+but not much is heard of rowing in England until 1453, when John Norman,
+lord mayor of London, set the example of going by water to Westminster,
+which, we are told, made him popular with the watermen of his day, as in
+consequence the use of pleasure boats by the citizens became common.
+Thus it was that the old Thames pleasure wherry, with its high bows and
+low sharp stern and V-shaped section, and the old skiff came into vogue,
+both of which have now given way to boats, mostly of clinker-build, but
+with rounder bottoms and greater depth, safer and more comfortable to
+row in.
+
+In 1715 Thomas Doggett (q.v.) founded a race which is still rowed in
+peculiar sculling boats, straked, and with sides flaring up to the sill
+of the rowlock. Strutt tells us of a regatta in 1775 in which watermen
+contended in pair-oared boats or skiffs.
+
+At the beginning of the 19th century numerous rowing clubs flourished on
+the upper tidal waters of the Thames, and we hear of four-oared races
+from Westminster to Putney, and from Putney to Kew, in what we should
+now consider large and heavy boats, clinker-built, with bluff entry.
+
+Longer boats, 8-oars, and 10-oars, seem to have been existent at the end
+of the 18th century. Eton certainly had one 10-oar, and three 8-oars,
+and two 6-oars, before 1811. The record of 8-oar races at Oxford begins
+in 1815, at Cambridge in 1827. Pair-oar and sculling races in lighter
+boats seem to have come in soon after 1820, and the first Oxford and
+Cambridge eight-oared race was rowed in 1829, in which year also Eton
+and Westminster contended at Putney.
+
+Henley regatta was founded in 1839, and since that date the building of
+racing boats, eights, fours, pairs, and sculling boats, has made great
+progress. The products of the present time are such, in lightness of
+build and swiftness of propulsion, as would have been thought impossible
+between 1810 and 1830.
+
+In the middle of the 19th century the long boats in use were mostly
+clinker-built with a keel. At Oxford the torpids were rowed, as now, in
+clinker-built craft, but the summer races were rowed in carvel-built
+boats, which also had a keel.
+
+In 1855 the first keelless 8-oar made its appearance at Henley, built by
+Mat Taylor for the Royal Chester Rowing Club. The new type was
+constructed on moulds, bottom upwards, a cedar skin bent and fitted on
+to the moulds, and the ribs built in after the boat had been turned
+over.
+
+In 1857 Oxford rowed in a similar boat at Putney, 55 ft. long, 25 in.
+beam. From that time the keelless racing boat has held its own, fours
+and pairs and sculling boats all following suit. But with the
+introduction of sliding seats racing eights have developed in length to
+63 ft. or more, with considerable camber, and a beam of 23-24 in. There
+are, however, still advocates of the shorter type with broader beam, and
+it is noticeable that the Belgian boat that won the Grand Challenge at
+Henley in 1906 did not exceed 60 ft. The boat in which Oxford won the
+University race in 1901 was 56 ft. long with 27 in. of beam.
+
+In sculling boats the acceptance of the Australian type of build has led
+to the construction of a much shorter boat with broader beam than that
+which was in vogue twenty years ago. The same tendency has not shown
+itself so pronouncedly in pair oars, but will no doubt be manifest in
+time as the build improves. In fact we may expect the controversy
+between long and short racing boats, and the proper method of propelling
+them respectively, to be carried a step farther. The tendency, with the
+long slide, and long type of boat, is to try to avoid "pinch" by
+adopting the scullers' method of easy beginning, and strong drive with
+the legs, and sharp finish to follow, but it remains to be seen whether
+superior pace is not to be obtained in a shorter boat by sharp beginning
+at a reasonable angle to the boat's side, and a continuous drive right
+out to the finish of the stroke.
+
+Appended is a list of pleasure boats in use (1909) on the Thames, with
+their measurements (in feet and inches).
+
+    Class of Boat.       Length.         Beam.           Depth.
+
+  Racing eight          56' to 63'    23" to 27"      9" to 10"
+  Clinker eight         56' to 60'    24" to 27"      9" to 10"
+  Clinker four          38' to 42'    23" to 24"      8" to 9"
+  Tub fours             30' to 32'    3'8"-3'10"      13" from keel to
+                                                        top of stem
+  Outrigger pair        30' to 34'    14" to 16"      7" to 8"
+  Outrigger sculls      25' to 30'    10" to 13"      5½" to 6"
+  Coaching gigs         26' to 28'    3' to 3'4"      10½" to 14"
+  Skiffs (Thames)       24' to 26'    3'9" to 4'      12"
+  Skiffs (Eton)         27'           2'3"            9½"
+  Gigs (pleasure)       24' to 36'    4'              15" to 16"
+  Randans               27' to 30'    4' to 4'6"      13" from keel to
+                                                        top of stem
+  Whiffs                20' to 23'    1'4" to 1'6"    6" from keel to
+                                                        top of stem
+  Whiff Gigs            19' to 20'    2'8" to 2'10"   12" over all
+  Punts racers          30' to 34'    1'3" to 1'6"    6" to 7"
+    "   semi racers     28' to 30'    2'              9" to 10½"
+    "   pleasure        26' to 28'    2'9" to 3'      12" to 13"
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For ancient boats: _Dict. Ant._, "Navis"; C. Torr,
+  _Ancient Ships_; Smith, _Voyage and Shipwreck of St Paul_; Graser, _De
+  re navali_; Breusing, _Die Nautik der Alten_; Contre-amiral Serre, _La
+  Marine des anciens_; Jules Var, _L'Art nautique dans l'antiquité_.
+  Medieval: Jal, _Archéologie navale_, and _Glossaire nautique_; Marquis
+  de Folin, _Bateaux et navires, progrès de la construction navale_;
+  W.S. Lindsay, _History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce_.
+  Modern: H. Warington Smyth, _Mast and Sail in Europe and Asia_; Dixon
+  Kempe, _Manual of Yacht and Boat Sailing_; H.C. Folkhard, _The Sailing
+  Boat_; F.G. Aflato, _The Sea Fishing Industry of England and Wales_;
+  R.C. Leslie, _Old Sea Wings_, &c.     (E. Wa.)
+
+
+
+
+BOATSWAIN (pronounced "bo'sun"; derived from "boat" and "swain," a
+servant), the warrant officer of the navy who in sailing-ships had
+particular charge of the boats, sails, rigging, colours, anchors and
+cordage. He superintended the rigging of the ship in dock, and it was
+his duty to summon the crew to work by a whistle. The office still
+remains, though with functions modified by the introduction of steam. In
+a merchant ship the boatswain is the foreman of the crew and is
+sometimes also third or fourth mate.
+
+
+
+
+BOBBILI, a town of British India, in the Vizagapatam district of Madras,
+70 m. north of Vizagapatam town. Pop. (1901) 17,387. It is the residence
+of a raja of old family, whose estate covers an area of 227 sq. m.;
+estimated income, £40,000; permanent land revenue, £9000.
+
+The attack on the fort at Bobbili made by General Bussy in 1756 is one
+of the most memorable episodes in Indian history. There was a constant
+feud between the chief of Bobbili and the raja of Vizianagram; and when
+Bussy marched to restore order the raja persuaded him that the fault lay
+with the chief of Bobbili and joined the French with 11,000 men against
+his rival. In spite of the fact that the French field-pieces at once
+made practicable breaches in the mud walls of the fort, the defenders
+held out with desperate valour. Two assaults were repulsed after hours
+of hand-to-hand fighting; and when, after a fresh bombardment, the
+garrison saw that their case was hopeless, they killed their women and
+children, and only succumbed at last to a third assault because every
+man of them was either killed or mortally wounded. An old man, however,
+crept out of a hut with a child, whom he presented to Bussy as the son
+of the dead chief. Three nights later four followers of the chief of
+Bobbili crept into the tent of the raja of Vizianagram and stabbed him
+to death. The child, Chinna Ranga Rao, was invested by Bussy with his
+father's estate, but during his minority it was seized by his uncle.
+After a temporary arrangement of terms with the raja of Vizianagram the
+old feud broke out again, and the Bobbili chief was forced to take
+refuge in the nizam's country. In 1794, however, on the break-up of the
+Vizianagram estate, Chinna Ranga Rao was restored by the British, and in
+1801 a permanent settlement was made with his son. The title of raja was
+recognized as hereditary in the family; that of maharaja was conferred
+as a personal distinction on Sir Venkataswetachalapati Ranga Rao,
+K.C.I.E., the adopted great-great-grandson of Chinna Ranga Rao.
+
+  For the siege see _Imp. Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908), s.v.
+  "Bobbili Estate."
+
+
+
+
+BOBBIO, a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
+Pavia, 32½ m. S.W. of Piacenza by road. Pop. (1901) 4848. Its most
+important building is the church dedicated to St Columban, who became
+first abbot of Bobbio in 595 or 612, and died there in 615. It was
+erected in Lombard style in the 11th or 12th century (to which period
+the campanile belongs) and restored in the 13th. The cathedral is also
+interesting. Bobbio was especially famous for the manuscripts which
+belonged to the monastery of St Columban, and are now dispersed, the
+greater part being in the Vatican library at Rome, and others at Milan
+and Turin. The cathedral archives contain documents of the 10th and 11th
+centuries.
+
+  See M. Stokes, _Six Months in the Apennines_ (London, 1892), 154 seq.;
+  C. Cipolla, in _L'Arte_ (1904), 241.
+
+
+
+
+BOBER, a river of Germany, the most considerable of the left bank
+tributaries of the Oder; it rises at an altitude of 2440 ft., on the
+northern (Silesian) side of the Riesengebirge. In its upper course it
+traverses a higher plateau, whence, after passing the town of Landeshut,
+it descends through a narrow and fertile valley to Kupferberg. Here its
+romantic middle course begins, and after dashing through a deep ravine
+between the towns of Hirschberg and Löwenberg, it gains the plain. In
+its lower course it meanders through pleasant pastures, bogland and pine
+forests in succession, receives the waters of various mountain streams,
+passes close by Bunzlau and through Sagan, and finally, after a course
+of 160 m., joins the Oder at Crossen. Swollen by the melting of the
+winter snows and by heavy rains in the mountains, it is frequently a
+torrent, and is thus, except in the last few miles, unnavigable for
+either boats or rafts.
+
+
+
+
+BOBRUISK, a town and formerly a first-class fortress of Russia, in the
+government of Minsk, and 100 m. by rail S.E. of the town of Minsk, in
+53° 15' N. lat. and 28° 52' E. long., on the right bank of the Berezina
+river, and on the railway from Libau and Vilna to Ekaterinoslav. Pop.
+(1860) 23,761; (1897) 35,177, of whom one-half were Jews. In the reign
+of Alexander I. there was erected here, at the confluence of the
+Bobruiska with the Berezina, nearly a mile from the town, a fort, which
+successfully withstood a bombardment by Napoleon in 1812, and was made
+equal to the best in Europe by the emperor Nicholas I. It was demolished
+in 1897, the defences being antiquated. The town has a military hospital
+and a departmental college. There are ironworks and flour-mills; and
+corn and timber are shipped to Libau. The town was half burnt down in
+1902.
+
+
+
+
+BOCAGE, MANUEL MARIA BARBOSA DE (1765-1805), Portuguese poet, was a
+native of Setubal. His father had held important judicial and
+administrative appointments, and his mother, from whom he took his last
+surname, was the daughter of a Portuguese vice-admiral of French birth
+who had fought at the battle of Matapan. Bocage began to make verses in
+infancy, and being somewhat of a prodigy grew up to be flattered,
+self-conscious and unstable. At the age of fourteen, he suddenly left
+school and joined the 7th infantry regiment; but tiring of garrison life
+at Setubal after two years, he decided to enter the navy. He proceeded
+to the royal marine academy in Lisbon, but instead of studying he
+pursued love adventures, and for the next five years burnt incense on
+many altars, while his retentive memory and extraordinary talent for
+improvisation gained him a host of admirers and turned his head. The
+Brazilian _modinhas_, little rhymed poems sung to a guitar at family
+parties, were then in great vogue, and Bocage added to his fame by
+writing a number of these, by his skill in extemporizing verses on a
+given theme, and by allegorical idyllic pieces, the subjects of which
+are similar to those of Watteau's and Boucher's pictures. In 1786 he was
+appointed _guardamarinha_ in the Indian navy, and he reached Goa by way
+of Brazil in October. There he came into an ignorant society full of
+petty intrigue, where his particular talents found no scope to display
+themselves; the glamour of the East left him unmoved and the climate
+brought on a serious illness. In these circumstances he compared the
+heroic traditions of Portugal in Asia, which had induced him to leave
+home, with the reality, and wrote his satirical sonnets on "The
+Decadence of the Portuguese Empire in Asia," and those addressed to
+Affonso de Albuquerque and D. João de Castro. The irritation caused by
+these satires, together with rivalries in love affairs, made it
+advisable for him to leave Goa, and early in 1789 he obtained the post
+of lieutenant of the infantry company at Damaun; but he promptly
+deserted and made his way to Macao, where he arrived in July-August.
+According to a modern tradition much of the _Lusiads_ had been written
+there, and Bocage probably travelled to China under the influence of
+Camoens, to whose life and misfortunes he loved to compare his own.
+Though he escaped the penalty of his desertion, he had no resources and
+lived on friends, whose help enabled him to return to Lisbon in the
+middle of the following year.
+
+Once back in Portugal he found his old popularity, and resumed his
+vagabond existence. The age was one of reaction against the Pombaline
+reforms, and the famous intendant of police, Manique, in his
+determination to keep out French revolutionary and atheistic propaganda,
+forbade the importation of foreign classics and the discussion of all
+liberal ideas. Hence the only vehicle of expression left was satire,
+which Bocage employed with an unsparing hand. His poverty compelled him
+to eat and sleep with friends like the turbulent friar José Agostinho de
+Macedo (q.v.), and he soon fell under suspicion with Manique. He became
+a member of the New Arcadia, a literary society founded in 1790, under
+the name of Elmano Sadino, but left it three years later. Though
+including in its ranks most of the poets of the time, the New Arcadia
+produced little of real merit, and before long its adherents became
+enemies and descended to an angry warfare of words. But Bocage's
+reputation among the general public and with foreign travellers grew
+year by year. Beckford, the author of _Vathek_, for instance, describes
+him as "a pale, limber, odd-looking young man, the queerest but perhaps
+the most original of God's poetical creatures. This strange and
+versatile character may be said to possess the true wand of enchantment
+which at the will of its master either animates or petrifies." In 1797
+enemies of Bocage belonging to the New Arcadia delated him to Manique,
+who on the pretext afforded by some anti-religious verses, the _Epistola
+á Marilia_, and by his loose life, arrested him when he was about to
+flee the country and lodged him in the Limoeiro, where he spent his
+thirty-second birthday. His sufferings induced him to a speedy
+recantation, and after much importuning of friends, he obtained his
+transfer in November from the state prison to that of the Inquisition,
+then a mild tribunal, and shortly afterwards recovered his liberty. He
+returned to his bohemian life and subsisted by writing empty _Elogios
+Dramaticos_ for the theatres, printing volumes of verses and translating
+the didactic poems of Delille, Castel and others, some second-rate
+French plays and Ovid's _Metamorphoses_. These resources and the help of
+brother Freemasons just enabled him to exist, and a purifying influence
+came into his life in the shape of a real affection for the two
+beautiful daughters of D. Antonio Bersane Leite, which drew from him
+verses of true feeling mixed with regrets for the past. He would have
+married the younger lady, D. Anna Perpetua (Analia), but excesses had
+ruined his health. In 1801 his poetical rivalry with Macedo became more
+acute and personal, and ended by drawing from Bocage a stinging
+extempore poem, _Pena de Talião_, which remains a monument to his powers
+of invective. In 1804 the malady from which he suffered increased, and
+the approach of death inspired some beautiful sonnets, including one
+directed to D. Maria (_Marcia_), elder sister of Analia, who visited and
+consoled him. He became reconciled to his enemies, and breathed his last
+on the 21st of December 1805. His end recalled that of Camoens, for he
+expired in poverty on the eve of the French invasion, while the singer
+of the _Lusiads_ just failed to see the occupation of Portugal by the
+duke of Alva's army. The gulf that divides the life and achievements of
+these two poets is accounted for, less by difference of talent and
+temperament than by their environment, and it gives an accurate measure
+of the decline of Portugal in the two centuries that separate 1580 from
+1805.
+
+To Beckford, Bocage was "a powerful genius," and Link was struck by his
+nervous expression, harmonious versification and the fire of his poetry.
+He employed every variety of lyric and made his mark in all. His
+roundels are good, his epigrams witty, his satires rigorous and
+searching, his odes often full of nobility, but his fame must rest on
+his sonnets, which almost rival those of Camoens in power, elevation of
+thought and tender melancholy, though they lack the latter's scholarly
+refinement of phrasing. So dazzled were contemporary critics by his
+brilliant and inspired extemporizations that they ignored Bocage's
+licentiousness, and overlooked the slightness of his creative output and
+the artificial character of most of his poetry. In 1871 a monument was
+erected to the poet in the chief square of Setubal, and the centenary of
+his death was kept there with much circumstance in 1905.
+
+  The best editions of his collected works are those of I.F. da Silva,
+  with a biographical and literary study by Rebello da Silva, in 6 vols.
+  (Lisbon, 1853), and of Dr Theophilo Braga, in 8 vols. (Oporto,
+  1875-1876). See also I.F. da Silva _Diccionario Bibliographico
+  Portuguez_, vol. vi. pp. 45-53, and vol. xvi. pp. 260-264; Dr T.
+  Braga, _Bocage, sua vida e epoca litteraria_ (Oporto, 1902). A
+  striking portrait of Bocage by H.J. da Silva was engraved by
+  Bartolozzi, who spent his last years in Lisbon.     (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+BOCAGE (from O. Fr. _boscage_, Late Lat. _boscum_, a wood), a French
+topographical term applied to several regions of France, the commonest
+characteristics of which are a granite formation and an undulating or
+hilly surface, consisting largely of heath or reclaimed land, and dotted
+with clumps of trees. The most important districts designated by the
+word are (1) the Bocage of Normandy, which comprises portions of the
+departments of Calvados, Manche and Orne; (2) the Bocage of Vendée,
+situated in the departments of Vendée, Deux-Sèvres, Maine-et-Loire, and
+Loire-Inférieure.
+
+
+
+
+BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI (1313-1375), Italian author, whose _Decameron_ is
+one of the classics of literature, was born in 1313, as we know from a
+letter of Petrarch, in which that poet, who was born in 1304, calls
+himself the senior of his friend by nine years. The place of his birth
+is somewhat doubtful--Florence, Paris and Certaldo being all mentioned
+by various writers as his native city. Boccaccio undoubtedly calls
+himself a Florentine, but this may refer merely to the Florentine
+citizenship acquired by his grandfather. The claim of Paris has been
+supported by Baldelli and Tiraboschi, mainly on the ground that his
+mother was a lady of good family in that city, where she met Boccaccio's
+father. There is a good deal in favour of Certaldo, a small town or
+castle in the valley of the Elsa, 20 m. from Florence, where the family
+had some property, and where the poet spent much of the latter part of
+his life. He always signed his name Boccaccio da Certaldo, and named
+that town as his birthplace in his own epitaph. Petrarch calls his
+friend Certaldese; and Filippo Villani, a contemporary, distinctly says
+that Boccaccio was born in Certaldo.
+
+Boccaccio, an illegitimate son, as is put beyond dispute by the fact
+that a special licence had to be obtained when he desired to become a
+priest, was brought up with tender care by his father, who seems to have
+been a merchant of respectable rank. His elementary education he
+received from Giovanni da Strada, an esteemed teacher of grammar in
+Florence. But at an early age he was apprenticed to an eminent merchant,
+with whom he remained for six years, a time entirely lost to him, if we
+may believe his own statement. For from his tenderest years his soul was
+attached to that "_alma poesis_," which, on his tombstone, he names as
+the task and study of his life. In one of his works he relates that, in
+his seventh year, before he had ever seen a book of poetry or learned
+the rules of metrical composition, he began to write verse in his
+childish fashion, and earned for himself amongst his friends the name of
+"the poet." It is uncertain where Boccaccio passed these six years of
+bondage; most likely he followed his master to various centres of
+commerce in Italy and France. We know at least that he was in Naples and
+Paris for some time, and the youthful impressions received in the latter
+city, as well as the knowledge of the French language acquired there,
+were of considerable influence on his later career. Yielding at last to
+his son's immutable aversion to commerce, the elder Boccaccio permitted
+him to adopt a course of study somewhat more congenial to the literary
+tastes of the young man. He was sent to a celebrated professor of canon
+law, at that time an important field of action both to the student and
+the practical jurist. According to some accounts--far from authentic, it
+is true--this professor was Cino da Pistoia, the friend of Dante, and
+himself a celebrated poet and scholar. But, whoever he may have been,
+Boccaccio's master was unable to inspire his pupil with scientific
+ardour. "Again," Boccaccio says, "I lost nearly six years. And so
+nauseous was this study to my mind, that neither the teaching of my
+master, nor the authority and command of my father, nor yet the
+exertions and reproof of my friends, could make me take to it, for my
+love of poetry was invincible."
+
+About 1333 Boccaccio settled for some years at Naples, apparently sent
+there by his father to resume his mercantile pursuits, the canon law
+being finally abandoned. The place, it must be confessed, was little
+adapted to lead to a practical view of life one in whose heart the love
+of poetry was firmly rooted. The court of King Robert of Anjou at Naples
+was frequented by many Italian and French men of letters, the great
+Petrarch amongst the number. At the latter's public examination in the
+noble science of poetry by the king, previous to his receiving the
+laurel crown at Rome, Boccaccio was present,--without, however, making
+his personal acquaintance at this period. In the atmosphere of this gay
+court, enlivened and adorned by the wit of men and the beauty of women,
+Boccaccio lived for several years. We can imagine how the tedious duties
+of the market and the counting-house became more and more distasteful
+to his aspiring nature. We are told that, finding himself by chance on
+the supposed grave of Virgil, near Naples, Boccaccio on that sacred spot
+took the firm resolution of devoting himself for ever to poetry. But
+perhaps another event, which happened some time after, led quite as much
+as the first-mentioned occurrence to this decisive turning-point in his
+life. On Easter-eve, 1341, in the church of San Lorenzo, Boccaccio saw
+for the first time the natural daughter of King Robert, Maria, whom he
+immortalized as Fiammetta in the noblest creations of his muse.
+Boccaccio's passion on seeing her was instantaneous, and (if we may
+accept as genuine the confessions contained in one of her lover's works)
+was returned with equal ardour on the part of the lady. But not till
+after much delay did she yield to the amorous demands of the poet, in
+spite of her honour and her duty as the wife of another. All the
+information we have with regard to Maria or Fiammetta is derived from
+the works of Boccaccio himself, and owing to several apparently
+contradictory statements occurring in these works, the very existence of
+the lady has been doubted by commentators, who seem to forget that,
+surrounded by the chattering tongues of a court, and watched perhaps by
+a jealous husband, Boccaccio had all possible reason to give the
+appearance of fictitious incongruity to the effusions of his real
+passion. But there seems no more reason to call into question the main
+features of the story, or even the identity of the person, than there
+would be in the case of Petrarch's Laura or of Dante's Beatrice. It has
+been ingeniously pointed out by Baldelli, that the fact of her descent
+from King Robert being known only to Maria herself, and through her to
+Boccaccio, the latter was the more at liberty to refer to this
+circumstance,--the bold expression of the truth serving in this case to
+increase the mystery with which the poets of the middle ages loved, or
+were obliged, to surround the objects of their praise. From Boccaccio's
+_Ameto_ we learn that Maria's mother was, like his own, a French lady,
+whose husband, according to Baldelli's ingenious conjecture, was of the
+noble house of Aquino, and therefore of the same family with the
+celebrated Thomas Aquinas. Maria died, according to his account, long
+before her lover, who cherished her memory to the end of his life, as we
+see from a sonnet written shortly before his death.
+
+The first work of Boccaccio, composed by him at Fiammetta's command, was
+the prose tale, _Filocopo_, describing the romantic love and adventures
+of Florio and Biancafiore, a favourite subject with the knightly
+minstrels of France, Italy and Germany. The treatment of the story by
+Boccaccio is not remarkable for originality or beauty, and the narrative
+is encumbered by classical allusions and allegorical conceits. The style
+also cannot be held worthy of the future great master of Italian prose.
+Considering, however, that this prose was in its infancy, and that this
+was Boccaccio's first attempt at remoulding the unwieldy material at his
+disposal, it would be unjust to deny that _Filocopo_ is a highly
+interesting work, full of promise and all but articulate power. Another
+work, written about the same time by Fiammetta's desire and dedicated to
+her, is the _Teseide_, an epic poem, and indeed the first heroic epic in
+the Italian language. The name is chosen somewhat inappropriately, as
+King Theseus plays a secondary part, and the interest of the story
+centres in the two noble knights, Palemone and Arcito, and their wooing
+of the beautiful Emelia. The _Teseide_ is of particular interest to the
+student of poetry, because it exhibits the first example of the _ottava
+rima_, a metre which was adopted by Tasso and Ariosto, and in English by
+Byron in _Don Juan_. Another link between Boccaccio's epic and English
+literature is formed by the fact of Chaucer having in the _Knight's
+Tale_ adopted its main features.
+
+Boccaccio's poetry has been severely criticized by his countrymen, and
+most severely by the author himself. On reading Petrarch's sonnets,
+Boccaccio resolved in a fit of despair to burn his own attempts, and
+only the kindly encouragement of his great friend prevented the
+holocaust. Posterity has justly differed from the author's sweeping
+self-criticism. It is true, that compared with Dante's grandeur and
+passion, and with Petrarch's absolute mastership of metre and language,
+Boccaccio's poetry seems to be somewhat thrown into shade. His verse is
+occasionally slip-shod, and particularly his epic poetry lacks what in
+modern parlance is called poetic diction,--the quality, that is, which
+distinguishes the elevated pathos of the recorder of heroic deeds from
+the easy grace of the mere _conteur_. This latter feature, so charmingly
+displayed in Boccaccio's prose, has to some extent proved fatal to his
+verse. At the same time, his narrative is always fluent and interesting,
+and his lyrical pieces, particularly the poetic interludes in the
+_Decameron_, abound with charming gallantry, and frequently rise to
+lyrical pathos.
+
+About the year 1341 Boccaccio returned to Florence by command of his
+father, who in his old age desired the assistance and company of his
+son. Florence, at that time disturbed by civil feuds, and the silent
+gloom of his father's house could not but appear in an unfavourable
+light to one accustomed to the gay life of the Neapolitan court. But
+more than all this, Boccaccio regretted the separation from his beloved
+Fiammetta. The thought of her at once embittered and consoled his
+loneliness. Three of his works owe their existence to this period. With
+all of them Fiammetta is connected; of one of them she alone is the
+subject. The first work, called _Ameto_, describes the civilizing
+influence of love, which subdues the ferocious manners of the savage
+with its gentle power. Fiammetta, although not the heroine of the story,
+is amongst the nymphs who with their tales of true love soften the mind
+of the huntsman. _Ameto_ is written in prose alternating with verse,
+specimens of which form occur in old and middle Latin writings. It is
+more probable, however, that Boccaccio adopted it from that sweetest and
+purest blossom of medieval French literature, _Aucassin et Nicolette_,
+which dates from the 13th century, and was undoubtedly known to him. So
+pleased was Boccaccio with the idea embodied in the character of _Ameto_
+that he repeated its essential features in the Cimone of his _Decameron_
+(Day 5th, tale i.). The second work referred to is a poem in fifty
+chapters, called _L'amorosa Visione_. It describes a dream in which the
+poet, guided by a lady, sees the heroes and lovers of ancient and
+medieval times. Boccaccio evidently has tried to imitate the celebrated
+_Trionfi_ of Petrarch, but without much success. There is little organic
+development in the poem, which reads like the _catalogue raisonné_ of a
+picture gallery; but it is remarkable from another point of view. It is
+perhaps the most astounding instance in literature of ingenuity wasted
+on trifles; even Edgar Poe, had he known Boccaccio's puzzle, must have
+confessed himself surpassed. For the whole of the _Amorosa Visione_ is
+nothing but an acrostic on a gigantic scale. The poem is written, like
+the _Divina Commedia_, in _terza rima_, and the initial letters of all
+the triplets throughout the work compose three poems of considerable
+length, in the first of which the whole is dedicated to Boccaccio's
+lady-love, this time under her real name of Maria. In addition to this,
+the initial letters of the first, third, fifth, seventh and ninth lines
+of the dedicatory poem form the name of Maria; so that here we have the
+acrostic in the second degree. No wonder that thus entrammelled the
+poet's thought begins to flag and his language to halt. The third
+important work written by Boccaccio during his stay at Florence, or soon
+after his return to Naples, is called _L'amorosa Fiammetta_; and
+although written in prose, it contains more real poetry than the
+elaborate production just referred to. It purports to be Fiammetta's
+complaint after her lover, following the call of filial duty, had
+deserted her. Bitterly she deplores her fate, and upbraids her lover
+with coldness and want of devotion. Jealous fears add to her torture,
+not altogether unfounded, if we believe the commentators' assertion that
+the heroine of _Ameto_ is in reality the beautiful Lucia, a Florentine
+lady loved by Boccaccio. Sadly Fiammetta recalls the moments of former
+bliss, the first meeting, the stolen embrace. Her narrative is indeed
+our chief source of information for the incidents of this strange
+love-story. It has been thought unlikely, and indeed impossible, that
+Boccaccio should thus have become the mouthpiece of a real lady's real
+passion for himself; but there seems nothing incongruous in the
+supposition that after a happy reunion the poet should have heard with
+satisfaction, and surrounded with the halo of ideal art, the story of
+his lady's sufferings. Moreover, the language is too full of individual
+intensity to make the conjecture of an entirely fictitious love affair
+intrinsically probable. _L'amorosa Fiammetta_ is a monody of passion
+sustained even to the verge of dulness, but strikingly real, and
+therefore artistically valuable.
+
+By the intercession of an influential friend, Boccaccio at last obtained
+(in 1344) his father's permission to return to Naples, where in the
+meantime Giovanna, grand-daughter of King Robert, had succeeded to the
+crown. Being young and beautiful, fond of poetry and of the praise of
+poets, she received Boccaccio with all the distinction due to his
+literary fame. For many years she remained his faithful friend, and the
+poet returned her favour with grateful devotion. Even when the charge of
+having instigated, or at least connived at, the murder of her husband
+was but too clearly proved against her, Boccaccio was amongst the few
+who stood by her, and undertook the hopeless task of clearing her name
+from the dreadful stain. It was by her desire, no less than by that of
+Fiammetta, that he composed (between 1344 and 1350) most of the stories
+of his _Decameron_, which afterwards were collected and placed in the
+mouths of the Florentine ladies and gentlemen. During this time he also
+composed the _Filostrato_, a narrative poem, the chief interest of
+which, for the English reader, lies in its connexion with Chaucer. With
+a boldness pardonable only in men of genius, Chaucer adopted the main
+features of the plot, and literally translated parts of Boccaccio's
+work, without so much as mentioning the name of his Italian source.
+
+In 1350 Boccaccio returned to Florence, owing to the death of his
+father, who had made him guardian to his younger brother Jacopo. He was
+received with great distinction, and entered the service of the
+Republic, being at various times sent on important missions to the
+margrave of Brandenburg, and to the courts of several popes, both in
+Avignon and Rome. Boccaccio boasts of the friendly terms on which he had
+been with the great potentates of Europe, the emperor and pope amongst
+the number. But he was never a politician in the sense that Dante and
+Petrarch were. As a man of the world he enjoyed the society of the
+great, but his interest in the internal commotions of the Florentine
+state seems to have been very slight. Besides, he never liked Florence,
+and the expressions used by him regarding his fellow-citizens betray
+anything but patriotic prejudice. In a Latin eclogue he applies to them
+the term "Batrachos" (frogs), by which, he adds parenthetically--_Ego
+intelligo Florentinorum morem; loquacissimi enim sumus, verum in rebus
+bellicis nihil valemus._ The only important result of Boccaccio's
+diplomatic career was his intimacy with Petrarch. The first acquaintance
+of these two great men dates from the year 1350, when Boccaccio, then
+just returned to Florence, did all in his power to make the great poet's
+short stay in that city agreeable. When in the following year the
+Florentines were anxious to draw men of great reputation to their
+newly-founded university, it was again Boccaccio who insisted on the
+claims of Petrarch to the most distinguished position. He himself
+accepted the mission of inviting his friend to Florence, and of
+announcing to Petrarch at the same time that the forfeited estates of
+his family had been restored to him. In this manner an intimate
+friendship grew up between them to be parted only by death. Common
+interests and common literary pursuits were the natural basis of their
+friendship, and both occupy prominent positions in the early history of
+that great intellectual revival commonly called the Renaissance.
+
+During the 14th century the study of ancient literature was at a low ebb
+in Italy. The interest of the lay world was engrossed by political
+struggles, and the treasures of classical history and poetry were at the
+mercy of monks, too lazy or too ignorant to use, or even to preserve
+them. Boccaccio himself told that, on asking to see the library of the
+celebrated monastery of Monte Cassino, he was shown into a dusty room
+without a door to it. Many of the valuable manuscripts were mutilated;
+and his guide told him that the monks were in the habit of tearing
+leaves from the codices to turn them into psalters for children, or
+amulets for women at the price of four or five _soldi_ apiece.
+Boccaccio did all in his power to remove by word and example this
+barbarous indifference. He bought or copied with his own hand numerous
+valuable manuscripts, and an old writer remarks that if Boccaccio had
+been a professional copyist, the amount of his work might astonish us.
+His zealous endeavours for the revival of the all but forgotten Greek
+language in western Europe are well known. The most celebrated Italian
+scholars about the beginning of the 15th century were unable to read the
+Greek characters. Boccaccio deplored the ignorance of his age. He took
+lessons from Leone Pilato, a learned adventurer of the period, who had
+lived a long time in Thessaly and, although born in Calabria, pretended
+to be a Greek. By Boccaccio's advice Leone Pilato was appointed
+professor of Greek language and literature in the university of
+Florence, a position which he held for several years, not without great
+and lasting benefit for the revival of classical learning. Boccaccio was
+justly proud of having been intimately connected with the foundation of
+the first chair of Greek in Italy. But he did not forget, in his
+admiration of classic literature, the great poets of his own country. He
+never tires in his praise of the sublime Dante, whose works he copied
+with his own hand. He conjures his friend Petrarch to study the great
+Florentine, and to defend himself against the charges of wilful
+ignorance and envy brought against him. A life of Dante, and the
+commentaries on the first sixteen cantos of the _Inferno_, bear witness
+to Boccaccio's learning and enthusiasm.
+
+In the chronological enumeration of our author's writings we now come to
+his most important work, the _Decameron_, a collection of one hundred
+stories, published in their combined form in 1353, although mostly
+written at an earlier date. This work marks in a certain sense the rise
+of Italian prose. It is true that Dante's _Vita Nuova_ was written
+before, but its involved sentences, founded essentially on Latin
+constructions, cannot be compared with the infinite suppleness and
+precision of Boccaccio's prose. The _Cento Novelle Antiche_, on the
+other hand, which also precedes the _Decameron_ in date, can hardly be
+said to be written in artistic language according to definite rules of
+grammar and style. Boccaccio for the first time speaks a new idiom,
+flexible and tender, like the character of the nation, and capable of
+rendering all the shades of feeling, from the coarse laugh of cynicism
+to the sigh of hopeless love. It is by the name of "Father of Italian
+Prose" that Boccaccio ought to be chiefly remembered.
+
+Like most progressive movements in art and literature, Boccaccio's
+remoulding of Italian prose may be described as a "return to nature." It
+is indeed the nature of the Italian people itself which has become
+articulate in the _Decameron_; here we find southern grace and elegance,
+together with that unveiled _naïveté_ of impulse which is so striking
+and so amiable a quality of the Italian character. The undesirable
+complement of the last-mentioned feature, a coarseness and indecency of
+conception and expression hardly comprehensible to the northern mind,
+also appears in the _Decameron_, particularly where the life and
+conversation of the lower classes are the subject of the story. At the
+same time, these descriptions of low life are so admirable, and the
+character of popular parlance rendered with such humour, as often to
+make the frown of moral disgust give way to a smile.
+
+It is not surprising that a style so concise and yet so pliable so
+typical and yet so individual, as that of Boccaccio was of enormous
+influence on the further progress of a prose in a manner created by it.
+This influence has indeed prevailed down to the present time, to an
+extent beneficial upon the whole, although frequently fatal to the
+development of individual writers. Novelists like Giovanni Fiorentino or
+Franco Sacchetti are completely under the sway of their great model; and
+Boccaccio's influence may be discerned equally in the plastic fulness of
+Machiavelli and in the pointed satire of Aretino. Without touching upon
+the individual merits of Lasca, Bandello and other novelists of the
+_cinque-cento_, it may be asserted that none of them created a style
+independent of their great predecessor. One cannot indeed but acquiesce
+in the authoritative utterance of the Accademia della Crusca, which
+holds up the _Decameron_ as the standard and model of Italian prose.
+Even the Della Cruscan writers themselves have been unable to deprive
+the language wholly of the fresh spontaneity of Boccaccio's manner,
+which in modern literature we again admire in Manzoni's _Promessi
+sposi_.
+
+A detailed analysis of a work so well known as the _Decameron_ would be
+unnecessary. The description of the plague of Florence preceding the
+stories is universally acknowledged to be a masterpiece of epic grandeur
+and vividness. It ranks with the paintings of similar calamities by
+Thucydides, Defoe and Manzoni. Like Defoe, Boccaccio had to draw largely
+on hearsay and his own imagination, it being almost certain that in 1348
+he was at Naples, and therefore no eye-witness of the scenes he
+describes. The stories themselves, a hundred in number, range from the
+highest pathos to the coarsest licentiousness. A creation like the
+patient Griselda, which international literature owes to Boccaccio,
+ought to atone for much that is morally and artistically objectionable
+in the _Decameron_. It may be said on this head, that his age and his
+country were not only deeply immoral, but in addition exceedingly
+outspoken. Moreover, his sources were anything but pure. Most of his
+improper stories are either anecdotes from real life, or they are taken
+from the _fabliaux_ of medieval French poets. On comparing the latter
+class of stories (about one-fifth of the whole _Decameron_) with their
+French originals, one finds that Boccaccio has never added to, but has
+sometimes toned down the revolting ingredients. Notwithstanding this, it
+cannot be denied that the artistic value of the _Decameron_ is greatly
+impaired by descriptions and expressions, the intentional licentiousness
+of which is but imperfectly veiled by an attempt at humour.
+
+Boccaccio has been accused of plagiarism, particularly by French
+critics, who correctly state that the subjects of many stories in the
+_Decameron_ are borrowed from their literature. A similar objection
+might be raised against Chaucer, Shakespeare, Goethe (in _Faust_), and
+indeed most of the master minds of all nations. Power of invention is
+not the only nor even the chief criterion of a great poet. He takes his
+subjects indiscriminately from his own fancy, or from the consciousness
+of his and other nations. Stories float about in the air, known to all
+yet realized by few; the poet gathers their _disjecta membra_ into an
+organic whole, and this he inspires and calls into life with the breath
+of his genius. It is in this sense that Boccaccio is the creator of
+those innumerable beautiful types and stories, which have since become
+household words amongst civilized nations. No author can equal him in
+these contributions to the store of international literature. There are
+indeed few great poets who have not in some way become indebted to the
+inexhaustible treasure of Boccaccio's creativeness. One of the greatest
+masterpieces of German literature, Lessing's _Nathan the Wise_, contains
+a story from Boccaccio (_Decameron_, Day 1st, tale iii.), and the list
+of English poets who have drawn from the same source comprises, among
+many others, the names of Chaucer, Lydgate, Dryden, Keats and Tennyson.
+
+For ten years Boccaccio continued to reside in Florence, leaving the
+city only occasionally on diplomatic missions or on visits to his
+friends. His fame in the meantime began to spread far and wide, and his
+_Decameron_, in particular, was devoured by the fashionable ladies and
+gentlemen of the age. About 1360 he seems to have retired from the
+turbulent scenes of Florence to his native Certaldo, the secluded charms
+of which he describes with rapture. In the following year took place
+that strange turning-point in Boccaccio's career which is generally
+described as his conversion. It seems that a Carthusian monk came to him
+while at Certaldo charged with a posthumous message from another monk of
+the same order, to the effect that if Boccaccio did not at once abandon
+his godless ways in life and literature his death would ensue after a
+short time. It is also mentioned that the revelation to the friar on his
+deathbed of a secret known only to Boccaccio gave additional import to
+this alarming information. Boccaccio's impressionable nature was deeply
+moved. His life had been far from virtuous; in his writings he had
+frequently sinned against the rules of morality, and worse still, he had
+attacked with bitter satire the institutions and servants of holy mother
+church. Terrified by the approach of immediate death, he resolved to
+sell his library, abandon literature, and devote the remainder of his
+life to penance and religious exercise. To this effect he wrote to
+Petrarch. We possess the poet's answer; it is a masterpiece of writing,
+and what is more, a proof of tenderest friendship. The message of the
+monk Petrarch is evidently inclined to treat simply as pious fraud,
+without, however, actually committing himself to that opinion. "No monk
+is required to tell thee of the shortness and precariousness of human
+life. Of the advice received accept what is good; abandon worldly cares,
+conquer thy passions, and reform thy soul and life of degraded habits.
+But do not give up the studies which are the true food of a healthy
+mind." Boccaccio seems to have acted on this valuable advice. His later
+works, although written in Latin and scientific in character, are by no
+means of a religious kind. It seems, however, that his entering the
+church in 1362 is connected with the events just related.
+
+In 1363 Boccaccio went on a visit to Naples to the seneschal Acciajuoli
+(the same Florentine who had in 1344 persuaded the elder Boccaccio to
+permit his son's return to Naples), who commissioned him to write the
+story of his deeds of valour. On his arrival, however, the poet was
+treated with shameful neglect, and revenged himself by denying the
+possibility of relating any valorous deeds for want of their existence.
+This declaration, it must be confessed, came somewhat late, but it was
+provoked by a silly attack on the poet himself by one of the seneschal's
+indiscreet friends.
+
+During the next ten years Boccaccio led an unsettled life, residing
+chiefly at Florence or Certaldo, but frequently leaving his home on
+visits to Petrarch and other friends, and on various diplomatic errands
+in the service of the Republic. He seems to have been poor, having spent
+large sums in the purchase of books, but his independent spirit rejected
+the numerous splendid offers of hospitality made to him by friends and
+admirers. During this period he wrote four important Latin works--_De
+Genealogia Deorum libri XV._, a compendium of mythological knowledge
+full of deep learning; _De Montium, Silvarum, Lacuum, et Marium
+nominibus liber_, a treatise on ancient geography; and two historical
+books--_De Casibus Virorum et Feminarum Illustrium libri IX._,
+interesting to the English reader as the original of John Lydgate's
+_Fall of Princes_; and _De Claris Mulieribus_. To the list of his works
+ought to be added _Il Ninfale Fiesolano_, a beautiful love-story in
+verse, and _Il Corbaccio ossia Il Laberinto d'Amore_, a coarse satire on
+a Florentine widow who had jilted the poet, written about 1355, not to
+mention many eclogues in Latin and miscellaneous _Rime_ in Italian (the
+latter collected by his biographer Count Baldelli in 1802).
+
+In 1373 we find Boccaccio again settled at Certaldo. Here he was
+attacked by a terrible disease which brought him to the verge of death,
+and from the consequences of which he never quite recovered. But
+sickness could not subdue his intellectual vigour. When the Florentines
+established a chair for the explanation of the _Divina Commedia_ in
+their university, and offered it to Boccaccio, the senescent poet at
+once undertook the arduous duty. He delivered his first lecture on the
+23rd of October 1373. The commentary on part of the _Inferno_, already
+alluded to, bears witness of his unabated power of intellect. In 1374
+the news of the loss of his dearest friend Petrarch reached Boccaccio,
+and from this blow he may be said to have never recovered. Almost his
+dying efforts were devoted to the memory of his friend; urgently he
+entreated Petrarch's son-in-law to arrange the publication of the
+deceased poet's Latin epic _Africa_, a work of which the author had been
+far more proud than of his immortal sonnets to Laura.
+
+In his last will Boccaccio left his library to his father confessor, and
+after his decease to the convent of Santo Spirito in Florence. His small
+property he bequeathed to his brother Jacopo. His own natural children
+had died before him. He himself died on the 21st of December 1375 at
+Certaldo, and was buried in the church of SS. Jacopo e Filippo of that
+town. On his tombstone was engraved the epitaph composed by himself
+shortly before his death. It is calm and dignified, worthy indeed of a
+great life with a great purpose. These are the lines:--
+
+  "Hac sub mole jacent cineres ac ossa Joannis;
+   Mens sedet ante Deum, meritis ornata laborum
+   Mortalis vitae. Genitor Boccaccius illi;
+   Patria Certaldum; studium fuit alma poesis."
+
+  A complete edition of Boccaccio's Italian writings, in 17 vols., was
+  published by Moutier (Florence, 1834). The life of Boccaccio has been
+  written by Tiraboschi, Mazzuchelli, Count Baldelli (_Vita di
+  Boccaccio_, Florence, 1806), and others. In English the best biography
+  is Edward Hutton (1909.) The first printed edition of the _Decameron_
+  is without date, place or printer's name; but it is believed to belong
+  to the year 1469 or 1470, and to have been printed at Florence.
+  Besides this, Baldelli mentions eleven editions during the 15th
+  century. The entire number of editions by far exceeds a hundred. A
+  curious expurgated edition, authorized by the pope, appeared at
+  Florence, 1573. Here, however, the grossest indecencies remain, the
+  chief alteration being the change of the improper personages from
+  priests and monks into laymen. The best old edition is that of
+  Florence, 1527. Of modern reprints, that by Forfoni (Florence, 1857)
+  deserves mention. Manni has written a _Storia del Decamerone_ (1742),
+  and a German scholar, M. Landau, who published (Vienna, 1869) a
+  valuable investigation of the sources of the _Decameron_, subsequently
+  brought out in 1877 a general study of Boccaccio's life and works. An
+  interesting English translation of the _Decameron_ appeared in 1624,
+  under the title _The Model of Mirth, Wit, Eloquence and Conversation_.
+       (F. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BOCCALINI, TRAJANO (1556-1613), Italian satirist, was born at Loretto in
+1556. The son of an architect, he himself adopted that profession, and
+it appears that he commenced late in life to apply to literary pursuits.
+Pursuing his studies at Rome, he had the honour of teaching Bentivoglio,
+and acquired the friendship of the cardinals Gaetano and Borghesi, as
+well as of other distinguished personages. By their influence he
+obtained various posts, and was even appointed by Gregory XIII. governor
+of Benevento in the states of the church. Here, however, he seems to
+have acted imprudently, and he was soon recalled to Rome, where he
+shortly afterwards composed his most important work, the _Ragguagli di
+Parnaso_, in which Apollo is represented as receiving the complaints of
+all who present themselves, and distributing justice according to the
+merits of each particular case. The book is full of light and fantastic
+satire on the actions and writings of his eminent contemporaries, and
+some of its happier hits are among the hackneyed felicities of
+literature. To escape, it is said, from the hostility of those whom his
+shafts had wounded, he returned to Venice, and there, according to the
+register in the parochial church of Sta Maria Formosa, died of colic,
+accompanied with fever, on the 16th of November 1613. It was asserted,
+indeed, by contemporary writers that he had been beaten to death with
+sand-bags by a band of Spanish bravadoes, but the story seems without
+foundation. At the same time, it is evident from the _Pietra del
+Paragone_, which appeared after his death in 1615, that whatever the
+feelings of the Spaniards towards him, he cherished against them
+feelings of the bitterest hostility. The only government, indeed, which
+is exempt from his attacks is that of Venice, a city for which he seems
+to have had a special affection.
+
+  The _Ragguagli_, first printed in 1612, has frequently been
+  republished. The _Pietra_ has been translated into French, German,
+  English and Latin; the English translator was Henry, earl of Monmouth,
+  his version being entitled _The Politicke Touchstone_ (London, 1674).
+  Another posthumous publication of Boccalini was his _Commentarii sopra
+  Cornelia Tacito_ (Geneva, 1669). Many of his manuscripts are preserved
+  still unprinted.
+
+
+
+
+BOCCHERINI, LUIGI (1743-1805), Italian composer, son of an Italian
+bass-player, was born at Lucca, and studied at Rome, where he became a
+fine 'cellist, and soon began to compose. He returned to Lucca, where
+for some years he was prominent as a player, and there he produced two
+oratorios and an opera. He toured in Europe, and in 1768 was received in
+Paris by Gossec and his circle with great enthusiasm, his instrumental
+pieces being highly applauded; and from 1769 to 1785 he held the post of
+"composer and virtuoso" to the king of Spain's brother, the infante
+Luis, at Madrid. He afterwards became "chamber-composer" to King
+Frederick William II. of Prussia, till 1797, when he returned to Spain.
+He died at Madrid on the 28th of May 1805.
+
+As an admirer of Haydn, and a voluminous writer of instrumental music,
+chiefly for the violoncello, Boccherini represents the effect of the
+rapid progress of a new art on a mind too refined to be led into
+crudeness, too inventive and receptive to neglect any of the new
+artistic resources within its cognizance, and too superficial to grasp
+their real meaning. His mastery of the violoncello, and his advanced
+sense of beauty in instrumental tone-colour, must have made even his
+earlier works seem to contemporaries at least as novel and mature as any
+of those experiments at which Haydn, with eight years more of age and
+experience, was labouring in the development of the true new forms. Most
+of Boccherini's technical resources proved useless to Haydn, and
+resemblances occur only in Haydn's earliest works (e.g. most of the
+slow movements of the quartets in _op_. 3 and in some as late as _op_.
+17); whichever derived the characteristics of such movements from the
+other, the advantage is decidedly with Boccherini. But the progress of
+music did not lie in the production of novel beauties of instrumental
+tone in a style in which polyphonic organization was either deliberately
+abandoned or replaced by a pleasing illusion, while the form in its
+larger aspects was a mere inorganic amplification of the old
+suite-forms, which presupposed a genuine polyphonic organization as the
+vitalizing principle of their otherwise purely decorative nature. The
+true tendency of the new sonata forms was to make instrumental music
+dramatic in its variety and contrasts, instead of merely decorative.
+Haydn from the outset buried himself with the handling of new rhythmic
+proportions; and if it is hardly an exaggeration to say that the
+surprising beauty of colour in such a specimen of Boccherini's 125
+string-quintets as that in E major (containing the popular minuet) is
+perhaps more modern and certainly safer in performance than any special
+effect Haydn ever achieved, it is nevertheless true that even this
+beauty fails to justify the length and monotony of the work. Where Haydn
+uses any fraction of the resources of such a style, the ultimate effect
+is in proportion to a purpose of which Boccherini, with all his genuine
+admiration of his elder brother in art, could form no conception.
+Boccherini's works are, however, still indispensable for violoncellists,
+both in their education and their concert repertories; and his position
+in musical history is assured as that of the most original and, next to
+Tartini, perhaps the greatest writer of music for stringed instruments
+in the late Italian amplifications of the older quasi-polyphonic sonata
+or suite-form that survived into the beginning of the 19th century in
+the works of Nardini. Boccherini may safely be regarded as its last real
+master. He was wittily characterized by the contemporary violinist Puppo
+as "the wife of Haydn"; which is very true, if man and woman are two
+different species; but not as true as e.g. the equally common saying
+that "Schubert is the wife of Beethoven," and still less true than that
+"Vittoria is the wife of Palestrina."
+
+  His life, with a _Catalogue raisonné_, was published by L. Picquot
+  (1851).     (D. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+BOCCHUS, king of Mauretania (about 110 B.C.), and father-in-law of
+Jugurtha. In 108 he vacillated between Jugurtha and the Romans, and
+joined Jugurtha only on his promising him the third part of his kingdom.
+The two kings were twice defeated. Bocchus again made overtures to the
+Romans, and after an interview with Sulla, who was Marius's quaestor at
+that time, sent ambassadors to Rome. At Rome the hope of an alliance was
+encouraged, but on condition that Bocchus showed himself deserving of
+it. After further negotiations with Sulla, he finally agreed to send a
+message to Jugurtha requesting his presence. Jugurtha fell into the trap
+and was given up to Sulla. Bocchus concluded a treaty with the Romans,
+and a portion of Numidia was added to his kingdom. Further to conciliate
+the Romans and especially Sulla, he sent to the Capitol a group of
+Victories guarding a device in gold showing Bocchus handing over
+Jugurtha to Sulla.
+
+  See JUGURTHA; also Sallust, _Jugurtha_, 80-120; Plutarch, _Marius_,
+  8-32, _Sulla_, 3; A.H.J. Greenidge, _History of Rome_ (London, 1904).
+
+His son, BOCCHUS, was king of Mauretania, jointly with a younger
+brother Bogud. As enemies of the senatorial party, their title was
+recognized by Caesar (49 B.C.). During the African war they invaded
+Numidia and conquered Cirta, the capital of the kingdom of Juba, who was
+thus obliged to abandon the idea of joining Metellus Scipio against
+Caesar. At the end of the war, Caesar bestowed upon Bocchus part of the
+territory of Massinissa, Juba's ally, which was recovered after Caesar's
+murder by Massinissa's son Arabion. Dio Cassius says that Bocchus sent
+his sons to support Sextus Pompeius in Spain, while Bogud fought on the
+side of Caesar, and there is no doubt that after Caesar's death Bocchus
+supported Octavian, and Bogud Antony. During Bogud's absence in Spain,
+his brother seized the whole of Numidia, and was confirmed sole ruler by
+Octavian. After his death in 33, Numidia was made a Roman province.
+
+  _Bell. Afric._ 25; Dio Cassius xli. 42, xliii. 36, xlviii. 45; Appian,
+  _Bell. Civ._ ii. 96, iv. 54.
+
+
+
+
+BOCHART, SAMUEL (1599-1667), French scholar, was born at Rouen on the
+30th of May 1599. He was for many years a pastor of a Protestant church
+at Caen, and became tutor to Wentworth Dillon, earl of Roscommon. In
+1646 he published his _Phaleg_ and _Chanaan_ (Caen, 1646 and 1651), the
+two parts of his _Geographia Sacra_. His _Hierozoicon_, which treats of
+the animals of Scripture, was printed in London (2 vols., 1663). In 1652
+Christina of Sweden invited him to Stockholm, where he studied the
+Arabian manuscripts in the queen's possession. He was accompanied by
+Pierre Daniel Huet, afterwards bishop of Avranches. On his return to
+Caen he was received into the academy of that city. Bochart was a man of
+profound erudition; he possessed a thorough knowledge of the principal
+Oriental languages, including Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldaic and Arabic; and
+at an advanced age he wished to learn Ethiopic. He was so absorbed in
+his favourite study, that he saw Phoenician and nothing but Phoenician
+in everything, even in Celtic words, and hence the number of chimerical
+etymologies which swarm in his works. He died at Caen on the 16th of May
+1667.
+
+  A complete edition of his works was published at Leiden, under the
+  title of _Sam. Bochart Opera Omnia_ (1675, 2 vols. folio; 4th ed., 3
+  vols., 1712). An _Essay on the Life and Writings of Samuel Bochart_,
+  by W.R. Whittingham, appeared in 1829.
+
+
+
+
+BOCHOLT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, near
+the frontier of Holland, 12 m. by rail north of Wesel. It is a seat of
+the cotton industry. Pop. (1900) 21,278.
+
+
+
+
+BOCHUM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 11 m.
+by rail west from Dortmund. Pop. (1905) 118,000. It is a centre of the
+iron and steel industries, producing principally cast steel, cast iron,
+iron pipes, wire and wire ropes, and lamps, with tin and zinc works,
+coal-mining, factories for carpets, calcium carbide and paper-roofing,
+brickworks and breweries. The Bochumer Verein für Bergbau (mining) und
+Gusstahl Fabrication (steel manufacture) is one of the principal trusts
+in this industry, founded in 1854. There are a mining and a
+metallurgical school.
+
+
+
+
+BÖCKH, PHILIPP AUGUST (1785-1867), German classical scholar and
+antiquarian, was born in Karlsruhe on the 24th of November 1785. He was
+sent to the gymnasium of his native place, and remained there until he
+left for the university of Halle (1803), where he devoted himself to the
+study of theology. F.A. Wolf was then creating there an enthusiasm for
+classical studies; Böckh fell under the spell, passed from theology to
+philology, and became the greatest of all Wolf's scholars. In 1807 he
+established himself as privat-docent in the university of Heidelberg and
+was shortly afterwards appointed a professor extraordinarius, becoming
+professor two years later. In 1811 he removed to the new Berlin
+University, having been appointed professor of eloquence and classical
+literature. He remained there till his death on the 3rd of August 1867.
+He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin in 1814,
+and for a long time acted as its secretary. Many of the speeches
+contained in his _Kleine Schriften_ were delivered in this latter
+capacity.
+
+Böckh worked out the ideas of Wolf in regard to philology, and
+illustrated them by his practice. Discarding the old notion that
+philology consisted in a minute acquaintance with words and the exercise
+of the critical art, he regarded it as the entire knowledge of
+antiquity, historical and philosophical. He divides philology into five
+parts: first, an inquiry into public acts, with a knowledge of times and
+places, into civil institutions, and also into law; second, an inquiry
+into private affairs; third, an exhibition of the religions and arts of
+the ancient nations; fourth, a history of all their moral and physical
+speculations and beliefs, and of their literatures; and fifth, a
+complete explanation of the language. These ideas in regard to philology
+Böckh set forth in a Latin oration delivered in 1822 (_Gesammelte kleine
+Schriften_, i.). In his speech at the opening of the congress of German
+philologists in 1850, he defined philology as the historical
+construction of the entire life--therefore, of all forms of culture and
+all the productions of a people in its practical and spiritual
+tendencies. He allows that such a work is too great for any one man; but
+the very infinity of subjects is the stimulus to the pursuit of truth,
+and men strive because they have not attained (_ib_. ii.). An account of
+Böckh's division of philology will be found in Freund's _Wie studirt man
+Philologie?_
+
+From 1806 till his death Böckh's literary activity was unceasing. His
+principal works were the following:--(1) An edition of Pindar, the first
+volume of which (1811) contains the text of the Epinician odes; a
+treatise, _De Metris Pindari_, in three books; and _Notae Criticae_: the
+second (1819) contains the _Scholia_; and part ii. of volume ii. (1821)
+contains a Latin translation, a commentary, the fragments and indices.
+It is still the most complete edition of Pindar that we have. But it was
+especially the treatise on the metres which placed Böckh in the first
+rank of scholars. This treatise forms an epoch in the treatment of the
+subject. In it the author threw aside all attempts to determine the
+Greek metres by mere subjective standards, pointing out at the same time
+the close connexion between the music and the poetry of the Greeks. He
+investigated minutely the nature of Greek music as far as it can be
+ascertained, as well as all the details regarding Greek musical
+instruments; and he explained the statements of the ancient Greek
+writers on rhythm. In this manner he laid the foundation for a
+scientific treatment of Greek metres. (2) _Die Staatshaushaltung der
+Athener_, 1817 (2nd ed. 1851, with a supplementary volume _Urkunden über
+das Seewesen des attischen Staats_; 3rd ed. by Fränkel, 1886),
+translated into English by Sir George Cornewall Lewis (1828) under the
+title of _The Public Economy of Athens_. In it he investigated a subject
+of peculiar difficulty with profound learning. He amassed information
+from the whole range of Greek literature, carefully appraised the value
+of the information given, and shows throughout every portion of it rare
+critical ability and insight. A work of a similar kind was his
+_Metrologische Untersuchungen über Gewichte, Münzfüsse, und Masse des
+Alterthums_ (1838). (3) Böckh's third great work arose out of his
+second. In regard to the taxes and revenue of the Athenian state he
+derived a great deal of his most trustworthy information from
+inscriptions, many of which are given in his book. It was natural,
+therefore, that when the Berlin Academy of Sciences projected the plan
+of a _Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, Böckh should be chosen as the
+principal editor. This great work (1828-1877) is in four volumes, the
+third and fourth volumes being edited by J. Franz, E. Curtius, A.
+Kirchhoff and H. Röhl.
+
+Böckh's activity was continually digressing into widely different
+fields. He gained for himself a foremost position amongst the
+investigators of ancient chronology, and his name occupies a place by
+the side of those of Ideler and Mommsen. His principal works on this
+subject were: _Zur Geschichte der Mondcyclen der Hellenen_ (1855);
+_Epigraphisch-chronologische Studien_ (1856); _Über die vierjährigen
+Sonnenkreise der Alten_ (1863), and several papers which he published in
+the _Transactions of the Berlin Academy_. Böckh also occupied himself
+with philosophy. One of his earliest papers was on the Platonic doctrine
+of the world, _De Platonica corporis mundani fabrica_ (1809), followed
+by _De Platonico Systemate Caelestium globorum et de vera Indole
+Astronomiae Philolaice_ (1810), to which may be added _Manetho und die
+Hundsternperiode_ (1845). In opposition to Otto Gruppe (1804-1876), he
+denied that Plato affirmed the diurnal rotation of the earth
+(_Untersuchungen über das kosmische System des Platon_, 1852), and when
+in opposition to him Grote published his opinions on the subject (Plato
+and the Rotation of the Earth) Böckh was ready with his reply. Another
+of his earlier papers, and one frequently referred to, was _Commentatio
+Academica de simultate quae Platoni cum Xenophonte intercessisse fertur_
+(1811). Other philosophical writings were _Commentatio in Platonis qui
+vulgo fertur Minoem_ (1806), and _Philolaos' des Pythagoreers Lehren
+nebst den Bruchstücken_ (1819), in which he endeavoured to show the
+genuineness of the fragments.
+
+Besides his edition of Pindar, Böckh published an edition of the
+Antigone of Sophocles (1843) with a poetical translation and essays. An
+early and important work on the Greek tragedians is his _Graecae
+Tragoediae Principum ... num ea quae supersunt et genuina omnia sint et
+forma primitiva servata_ (1808).
+
+  The smaller writings of Böckh began to be collected in his lifetime.
+  Three of the volumes were published before his death, and four after
+  (_Gesammelte kleine Schriften_, 1858-1874). The first two consist of
+  orations delivered in the university or academy of Berlin, or on
+  public occasions. The third, fourth, fifth and sixth contain his
+  contributions to the _Transactions of the Berlin Academy_, and the
+  seventh contains his critiques. Böckh's lectures, delivered from
+  1809-1865, were published by Bratuschek under the title of
+  _Encyclopädie und Methodologie der philologischen Wissenschaften_ (2nd
+  ed, Klussmann, 1886). His philological and scientific theories are set
+  forth in Elze, _Über Philologie als System_ (1845), and Reichhardt,
+  _Die Gliederung der Philologie entwickelt_ (1846). His correspondence
+  with Ottfried Müller appeared at Leipzig in 1883. See Sachse,
+  _Erinnerungen an August Böckh_ (1868); Stark, in the _Verhandlungen
+  der Würzburger Philologensammlung_ (1868); Max Hoffmann, _August
+  Böckh_ (1901); and S. Reiter, in _Neue Jahrbucher für das klassische
+  Altertum_ (1902), p. 436.
+
+
+
+
+BÖCKLIN, ARNOLD (1827-1901), Swiss painter, was born at Basel on the
+16th of October 1827. His father, Christian Frederick Böcklin (b. 1802),
+was descended from an old family of Schaffhausen, and engaged in the
+silk trade. His mother, Ursula Lippe, was a native of the same city. In
+1846 he began his studies at the Düsseldorf academy under Schirmer, who
+recognized in him a student of exceptional promise, and sent him to
+Antwerp and Brussels, where he copied the works of Flemish and Dutch
+masters. Böcklin then went to Paris, worked at the Louvre, and painted
+several landscapes; his "Landscape and Ruin" reveals at the same time a
+strong feeling for nature and a dramatic conception of scenery. After
+serving his time in the army he set out for Rome in March 1850, and the
+sight of the Eternal City was a fresh stimulus to his mind. So, too, was
+the influence of Italian nature and that of the dead pagan world. At
+Rome he married (June 20, 1853) Angela Rosa Lorenza Pascucci. In 1856 he
+returned to Munich, and remained there four years. He then exhibited the
+"Great Park," one of his earliest works, in which he treated ancient
+mythology with the stamp of individuality, which was the basis of his
+reputation. Of this period, too, are his "Nymph and Satyr," "Heroic
+Landscape" (Diana Hunting), both of 1858, and "Sappho" (1859). These
+works, which were much discussed, together with Lenbach's
+recommendation, gained him his appointment as professor at the Weimar
+academy. He held the office for two years, painting the "Venus and
+Love," a "Portrait of Lenbach," and a "Saint Catherine." He was again at
+Rome from 1862 to 1866, and there gave his fancy and his taste for
+violent colour free play in his "Portrait of Mme Böcklin," now in the
+Basel gallery, in "An Anchorite in the Wilderness" (1863); a "Roman
+Tavern," and "Villa on the Sea-shore" (1864); this last, one of his best
+pictures. He returned to Basel in 1866 to finish his frescoes in the
+gallery, and to paint, besides several portraits, "The Magdalene with
+Christ" (1868); "Anacreon's Muse" (1869); and "A Castle and Warriors"
+(1871). His "Portrait of Myself," with Death playing a violin (1873),
+was painted after his return again to Munich, where he exhibited his
+famous "Battle of the Centaurs" (in the Basel gallery); "Landscape with
+Moorish Horsemen" (in the Lucerne gallery); and "A Farm" (1875). From
+1876 to 1885 Böcklin was working at Florence, and painted a "Pietà,"
+"Ulysses and Calypso," "Prometheus," and the "Sacred Grove." From 1886
+to 1892 he settled at Zürich. Of this period are the "Naiads at Play,"
+"A Sea Idyll," and "War." After 1892 Böcklin resided at San Domenico,
+near Florence. An exhibition of his collected works was held at Basel
+from the 20th of September to the 24th of October 1897. He died on the
+16th of January 1901.
+
+  His life has been written by Henri Mendelssohn. See also F. Hermann,
+  _Gazette des Beaux Arts_ (Paris, 1893); Max Lehrs, _Arnold Böcklin,
+  Ein Leitfaden zum Verständniss seiner Kunst_ (Munich, 1897); W.
+  Ritter, _Arnold Böcklin_ (Gand, 1895); _Katalog der Böcklin Jubiläums
+  Ausstellung_ (Basel, 1897).     (H. Fr.)
+
+
+
+
+BOCLAND, BOCKLAND or BOOKLAND (from A.S. _boc_, book), an original mode
+of tenure of land, also called charter-land or deed-land. Bocland was
+folk-land granted to individuals in private ownership by a document
+(charter or book) in writing, with the signatures of the king and
+witenagemot; at first it was rarely, if ever, held by laymen, except for
+religious purposes. Bocland to a certain extent resembled full ownership
+in the modern sense, in that the owner could grant it in his lifetime,
+in the same manner as he had received it, by _boc_ or book, and also
+dispose of it by will. (See also FOLKLAND.)
+
+
+
+
+BOCSKAY, STEPHEN [ISTVÁN] (1557-1606), prince of Transylvania, the most
+eminent member of the ancient Bocskay family, son of György Bocskay and
+Krisztina Sulyok, was born at Kolozsvár, Hungary. As the chief
+councillor of Prince Zsigmond Báthory, he advised his sovereign to
+contract an alliance with the emperor instead of holding to the Turk,
+and rendered important diplomatic services on frequent missions to
+Prague and Vienna. The enmity towards him of the later Báthory princes
+of Transylvania, who confiscated his estates, drove him to seek
+protection at the imperial court (1599); but the attempts of the emperor
+Rudolph II. to deprive Hungary of her constitution and the Protestants
+of their religious liberties speedily alienated Bocskay, especially
+after the terrible outrages inflicted on the Transylvanians by the
+imperial generals Basta and Belgiojoso from 1602 to 1604. Bocskay, to
+save the independence of Transylvania, assisted the Turks; and in 1605,
+as a reward for his part in driving Basta out of Transylvania, the
+Hungarian diet, assembled at Modgyes, elected him prince (1605), on
+which occasion the Ottoman sultan sent a special embassy to congratulate
+him and a splendid jewelled crown made in Persia. Bocskay refused the
+royal dignity, but made skilful use of the Turkish alliance. To save the
+Austrian provinces of Hungary, the archduke Matthias, setting aside his
+semi-lunatic imperial brother Rudolph, thereupon entered into
+negotiations with Bocskay, and ultimately the peace of Vienna was
+concluded (June 23, 1606), which guaranteed all the constitutional and
+religious rights and privileges of the Hungarians both in Transylvania
+and imperial Hungary. Bocskay, at the same time, was acknowledged as
+prince of Transylvania by the Austrian court, and the right of the
+Transylvanians to elect their own independent princes in future was
+officially recognized. The fortress of Tokaj and the counties of Bereg,
+Szatmár and Ugocsa were at the same time ceded to Bocskay, with
+reversion to Austria if he should die childless. Simultaneously, at
+Zsitvatorok, a peace, confirmatory of the peace of Vienna, was concluded
+with the Turks. Bocskay survived this signal and unprecedented triumph
+only a few months. He is said to have been poisoned (December 29, 1606)
+by his chancellor, Mihály Kátay, who was hacked to bits by Bocskay's
+adherents in the market-place of Kassa.
+
+  See _Political Correspondence of Stephen Bocskay_ (Hung.), edited by
+  Károly Szábo (Budapest, 1882); Jenö Thury, _Stephen Bocskay's
+  Rebellion_ (Hung.), Budapest, 1899.     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BODE, JOHANN ELERT (1747-1826), German astronomer, was born at Hamburg
+on the 19th of January 1747. Devoted to astronomy from his earliest
+years, he eagerly observed the heavens at a garret window with a
+telescope made by himself, and at nineteen began his career with the
+publication of a short work on the solar eclipse of the 5th of August
+1766. This was followed by an elementary treatise on astronomy entitled
+_Anleitung zur Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels_ (1768, 10th ed. 1844),
+the success of which led to his being summoned to Berlin in 1772 for the
+purpose of computing ephemerides on an improved plan. There resulted the
+foundation by him, in 1774, of the well-known _Astronomisches Jahrbuch_,
+51 yearly volumes of which he compiled and issued. He became director of
+the Berlin observatory in 1786, withdrew from official life in 1825, and
+died at Berlin on the 23rd of November 1826. His works were highly
+effective in diffusing throughout Germany a taste for astronomy. Besides
+those already mentioned he wrote:--_Sammlung astronomischer Tafeln_ (3
+vols., 1776); _Erläuterung der Sternkunde_ (1776, 3rd ed. 1808);
+_Uranographia_ (1801), a collection of 20 star-maps accompanied by a
+catalogue of 17,240 stars and nebulae. In one of his numerous incidental
+essays he propounded, in 1776, a theory of the solar constitution
+similar to that developed in 1795 by Sir William Herschel. He gave
+currency, moreover, to the empirical rule known as "Bode's Law," which
+was actually announced by Johann Daniel Titius of Wittenberg in 1772. It
+is expressed by the statement that the proportionate distances of the
+several planets from the sun may be represented by adding 4 to each term
+of the series; 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, &c. The irregularity will be noticed of
+the first term, which should be 1½ instead of 0. (See SOLAR SYSTEM.)
+
+  See J.F. Encke, _Berlin Abhandlungen_ (1827), p. xi.; H.C. Schumacher.
+  _Astr. Nach._ v. 255, 367 (1827); Poggendorff, _Biog. literarisches
+  Handwörterbuch; Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, iii. 1.
+
+
+
+
+BODEL, JEHAN (died _c._ 1210), French _trouvère_, was born at Arras in
+the second half of the 12th century. Very little is known of his life,
+but in 1205 he was about to start for the crusade when he was attacked
+by leprosy. In a touching poem called _Le Congé_ (pr. by Méon in
+_Recueil de fabliaux et contes_, vol. i.), he bade farewell to his
+friends and patrons, and begged for a nomination to a leper hospital. He
+wrote _Le Jeu de Saint Nicolas_, one of the earliest miracle plays
+preserved in French (printed in Monmerqué and Michel's _Théâtre français
+du moyen âge_, 1839, and for the _Soc. des bibliophiles français_,
+1831); the _Chanson des Saisnes_ (ed. F. Michel 1839), four
+_pastourelles_ (printed in K. Bartsch's _Altfranz. Romanzen und
+Pastourellen_, Leipzig, 1870); and probably, the eight _fabliaux_
+attributed to an unknown Jean Bedel. The legend of Saint Nicholas had
+already formed the subject of the Latin _Ludus Sancti Nicholai_ of
+Hilarius. Bodel placed the scene partly on a field of battle in Africa,
+where the crusaders perish in a hopeless struggle, and partly in a
+tavern. The piece, loosely connected by the miracle of Saint Nicholas
+narrated in the prologue, ends with a wholesale conversion of the
+African king and his subjects. The dialogue in the tavern scenes is
+written in thieves' slang, and is very obscure. The _Chanson des
+Saisnes_, Bodel's authorship of which has been called in question, is a
+_chanson de geste_ belonging to the period of decadence, and is really a
+_roman d'aventures_ based on earlier legends belonging to the
+Charlemagne cycle. It relates the wars of Charlemagne against the Saxons
+under Guiteclin de Sassoigne (Witikind or Widukind), with the second
+revolt of the Saxons and their final submission and conversion. Jehan
+Bodel makes no allusion to Ogier the Dane and many other personages of
+the Charlemagne cycle, but he mentions the defeat of Roland at
+Roncevaux. The romance is based on historical fact, but is overlaid with
+romantic detail. It really embraces three distinct legends--those of the
+wars against the Saxons, of Charlemagne's rebellious barons, and of
+Baudouim and Sebille. The earlier French poems on the subject are lost,
+but the substance of them is preserved in the Scandinavian versions of
+the Charlemagne cycle (supposed to have been derived from English
+sources) known as the _Karlamagnussaga_ (ed. Unger, Christiania, 1860)
+and _Keiser Karl Magnus Krönike_ (Romantisk Digtnung, ed. C.J. Brandt,
+Copenhagen, 1877).
+
+  See also the article on Jehan Bodel by Paulin Paris in _Hist. litt, de
+  la France_, xx. pp. 605-638; Gaston Paris, _Histoire poétique de
+  Charlemagne_ (1865); Léon Gautier, _Les Épopées françaises_ (revised
+  edition, vol. iii. pp. 650-684), where there is a full analysis of the
+  _Chanson des Saisnes_ and a bibliography; H. Meyer, in _Ausgaben und
+  Abhandlungen aus ... der romanischen Philologie_ (Marburg, 1883), pp.
+  1-76, where its relation to the rest of the Charlemagne cycle is
+  discussed.
+
+
+
+
+BODENBACH (Czech _Podmokly_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 83 m. N.N.E.
+of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 10,782, almost exclusively German. It is
+situated on the left bank of the Elbe opposite Tetschen, and is an
+important railway junction, containing also an Austrian and a Saxon
+custom-house. Bodenbach, which in the middle of the 19th century had
+only a few hundred inhabitants, has become a very important industrial
+centre. Its principal manufactures include cotton and woollen goods,
+earthenware and crockery, chemicals, chicory, chocolate, sweetmeats and
+preserves, and beer. It has also a very active transit trade.
+
+
+
+
+BODENSTEDT, FRIEDRICH MARTIN VON (1819-1892), German author, was born at
+Peine, in Hanover, on the 22nd of April 1819. He studied in Göttingen,
+Munich and Berlin. His career was determined by his engagement in 1841
+as tutor in the family of Prince Gallitzin at Moscow, where he gained a
+thorough knowledge of Russian. This led to his appointment in 1844 as
+the head of a public school at Tiflis, in Transcaucasia. He took the
+opportunity of his proximity to Persia to study Persian literature, and
+in 1851 published a volume of original poetry in oriental guise under
+the fanciful title, _Die Lieder des Mirza Schaffy_ (English trans. by E.
+d'Esterre, 1880). The success of this work can only be compared with
+that of Edward FitzGerald's _Omar Khayyam_, produced in somewhat similar
+circumstances, but differed from it in being immediate. It has gone
+through 160 editions in Germany, and has been translated into almost all
+literary languages. Nor is this celebrity undeserved, for although
+Bodenstedt does not attain the poetical elevation of FitzGerald, his
+view of life is wider, more cheerful and more sane, while the execution
+is a model of grace. On his return from the East, Bodenstedt engaged for
+a while in journalism, married the daughter of a Hessian officer
+(Matilde, the _Edlitam_ of his poems), and was in 1854 appointed
+professor of Slavonic at Munich. The rich stores of knowledge which
+Bodenstedt brought back from the East were turned to account in two
+important books, _Die Völker des Kaukasus und ihre Freiheits-Kämpfe
+gegen die Russen_ (1848), and _Tausend und ein Tag im Orient_ (1850).
+For some time Bodenstedt continued to devote himself to Slavonic
+subjects, producing translations of Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgweniev, and
+of the poets of the Ukraines, and writing a tragedy on the false
+Demetrius, and an epic, _Ada die Lesghierin_, on a Circassian theme.
+Finding, probably, this vein exhausted, he exchanged his professorship
+in 1858 for one of Early English literature, and published (1858-1860) a
+valuable work on the English dramatists contemporary with Shakespeare,
+with copious translations. In 1862 he produced a standard translation of
+Shakespeare's sonnets, and between 1866 and 1872 published a complete
+version of the plays, with the help of many coadjutors. In 1867 he
+undertook the direction of the court theatre at Meiningen, and was
+ennobled by the duke. After 1873 he lived successively at Altona, Berlin
+and Wiesbaden, where he died on the 19th of April 1892. His later works
+consist of an autobiography (1888), successful translations from Hafiz
+and Omar Khayyam, and lyrics and dramas which added little to his
+reputation.
+
+  An edition of his collected works in 12 vols. was published at Berlin
+  (1866-1869), and his _Erzahlungen und Romane_ at Jena (1871-1872). For
+  further biographical details, see Bodenstedt's _Erinnerungen aus
+  meinem Leben_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1888-1890); and G. Schenck, _Friedrich
+  von Bodenstedt. Ein Dichterleben in seinen Briefen_ (Berlin, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+BODHI VAMSA, a prose poem in elaborate Sanskritized Pali, composed by
+Upatissa in the reign of Mahinda IV. of Ceylon about A.D. 980. It is an
+adaptation of a previously existing work in Sinhalese on the same
+subject, and describes the bringing of a branch of the celebrated Bo or
+Bodhi tree (i.e. Wisdom Tree, under which the Buddha had attained
+wisdom) to Ceylon in the 3rd century B.C. The Bodhi Vamsa quotes verses
+from the Mahavamsa, but draws a great deal of its material from other
+sources; and it has occasionally preserved details of the older
+tradition not found in any other sources known to us.
+
+  Edition in Pali for the Pali Text Society by S. Arthur Strong (London,
+  1891).
+
+
+
+
+BODICHON, BARBARA LEIGH SMITH (1827-1891), English educationalist, was
+born at Watlington, Norfolk, on the 8th of April 1827, the daughter of
+Benjamin Smith (1783-1860), long M.P. for Norwich. She early showed a
+force of character and catholicity of sympathy that later won her a
+prominent place among philanthropists and social workers. In 1857 she
+married an eminent French physician, Dr Eugene Bodichon, and, although
+wintering many years in Algiers, continued to lead the movements she had
+initiated in behalf of Englishwomen. In 1869 she published her _Brief
+Summary of the Laws of England concerning Women_, which had a useful
+effect in helping forward the passage of the Married Women's Property
+Act. In 1866, co-operating with Miss Emily Davies, she matured a scheme
+for the extension of university education to women, and the first small
+experiment at Hitchin developed into Girton College, to which Mme
+Bodichon gave liberally of her time and money. With all her public
+interests she found time for society and her favourite art of painting.
+She studied under William H. Hunt, and her water-colours, exhibited at
+the Salon, the Academy and elsewhere, showed great originality and
+talent, and were admired by Corot and Daubigny. Her London salon
+included many of the literary and artistic celebrities of her day; she
+was George Eliot's most intimate friend, and, according to her, the
+first to recognize the authorship of _Adam Bede_. Her personal
+appearance is said to be described in that of Romola. Mme Bodichon died
+at Robertsbridge, Sussex, on the 11th of June 1891.
+
+
+
+
+BODIN, JEAN (1530-1596), French political philosopher, was born at
+Angers in 1530. Having studied law at Toulouse and lectured there on
+jurisprudence, he settled in Paris as an advocate, but soon applied
+himself to literature. In 1555 he published his first work, a
+translation of Oppian's _Cynegeticon_ into Latin verse, with a
+commentary. The celebrated scholar, Turnebus, complained that some of
+his emendations had been appropriated without acknowledgment. In 1588,
+in refutation of the views of the seigneur de Malestroit, comptroller of
+the mint, who maintained that there had been no rise of prices in France
+during the three preceding centuries, he published his _Responsio ad
+Paradoxa Malestretti_ (_Réponse aux paradoxes de M. Malestroit_), which
+the first time explained in a nearly satisfactory manner the revolution
+of prices which took place in the 16th century. Bodin showed a more
+rational appreciation than many of his contemporaries of the causes of
+this revolution, and the relation of the variations in money to the
+market values of wares in general as well as to the wages of labour. He
+saw that the amount of money in circulation did not constitute the
+wealth of the community, and that the prohibition of the export of the
+precious metals was rendered inoperative by the necessities of trade.
+This tract, the _Discours sur les causes de l'extèrme cherté qui èst
+aujourdhuy en France_ (1574), and the disquisition on public revenues in
+the sixth book of the _République_, entitle Bodin to a distinguished
+position among the earlier economists.
+
+His learning, genial disposition, and conversational powers won him the
+favor of Henry III. and of his brother, the duc d'Alençon; and he was
+appointed king's attorney at Laon in 1576. In this year he married,
+performed his most brilliant service to his country, and completed his
+greatest literary work. Elected by the _tiers état_ of Vermandois to
+represent it in the states-general of Blois, he contended with skill and
+boldness in extremely difficult circumstances for freedom of conscience,
+justice and peace. The nobility and clergy favoured the League, and
+urged the king to force his subjects to profess the Catholic religion.
+When Bodin found he could not prevent this resolution being carried, he
+contrived to get inserted in the petition drawn up by the states the
+clause "without war," which practically rendered nugatory all its other
+clauses. While he thus resisted the clergy and nobility he successfully
+opposed the demand of the king to be allowed to alienate the public
+lands and royal demesnes, although the chief deputies had been won over
+to assent. This lost him the favour of the king, who wanted money on any
+terms. In 1581 he acted as secretary to the duc d'Alençon when that
+prince came over to England to seek the hand of Queen Elizabeth. Here he
+had the pleasure of finding that the _République_ was studied at London
+and Cambridge, although in a barbarous Latin translation. This
+determined him to translate his work into Latin himself (1586). The
+latter part of Bodin's life was spent at Laon, which he is said to have
+persuaded to declare for the League in 1589, and for Henry IV. five
+years afterwards. He died of the plague in 1596, and was buried in the
+church of the Carmelites.
+
+With all his breadth and liberality of mind Bodin was a credulous
+believer in witchcraft, the virtues of numbers and the power of the
+stars, and in 1580 he published the _Démonomanie des sorciers_, a work
+which shows that he was not exempt from the prejudices of the age.
+Himself regarded by most of his contemporaries as a sceptic, and by some
+as an atheist, he denounced all who dared to disbelieve in sorcery, and
+urged the burning of witches and wizards. It might, perhaps, have gone
+hard with him if his counsel had been strictly followed, as he confessed
+to have had from his thirty-seventh year a friendly demon, who, if
+properly invoked, touched his right ear when he purposed doing what was
+wrong, and his left when he meditated doing good.
+
+His chief work, the _Six livres de la République_ (Paris, 1576), which
+passed through several editions in his lifetime, that of 1583 having as
+an appendix _L'Apologie de René Herpin_ (Bodin himself), was the first
+modern attempt to construct an elaborate system of political science. It
+is perhaps the most important work of its kind between Aristotle and
+modern writers. Though he was much indebted to Aristotle he used the
+material to advantage, adding much from his own experience and
+historical knowledge. In harmony with the conditions of his age, he
+approved of absolute governments, though at the same time they must, he
+thought, be controlled by constitutional laws. He entered into an
+elaborate defence of individual property against Plato and More, rather
+perhaps because the scheme of his work required the treatment of that
+theme than because it was practically urgent in his day, when the
+excesses of the Anabaptists had produced a strong feeling against
+communistic doctrines. He was under the general influence of the
+mercantilist views, and approved of energetic governmental interference
+in industrial matters, of high taxes on foreign manufactures and low
+duties on raw materials and articles of food, and attached great
+importance to a dense population. But he was not a blind follower of the
+system; he wished for unlimited freedom of trade in many cases; and he
+was in advance of his more eminent contemporary Montaigne in perceiving
+that the gain of one nation is not necessarily the loss of another. To
+the public finances, which he called "the sinews of the state," he
+devoted much attention, and insisted on the duties of the government in
+respect to the right adjustment of taxation. In general he deserves the
+praise of steadily keeping in view the higher aims and interests of
+society in connexion with the regulation and development of its material
+life.
+
+Among his other works are _Oratio de instituenda in republica juventate_
+(1559); _Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem_ (1566);
+_Universale Naturae Theatrum_ (1596, French trans. by Fougerolles,
+1597), and the _Colloquium Heptaplomeres de abditis rerum sublimium
+arcanis_, written in 1588, published first by Guhrauer (1841), and in a
+complete form by L. Noack (1857). The last is a philosophy of naturalism
+in the form of a conversation between seven learned men--a Jew, a
+Mahommedan, a Lutheran, a Zwinglian, a Roman Catholic, an Epicurean and
+a Theist. The conclusion to which they are represented as coming is that
+they will live together in charity and toleration, and cease from
+further disputation as to religion. It is curious that Leibnitz, who
+originally regarded the _Colloquium_ as the work of a professed enemy of
+Christianity, subsequently described it as a most valuable production
+(cf. M. Carrière, _Weltanschauung_, p. 317).
+
+  See H. Baudrillart, _J. Bodin et son temps_ (Paris, 1853); Ad. Franck,
+  _Réformateurs et publicistes de l'Europe_ (Paris, 1864); N.
+  Planchenault, _Études sur Jean Bodin_ (Angers, 1858); E. de
+  Barthélemy, _Étude sur J. Bodin_ (Paris, 1876); for the political
+  philosophy of Bodin, see P. Janet, _Hist. de la science polit._ (3rd
+  ed., Paris, 1887); Hancke, _B. Studien über d. Begriff d.
+  Souveränität_ (Breslau, 1894), A. Bardoux. _Les Légistes et leur
+  influence sur la soc. française_; Fournol, _Bodin prédécesseur de
+  Montesquieu_ (Paris, 1896); for his political economy, J.K. Ingram,
+  _Hist. of Pol. Econ._ (London, 1888); for his ethical teaching, A.
+  Desjardins, _Les Moralistes français du seizième siècle_, ch. v.; and
+  for his historical views, R. Flint's _Philosophy of History in Europe_
+  (ed. 1893), pp. 190 foll.
+
+
+
+
+BODKIN (Early Eng. _boydekin_, a dagger, a word of unknown origin,
+possibly connected with the Gaelic _biodag_, a short sword), a small,
+needle-like instrument of steel or bone with a flattened knob at one
+end, used in needlework. It has one or more slits or eyes, through which
+cord, tape or ribbon can be passed, for threading through a hem or
+series of loops. The word is also used of a small piercing instrument
+for making holes in cloth, &c.
+
+
+
+
+BODLE or BODDLE (said to be from Bothwell, the name of a mint-master), a
+Scottish copper coin worth about one-sixth of an English penny, first
+issued under Charles II. It survives in the phrase "not to care a
+bodle."
+
+
+
+
+BODLEY, GEORGE FREDERICK (1827-1907), English architect, was the
+youngest son of a physician at Brighton, his elder brother, the Rev.
+W.H. Bodley, becoming a well-known Roman Catholic preacher and a
+professor at Oscott. He was articled to the famous architect Sir Gilbert
+Scott, under whose influence he became imbued with the spirit of the
+Gothic revival, and he gradually became known as the chief exponent of
+14th-century English Gothic, and the leading ecclesiastical architect in
+England. One of his first churches was St Michael and All Angels,
+Brighton (1855), and among his principal erections may be mentioned All
+Saints, Cambridge; Eton Mission church, Hackney Wick; Clumber church;
+Eccleston church; Hoar Cross church; St Augustine's, Pendlebury; Holy
+Trinity, Kensington; Chapel Allerton, Leeds; St Faith's, Brentford;
+Queen's College chapel, Cambridge; Marlborough College chapel; and
+Burton church. His domestic work included the London School Board
+offices, the new buildings at Magdalen, Oxford, and Hewell Grange (for
+Lord Windsor). From 1872 he had for twenty years the partnership of Mr
+T. Garner, who worked with him. He also designed (with his pupil James
+Vaughan) the cathedral at Washington, D.C., U.S.A., and cathedrals at
+San Francisco and in Tasmania; and when Mr Gilbert Scott's design for
+his new Liverpool cathedral was successful in the competition he
+collaborated with the young architect in preparing for its erection.
+Bodley began contributing to the Royal Academy in 1854, and in 1881 was
+elected A.R.A., becoming R.A. in 1902. In addition to being a most
+learned master of architecture, he was a beautiful draughtsman, and a
+connoisseur in art; he published a volume of poems in 1899; and he was a
+designer of wall-papers and chintzes for Watts & Co., of Baker Street,
+London; in early life he had been in close alliance with the
+Pre-Raphaelites, and he did a great deal, like William Morris, to
+improve public taste in domestic decoration and furniture. He died on
+the 21st of October 1907, at Water Eaton, Oxford.
+
+
+
+
+BODLEY, SIR THOMAS (1545-1613), English diplomatist and scholar, founder
+of the Bodleian library, Oxford, was born at Exeter on the 2nd of March
+1545. During the reign of Queen Mary, his father, John Bodley, being
+obliged to leave the kingdom on account of his Protestant principles,
+went to live at Geneva. In that university, in which Calvin and Beza
+were then teaching divinity, young Bodley studied for a short time. On
+the accession of Queen Elizabeth he returned with his father to England,
+and soon after entered Magdalen College, Oxford. In 1563 he took his
+B.A. degree, and was admitted a fellow of Merton College. In 1565 he
+read a Greek lecture in hall, took his M.A. degree the year after, and
+read natural philosophy in the public schools. In 1569 he was proctor,
+and for some time after was deputy public orator. Quitting Oxford in
+1576, he made the tour of Europe; shortly after his return he became
+gentleman-usher to Queen Elizabeth; and in 1587, apparently, he married
+Ann Ball, a widow lady of considerable fortune, the daughter of a Mr
+Carew of Bristol. In 1584 he entered parliament as member for
+Portsmouth, and represented St German's in 1586. In 1585 Bodley was
+entrusted with a mission to form a league between Frederick II. of
+Denmark and certain German princes to assist Henry of Navarre. He was
+next despatched on a secret mission to France; and in 1588 he was sent
+to the Hague as minister, a post which demanded great diplomatic skill,
+for it was in the Netherlands that the power of Spain had to be fought.
+The essential difficulties of his mission were complicated by the
+intrigues of the queen's ministers at home, and Bodley repeatedly begged
+that he might be recalled. He was finally permitted to return to England
+in 1596, but finding his preferment obstructed by the jarring interests
+of Burleigh and Essex, he retired from public life. He was knighted on
+the 18th of April 1604. He is, however, remembered specially as the
+founder of the Bodleian at Oxford, practically the earliest public
+library in Europe (see LIBRARIES). He determined, he said, "to take his
+farewell of state employments and to set up his staff at the library
+door in Oxford." In 1598 his offer to restore the old library was
+accepted by the university. Bodley not only used his private fortune in
+his undertaking, but induced many of his friends to make valuable gifts
+of books. In 1611 he began its permanent endowment, and at his death in
+London on the 28th of January 1613, the greater part of his fortune was
+left to it. He was buried in the choir of Merton College chapel where a
+monument of black and white marble was erected to him.
+
+  Sir Thomas wrote his own life to the year 1609, which, with the first
+  draft of the statutes drawn up for the library, and his letters to the
+  librarian, Thomas James, was published by Thomas Hearne, under the
+  title of _Reliquiae Bodleianae, or Authentic Remains of Sir Thomas
+  Bodley_ (London, 1703, 8vo).
+
+
+
+
+BODMER, JOHANN JAKOB (1698-1783), Swiss-German author, was born at
+Greifensee, near Zürich, on the 19th of July 1698. After first studying
+theology and then trying a commercial career, he finally found his
+vocation in letters. In 1725 he was appointed professor of Helvetian
+history in Zürich, a chair which he held for half a century, and in 1735
+became a member of the "Grosser Rat." He published (1721-1723), in
+conjunction with J.J. Breitinger (1701-1774) and several others, _Die
+Discourse der Mahlern_, a weekly journal after the model of the
+Spectator. Through his prose translation of Milton's Paradise Lost
+(1732) and his successful endeavours to make a knowledge of English
+literature accessible to Germany, he aroused the hostile criticism of
+Gottsched (_q.v_.) and his school, a struggle which ended in the
+complete discomfiture of the latter. His most important writings are the
+treatises _Von dem Wunderbaren in der Poesie_ (1740) and _Kritische
+Betrachtungen über die poetischen Gemälde der Dichter_ (1741), in which
+he pleaded for the freedom of the imagination from the restriction
+imposed upon it by French pseudo-classicism. Bodmer's epics _Die
+Sündfluth_ (1751) and _Noah_ (1751) are weak imitations of Klopstock's
+_Messias_, and his plays are entirely deficient in dramatic qualities.
+He did valuable service to German literature by his editions of the
+Minnesingers and part of the _Nibelungenlied_. He died at Zürich on the
+2nd of January 1783.
+
+  See T.W. Danzel, _Gottsched und seine Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1848); J.
+  Crüger, _J.C. Gottsched, Bodmer und Breitinger_ (Stuttgart, 1884); F.
+  Braitmaier, _Geschichte der poetischen Theorie und Kritik von den
+  Diskursen der Maler bis auf Lessing_ (Leipzig, 1888); _Denkschrift zu
+  Bodmers 200. Geburtstag_ (Zürich, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+BODMIN, a market town and municipal borough in the Bodmin parliamentary
+division of Cornwall, England, the county town, 30½ m. W.N.W. of
+Plymouth, on branches of the Great Western and London & South-Western
+railways. Pop. (1901) 5353. It lies between two hills in a short valley
+opening westward upon that of the Camel, at the southern extremity of
+the high open Bodmin Moor. The large church of St Petrock, mainly
+Perpendicular, has earlier portions, and a late Norman font. East of it
+there is a ruined Decorated chapel of St Thomas of Canterbury, with a
+crypt. A tower of Tudor date, in the cemetery, marks the site of a
+chapel of the gild of the Holy Rood. Part of the buildings of a
+Franciscan friary, founded _c._ 1240, are incorporated in the
+market-house, and the gateway remains in an altered form. At Bodmin are
+a prison, with civil and naval departments, the county gaol and asylum,
+the headquarters of the constabulary, and those of the duke of
+Cornwall's Light Infantry. Cattle, sheep and horse fairs are held, and
+there is a considerable agricultural trade. The borough is under a
+mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 2797 acres.
+
+Traces of Roman occupation have been found in the western part of the
+parish, belonging to the first century A.D. Possibly tin-mining was
+carried on here at that period. The grant of a charter by King Edred to
+the prior and canons of Bodmin (Bomine, Bodman, Bodmyn) in respect of
+lands in Devonshire appears in an _inspeximus_ of 1252. To its
+ecclesiastical associations it owed its importance at the time of the
+Domesday survey, when St Petrock held the manor of Bodmin, wherein were
+sixty-eight houses and one market. To successive priors, as mesne lords,
+it also owed its earliest municipal privileges. King John's charter to
+the prior and convent, dated the 17th of July 1199, contained a clause
+(subsequently cancelled by Richard II.) by which burgesses were exempt
+from being impleaded, touching any tenements in their demesne, except
+before the king and his chief justice. Richard of Cornwall, king of the
+Romans, confirmed to the burgesses their gild merchant, Edward I. the
+pesage of tin, and Edward II. a market for tin and wool. Queen Elizabeth
+in 1563 constituted the town a free borough and the burgesses a body
+corporate, granting at the same time two fairs and a Saturday market.
+There are still held also three other fairs whose origin is uncertain.
+An amended charter granted in 1594 remained in force until 1789, when
+the corporation became extinct owing to the diminution of the burgesses.
+By virtue of a new charter of incorporation granted in 1798 and
+remodelled by the act of 1835, the corporation now consists of a mayor,
+four aldermen and twelve councillors. The first members for Bodmin were
+summoned in 1295. Retaining both its members in 1832, losing one in 1868
+and the other in 1885, it has now become merged in the south-eastern
+division of the county. From 1715 to 1837 the assizes were generally
+held alternately at Launceston and Bodmin; since 1837 they have been
+held at Bodmin only. A court of probate has also been held at Bodmin
+since 1773. A festival known as "Bodmin Riding" was formerly celebrated
+here on the Sunday and Monday following St Thomas's day (July 7). It is
+thought by some to have been instituted in 1177 to celebrate the
+recovery of the bones of St Petrock.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Cornwall_; John Maclean, _Parochial and
+  Family History of the Deanery of Trigg Minor, Cornwall_ (3 vols.,
+  1873-1879).
+
+
+
+
+BODÖ, a seaport on the north-western coast of Norway, in Nordland _amt_
+(county), lat. 67° 17' N. Pop. (1900) 4827. The rock-bound harbour
+admits large vessels, and there is a brisk trade in fish and eider-down.
+The neighbouring country has many scenic attractions. Sixty miles inland
+(E.) rises the great massif of Sulitelma on the Swedish frontier, with
+its copper mines, broad snow-fields and glaciers. The fjords of the
+district include the imposing Beierenfjord, the Saltenfjord, and the
+Skjerstadfjord, at the narrow mouths of which, between islands, a
+remarkable cataract (Saltström) is formed at the turn of the tide. On
+this fjord is Skjerstad, a large scattered village.
+
+
+
+
+BODONI, GIAMBATTISTA (1740-1813), Italian printer, was born in 1740 at
+Saluzzo in Piedmont, where his father owned a printing establishment.
+While yet a boy he began to engrave on wood. He at length went to Rome,
+and there became a compositor for the press of the Propaganda. He made
+himself acquainted with the Oriental languages, and thus was enabled to
+render essential service to the Propaganda press, by restoring and
+accurately distributing the types of several Oriental alphabets which
+had fallen into disorder. The infante Don Ferdinand, afterwards duke of
+Parma, having established, about 1760, a printing-house on the model of
+those in Paris, Madrid and Turin, Bodoni was placed at the head of this
+establishment, which he soon rendered the first of the kind in Europe.
+The beauty of his typography, &c., leaves nothing further to be desired;
+but the intrinsic value of his editions is seldom equal to their outward
+splendour. His Homer, however, is a truly magnificent work; and, indeed,
+his Greek letters are faultless imitations of the best Greek
+manuscript. His editions of the Greek, Latin, Italian and French
+classics are all highly prized for their typographical elegance, and
+some of them are not less remarkable for their accuracy. Bodoni died at
+Padua in 1813. In 1818 a magnificent work appeared in two volumes
+quarto, entitled _Manuale Tipografico_, containing specimens of the vast
+collection of types which had belonged to him.
+
+  See De Lama, _Vita del Cavaliere Giambattista Bodoni_ (1816).
+
+
+
+
+BODY-SNATCHING, the secret disinterring of dead bodies in churchyards in
+order to sell them for the purpose of dissection. Those who practised
+body-snatching were frequently called resurrectionists or
+resurrection-men. Previous to the passing of the Anatomy Act 1832 (see
+ANATOMY: _History_), no licence was required in Great Britain for
+opening an anatomical school, and there was no provision for supplying
+subjects to students for anatomical purposes. Therefore, though
+body-snatching was a misdemeanour at common law, punishable with fine
+and imprisonment, it was a sufficiently lucrative business to run the
+risk of detection. Body-snatching became so prevalent that it was not
+unusual for the relatives and friends of a deceased person to watch the
+grave for some time after burial, lest it should be violated. Iron
+coffins, too, were frequently used for burial, or the graves were
+protected by a framework of iron bars called _mortsafes_, well-preserved
+examples of which may still be seen in Greyfriars' churchyard,
+Edinburgh.
+
+  For a detailed history of body-snatching, see _The Diary of a
+  Resurrectionist_, edited by J.B. Bailey (London, 1896), which also
+  contains a full bibliography and the regulations in force in foreign
+  countries for the supply of bodies for anatomical purposes.
+
+
+
+
+BOECE (or BOYCE), HECTOR (c. 1465-c. 1536), Scottish historian, was
+born at Dundee about the year 1465, being descended of a family which
+for several generations had possessed the barony of Panbride in
+Forfarshire. He received his early education at Dundee, and completed
+his course of study in the university of Paris, where he took the degree
+of B.D. He was appointed regent, or professor, of philosophy in the
+college of Montaigu; and there he was a contemporary of Erasmus, who in
+two epistles has spoken of him in the highest terms. When William
+Elphinstone, bishop of Aberdeen, was laying his plans for the foundation
+of the university of Aberdeen (King's College) he made Boece his chief
+adviser; and the latter was persuaded, after receipt of the papal bull
+erecting the university (1494), to be the first principal. He was in
+Aberdeen about 1500 when lectures began in the new buildings, and he
+appears to have been well received by the canons of the cathedral,
+several of whom he has commemorated as men of learning. It was a part of
+his duty as principal to read lectures on divinity.
+
+The emoluments of his office were poor, but he also enjoyed the income
+of a canonry at Aberdeen and of the vicarage of Tullynessle. Under the
+date of 14th July 1527, we find a "grant to Maister Hector" of an annual
+pension of £50, to be paid by the sheriff of Aberdeen out of the king's
+casualties; and on the 26th of July 1529 was issued a "precept for a
+lettre to Mr Hector Boys, professor of theology, of a pension of £50
+Scots yearly, until the king promote him to a benefice of 100 marks
+Scots of yearly value; the said pension to be paid him by the custumars
+of Aberdeen." In 1533 and 1534, one-half of his pension was, however,
+paid by the king's treasurer, and the other half by the comptroller; and
+as no payment subsequent to that of Whitsuntide 1534 has been traced in
+the treasurer's accounts, he is supposed to have obtained the benefice
+soon after that period. This benefice was the rectorship of Tyrie.
+
+In 1528, soon after the publication of his history, Boece received the
+degree of D.D. at Aberdeen; and on this occasion the magistrates voted
+him a present of a tun of wine when the new wines should arrive, or,
+according to his option, the sum of £20 to purchase bonnets. He appears
+to have survived till the year 1536; for on the 22nd of November in that
+year, the king presented John Garden to the rectory of Tyrie, vacant by
+the death of "Mr Hector Boiss." He died at Aberdeen, and was buried
+before the high altar at King's College, beside the tomb of his patron
+Bishop Elphinstone.
+
+His earliest publication, _Episcoporum Murthlacensium et Aberdonensium
+per Hectorem Boetium Vitae_, was printed at the press of Jodocus Badius
+(Paris, 1522). The notices of the early prelates are of little value,
+but the portion of the book in which he speaks of Bishop Elphinstone is
+of enduring merit. Here we likewise find an account of the foundation
+and constitution of the college, together with some notices of its
+earliest members. His fame rests chiefly on his _History of Scotland_,
+published in 1527 under the title _Scotorum Historiae a prima gentis
+origine cum aliarum et rerum et gentium illustratione non vulgari_. This
+edition contains seventeen books. Another edition, containing the
+eighteenth book and a fragment of the nineteenth, was published by
+Ferrerius, who has added an appendix of thirty-five pages (Paris, 1574).
+
+The composition of the history displays much ability; but Boece's
+imagination was, however, stronger than his judgment: of the extent of
+the historian's credulity, his narrative exhibits many unequivocal
+proofs; and of deliberate invention or distortion of facts not a few,
+though the latter are less flagrant and intentional than early
+19th-century criticism has assumed. He professed to have obtained from
+the monastery of Icolmkill, through the good offices of the earl of
+Argyll, and his brother, John Campbell of Lundy, the treasurer, certain
+original historians of Scotland, and among the rest Veremundus, of whose
+writings not a single vestige is now to be found. In his dedication to
+the king he is pleased to state that Veremundus, a Spaniard by birth,
+was archdeacon of St Andrews, and that he wrote in Latin a history of
+Scotland from the origin of the nation to the reign of Malcolm III., to
+whom he inscribed his work. His propensity to the marvellous was at an
+early period exposed in the following verses by Leland:--
+
+  "Hectoris historici tot quot mendacia scripsit
+    Si vis ut numerem, lector amice, tibi,
+   Me jubeas etiam fluctus numerare marinos
+    Et liquidi Stellas connumerare poli."
+
+  Boece's _History of Scotland_ was translated into Scottish prose by
+  John Bellenden, and into verse by William Stewart. _The Lives of the
+  Bishops_ was reprinted for the Bannatyne Club, Edin., 1825, in a
+  limited edition of sixty copies. A commonplace verse-rendering of the
+  _Life of Bishop Elphinstone_, which was written by Alexander Gardyne
+  in 1619, remains in MS. There is no modern edition of the history,
+  though the versions of Bellenden and Stewart have been edited.
+
+
+
+
+BOEHM, SIR JOSEPH EDGAR, Bart. (1834-1890), British sculptor, was born
+of Hungarian parentage on the 4th of July 1834 at Vienna, where his
+father was director of the imperial mint. After studying the plastic art
+in Italy and at Paris, he worked for a few years as a medallist in his
+native city. After a further period of study in England, he was so
+successful as an exhibitor at the Exhibition of 1862 that he determined
+to abandon the execution of coins and medals, and to give his mind to
+portrait busts and statuettes, chiefly equestrian. The colossal statue
+of Queen Victoria, executed in marble (1869) for Windsor Castle, and the
+monument of the duke of Kent in St George's chapel, were his earliest
+great works, and so entirely to the taste of his royal patrons that he
+rose rapidly in favour with the court. He was made A.R.A. in 1878, and
+produced soon afterwards the statue of Carlyle on the Thames embankment
+at Chelsea. In 1881 he was appointed sculptor in ordinary to the queen,
+and in the ensuing year became full Academician. On the death of Dean
+Stanley, Boehm was commissioned to execute his sarcophagus in
+Westminster Abbey, and his achievement, a recumbent statue, has been
+pronounced to be one of the best portraits in modern sculpture. Less
+successful was his monument to General Gordon in St Paul's cathedral. He
+executed the equestrian statue of the duke of Wellington at Hyde Park
+Corner, and designed the coinage for the Jubilee of Queen Victoria in
+1887. Among his ideal subjects should be noted the "Herdsman and Bull."
+He died suddenly in his studio at South Kensington on the 12th of
+December 1890.
+
+
+
+
+BOEHM VON BAWERK, EUGEN (1851-   ), Austrian economist and statesman,
+was born at Brünn on the 12th of February 1851. Entering the Austrian
+department of finance in 1872, he held various posts until 1880, when he
+became qualified as a teacher of political economy in the university of
+Vienna. The following year, however, he transferred his services to the
+university of Innsbruck, where he became professor in 1884. In 1889 he
+became councillor in the ministry of finance, and represented the
+government in the Lower House on all questions of taxation. In 1895 and
+again in 1897-1898 he was minister of finance. In 1899 he was made a
+member of the Upper House, and in 1900 again became minister of finance.
+One of the leaders of the Austrian school of economists, he has made
+notable criticisms on the theory of value in relation to cost as laid
+down by the "classical school." His more important works are _Kapital
+und Kapitalzins_ (Innsbruck, 1884-1889), in two parts, translated by W.
+Smart, viz. _Capital and Interest_ (part i., 1890), and _The Positive
+Theory of Capital_ (part ii., 1891); _Karl Marx and the Close of his
+System_ (trans. A.M. Macdonald, 1898); _Recent Literature on Interest_
+(trans. W.A. Scott and S. Feilbogen, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+BOEHME (or BEHMEN), JAKOB (1575-1624), German mystical writer, whose
+surname (of which Fechner gives eight German varieties) appears in
+English literature as Beem, Behmont, &c., and notably Behmen, was born
+at Altseidenberg, in Upper Lusatia, a straggling hamlet among the hills,
+some 10 m. S.E. of Görlitz. His father was a well-to-do peasant, and his
+first employment was that of herd boy on the Landskrone, a hill in the
+neighbourhood of Görlitz; the only education he received was at the
+town-school of Seidenberg, a mile from his home. Seidenberg, to this
+day, is filled with shoemakers, and to a shoemaker Jakob was apprenticed
+in his fourteenth year (1589), being judged not robust enough for
+husbandry. Ten years later (1599) we find him settled at Görlitz as
+master-shoemaker, and married to Katharina, daughter of Hans
+Kuntzschmann, a thriving butcher in the town. After industriously
+pursuing his vocation for ten years, he bought (1610) the substantial
+house, which still preserves his name, close by the bridge, in the
+Neiss-Vorstadt. Two or three years later he gave up business, and did
+not resume it as a shoemaker; but for some years before his death he
+made and sold woollen gloves, regularly visiting Prague fair for this
+purpose.
+
+Boehme's authorship began in his 37th year (1612) with a treatise,
+_Aurora, oder die Morgenröte im Aufgang_, which though unfinished was
+surreptitiously copied, and eagerly circulated in MS. by Karl von Ender.
+This raised him at once out of his homely sphere, and made him the
+centre of a local circle of liberal thinkers, considerably above him in
+station and culture. The charge of heresy was, however, soon directed
+against him by Gregorius Richter, then pastor primarius of Görlitz.
+Feeling ran so high after Richter's pulpit denunciations, that, in July
+1613, the municipal council, fearing a disturbance of the peace, made a
+show of examining Boehme, took possession of his fragmentary quarto, and
+dismissed the writer with an admonition to meddle no more with such
+matters. For five years he obeyed this injunction. But in 1618 began a
+second period of authorship; he poured forth, but did not publish,
+treatise after treatise, expository and polemical, in the next and the
+two following years. In 1622 he composed nothing but a few short pieces
+on true repentance, resignation, &c., which, however, devotionally
+speaking, are the most precious of all his writings. They were the only
+pieces offered to the public in his lifetime and with his permission, a
+fact which is evidence of the essentially religious and practical
+character of his mind. Their publication at Görlitz, on New Year's day
+1624, under the title of _Der Weg zu Christo_, was the signal for
+renewed clerical hostility. Boehme had by this time entered on the third
+and most prolific though the shortest period (1623-1624) of his
+speculation. His labours at the desk were interrupted in May 1624 by a
+summons to Dresden, where his famous "colloquy" with the Upper
+Consistorial court was made the occasion of a flattering but transient
+ovation on the part of a new circle of admirers. Richter died in August
+1624, and Boehme did not long survive his pertinacious foe. Seized with
+a fever when away from home, he was with difficulty conveyed to Görlitz.
+His wife was at Dresden on business; and during the first week of his
+malady he was nursed by a literary friend. He died, after receiving the
+rites of the church, grudgingly administered by the authorities, on
+Sunday, the 17th of November.
+
+Boehme always professed that a direct inward opening or illumination was
+the only source of his speculative power. He pretended to no other
+revelation. Ecstatic raptures we should not expect, for he was
+essentially a Protestant mystic. No "thus saith the Lord" was claimed as
+his warrant, after the manner of Antoinette Bourignon, or Ludowick
+Muggleton; no spirits or angels held converse with him as with
+Swedenborg. It is needless to dwell, in the way either of acceptance or
+rejection, on the very few occasions in which his outward life seemed to
+him to come into contact with the invisible world. The apparition of the
+pail of gold to the herd boy on the Landskrone, the visit of the
+mysterious stranger to the young apprentice, the fascination of the
+luminous sheen, reflected from a common pewter dish, which first, in
+1600, gave an intuitive turn to his meditations, the heavenly music
+which filled his ears as he lay dying--none of these matters is
+connected organically with the secret of his special power. The
+mysteries of which he discoursed were not reported to him: he "beheld"
+them. He saw the root of all mysteries, the _Ungrund_ or _Urgrund_,
+whence issue all contrasts and discordant principles, hardness and
+softness, severity and mildness, sweet and bitter, love and sorrow,
+heaven and hell. These he "saw" in their origin; these he attempted to
+describe in their issue, and to reconcile in their eternal result. He
+saw into the being of God; whence the birth or going forth of the divine
+manifestation. Nature lay unveiled to him, he was at home in the heart
+of things. "His own book, which he himself was," the microcosm of man,
+with his threefold life, was patent to his vision. Such was his own
+account of his qualification. If he failed it was in expression; he
+confessed himself a poor mouthpiece, though he saw with a sure spiritual
+eye.
+
+It must not be supposed that the form in which Boehme's pneumatic
+realism worked itself out in detail was shaped entirely from within. In
+his writings we trace the influence of Theophr. Bombast von Hohenheim,
+known as Paracelsus (1493-1541), of Kaspar Schwenkfeld (1490-1561), the
+first Protestant mystic, and of Valentin Weigel (1533-1588). From the
+school of Paracelsus came much of his puzzling phraseology,--his _Turba_
+and _Tinctur_ and so forth,--a phraseology embarrassing to himself as
+well as to his readers. His friends plied him with foreign terms, which
+he was delighted to receive, interpreting them by an instinct, and using
+them often in a corrupted form and always in a sense of his own. Thus
+the word _Idea_ called up before him the image of "a very fair,
+heavenly, and chaste virgin." The title _Aurora_, by which his earliest
+treatise is best known, was furnished by Dr Balthasar Walther. These,
+however, were false helps, which only serve to obscure a difficult
+study, like the _Flagrat_ and _Lubet_, with which his English translator
+veiled Boehme's own honest _Schreck_ and _Lust_. There is danger lest
+his crude science and his crude philosophical vocabulary conceal the
+fertility of Boehme's ideas and the transcendent greatness of his
+religious insight. Few will take the pains to follow him through the
+interminable account of his seven _Quellgeister_, which remind us of
+Gnosticism; or even of his three first properties of eternal nature, in
+which his disciples find Newton's formulae anticipated, and which
+certainly bear a marvellous resemblance to the three [Greek: archai] of
+Schelling's _Theogonische Natur_. Boehme is always greatest when he
+breaks away from his fancies and his trammels, and allows speech to the
+voice of his heart. Then he is artless, clear and strong; and no man can
+help listening to him, whether he dive deep down with the conviction
+"ohne Gift und Grimm kein Leben," or rise with the belief that "the
+being of all beings is a wrestling power," or soar with the persuasion
+that Love "in its height is as high as God." The mystical poet of
+Silesia, Angelus Silesius, discerned where Boehme's truest power lay
+when he sang--
+
+  "Im Wasser lebt der Fisch, die Pflanze in der Erden,
+   Der Vogel in der Luft, die Sonn' am Firmament,
+   Der Salamander muss im Feu'r erhalten werden,
+   Und Gottes Herz ist Jakob Böhme's Element."
+
+The three periods of Boehme's authorship constitute three distinct
+stages in the development of his philosophy. He himself marks a
+threefold division of his subject-matter:--1. PHILOSOPHIA, i.e. the
+pursuit of the divine _Sophia_, a study of God in himself; this was
+attempted in the _Aurora_. 2. ASTROLOGIA, i.e., in the largest sense,
+cosmology, the manifestation of the divine in the structure of the world
+and of man; hereto belong, with others, _Die drei Principien göttlichen
+Wesens; Vom dreifachen Leben der Menschen; Von der Menschwerdung
+Christi;, Von der Geburt und Bezeichnung alter Wesen_ (known as
+_Signatura Rerum_). 3. THEOLOGIA, i.e., in Scougall's phrase, "the
+life of God in the soul of man." Of the speculative writings under this
+head the most important are _Von der Gnadenwahl; Mysterium Magnum_ (a
+spiritual commentary on Genesis); _Von Christi Testamenten_ (the
+Sacraments).
+
+Although Boehme's philosophy is essentially theological, and his
+theology essentially philosophical, one would hardly describe him as a
+philosophical theologian; and, indeed, his position is not one in which
+either the philosopher or the theologian finds it easy to make himself
+completely at home. The philosopher finds no trace in Boehme of a
+conception of God which rests its own validity on an accord with the
+highest canons of reason or of morals; it is in the actual not in the
+ideal that Boehme seeks God, whom he discovers as the spring of natural
+powers and forces, rather than as the goal of advancing thought. The
+theologian is staggered by a language which breaks the fixed association
+of theological phrases, and strangely reversing the usual point of view,
+characteristically pictures God as underneath rather than above. Nature
+rises out of Him; we sink into Him. The _Ungrund_ of the unmanifested
+Godhead is boldly represented in the English translations of Boehme by
+the word _Abyss_, in a sense altogether unexplained by its Biblical use.
+In the _Theologia Germanica_ this tendency to regard God as the
+_substantia_, the underlying ground of all things, is accepted as a
+foundation for piety; the same view, when offered in the colder logic of
+Spinoza, is sometimes set aside as atheistical. The procession of
+spiritual forces and natural phenomena out of the _Ungrund_ is described
+by Boehme in terms of a threefold manifestation, commended no doubt by
+the constitution of the Christian Trinity, but exhibited in a form
+derived from the school of Paracelsus. From Weigel he learned a purely
+idealistic explanation of the universe, according to which it is not the
+resultant of material forces, but the expression of spiritual
+principles. These two explanations were fused in his mind till they
+issued forth as equivalent forms of one and the same thought. Further,
+Schwenkfeld supplied him with the germs of a transcendental exegesis,
+whereby the Christian Scriptures and the dogmata of Lutheran orthodoxy
+were opened up in harmony with his new-found views. Thus equipped,
+Boehme's own genius did the rest. A primary effort of Boehme's
+philosophy is to show how material powers are substantially one with
+moral forces. This is the object with which he draws out the dogmatic
+scheme which dictates the arrangement of his seven _Quellgeister_.
+Translating Boehme's thought out of the uncouth dialect of material
+symbols (as to which one doubts sometimes whether he means them as
+concrete instances, or as pictorial illustrations, or as a mere _memoria
+technica_), we find that Boehme conceives of the correlation of two
+triads of forces. Each triad consists of a thesis, an antithesis and a
+synthesis; and the two are connected by an important link. In the hidden
+life of the Godhead, which is at once _Nichts_ and _Alles_, exists the
+original triad, viz. Attraction, Diffusion, and their resultant, the
+Agony of the unmanifested Godhead. The transition is made; by an act of
+will the divine Spirit comes to Light; and immediately the manifested
+life appears in the triad of Love, Expression, and their resultant,
+Visible Variety. As the action of contraries and their resultant are
+explained the relations of soul, body and spirit; of good, evil and free
+will; of the spheres of the angels, of Lucifer, and of this world. It is
+a more difficult problem to account on this philosophy for the
+introduction of evil. Boehme does not resort to dualism, nor has he the
+smallest sympathy with a pantheistic repudiation of the fact of sin.
+That the difficulty presses him is clear from the progressive changes
+in his attempted solution of the problem. In the _Aurora_ nothing save
+good proceeds from the _Ungrund_, though there is good that abides and
+good that fall;--Christ and Lucifer. In the second stage of his writing
+the antithesis is directly generated as such; good and its contrary are
+coincidently given from the one creative source, as factors of life and
+movement; while in the third period evil is a direct outcome of the
+primary principle of divine manifestation--it is the wrath side of God.
+Corresponding to this change we trace a significant variation in the
+moral end contemplated by Boehme as the object of this world's life and
+history. In the first stage the world is created in remedy of a decline;
+in the second, for the adjustment of a balance of forces; in the third,
+to exhibit the eternal victory of good over evil, of love over wrath.
+
+  Editions of Boehme's works were published by H. Betke (Amsterdam,
+  1675); by J.G. Gichtel (Amsterdam, 1682-1683, 10 vols.); by K.W.
+  Schiebler (Leipzig, 1831-1847, 7 vols.). Translations of sundry
+  treatises have been made into Latin (by J.A. Werdenhagen, 1632), Dutch
+  (complete, by W. v. Bayerland, 1634-1641), and French (by Jean Macle,
+  c. 1640, and L.C. de Saint-Martin, 1800-1809). Between 1644 and 1662
+  all Boehme's works were translated by John Ellistone (d. 1652) and
+  John Sparrow, assisted by Durand Hotham and Humphrey Blunden, who paid
+  for the undertaking. At that time regular societies of _Behmenists_,
+  embracing not only the cultivated but the vulgar, existed in England
+  and in Holland. They merged into the Quaker movement, holding already
+  in common with Friends that salvation is nothing short of the very
+  presence and life of Christ in the believer, and only kept apart by an
+  objective doctrine of the sacraments which exposed them to the polemic
+  of Quakers (e.g. J. Anderdon). Muggleton led an anthropomorphic
+  reaction against them, and between the two currents they were swept
+  away. The Philadelphian Society at the beginning of the 18th century
+  consisted of cultured mystics, Jane Lead, Pordage, Francis Lee,
+  Bromley, &c., who fed upon Boehme. William Law (1686-1761) somewhat
+  later recurred to the same spring, with the result, however, in those
+  dry times of bringing his own good sense into question rather than of
+  reviving the credit of his author. After Law's death the old English
+  translation was in great part re-edited (4 vols., 1762-1784) as a
+  tribute to his memory, by George Ward and Thomas Langcake, with plates
+  from the designs of D.A. Freher (Brit. Mus. Add. MSS. 5767-5794). This
+  forms what is commonly called Law's translation; to complete it a 5th
+  vol. (12mo, Dublin, 1820) is needed.
+
+  See also J. Hambetger, _Die Lehre des deutschen Philosophen J.
+  Boehmes_ (1844); Alb. Peip, _J. Boehme der deutsche Philosoph_ (1860);
+  von Harless, _J. Boehme und die Alchimisten_ (1870, 2nd ed. 1882). For
+  Boehme's life see the _Memoirs_ by Abraham von Frankenberg (d. 1652)
+  and others, trans, by F. Okely (1870); La Motte Fouqué, _J. Boehm, ein
+  biographischer Denkstein_ (1831); H.A. Fechner, _J. Boehme, sein Leben
+  und seine Schriften_ (1857); H.L. Martensen, _J. Boehme, Theosophiske
+  Studier_ (Copenhagen, 1881; English trans. 1885); J. Claassen, _J.
+  Boehme, sein Leben und seine theosophische Werke_ (Güterslöh, 1885);
+  P. Deussen, _J. Boehme, über sein Leben und seine Philosophie_ (Kiel,
+  1897).
+
+
+
+
+BOEOTIA, a district of central Greece, stretching from Phocis and Locris
+in the W. and N. to Attica and Megaris in the S. between the strait of
+Euboea and the Corinthian Gulf. This area, amounting in all to 1100 sq.
+m., naturally falls into two main divisions. In the north the basin of
+the Cephissus and Lake Copaïs lies between parallel mountain-walls
+continuing eastward the line of Parnassus in the extensive ridge of
+Helicon, the "Mountain of the Muses" (5470 ft.) and the east Locrian
+range in Mts. Ptoüm, Messapium and other smaller peaks. These ranges,
+which mostly lie close to the seaboard, form by their projecting spurs a
+narrow defile on the Phocian frontier, near the famous battlefield of
+Chaeroneia, and shut in Copaïs closely on the south between Coronea and
+Haliartus. The north-east barrier was pierced by underground passages
+(_katavothra_) which carried off the overflow from Copaïs. The southern
+portion of the land forms a plateau which slopes to Mt. Cithaeron, the
+frontier range between Boeotia and Attica. Within this territory the low
+ridge of Teumessus separates the plain of Ismenus and Dirce, commanded
+by the citadel of Thebes, from the upland plain of the Asopus, the only
+Boeotian river that finds the eastern sea. Though the Boeotian climate
+suffered from the exhalations of Copaïs, which produced a heavy
+atmosphere with foggy winters and sultry summers, its rich soil was
+suited alike for crops, plantations and pasture; the Copaïs plain,
+though able to turn into marsh when the choking of the _katavothra_
+caused the lake to encroach, being among the most fertile in Greece.
+The central position of Boeotia between two seas, the strategic strength
+of its frontiers and the ease of communication within its extensive area
+were calculated to enhance its political importance. On the other hand
+the lack of good harbours hindered its maritime development; and the
+Boeotian nation, although it produced great men like Pindar,
+Epaminondas, Pelopidas and Plutarch, was proverbially as dull as its
+native air. But credit should be given to the people for their splendid
+military qualities: both their cavalry and heavy infantry achieved a
+glorious record.
+
+In the mythical days Boeotia played a prominent part. Of the two great
+centres of legends, Thebes with its Cadmean population figures as a
+military stronghold, and Orchomenus, the home of the Minyae, as an
+enterprising commercial city. The latter's prosperity is still attested
+by its archaeological remains (notably the "Treasury of Minyas") and the
+traces of artificial conduits by which its engineers supplemented the
+natural outlets. The "Boeotian" population seems to have entered the
+land from the north at a date probably anterior to the Dorian invasion.
+With the exception of the Minyae, the original peoples were soon
+absorbed by these immigrants, and the Boeotians henceforth appear as a
+homogeneous nation. In historical times the leading city of Boeotia was
+Thebes, whose central position and military strength made it a suitable
+capital. It was the constant ambition of the Thebans to absorb the other
+townships into a single state, just as Athens had annexed the Attic
+communities. But the outlying cities successfully resisted this policy,
+and only allowed the formation of a loose federation which in early
+times seems to have possessed a merely religious character. While the
+Boeotians, unlike the Arcadians, generally acted as a united whole
+against foreign enemies, the constant struggle between the forces of
+centralization and disruption perhaps went further than any other cause
+to check their development into a really powerful nation. Boeotia hardly
+figures in history before the late 6th century. Previous to this its
+people is chiefly known as the producer of a type of geometric pottery
+similar to the Dipylon ware of Athens. About 519 the resistance of
+Plataea to the federating policy of Thebes led to the interference of
+Athens on behalf of the former; on this occasion, and again in 507, the
+Athenians defeated the Boeotian levy. During the Persian invasion of
+480, while some of the cities fought whole-heartedly in the ranks of the
+patriots, Thebes assisted the invaders. For a time the presidency of the
+Boeotian League was taken away from Thebes, but in 457 the Spartans
+reinstated that city as a bulwark against Athenian aggression. Athens
+retaliated by a sudden advance upon Boeotia, and after the victory of
+Oenophyta brought under its power the whole country excepting the
+capital. For ten years the land remained under Athenian control, which
+was exercised through the newly installed democracies; but in 447 the
+oligarchic majority raised an insurrection, and after a victory at
+Coronea regained their freedom and restored the old constitutions. In
+the Peloponnesian War the Boeotians, embittered by the early conflicts
+round Plataea, fought zealously against Athens. Though slightly
+estranged from Sparta after the peace of Nicias, they never abated their
+enmity against their neighbours. They rendered good service at Syracuse
+and Arginusae; but their greatest achievement was the decisive victory
+at Delium over the flower of the Athenian army (424), in which both
+their heavy infantry and their cavalry displayed unusual efficiency.
+
+About this time the Boeotian League comprised eleven groups of sovereign
+cities and associated townships, each of which elected one Boeotarch or
+minister of war and foreign affairs, contributed sixty delegates to the
+federal council at Thebes, and supplied a contingent of about a thousand
+foot and a hundred horse to the federal army. A safeguard against undue
+encroachment on the part of the central government was provided in the
+councils of the individual cities, to which all important questions of
+policy had to be submitted for ratification. These local councils, to
+which the propertied classes alone were eligible, were subdivided into
+four sections, resembling the _prytaneis_ of the Athenian council, which
+took it in turns to take previous cognizance of all new measures.[1]
+
+Boeotia took a prominent part in the war of the Corinthian League
+against Sparta, especially at Haliartus and Coronea (395-394). This
+change of policy seems due mainly to the national resentment against
+foreign interference. Yet disaffection against Thebes was now growing
+rife, and Sparta fostered this feeling by stipulating for the complete
+independence of all the cities in the peace of Antalcidas (387). In 374
+Pelopidas restored the Theban dominion. Boeotian contingents fought in
+all the campaigns of Epaminondas, and in the later wars against Phocis
+(356-346); while in the dealings with Philip of Macedon the federal
+cities appear merely as the tools of Thebes. The federal constitution
+was also brought into accord with the democratic governments now
+prevalent throughout the land. The sovereign power was vested in the
+popular assembly, which elected the Boeotarchs (between seven and twelve
+in number), and sanctioned all laws. After the battle of Chaeroneia, in
+which the Boeotian heavy infantry once again distinguished itself, the
+land never rose again to prosperity. The destruction of Thebes by
+Alexander (335) seems to have paralysed the political energy of the
+Boeotians, though it led to an improvement in the federal constitution,
+by which each city received an equal vote. Henceforth they never pursued
+an independent policy, but followed the lead of protecting powers.
+Though the old military training and organization continued, the people
+proved unable to defend the frontiers, and the land became more than
+ever the "dancing-ground of Ares." Though enrolled for a short time in
+the Aetolian League (about 245 B.C.) Boeotia was generally loyal to
+Macedonia, and supported its later kings against Rome. In return for the
+excesses of the democracies Rome dissolved the league, which, however,
+was allowed to revive under Augustus, and merged with the other central
+Greek federations in the Achaean synod. The death-blow to the country's
+prosperity was given by the devastations during the first Mithradatic
+War.
+
+Save for a short period of prosperity under the Frankish rulers of
+Athens (1205-1310), who repaired the _katavothra_ and fostered
+agriculture, Boeotia long continued in a state of decay, aggravated by
+occasional barbarian incursions. The first step towards the country's
+recovery was not until 1895, when the outlets of Copaïs were again put
+into working order. Since then the northern plain has been largely
+reclaimed for agriculture, and the natural riches of the whole land are
+likely to develop under the influence of the railway to Athens. Boeotia
+is at present a Nomos with Livadia (the old Turkish capital) for its
+centre; the other surviving townships are quite unimportant. The
+population (65,816 in 1907) is largely Albanian.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--Thuc. iv. 76-101; Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iii.-vii.;
+Strabo, pp. 400-412; Pausanias ix.; Theopompus (or Cratippus) in the
+_Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, vol. v. (London, 1908), No. 842, col. 12; W.M.
+Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_, chs. xi.-xix. (London, 1835); H.F.
+Tozer, _Geography of Greece_ (London, 1873), pp. 233-238; W. Rhys
+Roberts, _The Ancient Boeotians_ (Cambridge, 1895); E.A. Freeman.
+_Federal Government_ (ed. 1893, London), ch. iv. § 2; B.V. Head,
+_Historia Numorum_, pp. 291 sqq. (Oxford, 1887); W. Larfeld, _Sylloge
+Inscriptionum Boeoticarum_ (Berlin, 1883). (See also THEBES.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Thucydides (v. 38), in speaking of the "four councils of the
+    Boeotians," is referring to the plenary bodies in the various states.
+
+
+
+
+BOER, the Dutch form of the Eng. "boor," in its original signification
+of husbandman (Ger. _Bauer_), a name given to the Dutch farmers of South
+Africa, and especially to the Dutch population of the Transvaal and
+Orange River States. (See SOUTH AFRICA and TRANSVAAL.)
+
+
+
+
+BOERHAAVE, HERMANN (1668-1738), Dutch physician and man of science, was
+born at Voorhout near Leiden on the 31st of December 1668. Entering the
+university of Leiden he took his degree in philosophy in 1689, with a
+dissertation _De distinctione mentis a corpore_, in which he attacked
+the doctrines of Epicurus, Hobbes and Spinoza. He then turned to the
+study of medicine, in which he graduated in 1693 at Harderwyck in
+Guelderland. In 1701 he was appointed lecturer on the institutes of
+medicine at Leiden; in his inaugural discourse, _De commendando
+Hippocratis studio_, he recommended to his pupils that great physician
+as their model. In 1709 he became professor of botany and medicine, and
+in that capacity he did good service, not only to his own university,
+but also to botanical science, by his improvements and additions to the
+botanic garden of Leiden, and by the publication of numerous works
+descriptive of new species of plants. In 1714, when he was appointed
+rector of the university, he succeeded Govert Bidloo (1649-1713) in the
+chair of practical medicine, and in this capacity he had the merit of
+introducing the modern system of clinical instruction. Four years later
+he was appointed also to the chair of chemistry. In 1728 he was elected
+into the French Academy of Sciences, and two years later into the Royal
+Society of London. In 1729 declining health obliged him to resign the
+chairs of chemistry and botany; and he died, after a lingering and
+painful illness, on the 23rd of September 1738 at Leiden. His genius so
+raised the fame of the university of Leiden, especially as a school of
+medicine, that it became a resort of strangers from every part of
+Europe. All the princes of Europe sent him disciples, who found in this
+skilful professor not only an indefatigable teacher, but an affectionate
+guardian. When Peter the Great went to Holland in 1715, to instruct
+himself in maritime affairs, he also took lessons from Boerhaave. His
+reputation was not confined to Europe; a Chinese mandarin wrote him a
+letter directed "To the illustrious Boerhaave, physician in Europe," and
+it reached him in due course.
+
+His principal works are--_Institutiones medicae_ (Leiden, 1708);
+_Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis morbis_ (Leiden, 1709), on which
+his pupil and assistant, Gerard van Swieten (1700-1772) published a
+commentary in 5 vols.; and _Elementa chemiae_ (Paris, 1724).
+
+
+
+
+BOETHUS, a sculptor of the Hellenistic age, a native of Carthage (or
+possibly Chalcedon). His date cannot be accurately fixed, but was
+probably the 2nd century B.C. He was noted for his representations of
+children, in dealing with whom earlier Greek art had not been very
+successful; and especially for a group representing a boy struggling
+with a goose, of which several copies survive in museums.
+
+
+
+
+BOETIUS (or BOETHIUS), ANICIUS MANLIUS SEVERINUS (c. A.D. 480-524),
+Roman philosopher and statesman, described by Gibbon as "the last of the
+Romans whom Cato or Tully could have acknowledged for their countryman."
+The historians of the day give us but imperfect records or make
+unsatisfactory allusions. Later chroniclers indulged in the fictitious
+and the marvellous, and it is almost exclusively from his own books that
+trustworthy information can be obtained. There is considerable diversity
+among authorities as to his name. One editor of his _De Consolatione_,
+Bertius, thinks that he bore the praenomen of Flavius, but there is no
+authority for this supposition. His father was Flavius Manlius Boetius,
+and it is probable that the Flavius Boetius, the praetorian prefect who
+was put to death in A.D. 455 by order of Valentinian III., was his
+grandfather, but these facts do not prove that he also had the praenomen
+of Flavius. Many of the earlier editions inserted the name of Torquatus,
+but it is not found in any of the best manuscripts. The last name is
+commonly written Boethius, from the idea that it is connected with the
+Greek [Greek: Boaethos]; but the best manuscripts agree in reading
+Boetius.
+
+His boyhood was spent in Rome during the reign of Odoacer. We know
+nothing of his early years. A passage in a treatise falsely ascribed to
+him (_De Disciplina Scholarium_) and a misinterpretation of a passage in
+Cassiodorus led early scholars to suppose that he spent some eighteen
+years in Athens pursuing his studies, but there is no foundation for
+this opinion. His father, consul in 487, seems to have died soon after;
+for Boetius states that, when he was bereaved of his parent, men of the
+highest rank took him under their charge (_De Con_. lib. ii. c. 3),
+especially the senator Q. Aur. Memmius Symmachus, whose daughter
+Rusticiana he married. By her he had two sons, Anicius Manlius Severinus
+Boetius and Q. Aurelius Memmius Symmachus. He became a favourite with
+Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, who ruled in Rome from 500, and was one of
+his intimate friends. Boetius was consul in 510, and his sons, while
+still young, held the same honour together (522). Boetius regarded it as
+the height of his good fortune when he witnessed his two sons, consuls
+at the same time, convoyed from their home to the senate-house amid the
+enthusiasm of the masses. On that day, he tells us, while his sons
+occupied the curule chairs in the senate-house, he himself had the
+honour of pronouncing a panegyric on the monarch. But his good fortune
+did not last, and he attributes the calamities that came upon him to the
+ill-will which his bold maintenance of justice had caused, and to his
+opposition to every oppressive measure. Of this he mentions particular
+cases. A famine had begun to rage. The prefect of the praetorium was
+determined to satisfy the soldiers, regardless altogether of the
+feelings of the provincials. He accordingly issued an edict for a
+_coemptio_, that is, an order compelling the provincials to sell their
+corn to the government, whether they would or not. This edict would have
+utterly ruined Campania. Boetius interfered. The case was brought before
+the king, and Boetius succeeded in averting the _coemptio_ from the
+Campanians. And he gives as a crowning instance that he exposed himself
+to the hatred of the informer Cyprianus by preventing the punishment of
+Albinus, a man of consular rank. He mentions in another place that when
+at Verona the king was anxious to transfer the accusation of treason
+brought against Albinus to the whole senate, he defended the senate at
+great risk. In consequence of the ill-will that Boetius had thus roused,
+he was accused of treason towards the end of the reign of Theodoric. The
+charges were that he had conspired against the king, that he was anxious
+to maintain the integrity of the senate, and to restore Rome to liberty,
+and that for this purpose he had written to the emperor Justin. Justin
+had, no doubt, special reasons for wishing to see an end to the reign of
+Theodoric. Justin was orthodox, Theodoric was an Arian. The orthodox
+subjects of Theodoric were suspicious of their ruler; and many would
+gladly have joined in a plot to displace him. The knowledge of this fact
+may have rendered Theodoric suspicious. But Boetius denied the
+accusation in unequivocal terms. He did indeed wish the integrity of the
+senate. He would fain have desired liberty, but all hope of it was gone.
+The letters addressed by him to Justin were forgeries, and he had not
+been guilty of any conspiracy. Notwithstanding his innocence he was
+condemned and sent to Ticinum (Pavia) where he was thrown into prison.
+It was during his confinement in this prison that he wrote his famous
+work _De Consolatione Philosophiae_. His goods were confiscated, and
+after an imprisonment of considerable duration he was put to death in
+524. Procopius relates that Theodoric soon repented of his cruel deed,
+and that his death, which took place soon after, was hastened by remorse
+for the crime he had committed against his great counsellor.
+
+Two or three centuries after the death of Boetius writers began to view
+his death as a martyrdom. Several Christian books were ascribed to him,
+and there was one especially on the Trinity (see below) which was
+regarded as proof that he had taken an active part against the heresy of
+Theodoric. It was therefore for his orthodoxy that Boetius was put to
+death. And these writers delight to paint with minuteness the horrible
+tortures to which he was exposed and the marvellous actions which the
+saint performed at his death. He was locally regarded as a saint, but he
+was not canonized. The brick tower in Pavia in which he was confined
+was, and still is, an object of reverence to the country people.
+Finally, in the year 996, Otho III. ordered the bones of Boetius to be
+taken out of the place in which they had lain hid, and to be placed in
+the church of S. Pietro in Ciel d'Oro within a splendid tomb, for which
+Gerbert, afterwards Pope Silvester II., wrote an inscription. Thence
+they were subsequently removed to a tomb beneath the high altar of the
+cathedral. It should be mentioned also that some have given him a
+decidedly Christian wife, of the name of Elpis, who wrote hymns, two of
+which are still extant (Daniel, _Thes. Hymn._ i. p. 156). This is a pure
+supposition inconsistent with chronology, and based only on a
+misinterpretation of a passage in the _De Consolatione_.
+
+The contemporaries of Boetius regarded him as a man of profound
+learning. Priscian the grammarian speaks of him as having attained the
+summit of honesty and of all sciences. Cassiodorus, _magister
+officiorum_ under Theodoric and the intimate acquaintance of the
+philosopher, employs language equally strong, and Ennodius, the bishop
+of Pavia, knows no bounds for his admiration. Theodoric had a profound
+respect for his scientific abilities. He employed him in setting right
+the coinage. When he visited Rome with Gunibald, king of the
+Burgundians, he took him to Boetius, who showed them, amongst other
+mechanical contrivances, a sun-dial and a water-clock. The foreign
+monarch was astonished, and, at the request of Theodoric, Boetius had to
+prepare others of a similar nature, which were sent as presents to
+Gunibald.
+
+The fame of Boetius increased after his death, and his influence during
+the middle ages was exceedingly powerful. His circumstances peculiarly
+favoured this influence. He appeared at a time when contempt for
+intellectual pursuits had begun to pervade society. In his early years
+he was seized with a passionate enthusiasm for Greek literature, and
+this continued through life. Even amidst the cares of the consulship he
+found time for commenting on the _Categories_ of Aristotle. The idea
+laid hold of him of reviving the spirit of his countrymen by imbuing
+them with the thoughts of the great Greek writers. He formed the
+resolution to translate all the works of Aristotle and all the dialogues
+of Plato, and to reconcile the philosophy of Plato with that of
+Aristotle. He did not succeed in all that he designed; but he did a
+great part of his work. He translated into Latin Aristotle's _Analytica
+Priora et Posteriora_, the _Topica_, and _Elenchi Sophistici_; and he
+wrote commentaries on Aristotle's _Categories_, on his book
+[Greek: peri ermaeneias], also a commentary on the _Isagoge_ of
+Porphyrius. These works formed to a large extent the source from which
+the middle ages derived their knowledge of Aristotle. (See Stahr,
+_Aristoteles bei den Römern_, pp. 196-234.) Boetius wrote also a
+commentary on the _Topica_ of Cicero; and he was also the author of
+independent works on logic:--_Introductio ad Categoricos Syllogismos_,
+in one book; _De Syllogismis Categoricis_, in two books; _De Syllogismis
+Hypotheticis_, in two books; _De Divisione_, in one book; _De
+Definitione_, in one book; _De Differentiis Topicis_, in four books.
+
+We see from a statement of Cassiodorus that he furnished manuals for the
+quadrivium of the schools of the middle ages (the "quattuor matheseos
+disciplinae," as Boetius calls them) on arithmetic, music, geometry and
+astronomy. The statement of Cassiodorus that he translated Nicomachus is
+rhetorical. Boetius himself tells us in his preface addressed to his
+father-in-law Symmachus that he had taken liberties with the text of
+Nicomachus, that he had abridged the work when necessary, and that he
+had introduced formulae and diagrams of his own where he thought them
+useful for bringing out the meaning. His work on music also is not a
+translation from Pythagoras, who left no writing behind him. But Boetius
+belonged to the school of musical writers who based their science on the
+method of Pythagoras. They thought that it was not sufficient to trust
+to the ear alone, to determine the principles of music, as did practical
+musicians like Aristoxenus, but that along with the ear, physical
+experiments should be employed. The work of Boetius is in five books and
+is a very complete exposition of the subject. It long remained a
+text-book of music in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. It is
+still very valuable as a help in ascertaining the principles of ancient
+music, and gives us the opinions of some of the best ancient writers on
+the art. The manuscripts of the geometry of Boetius differ widely from
+each other. One editor, Godofredus Friedlein, thinks that there are only
+two manuscripts which can at all lay claim to contain the work of
+Boetius. He published the _Ars Geometriae_, in two books, as given in
+these manuscripts; but critics are generally inclined to doubt the
+genuineness even of these. Professor Rand, Georgius Ernst and A.P.
+McKinlay regard the _Ars_ as certainly inauthentic, while they accept
+the _Interpretatio Euclidis_ (see works quoted in bibliography).
+
+By far the most important and most famous of the works of Boetius is
+his book _De Consolatione Philosophiae_. Gibbon justly describes it as
+"a golden volume, not unworthy of the leisure of Plato or Tully, but
+which claims incomparable merit from the barbarism of the times and the
+situation of the author." The high reputation it had in medieval times
+is attested by the numerous translations, commentaries and imitations of
+it which then appeared. Among others Asser, the instructor of Alfred the
+Great, and Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, commented on it.
+Alfred translated it into Anglo-Saxon. Versions of it appeared in
+German, French, Italian, Spanish and Greek before the end of the 15th
+century. Chaucer translated it into English prose before the year 1382;
+and this translation was published by Caxton at Westminster, 1480.
+Lydgate followed in the wake of Chaucer. It is said that, after the
+invention of printing, amongst others Queen Elizabeth translated it, and
+that the work was well known to Shakespeare. It was the basis of the
+earliest specimen of Provençal literature.
+
+  This famous work consists of five books. Its form is peculiar, and is
+  an imitation of a similar work by Marcianus Capella, _De Nuptiis
+  Philologiae et Mercurii_. It is alternately in prose and verse. The
+  verse shows great facility of metrical composition, but a considerable
+  portion of it is transferred from the tragedies of Seneca. The first
+  book opens with a few verses, in which Boetius describes how his
+  sorrows had brought him to a premature old age. As he is thus
+  lamenting, a woman appears to him of dignified mien, whom he
+  recognizes as his guardian, Philosophy. She, resolving to apply the
+  remedy for his grief, questions him for that purpose. She finds that
+  he believes that God rules the world, but does not know what he
+  himself is; and this absence of self-knowledge is the cause of his
+  weakness. In the second book Philosophy presents to Boetius Fortune,
+  who is made to state to him the blessings he has enjoyed, and after
+  that proceeds to discuss with him the kind of blessings that fortune
+  can bestow, which are shown to be unsatisfactory and uncertain. In the
+  third book Philosophy promises to lead him to true happiness, which is
+  to be found in God alone, for since God is the highest good, and the
+  highest good is true happiness, God is true happiness. Nor can real
+  evil exist, for since God is all-powerful, and since he does not wish
+  evil, evil must be non-existent. In the fourth book Boetius raises the
+  question, Why, if the governor of the universe is good, do evils
+  exist, and why is virtue often punished and vice rewarded? Philosophy
+  proceeds to show that in fact vice is never unpunished nor virtue
+  unrewarded. From this Philosophy passes into a discussion in regard to
+  the nature of providence and fate, and shows that every fortune is
+  good. The fifth and last book takes up the question of man's free will
+  and God's foreknowledge, and, by an exposition of the nature of God,
+  attempts to show that these doctrines are not subversive of each
+  other; and the conclusion is drawn that God remains a foreknowing
+  spectator of all events, and the ever-present eternity of his vision
+  agrees with the future quality of our actions, dispensing rewards to
+  the good and punishments to the wicked.
+
+  Several theological works have been ascribed to Boetius, as has been
+  already mentioned. The _Consolatio_ affords conclusive proof that the
+  author was not a practical believer in Christianity. The book contains
+  expressions such as _daemones_, _angelica virtus_, and _purgatoria
+  dementia_, which have been thought to be derived from the Christian
+  faith; but they are used in a heathen sense, and are explained
+  sufficiently by the circumstance that Boetius was on intimate terms
+  with Christians. The writer nowhere finds consolation in any Christian
+  belief, and Christ is never named in the work. It is not impossible,
+  however, that Boetius may have been brought up a Christian, and that
+  in his early years he may have written some Christian books. Peiper
+  thinks that the first three treatises are the productions of the early
+  years of Boetius. The first, _De Sancta Trinitate_, is addressed to
+  Symmachus (Domino Patri Symmacho), and the result of the short
+  discussion, which is of an abstract nature, and deals partly with the
+  ten categories, is that unity is predicated absolutely, or, in regard
+  to the substance of the Deity, trinity is predicated relatively. The
+  second treatise is addressed to John the deacon ("Ad Joannem
+  Diaconum"), and its subject is "Utrum Pater et Filius et Spiritus
+  Sanctus de divinitate substantialiter praedicentur." This treatise is
+  shorter than the first, occupying only two or three pages, and the
+  conclusion of the argument is the same. The third treatise bears the
+  title, _Quomodo substantiae in eo quod sint bonae sint cum non sint
+  substantialia bona_. It contains nothing distinctly Christian, and it
+  contains nothing of great value; therefore its authorship is a matter
+  of little consequence. Peiper thinks that, as the best MSS. uniformly
+  assign these treatises to Boetius, they are to be regarded as his;
+  that it is probable that Symmachus and John (who afterwards became
+  Pope) were the men of highest distinction who took charge of him when
+  he lost his father; and that these treatises are the first-fruits of
+  his studies, which he dedicates to his guardians and benefactors. He
+  thinks that the variations in the inscriptions of the fifth treatise
+  which is not found in the best manuscript, are so great that the name
+  of Boetius could not have originally been in the title. The fourth
+  book is also not found in the best manuscript, and two manuscripts
+  have no inscription. He infers, from these facts, that there is no
+  sure evidence for the authorship of the fourth and fifth treatises.
+  The fifth treatise is _Contra Eutychen et Nestorium_. Both Eutyches
+  and Nestorius are spoken of as living. A council is mentioned, in
+  which a letter was read, expounding the opinion of the Eutychians for
+  the first time. The novelty of the opinion is also alluded to. All
+  these circumstances point to the council of Chalcedon (451). The
+  treatise was therefore written before the birth of Boetius, if it be
+  not a forgery; but there is no reason to suppose that the treatise was
+  not a genuine production of the time to which it professes to belong.
+  The fourth treatise, _De Fide Catholica_, does not contain any
+  distinct chronological data; but the tone and opinions of the treatise
+  produce the impression that it probably belonged to the same period as
+  the treatise against Eutyches and Nestorius. Several inscriptions
+  ascribe both these treatises to Boetius. It will be seen from this
+  statement that Peiper bases his conclusions on grounds far too narrow;
+  and on the whole it is perhaps more probable that Boetius wrote none
+  of the four Christian treatises, particularly as they are not ascribed
+  to him by any of his contemporaries. Three of them express in the
+  strongest language the orthodox faith of the church in opposition to
+  the Arian heresy, and these three put in unmistakable language the
+  procession of the Holy Spirit from both Father and Son. The fourth
+  argues for the orthodox belief of the two natures and one person of
+  Christ. When the desire arose that it should be believed that Boetius
+  perished from his opposition to the heresy of Theodoric, it was
+  natural to ascribe to him works which were in harmony with this
+  supposed fact. The works may really have been written by one Boetius,
+  a bishop of Africa, as Jourdain supposes, or by some Saint Severinus,
+  as Nitzsch conjectures, and the similarity of name may have aided the
+  transference of them to the heathen or neutral Boetius.
+
+  Important and, if genuine, decisive evidence upon this point is
+  afforded by a passage in the _Anecdoton Holderi_, a fragment contained
+  in a 10th-century MS. (ed. H. Usener, Leipzig, 1877). The fragment
+  gives an extract from a previously unknown letter of Cassiodorus, the
+  important words being "Scripsit (i.e. Boetius) librum de sancta
+  trinitate, et capita quaedam dogmatica, et librum contra Nestorium."
+  Nitzsch, however, held that this was a copyist's gloss, harmonizing
+  with the received Boetius legend, which had been transferred to the
+  text, and did not consider that it outweighed the opposing internal
+  evidence from _De Cons. Phil._
+
+  EDITIONS.--The first collected edition of the works of Boetius was
+  published at Venice in 1492 (Basel, 1570); the last in J.P. Migne's
+  _Patrologia_, lxiii., lxiv. (Paris, 1847). Of the numerous editions of
+  the _De Consolatione_ the best are those of Theodorus Obbarius (Jena,
+  1843) and R. Peiper (Leipzig, 1871). The first contains prolegomena on
+  the life and writings of Boetius, on his religion and philosophy, and
+  on the manuscripts and editions, a critical apparatus, and notes. The
+  text of the second was based on the fullest collation of MSS. up to
+  that time, though a considerable number of MSS. still remained to be
+  collated. In addition to an account of the MSS. used, it gives the
+  Book of Lupus, "De Metris Boetii," the "Vita Boetii" contained in some
+  MSS., "Elogia Boetii," and a short list of the commentators,
+  translators and imitators of the _Consolatio_. It contains also an
+  account of the metres used by Boetius in the _Consolatio_, and a list
+  of the passages which he has borrowed from the tragedies of Seneca.
+  The work also includes the five treatises, four of them Christian, of
+  which mention has been made above. King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version
+  of the _De Consolatione_, with literal English translation, notes and
+  glossary, was published by S. Fox (1835) and again by W.J. Sedgefield
+  (1900); that of G. Colville (Colvile, Coldewel, 1556) was republished
+  by E.B. Bax (1897); translation (mixed prose and verse) by H.R. James
+  (1897). Queen Elizabeth's "Englishings" was reprinted in 1899; on the
+  style, see A. Engelbrecht in _Sitzungsber. der Wiener Akad. der
+  Wissenschaften_ (1902), pp. 15-36. The _De Institutione Arithmetica,
+  De Institutione Musica_, and the doubtful _Geometria_ (for which see
+  G. Ernst, _De Geometricis illis quae sub Boethii nomine nobis tradita
+  sunt quaestiones_, 1903; A.P. McKinlay in _Harvard Classical Studies_,
+  1907; M. Cantor, _Geschichte der Mathematik_, i., Leipzig, 1894; G.
+  Friedlein, _Gerbert, die Geometric des Boethius, und die indischen
+  Ziffern_, Erlangen, 1861, are edited by G. Friedlein (Leipzig, 1867);
+  German translation of the _De Musica_, with explanatory notes, by O.
+  Paul (Leipzig, 1872), and on the sources W. Miekley, _De Boethii libri
+  de musica primi fontibus_ (Jena, 1899). Commentary on Aristotle's _De
+  Interpretatione_ [Greek: peri hermaeneias]), ed. C. Meiser (Leipzig,
+  1877), and on Porphyry's _Isagoge_, ed. S. Brandt (Vienna, 1906).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--On Boetius generally, see J.G. Sutterer, _Der letzte
+  Romer_ (Eichstadt, 1852); H. Usener, _Anecdoton Holderi_ (Leipzig,
+  1877); H.F. Stewart, _Boethius: an Essay_ (Edinburgh, 1891); T.
+  Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, iii. bk. iv. ch. xii. (1896); A.
+  Ebert, _Allgemeine Geschichte der Litt. des Mittelalters_, i. (1889);
+  Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng. trans., 1900),
+  §478: on the date and order of his works, S. Brandt in _Philologus_,
+  lxii. pp. 141-154, 234-279, and A.P. McKinlay, as above, with refs.:
+  on his "Songs," H. Hüttinger, _Studia in Boetii carmina collata_
+  (Regensburg, 1900): on his style, G. Bednarz, _De universo orationis
+  colore Boethii_ (Breslau, 1883): on his theological attitude and
+  works, F.A.B. Nitzsch, _Das System des Boethius und die ihm
+  zugeschriebenen theologischen Schriften_ (Berlin, 1860), and art. in
+  Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (1897); C. Jourdain, _De l'Origine
+  des traditions sur le christianisme de Boèce_ (1861); Gaston Boissier,
+  "Le Christianisme de Boèce," in _Journal des Savants_ (1889), pp.
+  449-462; A. Hildebrand, _Boethius und seine Stellung zum Christentume_
+  (Regensburg, 1885); G. Schepps, "Zu Pseudo-Boethius de fide
+  catholica," in _Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Theologie_, xxxviii.
+  (1895).
+
+
+
+
+BOG (from Ir. and Gael, _bogach, bog_, soft), a tract of soft, spongy,
+water-logged ground, composed of vegetation, chiefly mosses, in various
+stages of decomposition. This vegetable matter when partially decomposed
+forms the substance known as "peat" (q.v.). When the accumulation of
+water is rapidly increased by excessive rainfall, there is a danger of a
+"bog-slide," or "bog-burst," which may obliterate the neighbouring
+cultivated land with a deposit of the contents of the bog. Destructive
+bog-slides have occurred in Ireland, such as that of the Knocknageeha
+Bog, Rathmore, Kerry, in 1896, at Castlerea, Roscommon, 1901, and at
+Kilmore, Galway, 1909.
+
+There is a French game of cards called "bog," said to be of Italian
+origin, played with a piquet pack on a table with six divisions, one of
+which is known by the name of the game and forms the pool. It was
+fashionable during the Second Empire.
+
+
+
+
+BOGATZKY, KARL HEINRICH VON (1690-1774), German hymn-writer, was born at
+Jankowe in Lower Silesia on the 7th of September 1690. At first a page
+at the ducal court of Saxe-Weissenfels, he next studied law and theology
+at Jena and Halle; but ill-health preventing his preferment he settled
+at Glancha in Silesia, where he founded an orphanage. After living for a
+time at Köstritz, and from 1740 to 1745 at the court of Christian Ernst,
+duke of Saxe-Coburg, at Saalfeld, he made his home at the Waisenhaus
+(orphanage) at Halle, where he engaged in spiritual work and in
+composing hymns and sacred songs, until his death on the 15th of June
+1774. Bogatzky's chief works are _Güldenes Schatzkästlein der Kinder
+Gottes_ (1718), which has reached more than sixty editions; and _Übung
+der Gottseligkeit in allerlei geistlichen Liedern_ (1750).
+
+  See Bogatzky's autobiography--_Lebenslauf von ihm selbst geschrieben_
+  (Halle, 1801; new ed., Berlin, 1872); and Ledderhose, _Das Leben
+  Bogatzky's_ (Heidelberg, 1846); also Kelly, _C.H. von Bogatzky's Life
+  and Work_ (London, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+BOGHAZ KEUI, a small village in Asia Minor, north-west of Yuzgat in the
+Angora vilayet, remarkable for the ruins and rock-sculptures in its
+vicinity. The ruins are those of a ruling city of the oriental type
+which flourished in the pre-Greek period; and they are generally
+identified with Pteria (q.v.), a place taken by Croesus after he had
+crossed the Halys (Herodotus i. 76).
+
+
+
+
+BOGIE, a northern English dialect word of unknown origin, applied to a
+kind of low truck or "trolly." In railway engineering it is applied to
+an under-truck, most frequently with four wheels, which is often
+provided at one end of a locomotive or both ends of a carriage. It is
+pivoted or swivelled on the main frames, so that it can turn relatively
+to the body of the vehicle or engine, and thus it enables the wheels
+readily to follow the curves of the line. It has no connexion with the
+series of words, such as "bogey" or "bogy," "bogle," "boggle," "bogart"
+(in Shakespeare "bug," "bugs and goblins"), which are probably connected
+with the Welsh _bwg_, a spectre; hence the verb to "boggle," properly
+applied to a horse which shies at supposed spectres, and so meaning to
+hesitate, bungle.
+
+
+
+
+BOGNOR, a seaside resort in the Chichester parliamentary division of
+Sussex, England, 66 m. S.S.W. from London by the London, Brighton &
+South Coast railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6180. Besides the
+parish church there is a Roman Catholic priory and church. The town
+possesses a pier and promenade, a theatre, assembly rooms, and numerous
+convalescent homes, including an establishment belonging to the Merchant
+Taylors' Company. The church of the mother parish of South Bersted is
+Norman and Early English, and retains a fresco of the 16th century.
+
+
+
+
+BOGÓ, a town of the province of Cebú, island of Cebú, Philippine
+Islands, on Bogó Bay at the mouth of the Bulac river, in the north-east
+part of the island. Pop. (1903) 14,915. The climate is hot but healthy.
+The surrounding country is fertile, producing sugar, Indian corn, and
+maguay in abundance; rice, cacao and fruits are also produced. Hats,
+baskets, cloths and rope are woven and are exported to a limited extent;
+small quantities of copra are also exported. The fisheries are of
+considerable local importance. The language is Cebú-Visayan.
+
+
+
+
+BOGODUKHOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov, 45 m. by
+rail N.W. of the city of that name, in 49° 58' N. lat. and 36° 9' E.
+long., was formerly fortified. Pop. (1860) 10,522; (1897) 11,928. There
+seems to have been a settlement on this site as early as 1571. In 1709,
+at the time of the Russo-Swedish War, Bogodukhov was taken by Menshikov
+and the emperor Alexius. It contains a cathedral, built in 1793. Boots,
+caps and furred gowns are manufactured, and gardening and tanning are
+carried on. The trade is principally in grain, cattle and fish.
+
+
+
+
+BOGOMILS, the name of an ancient religious community which had its
+origin in Bulgaria. It is difficult to ascertain whether the name was
+taken from the reputed founder of that sect, a certain pope Bogumil or
+Bogomil, or whether he assumed that name after it had been given to the
+whole sect. The word is a direct translation into Slavonic of
+_Massaliani_, the Syrian name of the sect corresponding to the Greek
+Euchites. The Bogomils are identified with the Massaliani in Slavonic
+documents of the 13th century. They are also known as _Pavlikeni_, i.e.
+Paulicians. It is a complicated task to determine the true character and
+the tenets of any ancient sect, considering that almost all the
+information that has reached us has come from the opponents. The
+heretical literature has to a great extent either perished or been
+completely changed; but much has also survived in a modified written
+form or through oral tradition. Concerning the Bogomils something can be
+gathered from the information collected by Euthymius Zygadenus in the
+12th century, and from the polemic _Against the Heretics_ written in
+Slavonic by St Kozma during the 10th century. The old Slavonic lists of
+forbidden books of the 15th and 16th centuries also give us a clue to
+the discovery of this heretical literature and of the means the Bogomils
+employed to carry on their propaganda. Much may also be learnt from the
+doctrines of the numerous heretical sects which arose in Russia after
+the 11th century.
+
+The Bogomils were without doubt the connecting link between the
+so-called heretical sects of the East and those of the West. They were,
+moreover, the most active agents in disseminating such teachings in
+Russia and among all the nations of Europe. They may have found in some
+places a soil already prepared by more ancient tenets which had been
+preserved in spite of the persecution of the official Church, and handed
+down from the period of primitive Christianity. In the 12th and 13th
+centuries the Bogomils were already known in the West as "Bulgari." In
+1207 the _Bulgarornm heresis_ is mentioned. In 1223 the Albigenses are
+declared to be the local _Bougres_, and at the same period mention is
+made of the "Pope of the Albigenses who resided within the confines of
+Bulgaria." The Cathars and Patarenes, the Waldenses, the Anabaptists,
+and in Russia the Strigolniki, Molokani and Dukhobortsi, have all at
+different times been either identified with the Bogomils or closely
+connected with them.
+
+_Doctrine._--From the imperfect and conflicting data which are alone
+available one positive result can be gathered, viz. that the Bogomils
+were both Adoptionists and Manichaeans. They had accepted the teaching
+of Paul of Samosata, though at a later period the name of Paul was
+believed to be that of the Apostle; and they were not quite free from
+the Dualistic principle of the Gnostics, at a later period too much
+identified with the teaching of Mani. They rejected the pneumatic
+Christianity of the orthodox churches and did not accept the docetic
+teaching of some of the other sects. Taking as our starting-point the
+teaching of the heretical sects in Russia, notably those of the 14th
+century, which are a direct continuation of the doctrines held by the
+Bogomils, we find that they denied the divine birth of Christ, the
+personal coexistence of the Son with the Father and Holy Ghost, and the
+validity of sacraments and ceremonies. The miracles performed by Jesus
+were interpreted in a spiritual sense, not as real material occurrences;
+the Church was the interior spiritual church in which all held equal
+share. Baptism was only to be practised on grown men and women. The
+Bogomils repudiated infant baptism, and considered the baptismal rite to
+be of a spiritual character neither by water nor by oil but by
+self-abnegation, prayers and chanting of hymns. Carp Strigolnik, who in
+the 14th century preached this doctrine in Novgorod, explained that St
+Paul had taught that simple-minded men should instruct one another;
+therefore they elected their "teachers" from among themselves to be
+their spiritual guides, and had no special priests. Prayers were to be
+said in private houses, not in separate buildings such as churches.
+Ordination was conferred by the congregation and not by any specially
+appointed minister. The congregation were the "elect," and each member
+could obtain the perfection of Christ and become a Christ or "Chlist."
+Marriage was not a sacrament. The Bogomils refused to fast on Mondays
+and Fridays. They rejected monachism. They declared Christ to be the Son
+of God only through grace like other prophets, and that the bread and
+wine of the eucharist were not transformed into flesh and blood; that
+the last judgment would be executed by God and not by Jesus; that the
+images and the cross were idols and the worship of saints and relics
+idolatry.
+
+These Paulician doctrines have survived in the great Russian sects, and
+can be traced back to the teachings and practice of the Bogomils. But in
+addition to these doctrines of an adoptionist origin, they held the
+Manichaean dualistic conception of the origin of the world. This has
+been partly preserved in some of their literary remains, and has taken
+deep root in the beliefs and traditions of the Bulgarians and other
+nations with whom they had come into close contact. The chief literature
+of all the heretical sects throughout the ages has been that of
+apocryphal Biblical narratives, and the popes Jeremiah or Bogumil are
+directly mentioned as authors of such forbidden books "which no orthodox
+dare read." Though these writings are mostly the same in origin as are
+known from the older lists of apocryphal books, they underwent in this
+case a certain modification at the hands of their Bogomil editors, so as
+to be used for the propagation of their own specific doctrines. In its
+most simple and attractive form--one at the same time invested with the
+authority of the reputed holy author--their account of the creation of
+the world and of man; the origin of sin and redemption, the history of
+the Cross, and the disputes between body and soul, right and wrong,
+heaven and hell, were embodied either in "Historiated Bibles"
+(Paleya[1]) or in special dialogues held between Christ and his
+disciples, or between renowned Fathers of the Church who expounded these
+views in a simple manner adapted to the understanding of the people
+(Lucidaria). The Bogomils taught that God had two sons, the elder
+Satanail and the younger Michael. The elder son rebelled against the
+father and became the evil spirit. After his fall he created the lower
+heavens and the earth and tried in vain to create man; in the end he had
+to appeal to God for the Spirit. After creation Adam was allowed to till
+the ground on condition that he sold himself and his posterity to the
+owner of the earth. Then Michael was sent in the form of a man; he
+became identified with Jesus, and was "elected" by God after the baptism
+in the Jordan. When the Holy Ghost (Michael) appeared in the shape of
+the dove, Jesus received power to break the covenant in the form of a
+clay tablet (_hierographon_) held by Satanail from Adam. He had now
+become the angel Michael in a human form; as such he vanquished
+Satanail, and deprived him of the termination _-il_ = God, in which his
+power resided. Satanail was thus transformed into Satan. Through his
+machinations the crucifixion took place, and Satan was the originator of
+the whole Orthodox community with its churches, vestments, ceremonies,
+sacraments and fasts, with its monks and priests. This world being the
+work of Satan, the perfect must eschew any and every excess of its
+pleasure. But the Bogomils did not go as far as to recommend asceticism.
+They held the "Lord's Prayer" in high respect as the most potent weapon
+against Satan, and had a number of conjurations against "evil spirits."
+Each community had its own twelve "apostles," and women could be raised
+to the rank of "elect." The Bogomils wore garments like mendicant friars
+and were known as keen missionaries, travelling far and wide to
+propagate their doctrines. Healing the sick and conjuring the evil
+spirit, they traversed different countries and spread their apocryphal
+literature along with some of the books of the Old Testament, deeply
+influencing the religious spirit of the nations, and preparing them for
+the Reformation. They sowed the seeds of a rich religious popular
+literature in the East as well as in the West. The Historiated Bible,
+the Letter from Heaven, the Wanderings through Heaven and Hell, the
+numerous Adam and Cross legends, the religious poems of the "Kalëki
+perehozhie" and other similar productions owe their dissemination to a
+large extent to the activity of the Bogomils of Bulgaria, and their
+successors in other lands.
+
+_History._--The Bogomil propaganda follows the mountain chains of
+central Europe, starting from the Balkans and continuing along the
+Carpathian Mountains, the Alps and the Pyrenees, with ramifications
+north and south (Germany, England and Spain). In the middle of the 8th
+century the emperor Constantine Copronymus settled a number of Armenian
+Paulicians in Thracia. These were noted heretics and were persecuted by
+the Greek Church with fire and sword. The empress Theodora killed,
+drowned or hanged no fewer than 100,000. In the 10th century the emperor
+John Zimisces, himself of Armenian origin, transplanted no less than
+200,000 Armenian Paulicians to Europe and settled them in the
+neighbourhood of Philippopolis, which henceforth became the centre of a
+far-reaching propaganda. Settled along the Balkans as a kind of bulwark
+against the invading Bulgars, the Armenians on the contrary soon
+fraternized with the newcomers, whom they converted to their own views;
+even a prince of the Bulgarians adopted their teaching. According to
+Slavonic documents the founder of this sect was a certain priest
+Bogumil, who "imbibed the Manichaean teaching and flourished at the time
+of the Bulgarian emperor Peter" (927-968). According to another source
+the founder was called Jeremiah (or there was another priest associated
+with him by the name of Jeremiah). The Slavonic sources are unanimous on
+the point that his teaching was Manichaean. A Synodikon from the year
+1210 adds the names of his pupils or "apostles," Mihail, Todur, Dobri,
+Stefan, Vasilie and Peter, all thoroughly Slavonic names. Zealous
+missionaries carried their doctrines far and wide. In 1004, scarcely 15
+years after the introduction of Christianity into Russia, we hear of a
+priest Adrian teaching the same doctrines as the Bogomils. He was
+imprisoned by Leontie, bishop of Kiev. In 1125 the Church in the south
+of Russia had to combat another heresiarch named Dmitri. The Church in
+Bulgaria also tried to extirpate Bogomilism. The popes in Rome whilst
+leading the Crusade against the Albigenses did not forget their
+counterpart in the Balkans and recommended the annihilation of the
+heretics.
+
+The Bogomils spread westwards, and settled first in Servia; but at the
+end of the 12th century Stephen Nemanya, king of Servia, persecuted them
+and expelled them from the country. Large numbers took refuge in Bosnia,
+where they were known under the name of Patarenes (q.v.) or Patareni.
+From Bosnia their influence extended into Italy (Piedmont). The
+Hungarians undertook many crusades against the heretics in Bosnia, but
+towards the close of the 15th century the conquest of that country by
+the Turks put an end to their persecution. It is alleged that a large
+number of the Bosnian Paterenes, and especially the nobles, embraced
+Islam (see BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA: _History_). Few or no remnants of
+Bogomilism have survived in Bosnia. The Ritual in Slavonic written by
+the Bosnian Radoslavov, and published in vol. xv. of the _Starine_ of
+the South Slavonic Academy at Agram, shows great resemblance to the
+Cathar ritual published by Cunitz, 1853. See F. Racki, "Bogomili i
+Paternai" in _Rad_, vols. vii., viii. and x. (Agram, 1870); Döllinger,
+_Beiträge zur Ketzergeschichte d. Mittelalters_, 2 vols. (Munich, 1890).
+
+Under Turkish rule the Bogomils lived unmolested as _Pavlikeni_ in
+their ancient stronghold near Philippopolis, and farther northward. In
+1650 the Roman Catholic Church gathered them into its fold. No less than
+fourteen villages near Nicopolis embraced Catholicism, and a colony of
+_Pavlikeni_ in the village of Cioplea near Bucharest followed the
+example of their brethren across the Danube.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Euthymius Zygadenus, _Narratio de Bogomilis_, ed.
+  Gieseler (Göttingen, 1842); J.C. Wolf, _Historia Bogomilorum_
+  (Wittenberg, 1712); "Slovo svyatago Kozmyi na eretiki," in Kukuljevic
+  Sakcinski, _Arkiv zapovyestnicu jugoslavensku_, vol. iv. pp. 69-97
+  (Agram, 1859); C.J. Jirecek, _Geschichte d. Bulgaren_, pp. 155,
+  174-175 (Prague, 1876); Korolev, "Dogmatichesko-to uchenie na
+  Bogomil-tie," in _Periodichesko spisanie_, vols. vii.-viii. pp. 75-106
+  (Braila, 1873); A. Lombard, _Pauliciens, Bulgares et Bons-hommes_
+  (Geneva, 1879); Episcopul Melchisedek, _Lipovenismul_, pp. 265 sqq.
+  (Bucharest, 1871); B.P. Hasdeu, _Cuvente den batrani_, vol. ii. pp.
+  247 sqq. (Bucharest, 1879); F.C. Conybeare, _The Key of Truth_, pp. 73
+  sqq. and specially pp. 138 sqq. (Oxford, 1898); M. Gaster,
+  _Greeko-Slavonic Literature_, pp. 17 sqq. (London, 1887); O.
+  Dähnhardt, _Natursagen_, vol. i. pp. 38 sqq. (Leipzig and Berlin,
+  1907).     (M. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] These betray their Gnostic (Marcianite) spirit by the anti-Jewish
+    tone of the oldest MSS. extant, though this prejudice tends to
+    decrease in later MSS.
+
+
+
+
+BOGORODSK, a town of central Russia, in the government of Moscow, and 38
+m. by rail E.N.E. of the city of Moscow, on the Klyazma. It has woollen,
+cotton and silk mills, chemical factories and dye-works, and is famous
+for its gold brocade. Pop. (1897) 11,210.
+
+
+
+
+BOGOS (BILENS), a pastoral race of mixed Hamitic descent, occupying the
+highlands immediately north of Abyssinia, now part of the Italian colony
+of Eritrea. They were formerly a self-governing community, though
+subject to Abyssinia. The community is divided into two classes, the
+_Shumaglieh_ or "elders" and _Tigré_ or "clients." The latter are serfs
+of the former, who, however, cannot sell them. The Tigré goes with the
+land, and his master must protect him. In blood-money he is worth
+another Tigré or ninety-three cows, while an elder's life is valued at
+one hundred and fifty-eight cattle or one of his own caste. The eldest
+son of a Shumaglieh inherits his father's two-edged sword, white cows,
+lands and slaves, but the house goes to the youngest son. Female
+chastity is much valued, but women have no rights, inherit nothing, and
+are classed with the hyaena, the most despised animal throughout
+Abyssinia. The Bogo husband never sees the face or pronounces the name
+of his mother-in-law, while it is a crime for a wife to utter her
+husband's or father-in-law's name.
+
+
+
+
+BOGOTÁ, or SANTA FÉ DE BOGOTÁ, the capital of the republic of Colombia,
+and of the interior department of Cundinamarca, in 4° 6' N. lat. and 78°
+30' W. long. Pop. about 125,000. The city is on the eastern margin of a
+large elevated plateau 8563 ft. above sea-level. The plateau may be
+described as a great bench or shelf on the western slope of the oriental
+Cordilleras, about 70 m. long and 30 m. wide, with a low rim on its
+western margin and backed by a high ridge on the east. The plain forming
+the plateau is well watered with numerous small lakes and streams. These
+several small streams, one of which, the San Francisco, passes through
+the city, unite near the south-western extremity of the plateau and form
+the Rio Funza, or Bogotá, which finally plunges over the edge at
+Tequendama in a beautiful, perpendicular fall of about 475 ft. The city
+is built upon a sloping plain at the base of two high mountains La
+Gaudalupe and Monserrate, upon whose crests stand two imposing churches.
+From a broad avenue on the upper side downward to the west slope the
+streets, through which run streams of cool, fresh water from the
+mountains above. The north and south streets cross these at right
+angles, and the blocks thus formed are like great terraces. A number of
+handsomely-laid-out plazas, or squares, ornamented with gardens and
+statuary, have been preserved; on these face the principal public
+buildings and churches. In Plaza Bolivar is a statue of Bolivar by
+Pietro Tenerani (1789-1869), a pupil of Canova, and in Plaza Santandér
+is one of General Francisco de Paula Santandér (1792-1840). Facing on
+Plaza de la Constitución are the capitol and cathedral. The streets are
+narrow and straight, but as a rule they are clean and well paved. Owing
+to the prevalence of earthquakes, private houses are usually of one
+storey only, and are built of sun-dried bricks, white-washed. But few
+of the public buildings are imposing in appearance, though good taste in
+style and decoration are often shown.
+
+The city occupies an area of about 2½ × 1½ m. It has street cars,
+electric light and telephones. Short lines of railway connect it with
+Facatativa (24 m.) on the road to Honda, and with Zipaquira, where
+extensive salt mines are worked. A line of railway was also under
+construction in 1906 to Jirardot, at the head of navigation on the upper
+Magdalena. Bogotá is an archiepiscopal see, founded in 1561, and is one
+of the strongholds of medieval clericalism in South America. It has a
+cathedral, rebuilt in 1814, and some 30 other churches, together with
+many old conventual buildings now used for secular purposes, their
+religious communities having been dissolved by Mosquera and their
+revenues devoted in great measure to education. The capitol, which is
+occupied by the executive and legislative departments, is an elegant and
+spacious building, erected since 1875. The interest which Bogotá has
+always taken in education, and because of which she has been called the
+"Athens of South America," is shown in the number and character of her
+institutions of learning--a university, three endowed colleges, a school
+of chemistry and mineralogy, a national academy, a military school, a
+public library with some 50,000 volumes, a national observatory, a
+natural history museum and a botanic garden. The city also possesses a
+well-equipped mint, little used in recent years. The plain surrounding
+the city is very fertile, and pastures cattle and produces cereals,
+vegetables and fruit in abundance. It was the centre of Chibcha
+civilization before the Spanish conquest and sustained a large
+population. The climate is mild and temperate, the average annual
+temperature being about 58° and the rainfall about 43½ in. The
+geographical location of the city is unfavourable to any great
+development in commerce and manufactures beyond local needs.
+
+Bogotá was founded in 1538 by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada and was named
+Santa Fé de Bogotá after his birthplace Santa Fé, and after the southern
+capital of the Chibchas, Bacatá (or Funza). It was made the capital of
+the viceroyalty of Nueva Granada, and soon became one of the centres of
+Spanish colonial power and civilization on the South American continent.
+In 1811 its citizens revolted against Spanish rule and set up a
+government of their own, but in 1816 the city was occupied by Pablo
+Morillo (1777-1838), the Spanish general, who subjected it to a ruthless
+military government until 1819, when Bolivar's victory at Boyacá
+compelled its evacuation. On the creation of the republic of Colombia,
+Bogotá became its capital, and when that republic was dissolved into its
+three constituent parts it remained the capital of Nueva Granada. It has
+been the scene of many important events in the chequered history of
+Colombia.     (A. J. L.)
+
+
+
+
+BOGRA, or BAGURA, a town and district of British India, in the Rajshahi
+division of eastern Bengal and Assam. The town is situated on the right
+bank of the river Karatoya. Pop. (1901) 7094. The DISTRICT OF BOGRA,
+which was first formed in 1821, lies west of the main channel of the
+Brahmaputra. It contains an area of 1359 sq. m. In 1901 the population
+(on a reduced area) was 854,533, showing an increase of 11% in the
+decade. The district stretches out in a level plain, intersected by
+numerous streams and dotted with patches of jungle. The Karatoya river
+flows from north to south, dividing it into two portions, possessing
+very distinct characteristics. The eastern tract consists of rich
+alluvial soil, well watered, and subject to fertilizing inundations,
+yielding heavy crops of coarse rice, oil-seeds and jute. The western
+portion of the district is high-lying and produces the finer qualities
+of rice. The principal rivers are formed by the different channels of
+the Brahmaputra, which river here bears the local names of the Konai,
+the Daokoba and the Jamuna, the last forming a portion of the eastern
+boundary of the district. Its bed is studded with alluvial islands. The
+Brahmaputra and its channels, together with three minor streams, the
+Bangali, Karatoya and Atrai, afford admirable facilities for commerce,
+and render every part of the district accessible to native cargo boats
+of large burden. The rivers swarm with fish. The former production of
+indigo is extinct, and the industry of silk-spinning is decaying. There
+is no town with as many as 10,000 inhabitants, trade being conducted at
+riverside marts. Nor are there any metalled roads. Several lines of
+railway (the Eastern Bengal, &c.), however, serve the district.
+
+
+
+
+BOGUE, DAVID (1750-1825), British nonconformist divine, was born in the
+parish of Coldingham, Berwickshire. After a course of study in
+Edinburgh, he was licensed to preach by the Church of Scotland, but made
+his way to London (1721), where he taught in schools at Edmonton,
+Hampstead and Camberwell. He then settled as minister of the
+Congregational church at Gosport in Hampshire (1777), and to his
+pastoral duties added the charge of an institution for preparing men for
+the ministry. It was the age of the new-born missionary enterprise, and
+Bogue's academy was in a very large measure the seed from which the
+London Missionary Society took its growth. Bogue himself would have gone
+to India in 1796 but for the opposition of the East India Company. He
+also had much to do with founding the British and Foreign Bible Society
+and the Religious Tract Society, and in conjunction with James Bennet,
+minister at Romsey, wrote a well-known _History of Dissenters_ (3 vols.,
+1809). Another of his writings was an _Essay on the Divine Authority of
+the New Testament_. He died at Brighton on the 25th of October 1825.
+
+
+
+
+BOGUS (of uncertain origin, possibly connected with the Fr. _bagasse_,
+sugar-cane refuse), a slang word, originally used in America of the
+apparatus employed in counterfeiting coins, and now generally of any
+sham or spurious transaction.
+
+
+
+
+BOHEA (a word derived from the Wu-i hills in the Fuhkien province of
+China, b being substituted for W or V), a kind of black tea (q.v.), or,
+in the 18th and early 19th centuries, tea generally, as in Pope's line,
+"So past her time 'twixt reading and bohea." Later the name "bohea" has
+been applied to an inferior quality of tea grown late in the season.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 4, Slice 1, by Various
+
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+
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+
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+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 4, Slice 1, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 1
+       "Bisharin" to "Bohea"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2010 [EBook #33550]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. It
+appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME IV SLICE I<br /><br />
+Bisharin to Bohea</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">BISHÂRÎN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">BLENDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">BLENHEIM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">BISHOP, ISABELLA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">BLENNERHASSETT, HARMAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">BISHOP</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">BLERA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">BISHOP AUCKLAND</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">BLESSINGTON, MARGUERITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">BISHOP&rsquo;S CASTLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">BLIDA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">BISHOP STORTFORD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">BLIGH, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">BISKRA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">BLIND, MATHILDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">BISLEY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">BLIND HOOKEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">BISMARCK, OTTO EDUARD LEOPOLD VON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">BLINDING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">BISMARCK</a> (North Dakota, U.S.A.)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">BLINDMAN&rsquo;S-BUFF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">BLINDNESS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">BISMILLAH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">BISMUTH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">BLISTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">BISMUTHITE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">BLIZZARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">BISMYA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">BLOCK, MARK ELIEZER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">BISON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">BLOCK, MAURICE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">BISQUE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">BLOCK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">BISSELL, GEORGE EDWIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">BLOCKADE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">BISSEXT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">BLOCKHOUSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">BISTRE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">BLOEMAERT, ABRAHAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">BIT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">BLOEMEN, JAN FRANS VAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">BITHUR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">BLOEMFONTEIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">BITHYNIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">BLOET, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">BITLIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">BLOIS, LOUIS DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">BITONTO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">BLOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">BITSCH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">BLOIS</a> (Countship of)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">BLOMEFIELD, FRANCIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">BITTERFELD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">BLOMFIELD, SIR ARTHUR WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">BITTERLING</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">BITTERN</a> (bird)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">BLOMFIELD, EDWARD VALENTINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">BITTERN</a> (liquor)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">BLONDEL, DAVID</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">BITTERS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">BLONDEL, JACQUES FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">BITUMEN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">BLONDIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">BITURIGES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">BLOOD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">BITZIUS, ALBRECHT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">BLOOD-LETTING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">BIVOUAC</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">BLOOD-MONEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">BIWA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">BLOODSTONE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">BIXIO, NINO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">BLOOM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">BIZERTA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">BLOOMER, AMELIA JENKS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">BIZET GEORGES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">BLOOMFIELD, MAURICE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">BJÖRNEBORG</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">BJÖRNSON, BJÖRNSTJERNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">BLOOMFIELD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">BLACHFORD, FREDERIC ROGERS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">BLOOMINGTON</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">BLACK, ADAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">BLOOMINGTON</a> (Indiana, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">BLOOMSBURG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">BLACK, JOSEPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">BLOUNT, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">BLACK, WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">BLOUNT, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">BLACK APE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">BLOUNT, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">BLACKBALL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">BLOUNT, SIR THOMAS POPE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">BLACKBERRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">BLOUNT, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">BLACKBIRD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">BLOUSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">BLACK BUCK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">BLOW, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">BLACKBURN, COLIN BLACKBURN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">BLOW-GUN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">BLACKBURN, JONATHAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">BLOWITZ, HENRI GEORGES STEPHAN ADOLPHE DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">BLACKBURN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">BLOWPIPE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">BLACKBURNE, FRANCIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">BLÜCHER, GEBHARD LEBERECHT VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">BLACKCOCK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">BLUE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">BLACK COUNTRY, THE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">BLUEBEARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">BLACK DROP</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">BLUE-BOOK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">BLACKFOOT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">BLUESTOCKING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">BLACK FOREST</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">BLUFF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">BLACK HAWK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">BLUM, ROBERT FREDERICK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">BLACKHEATH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">BLACK HILLS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">BLUMENTHAL, LEONHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">BLACKIE, JOHN STUART</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">BLUNDERBUSS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">BLACK ISLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">BLUNT, JOHN HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">BLACKLOCK, THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">BLUNT, JOHN JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">BLACKMAIL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">BLUNTSCHLI, JOHANN KASPAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">BLACKMORE, RICHARD DODDRIDGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">BLYTH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">BLACK MOUNTAIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">B&rsquo;NAI B&rsquo;RITH, INDEPENDENT ORDER OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">BLACKPOOL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">BOA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">BLACK ROD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">BOABDIL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">BLACK SEA</a> (body of water)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">BOADICEA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">BLACK SEA</a> (district of Russia)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">BOAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">BOARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">BLACK VEIL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">BOARDING-HOUSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">BLACKWATER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">BOARDING-OUT SYSTEM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">BLACKWATER FEVER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">BOARDMAN, GEORGE DANA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">BLACKWELL, THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">BOASE, HENRY SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">BLACKWOOD, WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">BOAT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">BLADDER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">BOATSWAIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">BOBBILI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">BLADDER-WORT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">BOBBIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">BLADES, WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">BOBER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">BLAENAVON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">BOBRUISK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">BLAGOVYESHCHENSK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">BOCAGE, MANUEL MARIA BARBOSA DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">BLAIKIE, WILLIAM GARDEN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">BOCAGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">BLAINVILLE, HENRI MARIE DUCROTAY DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">BOCCALINI, TRAJANO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">BLAIR, FRANCIS PRESTON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">BOCCHERINI, LUIGI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">BLAIR, HUGH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">BOCCHUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">BLAIR, JAMES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">BOCHART, SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">BLAIR, ROBERT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">BOCHOLT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">BLAIR ATHOLL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">BOCHUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">BLAIRGOWRIE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">BÖCKH, PHILIPP AUGUST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">BLAKE, EDWARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">BÖCKLIN, ARNOLD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">BLAKE, ROBERT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">BOCLAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">BLAKE, WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar240">BOCSKAY, STEPHEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">BLAKELOCK, RALPH ALBERT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar241">BODE, JOHANN ELERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">BLAKENEY, WILLIAM BLAKENEY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar242">BODEL, JEHAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">BLAKESLEY, JOSEPH WILLIAMS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar243">BODENBACH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">BLAMIRE, SUSANNA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar244">BODENSTEDT, FRIEDRICH MARTIN VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">BLANC, LOUIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar245">BODHI VAMSA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">BLANC, MONT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar246">BODICHON, BARBARA LEIGH SMITH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">BLANCHARD, SAMUEL LAMAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar247">BODIN, JEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">BLANCHE, JACQUES ÉMILE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar248">BODKIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">BLANCHE OF CASTILE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar249">BODLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">BLANCH FEE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar250">BODLEY, GEORGE FREDERICK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">BLANDFORD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar251">BODLEY, SIR THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">BLANDRATA, GIORGIO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar252">BODMER, JOHANN JAKOB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">BLANE, SIR GILBERT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar253">BODMIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">BLANFORD, WILLIAM THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar254">BODÖ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">BLANK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar255">BODONI, GIAMBATTISTA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">BLANKENBERGHE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar256">BODY-SNATCHING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">BLANKENBURG</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar257">BOECE, HECTOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">BLANKETEERS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar258">BOEHM, SIR JOSEPH EDGAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">BLANK VERSE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar259">BOEHM VON BAWERK, EUGEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">BLANQUI, JERÔME ADOLPHE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar260">BOEHME, JAKOB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">BLANQUI, LOUIS AUGUSTE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar261">BOEOTIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">BLANTYRE</a> (town of Central Africa)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar262">BOER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">BLANTYRE</a> (parish of Scotland)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar263">BOERHAAVE, HERMANN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">BLARNEY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar264">BOETHUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">BLASHFIELD, EDWIN HOWLAND</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar265">BOETIUS, ANICIUS MANLIUS SEVERINUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">BLASIUS, SAINT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar266">BOG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">BLASPHEMY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar267">BOGATZKY, KARL HEINRICH VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">BLASS, FRIEDRICH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar268">BOGHAZ KEUI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">BLASTING</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar269">BOGIE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">BLAUBEUREN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar270">BOGNOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">BLAVATSKY, HELENA PETROVNA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar271">BOGÓ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">BLAYDES, FREDERICK HENRY MARVELL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar272">BOGODUKHOV</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">BLAYDON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar273">BOGOMILS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">BLAYE-ET-STE LUCE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar274">BOGORODSK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">BLAZE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar275">BOGOS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">BLAZON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar276">BOGOTÁ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">BLEACHING</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar277">BOGRA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">BLEAK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar278">BOGUE, DAVID</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">BLEEK, FRIEDRICH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar279">BOGUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">BLEEK, WILHELM HEINRICH IMMANUEL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar280">BOHEA</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1" id="page1"></a>1</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BISHÂRÎN<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (the anc. <i>Ichthyophagi</i>), a nomad tribe of African
+&ldquo;Arabs,&rdquo; of Hamitic origin, dwelling in the eastern part of the
+Nubian desert. In the middle ages they were known as Beja
+(<i>q.v.</i>), and they are the most characteristic of the Nubian
+&ldquo;Arabs.&rdquo; With the Abâbda and Hadendoa they represent the
+Blemmyes of classical writers. Linguistically and geographically
+the Bishârîn form a connecting link between the Hamitic populations
+and the Egyptians. Nominally they are Mahommedans.
+They, however, preserve some non-Islamic religious practices,
+and exhibit traces of animal-worship in their rule of never
+killing the serpent or the partridge, which are regarded as
+sacred.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1786-1855), English musical
+composer, was born in London on the 18th of November 1786.
+He received his artistic training from Francisco Bianchi, and in
+1804 wrote the music to a piece called <i>Angelina</i>, which was
+performed at Margate. His next composition was the music to
+the ballet of <i>Tamerlan et Bajazet</i>, produced in 1806 at the King&rsquo;s
+theatre. This proved successful, and was followed within two
+years by several others, of which <i>Caractacus</i>, a pantomimic
+ballet, written for Drury Lane, may be named. In 1809 his first
+opera, <i>The Circassian&rsquo;s Bride</i>, was produced at Drury Lane;
+but unfortunately the theatre was burned down after one performance,
+and the score of the work perished in the flames. His
+next work of importance, the opera of <i>The Maniac</i>, written for
+the Lyceum in 1810, established his reputation, and probably
+secured for him an appointment for three years as composer for
+Covent Garden theatre. The numerous works&mdash;operas, burlettas,
+cantatas, incidental music to Shakespeare&rsquo;s plays, &amp;c.&mdash;which
+he composed while in this position, are in great part forgotten.
+The most successful were&mdash;<i>The Virgin of the Sun</i> (1812), <i>The
+Miller and his Men</i> (1813), <i>Guy Mannering</i> and <i>The Slave</i> (1816),
+<i>Maid Marian</i> and <i>Clari</i>, introducing the well-known air of
+&ldquo;Home, Sweet Home&rdquo; (1822). In 1825 Bishop was induced
+by Elliston to transfer his services from Covent Garden to the
+rival house in Drury Lane, for which he wrote with unusual care
+the opera of <i>Aladdin</i>, intended to compete with Weber&rsquo;s <i>Oberon</i>,
+commissioned by the other house. The result was a failure, and
+with <i>Aladdin</i> Bishop&rsquo;s career as an operatic composer may be
+said to close. On the formation of the Philharmonic Society
+(1813) Bishop was appointed one of the directors, and he took
+his turn as conductor of its concerts during the period when that
+office was held by different musicians in rotation. In 1830 he was
+appointed musical director at Vauxhall; and it was in the course
+of this engagement that he wrote the popular song &ldquo;My Pretty
+Jane.&rdquo; His sacred cantata, <i>The Seventh Day</i>, was written for the
+Philharmonic Society and performed in 1833. In 1839 he was
+made bachelor in music at Oxford. In 1841 he was appointed
+to the Reid chair of music in the university of Edinburgh, but
+he resigned the office in 1843. He was knighted in 1842, being the
+first musician who ever received that honour. In 1848 he succeeded
+Dr Crotch in the chair of music at Oxford. The music
+for the ode on the occasion of the installation of Lord Derby as
+chancellor of the university (1853) proved to be his last work.
+He died on the 30th of April 1855 in impoverished circumstances,
+though few composers ever made more by their labours. Bishop
+was twice married: to Miss Lyon and Miss Anne Rivière. Both
+he and his wives were singers. His name lives in connexion with
+his numerous glees, songs and smaller compositions. His
+melodies are clear, flowing, appropriate and often charming; and
+his harmony is always pure, simple and sweet.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISHOP, ISABELLA<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1832-1904), English traveller and author,
+daughter of the Rev. Edward Bird, rector of Tattenhall, Cheshire,
+was born in Yorkshire on the 15th of October 1832. Isabella
+Bird began to travel when she was twenty-two. Her first book,
+<i>The Englishwoman in America</i> (1856), consisted of her correspondence
+during a visit to Canada undertaken for her health. She
+visited the Rocky Mountains, the South Pacific, Australia and
+New Zealand, producing some brightly written books of travel.
+But her reputation was made by the records of her extensive
+travels in Asia: <i>Unbeaten Tracks in Japan</i> (2 vols., 1880),
+<i>Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan</i> (2 vols., 1891), <i>Among the
+Tibetans</i> (1894), <i>Korea and her Neighbours</i> (2 vols., 1898), <i>The
+Yangtze Valley and Beyond</i> (1899), <i>Chinese Pictures</i> (1900).
+She married in 1881 Dr John Bishop, an Edinburgh physician,
+and was left a widow in 1886. In 1892 she became the first lady
+fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, and in 1901 she rode a
+thousand miles in Morocco and the Atlas Mountains. She died in
+Edinburgh on the 7th of October 1904.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Anna M. Stoddart, <i>The Life of Isabella Bird</i> (1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISHOP<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (A.S. <i>bisceop</i>, from Lat. <i>episcopus</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="episkopos">&#7952;&#960;&#943;&#963;&#954;&#959;&#960;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+&ldquo;overlooker&rdquo; or &ldquo;overseer&rdquo;), in certain branches of the
+Christian Church, an ecclesiastic consecrated or set apart to
+perform certain spiritual functions, and to exercise oversight over
+the lower clergy (priests or presbyters, deacons, &amp;c.). In the
+Catholic Church bishops take rank at the head of the sacerdotal
+hierarchy, and have certain spiritual powers peculiar to their
+office, but opinion has long been divided as to whether they
+constitute a separate order or form merely a higher degree of
+the order of priests (<i>ordo sacerdotium</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In the Roman Catholic Church the bishop belongs to the
+highest order of the hierarchy, and in this respect is the peer even
+of the pope, who addresses him as &ldquo;venerable brother.&rdquo;
+By the decree of the council of Trent he must be thirty
+<span class="sidenote">Roman Catholic.</span>
+years of age, of legitimate birth, and of approved
+learning and virtue. The method of his selection varies
+in different countries. In France, under the Concordat, the
+sovereign&mdash;and under the republic the president&mdash;had the right
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page2" id="page2"></a>2</span>
+of nomination. The same is true of Austria (except four sees), Bavaria,
+Spain and Portugal. In some countries the bishop is elected by the
+cathedral chapter (as in Württemberg), or by the bishops of the
+provinces (as in Ireland). In others, as in Great Britain, the United
+States of America and Belgium, the pope selects one out of a list
+submitted by the chapter. In all cases the nomination or election is
+subject to confirmation by the Holy See. Before this is granted the
+candidate is submitted to a double examination as to his fitness, first
+by a papal delegate at his place of residence (<i>processus informativus in
+partibus electi</i>), and afterwards by the Roman Congregation of Cardinals
+assigned for this purpose (<i>processus electionis definitivus in curia</i>).
+In the event of both processes proving satisfactory, the bishop-elect is
+confirmed, preconized, and so far promoted that he is allowed to
+exercise the rights of jurisdiction in his see. He cannot, however,
+exercise the functions proper to the episcopal <i>order</i> (<i>potestas ordinis</i>)
+until his consecration, which ordinarily takes place within three months
+of his confirmation. The bishop is consecrated, after taking the oath of
+fidelity to the Holy See, and subscribing the profession of faith, by a
+bishop appointed by the pope for the purpose, assisted by at least two
+other bishops or prelates, the main features of the act being the laying
+on of hands, the anointing with oil, and the delivery of the pastoral
+staff and other symbols of the office. After consecration the new bishop
+is solemnly enthroned and blesses the assembled congregation.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>potestas ordinis</i> of the bishop is not peculiar to the Roman Church,
+and, in general, is claimed by all bishops, whether Oriental or
+Anglican, belonging to churches which have retained the Catholic
+tradition in this respect. Besides the full functions of the
+presbyterate, or priesthood, bishops have the sole right (1) to confer
+holy orders, (2) to administer confirmation, (3) to prepare the holy
+oil, or chrism, (4) to consecrate sacred places or utensils (churches,
+churchyards, altars, &amp;c.), (5) to give the benediction to abbots and
+abbesses, (6) to anoint kings. In the matter of their rights of
+jurisdiction, however, Roman Catholic bishops differ from others in
+their peculiar responsibility to the Holy See. Some of their powers of
+legislation and administration they possess <i>motu proprio</i> in virtue of
+their position as diocesan bishops, others they enjoy under special
+faculties granted by the Holy See; but all bishops are bound, by an oath
+taken at the time of their consecration, to go to Rome at fixed
+intervals (<i>visitare sacra limina apostolorum</i>) to report in person, and
+in writing, on the state of their dioceses.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman bishop ranks immediately after the cardinals; he is styled
+<i>reverendissimus</i>, <i>sanctissimus</i> or <i>beatissimus</i>. In English the style is
+&ldquo;Right Reverend&rdquo;; the bishop being addressed as &ldquo;my lord bishop.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The insignia (<i>pontificalia</i> or pontificals) of the Roman Catholic bishop are
+(1) a ring with a jewel, symbolizing fidelity to the church, (2) the
+pastoral staff, (3) the pectoral cross, (4) the vestments, consisting of
+the caligae, stockings and sandals, the tunicle, and purple gloves, (5)
+the mitre, symbol of the royal priesthood, (6) the throne (cathedra),
+surmounted by a baldachin or canopy, on the gospel side of the choir in
+the cathedral church.</p>
+
+<p>The spiritual function and character of the Anglican bishops, allowing
+for the doctrinal changes effected at the Reformation, are similar to
+those of the Roman. They alone can administer the rite of confirmation,
+ordain priests and deacons, and exercise a certain dispensing power. In
+<span class="sidenote">Anglican.</span>
+the established Church of England the appointment of bishops is vested
+effectively in the crown, though the old form of election by the
+cathedral chapter is retained. They must be learned presbyters at least
+thirty years of age, born in lawful wedlock, and of good life and
+behaviour. The mode of appointment is regulated by 25 Henry VIII. c. 20,
+re-enacted in 1 Elizabeth c. 1 (Act of Supremacy 1558). On a vacancy
+occurring, the dean and chapter notify the king thereof in chancery, and
+pray leave to make election. A licence under the Great Seal to proceed
+to the election of a bishop, known as the <i>congé d&rsquo;eslire</i>, together with
+a letter missive containing the name of the king&rsquo;s nominee, is thereupon
+sent to the dean and chapter, who are bound under the penalties of
+<i>Praemunire</i> to proceed within twelve days to
+the election of the person named in it. In the event of their
+refusing obedience or neglecting to elect, the bishop may be
+appointed by letters patent under the Great Seal without the
+form of election. Upon the election being reported to the crown,
+a mandate issues from the crown to the archbishop and metropolitan,
+requesting him and commanding him to confirm the
+election, and to invest and consecrate the bishop-elect. Thereupon
+the archbishop issues a commission to his vicar-general to
+examine formally the process of the election of the bishop, and
+to supply by his authority all defects in matters of form, and
+to administer to the bishop-elect the oaths of allegiance, of
+supremacy and of canonical obedience (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Confirmation of
+Bishops</a></span>). In the disestablished and daughter Churches the
+election is by the synod of the Church, as in Ireland, or by a
+diocesan convention, as in the United States of America.</p>
+
+<p>In the Church of England the <i>potestas ordinis</i> is conferred by
+consecration. This is usually carried out by an archbishop,
+who is assisted by two or more bishops. The essential &ldquo;form&rdquo;
+of the consecration is in the simultaneous &ldquo;laying on of hands&rdquo;
+by the consecrating prelates. After this the new bishop, who
+has so far been vested only in a rochet, retires and puts on the
+rest of the episcopal habit, viz. the chimere. After consecration
+the bishop is competent to exercise all the spiritual functions of
+his office; but a bishopric in the Established Church, being a
+barony, is under the guardianship of the crown during a vacancy,
+and has to be conferred afresh on each new holder. A bishop,
+then, cannot enter into the enjoyment of the temporalities of his
+see, including his rights of presentation to benefices, before doing
+homage to the king. This is done in the ancient feudal form,
+surviving elsewhere only in the conferring of the M.A. degree at
+Cambridge. The bishop kneels before the king, places his hands
+between his, and recites an oath of temporal allegiance; he
+then kisses hands.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the functions exercised in virtue of their order, bishops
+are also empowered by law to exercise a certain jurisdiction over
+all consecrated places and over all ordained persons. This
+jurisdiction they exercise for the most part through their consistorial
+courts, or through commissioners appointed under the
+Church Discipline Act of 1840. By the Clergy Discipline Act
+of 1892 it was decreed that the trial of clerks accused of unfitness
+to exercise the cure of souls should be before the consistory court
+with five assessors. Under the Public Worship Regulation Act
+of 1874, which gave to churchwardens and aggrieved parishioners
+the right to institute proceedings against the clergy for breaches
+of the law in the conduct of divine service, a discretionary right
+was reserved to the bishop to stay proceedings.</p>
+
+<p>The bishops also exercise a certain jurisdiction over marriages,
+inasmuch as they have by the canons of the Church of England
+a power of dispensing with the proclamation of banns before
+marriage. These dispensations are termed marriage licences,
+and their legal validity is recognised by the Marriage Act of 1823.
+The bishops had formerly jurisdiction over all questions touching
+the validity of marriages and the status of married persons, but
+this jurisdiction has been transferred from the consistorial
+courts of the bishops to a court of the crown by the Matrimonial
+Causes Act of 1857. They have in a similar manner
+been relieved of their jurisdiction in testamentary matters, and
+in matters of defamation and of brawling in churches; and the
+only jurisdiction which they continue to exercise over the
+general laity is with regard to their use of the churches and
+churchyards. The churchwardens, who are representative
+officers of the parishes, are also executive officers of the bishops
+in all matters touching the decency and order of the churches
+and of the churchyards, and they are responsible to the bishops
+for the due discharge of their duties; but the abolition of church
+rates has relieved the churchwardens of the most onerous part
+of their duties, which was connected with the stewardship of the
+church funds of their parishes.</p>
+
+<p>The bishops are still authorized by law to dedicate and set
+apart buildings for the solemnization of divine service, and
+grounds for the performance of burials, according to the rites
+and ceremonies of the Church of England; and such buildings
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page3" id="page3"></a>3</span>
+and grounds, after they have been duly consecrated according to law,
+cannot be diverted to any secular purpose except under the authority of
+an act of parliament.</p>
+
+<p>The bishops of England have also jurisdiction to examine clerks who may
+be presented to benefices within their respective dioceses, and they are
+bound in each case by the 95th canon of 1604 to inquire and inform
+themselves of the sufficiency of each clerk within twenty-eight days,
+after which time, if they have not rejected him as insufficiently
+qualified, they are bound to institute him, or to license him, as the
+case may be, to the benefice, and thereupon to send their mandate to the
+archdeacon to induct him into the temporalities of the benefice. Where
+the bishop himself is patron of a benefice within his own diocese he is
+empowered to collate a clerk to it,&mdash;in other words, to confer it on
+the clerk without the latter being presented to him. Where the clerk
+himself is patron of the living, the bishop may institute him on his own
+petition. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Benefice</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>As spiritual peers, bishops of the Church of England have (subject to
+the limitations stated below) seats in the House of Lords, though
+whether as barons or in their spiritual character has been a matter of
+dispute. The latter, however, would seem to be the case, since a bishop
+was entitled to his writ of summons after confirmation and before doing
+homage for his barony. Doubts having been raised whether a bishop of the
+Church of England, being a lord of parliament, could resign his seat in
+the Upper House, although several precedents to that effect are on
+record, a statute of the realm, which was confined to the case of the
+bishops of London and Durham, was passed in 1856, declaring that on the
+resignation of their sees being accepted by their respective
+metropolitans, those bishops should cease to sit as lords of parliament,
+and their sees should be filled up in the manner provided by law in the
+case of the avoidance of a bishopric. In 1869 the Bishops&rsquo; Resignation
+Act was passed. It provided that, on any bishop desiring to retire on
+account of age or incapacity, the sovereign should be empowered to
+declare the see void by an order in council, the retiring bishop of
+archbishop to be secured the use of the episcopal residence for life and
+a pension of one-third of the revenues of the see, or £2000, whichever
+sum should prove the larger. Other sections defined the proceedings for
+proving, in case of need, the incapacity of a bishop, provided for the
+appointment of coadjutors and defined their status (Phillimore i. 82).</p>
+
+<p>In view of the necessity for increasing the episcopate in the 19th
+century and the objection to the consequent increase of the spiritual
+peers in the Upper House, it was finally enacted by the Bishoprics Act
+of 1878 that only the archbishops and the bishops of London, Winchester
+and Durham should be always entitled to writs summoning them to the
+House of Lords. The rest of the twenty-five seats are filled up, as a
+vacancy occurs, according to seniority of consecration.</p>
+
+<p>Bishops of the Church of England rank in order of precedency immediately
+above barons. They may marry, but their wives as such enjoy no title or
+precedence. Bishops are addressed as &ldquo;Right Reverend&rdquo; and have legally
+the style of &ldquo;Lord,&rdquo; which, as in the case of Roman Catholic bishops in
+England, is extended to all, whether suffragans or holders of colonial
+bishoprics, by courtesy.</p>
+
+<p>The insignia of the Anglican bishop are the rochet and the chimere, and
+the episcopal throne on the gospel side of the chancel of the cathedral
+church. The use of the mitre, pastoral staff and pectoral cross, which
+had fallen into complete disuse by the end of the 18th century, has been
+now very commonly, though not universally, revived; and, in some cases,
+the interpretation put upon the &ldquo;Ornaments rubric&rdquo; by the modern High
+Church school has led to a more complete revival of the pre-Reformation
+vestments.</p>
+
+<p>In the Orthodox Church of the East and the various communions springing
+from it, the <i>potestas ordinis</i> of the bishop is the same as in the
+Western Church. Among his qualifications the most peculiar is that he
+must be unmarried, which, since the secular priests are compelled to
+<span class="sidenote">Orthodox Eastern.</span>
+marry, entails his belonging to the &ldquo;black clergy&rdquo; or
+monks. The insignia of an oriental bishop, with considerable
+variation in form, are essentially the same as those of the
+Catholic West.</p>
+
+<p>Besides bishops presiding over definite sees, there have been
+from time immemorial in the Christian Church bishops holding
+their jurisdiction in subordination to the bishop of the
+diocese. (1) The oldest of these were the <i>chorepiscopi</i>
+<span class="sidenote">Subordinate bishops.</span>
+(<span class="grk" title="taes choras episkopoi">&#964;&#8134;&#962; &#967;&#974;&#961;&#945;&#962; &#7952;&#960;&#943;&#963;&#954;&#959;&#960;&#959;&#953;</span>), <i>i.e.</i> country bishops, who were
+delegated by the bishops of the cities in the early
+church to exercise jurisdiction in the remote towns and villages
+as these were converted from paganism. Their functions varied
+in different times and places, and by some it has been held that
+they were originally only presbyters. In any case, this class of
+bishops, which had been greatly curtailed in the East in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 343
+by the council of Laodicea, was practically extinct everywhere
+by the 10th century. It survived longest in Ireland, where in
+1152 a synod, presided over by the papal legate, decreed that,
+after the death of the existing holders of the office, no more
+should be consecrated. Their place was taken by arch-presbyters
+and rural deans. (2) The <i>Episcopi regionarii</i>, or <i>gentium</i>, were
+simply missionary bishops without definite sees. Such were,
+at the outset, Boniface, the apostle of Germany, and Willibrord,
+the apostle of the Frisians. (3) Bishops <i>in partibus infidelium</i>
+were originally those who had been expelled from their sees by
+the pagans, and, while retaining their titles, were appointed to
+assist diocesan bishops in their work. In later times the custom
+arose of consecrating bishops for this purpose, or merely as an
+honorary distinction, with a title derived from some place once
+included within, but now beyond the bounds of Christendom.
+(4) <i>Coadjutor bishops</i> are such as are appointed to assist the
+bishop of the diocese when incapacitated by infirmity or by other
+causes from fulfilling his functions alone. Coadjutors in the early
+church were appointed with a view to their succeeding to the
+see; but this, though common in practice, is no longer the rule.
+In the Church of England the appointment and rights of coadjutor
+bishops were regulated by the Bishops&rsquo; Resignation Act
+of 1869. Under this act the coadjutor bishop has the right of
+succession to the see, or in the case of the archiepiscopal sees
+and those of London, Winchester and Durham, to the see
+vacated by the bishop, translated from another diocese to fill
+the vacancy. (5) <i>Suffragan bishops (episcopi sufraganei</i> or
+<i>auxiliares</i>) are those appointed to assist diocesan bishops in their
+pontifical functions when hindered by infirmity, public affairs
+or other causes. In the Roman Church the appointment of the
+suffragan rests with the pope, on the petition of the bishop,
+who must prove that such is the custom of the see, name a suitable
+priest and guarantee his maintenance. The suffragan is given a
+title <i>in partibus</i>, but never that of archbishop, and the same
+title is never given to two suffragans in succession. In the
+Church of England the status of suffragan bishops was regulated
+by the Act 26 Henry VIII. c. 14. Under this statute, which,
+after long remaining inoperative, was amended and again put
+into force by the Suffragans&rsquo; Nomination Act of 1888, every
+archbishop and bishop, being disposed to have a suffragan to
+assist him, may name two honest and discreet spiritual persons
+for the crown to give to one of them the title, name, style and
+dignity of a bishop of any one of twenty-six sees enumerated
+in the statute, as the crown may think convenient. The crown,
+having made choice of one of such persons, is empowered to
+present him by letters patent under the great seal to the
+metropolitan, requiring him to consecrate him to the same name,
+title, style and dignity of a bishop; and the person so
+consecrated is thereupon entitled to exercise, under a commission
+from the bishop who has nominated him, such authority and
+jurisdiction, within the diocese of such bishop, as shall be
+given to him by the commission, and no other.</p>
+
+<p>The title of bishop survived the Reformation in certain of the
+Lutheran churches of the continent, in Denmark, Norway,
+Finland, Sweden and Transylvania; it was temporarily
+restored in Prussia in 1701, for the coronation
+<span class="sidenote">Lutheran churches.</span>
+of King Frederick I., again between 1816 and 1840 by
+Frederick William III., and in Nassau in 1818. In these latter
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4" id="page4"></a>4</span>
+cases, however, the title bishop is equivalent to that of
+&ldquo;superintendent,&rdquo; the form most generally employed. The Lutheran
+bishops, as a rule, do not possess or claim unbroken &ldquo;apostolic
+succession&rdquo;; those of Finland and Sweden are, however, an
+exception. The Lutheran bishops of Transylvania sit, with the
+Roman and Orthodox bishops, in the Hungarian Upper House.
+In some cases the secularization of episcopal principalities
+at the Reformation led to the survival of the title of bishop as a
+purely secular distinction. Thus the see of Osnabrück (Osnaburgh)
+was occupied, from the peace of Westphalia to 1802,
+alternately by a Catholic and a Protestant prince. From 1762
+to 1802 it was held by Frederick, duke of York, the last
+prince-bishop. Similarly, the bishopric of Schwerin survived as a
+Protestant prince-bishopric until 1648, when it was finally
+secularized and annexed to Mecklenburg, and the see of Lübeck
+was held by Protestant &ldquo;bishops&rdquo; from 1530 till its annexation
+to Oldenburg in 1803.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In other Protestant communities, <i>e.g.</i> the Moravians, the
+Methodist Episcopal Church and the Mormons, the office and
+title of bishop have survived, or been created. Their functions
+and status will be found described in the accounts of the several
+churches.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Wetzer and Welte, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, s. &ldquo;Bischof&rdquo; and &ldquo;Weihen&rdquo;;
+Hinschius, <i>Kirchenrecht</i>, vol. ii.; Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopadie</i>,
+s. &ldquo;Bischof&rdquo; (the author rather arbitrarily classes Anglican with
+Lutheran bishops as not bishops in any proper sense at all);
+Phillimore&rsquo;s <i>Ecclesiastical Law</i>; the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Order</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Holy</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vestments</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Episcopacy</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The title prince-bishop, attached in Austria to the sees of Laibach,
+Seckau, Gurk, Brixen, Trent and Lavant, and in Prussia to that of
+Breslau, no longer implies any secular jurisdiction, but is merely a
+title of honour recognized by the state, owing either to the importance
+of the sees or for reasons purely historical.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISHOP AUCKLAND,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> a market town in the Bishop Auckland
+parliamentary division of Durham, England, 11 m. S.S.W. of the
+city of Durham, the junction of several branches of the North
+Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 11,969. It is
+beautifully situated on an eminence near the confluence of the
+Wear and the Gaunless. The parish church is 1 m. distant, at
+Auckland St Andrews, a fine cruciform structure, formerly
+collegiate, in style mainly Early English, but with earlier portions.
+The palace of the bishops of Durham, which stands at the north-east
+end of the town, is a spacious and splendid, though irregular
+pile The site of the palace was first chosen by Bishop Anthony
+Beck, in the time of Edward I. The present building covers
+about 5 acres, and is surrounded by a park of 800 acres. On the
+Wear 1½ m. above Bishop Auckland there is a small and very
+ancient church at Escomb, massively built and tapering from the
+bottom upward. It is believed to date from the 7th century,
+and some of the stones are evidently from a Roman building,
+one bearing an inscription. These, no doubt, came from Binchester,
+a short distance up stream, where remains of a Roman
+fort (<i>Vinovia</i>) are traceable. It guarded the great Roman north
+road from York to Hadrian&rsquo;s wall. The industrial population
+of Bishop Auckland is principally employed in the neighbouring
+collieries and iron works.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISHOP&rsquo;S CASTLE,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough
+in the southern parliamentary division of Shropshire, England;
+the terminus of the Bishop&rsquo;s Castle light railway from Craven
+Arms. Pop. (1901) 1378. It is pleasantly situated in a hilly
+district to the east of Clun Forest, climbing the flank and
+occupying the summit of an eminence. Of the castle of the bishops
+of Hereford, which gave the town its name, there are only the
+slightest fragments remaining. The town has some agricultural
+trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
+Area, 1867 acres.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Bishop&rsquo;s Castle was included in the manor of Lydbury, which
+belonged to the church of Hereford before the Conquest. The castle,
+at first called Lydbury Castle, was built by one of the bishops of
+Hereford between 1085 and 1154, to protect his manor from the
+Welsh, and the town which sprang up round the castle walls acquired
+the name of Bishop&rsquo;s Castle in the 13th century. In 1292 the bishop
+claimed to have a market every Friday, a fair on the eve, day and
+morrow of the Decollation of St John, and assize of bread and ale
+in Bishop&rsquo;s Castle, which his predecessors had held from time
+immemorial. Ten years later he received a grant from Richard II.
+of a market every Wednesday and a fair on the 2nd of November
+and two days following. Although the town was evidently a borough
+by the 13th century, since the burgesses are mentioned as early as
+1292, it has no charter earlier than the incorporation charter granted
+by Queen Elizabeth in 1572. This was confirmed by James I. in
+1617 and by James II. in 1688. In 1584 Bishop&rsquo;s Castle returned
+two members to parliament, and was represented until 1832, when
+it was disfranchised.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISHOP STORTFORD,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> a market town in the Hertford parliamentary
+division of Hertfordshire, England; 30½ m. N.N.E.
+from London by the Cambridge line of the Great Eastern railway.
+Pop. of urban district (1901) 7143. It lies on the river Stort,
+close to the county boundary with Essex, and has water-communication
+with London through the Lea and Stort Navigation.
+The church of St Michael, standing high above the valley, is a
+fine embattled Perpendicular building with western tower and
+spire. The high school, formerly the grammar school, was
+founded in the time of Elizabeth. Here were educated Sir
+Henry Chauncy, an early historian of Hertfordshire (d. 1719),
+and Cecil Rhodes, who was born at Bishop Stortford in 1853.
+There are a Nonconformist grammar school, a diocesan training
+college for mistresses, and other educational establishments.
+The industries include brewing and malting, coach-building,
+lime-burning and founding, and there are important horse and
+cattle markets.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Before the Conquest the manor of Bishop Stortford is said to have
+belonged to Eddeva the Fair, wife of Harold, who sold it to the bishop
+of London, from whom it was taken by William the Conqueror.
+William restored it after a few years, and with it gave the bishop a
+small castle called Waytemore, of which there are scanty remains.
+The dungeon of this castle, called &ldquo;Bishop&rsquo;s Hole&rdquo; or &ldquo;Bishop&rsquo;s Prison,&rdquo;
+was used as an ecclesiastical prison until the 16th century.
+The town now possesses no early incorporation charters, and although
+both Chauncy and Salmon in their histories of Hertfordshire state
+that it was created a borough by charter of King John in 1206, the
+charter cannot now be found. The first mention of Bishop Stortford
+as a borough occurs in 1311, in which year the burgesses returned
+two members to parliament. The town was represented from that
+date until 1332, and again in 1335-1336, but the privilege was then
+allowed to lapse and has never been revived.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISKRA,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a town of Algeria, in the arrondissement of Batna,
+department of Constantine, 150 m. S.W. of the city of Constantine
+and connected with it and with Philippeville by rail. It lies in
+the Sahara 360 ft. above the sea, on the right bank of the Wad
+Biskra, a river which, often nearly dry for many months in the
+year, becomes a mighty torrent after one or two days&rsquo; rain in
+winter. The name Biskra applies to a union of five or six
+villages of the usual Saharan type, scattered through an oasis
+3 m. in length by less than 1 m. broad, and separated by huge
+gardens full of palm and olive trees. The houses are built of
+hardened mud, with doors and roof of palm wood. The foreign
+settlement is on the north of the oasis; it consists of a broad
+main street, the rue Berthe (from which a few side streets branch
+at right angles), lined with European houses, the whole in the
+style of a typical French winter resort, a beautiful public garden,
+with the church in the centre, an arcade, a pretentious <i>mairie</i>
+in pseudo-Moorish style with entrance guarded by terra-cotta
+lions, some good shops, a number of excellent hotels and cafes,
+a casino, clubs, and, near by, a street of dancing and singing
+girls of the tribe of Walad-Nail. East of the public garden is
+Fort St Germain, named after an officer killed in the insurrection
+of the Zaatcha in 1849; it is capable of resisting any attack of
+the Arabs, and extensive enough to shelter the whole of the
+civil population, who took refuge therein during the rebellion of
+1871. It contains barracks, hospital and government offices.
+To the south-east lies the Villa Landon with magnificent gardens
+filled with tropical plants. The population (1906) of the chief
+settlement was 4218, of the whole oasis 10,413.</p>
+
+<p>From November to April the climate of Biskra is delightful.
+Nowhere in Algeria can be found more genial temperature or
+clearer skies, and while in summer the thermometer often
+registers 110° F. in the shade, and 90° at night, the pure dryness
+of the air in this practically rainless region makes the heat
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page5" id="page5"></a>5</span>
+endurable. The only drawback to the climat is the prevalence
+of high cold winds in winter. These winds cause temperatures
+as low as 36°, but the mean reading, on an average of ten years,
+is 73°.</p>
+
+<p>In the oasis are some 200,000 fruit trees, of which about
+150,000 are date-palms, the rest being olives, pomegranates and
+apricots. In the centre of the oasis is the old kasbah or citadel.</p>
+
+<p>In 1844 the duc d&rsquo;Aumale occupied this fort, and here, on the
+night of the 12th of May of that year, the 68 men who formed
+the French garrison were, with one exception, massacred by
+Arabs. In the fort are a few fragments of Roman work&mdash;all that
+remains of the Roman post Ad Piscinam.</p>
+
+<p>Biskra is the capital of the Ziban (plural of Zab), a race of
+mixed Berber and Arab origin, whose villages extend from the
+southern slopes of the Aures to the Shat Melrir. These villages,
+built in oases dotted over the desert, nestle in groves of date-palms
+and fruit trees and waving fields of barley. The most
+interesting village is that of Sidi Okba, 12 m. south-east of Biskra.
+It is built of houses of one story made of sun-dried bricks. The
+mosque is square, with a flat roof supported on clay columns, and
+crowned by a minaret. In the north-west corner of the mosque
+is the tomb of Sidi Okba, the leader of the Arabs who in the 1st
+century of the Hegira conquered Africa for Islam from Egypt
+to Tangier. Sidi Okba was killed by the Berbers near this place
+in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 682. On his tomb is the inscription in Cufic characters,
+&ldquo;This is the tomb of Okba, son of Nafi. May God have mercy
+upon him.&rdquo; No older Arabic inscription is known to exist in
+Africa.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISLEY,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> a village of Surrey, England, 3½ m. N.W. of Woking.
+The ranges of the National Rifle Association were transferred
+from Wimbledon here in 1890. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rifle</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISMARCK, OTTO EDUARD LEOPOLD VON,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> <span class="sc">Prince</span>,
+duke of Lauenburg (1815-1898), German statesman, was born
+on the 1st of April 1815, at the manor-house of Schönhausen,
+his father&rsquo;s seat in the mark of Brandenburg. The family has,
+since the 14th century, belonged to the landed gentry, and many
+members had held high office in the kingdom of Prussia. His
+father (d. 1845), of whom he always spoke with much affection,
+was a quiet, unassuming man, who retired from the army in
+early life with the rank of captain of cavalry (<i>Rittmeister</i>). His
+mother, a daughter of Mencken, cabinet secretary to the king,
+was a woman of strong character and ability, who had been
+brought up at Berlin under the &ldquo;Aufklärung.&rdquo; Her ambition
+was centred in her sons, but Bismarck in his recollections of his
+childhood missed the influences of maternal tenderness. There
+were several children of the marriage, which took place in 1806,
+but all died in childhood except Bernhard (1810-1893), Otto,
+and one sister, Malvina (b. 1827), who married in 1845 Oscar
+von Arnim. Young Bismarck was educated in Berlin, first at a
+private school, then at the gymnasium of the Graue Kloster
+(Grey Friars). At the age of seventeen he went to the university
+of Göttingen, where he spent a little over a year; he joined the
+corps of the Hannoverana and took a leading part in the social
+life of the students. He completed his studies at Berlin, and in
+1835 passed the examinations which admitted him to the public
+service. He was intended for the diplomatic service, but spent
+some months at Aix-la-Chapelle in administrative work, and
+then was transferred to Potsdam and the judicial side. He soon
+retired from the public service; he conceived a great distaste
+for it, and had shown himself defective in discipline and
+regularity. In 1839, after his mother&rsquo;s death, he undertook, with
+his brother, the management of the family estates in Pomerania;
+at this time most of the estate attached to Schönhausen had
+to be sold. In 1844, after the marriage of his sister, he went to
+live with his father at Schönhausen. He and his brother took
+an active part in local affairs, and in 1846 he was appointed
+<i>Deichhauptmann</i>, an office in which he was responsible for the
+care of the dykes by which the country, in the neighbourhood
+of the Elbe, was preserved from inundation. During these years
+he travelled in England, France and Switzerland. The influence
+of his mother, and his own wide reading and critical character,
+made him at one time inclined to hold liberal opinions on government
+and religion, but he was strongly affected by the religious
+revival of the early years of the reign of Frederick William IV.;
+his opinions underwent a great change, and under the influence
+of the neighbouring country gentlemen he acquired those strong
+principles in favour of monarchical government as the expression
+of the Christian state, of which he was to become the most
+celebrated exponent. His religious convictions were strengthened
+by his marriage to Johanna von Puttkamer, which took place
+in 1847.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year he entered public life, being chosen as
+substitute for the representative of the lower nobility of his
+district in the estates-general, which were in that
+year summoned to Berlin. He took his seat with
+<span class="sidenote">Parliamentary career.</span>
+extreme right, and distinguished himself by the
+vigour and originality with which he defended the
+rights of the king and the Christian monarchy against the
+Liberals. When the revolution broke out in the following year
+he offered to bring the peasants of Schönhausen to Berlin in
+order to defend the king against the revolutionary party, and in
+the last meeting of the estates voted in a minority of two against
+the address thanking the king for granting a constitution. He
+did not sit in any of the assemblies summoned during the revolutionary
+year, but took a very active part in the formation of a
+union of the Conservative party, and was one of the founders of
+the <i>Kreuzzeitung</i>, which has since then been the organ of the
+Monarchical party in Prussia. In the new parliament which was
+elected at the beginning of 1849, he sat for Brandenburg, and
+was one of the most frequent and most incisive speakers of what
+was called the Junker party. He took a prominent part in the
+discussions on the new Prussian constitution, always defending
+the power of the king. His speeches of this period show great
+debating skill, combined with strong originality and imagination.
+His constant theme was, that the party disputes were a struggle
+for power between the forces of revolution, which derived their
+strength from the fighters on the barricades, and the Christian
+monarchy, and that between these opposed principles no compromise
+was possible. He took also a considerable part in the
+debates on the foreign policy of the Prussian government;
+he defended the government for not accepting the Frankfort
+constitution, and opposed the policy of Radowitz, on the ground
+that the Prussian king would be subjected to the control of a
+non-Prussian parliament. The only thing, he said, that had
+come out of the revolutionary year unharmed, and had saved
+Prussia from dissolution and Germany from anarchy, was the
+Prussian army and the Prussian civil service; and in the debates
+on foreign policy he opposed the numerous plans for bringing
+about the union of Germany, by subjecting the crown and
+Prussia to a common German parliament. He had a seat in the
+parliament of Erfurt, but only went there in order to oppose the
+constitution which the parliament had framed. He foresaw
+that the policy of the government would lead it into a position
+when it would have to fight against Austria on behalf of a
+constitution by which Prussia itself would be dissolved, and he was,
+therefore, one of the few prominent politicians who defended
+the complete change of front which followed the surrender of
+Olmütz.</p>
+
+<p>It was probably his speeches on German policy which induced
+the king to appoint him Prussian representative at the restored
+diet of Frankfort in 1851. The appointment was a
+bold one, as he was entirely without diplomatic experience,
+<span class="sidenote">Diplomatic career.</span>
+but he justified the confidence placed in him.
+During the eight years he spent at Frankfort he acquired an
+unrivalled knowledge of German politics. He was often used
+for important missions, as in 1852, when he was sent to Vienna.
+He was entrusted with the negotiations by which the duke of
+Augustenburg was persuaded to assent to the arrangements by
+which he resigned his claims to Schleswig and Holstein. The
+period he spent at Frankfort, however, was of most importance
+because of the change it brought about in his own political
+opinions. When he went to Frankfort he was still under the
+influence of the extreme Prussian Conservatives, men like the
+Gerlachs, who regarded the maintenance of the principle of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>6</span>
+Christian monarchy against the revolution as the chief duty of
+the Prussian government. He was prepared on this ground for
+a close alliance with Austria. He found, however, a deliberate
+intention on the part of Austria to humble Prussia, and to
+degrade her from the position of an equal power, and also great
+jealousy of Prussia among the smaller German princes, many
+of whom owed their thrones to the Prussian soldiers, who, as in
+Saxony and Baden, had crushed the insurgents. He therefore
+came to the conclusion that if Prussia was to regain the position
+she had lost she must be prepared for the opposition of Austria,
+and must strengthen herself by alliances with other powers.
+The solidarity of Conservative interests appeared to him now a
+dangerous fiction. At the time of the Crimean War he advocated
+alliance with Russia, and it was to a great extent owing to
+his advice that Prussia did not join the western powers. Afterwards
+he urged a good understanding with Napoleon, but his
+advice was met by the insuperable objection of King Frederick
+William IV. to any alliance with a ruler of revolutionary origin.</p>
+
+<p>The change of ministry which followed the establishment
+of a regency in 1857 made it desirable to appoint a new envoy
+at Frankfort, and in 1858 Bismarck was appointed ambassador
+at St Petersburg, where he remained for four years. During
+this period he acquired some knowledge of Russian, and gained
+the warm regard of the tsar, as well as of the dowager-empress,
+herself a Prussian princess. During the first two years he had
+little influence on the Prussian government; the Liberal ministers
+distrusted his known opinions on parliamentary government,
+and the monarchical feeling of the prince regent was offended
+by Bismarck&rsquo;s avowed readiness for alliance with the Italians
+and his disregard of the rights of other princes. The failure of
+the ministry, and the estrangement between King William and
+the Liberal party, opened to him the way to power. Roon, who was
+appointed minister of war in 1861, was an old friend of his,
+and through him Bismarck was thenceforward kept closely
+informed of the condition of affairs in Berlin. On several
+occasions the prospect of entering the ministry was open to him,
+but nothing came of it, apparently because he required a free
+hand in foreign affairs, and this the king was not prepared to
+give him. When an acute crisis arose out of the refusal of parliament,
+in 1862, to vote the money required for the reorganization
+of the army, which the king and Roon had carried through,
+he was summoned to Berlin; but the king was still unable to
+make up his mind to appoint him, although he felt that Bismarck
+was the only man who had the courage and capacity for conducting
+the struggle with parliament. He was, therefore, in
+June, made ambassador at Paris as a temporary expedient.
+There he had the opportunity for renewing the good understanding
+with Napoleon which had been begun in 1857. He also
+paid a short visit to England, but it does not appear that this
+had any political results. In September the parliament, by a
+large majority, threw out the budget, and the king, having
+nowhere else to turn for help, at Roon&rsquo;s advice summoned
+Bismarck to Berlin and appointed him minister president and
+foreign minister.</p>
+
+<p>Bismarck&rsquo;s duty as minister was to carry on the government
+against the wishes of the lower house, so as to enable the king
+to complete and maintain the reorganized army. The
+opposition of the House was supported by the country
+<span class="sidenote">Ministry.</span>
+and by a large party at court, including the queen and crown
+prince. The indignation which his appointment caused was
+intense; he was known only by the reputation which in his
+early years he had won as a violent ultra-Conservative, and the
+apprehensions were increased by his first speech, in which he
+said that the German question could not be settled by speeches
+and parliamentary decrees, but only by blood and iron. His
+early fall was predicted, and it was feared that he might bring
+down the monarchy with him. Standing almost alone he
+succeeded in the task he had undertaken. For four years he
+ruled without a budget, taking advantage of an omission in the
+constitution which did not specify what was to happen in case
+the crown and the two Houses could not agree on a budget. The
+conflict of the ministers and the House assumed at times the
+form of bitter personality hostility; in 1863 the ministers refused
+any longer to attend the sittings, and Bismarck challenged
+Virchow, one of his strongest opponents, to a duel, which,
+however, did not take place. In 1852 he had fought a duel with
+pistols against Georg von Vindre, a political opponent. In June
+1863, as soon as parliament had risen, Bismarck published
+ordinances controlling the liberty of the press, which, though in
+accordance with the letter, seemed opposed to the intentions of
+the constitution, and it was on this occasion that the crown
+prince, hitherto a silent opponent, publicly dissociated himself
+from the policy of his father&rsquo;s ministers. Bismarck depended
+for his position solely on the confidence of the king, and the
+necessity for defending himself against the attempts to destroy
+this confidence added greatly to the suspiciousness of his nature.
+He was, however, really indispensable, for his resignation must
+be followed by a Liberal ministry, parliamentary control over
+the army, and probably the abdication of the king. Not only,
+therefore, was he secure in the continuance of the king&rsquo;s support,
+but he had also the complete control of foreign affairs. Thus
+he could afford to ignore the criticism of the House, and the king
+was obliged to acquiesce in the policy of a minister to whom he
+owed so much.</p>
+
+<p>He soon gave to the policy of the monarchy a resolution
+which had long been wanting. When the emperor of Austria
+summoned a meeting of the German princes at Frankfort
+to discuss a reform of the confederation, Bismarck
+<span class="sidenote">Foreign policy.</span>
+insisted that the king of Prussia must not attend. He
+remained away, and his absence in itself made the congress
+unavailing. There can be no doubt that from the time he
+entered on office Bismarck was determined to bring to an issue
+the long struggle for supremacy in Germany between the house of
+Habsburg and the house of Hohenzollern. Before he was able
+to complete his preparations for this, two unforeseen occurrences
+completely altered the European situation, and caused the
+conflict to be postponed for three years. The first was the
+outbreak of rebellion in Poland. Bismarck, an inheritor of the
+older Prussian traditions, and recollecting how much of the
+greatness of Prussia had been gained at the expense of the Poles,
+offered his help to the tsar. By this he placed himself in opposition
+to the universal feeling of western Europe; no act of his
+life added so much to the repulsion with which at this time he
+was regarded as an enemy of liberty and right. He won, however,
+the gratitude of the tsar and the support of Russia, which in the
+next years was to be of vital service to him. Even more serious
+were the difficulties arising in Denmark. On the death of King
+Frederick VII. in 1863, Prince Frederick of Augustenburg came
+forward as claimant to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein,
+which had hitherto been joined to the crown of Denmark. He
+was strongly supported by the whole German nation and by
+many of its princes. Bismarck, however, once more was obliged
+to oppose the current of national feeling, which imperiously
+demanded that the German duchies should be rescued from a
+foreign yoke. Prussia was bound by the treaty of London of
+1852, which guaranteed the integrity of the Danish monarchy;
+to have disregarded this would have been to bring about a
+coalition against Germany similar to that of 1851. Moreover,
+he held that it would be of no advantage to Prussia to create a
+new German state; if Denmark were to lose the duchies, he
+desired that Prussia should acquire them, and to recognize the
+Augustenburg claims would make this impossible. His resistance
+to the national desire made him appear a traitor to his
+country. To check the agitation he turned for help to Austria;
+and an alliance of the two powers, so lately at variance, was
+formed. He then falsified all the predictions of the opposition
+by going to war with Denmark, not, as they had required, in
+support of Augustenburg, but on the ground that the king of
+Denmark had violated his promise not to oppress his German
+subjects. Austria continued to act with Prussia, and, after the
+defeat of the Danes, at the peace of Vienna the sovereignty of
+the duchies was surrendered to the two allies&mdash;the first step
+towards annexation by Prussia. There is no part of Bismarck&rsquo;s
+diplomatic work which deserves such careful study as these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page7" id="page7"></a>7</span>
+events. Watched as he was by countless enemies at home and
+abroad, a single false step would have brought ruin and disgrace
+on himself; the growing national excitement would have burst
+through all restraint, and again, as fifteen years before, Germany
+divided and unorganized would have had to capitulate to the
+orders of foreign powers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schleswig-Holstein Question</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The peace of Vienna left him once more free to return to his
+older policy. For the next eighteen months he was occupied
+in preparing for war with Austria. For this war the
+was alone responsible; he undertook it deliberately
+<span class="sidenote">War with Austria.</span>
+as the only means of securing Prussian ascendancy
+in Germany. The actual cause of dispute was the disposition
+of the conquered duchies, for Austria now wished to put
+Augustenburg in as duke, a plan to which Bismarck would not assent.
+In 1865 a provisional arrangement was made by the treaty of
+Gastein, for Bismarck was not yet ready. He would not risk a
+war unless he was certain of success, and for this he required the
+alliance of Italy and French support; both he secured during
+the next year. In October 1865 he visited Napoleon at Biarritz
+and Paris. No formal treaty was made, but Napoleon promised
+to regard favourably an extension of Prussian power in Germany;
+while Bismarck led the emperor to believe that Prussia would
+help him in extending the frontier of France. A treaty of
+alliance with Italy was arranged in the spring of 1866; and
+Bismarck then with much difficulty overcame the reluctance
+of the king to embark in a war with his old ally. The results
+of the war entirely justified his calculations. Prussia, though
+opposed by all the German states except a few principalities
+in the north, completely defeated all her enemies, and at the end
+of a few weeks the whole of Germany lay at her feet.</p>
+
+<p>The war of 1866 is more than that of 1870 the crisis of modern
+German history. It finally settled the controversy which had
+begun more than a hundred years before, and left
+Prussia the dominant power in Germany. It determined
+<span class="sidenote">Settlement of 1866.</span>
+that the unity of Germany should be brought
+about not by revolutionary means as in 1848, not as in 1849 had
+been attempted by voluntary agreement of the princes, not by
+Austria, but by the sword of Prussia. This was the great work
+of Bismarck&rsquo;s life; he had completed the programme
+foreshadowed in his early speeches, and finished the work of Frederick
+the Great. It is also the turning-point in Bismarck&rsquo;s own life.
+Having secured the dominance of the crown in Prussia and of
+Prussia in Germany, he could afford to make a reconciliation
+with the parties which had been his chief opponents, and turn
+to them for help in building up a new Germany. The settlement
+of 1866 was peculiarly his work. We must notice, first, how in
+arranging the terms of peace he opposed the king and the military
+party who wished to advance on Vienna and annex part of
+Austrian Silesia; with greater foresight he looked to renewing
+the old friendship with Austria, and insisted (even with the
+threat of resignation) that no territory should be demanded. The
+southern states he treated with equal moderation, and thereby
+was able to arrange an offensive and defensive alliance with
+them. On the other hand, in order to secure the complete control
+of North Germany, which was his immediate object, he required
+that the whole of Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Nassau and the
+city of Frankfort, as well as the Elbe duchies, should be absorbed
+in Prussia. He then formed a separate confederation of the North
+German states, but did not attempt to unite the whole of Germany,
+partly because of the internal difficulties which this would
+have produced, partly because it would have brought about a
+war with France. In the new confederation he became sole
+responsible minister, with the title <i>Bundes-Kanzler</i>; this position
+he held till 1890, in addition to his former post of premier
+minister. In 1871 the title was altered to <i>Reichs-Kanzler</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The reconciliation with the Prussian parliament he effected
+by bringing in a bill of indemnity for the money which had been
+spent without leave of parliament. The Radicals still continued
+their opposition, but he thereby made possible the formation
+of a large party of moderate Liberals, who thenceforward
+supported him in his new Nationalist policy. He aslo, in the
+constitution for the new confederation, introduced a parliament
+(<i>Bundestag</i>) elected by universal suffrage. This was the chief
+demand of the revolutionists in 1848; it was one to which in
+his early life he had been strongly opposed. His experience
+at Frankfort had diminished his dislike of popular representation,
+and it was probably to the advice of Lassalle that his adoption
+of universal suffrage was due. He first publicly proposed it
+just before the war; by carrying it out, notwithstanding the
+apprehensions of many Liberal politicians, he placed the new
+constitution on a firmer base than would otherwise have been
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>Up to 1866 he had always appeared to be an opponent of the
+National party in Germany, now he became their leader. His
+next task was to complete the work which was half-finished,
+and it was this which brought about the second of the great wars
+which he undertook.</p>
+
+<p>The relations with Napoleon III. form one of the most interesting
+but obscurest episodes in Bismarck&rsquo;s career. We have
+seen that he did not share the common prejudice
+against co-operation with France. He found Napoleon
+<span class="sidenote">Bismarck and France.</span>
+willing to aid Prussia as he had aided Piedmont, and
+was ready to accept his assistance. There was this
+difference, that he asked only for neutrality, not armed assistance,
+and it is improbable that he ever intended to alienate any
+German territory; he showed himself, however, on more than one
+occasion, ready to discuss plans for extending French territory,
+on the side of Belgium and Switzerland. Napoleon, who had
+not anticipated the rapid success of Prussia, after the battle of
+Königgratz at the request of Austria came forward as mediator,
+and there were a few days during which it was probable that
+Prussia would have to meet a French attempt to dictate terms
+of peace. Bismarck in this crisis by deferring to the emperor
+in appearance avoided the danger, but he knew that he had
+been deceived, and the cordial understanding was never renewed.
+Immediately after an armistice had been arranged, Benedetti, at
+the orders of the French government, demanded as recompense
+a large tract of German territory on the left bank of the Rhine.
+This Bismarck peremptorily refused, declaring that he would
+rather have war. Benedetti then made another proposal,
+submitting a draft treaty by which France was to support
+Prussia in adding the South German states to the new
+confederation, and Germany was to support France in the annexation
+of Luxemburg and Belgium. Bismarck discussed, but did
+not conclude the treaty; he kept, however, a copy of the draft
+in Benedetti&rsquo;s handwriting, and published it in <i>The Times</i> in
+the summer of 1870 so as to injure the credit of Napoleon in
+England. The failure of the scheme made a contest with France
+inevitable, at least unless the Germans were willing to forgo the
+purpose of completing the work of German unity, and during
+the next four years the two nations were each preparing for the
+struggle, and each watching to take the other at a disadvantage.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary, then, to keep in mind the general situation
+in considering Bismarck&rsquo;s conduct in the months immediately
+preceding the war of 1870. In 1867 there was a dispute regarding
+the right to garrison Luxemburg. Bismarck then produced the
+secret treaties with the southern states, an act which was, as
+it were, a challenge to France by the whole of Germany.
+During the next three years the Ultramontane party hoped to
+bring about an anti-Prussian revolution, and Napoleon was
+working for an alliance with Austria, where Beust, an old
+opponent of Bismarck&rsquo;s, was chancellor. Bismarck was doubtless
+well informed as to the progress of the negotiations, for he
+had established intimate relations with the Hungarians. The
+pressure at home for completing the work of German unity was
+so strong that he could with difficulty resist it, and in 1870 he
+was much embarrassed by a request from Baden to be admitted
+to the confederation, which he had to refuse. It is therefore not
+surprising that he eagerly welcomed the opportunity of gaining
+the goodwill of Spain, and supported by all the means in his
+power the offer made by Marshal Prim that Prince Leopold of
+Hohenzollern should be chosen king of that country. It was only
+by his urgent and repeated representations that the prince was
+persuaded against his will to accept. The negotiations were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page8" id="page8"></a>8</span>
+carried out with the greatest secrecy, but as soon as the
+acceptance was made known the French government intervened and
+declared that the project was inadmissable. Bismarck was away
+at Varzin, but on his instructions the Prussian foreign office in
+answer to inquiries denied all knowledge or responsibility. This
+was necessary, because it would have caused a bad impression
+in Germany had he gone to war with France in support of the
+prince&rsquo;s candidature. The king, by receiving Benedetti at Ems,
+departed from the policy of reserve Bismarck himself adopted,
+and Bismarck (who had now gone to Berlin) found himself in
+a position of such difficulty that he contemplated resignation.
+The French however, by changing and extending their demands
+enabled him to find a cause of war of such nature that the
+<span class="sidenote">The Ems telegram.</span>
+whole of Germany would be united against French
+agression. France asked for a letter of apology,
+and Benedetti personally requested from the king
+a promise that he would never allow the candidature to be
+resumed. Bismarck published the telegram in which this
+information and the refusal of the king were conveyed, but by
+omitting part of the telegram made it appear that the request
+and refusal had both been conveyed in a more abrupt form than
+had really been the case.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> But even apart from this, the publication
+of the French demand, which could not be complied with,
+must have brought about a war.</p>
+
+<p>In the campaign of 1870-71 Bismarck accompanied the headquarters
+of the army, as he had done in 1866. He was present
+at the battle of Gravelotte and at the surrender of Sedan, and
+it was on the morning of the 2nd of September that he had
+his famous meeting with Napoleon after the surrender of the
+emperor. He accompanied the king to Paris, and spent many
+months at Versailles. Here he was occupied chiefly with the
+arrangments for admitting the southern states to the confederation,
+and the establishment of the empire. He also underwent
+much anxiety lest the efforts of Thiers to bring about an
+interference by the neutral powers might be successful. He had to
+carry on the negotiations with the French preliminary to the
+surrender of Paris, and to enforce upon them the German terms
+of peace.</p>
+
+<p>For Bismarck&rsquo;s political career after 1870 we must refer to
+the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Germany</a></span>, for he was thenceforward entirely absorbed
+in the affairs of his country. The foreign policy he
+controlled absolutely. As chancellor he was responsible
+<span class="sidenote">After 1870.</span>
+for the whole internal policy of the empire, and his influence is to
+be seen in every department of state, especially, however, in the
+great change of policy after 1878. During the earlier period the
+estrangement from the Conservatives, which had begun in 1866,
+became very marked, and brought about a violent quarrel with
+many of his old friends, which culminated in the celebrated
+Arnim trial. He incurred much criticism during the struggle
+with the Roman Catholic Church, and in 1873 he was shot at
+and slightly wounded by a youth called Rullmann, who professed
+to be an adherent of the Clerical party. Once before, in
+1866, just before the outbreak of war, his life had been attempted
+by a young man called Cohen, a native of Württemberg, who
+wished to save Germany from a fratricidal war. In 1872 he
+retired from the presidency of the Prussian ministry, but returned
+after a few months. On several occasions he offered to retire,
+but the emperor always refused his consent, on the last time with
+the word &ldquo;Never.&rdquo; In 1877 he took a long leave of absence for
+ten months. His health at this time was very bad. In 1878 he
+presided over the congress of Berlin. The following years were
+chiefly occupied, besides foreign affairs, which were always his
+first care, with important commercial reforms, and he held at
+this time also the office of Prussian minister of trade in addition
+to his other posts. During this period his relations with the
+Reichstag were often very unsatisfactory, and at no time did he
+resort so freely to prosecutions in the law-courts in order to injure
+his opponents, so that the expression <i>Bismarck-Beleidigung</i> was
+invented. He was engaged at this time in a great struggle with
+the Social-Democrats, whom he tried to crush by exceptional
+penal laws. The death of the emperor William in 1888 made a
+serious difference in his position. He had been bound to him by
+a long term of loyal service, which had been rewarded with equal
+loyalty. For his relations to the emperors Frederick and William
+II., and for the events connected with his dismissal from office in
+March 1890, we must refer to the articles under those names.</p>
+
+<p>After his retirement he resided at Friedrichsruh, near Hamburg,
+a house on his Leuenburg estates. His criticisms of the government,
+given sometimes in conversation, sometimes in the
+columns of the <i>Hamburger Nachrichten</i>, caused an open breach
+between him and the emperor; and the new chancellor, Count
+Caprivi, in a circular despatch which was afterwards published,
+warned all German envoys that no real importance must be
+attached to what he said. When he visited Vienna for his son&rsquo;s
+wedding the German ambassador, Prince Reuss, was forbidden
+to take any notice of him. A reconciliation was effected in 1893.
+In 1895 his eightieth birthday was celebrated with great enthusiasm:
+the Reichstag alone, owing to the opposition of the Clericals
+and the Socialists, refused to vote an address. In 1891 he had
+been elected a member of the Reichstag, but he never took his
+seat. He died at Friedrichsruh on the 31st of July 1898.</p>
+
+<p>Bismarck was made a count in 1865; in 1871 he received the
+rank of Fürst (prince). On his retirement the emperor created
+him duke of Lauenburg, but he never used the title, which was not
+inherited by his son. In 1866 he received £60,000 as his share of
+the donation voted by the Reichstag for the victorious generals.
+With this he purchased the estate of Varzin in Pomerania, which
+henceforth he used as a country residence in preference to
+Schönhausen. In 1871 the emperor presented him with a large
+part of the domains of the duchy of Lauenburg. On his seventieth
+birthday a large sum of money (£270,000) was raised by public
+subscription, of which half was devoted to repurchasing the
+estate of Schönhausen for him, and the rest was used by him to
+establish a fund for the assistance of schoolmasters. As a young
+man he was an officer in the Landwehr and militia, and in addition
+to his civil honours he was eventually raised to the rank
+of general. Among the numerous orders he received we may
+mention that he was the first Protestant on whom the pope bestowed
+the order of Christ; this was done after the cessation of
+the Kulturkampf and the reference of the dispute with Spain
+concerning the Caroline Islands to the arbitration of the pope.</p>
+
+<p>Bismarck&rsquo;s wife died in 1894. He left one daughter and two
+sons. Herbert (1840-1904), the elder, was wounded at Mars-le-Tour,
+afterwards entered the foreign office, and acted as private
+secretary to his father (1871-1881). In 1882 he became councillor
+to the embassy at London, in 1884 was transferred to St Petersburg,
+and in 1885 became under-secretary of state for foreign
+affairs. In 1884 he had been elected to the Reichstag, but had
+to resign his seat when, in 1886, he was made secretary of state
+for foreign affairs and Prussian minister. He conducted many
+of the negotiations with Great Britain on colonial affairs. He
+retired in 1890 at the same time as his father, and in 1893 was
+again elected to the Reichstag. He married Countess Margarete
+Hoyos in 1892, and died on the 18th of September 1904. He
+left two daughters and three sons, of whom the eldest, Otto
+Christian Archibald (b. 1897), succeeded to the princely title.
+The second son, Wilhelm, who was president of the province of
+Prussia, died in 1901. By his wife, Sybilla von Arnim-Kröchlendorff,
+he left three daughters and a son, Count Nikolaus (b. 1896).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The literature on Bismarck&rsquo;s life is very extensive,
+and it is only possible to enumerate a few of the most important
+books. The first place belongs to his own works. These include
+his own memoirs, published after his death, under the title <i>Gedanken
+und Erinnerungen</i>; there is an English translation, <i>Bismarck: his
+Reflections and Reminiscences</i> (London, 1898). They are incomplete,
+but contain very valuable discussions on particular points. The
+speeches are of the greatest importance both for his character and for
+political history; of the numerous editions that by Horst Kehl, in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page9" id="page9"></a>9</span>
+12 vols. (Stuttgart, 1892-1894), is the best; there is a cheap edition
+in Reclam&rsquo;s <i>Universalbibliothek.</i> Bismarck was an admirable
+letter-writer, and numbers of his private letters have been published;
+a collected edition has been brought out by Horst Kohl. His letters
+to his wife were published by Prince Herbert Bismarck (Stuttgart, 1900).
+A translation of a small selection of the private letters was
+published in 1876 by F. Maxse. Of great value for the years 1851-1858
+is the corrspondence with General L. v. Gerlach, which has
+been edited by Horst Kohl (3rd ed., Berlin, 1893). A selection of the
+political letters was also published under the title <i>Politische Briefe
+aus den Jahren 1849-1899</i> (2nd ed., Berlin, 1890). Of far greater
+importance are the collections of despatches and state papers edited
+by Herr v. Poschinger. These include four volumes entitled <i>Preussen
+im Bundestag, 1851-1859</i> (4 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1885), which contain
+his despatches during the time he was at Frankfort. Next in importance
+are two works, <i>Bismarck als Volkswirth</i> and <i>Aktenstucke zur
+Wirthschaftspolitik des Fursten Bismarck</i>, which are part of the collection
+of state papers, <i>Akenstucke zur Geschichte der Wirthschaftspolitik
+in Preussen.</i> They contain full information on Bismarck&rsquo;s commercial
+policy, including a number of important state papers. A
+useful general collection is that by Ludwig Hahn, <i>Bismarck, sein
+politisches Leben</i>, &amp;c. (5 vols., Berlin, 1878-1891), which includes a
+selection from letters, speeches and newspaper articles. These
+collections have only been possible owing to the extreme generosity
+which Bismarck showed in permitting the publication of documents;
+he always professed to have no secrets. A full account of the diplomatic
+history from 1863 to 1866 is given by Sybel in <i>Die Begrundung
+des deutschen Reichs</i> (Munich, 1889-1894), written with the help of
+the Prussian archives. The last two volumes, covering 1866-1870,
+are of less value, as he was not able to use the archives for this
+period. Poschinger has also edited a series of works in which
+anecdotes, minutes of interviews and conversations are recorded;
+they are, however, of very unequal value. They are <i>Bismarck und
+die Parlamentarier, Furst Bismarck und der Bundesrath, Die Ansprache
+des Fursten Bismarck, Neue Tischgesprache</i>, and <i>Bismarck
+und die Diplomaten.</i> Selections from these have been published in
+English by Charles Lowe, <i>The Tabletalk of Prince Bismarck</i>, and by
+Sidney Whitman, <i>Conversations with Bismarck.</i> By far the fullest
+guide to Bismarck&rsquo;s life is Horst Kohl&rsquo;s <i>Furst Bismarck, Regesten
+zu einer wissenschaftlichen Biographie</i> (Leipzig, 1891-1892), which
+contains a record of Bismarck&rsquo;s actions on each day, with references
+to and extracts from his letters and speeches. For the works of
+Moritz Busch, which contain graphic pictures of his daily life, see
+the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Busch</a></span>. Further materials were published periodically in
+the <i>Bismarck-Jahrbuch</i>, edited by Horst Kohl (Berlin, 1894-1896;
+Stuttgart, 1897-1899). Herr v. Poschinger also brought out a
+<i>Bismarck Portfeuille.</i> Of German biographies may be mentioned
+Hans Blum, <i>Bismarck und seine Zeit</i> (6 vols., Munich, 1894-1895),
+with a volume of appendices, &amp;c. (1898); Heyck, <i>Bismarck</i> (Bielefeld,
+1898); Kreutzer, <i>Otto von Bismarck</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, 1900);
+Klein-Hattingen, <i>Bismarck und seine Welt, 1815-1871</i>, Bd. i. (Berlin,
+1902); Lenz, <i>Geschichte Bismarcks</i> (Leipzig, 1902); Penzler, <i>Furst
+Bismarck nach seiner Entlassung</i> (7 vols., ib. 1897-1898); Liman,
+one volume under the same title (ib. 1901). There are English
+biographies by Charles Lowe, <i>Bismarck, a Political Biography</i>
+(revised edition in 1 vol., 1895), by James Headlam (1899), and by
+F. Stearns (Philadelphia, 1900). A useful bibliography of all works on
+Bismarck up to 1895 is Paul Schulze and Otto Koller&rsquo;s
+<i>Bismarck-Literatur</i> (Leipzig, 1896).</p>
+<div class="author">(J. W. He.)</div>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It was not till many years later that our knowledge of these
+events (which is still incomplete) was established; in 1894 the
+publication of the memoirs of the king of Rumania showed, what
+had hitherto been denied, that Bismarck had taken a leading part
+in urging the election of the prince of Hohenzollern. It was in 1892
+that the language used by Bismarck himself made it necessary for
+the German government to publish the original form of the Ems
+telegram.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISMARCK,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> the capital of North Dakota, U.S.A., and the
+county-seat of Burleigh county, on the E. bank of the Missouri
+river, in the S. central part of the state. Pop. (1890) 2186,
+(1900) 3319, of whom 746 were foreign-born, (1905) 4913, (1910)
+5443. It is on the main line of the Northern Pacific, and on the
+Minneapolis, St Paul &amp; Sault Ste Marie railways; and steamboats
+run from here to Mannhaven, Mercer county, and Fort Yates,
+Morton county. The city is about 1650 ft. above sea-level. It
+contains the state capitol, the state penitentiary, a U.S. land
+office, a U.S. surveyor-general&rsquo;s office, a U.S. Indian school and a
+U.S. weather station; about a mile S. of the city is Fort Lincoln,
+a United States army post. Bismarck is the headquarters for
+navigation of the upper Missouri river, is situated in a good
+agricultural region, and has a large wholesale trade, shipping
+grain, hides, furs, wool and coal. It was founded in 1873, and
+was chartered as a city in 1876; from 1883 to 1889 it was the
+capital of Dakota Territory, on the division of which it became
+the capital of North Dakota.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> the collective name of a large
+number of islands lying N. and N.E. of New Guinea, between
+1° and 7° S., and 146° and 153° E., belonging to Germany.
+The largest island is New Pomerania, and the archipelago also
+includes New Mecklenburg, New Hanover, with small attendant
+islands, the Admiralty Islands and a chain of islands off the
+coast of New Guinea, the whole system lying in the form
+of a great amphitheatre of oval shape. The archipelago was
+named in honour of the first chancellor of the German empire,
+after a German protectorate had been declared in 1884. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Admiralty Islands</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">New Mecklenburg</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">New Pomerania</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">New Guinea</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISMILLAH,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> an Arabic exclamation, meaning &ldquo;in the name of God.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISMUTH,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a metallic chemical element; symbol Bi, atomic
+weight 208.5 (O = 16). It was probably unknown to the Greeks
+and Romans, but during the middle ages it became quite familiar,
+notwithstanding its frequent confusion with other metals. In
+1450 Basil Valentine referred to it by the name &ldquo;wismut,&rdquo; and
+characterized it as a metal; some years later Paracelsus termed
+it &ldquo;wissmat,&rdquo; and, in allusion to its brittle nature, affirmed it
+to be a &ldquo;bastard&rdquo; or &ldquo;half-metal&rdquo;; Georgius Agricola used
+the form &ldquo;wissmuth,&rdquo; latinized to &ldquo;bisemutum,&rdquo; and also the
+term &ldquo;plumbum cineareum.&rdquo; Its elementary nature was
+imperfectly understood; and the impure specimens obtained
+by the early chemists explain, in some measure, its confusion
+with tin, lead, antimony, zinc and other metals; in 1595
+Andreas Libavius confused it with antimony, and in 1675
+Nicolas Lemery with zinc. These obscurities began to be finally
+cleared up with the researches of Johann Heinrich Pott (1692-1777),
+a pupil of Stahl, published in his <i>Exercitationes chemicae
+de Wismutho</i> (1769), and of N. Geoffroy, son of Claude Joseph
+Geoffroy, whose contribution to our knowledge of this metal
+appeared in the <i>Mémoires de l&rsquo;académie française</i> for 1753.
+Torbern Olof Bergman reinvestigated its properties and determined
+its reactions; his account, which was published in his <i>Opuscula</i>,
+contains the first fairly accurate description of the metal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ores and Minerals.</i>&mdash;The principal source of bismuth is
+the native metal, which is occasionally met with as a mineral,
+usually in reticulated and arborescent shapes or as foliated
+and granular masses with a crystalline fracture. Although
+bismuth is readily obtained in fine crystals by artificial
+means, yet natural crystals are rare and usually indistinct;
+they belong to the rhombohedral system and a cube-like
+rhombohedron with interfacial angles of 92° 20&prime; is the predominating
+form. There is a perfect cleavage perpendicular to the
+trigonal axis of the crystals; the fact that only two (opposite)
+corners of the cube-like crystals can be truncated by cleavage
+at once distinguishes them from true cubes. When not tarnished,
+the mineral has a silver-white colour with a tinge of red, and the
+lustre is metallic. Hardness 2-2½; specific gravity 9.70-9.83.
+The slight variations in specific gravity are due to the presence
+of small amounts of arsenic, sulphur or tellurium, or to enclosed
+impurities.</p>
+
+<p>Bismuth occurs in metalliferous veins traversing gneiss or
+clay-slate, and is usually associated with ores of silver and cobalt.
+Well-known localities are Schneeberg in Saxony and Joachimsthal
+in Bohemia; at the former it has been found as arborescent
+groups penetrating brown jasper, which material has occasionally
+been cut and polished for small ornaments. The mineral has
+been found in some Cornish mines and is fairly abundant in
+Bolivia (near Sorata, and at Tasna in Potosi). It is the chief
+commercial source of bismuth.</p>
+
+<p>The oxide, bismuth ochre, Bi<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, and the sulphide, bismuth
+glance or bismuthite, are also of commercial importance. The
+former is found, generally mixed with iron, copper and arsenic
+oxides, in Bohemia, Siberia, Cornwall, France (Meymac) and
+other localities; it also occurs admixed with bismuth carbonate
+and hydrate. The hydrated carbonate, bismutite, is of less
+importance; it occurs in Cornwall, Bolivia, Arizona and elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>Of the rarer bismuth minerals we may notice the following:&mdash;the
+complex sulphides, copper bismuth glance or wittichenite,
+BiCu<span class="su">3</span>S<span class="su">3</span>, silver bismuth glance, bismuth cobalt pyrites, bismuth
+nickel pyrites or saynite, needle ore (patrinite or aikinite),
+BiCuPbS<span class="su">3</span>, emplectite, CuBiS<span class="su">2</span>, and kobellite, BiAsPb<span class="su">3</span>S<span class="su">6</span>; the
+sulphotelluride tetradymite; the selenide guanajuatite, Bi<span class="su">2</span>Se<span class="su">3</span>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page10" id="page10"></a>10</span>
+the basic tellurate montanite, Bi<span class="su">2</span>(OH)<span class="su">4</span>TeOe; the silicates
+eulytite and agricolite, Bi<span class="su">4</span>(SiO<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">3</span>; and the urnayl arsenate
+walpurgite, Bi(UO<span class="su">2</span>),(OH)<span class="su">24</span>(A<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">4</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Metallurgy.</i>&mdash;Bismuth is extracted from its ores by dry, wet,
+or electro-matallurgical methods, the choice depending upon the
+composition of the ore and economic conditions.  The dry process
+is more frequently practised, for the easy reducibility of the oxide
+and sulphide, together with the low melting-point of the metal,
+renders it possible to effect a ready separation of the metal from
+the gangue and impurities.  The extraction from ores in which the
+bismuth is present in the metallic condition may be accomplished
+by a simple liquation, or melting, in which the temperature is just
+sufficient to melt the bismuth, or by a complete fusion of the ore.
+The first process never extracts all the bisbuth, as much as
+one-third being retained in the matte or speiss; the second is more
+satisfactory, since the extraction is more complete, and also allows
+the addition of reducing agents to decompose any admixed bismuth
+oxide or sulphide.  In the liquidation process the ore is heated in
+inclined cylindrical retorts, and the molten metal is tapped at the
+lower end; the residues being removed from the upper end.  The
+fusion process is preferably carried out in crucible furnaces; shaft
+furnaces are unsatisfactory on account of the disintegrating action
+of the molten bismuth on the furnace linings.</p>
+
+<p>Sulphuretted ores are smelted, either with or without a preliminary
+calcination, with metallic iron; calcined ores may be smelted with
+carbon (coal). The reactions are strictly analogous to those which
+occur in the smelting of galena (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lead</a></span>), the carbon reducing any
+oxide, either present originally in the ore or produced in the calcination
+and the iron combining with the sulphur of the bismuthite.
+A certain amount of bismuth sulphate is always formed during the
+calcination; this is subsequently reduced to the sulphide and
+ultimately to the metal in the fusion.  Calcination in reverberatory
+furnaces and a subsequent smelting in the same type of furnace
+with the addition of about 3% of coal, lime, soda and fluorspar,
+has been adopted for treating the Bolivian ores, which generally
+contain the sulphides of bismuth, copper, iron, antimony, lead and
+a little silver.  The lowest layer of the molten mass is principally
+metallic bismuth, the succeeding layers are a bismuth copper matte,
+which is subsequently worked up, and a slag.  Ores containing the
+oxide and carbonate are treated either by smelting with carbon or
+by a wet process.</p>
+
+<p>In the wet process the ores, in which the bismuth is present as
+oxide or carbonate, are dissolved out with hydrochloric acid, or,
+if the bismuth is to be extracted from a matte or alloy, the solvent
+employed is <i>aqua regia</i> or strong sulphuric acid.  The solution of
+metallic chlorides or sulphates so obtained is precipitated by iron,
+the metallic bismuth filtered, washed with water, pressed in canvas
+bags, and finally fused in graphite crucibles, the surface being protected
+by a layer of charcoal.  Another process consists in adding
+water to the solution and so precipitating the bismuth as oxychloride,
+which is then converted into the metal.</p>
+
+<p>The crude metal obtained by the preceding processes is generally
+contaminated by arsenic, sulphur, iron, nickel, cobalt and antimony,
+and sometimes with silver or gold.  A dry method of purification
+consists in a liquation on a hearth of peculiar construction, which
+occasions the separation of the unreduced bismuth sulphide and the
+bulk of the other impurities.  A better process is to remelt the metal
+in crucibles with the addition of certain refining agents.  The details of
+this process vary very considerably, being conditioned by the composition
+of the impure metal and the practice of particular works.  The
+wet refining process is more tedious and expensive, and is only
+exceptionally employed, as in the case of preparing the pure metal
+or its salts for pharmaceutical or chemical purposes.  The basic
+nitrate is the salt generally prepared, and, in general outline, the
+process consists in dissolving the metal in nitric acid, adding water
+to the solution, boiling the precipitated basic nitrate with an alkali
+to remove the arsenic and lead, dissolving the residue in nitric acid,
+and reprecipitating as basic nitrate with water.  J.F.W. Hampe
+prepared chemically pure bismuth by fusing the metal with sodium
+carbonate and sulphur, dissolving the bismuth sulphide so formed
+in nitric acid, precipitating the bismuth as the basic nitrate,
+re-dissolving this salt in nitric acid, and then precipitating with
+ammonia.  The bismuth hydroxide so obtained is finally reduced by
+hydrogen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Properties.</i>&mdash;Bismuth is a very brittle metal with a white crystalline
+fracture and a characteristic reddish-white colour.  It crystallizes
+in rhombohedra belonging to the hexagonal system, having
+interfacial angles of 87° 40&prime;.  According to G.W.A. Kahlbaum,
+Roth and Siedler (<i>Ziet. Anorg. Chem. 29</i>,  p. 294), its specific gravity is
+9.78143; Roberts and Wrightson give the specific gravity of solid
+bismuth as 9.82, and of molten bismuth as 10.035.  It therefore
+expands on solidification; and as it retains this property in a
+number of alloys, the metal receives extensive application in forming
+type-metals.  Its melting-point is variously given as 268.3° (F.
+Rudberg and A.D. von Riemsdijk) and 270.5° (C.C. Person);
+commercial bismuth melts at 260° (Ledebur), and electrolytic
+bismuth at 264° (Classen).  It vaporizes in a vacuum at 292°, and its
+boiling-point, under atmospheric pressure, is between 1090° and
+1450° (T. Carnelley and W.C. Williams).  Regnault determined its
+specific heat between 0° and 100° to be 0.0308; Kahlbaum, Roth
+and Siedler (<i>loc. cit.</i>) give the value 0.03055. Its thermal conductivity
+is the lowest of all metals, being 18 as compared with silver as 1000;
+its coefficient of expansion between 0° and 100° is 0.001341. Its
+electrical conductivity is approximately 1.2, silver at 0°
+being taken as 100; it is the most diamagnetic substance known, and its thermoelectric
+properties render it especially valuable for the construction
+of thermopiles.</p>
+
+<p>The metal oxidizes very slowly in dry air at ordinary temperatures,
+but somewhat more rapidly in moist air or when heated. In the last
+case it becomes coated with a greyish-black layer of an oxide
+(dioxide (?)), at a red heat the layer consists of the trioxide (Bi<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>);
+and is yellow or green in the case of pure bismuth, and violet or blue
+if impure; at a bright red heat it burns with a bluish flame to the
+trioxide. Bismuth combines directly with the halogens, and the
+elements of the sulphur group. It readily dissolves in nitric acid,
+<i>aqua regia</i> and hot sulphuric acid, but tardily in hot hydrochloric
+acid. It is precipitated as the metal from solutions of its salts by
+the metals of the alkalis and alkaline earths, zinc, iron, copper, &amp;c.
+In its chemical affinities it resembles arsenic and antimony; an
+important distinction is that it forms no hydrogen compound
+analogous to arsine and stibine.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alloys</i>.&mdash;Bismuth readily forms alloys with other metals. Treated
+with sodammonium it yields a bluish-black mass, BiNa<span class="su">3</span>, which takes
+fire in the air and decomposes water. A brittle potassium alloy of
+silver-white colour and lamellar fracture is obtained by calcining
+20 parts of bismuth with 16 of cream of tartar at a strong red heat.
+When present in other metals, even in very small quantity, bismuth
+renders them brittle and impairs their electrical conductivity.
+With mercury it forms amalgams. Bismuth is a component of many
+ternary alloys characterized by their low fusibility and expansion in
+solidification; many of them are used in the arts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fusible
+Metal</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Compounds</i>.&mdash;Bismuth forms four oxides, of which the trioxide,
+Bi<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>, is the most important. This compound occurs in nature as
+bismuth ochre, and may be prepared artificially by oxidizing the
+metal at a red heat, or by heating the carbonate, nitrate or hydrate.
+Thus obtained it is a yellow powder, soluble in the mineral acids
+to form soluble salts, which are readily precipitated as basic salts
+when the solution is diluted. It melts to a reddish-brown liquid,
+which solidifies to a yellow crystalline mass on cooling. The Hydrate,
+Bi(OH)<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained as a white powder by adding potash to a solution
+of a bismuth salt. Bismuth dioxide, BiO or Bi<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, is said to be
+formed by the limited oxidation of the metal, and as a brown precipitate
+by adding mixed solutions of bismuth and stannous chlorides
+to a solution of caustic potash. Bismuth tetroxide, Bi<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span>, sometimes
+termed bismuth bismuthate, is obtained by melting bismuth trioxide
+with potash, or by igniting bismuth trioxide with potash and potassium
+chlorate. It is also formed by oxidizing bismuth trioxide
+suspended in caustic potash with chlorine, the pentoxide being formed
+simultaneously; oxidation and potassium ferricyanide simply gives
+the tetroxide (Hauser and Vanino, <i>Zeit. Anorg. Chem</i>., 1904, 39, p. 381).
+The hydrate, Bi<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">4</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O, is also known. Bismuth pentoxide, Bi<span class="su">2</span>C<span class="su">5</span>,
+is obtained by heating bismuthic acid, HBiO<span class="su">3</span>, to 130°C.; this acid
+(in the form of its salts) being the product of the continued oxidation
+of an alkaline solution of bismuth trioxide.</p>
+
+<p>Bismuth forms two chlorides: BiCl<span class="su">2</span> and BiCl<span class="su">3</span>. The dichloride,
+BiCl<span class="su">2</span>, is obtained as a brown crystalline powder by fusing the metal
+with the trichloride, or in a current of chlorine, or by heating the
+metal with calomel to 250°. Water decomposes it to metallic
+bismuth and the oxychloride, BiOCl. Bismuth trichloride, BiCl<span class="su">3</span>,
+was obtained by Robert Boyle by heating the metal with corrosive
+sublimate. It is the final product of burning bismuth in an excess
+of chlorine. It is a white substance, melting at 225°-230° and
+boiling at 435°-441°. With excess of water, it gives a white precipitate
+of the oxychloride, BiOCl. Bismuth trichloride forms double
+compounds with hydrochloric acid, the chlorides of the alkaline
+metals, ammonia, nitric oxide and nitrosyl chloride. <i>Bismuth trifluoride</i>,
+BiF<span class="su">3</span>, a white powder, <i>bismuth tribromide</i>, BiBr<span class="su">3</span>, golden
+yellow crystals, <i>bismuth iodide</i>, BiI<span class="su">3</span>, greyish-black crystals, are also
+known. These compounds closely resemble the trichloride in their
+methods of preparation and their properties, forming oxyhaloids
+with water, and double compounds with ammonia, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carbonates</i>.&mdash;The basic carbonate, 2(BiO)<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">3</span>·H<span class="su">2</span>O, obtained as a
+white precipitate when an alkaline carbonate is added to a solution of
+bismuth nitrate, is employed in medicine. Another basic carbonate,
+3(BiO)<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">3</span>·2Bi(OH)<span class="su">3</span>·3H<span class="su">2</span>O, constitutes the mineral bismutite.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nitrates</i>.&mdash;The normal nitrate, Bi(NO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span>·5H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained in
+large transparent asymmetric prisms by evaporating a solution of
+the metal in nitric acid. The action of water on this solution produces
+a crystalline precipitate of basic nitrate, probably Bi(OH)<span class="su">2</span>NO<span class="su">3</span>,
+though it varies with the amount of water employed. This precipitate
+constitutes the &ldquo;magistery of bismuth&rdquo; or &ldquo;subnitrate of
+bismuth&rdquo; of pharmacy, and under the name of pearl white, <i>blanc
+d&rsquo;Espagne</i> or <i>blanc de fard</i> has long been used as a cosmetic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sulphides</i>.&mdash;Bismuth combines directly with sulphur to form a,
+disulphide, Bi<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">2</span>, and a trisulphide, Bi<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>, the latter compound
+being formed when the sulphur is in excess. A hydrated disulphide,
+Bi<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">2</span>·2H<span class="su">2</span>O, is obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a
+solution of bismuth nitrate and stannous chloride. Bismuth
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>11</span>
+disulphide is a grey metallic substance, which is decomposed by
+hydrochloric acid with the separation of metallic bismuth and the
+formation of bismuth trichloride. Bismuth trisulphide, Bi<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>,
+constitutes the mineral bismuthite, and may be prepared by direct
+union of its constituents, or as a brown precipitate by passing
+sulphuretted hydrogen into a solution of a bismuth salt. It is
+easily soluble in nitric acid. When heated to 200° it assumes the
+crystalline form of bismuthite. Bismuth forms several oxysulphides:
+Bi<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">3</span>S constitutes the mineral karelinite found at the Zavodinski
+mine in the Altai; Bi<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">3</span>S<span class="su">4</span> and Bi<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>S have been prepared
+artificially. Bismuth also forms the sulphohaloids, BiSCl, BiSBr, BiSI,
+analogous to the oyxhaloids.</p>
+
+<p>Bismuth sulphate, Bi<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, is obtained as a white powder by
+dissolving the metal or sulphide in concentrated sulphuric acid.
+Water decomposes it, giving a basic salt, Bi<span class="su">2</span>(SO<span class="su">4</span>)(OH)<span class="su">4</span>, which on
+heating gives (BiO)<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span>. Other basic salts are known.</p>
+
+<p>Bismuth forms compounds similar to the trisulphide with the
+elements selenium and tellurium. The tritelluride constitutes the
+mineral tetradymite, Bi<span class="su">2</span>Te<span class="su">3</span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Analysis</i>.&mdash;Traces of bismuth may be detected by treating the
+solution with excess of tartaric acid, potash and stannous chloride,
+a precipitate or dark coloration of bismuth oxide being formed even
+when only one part of bismuth is present in 20,000 of water. The
+blackish brown sulphide precipitated from bismuth salts by sulphuretted
+hydrogen is insoluble in ammonium sulphide, but is readily
+dissolved by nitric acid. The metal can be reduced by magnesium,
+zinc, cadmium, iron, tin, copper and substances like hypophosphorous
+acid from acid solutions or from alkaline ones by
+formaldehyde. In quantitative estimations it is generally weighed
+as oxide, after precipitation as sulphide or carbonate, or in the
+metallic form, reduced as above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pharmacology</i>.&mdash;The salts of bismuth are feebly antiseptic.
+Taken internally the subnitrate, coming into contact with water,
+tends to decompose, gradually liberating nitric acid, one of the most
+powerful antiseptics. The physical properties of the powder
+also give it a mild astringent action. There are no remote
+actions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Therapeutics</i>.&mdash;The subnitrate of bismuth is invaluable in certain
+cases of dyspepsia, and still more notably so in diarrhoea. It owes
+its value to the decomposition described above, by means of which
+a powerful antiseptic action is safely and continuously exerted.
+There is hardly a safer drug. It may be given in drachm doses with
+impunity. It colours the faeces black owing to the formation of
+sulphide.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISMUTHITE,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a somewhat rare mineral, consisting of bismuth
+trisulphide, Bi<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system
+and is isomorphous with stibnite (Sb<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>), which it closely resembles
+in appearance. It forms loose interlacing aggregates of acicular
+crystals without terminal faces (only in a single instance has a
+terminated crystal been observed), or as masses with a foliated
+or fibrous structure. An important character is the perfect
+cleavage in one direction parallel to the length of the needles.
+The colour is lead-grey inclining to tin-white and often with a
+yellowish or iridescent tarnish. The hardness is 2; specific
+gravity 6.4-6.5. Bismuthite occurs at several localities in
+Cornwall and Bolivia, often in association with native bismuth
+and tin-ores. Other localities are known; for instance, Brandy
+Gill in Caldbeck Fells, Cumberland, where with molybdenite and
+apatite it is embedded in white quartz. The mineral was known
+to A. Cronstedt in 1758, and was named bismuthine by F.S.
+Beudant in 1832. This name, which is also used in the forms
+bismuthite and bismuthinite, is rather unfortunate, since it is
+readily confused with bismite (bismuth oxide) and bismutite
+(basic bismuth carbonate), especially as the latter has also been
+used in the form bismuthite. The name bismuth-glance or
+bismutholamprite for the species under consideration is free from
+this objection.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISMYA,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> a group of ruin mounds, about 1 m. long and ½ m.
+wide, consisting of a number of low ridges, nowhere exceeding 40
+ft. in height, lying in the Jezireh, somewhat nearer to the Tigris
+than the Euphrates, about a day&rsquo;s journey to the south-east of
+Nippur, a little below 32° N. and about 45° 40&prime; E. Excavations
+conducted here for six months, from Christmas of 1903 to June
+1904, for the university of Chicago, by Dr Edgar J. Banks,
+proved that these mounds covered the site of the ancient city of
+Adab (Ud-Nun), hitherto known only from a brief mention of its
+name in the introduction to the Khammurabi code (c. 2250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+The city was divided into two parts by a canal, on an island in
+which stood the temple, E-mach, with a <i>ziggurat</i>, or stage tower.
+It was evidently once a city of considerable importance, but
+deserted at a very early period, since the ruins found close to the
+surface of the mounds belong to Dungi and Ur Gur, kings of Ur
+in the earlier part of the third millennium <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Immediately
+below these, as at Nippur, were found the remains of Naram-Sin
+and Sar-gon, c. 3000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Below these there were still 35 ft.
+of stratified remains, constituting seven-eighths of the total
+depth of the ruins. Besides the remains of buildings, walls,
+graves, &amp;c., Dr Banks discovered a large number of inscribed
+clay tablets of a very early period, bronze and stone tablets,
+bronze implements and the like. But the two most notable
+discoveries were a complete statue in white marble, apparently
+the most ancient yet found in Babylonia (now in the museum in
+Constantinople), bearing the inscription&mdash;&ldquo;E-mach, King
+Da-udu, King of Ud-Nun&rdquo;; and a temple refuse heap,
+consisting of great quantities of fragments of vases in marble,
+alabaster, onyx, porphyry and granite, some of which were
+inscribed, and others engraved and inlaid with ivory and precious
+stones.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. P. Pe.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISON,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> the name of the one existing species of European wild
+ox, <i>Bos</i> (<i>Bison</i>) <i>bonasus</i>, known in Russian as <i>zubr</i>.
+Together with the nearly allied New World animal known in Europe as
+the (North) American bison, but in its own country as &ldquo;buffalo,&rdquo;
+and scientifically as <i>Bos (Bison) bison</i>, the bison represents a
+group of the ox tribe distinguished from other species by the
+greater breadth and convexity of the forehead, superior length
+of limb, and the longer spinal processes of the dorsal vertebrae,
+which, with the powerful muscles attached for the support of the
+massive head, form a protuberance or hump on the shoulders.
+The bisons have also fourteen pairs of ribs, while the common ox
+has only thirteen. The forehead and neck of both species are
+covered with long, shaggy hair of a dark brown colour; and in
+winter the whole of the neck, shoulders and hump are similarly
+clothed, so as to form a curly, felted mane. This mane in the
+European species disappears in summer; but in the American
+bison it is to a considerable extent persistent.</p>
+
+<p>The bison is now the largest European quadruped, measuring
+about 10 ft. long, exclusive of the tail, and standing nearly 6 ft.
+high. Formerly it was abundant throughout Europe, as is
+proved by the fossil remains of this or a closely allied form found
+on the continent and in England, associated with those of the
+extinct mammoth and rhinoceros. Caesar mentions the bison
+as abounding, along with the extinct aurochs or wild ox, in the
+forests of Germany and Belgium, where it appears to have been
+occasionally captured and afterwards exhibited alive in the
+Roman amphitheatres. At that period, and long after, it seems
+to have been common throughout central Europe, as we learn
+from the evidence of Herberstein in the 16th century. Nowadays
+bison are found in a truly wild condition only in the forests of the
+Caucasus, where they are specially protected by the Russian
+government. There is, however, a herd, somewhat in the
+condition of park-animals, in the forest of Byelovitsa, in Lithuania,
+where it is protected by the tsar, but nevertheless is
+gradually dying out. In 1862 the Lithuanian bisons numbered
+over 1200, but by 1872 they had diminished to 528, and in 1892
+there were only 491. The prince of Pless has a small herd at
+Promnitz, his Silesian estate, founded by the gift of a bull and
+three cows by Alexander II. in 1855, his herd being the source
+of the menagerie supply.</p>
+
+<p>Bison feed on a coarse aromatic grass, and browse on the
+leaves, shoots, bark and twigs of trees.</p>
+
+<p>The American bison is distinguished from its European cousin
+by the following among other features: The hind-quarters are
+weaker and fall away more suddenly, while the withers are
+proportionately higher. Especially characteristic is the great
+mass of brown or blackish brown hair clothing the head, neck
+and forepart of the body. The shape of the skull and horns is
+also different; the horns themselves being shorter, thicker,
+blunter and more sharply curved, while the forehead of the
+skull is more convex and the sockets of the eyes are more
+distinctly tubular. This species formerly ranged over a third of
+North America in countless numbers, but is now practically
+extinct. The great herd was separated into a northern and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>12</span>
+southern division by the completion of the Union Pacific railway,
+and the annual rate of destruction from 1870 to 1875 has been
+estimated at 2,500,000 head.  In 1880 the completion of the
+Northern Pacific railway led to an attack upon the northern herd.
+The last of the Dakota bisons were destroyed by Indians in 1883,
+leaving then less than 1000 wild individuals in the United
+State.</p>
+
+<p>A count which was concluded at the end of February 1903,
+put the number of captive bisons at 1119, of which 969 were in
+parks and zoological gardens in the United States, 41 in Canada
+and 109 in Europe.  At the same time it was estimated that
+there were 34 wild bison in the United States and 600 in Canada.</p>
+
+<p>In England small herds are kept by the duke of Bedford at
+Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire, and by Mr C.J. Leyland at
+Haggerston Castle, Northumberland.</p>
+
+<p>Two races of the American bison have been distinguished&mdash;the
+typical prairie form, and the woodland race, <i>B. bison
+athabascae</i>; but the two are very similar.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISQUE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (a French word of unknown origin, formerly spelt in
+English &ldquo;bisk&rdquo;), a term for odds given in the games of tennis,
+lawn tennis, croquet and golf; in the two former a bisque is one
+point to be taken at any time during a &ldquo;set&rdquo; at the choice of
+the receiver of the odds, while in croquet and golf it is one extra
+stroke to be taken similarly during a game.  The name is given,
+in cookery, to a thick soup, made particularly of crayfish or
+lobsters.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISSELL, GEORGE EDWIN<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1839-&emsp;&emsp;), American sculptor,
+son of a quarryman and marble-cutter, was born at New Preston,
+Connecticut, on the 16th of February 1839.  During the Civil
+War he served as a private in the 23rd Connecticut volunteers
+in the Department of the Gulf (1862-1863), and on being
+mustered out became acting assistant paymaster in the South
+Atlantic squadron.  At the close of the war he joined his father
+in business.  He studied the art of sculpture abroad in 1875-1876,
+and lived much in Paris during the years 1883-1896, with
+occasional visits to America.  Among his more important works
+are the soldiers&rsquo; and sailors&rsquo; monument, and a statue of Colonel
+Chatfield, at Waterbury, Connecticut; and statues of General
+Gates at Saratoga, New York, of Chancellor John Watts in
+Trinity churchyard, New York City; of Colonel Abraham de
+Peyster in Bowling Green, New York City; of Abraham Lincoln
+at Edinburgh; of Burns and &ldquo;Highland Mary,&rdquo; in Ayr,
+Scotland; of Chancellor James Kent, in the Congressional
+library, Washington; and of President Arthur in Madison
+Square, New York City.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISSEXT,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bissextus</span> (Lat. <i>bis</i>, twice; <i>sextus</i>, sixth), the
+day intercalated by the Julian calendar in the February of every
+fourth year to make up the six hours by which the solar year was
+computed to exceed the year of 365 days.  The day was inserted
+after the 24th of February, <i>i.e.</i> the 6th day before the calends
+(1st) of March; there was consequently, besides the <i>sextus</i>, or
+sixth before the calends, the <i>bis-sextus</i> or &ldquo;second sixth,&rdquo; our
+25th of February.  In modern usage, with the exception of
+ecclesiastical calendars, the intercalary day is added for convenience
+at the end of the month, and years in which February
+has 29 days are called &ldquo;bissextile,&rdquo; or leap-years.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BISTRE,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> the French name of a brown paint made from the
+soot of wood, now largely superseded by Indian ink.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BIT<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (from the verb &ldquo;to bite,&rdquo; either in the sense of a piece
+bitten off, or an act of biting, or a thing that bites or is bitten),
+generally, a piece of anything; the word is, however, used in
+various special senses, all derivable from its origin, either literally
+or metaphorically.  The most common of these are (1) its use
+as the name of various tools, <i>e.g.</i> centre-bit; (2) a horse&rsquo;s &ldquo;bit,&rdquo;
+or the metal mouth-piece of the bridle; (3) in money, a small
+sum of money of varying value (<i>e.g.</i> threepenny-bit), especially
+in the West Indies and southern United States.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BITHUR,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a town in the Cawnpore district of the United
+Provinces of India, 12 m. N.W. of Cawnpore city.  Pop. (1901)
+7173.  It is chiefly notable for its connexion with the mutiny of
+1857.  The last of the peshwas, Baji Rao, was banished to Bithur,
+and his adopted son, the Nana Sahib, made the town his
+head-quarters. It was captured by Havelock on the 19th of July
+1857, when the Nana&rsquo;s palaces were destroyed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BITHYNIA<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Bituvia">&#914;&#953;&#952;&#965;&#957;&#943;&#945;</span>), an ancient district in the N.W. of
+Asia Minor, adjoining the Propontis, the Thracian Bosporus
+and the Euxine. According to Strabo it was bounded on the
+E. by the river Sangarius; but the more commonly received
+division extended it to the Parthenius, which separated it from
+Paphlagonia, thus comprising the district inhabited by the
+Mariandyni. On the W. and S.W. it was separated from Mysia
+by the river Rhyndacus; and on the S. it adjoined Phrygia
+Epictetus and Galatia. It is in great part occupied by mountains
+and forests, but has valleys and districts near the sea-coast
+of great fertility. The most important mountain range is the
+(so-called) &ldquo;Mysian&rdquo; Olympus (7600 ft.), which towers above
+Brusa and is clearly visible as far away as Constantinople (70 m.).
+Its summits are covered with snow for a great part of the year.
+East of this the range now called Ala-Dagh extends far above
+100 m. from the Sangarius to Paphlagonia. Both of these ranges
+belong to that border of mountains which bounds the great tableland
+of Asia Minor. The country between them and the coast,
+covered with forests and traversed by few lines of route, is still
+imperfectly known. But the broad tract which projects towards
+the west as far as the shores of the Bosporus, though hilly and
+covered with forests&mdash;the Turkish Aghatch Denizi, or &ldquo;The
+Ocean of Trees&rdquo;&mdash;is not traversed by any mountain chain. The
+west coast is indented by two deep inlets, (1) the northernmost,
+the Gulf of Ismid (anc. Gulf of Astacus), penetrating between
+40 and 50 m. into the interior as far as Ismid (anc. Nicomedia),
+separated by an isthmus of only about 25 m. from the Black
+Sea; (2) the Gulf of Mudania or Gemlik (Gulf of Cius), about
+25 m. long. At its extremity is situated the small town of
+Gemlik (anc. Cius) at the mouth of a valley, communicating
+with the lake of Isnik, on which was situated Nicaea.</p>
+
+<p>The principal rivers are the Sangarius (mod. Sakaria), which
+traverses the province from south to north; the Rhyndacus, which
+separated it from Mysia; and the Billaeus (Filiyas), which rises
+in the Ala-Dagh, about 50 m. from the sea, and after flowing
+by Boli (anc. Claudiopolis) falls into the Euxine, close to the
+ruins of the ancient Tium, about 40 m. north-east of Heraclea,
+having a course of more than 100 m. The Parthenius (mod.
+Bartan), the boundary of the province towards the east, is a
+much less considerable stream.</p>
+
+<p>The natural resources of Bithynia are still imperfectly developed.
+Its vast forests would furnish an almost inexhaustible supply
+of timber, if rendered accessible by roads. Coal also is known
+to exist near Eregli (Heraclea). The valleys towards the Black
+Sea abound in fruit trees of all kinds, while the valley of the
+Sangarius and the plains near Brusa and Isnik (Nicaea) are
+fertile and well cultivated. Extensive plantations of mulberry
+trees supply the silk for which Brusa has long been celebrated,
+and which is manufactured there on a large scale.</p>
+
+<p>According to ancient authors (Herodotus, Xenophon, Strabo,
+&amp;c.), the Bithynians were an immigrant Thracian tribe. The
+existence of a tribe called Thyni in Thrace is well attested, and
+the two cognate tribes of the Thyni and Bithyni appear to have
+settled simultaneously in the adjoining parts of Asia, where they
+expelled or subdued the Mysians, Caucones, and other petty
+tribes, the Mariandyni alone maintaining themselves in the north-east.
+Herodotus mentions the Thyni and Bithyni as existing side
+by side; but ultimately the latter must have become the more
+important, as they gave their name to the country. They were
+incorporated by Croesus with the Lydian monarchy, with which
+they fell under the dominion of Persia (546 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and were
+included in the satrapy of Phrygia, which comprised all the
+countries up to the Hellespont and Bosporus. But even before
+the conquest by Alexander the Bithynians appear to have
+asserted their independence, and successfully maintained it
+under two native princes, Bas and Zipoetes, the last of whom
+transmitted his power to his son Nicomedes I., the first to
+assume the title of king. This monarch founded Nicomedia,
+which soon rose to great prosperity, and during his long reign
+(278-250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), as well as those of his successors, Prusias I.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page13" id="page13"></a>13</span>
+Prusias II. and Nicomedes II. (149-91 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the kingdom of
+Bithynia held a considerable place among the minor monarchies
+of Asia.  But the last king, Nicomedes III., was unable to
+maintain himself against Mithradates of Pontus, and, after being
+restored to his throne by the Roman senate, he bequeathed his
+kingdom by will to the Romans (74 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).  Bithynia now became
+a Roman province.  Its limits were frequently varied, and it
+was commonly united for administrative purposes with the
+province of Pontus.  This was the state of things in the time of
+Trajan, when the younger Pliny was appointed governor of
+the combined provinces (103-105 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), a circumstance to
+which we are indebted for valuable information concerning the
+Roman provincial administration.  Under the Byzantine empire
+Bithynia was again divided into two provinces, separated by the
+Sangarias, to the west of which the name of Bithynia was
+restricted.</p>
+
+<p>The most important cities were Nicomedia and Nicaea, which
+disputed with one another the rank of capital.  Both of these
+were founded after Alexander the Great; but at a much earlier
+period the Greeks had established on the coast the colonies of
+Cius (afterwards Prusias, mod. Gemlik); Chalcedon, at the
+entrance of the Bosporus, nearly opposite Constantinople; and
+Heraclea Pontica, on the Euxine, about 120 m. east of the Bosporus.
+All these rose to be flourishing places of trade, as also
+Prusa at the foot of M. Olympus (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brusa</a></span>).  The only other
+places of importance at the present day are Ismid (Nicomedia)
+and Scutari.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Texier, <i>Ásie Mineure</i> (Paris, 1839); G. Perrot, <i>Calatie et
+Bithynie</i> (Paris, 1862); W. von Diest in <i>Petermanns Mittheilungen</i>,
+Ergansungshelt, 116 (Gotha, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. H. B.; F. W. Ha.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BITLIS,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Betlis</span> (Arm. <i>Paghesh</i>), the chief town of a vilayet
+of the same name in Asiatic Turkey, situated at an altitude of
+4700 ft. in the deep, narrow valley of the Bitlis Chai, a tributary
+of the Tigris.  The main part of the town and the bazaars are
+crowded alongside the stream, while suburbs with scattered
+houses among orchards and gardens extend up two tributary
+streams.  The houses are massive and well built of a soft volcanic
+tufa, and with their courtyards and gardens climbing up the
+hillsides afford a striking picture.  At the junction of two
+streams in the centre of the town is a fine old castle, partly
+ruined, which, according to local tradition, occupies the site
+of a fortress built by Alexander the Great.  It is apparently
+an Arab building, as Arabic inscriptions appear on the walls, but
+as the town stands on the principal highway between the Van
+plateau and the Mesopotamian plain it must always have been
+of strategic importance.  The bazaars are crowded, covered
+across with branches in summer, and typical of a Kurdish town.
+The population numbers 35,000, of whom about 12,000 are
+Armenians and the remainder are Kurds or of Kurdish descent.</p>
+
+<p>Kurdish beys and sheids have much influence in the town
+and wild mountain districts adjoining, while the Sasun mountains,
+the scene of successive Armenian revolutions of late years,
+are not far off to the west.  The town was ruled by a
+semi-independent Kurdish bey as late as 1836.  There are some fine
+old mosques and <i>medresses</i> (colleges), and the Armenians have a
+large monastery and churches.  There are British, French and
+Russian consuls in the town, and a branch of the American
+Mission with schools is established also.  The climate is healthy
+and the thermometer rarely falls below 0° Fahr., but there is a
+heavy snowfall and the narrow streets are blocked for some five
+months in the year.</p>
+
+<p>A good road runs southward down the pass, passing after a
+few miles some large chalybeate and sulphur springs.  Roads
+also lead north to Mush and Erzerum and along the lake to Van.
+Postal communication is through Erzerum with Trebizond.
+Tobacco of an inferior quality is largely grown, and the chief
+industry is the weaving of a coarse red cloth.  Manna and gum
+tragacanth are also collected.  Fruit is also plentiful, and there
+are many vineyards close by.</p>
+
+<p>The Bitlis vilayet comprises a very varied section of Asiatic
+Turkey, as it includes the Mush plain and the plateau country
+west of Lake Van, as well as a large extent of wild mountain
+districts inhabited by turbulent Kurds and Armenians on either
+side of the central town of Bitlis, also some of the lower country
+about Sairt along the left bank of the main stream of the Tigris.
+The mountains have been little explored, but are believed to
+be rich in minerals, iron, lead, copper, traces of gold and many
+mineral springs are known to exist.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. R. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BITONTO<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (anc. <i>Butunti</i>), a town and episcopal see of Apulia,
+Italy, in the province of Bari, 10 m. west by steam tramway
+from Bari. Pop. (1901) 30,617. It was a place of no importance
+in classical times. Its medieval walls are still preserved. Its
+cathedral is one of the finest examples of the Romanesque architecture
+of Apulia, and has escaped damage from later restorations.
+The palazzo Sylos-Labini has a fine Renaissance court of 1502.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BITSCH<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Bitche</i>), a town of Germany, in Alsace-Lorraine,
+on the Horn, at the foot of the northern slope of the Vosges
+between Hagenau and Saargemund. Pop. (1905) 4000. There
+are a Roman Catholic and a Protestant church, a classical school
+and an academy of forestry. The industries include shoe-making
+and watch-making, and there is some trade in grain and timber.
+The town of Bitsch, which was formed out of the villages of
+Rohr and Kaltenhausen in the 17th century, derives its name
+from the old stronghold (mentioned in 1172 as Bytis Castrum)
+standing on a rock some 250 ft. above the town. This had long
+given its name to the countship of Bitsch, which was originally
+in the possession of the dukes of Lorraine. In 1297 it passed by
+marriage to Eberhard I. of Zweibrücken, whose line became
+extinct in 1569, when the countship reverted to Lorraine. It
+passed with that duchy to France in 1766. After that date the
+town rapidly increased in population. The citadel, which had
+been constructed by Vauban on the site of the old castle after
+the capture of Bitsch by the French in 1624, had been destroyed
+when it was restored to Lorraine in 1698. This was restored
+and strengthened in 1740 into a fortress that proved impregnable
+in all succeeding wars. The attack upon it by the Prussians
+in 1793 was repulsed; in 1815 they had to be content with
+blockading it; and in 1870, though it was closely invested by
+the Germans after the battle of Wörth, it held out until the end
+of the war. A large part of the fortification is excavated in the
+red sandstone rock, and rendered bomb-proof; a supply of
+water is secured to the garrison by a deep well in the interior.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1867-&emsp;&emsp;), American
+sculptor, was born in Vienna on the 6th of December 1867.
+After studying art there, in 1889 he removed to the United
+States, where he became naturalized. In America he gained
+great popularity as a sculptor, and in 1906-1907 was president
+of the National Sculpture Society, New York. Among
+his principal works are: the Astor memorial gates, Trinity
+church, New York; &ldquo;Elements Controlled and Uncontrolled,&rdquo;
+on the Administration Building at the Chicago Exposition;
+a large relief, &ldquo;Triumph of Civilization,&rdquo; in the waiting-room
+of the Broad Street station of the Pennsylvania railway in
+Philadelphia; decorations for the Dewey Naval Arch in New
+York City; the &ldquo;Standard Bearers,&rdquo; at the Pan-American
+Exposition grounds; a sitting statue and a bust of Dr Pepper,
+provost of the University of Pennsylvania; and the Villard
+and Hubbard memorials in the New York chamber of commerce.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BITTERFELD,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
+of Saxony, 26 m. N. from Leipzig by rail, on the river Mulde,
+and an important junction of railways from Leipzig and Halle
+to Berlin. Pop. (1900) 11,839. It manufactures drain-pipes,
+paper-roofing and machinery, and has saw-mills. Several
+coal-mines are in the vicinity. The town was built by a colony
+of Flemish immigrants in 1153. It was captured by the landgrave
+of Meissen in 1476, and belonged thenceforth to Saxony,
+until it was ceded to Prussia in 1815. Owing to its pleasant
+situation and accessibility, it has become a favourite residence
+of business men of Leipzig and Halle.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BITTERLING<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (<i>Rhodeus amarus</i>), a little carp-like fish of
+central Europe, belonging to the Cyprinid family. In it we
+have a remarkable instance of symbiosis. The genital papilla
+of the female acquires a great development during the breeding
+season and becomes produced into a tube nearly as long as the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" id="page14"></a>14</span>
+fish itself; this acts as an ovipositor by means of which the
+comparatively few and large eggs (3 millimetres in diameter)
+are introduced through the gaping valves between the branchiae
+of pond mussels (<i>Unio</i> and <i>Anodonta</i>), where, after being
+inseminated, they undergo their development, the fry leaving
+their host about a month later. The mollusc reciprocates by
+throwing off its embryos on the parent fish, in the skin of which
+they remain encysted for some time, the period of reproduction
+of the fish and the mussel coinciding.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BITTERN,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a genus of wading birds, belonging to the family
+<i>Ardeidae</i>, comprising several species closely allied to the herons,
+from which they differ chiefly in their shorter neck, the back of
+which is covered with down, and the front with long feathers,
+which can be raised at pleasure. They are solitary birds, frequenting
+countries possessing extensive swamps and marshy grounds,
+remaining at rest by day, concealed among the reeds and bushes
+of their haunts, and seeking their food, which consists of fish,
+reptiles, insects and small quadrupeds, in the twilight. The
+common bittern (<i>Botaurus stellaris</i>) is nearly as large as the heron,
+and is widely distributed over the eastern hemisphere. Formerly
+it was common in Britain, but extensive drainage and persecution
+have greatly dimished its numbers and it is now only an uncertain
+visitor. Not a winter passes without its appearing in
+some numbers, when its uncommon aspect, its large size, and
+beautifully pencilled plumage cause it to be regarded as a great
+prize by the lucky gun-bearer to whom it falls a victim. Its
+value as a delicacy for the table, once so highly esteemed, has
+long vanished. The old fable of this bird inserting its beak into
+a reed or plunging it into the ground, and so causing the booming
+sound with which its name will always be associated, is also
+exploded, and nowadays indeed so few people in Britain have
+ever heard its loud and awful voice, which seems to be uttered
+only in the breeding-season, and is therefore unknown in a country
+where it no longer breeds, that incredulity as to its booming at
+all has in some quarters succeeded the old belief in this as in
+other reputed peculiarities of the species. The bittern in the
+days of falconry was strictly preserved, and afforded excellent
+sport. It sits crouching on the ground during the day, with its
+bill pointing in the air, a position from which it is not easily
+roused, and even when it takes wing, its flight is neither swift
+nor long sustained. When wounded it requires to be approached
+with caution, as it will then attack either man or dog with its
+long sharp bill and its acute claws. It builds a rude nest among
+the reeds and flags, out of materials which surround it, and
+the female lays four or five eggs of a brownish olive. During
+the breeding season it utters a booming noise, from which it
+probably derives its generic name, <i>Botaurus</i>, and which has
+made it in many places an object of superstitious dread. Its
+plumage for the most part is of a pale buff colour, rayed and
+speckled with black and reddish brown. The American bittern
+(<i>Botaurus lentiginosus</i>) is somewhat smaller than the European
+species, and is found throughout the central and southern
+portions of North America. It also occurs in Britain as an
+occasional straggler. It is distinguishable by its uniform
+greyish-brown primaries, which want the tawny bars that
+characterize <i>B. stellaris</i>. Both species are good eating.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:377px; height:505px" src="images/img14.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Bittern.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BITTERN<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (from &ldquo;bitter&rdquo;), the mother liquor obtained from
+sea-water or brines after the separation of the sodium chloride
+(common salt) by crystallization. It contains various magnesium
+salts (sulphate, chloride, bromide and iodide) and is
+employed commercially for the manufacture of Epsom salts
+(magnesium sulphate) and bromine. The same term is applied
+to a mixture of quassia, iron sulphate, <i>cocculus indicus</i>,
+liquorice, &amp;c., used in adulterating beer.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BITTERS,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> the name given to aromatized (generally alcoholic)
+beverages containing a bitter substance or substances, used as
+tonics, appetizers or digestives. The bitterness is imparted by
+such substances as bitter orange rind, gentian, rhubarb, quassia,
+cascarilla, angostura, quinine and cinchona. Juniper, cinnamon,
+carraway, camomile, cloves and other flavouring agents are also
+employed in conjunction with the bitter principles, alcohol and
+sugar. Some bitters are prepared by simple maceration and
+subsequent filtration (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liqueurs</a></span>), others by the more
+complicated distillation process. Those prepared by the latter
+process are the finer commercial articles. Bitters are usually
+sold under the name of the substance which has been used to
+give them the predominant flavour, such as orange, angostura
+or peach bitters, &amp;c. The alcoholic strength of bitters varies,
+but is generally in the neighbourhood of 40% of alcohol. Some
+bitters, although possessing tonic properties, may be regarded
+as beverages pure and simple, notwithstanding the fact that they
+are seldom consumed in an undiluted state; others again, are
+obviously medicinal preparations and should be treated as such.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BITUMEN,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> the name applied by the Romans to the various
+descriptions of natural hydrocarbons, the word <i>petroleum</i> not
+being used in classical Latin. In its widest sense it embraces the
+whole range of these substances, including <i>natural gas</i>, the more
+or less liquid descriptions of <i>petroleum</i>, and the solid forms of
+<i>asphalt, albertite, gilsonite</i> or <i>uintahite, elaterite, ozokerite</i> and
+<i>hatchettite</i>. To distinguish bitumen intermediate in consistency
+between asphalt and the more liquid kinds of crude petroleum,
+the term <i>maltha</i> (Latin) is frequently employed. The bitumens
+of chief commercial importance may be grouped under the three
+headings of (1) <i>natural gas</i>, (2) <i>petroleum</i>, and (3) <i>asphalt</i>,
+and will be found fully described under these titles. In the scriptures
+there are numerous references to bitumen, among which the
+following may be quoted:&mdash;In Genesis ix. 3, we are told that in
+the building of the tower of Babel &ldquo;slime had they for mortar,&rdquo;
+and in Genesis xiv. 10, that the vale of Siddim &ldquo;was full of
+slime-pits,&rdquo; the word slime in the latter quotation from our
+version appearing as <i>bitumen</i> in the Vulgate. Herodotus alludes
+to the use of the bitumen brought down by the Is, a tributary
+of the Euphrates, as mortar in building the walls of Babylon.
+Diodorus, Curtius, Josephus, Bochart and others make similar
+mention of this use of bitumen, and Vitruvius tells us that it
+was employed in admixture with clay.</p>
+
+<p>In its various forms, bitumen is one of the most widely distributed
+of substances. It occurs, though sometimes only in
+small quantity, in almost every part of the globe, and throughout
+the whole range of geological strata, from the Laurentian
+rocks to the most recent members of the Quaternary period.
+Although the gaseous and liquid forms of bitumen may be regarded
+as having been formed in the strata in which they are
+found or as having been received into such strata shortly after
+formation, the semi-solid and solid varieties may be considered
+to have been produced by the oxidation and evaporation of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>15</span>
+liquid petroleum escaping from underlying or better preserved
+deposits into other strata, or into fissures where atmospheric
+action and loss of the more volatile constituents can take place.
+It should, however, be stated that there is some difference of
+opinion as to the precise manner of production of some of the
+solid forms of bitumen, and especially of ozokerite.</p>
+<div class="author">(B. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BITURIGES,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> a Celtic people, according to Livy (v. 34) the
+most powerful in Gaul in the time of Tarquinius Priscus. At
+some period unknown they split up into two branches&mdash;Bituriges
+Cubi and Bituriges Vivisci.  The name is supposed to mean
+either &ldquo;rulers of the world&rdquo; or &ldquo;perpetual kings.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Bituriges Cubi, called simply Bituriges by Caesar, in
+whose time they acknowledged the supremacy of the Aedui,
+inhabited the modern diocese of Bourges, including the departments
+of Cher and Indre, and partly that of Allier.  Their chief
+towns were Avaricum (Bourges), Argentomagus (Argenton-sur-Creuse),
+Neriomagus (Néris-les-Bains), Noviodunum (perhaps
+Villate). At the time of the rebellion of Vercingetoix (52 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),
+Avaricum, after a desperate resistance, was taken by assault,
+and the inhabitants put to the sword.  In the following year,
+the Bituriges submitted to Caesar, and under Augustus they
+were incorporated (in 28 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) in Aquitania. Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i>
+iv. 109) speaks of them as <i>liberi</i>, which points to their enjoying
+a certain amount of independence under Roman government.
+The district contained a number of iron works, and Caesar says
+they were skilled in driving galleries and mining operations.</p>
+
+<p>The Biturgies Vivisci occupied the strip of land between the
+sea and the left bank of the Garonne, comprising the greater
+part of the modern department of Gironde.  Their capital was
+Burdigala (Bordeaux), even then a place of considerable importance
+and a wine-growing centre.  Like the Cubi, they also are
+called <i>liberi</i> by Pliny.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Desjardins, <i>Géographie historique de la Gaule romaine</i>, ii.
+(1876-1893); A. Longnon, <i>Géographie de la Gaule on VI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>
+(1878); A. Hohler, <i>Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz</i>; T.R. Holmes,
+<i>Caesar&rsquo;s Conquest of Gaul</i> (1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BITZIUS, ALBRECHT<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1797-1854), Swiss novelist, best known
+by his pet name of &ldquo;Jeremias Gotthelf,&rdquo; was born on the 4th
+of October 1797 at Morat, where his father was pastor. In 1804
+the home was moved to Utzenstorf, a village in the Bernese
+Emmenthal. Here young Bitzius grew up, receiving his early
+education and consorting with the boys of the village, as well as
+helping his father to cultivate his glebe. In 1812 he went to
+complete his education at Bern, and in 1820 was received as a
+pastor. In 1821 he visited the university of Göttingen, but
+returned home in 1822 to act as his father&rsquo;s assistant. On his
+father&rsquo;s death (1824) he went in the same capacity to Herzogenbuchsee,
+and later to Bern (1829). Early in 1831 he went as
+assistant to the aged pastor of the village of Lützelflüh, in the
+Upper Emmenthal (between Langnau and Burgdorf), being soon
+elected his successor (1832) and marrying one of his granddaughters
+(1833). He spent the rest of his life there, dying on
+the 22nd of October 1854, and leaving three children (the son was
+a pastor, the two daughters married pastors). His first work,
+the <i>Bauernspiegel</i>, appeared in 1837. It purported to be the life
+of Jeremias Gotthelf, narrated by himself, and this name was
+later adopted by the author as his pen name. It is a living
+picture of Bernese (or, strictly speaking, Emmenthal) village
+life, true to nature, and not attempting to gloss over its defects
+and failings. It is written (like the rest of his works) in the
+Bernese dialect of the Emmenthal, though it must be remembered
+that Bitzius was not (like Auerbach) a peasant by birth, but
+belonged to the educated classes, so that he reproduces what he
+had seen and learnt, and not what he had himself personally
+experienced. The book was a great success, as it was a picture
+of real life, and not of fancifully beribboned 18th-century
+villagers. Among his later tales are the <i>Leiden und Freuden
+eines Schulmeisters</i> (1838-1839), <i>Uli der Knecht</i> (1841), with its
+continuation, <i>Uli der Pachter</i> (1849), <i>Anne Babi Jowager</i> (1843-1844),
+<i>Käthi die Grossmutter</i> (1847), <i>Die Käserei in der Vehfreude</i>
+(1850), and the <i>Erlebnisse eines Schuldenbauers</i> (1854). He
+published also several volumes of shorter tales. One slight
+drawback to some of his writings is the echo of local political
+controversies, for Bitzius was a Whig and strongly opposed to
+the Radical party in the canton, which carried the day in 1846.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Lives by C. Manuel, in the Berlin edition of Bitzius&rsquo;s works
+(Berlin, 1861), and by J. Ammann in vol. i. (Bern, 1884) of the
+<i>Sammlung Bernischer Biographien</i>. His works were issued in
+24 vols. at Berlin, 1856-1861, while 10 vols., giving the original
+text of each story, were issued at Bern, 1898-1900 (edition not to be
+completed).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BIVOUAC<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (a French word generally said to have been introduced
+during the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, perhaps derived from
+<i>Beiwacht</i>, extra guard), originally, a night-watch by a whole
+army under arms to prevent surprise. In modern military parlance
+the word is used to mean a temporary encampment in
+the open field without tents, as opposed to &ldquo;billets&rdquo; or &ldquo;cantonment&rdquo;
+on the one hand and &ldquo;camp&rdquo; on the other. The use
+of bivouacs permits an army to remain closely concentrated
+for all emergencies, and avoids the necessity for numerous
+wagons carrying tents. Constant bivouacs, however, are trying
+to the health of men and horses, and this method of quartering
+is never employed except when the military situation demands
+concentration and readiness. Thus the outposts would often
+have to bivouac while the main body of the army lay in billets.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BIWA,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a lake in the province of Omi, Japan. It measures
+36 m. in length by 12 m. in extreme breadth, has an area of 180
+sq. m., is about 330 ft. above sea-level, and has an extreme
+depth of some 300 ft. There are a few small islands in the lake,
+the principal being Chikubu-shima at the northern end.</p>
+
+<p>Tradition alleges that Lake Biwa and the mountain of Fuji
+were produced simultaneously by an earthquake in 286 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+On the west of the lake the mountains Hiei-zan and Hira-yama
+slope down almost to its margin, and on the east a wide plain
+extends towards the boundaries of the province of Mino. It is
+drained by a river flowing out of its southern end, and taking
+its course into the sea at Osaka. This river bears in succession
+the names of Seta-gawa, Uji-gawa and Yodo-gawa. The lake
+abounds with fish, and the beauty of its scenery is remarkable.
+Small steamboats ply constantly to the points of chief interest,
+and around its shores are to be viewed the <i>Omi-no-hakkei</i>, or
+&ldquo;eight landscapes of Omi&rdquo;; namely, the lake silvering under
+an autumn moon as one looks down from Ishi-yama; the snow
+at eve on Hira-yama; the glow of sunset at Seta; the groves
+and classic temple of Mii-dera as the evening bell sounds; boats
+sailing home from Yabase; cloudless peaks at Awazu; rain at
+nightfall over Karasaki; and wild geese sweeping down to
+Katata. The lake is connected with Kyoto by a canal constructed
+in 1890, and is thus brought into water communication with
+Osaka.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BIXIO, NINO<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1821-1873), Italian soldier, was born on the
+2nd of October 1821. While still a boy he was compelled by
+his parents to embrace a maritime career. After numerous
+adventures he returned to Italy in 1846, joined the Giovine Italia,
+and, on 4th November 1847, made himself conspicuous at Genoa
+by seizing the bridle of Charles Albert&rsquo;s horse and crying, &ldquo;Pass
+the Ticino, Sire, and we are all with you.&rdquo; He fought through
+the campaign of 1848, became captain under Garibaldi at Rome
+in 1849, taking prisoners an entire French battalion, and gaining
+the gold medal for military valour. In 1859 he commanded a
+Garibaldian battalion, and gained the military cross of Savoy.
+Joining the Marsala expedition in 1860, he turned the day in
+favour of Garibaldi at Calatafimi, was wounded at Palermo, but
+recovered in time to besiege Reggio in Calabria (21st of August
+1860), and, though again wounded, took part in the battle of
+Volturno, where his leg was broken. Elected deputy in 1861,
+he endeavoured to reconcile Cavour and Garibaldi. In 1866, at
+the head of the seventh division, he covered the Italian retreat
+from Custozza, ignoring the Austrian summons to surrender.
+Created senator in February 1870, he was in the following
+September given command of a division during the movement
+against Rome, took Cività Vecchia, and participated in the
+general attack upon Rome (20th September 1870). He died of
+cholera at Achin Bay in Sumatra <i>en route</i> for Batavia, whither he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" id="page16"></a>16</span>
+had gone in command of a commercial expedition (16th December
+1873).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BIZERTA<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (properly pronounced Ben Zert; Fr. <i>Bizerte</i>), a
+seaport of Tunisia, in 37° 17&prime; N., 9° 50&prime; E. Pop. about 12,000.
+Next to Toulon, Bizerta is the most important naval port of
+France in the Mediterranean. It occupies a commanding
+strategical position in the narrowest part of the sea, being 714 m.
+E. of Gibraltar, 1168 m. W.N.W. of Port Said, 240 m. N.W. of
+Malta, and 420 m. S. by E. of Toulon. It is 60 m. by rail N.N.W.
+of Tunis. The town is built on the shores of the Mediterranean
+at the point where the Lake of Bizerta enters the sea through a
+natural channel, the mouth of which has been canalized. The
+modern town lies almost entirely on the north side of the canal.
+A little farther north are the ancient citadel, the walled &ldquo;Arab&rdquo;
+town and the old harbour (disused). The present outer harbour
+covers about 300 acres and is formed by two converging jetties
+and a breakwater. The north jetty is 4000 ft. long, the east
+jetty 3300 ft., and the breakwater&mdash;which protects the port from
+the prevalent north-east winds&mdash;2300 ft. long. The entrance to
+the canal is in the centre of the outer harbour. The canal is
+2600 ft. long and 787 ft. wide on the surface. Its banks are
+lined with quays, and ships drawing 26 ft. of water can moor
+alongside. At the end of the canal is a large commercial
+harbour, beyond which the channel opens into the lake&mdash;in
+reality an arm of the sea&mdash;roughly circular in form and covering
+about 50 sq. m., two-thirds of its waters having a depth of 30
+to 40 ft. The lake, which merchant vessels are not allowed
+to enter, contains the naval port and arsenal. There is a
+torpedo and submarine boat station on the north side of the
+channel at the entrance to the lake, but the principal naval
+works are at Sidi Abdallah at the south-west corner of the
+lake and 10 m. from the open sea. Here is an enclosed basin
+covering 123 acres with ample quayage, dry docks and everything
+necessary to the accommodation, repair, revictualling and
+coaling of a numerous fleet. Barracks, hospitals and waterworks
+have been built, the military town, called Ferryville,
+being self-contained.</p>
+
+<p>Fortifications have been built for the protection of the port.
+They comprise (a) the older works surrounding the town; (b) a
+group of coast batteries on the high ground of Cape Bizerta or
+Guardia, 4 m. north-north-west of the town; these are grouped
+round a powerful fort called Jebel Kebir, and have a command
+of 300 to 800 ft. above sea-level; (c) another group of batteries
+on the narrow ground between the sea and the lake to the east
+of the town; the highest of these is the Jebel Tuila battery
+265 ft. above sea-level.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Lake of Bizerta</span>, called Tinja by the Arabs, abounds in
+excellent fish, especially mullets, the dried roe of which, called
+<i>botargo</i>, is largely exported, and the fishing industry employs a
+large proportion of the inhabitants. The western shore of the
+lake is low, and in many places is covered with olive trees to the
+water&rsquo;s edge. The south-eastern shores are hilly and wooded,
+and behind them rises a range of picturesque hills. A narrow
+and shallow channel leads from the western side of the lake into
+another sheet of water, the Lake of Ishkul, so called from Jebel
+Ishkul, a hill on its southern bank 1740 ft. high. The Lake of
+Ishkul is nearly as large as the first lake, but is very shallow. Its
+waters are generally sweet.</p>
+
+<p>Bizerta occupies the site of the ancient Tyrian colony, Hippo
+Zarytus or Diarrhytus, the harbour of which, by means of a
+spacious pier, protecting it from the north-east wind, was
+rendered one of the safest and finest on this coast. The town
+became a Roman colony, and was conquered by the Arabs in the
+7th century. The place thereafter was subject either to the
+rulers of Tunis or of Constantine, but the citizens were noted for
+their frequent revolts. They threw in their lot (c. 1530) with the
+pirate Khair-ed-Din, and subsequently received a Turkish
+garrison. Bizerta was captured by the Spaniards in 1535, but
+not long afterwards came under the Tunisian government.
+Centuries of neglect followed, and the ancient port was almost
+choked up, though the value of the fisheries saved the town from
+utter decay. Its strategical importance was one of the causes
+which led to the occupation of Tunisia by the French in 1881.
+In 1890 a concession for a new canal and harbour was granted
+to a company, and five years later the new port was formally
+opened. Since then the canal has been widened and deepened,
+and the naval port at Sidi Abdallah created.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BIZET<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Alexandre César Léopold</span>] <span class="bold">GEORGES</span> (1838-1875),
+French musical composer, was born at Bougival, near Paris, on
+the 25th of October 1838, the son of a singing-master. He
+displayed musical ability at an early age, and was sent to the
+Paris Conservatoire, where he studied under Halévy and speedily
+distinguished himself, carrying off prizes for organ and fugue,
+and finally in 1857, after an ineffectual attempt in the previous
+year, the Grand Prix de Rome for a cantata called <i>Cloris et
+Clotilde</i>. A success of a different kind also befell him at this time.
+Offenbach, then manager of the Théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens,
+had organized a competition for an operetta, in which young
+Bizet was awarded the first prize in conjunction with Charles
+Lecocq, each of them writing an operetta called <i>Docteur Miracle</i>.
+After the three years spent in Rome, an obligation imposed by
+the French government on the winners of the first prize at the
+Conservatoire, Bizet returned to Paris, where he achieved a
+reputation as a pianist and accompanist. On the 23rd of
+September 1863 his first opera, <i>Les Pêcheurs de perles</i>, was
+brought out at the Théâtre Lyrique, but owing possibly to the
+somewhat uninteresting nature of the story, the opera did not
+enjoy a very long run. The qualities displayed by the composer,
+however, were amply recognized, although the music was stated,
+by some critics, to exhibit traces of Wagnerian influence.
+Wagnerism at that period was a sort of spectre that haunted the
+imagination of many leading members of the musical press. It
+sufficed for a work to be at all out of the common for the epithet
+&ldquo;Wagnerian&rdquo; to be applied to it. The term, it may be said,
+was intended to be condemnatory, and it was applied with little
+understanding as to its real meaning. The score of the <i>Pêcheurs
+de perles</i> contains several charming numbers; its dreamy
+melodies are well adapted to fit a story laid in Eastern climes,
+and the music reveals a decided dramatic temperament. Some
+of its dances are now usually introduced into the fourth act of
+<i>Carmen</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On the 3rd of June 1865 Bizet married a daughter of his old
+master, Halévy. His second opera, <i>La Jolie Fitte de Perth</i>,
+produced at the Théâtre Lyrique on 26th December 1867, was
+scarcely a step in advance. The libretto was founded on Sir
+Walter Scott&rsquo;s novel, but the opera lacks unity of style, and its
+pages are marred by concessions to the vocalist. One number
+has survived, the characteristic Bohemian dance which has been
+interpolated into the fourth act of <i>Carmen</i>. In his third opera
+Bizet returned to an oriental subject. <i>Djamileh</i>, a one-act opera
+given at the Opéra Comique on the 22nd of May 1872, is certainly
+one of his most individual efforts. Again were accusations of
+Wagnerism hurled at the composer&rsquo;s head, and <i>Djamileh</i> did not
+achieve the success it undoubtedly deserved. The composer was
+more fortunate with the incidental music he wrote to Alphonse
+Daudet&rsquo;s drama, <i>L&rsquo;Arlésienne</i>, produced in October 1872.
+Different numbers from this, arranged in the form of suites,
+have often been heard in the concert-room. Rarely have poetry
+and imagination been so well allied as in these exquisite pages,
+which seem to reflect the sunny skies of Provence.</p>
+
+<p>Bizet&rsquo;s masterpiece, <i>Carmen</i>, was brought out at the Opéra
+Comique on the 3rd of March 1875. It was based on a version by
+Meilhac and Halévy of a study by Prosper Mérimée&mdash;in which
+the dramatic element was obscured by much descriptive writing.
+The detection of the drama underlying this psychological
+narrative was in itself a brilliant discovery, and in reconstructing
+the story in dramatic form the authors produced one of the most
+famous libretti in the whole range of opera. Still more striking
+than the libretto was the music composed by Bizet, in which the
+peculiar use of the flute and of the lowest notes of the harp
+deserves particular attention.</p>
+
+<p>On the 3rd of June, three months after the production of
+<i>Carmen</i> in Paris, the genial composer expired after a few hours&rsquo;
+illness from a heart affection. Before dying he had the satisfaction
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" id="page17"></a>17</span>
+of knowing that <i>Carmen</i> had been accepted for production at
+Vienna. After the Austrian capital came Brussels, Berlin and,
+in 1878, London, when <i>Carmen</i> was brought out at Her Majesty&rsquo;s
+theatre with immense success. The influence exercised by
+Bizet on dramatic music has been very great, and may be
+discerned in the realistic works of the young Italian school, as
+well as in those of his own countrymen.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BJÖRNEBORG<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (Finnish, <i>Pori</i>), a district town of Finland,
+province of Åbo-Björneborg, on the E. coast of the Gulf of
+Bothnia, at the mouth of the Kumo. Lat. 51° 8&prime; N., long. 46° 0&prime; E.
+Pop. (1904) 16,053, mostly Swedes. Large vessels cannot enter
+its roadstead, and stop at Räfsö. The town has shipbuilding
+wharves, machine works, and several tanneries and brick-works,
+and has a total trade of over 16,000,000 marks, the chief export
+being timber.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BJÖRNSON, BJÖRNSTJERNE<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1832-1910), Norwegian poet,
+novelist and dramatist, was born on the 8th of December 1832
+at the farmstead of Björngen, in Kvikne, in Österdal, Norway.
+In 1837 his father, who had been pastor of Kvikne, was transferred
+to the parish of Noesset, in Romsdal; in this romantic
+district the childhood of Björnson was spent. After some
+teaching at the neighbouring town of Molde, he was sent at the
+age of seventeen to a well-known school in Christiania to study
+for the university; his instinct for poetry was already awakened,
+and indeed he had written verses from his eleventh year. He
+matriculated at the university of Christiania in 1852, and soon
+began to work as a journalist, especially as a dramatic critic. In
+1857 appeared <i>Synnöve Solbakken</i>, the first of Björnson&rsquo;s peasant-novels;
+in 1858 this was followed by <i>Arne</i>, in 1860 by <i>A Happy
+Boy</i>, and in 1868 by <i>The Fisher Maiden</i>. These are the most
+important specimens of his <i>bonde-fortaellinger</i> or
+peasant-tales&mdash;a section of his literary work which has made a profound impression
+in his own country, and has made him popular throughout
+the world. Two of the tales, <i>Arne</i> and <i>Synnöve Solbakken</i>,
+offer perhaps finer examples of the pure peasant-story than are
+to be found elsewhere in literature.</p>
+
+<p>Björnson was anxious &ldquo;to create a new saga in the light of the
+peasant,&rdquo; as he put it, and he thought this should be done, not
+merely in prose fiction, but in national dramas or <i>folke-stykker</i>.
+The earliest of these was a one-act piece the scene of which is laid
+in the 12th century, <i>Between the Battles</i>, was written in 1855, but not
+produced until 1857. He was especially influenced at this time
+by the study of Baggesen and Ochlenschläger, during a visit to
+Copenhagen 1856-1857. <i>Between the Battles</i> was followed by
+<i>Lame Hulda</i> in 1858, and <i>King Sverre</i> in 1861. All these efforts,
+however, were far excelled by the splendid trilogy of <i>Sigurd the
+Bastard</i>, which Björnson issued in 1862. This raised him to the
+front rank among the younger poets of Europe. His <i>Sigurd the
+Crusader</i> should be added to the category of these heroic plays,
+although it was not printed until 1872.</p>
+
+<p>At the close of 1857 Björnson had been appointed director of
+the theatre at Bergen, a post which he held, with much journalistic
+work, for two years, when he returned to the capital. From
+1860 to 1863 he travelled widely throughout Europe. Early in
+1865 he undertook the management of the Christiania theatre,
+and brought out his popular comedy of <i>The Newly Married</i> and
+his romantic tragedy of <i>Mary Stuart in Scotland</i>. Although
+Björnson has introduced into his novels and plays songs of
+extraordinary beauty, he was never a very copious writer of
+verse; in 1870 he published his <i>Poems and Songs</i> and the epic
+cycle called <i>Arnljot Gelline</i>; the latter volume contains the
+magnificent ode called &ldquo;Bergliot,&rdquo; Björnson&rsquo;s finest contribution
+to lyrical poetry. Between 1864 and 1874, in the very prime of
+life, Björnson displayed a slackening of the intellectual forces
+very remarkable in a man of his energy; he was indeed during
+these years mainly occupied with politics, and with his business
+as a theatrical manager. This was the period of Björnson&rsquo;s most
+fiery propaganda as a radical agitator. In 1871 he began to
+supplement his journalistic work in this direction by delivering
+lectures over the length and breadth of the northern countries.
+He possessed to a surprising degree the arts of the orator, combined
+with a magnificent physical prestige. From 1873 to 1876
+Björnson was absent from Norway, and in the peace of voluntary
+exile he recovered his imaginative powers. His new departure as
+a dramatic author began with <i>A Bankruptcy</i> and <i>The Editor</i> in
+1874, social dramas of an extremely modern and realistic cast.</p>
+
+<p>The poet now settled on his estate of Aulestad in Gausdal.
+In 1877 he published another novel, <i>Magnhild</i>&mdash;an imperfect
+production, in which his ideas on social questions were seen to be
+in a state of fermentation, and gave expression to his republican
+sentiments in the polemical play called <i>The King</i>, to a later
+edition of which he prefixed an essay on &ldquo;Intellectual Freedom,&rdquo;
+in further explanation of his position. <i>Captain Mansana</i>, an
+episode of the war of Italian independence, belongs to 1878.
+Extremely anxious to obtain a full success on the stage, Björnson
+concentrated his powers on a drama of social life, <i>Leonardo</i>
+(1879), which raised a violent controversy. A satirical play, <i>The
+New System</i>, was produced a few weeks later. Although these
+plays of Björnson&rsquo;s second period were greatly discussed, none of
+them (except <i>A Bankruptcy</i>) pleased on the boards. When once
+more he produced a social drama, <i>A Gauntlet</i>, in 1883, he was
+unable to persuade any manager to stage it, except in a modified
+form, though this play gives the full measure of his power as a
+dramatist. In the autumn of the same year, Björnson published
+a mystical or symbolic drama <i>Beyond our Powers</i>, dealing with
+the abnormal features of religious excitement with extraordinary
+force; this was not acted until 1899, when it achieved a great
+success.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Björnson&rsquo;s political attitude had brought upon
+him a charge of high treason, and he took refuge for a time in
+Germany, returning to Norway in 1882. Convinced that the
+theatre was practically closed to him, he turned back to the
+novel, and published in 1884, <i>Flags are Flying in Town and Port</i>,
+embodying his theories on heredity and education. In 1889 he
+printed another long and still more remarkable novel, <i>In God&rsquo;s
+Way</i>, which is chiefly concerned with the same problems. The
+same year saw the publication of a comedy, <i>Geography and Love</i>,
+which continues to be played with success. A number of short
+stories, of a more or less didactic character, dealing with startling
+points of emotional experience, were collected in 1894; among
+them those which produced the greatest sensation were <i>Dust,
+Mother&rsquo;s Hands</i>, and <i>Absalom&rsquo;s Hair</i>. Later plays were a
+political tragedy called <i>Paul Lange and Tora Parsberg</i> (1898), a
+second part of <i>Beyond our Powers</i> (1895), <i>Laboremus</i> (1901), <i>At
+Storhove</i> (1902), and <i>Daglannet</i> (1904). In 1899, at the opening
+of the National theatre, Björnson received an ovation, and his
+saga-drama of <i>Sigurd the Crusader</i> was performed.</p>
+
+<p>A subject which interested him greatly, and on which he
+occupied his indefatigable pen, was the question of the <i>bonde-maal</i>,
+the adopting of a national language for Norway distinct
+from the <i>dansk-norsk</i> (Dano-Norwegian), in which her literature
+has hitherto been written. Björnson&rsquo;s strong and sometimes
+rather narrow patriotism did not blind him to the fatal folly of
+such a proposal, and his lectures and pamphlets against the <i>maal-straev</i>
+in its extreme form did more than anything else to save the
+language in this dangerous moment. Björnson was one of the
+original members of the Nobel committee, and was re-elected in
+1900. In 1903 he was awarded the Nobel prize for literature.
+Björnson had done as much as any other man to rouse Norwegian
+national feeling, but in 1903, on the verge of the rupture between
+Norway and Sweden, he preached conciliation and moderation
+to the Norwegians. He was an eloquent advocate of Pan-Germanism,
+and, writing to the <i>Figaro</i> in 1905, he outlined a
+Pan-Germanic alliance of northern Europe and North America.
+He died on the 26th of April 1910.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Björnson&rsquo;s <i>Samlede Vaerker</i> (Copenhagen, 1900-1902, 11 vols.);
+<i>The Novels of Björnstjerne Björnson</i> (1894, &amp;c.), edited by Edmund
+Gosse; G. Brandes, <i>Critical Studies</i> (1899); E. Tissot, <i>Le drame
+norvégien</i> (1893); C.D. af Wirsén, <i>Kritiker</i> (1901); Chr. Collin,
+<i>Björnstjerne Björnson</i> (2 vols., German ed., 1903), the most complete
+biography and criticism at present available; and B. Halvorsen,
+<i>Norsk Forfatter Lexikon</i> (1885).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACHFORD, FREDERIC ROGERS,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1811-1889),
+British civil servant, eldest son of Sir Frederick Leman Rogers,
+7th Bart. (whom he succeeded in the baronetcy in 1851), was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page18" id="page18"></a>18</span>
+born in London on the 31st of January 1811. He was educated
+at Eton and Oriel college, Oxford, where he had a brilliant
+career, winning the Craven University scholarship, and taking
+a double first-class in classics and mathematics. He became
+a fellow of Oriel (1833), and won the Vinerian scholarship (1834),
+and fellowship (1840). He was called to the bar in 1837, but
+never practised. At school and at Oxford he was a contemporary
+of W.E. Gladstone, and at Oxford he began a lifelong friendship
+with J.H. Newman and R.W. Church; his classical and literary
+tastes, and his combination of liberalism in politics with High
+Church views in religion, together with his good social position
+and interesting character, made him an admired member of their
+circles. For two or three years (1841-1844) he wrote for <i>The
+Times</i>, and he helped to found <i>The Guardian</i> in 1846; he also
+did a good deal to assist the Tractarian movement. But he
+eventually settled down to the life of a government official. He
+began in 1844 as registrar of joint-stock companies, and in 1846
+became commissioner of lands and emigration. Between 1857
+and 1859 he was engaged in government missions abroad, connected
+with colonial questions, and in 1860 he was appointed
+permanent under-secretary of state for the colonies. Sir Frederic
+Rogers was the guiding spirit of the colonial office under six
+successive secretaries of state, and on his retirement in 1871
+was raised to the peerage as Baron Blachford of Wisdome, a
+title taken from his place in Devonshire. He died on the 21st
+of November 1889.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A volume of his letters, edited by G.E. Marindin (1896), contains
+an interesting Life, partly autobiographical.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK, ADAM<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1784-1874), Scottish publisher, founder of
+the firm of A. &amp; C. Black, the son of a builder, was born in
+Edinburgh on the 20th of February 1784. After serving his
+apprenticeship to the bookselling trade in Edinburgh and
+London, he began business for himself in Edinburgh in 1808.
+By 1826 he was recognized as one of the principal booksellers
+in the city; and a few years later he was joined in business by
+his nephew Charles. The two most important events connected
+with the history of the firm were the publication of the 7th, 8th
+and 9th editions of the <i>Encyclopaedia Brittannica</i>, and the
+purchase of the stock and copyright of the Waverley Novels.
+The copyright of the <i>Encyclopaedia</i> passed into the hands of
+Adam Black and a few friends in 1827. In 1851 the firm bought
+the copyright of the Waverley Novels for £27,000; and in 1861
+they became the proprietors of De Quincey&rsquo;s works. Adam
+Black was twice lord provost of Edinburgh, and represented
+the city in parliament from 1856 to 1865. He retired from
+business in 1865, and died on the 24th of January 1874. He was
+succeeded by his sons, who removed their business in 1895 to
+London. There is a bronze statue of Adam Black in East
+Princes Street Gardens, Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memoirs of Adam Black</i>, edited by Alexander Nicholson
+(2nd ed., Edinburgh, 1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1810-1883), American
+lawyer and statesman, was born in Stony Creek township,
+Somerset county, Pennsylvania, on the 10th of January 1810.
+He was largely self-educated, and before he was of age was
+admitted to the Pennsylvania bar. He gradually became one
+of the leading American lawyers, and in 1851-1857 was a member
+of the supreme court of Pennsylvania (chief-justice 1851-1854).
+In 1857 he entered President Buchanan&rsquo;s cabinet as
+attorney-general of the United States. In this capacity he successfully
+contested the validity of the &ldquo;California land claims&rdquo;&mdash;claims
+to about 19,000 sq. m. of land, fraudulently alleged to have
+been granted to land-grabbers and others by the Mexican government
+prior to the close of the Mexican War. From the 17th of
+December 1860 to the 4th of March 1861 he was secretary of
+state. Perhaps the most influential of President Buchanan&rsquo;s
+official advisers, he denied the constitutionality of secession,
+and urged that Fort Sumter be properly reinforced and defended.
+&ldquo;For ... the vigorous assertion at last in word and in deed
+that the United States is a nation,&rdquo; says James Ford Rhodes,
+&ldquo;for pointing out the way in which the authority of the Federal
+government might be exercised without infringing on the rights
+of the states, the gratitude of the American people is due to
+Jeremiah S. Black.&rdquo; He became reporter to the Supreme Court
+of the United States in 1861, but after publishing the reports
+for the years 1861 and 1862 he resigned, and devoted himself
+almost exclusively to his private practice, appearing in such
+important cases before the Supreme Court as the one known as
+<i>Ex-Parte Milligan</i>, in which he ably defended the right of trial
+by jury, the McCardle case and the <i>United States</i> v. <i>Blyew et
+al</i>. After the Civil War he vigorously opposed the Congressional
+plan of reconstructing the late Confederate states, and himself
+drafted the message of President Johnson, vetoing the Reconstruction
+Act of the 2nd of March 1867. Black was also for a
+short time counsel for President Andrew Johnson, in his trial
+on the article of impeachment, before the United States Senate,
+and for William W. Belknap (1829-1890), secretary of war from
+1869 to 1876, who in 1876 was impeached on a charge of
+corruption; and with others he represented Samuel J. Tilden
+during the contest for the presidency between Tilden and
+Hayes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Electoral Commission</a></span>). He died at Brockie, Pennsylvania,
+on the 19th of August 1883.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Essays and Speeches of Jeremiah S. Black, with a Biographical
+Sketch</i> (New York, 1885), by his son, C.F. Black.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK, JOSEPH<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1728-1799), Scottish chemist and physicist,
+was born in 1728 at Bordeaux, where his father&mdash;a native of
+Belfast but of Scottish descent&mdash;was engaged in the wine trade.
+At the age of twelve he was sent to a grammar school in Belfast,
+whence he removed in 1746 to study medicine in Glasgow.
+There he had William Cullen for his instructor in chemistry, and
+the relation between the two soon became that of professor and
+assistant rather than of master and pupil. The action of lithontriptic
+medicines, especially lime-water, was one of the questions
+of the day, and through his investigations of this subject Black
+was led to the chemical discoveries associated with his name.
+The causticity of alkaline bodies was explained at that time as
+depending on the presence in them of the principle of fire,
+&ldquo;phlogiston&rdquo;; quicklime, for instance, was chalk which had
+taken up phlogiston, and when mild alkalis such as sodium or
+potassium carbonate were causticized by its aid, the phlogiston
+was supposed to pass from it to them. Black showed that on
+the contrary causticization meant the loss of something, as
+proved by loss of weight; and this something he found to be an
+&ldquo;air,&rdquo; which, because it was fixed in the substance before it was
+causticized, he spoke of as &ldquo;fixed air.&rdquo; Taking <i>magnesia alba</i>,
+which he distinguished from limestone with which it had previously
+been confused, he showed that on being heated it lost
+weight owing to the escape of this fixed air (named carbonic acid
+by Lavoisier in 1781), and that the weight was regained when
+the calcined product was made to reabsorb the fixed air with
+which it had parted. These investigations, by which Black not
+only gave a great impetus to the chemistry of gases by clearly
+indicating the existence of a gas distinct from common air, but
+also anticipated Lavoisier and modern chemistry by his appeal
+to the balance, were described in the thesis <i>De humore acido a
+cibis orto, et magnesia alba</i>, which he presented for his doctor&rsquo;s
+degree in 1754; and a fuller account of them was read before
+the Medical Society of Edinburgh in June 1753, and published
+in the following year as <i>Experiments upon magnesia, quicklime
+and some other alkaline substances</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is curious that Black left to others the detailed study of this
+&ldquo;fixed air&rdquo; he had discovered. Probably the explanation is
+pressure of other work. In 1756 he succeeded Cullen as lecturer
+in chemistry at Glasgow, and was also appointed professor of
+anatomy, though that post he was glad to exchange for the chair
+of medicine. The preparation of lectures thus took up much of
+his time, and he was also gaining an extensive practice as a
+physician. Moreover, his attention was engaged on studies which
+ultimately led to his doctrine of latent heat. He noticed that
+when ice melts it takes up a quantity of heat without undergoing
+any change of temperature, and he argued that this heat, which
+as was usual in his time he looked upon as a subtle fluid, must
+have combined with the particles of ice and thus become latent
+in its substance. This hypothesis he verified quantitatively
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id="page19"></a>19</span>
+by experiments, performed at the end of 1761. In 1764, with the
+aid of his assistant, William Irvine (1743-1787), he further
+measured the latent heat of steam, though not very accurately.
+This doctrine of latent heat he taught in his lectures from 1761
+onwards, and in April 1762 he described his work to a literary
+society in Glasgow. But he never published any detailed account
+of it, so that others, such as J.A. Deluc, were able to claim the
+credit of his results. In the course of his inquiries he also noticed
+that different bodies in equal masses require different amounts
+of heat to raise them to the same temperature, and so founded
+the doctrine of specific heats; he also showed that equal additions
+or abstractions of heat produced equal variations of bulk in the
+liquid of his thermometers. In 1766 he succeeded Cullen in the
+chair of chemistry in Edinburgh, where he devoted practically
+all his time to the preparation of his lectures. Never very
+robust, his health gradually became weaker and ultimately he
+was reduced to the condition of a valetudinarian. In 1795 he
+received the aid of a coadjutor in his professorship, and two years
+later he lectured for the last time. He died in Edinburgh on the
+6th of December 1799 (not on the 26th of November as stated
+in Robison&rsquo;s life).</p>
+
+<p>As a scientific investigator, Black was conspicuous for the
+carefulness of his work and his caution in drawing conclusions.
+Holding that chemistry had not attained the rank of a science&mdash;his
+lectures dealt with the &ldquo;effects of heat and mixture&rdquo;&mdash;he had
+an almost morbid horror of hasty generalization or of anything
+that had the pretensions of a fully fledged system. This mental
+attitude, combined with a certain lack of initiative and the
+weakness of his health, probably prevented him from doing full
+justice to his splendid powers of experimental research. Apart
+from the work already mentioned he published only two papers
+during his life-time&mdash;&ldquo;The supposed effect of boiling on water,
+in disposing it to freeze more readily&rdquo; (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1775), and
+&ldquo;An analysis of the waters of the hot springs in Iceland&rdquo;
+(<i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed.</i>, 1794).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>After his death his lectures were written out from his own notes,
+supplemented by those of some of his pupils, and published with a
+biographical preface by his friend and colleague, Professor John
+Robison (1739-1805), in 1803 as <i>Lectures on the Elements of Chemistry,
+delivered in the University of Edinburgh</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK, WILLIAM<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (1841-1898), British novelist, was born
+at Glasgow on the 9th of November 1841. His early ambition
+was to be a painter, but he made no way, and soon had recourse
+to journalism for a living. He was at first employed in newspaper
+offices in Glasgow, but obtained a post on the <i>Morning Star</i> in
+London, and at once proved himself a descriptive writer of
+exceptional vivacity. During the war between Prussia and
+Austria in 1866 he represented the <i>Morning Star</i> at the front,
+and was taken prisoner. This paper shortly afterwards failed,
+and Black joined the editorial staff of the <i>Daily News</i>. He also
+edited the <i>Examiner</i>, at a time when that periodical was already
+moribund. After his first success in fiction, he gave up journalism,
+and devoted himself entirely to the production of novels.
+For nearly thirty years he was successful in retaining the popular
+favour. He died at Brighton on the 10th of December 1898,
+without having experienced any of that reaction of the public
+taste which so often follows upon conspicuous successes in fiction.
+Black&rsquo;s first novel, <i>James Merle</i>, published in 1864, was a complete
+failure; his second, <i>Love or Marraige</i> (1868), attracted
+but very slight attention. <i>In Silk Attire</i> (1869) and <i>Kilmeny</i>
+(1870) marked a great advance on his first work, but in 1871 <i>A
+Daughter of Heth</i> suddenly raised him to the height of popularity,
+and he followed up this success by a string of favourites. Among
+the best of his books are <i>The Strange Adventures of a Phaeton</i>
+(1872); <i>A Princess of Thule</i> (1874); <i>Madcap Violet</i> (1876);
+<i>Macleod of Dare</i> (1878); <i>White Wings</i> (1880); <i>Sunrise</i> (1880);
+<i>Shandon Bells</i> (1883); <i>Judith Shakespeare</i> (1884); <i>White Heather</i>
+(1885); <i>Donald Ross of Heimra</i> (1891); <i>Highland Cousins</i> (1894);
+and <i>Wild Eelin</i> (1898). Black was a thoroughgoing sportsman,
+particularly fond of fishing and yachting, and his best stories
+are those which are laid amid the breezy mountains of his native
+land, or upon the deck of a yacht at sea off its wild coast. His
+descriptions of such scenery are simple and picturesque. He
+was a word-painter rather than a student of human nature.
+His women are stronger than his men, and among them
+are many wayward and lovable creatures; but subtlety of
+intuition plays no part in his characterization. Black also
+contributed a life of Oliver Goldsmith to the <i>English Men of
+Letters</i> series.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK APE,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> a sooty, black, short-tailed, and long-faced
+representative of the macaques, inhabiting the island of Celebes,
+and generally regarded as forming a genus by itself, under the
+name of <i>Cynopithecus niger</i>, but sometimes relegated to the rank
+of a subgenus of <i>Macacus</i>. The nostrils open obliquely at some
+distance from the end of the snout, and the head carries a crest
+of long hair. There are several local races, one of which was
+long regarded as a separate species under the name of the Moor
+macaque, <i>Macacus maurus</i>. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Primates</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKBALL,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a token used for voting by ballot against the
+election of a candidate for membership of a club or other
+association. Formerly white and black balls about the size of
+pigeons&rsquo; eggs were used respectively to represent votes for and
+against a candidate for such election; and although this method
+is now generally obsolete, the term &ldquo;blackball&rdquo; survives both
+as noun and verb. The rules of most clubs provide that a stated
+proportion of &ldquo;blackballs&rdquo; shall exclude candidates proposed
+for election, and the candidates so excluded are said to have been
+&ldquo;blackballed&rdquo;; but the ballot (<i>q.v.</i>) is now usually conducted
+by a method in which the favourable and adverse votes are not
+distinguished by different coloured balls at all. Either voting
+papers are employed, or balls&mdash;of which the colour has no
+significance&mdash;are cast into different compartments of a ballot-box
+according as they are favourable or adverse to the candidate.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKBERRY,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bramble</span>, known botanically as <i>Rubus
+fruticosus</i> (natural order Rosaceac), a native of the north
+temperate region of the Old World, and abundant in the British
+Isles as a copse and hedge-plant. It is characterized by its
+prickly stem, leaves with usually three or five ovate, coarsely
+toothed stalked leaflets, many of which persist through the
+winter, white or pink flowers in terminal clusters, and black or
+red-purple fruits, each consisting of numerous succulent drupels
+crowded on a dry conical receptacle. It is a most variable
+plant, exhibiting many more or less distinct forms which are
+regarded by different authorities as sub-species or species.
+In America several forms of the native blackberry, <i>Rubus
+nigrobaccus</i> (formerly known as <i>R. villosus</i>), are widely cultivated;
+it is described as one of the most important and profitable of
+bush-fruits.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For details see F.W. Card in L.H. Bailey&rsquo;s <i>Cyclopedia of American
+Horticulture</i> (1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKBIRD<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (<i>Turdus merula</i>), the name commonly given to
+a well-known British bird of the <i>Turdidae</i> family, for which the
+ancient name was ousel (<i>q.v.</i>), Anglo-Saxon <i>ósle</i>, equivalent of
+the German <i>Amsel</i>, a form of the word found in several old
+English books. The plumage of the male is of a uniform black
+colour, that of the female various shades of brown, while the bill
+of the male, especially during the breeding season, is of a bright
+gamboge yellow. The blackbird is of a shy and restless disposition,
+courting concealment, and rarely seen in flocks, or
+otherwise than singly or in pairs, and taking flight when startled
+with a sharp shrill cry. It builds its nest in March, or early in
+April, in thick bushes or in ivy-clad trees, and usually rears at
+least two broods each season. The nest is a neat structure of
+coarse grass and moss, mixed with earth, and plastered internally
+with mud, and here the female lays from four to six eggs of a
+blue colour speckled with brown. The blackbird feeds chiefly
+on fruits, worms, the larvae of insects and snails, extracting
+the last from their shells by dexterously chipping them on
+stones; and though it is generally regarded as an enemy of the
+garden, it is probable that the amount of damage by it to the
+fruit is largely compensated for by its undoubted services as
+a vermin-killer. The notes of the blackbird are rich and full,
+but monotonous as compared with those of the song-thrush.
+Like many other singing birds it is, in the wild state, a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page20" id="page20"></a>20</span>
+mocking-bird, having been heard to imitate the song of the
+nightingale, the crowing of a cock, and even the cackling of a
+hen. In confinement it can be taught to whistle a variety of
+tunes, and even to imitate the human voice.</p>
+
+<p>The blackbird is found in every country of Europe, even
+breeding&mdash;although rarely&mdash;beyond the arctic circle, and in
+eastern Asia as well as in North Africa and the Atlantic islands.
+In most parts of its range it is migratory, and in Britain
+every autumn its numbers receive considerable accession from
+passing visitors. Allied species inhabit most parts of the world,
+excepting Africa south of the Sahara, New Zealand and Australia
+proper, and North America. In some of these the legs as well as
+the bill are yellow or orange; and in a few both sexes are glossy
+black. The ring-ousel, <i>Turdus torquatus</i>, has a dark bill and
+conspicuous white gorget, whence its name. It is rarer and
+more local than the common blackbird, and occurs in England
+only as a temporary spring and autumn visitor.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK BUCK<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (<i>Antilope cervicapra</i>), the Indian Antelope, the
+sole species of its genus. This antelope, widely distributed in
+India, with the exception of Ceylon and the region east of the
+Bay of Bengal, stands about 32 in. high at the shoulder; the
+general hue is brown deepening with age to black; chest, belly
+and inner sides of limbs pure white, as are the muzzle and chin,
+and an area round the eyes. The horns are long, ringed, and
+form spirals with from three to five turns. The doe is smaller
+in size, yellowish-fawn above, and this hue obtains also in young
+males. These antelopes frequent grassy districts and are usually
+found in herds. Coursing black-buck with the cheeta (<i>q.v.</i>) is
+a favourite Indian sport.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKBURN, COLIN BLACKBURN,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1813-1896),
+British judge, was born in Selkirkshire in 1813, and educated at
+Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge, taking high mathematical
+honours in 1835. He was called to the bar in 1838, and
+went the northern circuit. His progress was at first slow, and he
+employed himself in reporting and editing, with T.F. Ellis, eight
+volumes of the highly-esteemed Ellis and Blackburn reports.
+His deficiency in all the more brilliant qualities of the advocate
+almost confined his practice to commercial cases, in which he
+obtained considerable employment in his circuit; but he continued
+to belong to the outside bar, and was so little known to
+the legal world that his promotion to a puisne judgeship in the
+court of queen&rsquo;s bench in 1859 was at first ascribed to Lord
+Campbell&rsquo;s partiality for his countrymen, but Lord Lyndhurst,
+Lord Wensleydale and Lord Cranworth came forward to defend
+the appointment. Blackburn himself is said to have thought
+that a county court judgeship was about to be offered him,
+which he had resolved to decline. He soon proved himself one
+of the soundest lawyers on the bench, and when he was promoted
+to the court of appeal in 1876 was considered the highest
+authority on common law. In 1876 he was made a lord of appeal
+and a life peer. Both in this capacity and as judge of the queen&rsquo;s
+bench he delivered many judgments of the highest importance,
+and no decisions have been received with greater respect. In
+1886 he was appointed a member of the commission charged
+to prepare a digest of the criminal law, but retired on account
+of indisposition in the following year. He died at his country
+residence, Doonholm in Ayrshire, on the 8th of January 1896.
+He was the author of a valuable work on the <i>Law of Sales</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Times</i>, 10th of January 1896; E. Manson, <i>Builders of our
+Law</i> (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKBURN, JONATHAN<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1700-<i>c.</i> 1765), American
+portrait painter, was born in Connecticut. He seems to have
+been the son of a painter, and to have had a studio in Boston in
+1750-1765; among his patrons were many important early
+American families, including the Apthorps, Amorys, Bulfinches,
+Lowells, Ewings, Saltonstalls, Winthrops, Winslows and Otises
+of Boston. Some of his portraits are in the possession of the
+public library of Lexington, Massachusetts, and of the Massachusetts
+Historical Society, but most of them are privately
+owned and are scattered over the country, the majority being in
+Boston. John Singleton Copley was his pupil, and it is said
+that he finally left his studio in Boston, through jealousy of
+Copley&rsquo;s superior success. He was a good portrait painter, and
+some of his pictures were long attributed to Copley.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKBURN,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a municipal, county and parliamentary
+borough of Lancashire, England, 210 m. N.W. by N. from
+London, and 24½ N.N.W. from Manchester, served by the
+Lancashire &amp; Yorkshire and the London &amp; North Western
+railways, with several lines from all parts of the county. Pop.
+(1891) 120,064; (1901) 127,626. It lies in the valley of a stream
+called in early times the Blackeburn, but now known as the
+Brook. The hills in the vicinity rise to some 900 ft., and among
+English manufacturing towns Blackburn ranks high in beauty of
+situation. Besides numerous churches and chapels the public
+buildings comprise a large town hall (1856), market house,
+exchange, county court, municipal offices, chamber of commerce,
+free library, and, outside the town, an infirmary. There are an
+Elizabethan grammar school, in modern buildings (1884) and
+an excellent technical school. The Corporation Park and Queen&rsquo;s
+Park are well laid out, and contain ornamental waters. There is
+an efficient tramway service, connecting the town with Darwen,
+5 m. south. The cotton industry employs thousands of operatives,
+the iron trade is also very considerable, and many are engaged
+in the making of machines; but a former woollen manufacture
+is almost extinct. Blackburn&rsquo;s speciality in the cotton industry
+is weaving. Coal, lime and building stone are abundant in the
+neighbourhood. Blackburn received a charter of incorporation
+in 1851, and is governed by a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42
+councillors. The county borough was created in 1888. The
+parliamentary borough, which returns two members, is coextensive
+with the municipal, and lies between the Accrington
+and Darwen divisions of the county. Area, 7432 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Blackburn is of considerable antiquity; indeed, the 6th
+century is allocated to the original foundation of a church on the
+site of the present parish church. Of another church on this site
+Cranmer was rector after the Reformation. Blackburn was for
+some time the chief town of a district called Blackburnshire, and
+as early as the reign of Elizabeth ranked as a flourishing market
+town. About the middle of the 17th century it became famous
+for its &ldquo;checks,&rdquo; which were afterwards superseded by a similar
+linen-and-cotton fabric known as &ldquo;Blackburn greys.&rdquo; In the
+18th century the ability of certain natives of the town greatly
+fostered its cotton industry; thus James Hargreaves here
+probably invented his spinning jenny about 1764, though the
+operatives, fearing a reduction of labour, would have none of it,
+and forced him to quit the town for Nottingham. He was in the
+employment of Robert Peel, grandfather of the prime minister
+of that name, who here instituted the factory system, and as the
+director of a large business carefully fostered the improvement
+of methods.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W.A. Abram, <i>History of Blackburn</i> (Blackburn, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKBURNE, FRANCIS<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1782-1867), lord chancellor of
+Ireland, was born at Great Footstown, Co. Meath, Ireland, on
+the 11th of November 1782. Educated at Trinity College,
+Dublin, he was called to the English bar in 1805, and practised
+with great success on the home circuit. Called to the Irish bar
+in 1822, he vigorously administered the Insurrection Act in
+Limerick for two years, effectually restoring order in the district.
+In 1826 he became a serjeant-at-law, and in 1830, and again,
+in 1841, was attorney-general for Ireland. In 1842 he became
+master of the rolls in Ireland, in 1846 chief-justice of the queen&rsquo;s
+bench, and in 1852 (and again in 1866) lord chancellor of Ireland.
+In 1856 he was made a lord justice of appeal in Ireland. He is
+remembered as having prosecuted O&rsquo;Connell and presided at the
+trial of Smith O&rsquo;Brien. He died on the 17th of September 1867.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKCOCK<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (<i>Tetrao tetrix</i>), the English name given to a bird
+of the family <i>Tetraonidae</i> or grouse, the female of which is
+known as the grey hen and the young as poults. In size and plumage
+the two sexes offer a striking contrast, the male weighing about
+4 &#8468;, its plumage for the most part of a rich glossy black shot
+with blue and purple, the lateral tail feathers curved outwards so
+as to form, when raised, a fan-like crescent, and the eyebrows
+destitute of feathers and of a bright vermilion red. The female,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>21</span>
+on the other hand, weighs only 2 &#8468;, its plumage is of a russet
+brown colour irregularly barred with black, and its tail feathers
+are but slightly forked. The males are polygamous, and during
+autumn and winter associate together, feeding in flocks apart
+from the females; but with the approach of spring they separate,
+each selecting a locality for itself, from which it drives off all
+intruders, and where morning and evening it seeks to attract the
+other sex by a display of its beautiful plumage, which at this
+season attains its greatest perfection, and by a peculiar cry,
+which Selby describes as &ldquo;a crowing note, and another similar
+to the noise made by the whetting of a scythe.&rdquo; The nest,
+composed of a few stalks of grass, is built on the ground, usually
+beneath the shadow of a low bush or a tuft of tall grass, and here
+the female lays from six to ten eggs of a dirty-yellow colour
+speckled with dark brown. The blackcock then rejoins his male
+associates, and the female is left to perform the labours of
+hatching and rearing her young brood. The plumage of both
+sexes is at first like that of the female, but after moulting the
+young males gradually assume the more brilliant plumage of
+their sex. There are also many cases on record, and specimens
+may be seen in the principal museums, of old female birds
+assuming, to a greater or less extent, the plumage of the male.
+The blackcock is very generally distributed over the highland
+districts of northern and central Europe, and in some parts of
+Asia. It is found on the principal heaths in the south of England,
+but is specially abundant in the Highlands of Scotland.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:442px; height:425px" src="images/img21.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Blackcock.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK COUNTRY, THE,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a name commonly applied to a
+district lying principally in S. Staffordshire, but extending into
+Worcestershire and Warwickshire, England. This is one of the
+chief manufacturing centres in the United Kingdom, and the
+name arises from the effect of numerous collieries and furnaces,
+which darken the face of the district, the buildings and the
+atmosphere. Coal, ironstone and clay are mined in close
+proximity, and every sort of iron and steel goods is produced.
+The district extends 15 m. N.W. from Birmingham, and includes
+Smethwick, West Bromwich, Dudley, Oldbury, Sedgley, Tipton,
+Bilston, Wednesbury, Wolverhampton and Walsall as its most
+important centres. The ceaseless activity of the Black Country
+is most readily realized when it is traversed, or viewed from such
+an elevation as Dudley Castle Hill, at night, when the glare of
+furnaces appears in every direction. The district is served by
+numerous branches of the Great Western, London &amp; North
+Western, and Midland railways, and is intersected by canals,
+which carry a heavy traffic, and in some places are made to
+surmount physical obstacles with remarkable engineering skill,
+as in the case of the Castle Hill tunnels at Dudley. Among the
+numerous branches of industry there are several characteristic
+of certain individual centres. Thus, locks are a specialty at
+Wolverhampton and Willenhall, and keys at Wednesfield;
+horses&rsquo; bits, harness-fittings and saddlery at Walsall and
+Bloxwich, anchors and cables at Tipton, glass at Smethwick,
+and nails and chains at Cradley.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK DROP,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> in astronomy, an apparent distortion of the
+planet Mercury or Venus at the time of internal contact with the
+limb of the sun at the beginning or end of a transit. It has been
+in the past a source of much perplexity to observers of transits,
+but is now understood to be a result of irradiation, produced by
+the atmosphere or by the aberration of the telescope.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKFOOT<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (<i>Siksika</i>), a tribe and confederacy of North
+American Indians of Algonquian stock. The name is explained
+as an allusion to their leggings being observed by the whites to
+have become blackened by marching over the freshly burned
+prairie. Their range was around the headwaters of the Missouri,
+from the Yellowstone northward to the North Saskatchewan and
+westward to the Rockies. The confederacy consisted of three
+tribes, the Blackfoot or Siksika proper, the Kaina and the
+Piegan. During the early years of the 19th century the Blackfoots
+were one of the strongest Indian confederacies of the north-west,
+numbering some 40,000. At the beginning of the 20th century
+there were about 5000, some in Montana and some in Canada.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Jean L&rsquo;Heureux, <i>Customs and Religious Ideas of Blackfoot
+Indians in J.A.I.</i>, vol. xv. (1886);
+G.B. Grinnell, <i>Blackfoot Lodge Tales</i> (1892);
+G. Catlin, <i>North American Indians</i> (1876);
+<i>Handbook of American Indians</i> (Washington, 1907),
+under &ldquo;Siksika.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK FOREST<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Schwarzwald</i>; the <i>Silva Marciana</i> and
+<i>Abnoba</i> of the Romans), a mountainous district of south-west
+Germany, having an area of 1844 sq. m., of which about two-thirds
+lie in the grand duchy of Baden and the remaining third
+in the kingdom of Württemberg. Bounded on the south and
+west by the valley of the Rhine, to which its declivities abruptly
+descend, and running parallel to, and forming the counterpart of
+the Vosges beyond, it slopes more gently down to the valley of
+the Neckar in the north and to that of the Nagold (a tributary of
+the Neckar) on the north-east. Its total length is 100 m., and its
+breadth varies from 36 m. in the south to 21 in the centre and 13
+in the north. The deep valley of the Kinzig divides it laterally
+into halves, of which the southern, with an average elevation of
+3000 ft., is the wilder and contains the loftiest peaks, which again
+mostly lie towards the western side. Among them are the Feldberg
+(4898 ft.), the Herzogenhorn (4600), the Blössling (4260) and
+the Blauen (3820). The northern half has an average height of
+2000 ft. On the east side are several lakes, and here the majority
+of the streams take their rise. The configuration of the hills is
+mainly conical and the geological formation consists of gneiss,
+granite (in the south) and red sandstone. The district is poor in
+minerals; the yield of silver and copper has almost ceased, but
+there are workable coal seams near Offenburg, where the Kinzig
+debouches on the plain. The climate in the higher districts is
+raw and the produce is mostly confined to hardy cereals, such as
+oats. But the valleys, especially those on the western side, are
+warm and healthy, enclose good pasture land and furnish fruits
+and wine in rich profusion. They are clothed up to a height of
+about 2000 ft. with luxuriant woods of oak and beech, and above
+these again and up to an elevation of 4000 ft., surrounding the
+hills with a dense dark belt, are the forests of fir which have given
+the name to the district. The summits of the highest peaks are
+bare, but even on them snow seldom lies throughout the summer.</p>
+
+<p>The Black Forest produces excellent timber, which is partly
+sawn in the valleys and partly exported down the Rhine in logs.
+Among other industries are the manufactures of watches, clocks,
+toys and musical instruments. There are numerous mineral
+springs, and among the watering places Baden-Baden and
+Wildbad are famous. The towns of Freiburg, Rastatt, Offenburg
+and Lahr, which lie under the western declivities, are the
+chief centres for the productions of the interior.</p>
+
+<p>The Black Forest is a favourite tourist resort and is opened up
+by numerous railways. In addition to the main lines in the
+valleys of the Rhine and Neckar, which are connected with the
+towns lying on its fringe, the district is intersected by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" id="page22"></a>22</span>
+Schwarzwaldbahn from Offenburg to Singen, from which various
+small local lines ramify.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK HAWK<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> [Ma&lsquo;katawimesheka&lsquo;ka, &ldquo;Black Sparrow
+Hawk&rdquo;], (1767-1838), American Indian warrior of the Sauk and
+Fox tribes, was born at the Sauk village on Rock river, near the
+Mississippi, in 1767. He was a member of the Thunder gens of
+the Sauk tribe, and, though neither an hereditary nor an elected
+chief, was for some time the recognized war leader of the Sauk
+and Foxes. From his youth he was intensely bloodthirsty and
+hostile to the Americans. Immediately after the acquisition of
+&ldquo;Louisiana,&rdquo; the Federal government took steps for the removal
+of the Sauk and Foxes, who had always been a disturbing element
+among the north-western Indians, to the west bank of the
+Mississippi river. As early as 1804, by a treaty signed at St
+Louis on the 3rd of November, they agreed to the removal in
+return for an annuity of $1000. British influences were still
+strong in the upper Mississippi valley and undoubtedly led Black
+Hawk and the chiefs of the Sauk and Fox confederacy to repudiate
+this agreement of 1804, and subsequently to enter into the
+conspiracy of Tecumseh and take part with the British in the war
+of 1812. The treaties of 1815 at Portage des Sioux (with the
+Foxes) and of 1816 at St Louis (with the Sauk) substantially
+renewed that of 1804. That of 1816 was signed by Black Hawk
+himself, who declared, however, when in 1823 Chief Keokuk and
+a majority of the two nations crossed the river, that the consent
+of the chiefs had been obtained by fraud. In 1830 a final treaty
+was signed at Prairie du Chien, by which all title to the lands of
+the Sauk and Foxes east of the Mississippi was ceded to the
+government, and provision was made for the immediate opening
+of the tract to settlers. Black Hawk, leading the party in opposition
+to Keokuk, at once refused to accede to this cession and
+threatened to retaliate if his lands were invaded. This precipitated
+what is known as the Black Hawk War. Settlers began
+pouring into the new region in the early spring of 1831, and Black
+Hawk in June attacked several villages near the Illinois-Wisconsin
+line. After massacring several isolated families, he was driven
+off by a force of Illinois militia. He renewed his attack in the
+following year (1832), but after several minor engagements, in
+most of which he was successful, he was defeated (21st of July)
+at Wisconsin Heights on the Wisconsin river, opposite Prairie du
+Sac, by Michigan volunteers under Colonels Henry Dodge and
+James D. Henry, and fleeing westward was again decisively
+defeated on the Mississippi at the mouth of the Bad Axe river (on
+the 1st and 2nd of August) by General Henry Atkinson. His
+band was completely dispersed, and he himself was captured by
+a party of Winnebagoes. At Fort Armstrong, Rock Island, on
+the 21st of September, a treaty was signed, by which a large tract
+of the Sauk and Fox territory was ceded to the United States;
+and the United States granted to them a reservation of 400 sq. m.,
+the payment of $20,000 a year for thirty years, and the settlement
+of certain traders&rsquo; claims against the tribe. With several
+warriors Black Hawk was sent to Fortress Monroe, Virginia,
+where he was confined for a few weeks; afterwards he was
+taken by the government through the principal Eastern cities.
+On his release he settled in 1837 on the Sauk and Fox reservation
+on the Des Moines river, in Iowa, where he died on the 3rd of
+October 1838.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Frank E. Stevens, <i>The Black Hawk War</i> (Chicago, 1903);
+R.G. Thwaites, &ldquo;The Story of the Black Hawk War&rdquo; in vol. xii.
+of the <i>Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin</i>; J.B.
+Patterson, <i>Life of Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak or Black Hawk</i> (Boston,
+1834), purporting to be Black Hawk&rsquo;s story as told by himself;
+and Benjamin Drake, <i>Life of Black Hawk</i> (Cincinnati, 1846).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKHEATH,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> an open common in the south-east of London,
+England, mainly in the metropolitan borough of Lewisham.
+This high-lying tract was crossed by the Roman Watling Street
+from Kent, on a line approximating to that of the modern
+Shooter&rsquo;s Hill; and was a rallying ground of Wat Tyler (1381),
+of Jack Cade (1450), and of Audley, leader of the Cornish rebels,
+defeated and captured here by the troops of Henry VII. in 1497.
+It also witnessed the acclamations of the citizens of London on
+the return of Henry V. from the victory of Agincourt, the formal
+meeting between Henry VIII. and Anne of Cleves, and that
+between the army of the restoration and Charles II. The
+introduction into England of the game of golf is traditionally
+placed here in 1608, and attributed to King James I. and his
+Scottish followers. The common, the area of which is 267 acres,
+is still used for this and other pastimes. For the residential
+district to which Blackheath gives name, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lewisham</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK HILLS,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> an isolated group of mountains, covering an
+area of about 6000 sq. m. in the adjoining corners of South
+Dakota and Wyoming, U.S.A. They rise on an average some
+2000 ft. above their base, the highest peak, Harney, having an
+altitude above the sea of 7216 ft. They are drained and in large
+part enclosed by the North (or Belle Fourche) and South forks of
+the Cheyenne river (at whose junction a fur-trading post was
+established about 1830); and are surrounded by semi-arid,
+alkaline plains lying 3000 to 3500 ft. above the sea. The mass
+has an elliptical shape, its long axis, which extends nearly
+N.N.W.-S.S.E., being about 120 m. and its shorter axis about
+40 m. long. The hills are formed by a short, broad, anticlinal
+fold, which is flat or nearly so on its summit. From this fold
+the stratified beds have in large part been removed, the more
+recent having been almost entirely eroded from the elevated
+mass. The edges of these are now found encircling the mountains
+and forming a series of fairly continuous rims of hog-backs.
+The carboniferous and older stratified beds still cover the west
+half of the hills, while from the east half they have been removed,
+exposing the granite. Scientific exploration began in 1849, and
+systematic geological investigation about 1875. Rich gold
+placers had already been discovered, and in 1875 the Sioux
+Indians within whose territory the hills had until then been
+included, were removed, and the lands were open to white
+settlers. Subsequently low-grade quartz mines were found and
+developed, and have furnished a notable part of the gold supply
+of the country (about $100,000,000 from 1875 to 1901). The
+output is to-day relatively small in comparison with that of
+many other fields, but there are one or two permanent gold mines
+of great value working low-grade ore. The silver product from
+1879 to 1901 was about $4,154,000. Deposits of copper, tin,
+iron and tungsten have been discovered, and a variety of other
+mineral products (graphite, mica, spodumene, coal, petroleum,
+&amp;c.). In sharp contrast to the surrounding plains the climate is
+subhumid, especially in the higher Harney region. There is an
+abundance of fertile soil and magnificent grazing land. A third
+of the total area is covered with forests of pine and other trees,
+which have for the most part been made a forest-reserve by the
+national government. Jagged crags, sudden abysses, magnificent
+canyons, forests with open parks, undulating hills, mountain
+prairies, freaks of weathering and erosion, and the enclosing lines
+of the successive hog-backs afford scenery of remarkable variety
+and wild beauty. There are several interesting limestone caverns,
+and Sylvan Lake, in the high mountain district, is an important
+resort.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the publications of the United States Geological Survey
+(especially Professional Paper No. 26, <i>Economic Resources of the
+Northern Black Hills</i>, 1904), and of the South Dakota School of
+Mines (Bulletin No. 4, containing a history and bibliography of
+Black Hills investigations); also R.L. Dodge, <i>The Black Hills:
+A Minute Description ...</i> (New York, 1876).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKIE, JOHN STUART<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (1809-1895), Scottish scholar and
+man of letters, was born in Glasgow on the 28th of July 1809.
+He was educated at the New Academy and afterwards at the
+Marischal College, in Aberdeen, where his father was manager
+of the Commerical Bank. After attending classes at Edinburgh
+University (1825-1826), Blackie spent three years at Aberdeen
+as a student of theology. In 1829 he went to Germany, and after
+studying at Göttingen and Berlin (where he came under the
+influence of Heeren, Ottfried Müller, Schleiermacher, Neander
+and Böckh) he accompanied Bunsen to Italy and Rome. The
+years spent abroad extinguished his former wish to enter the
+Church, and at his father&rsquo;s desire he gave himself up to the study
+of law. He had already, in 1824, been placed in a lawyer&rsquo;s office,
+but only remained there six months. By the time he was
+admitted a member of the Faculty of Advocates (1834) he had
+acquired a strong love of the classics and a taste for letters in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>23</span>
+general. A translation of <i>Faust</i>, which he published in 1834,
+met with considerable success. After a year or two of desultory
+literary work he was (May 1839) appointed to the newly-instituted
+chair of Humanity (Latin) in the Marischal College.</p>
+
+<p>Difficulties arose in the way of his installation, owing to the action
+of the Presbytery on his refusing to sign unreservedly the Confession
+of Faith; but these were eventually overcome, and he
+took up his duties as professor in November 1841. In the
+following year he married. From the first his professorial
+lectures were conspicuous for the unconventional enthusiasm
+with which he endeavoured to revivify the study of the classics;
+and his growing reputation, added to the attention excited by a
+translation of Aeschylus which he published in 1850, led to his
+appointment in 1852 to the professorship of Greek at Edinburgh
+University, in succession to George Dunbar, a post which he
+continued to hold for thirty years. He was somewhat erratic in his
+methods, but his lectures were a triumph of influential personality.
+A journey to Greece in 1853 prompted his essay <i>On the
+Living Language of the Greeks</i>, a favourite theme of his,
+especially in his later years; he adopted for himself a modern Greek
+pronunciation, and before his death he endowed a travelling
+scholarship to enable students to learn Greek at Athens. Scottish
+nationality was another source of enthusiasm with him; and in
+this connexion he displayed real sympathy with Highland home
+life and the grievances of the crofters. The foundation of the
+Celtic chair at Edinburgh University was mainly due to his
+efforts. In spite of the many calls upon his time he produced
+a considerable amount of literary work, usually on classical
+or Scottish subjects, including some poems and songs of no mean
+order. He died in Edinburgh on the 2nd of March 1895. Blackie
+was a Radical and Scottish nationalist in politics, but of a
+fearlessly independent type; he was one of the &ldquo;characters&rdquo;
+of the Edinburgh of the day, and was a well-known figure as he
+went about in his plaid, worn shepherd-wise, wearing a broad-brimmed
+hat, and carrying a big stick. His published works include
+(besides several volumes of verse) <i>Homer and the Iliad</i> (1866),
+maintaining the unity of the poems;
+<i>Four Phases of Morals: Socrates, Aristotle, Christianity, Utilitarianism</i> (1871);
+<i>Essay on Self-Culture</i> (1874);
+<i>Horae Hellenicae</i> (1874);
+<i>The Language and Literature of the Scottish Highlands</i> (1876);
+<i>The Natural History of Atheism</i> (1877);
+<i>The Wise Men of Greece</i> (1877);
+<i>Lay Sermons</i> (1881);
+<i>Altavona</i> (1882);
+<i>The Wisdom of Goethe</i> (1883);
+<i>The Scottish Highlanders and the Land Laws</i> (1885);
+<i>Life of Burns</i> (1888);
+<i>Scottish Song</i> (1889);
+<i>Essays on Subjects of Moral and Social Interest</i> (1890);
+<i>Christianity and the Ideal of Humanity</i> (1893).
+Amongst his political writings may be mentioned a pamphlet
+<i>On Democracy</i> (1867), <i>On Forms of Government</i> (1867),
+and <i>Political Tracts</i> (1868).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Anna M. Stoddart, <i>John Stuart Blackie</i> (1895);
+A. Stodart-Walker, <i>Selected Poems of J.S. Blackie</i>,
+with an appreciation (1896);
+Howard Angus Kennedy, <i>Professor Blackie</i> (1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK ISLE,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> <span class="sc">The</span>, a district in the east of the county of
+Ross and Cromarty, Scotland, bounded N. by Cromarty Firth,
+E. by Moray Firth, S. by Inner Moray Firth (or Firth of Inverness)
+and Beauly Firth, and W. by the river Conon and the parish of
+Urray. It is a diamond-shaped peninsula jutting out from the
+mainland in a north-easterly direction, the longer axis, from
+Muir of Ord station to the South Sutor at the entrance to Cromarty
+Firth, measuring 20 m., and the shorter, from Ferryton Point
+to Craigton-Point, due north and south, 12 m., and it has a coastline
+of 52 m. Originally called Ardmeanach (Gaelic <i>ard</i>, height;
+<i>manaich</i>, monk, &ldquo;the monk&rsquo;s height,&rdquo; from an old religious house
+on the finely-wooded ridge of Mulbuie), it derived its customary
+name from the fact that, since snow does not lie in winter, the
+promontory looks black while the surrounding country is white.  Within
+its limits are comprised the parishes of Urquhart and Logie Wester,
+Killearnan, Knockbain (Gaelic <i>cnoc</i>, hill; <i>bàn</i>, white),
+Avoch (pron. Auch), Rosemarkie, Resolis (Gaelic <i>rudha</i> or <i>ros
+soluis</i>, &ldquo;cape of the light&rdquo;) or Kirkmichael and Cromarty. The
+Black Isle branch of the Highland railway runs from Muir of Ord
+to Fortrose; steamers connect Cromarty with Invergordon and
+Inverness, and Fortrose with Inverness; and there are ferries,
+on the southern coast, at North Kessock (for Inverness) and
+Chanonry (for Fort George), and, on the northern coast, at
+Alcaig (for Dingwall), Newhallpoint (for Invergordon), and
+Cromarty (for Nigg). The principal towns are Cromarty and
+Fortrose. Rosehaugh, near Avoch, belonged to Sir George
+Mackenzie, founder of the Advocates&rsquo; library in Edinburgh,
+who earned the sobriquet of &ldquo;Bloody&rdquo; from his persecution of
+the Covenanters. Redcastle, on the shore, near Killearnan
+church, dates from 1179 and is said to have been the earliest
+inhabited house in the north of Scotland. On the forfeiture of
+the earldom of Ross it became a royal castle (being visited by
+Queen Mary), and afterwards passed for a period into the hands
+of the Mackenzies of Gairloch. The chief industries are
+agriculture&mdash;high farming flourishes owing to the great fertility of
+the peninsula&mdash;sandstone-quarrying and fisheries (mainly from
+Avoch). The whole district, though lacking water, is picturesque
+and was once forested. The Mulbuie ridge, the highest point
+of which is 838 ft. above the sea, occupies the centre and is the
+only elevated ground. Antiquarian remains are somewhat
+numerous, such as forts and cairns in Cromarty parish, and
+stone circles in Urquhart and Logie Wester and Knockbain
+parishes, the latter also containing a hut circle and rock
+fortress.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKLOCK, THOMAS<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1721-1791), Scottish poet, the
+son of a bricklayer, was born at Annan, in Dumfriesshire, in
+1721. When not quite six months old he lost his sight by smallpox,
+and his career is largely interesting as that of one who
+achieved what he did in spite of blindness. Shortly after his
+father&rsquo;s death in 1740, some of Blacklock&rsquo;s poems began to be
+handed about among his acquaintances and friends, who arranged
+for his education at the grammar-school, and subsequently at
+the university of Edinburgh, where he was a student of divinity.
+His first volume of Poems was published in 1746. In 1754 he
+became deputy librarian for the Faculty of Advocates, by the
+kindness of Hume. He was eventually estranged from Hume,
+and defended James Beattie&rsquo;s attack on that philosopher.
+Blacklock was among the first friends of Burns in Edinburgh, being
+one of the earliest to recognize his genius. He was in 1762
+ordained minister of the church of Kirkcudbright, a position which
+he soon resigned; in 1767 the degree of doctor in divinity was
+conferred on him by Marischal College, Aberdeen. He died on
+the 7th of July 1791.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An edition of his poems in 1793 contains a life by Henry Mackenzie.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKMAIL,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a term, in English law, used in three special
+meanings, at different times. The usual derivation of the
+second half of the word is from Norman Fr. <i>maille (medalia</i>; cf.
+&ldquo;medal&rdquo;), small copper coin; the <i>New English Dictionary</i>
+derives from &ldquo;mail&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>), meaning rent or tribute.
+(1) The primary meaning of &ldquo;blackmail&rdquo; was rent paid in labour, grain
+or baser metal (<i>i.e.</i> money other than sterling money), called
+<i>reditus nigri</i>, in contradistinction to rent paid in silver
+or white money (<i>mailles blanches</i>).
+(2) In the northern counties of England (Northumberland, Westmorland
+and the bishopric of Durham) it signified a tribute in money, corn,
+cattle or other consideration exacted from farmers and small owners
+by freebooters in return for immunity from robbers or moss-troopers.
+By a statute of 1601 it was made a felony without benefit
+of clergy to receive or pay such tribute, but the practice
+lingered until the union of England and Scotland in 1707.
+(3) The word now signifies extortion of money or property by
+threats of libel, presecution, exposure, &amp;c. See such headings
+as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coercion</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conspiracy</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Extortion</a></span>, and authorities quoted
+under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Criminal Law</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (c. 1650-1729), English physician
+and writer, was born at Corsham, in Wiltshire, about
+1650. He was educated at Westminster school and St Edmund
+Hall, Oxford. He was for some time a schoolmaster, but finally,
+after graduating in medicine at Padua, he settled in practice
+as a physician in London. He supported the principles of the
+Revolution, and was accordingly knighted in 1697. He held
+the office of physician in ordinary both to William III. and
+Anne, and died on the 9th of October 1729. Blackmore had a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page24" id="page24"></a>24</span>
+passion for writing epics. <i>Prince Arthur, an Heroick Poem in
+X Books</i> appeared in 1695, and was followed by six other long
+poems before 1723. Of these <i>Creation</i> ... (1712), a philosophic
+poem intended to refute the atheism of Vanini, Hobbes
+and Spinoza, and to unfold the intellectual philosophy of Locke,
+was the most favourably received. Dr Johnson anticipated that
+this poem would transmit the author to posterity &ldquo;among the
+first favourites of the English muse,&rdquo; while John Dennis went
+so far as to describe it as &ldquo;a philosophical poem, which has
+equalled that of Lucretius in the beauty of its versification, and
+infinitely surpassed it in the solidity and strength of its reasoning.&rdquo;
+These opinions have not been justified, for the poem,
+like everything else that Blackmore wrote, is dull and tedious.
+His <i>Creation</i> appears in Johnson&rsquo;s and Anderson&rsquo;s collections
+of the British poets. He left also works on medicine and on
+theological subjects.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKMORE, RICHARD DODDRIDGE<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1825-1900), English
+novelist, was born on the 7th of June 1825 at Longworth, Berkshire,
+of which village his father was curate in charge. He was
+educated at Blundell&rsquo;s school, Tiverton, and Exeter College,
+Oxford, where he obtained a scholarship. In 1847 he took a
+second class in classics. Two years later he entered as a student
+at the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in 1852. His
+first publication was a volume of <i>Poems by Melanter</i> (1854), which
+showed no particular promise, nor did the succeeding volume,
+<i>Epullia</i> (1855), suggest that Blackmore had the makings of a poet.
+He was nevertheless enthusiastic in his pursuit of literature;
+and when, a few years later, the complete breakdown of his health
+rendered it clear that he must remove from London, he determined
+to combine a literary life in the country with a business
+career as a market-gardener. He acquired land at Teddington,
+and set earnestly to work, the literary fruits of his new surroundings
+being a translation of the <i>Georgics</i>, published in 1862. In
+1864 he published his first novel, <i>Clara Vaughan</i>, the merits
+of which were promptly recognized. <i>Cradock Nowell</i> (1866)
+followed, but it was in 1869 that he suddenly sprang into fame
+with <i>Lorna Doone</i>. This fine story was a pioneer in the romantic
+revival; and appearing at a jaded hour, it was presently recognized
+as a work of singular charm, vigour and imagination. Its
+success could scarcely be repeated, and though Blackmore wrote
+many other capital stories, of which the best known are <i>The
+Maid of Sker</i> (1872), <i>Christowell</i> (1880), <i>Perlycross</i> (1894), <i>Tales
+from the Telling House</i> (1896) and <i>Dariel</i> (1897), he will always
+be remembered almost exclusively as the author of <i>Lorna Doone</i>.
+He continued his quiet country life to the last, and died at
+Teddington on the 20th of January 1900, in his seventy-fifth
+year. <i>Lorna Doone</i> has the true out-of-door atmosphere, is shot
+through and through with adventurous spirit, and in its dramatic
+moments shows both vigour and intensity. The heroine, though
+she is invested with qualities of faëry which are scarcely human,
+is an idyllic and haunting figure; and John Ridd, the bluff
+hero, is, both in purpose and achievement, a veritable giant of
+romance. The story is a classic of the West country, and the
+many pilgrimages that are made annually to the Doone Valley
+(the actual characteristics of which differ materially from the
+descriptions given in the novel) are entirely inspired by the
+buoyant imagination of Richard Blackmore. A memorial
+window and tablet to his memory were erected in Exeter
+cathedral in 1904.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK MOUNTAIN,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> a mountain range and district on the
+Hazara border of the North-West Frontier Province of India.
+It is inhabited by Yusafzai Pathans. The Black Mountain itself
+has a total length of 25 to 30 m., and an average height of 8000 ft.
+above the sea. It rises from the Indus basin near the village of
+Kiara, up to its watershed by Bruddur; thence it runs north-west
+by north to the point on the crest known as Chittabut.
+From Chittabut the range runs due north, finally descending by
+two large spurs to the Indus again. The tribes which inhabit
+the western face of the Black Mountain are the Hassanzais (2300
+fighting men), the Akazais (1165 fighting men) and the Chagarzais
+(4890 fighting men), all sub-sections of the Yusafzai Pathans.
+It was in this district that the Hindostani Fanatics had their
+stronghold, and they were responsible for much of the unrest
+on this part of the border.</p>
+
+<p>The Black Mountain is chiefly notable for four British
+expeditions:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Under Lieut.-Colonel F. Mackeson, in 1852-53, against
+the Hassanzais. The occasion was the murder of two British
+customs officers. A force of 3800 British troops traversed their
+country, destroying their villages and grain, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>2. Under Major-General A.T. Wilde, in 1868. The occasion
+was an attack on a British police post at Oghi in the Agror Valley
+by all three tribes. A force of 12,500 British troops entered the
+country and the tribes made submission.</p>
+
+<p>3. The First Hazara Expedition in 1888. The cause was the
+constant raids made by the tribes on villages in British territory,
+culminating in an attack on a small British detachment, in which
+two English officers were killed. A force of 12,500 British troops
+traversed the country of the tribes, and severely punished them.
+Punishment was also inflicted on the Hindostani Fanatics of
+Palosi.</p>
+
+<p>4. The Second Hazara Expedition of 1891. The Black
+Mountain tribes fired on a force within British limits. A force
+of 7300 British troops traversed the country. The tribesmen
+made their submission and entered into an agreement with
+government to preserve the peace of the border.</p>
+
+<p>The Black Mountain tribes took no part in the general frontier
+rising of 1897, and after the disappearance of the Hindostani
+Fanatics they sank into comparative unimportance.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKPOOL,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a municipal and county borough and seaside
+resort in the Blackpool parliamentary division of Lancashire,
+England, 46 m. N. of Liverpool, served by the Lancashire &amp;
+Yorkshire, and London &amp; North Western railways. Pop. (1891)
+23,846; (1901) 47,346. The town, which is quite modern,
+contains many churches and chapels of all denominations, a
+town hall, public libraries, the Victoria hospital, three piers,
+theatres, ball-rooms, and other places of public amusement,
+including a lofty tower, resembling the Eiffel Tower of Paris.
+The municipality maintains an electric tram service. There are
+handsome promenades along the sea front, which command fine
+views. Extensive works upon these, affording a sea front
+unsurpassed by that of any English watering-place, were completed
+in 1905. The beach is sandy and the bathing good. The
+borough was created in 1876 (county borough, 1904), and is
+governed by a mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area,
+exclusive of foreshore, 3496 acres; including foreshore, 4244
+acres.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK ROD<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (more fully, &ldquo;Gentleman Usher of the Black
+Rod &ldquo;), an official of the House of Lords, instituted in 1350. His
+appointment is by royal letters patent, and his title is due to his
+staff of office, an ebony stick surmounted with a gold lion. He is
+a personal attendant of the sovereign in the Upper House, and
+is also usher of the order of the Garter, being doorkeeper at
+the meetings of the knights&rsquo; chapter. He is responsible for the
+maintenance of order in the House of Lords, and on him falls the
+duty of arresting any peer guilty of breach of privilege or other
+offence of which the House takes cognizance. But the duty
+which brings him most into prominence is that of summoning the
+Commons and their speaker to the Upper House to hear a speech
+from the throne or the royal assent given to bills. If the
+sovereign is present in parliament, Black Rod <i>commands</i> the
+attendance of the gentlemen of the Commons, but when lords
+commissioners represent the king, he only <i>desires</i> such attendance.
+Black Rod is on such occasions the central figure of a curious
+ceremony of much historic significance. As soon as the attendants
+of the House of Commons are aware of his approach, they
+close the doors in his face. Black Rod then strikes three times
+with his staff, and on being asked &ldquo;Who is there?&rdquo; replies
+&ldquo;Black Rod.&rdquo; Being then admitted he advances to the bar of
+the House, makes three obeisances and says, &ldquo;Mr Speaker, the
+king commands this honourable House to attend his majesty
+immediately in the House of Lords.&rdquo; This formality originated
+in the famous attempt of Charles I. to arrest the five members,
+Hampden, Pym, Holies, Hesilrige and Strode, in 1642. Indignant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>25</span>
+at this breach of privilege, the House of Commons has ever since
+maintained its right of freedom of speech and uninterrupted
+debate by the closing of the doors on the king&rsquo;s representative.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK SEA<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Euxine</span>; anc. <i>Pontus Euxinus</i>),<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a body of
+water lying almost entirely between the latitudes 41º and 45º N.,
+but extending to about 47º N. near Odessa. It is bounded N. by
+the southern coast of Russia; W. by Rumania, Turkey and
+Bulgaria; S. and E. by Asia Minor. The northern boundary is
+broken at Kertch by a strait entering into the Sea of Azov, and
+at the junction of the western and southern boundary is the
+Bosporus, which unites the Black Sea with the Mediterranean
+through the Sea of Marmora and the Dardanelles. The 100-fathom
+line is about 10 to 20 m. from the shore except in the
+north-west corner between Varna and Sevastopol, where it
+extends 140 m. seawards. The greatest depth is 1030 fathoms
+(1227 Russian fathoms) near the centre, there being only one
+basin. The steepest incline outside 100 fathoms is to the south-east
+of the Crimea and at Amastra; the incline to the greater
+depths is also steep off the Caucasus and between Trebizond and
+Batum. The conditions that prevail in the Black Sea are very
+different from those of the Mediterranean or any other sea. The
+existence of sulphuretted hydrogen in great quantities below 100
+fathoms, the extensive chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate,
+the stagnant nature of its deep waters, and the absence of
+deep-sea life are conditions which make it impossible to discuss it
+along with the physical and biological conditions of the Mediterranean
+proper.</p>
+
+<p>The depths of the Black Sea are lifeless, higher organic life not
+being known to exist below 100 fathoms. Fossiliferous remains
+of <i>Dreissena</i>, <i>Cardium</i> and other molluscs have, however, been
+dredged up, which help to show that conditions formerly existed
+in the Black Sea similar to those that exist at the present day in
+the Caspian Sea. According to N. Andrusov, when the union of
+the Black Sea with the Mediterranean through the Bosporus took
+place, salt water rushed into it along the bottom of the Bosporus
+and killed the fauna of the less saline waters. This gave rise to
+a production of sulphuretted hydrogen which is found in the
+deposits, as well as in the deeper waters.</p>
+
+<p>Observations in temperature and salinity have only been
+taken during summer. During summer the surface salinity of
+the Black Sea is from 1.70 to 2.00% down to 50 fathoms, whereas
+in the greater depths it attains a salinity of 2.25%. The
+temperature is rather remarkable, there being an intermediate
+cold layer between 25 and 50 fathoms. This is due to the
+sinking of the cold surface water (which in winter reaches
+freezing-point) on to the top of the denser more saline water of
+the greater depths. There is thus a minimum circulation in the
+greater depths causing there uniformity of temperature, an
+absence of the circulation of oxygen by other means than
+diffusion, and a protection of the sulphuretted hydrogen from
+the oxidation which takes place in homologous situations in the
+open ocean. The temperature down to 25 fathoms is from 78.3º to 46.2º F., and in the cold layer, between 25 and 50 fathoms, is
+from 46.2º to 43.5º F., rising again in greater depths to 48.2º F.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Sea of Marmora</i> may be looked upon as an arm of the
+Aegean Sea and thus part of the Mediterranean proper. Its
+salinity is comparable to that of the eastern basin of the Mediterranean,
+which is greater than that of the Black Sea, viz. 4%.
+Similar currents exist in the Bosporus to those of the Strait of
+Gibraltar. Water of less salinity flows outwards from the Black
+Sea as an upper current, and water of greater salinity from the
+Sea of Marmora flows into the Black Sea as an under-current.
+This under-current flows towards Cape Tarhangut, where it divides
+into a left and right branch. The left branch is appreciably
+noticed near Odessa and the north-west corner; the right branch
+sweeps past the Crimea, strikes the Caucasian shore (where it
+comes to the surface running across, but not into, the south-east
+corner of the Black Sea), and finally disperses flowing westwards
+along the northern coast of Asia Minor between Cape Jason and
+Sinope. This current causes a warmer climate where it strikes.
+So marked is this current that it has to be taken into account in
+the navigation of the Black Sea.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Sea of Azov</i> is exceedingly shallow, being only about 6
+fathoms in its deepest part, and it is largely influenced by the
+river Don. Its water is considerably fresher than the Black Sea,
+varying from 1.55 to 0.68%. It freezes more readily and is not
+affected by the Mediterranean current.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See N. Andrusov, &ldquo;Physical Exploration of the Black Sea,&rdquo; in
+<i>Geographical Journal</i>, vol. i. p. 49.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The early Greek navigators gave it the epithet of <i>axenus</i>, <i>i.e.</i>
+unfriendly to strangers, but as Greek colonies sprang up on the
+shores this was changed to <i>euxinus</i>, friendly to strangers.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK SEA<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (Russ. <i>Chernomorskaya</i>), a military district of
+the province of Kuban, formerly an independent province of
+Transcaucasia, Russia; it includes the narrow strip of land
+along the N.E. coast of the Black Sea from Novorossiysk to
+the vicinity of Pitsunda, between the sea and the crest of the
+main range of the Caucasus. Area, 2836 sq. m. Pop. (1897)
+54,228; (1906, estimate) 71,900. It is penetrated by numerous
+spurs of this range, which strike the sea abruptly at right angles
+to the coast, and in many cases plunge down into it sheer. Owing
+to its southern exposure, its sheltered position, and a copious
+rainfall, vegetation, in part of a sub-tropical character, grows
+in great profusion. In consequence, however, of the mountainous
+character of the region, it is divided into a large number
+of more or less isolated districts, and there is little intercourse
+with the country north of the Caucasus, the passes over the range
+being few and difficult (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caucasus</a></span>). But since the Russians
+became masters of this region, its former inhabitants (Circassian
+tribes) have emigrated in thousands, so that the country is now
+only thinly inhabited. It is divided into three districts&mdash;Novorossiysk,
+with the town (pop. in 1897, 16,208) of the same
+name, which acts as the capital of the Black Sea district;
+Velyaminovsk; and Sochi. Novorossiysk is connected by rail,
+at the west end of the Caucasus, with the Rostov-Vladikavkaz
+line, and a mountain road leads from Velyaminovsk (or Tuapse)
+to Maikop in the province of Kuban.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1723-1780), English jurist,
+was born in London, on the 10th of July 1723. His parents
+having died when he was young, his early education, under the
+care of his uncle, Dr Thomas Bigg, was obtained at the Charterhouse,
+from which, at the age of fifteen, he was sent to Pembroke
+College, Oxford. He was entered in the Middle Temple in 1741.
+In 1744 he was elected a fellow of All Souls&rsquo; College. From this
+period he divided his time between the university and the
+Temple, where he took chambers in order to attend the law
+courts. In 1746 he was called to the bar. Though but little
+known or distinguished as a pleader, he was actively employed,
+during his occasional residences at the university, in taking part
+in the internal management of his college. In May 1749, as a
+small reward for his services, and to give him further opportunities
+of advancing the interests of the college, Blackstone was
+appointed steward of its manors. In the same year, on the
+resignation of his uncle, Seymour Richmond, he was elected
+recorder of the borough of Wallingford in Berkshire. In 1750 he
+became doctor of civil law. In 1753 he decided to retire from
+London work to his fellowship and an academical life, still continuing
+the practice of his profession as a provincial counsel.</p>
+
+<p>His lectures on the laws of England appear to have been an
+early and favourite idea; for in the Michaelmas term immediately
+after he abandoned London, he entered on the duty of
+reading them at Oxford; and we are told by the author of his
+<i>Life</i>, that even at their commencement, the high expectations
+formed from the acknowledged abilities of the lecturer attracted
+to these lectures a very crowded class of young men of the first
+families, characters and hopes. Bentham, however, declares
+that he was a &ldquo;formal, precise and affected lecturer&mdash;just what
+you would expect from the character of his writings&mdash;cold,
+reserved and wary, exhibiting a frigid pride.&rdquo; It was not till the
+year 1758 that the lectures in the form they now bear were read
+in the university. Blackstone, having been unanimously elected
+to the newly-founded Vinerian professorship, on the 25th of
+October read his first introductory lecture, afterwards prefixed
+to the first volume of his celebrated <i>Commentaries</i>. It is doubtful
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>26</span>
+whether the <i>Commentaries</i> were originally intended for the
+press; but many imperfect and incorrect copies having got into
+circulation, and a pirated edition of them being either published
+or preparing for publication in Ireland, the author thought
+proper to print a correct edition himself, and in November 1765
+published the first volume, under the title of <i>Commentaries on
+the Laws of England</i>. The remaining parts of the work were
+given to the world in the course of the four succeeding years.
+It may be remarked that before this period the reputation which
+his lectures had deservedly acquired for him had induced him
+to resume practice in London; and, contrary to the general order
+of the profession, he who had quitted the bar for an academic life
+was sent back from the college to the bar with a considerable
+increase of business. He was likewise elected to parliament,
+first for Hindon, and afterwards for Westbury in Wilts; but in
+neither of these departments did he equal the expectations which
+his writings had raised. The part he took in the Middlesex
+election drew upon him many attacks as well as a severe animadversion
+from the caustic pen of &ldquo;Junius.&rdquo; This circumstance
+probably strengthened the aversion he professed to parliamentary
+attendance, &ldquo;where,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;amidst the rage of contending
+parties, a man of moderation must expect to meet with no
+quarter from any side.&rdquo; In 1770 he declined the place of solicitor-general;
+but shortly afterwards, on the promotion of Sir Joseph
+Yates to a seat in the court of common pleas, he accepted a seat
+on the bench, and on the death of Sir Joseph succeeded him
+there also. He died on the 14th of February 1780.</p>
+
+<p>The design of the <i>Commentaries</i> is exhibited in his first Vinerian
+lecture printed in the introduction to them. The author there
+dwells on the importance of noblemen, gentlemen and educated
+persons generally being well acquainted with the laws of the
+country; and his treatise, accordingly, is as far as possible a
+popular exposition of the laws of England. Falling into the
+common error of identifying the various meanings of the word
+law, he advances from the law of nature (being either the revealed
+or the inferred will of God) to municipal law, which he defines to
+be a rule of civil conduct prescribed by the supreme power in a
+state commanding what is right and prohibiting what is wrong.
+On this definition he founds the division observed in the <i>Commentaries</i>.
+The objects of law are rights and wrongs. Rights are
+either rights of persons or rights of things. Wrongs are either
+public or private. These four headings form respectively the
+subjects of the four books of the <i>Commentaries</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Blackstone was by no means what would now be called a
+scientific jurist. He has only the vaguest possible grasp of the
+elementary conceptions of law. He evidently regards the law
+of gravitation, the law of nature, and the law of England, as
+different examples of the same principle&mdash;as rules of action or
+conduct imposed by a superior power on its subjects. He
+propounds in terms the doctrine that municipal or positive laws
+derive their validity from their conformity to the so-called law
+of nature or law of God. &ldquo;No human laws,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;are of
+any validity if contrary to this.&rdquo; His distinction between rights
+of persons and rights of things, implying, as it would appear,
+that things as well as persons have rights, is attributable to a
+misunderstanding of the technical terms of the Roman law.
+In distinguishing between private and public wrongs (civil
+injuries and crimes) he fails to seize the true principle of the
+division. Austin, who accused him of following slavishly the
+method of Hale&rsquo;s <i>Analysis of the Law</i>, declares that he &ldquo;blindly
+adopts the mistakes of his rude and compendious model; missing
+invariably, with a nice and surprising infelicity, the pregnant
+but obscure suggestions which it proffered to his attention, and
+which would have guided a discerning and inventive writer to
+an arrangement comparatively just.&rdquo; By the want of precise
+and closely-defined terms, and his tendency to substitute loose
+literary phrases, he falls occasionally into irreconcilable contradictions.
+Even in discussing a subject of such immense importance
+as equity, he hardly takes pains to discriminate between
+the legal and popular senses of the word, and, from the small
+place which equity jurisprudence occupies in his arrangement,
+he would scarcely seem to have realized its true position in the
+law of England. Subject, however, to these strictures the
+completeness of the treatise, its serviceable if not scientific order,
+and the power of lucid exposition possessed by the author
+demand emphatic recognition. Blackstone&rsquo;s defects as a jurist
+are more conspicuous in his treatment of the underlying principles
+and fundamental divisions of the law than in his account of its
+substantive principles.</p>
+
+<p>Blackstone by no means confines himself to the work of a
+legal commentator. It is his business, especially when he touches
+on the framework of society, to find a basis in history and reason
+for all the most characteristic English institutions. There is not
+much either of philosophy or fairness in this part of his work.
+Whether through the natural conservatism of a lawyer, or
+through his own timidity and subserviency as a man and a
+politician, he is always found to be a specious defender of the
+existing order of things. Bentham accuses him of being the
+enemy of all reform, and the unscrupulous champion of every
+form of professional chicanery. Austin says that he truckled
+to the sinister interests and mischievous prejudices of power,
+and that he flattered the overweening conceit of the English in
+their own institutions. He displays much ingenuity in giving a
+plausible form to common prejudices and fallacies; but it is by
+no means clear that he was not imposed upon himself. More
+undeniable than the political fairness of the treatise is its merits
+as a work of literature. It is written in a most graceful and
+attractive style, and although no opportunity of embellishment
+has been lost, the language is always simple and clear. Whether
+it is owing to its literary graces, or to its success in flattering the
+prejudices of the public to which it was addressed, the influence
+of the book in England has been extraordinary. Not lawyers
+only, and lawyers perhaps even less than others, accepted it as
+an authoritative revelation of the law. It performed for educated
+society in England much the same service as was rendered to
+the people of Rome by the publication of their previously
+unknown laws. It is more correct to regard it as a handbook of
+the law for laymen than as a legal treatise; and as the first and
+only book of the kind in England it has been received with somewhat
+indiscriminating reverence. It is certain that a vast
+amount of the constitutional sentiment of the country has been
+inspired by its pages. To this day Blackstone&rsquo;s criticism of the
+English constitution would probably express the most profound
+political convictions of the majority of the English people.
+Long after it has ceased to be of much practical value as an
+authority in the courts, it remains the arbiter of all public discussions
+on the law or the constitution. On such occasions the
+<i>Commentaries</i> are apt to be construed as strictly as if they were
+a code. It is curious to observe how much importance is attached
+to the <i>ipsissima verba</i> of a writer who aimed more at presenting
+a picture intelligible to laymen than at recording the principles
+of the law with technical accuracy of detail.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English Law</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACK VEIL,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> in the Roman Catholic Church, the symbol of
+the most complete renunciation of the world and adoption of
+a nun&rsquo;s life. On the appointed day the nun goes through
+all the ritual of the marriage ceremony, after a solemn mass at
+which all the inmates of the convent assist. She is dressed in
+bridal white with wreath and veil, and receives a wedding-ring,
+as spouse of the Church. Afterwards she presides at a wedding-breakfast,
+at which a bride-cake is cut. She thus bids adieu
+to all her friends, and having previously taken the white veil,
+the betrothal, she now assumes the black, and for ever forswears
+the world and its pleasures. Her hair is cut short, and her bridal
+robes are exchanged for the sombre religious habit. Her wedding-ring,
+however, she continues to wear, and it is buried with her.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKWATER,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> the name of a number of rivers and streams
+in England, Scotland and Ireland. The Blackwater in Essex,
+which rises near Saffron Walden, has a course of about 40 m. to
+the North Sea. The most important river of the name is in
+southern Ireland, rising in the hills on the borders of the counties
+Cork and Kerry, and flowing nearly due east for the greater part
+of its course, as far as Cappoquin, where it turns abruptly southward,
+and discharges through an estuary into Youghal Bay.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" id="page27"></a>27</span>
+The length of its valley (excluding the lesser windings of the
+river) is about 90 m., and the drainage area about 1300 sq. m.
+It is navigable only for a few miles above the mouth, but its
+salmon fisheries are both attractive to sportsmen and of considerable
+commercial value. The scenery of its banks is at many
+points very beautiful.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKWATER FEVER,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a disease occurring in tropical
+countries and elsewhere, which is often classed with malaria
+(<i>q.v.</i>). It is characterized by irregular febrile paroxysms, accompanied
+by rigors, bilious vomiting, jaundice and haemoglobinuria
+(Sambon). It has a wide geographical distribution, including
+tropical Africa, parts of Asia, the West Indies, the southern
+United States, and&mdash;in Europe&mdash;Greece, Sicily and Sardinia;
+but its range is not coextensive with malaria. Malarial
+parasites have occasionally been found in the blood. Some
+authorities believe it to be caused by the excessive use of
+quinine, taken to combat malaria. This theory has had the
+support of Koch, but it is not generally accepted. If it were
+correct, one would expect blackwater fever to be regularly
+prevalent in malarial countries and to be more or less coextensive
+with the use of quinine, which is not at all the case. It often
+resembles yellow fever, but the characteristic black vomit of
+yellow fever rarely occurs in blackwater fever, while the black
+urine from which the latter derives its name is equally rare in
+the former. According to the modern school of tropical parasitology,
+blackwater fever is neither a form of malaria nor
+produced by quinine, but a specific disease due to a protozoal
+parasite akin to that which causes the redwater fever of cattle.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKWELL, THOMAS<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (1701-1757), Scottish classical
+scholar, was born at Aberdeen on the 4th of August 1701. He
+took the degree of M.A. at the Marischal College in 1718. He
+was appointed professor of Greek in 1723, and was principal
+of the institution from 1748 until his death on the 8th of March
+1757. In 1735 his first work, <i>An Inquiry into the Life and
+Writings of Homer</i>, was published anonymously. It was reprinted
+in 1736, and followed (in 1747) by <i>Proofs of the Enquiry
+into Homer&rsquo;s Life and Writings</i>, a translation of the copious
+notes in foreign languages which had previously appeared. This
+work, intended to explain the causes of the superiority of Homer
+to all the poets who preceded or followed him, shows considerable
+research, and contains many curious and interesting details;
+but its want of method made Bentley say that, when he had gone
+through half of it, he had forgotten the beginning, and, when
+he had finished the reading of it, he had forgotten the whole.
+Blackwell&rsquo;s next work (also published anonymously in 1748)
+was <i>Letters Concerning Mythology</i>. In 1752 he took the degree
+of doctor of laws, and in the following year published the first
+volume of <i>Memoirs of the Court of Augustus</i>; the second volume
+appeared in 1755, the third in 1764 (prepared for the press, after
+Blackwell&rsquo;s death, by John Mills). This work shows considerable
+originality and erudition, but is even more unmethodical than
+his earlier writings and full of unnecessary digressions. Blackwell
+has been called the restorer of Greek literature in the north
+of Scotland; but his good qualities were somewhat spoiled by
+pomposity and affectation, which exposed him to ridicule.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLACKWOOD, WILLIAM<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1776-1834), Scottish publisher,
+founder of the firm of William Blackwood &amp; Sons, was born of
+humble parents at Edinburgh on the 20th of November 1776.
+At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to a firm of booksellers
+in Edinburgh, and he followed his calling also in Glasgow and
+London for several years. Returning to Edinburgh in 1804, he
+opened a shop in South Bridge Street for the sale of old, rare
+and curious books. He undertook the Scottish agency for John
+Murray and other London publishers, and gradually drifted into
+publishing on his own account, removing in 1816 to Princes
+Street. On the 1st of April 1817 was issued the first number of
+the <i>Edinburgh Monthly Magazine</i>, which on its seventh number,
+bore the name of <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s</i> as the leading part of the title.
+&ldquo;Maga,&rdquo; as this magazine soon came to be called, was the organ
+of the Scottish Tory party, and round it gathered a host of
+able writers. William Blackwood died on the 16th of September
+1834, and was succeeded by his two sons, Alexander and Robert,
+who added a London branch to the firm. In 1845 Alexander
+Blackwood died, and shortly afterwards Robert.</p>
+
+<p>A younger brother, John Blackwood (1818-1879), succeeded
+to the business; four years later he was joined by Major William
+Blackwood, who continued in the firm until his death in 1861.
+In 1862 the major&rsquo;s elder son, William Blackwood (b. 1836),
+was taken into partnership. John Blackwood was a man of
+strong personality and great business discernment; it was in the
+pages of his magazine that George Eliot&rsquo;s first stories, <i>Scenes
+of Clerical Life</i>, appeared. He also inaugurated the &ldquo;Ancient
+Classics for English readers&rdquo; series. On his death Mr William
+Blackwood was left in sole control of the business. With him
+were associated his nephews, George William and J.H. Blackwood,
+sons of Major George Blackwood, who was killed at Maiwand in 1880.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Annals of a Publishing House; William Blackwood and his
+Sons</i> ... (1897-1898), the first two volumes of which were written
+by Mrs Oliphant; the third, dealing with John Blackwood, by his
+daughter, Mrs Gerald Porter.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLADDER<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (from A.S. <i>bla&#275;ddre</i>, connected with <i>bl&#257;wan</i>,
+to blow, cf. Ger. <i>blase</i>), the membranous sac in animals which
+receives the urine secreted from the kidneys. The word is also
+used for any similar sac, such as the gall-bladder, the swim-bladder
+in fishes, or the small vesicle in various seaweeds.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES.<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> The urinary
+bladder in man (for the anatomy see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Urinary System</a></span>), being
+the temporary reservoir of the renal secretion, and, as such,
+containing the urine for longer or shorter periods, is liable to
+various important affections. These are dealt with in the first
+part of this article. The diseases of the prostate are so intimately
+allied that they are best considered, as in the subsequent section,
+as part of the same subject.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Diseases of the Bladder.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Cystitis</i>, or inflammation of the bladder, which may be acute
+or chronic, is due to the invasion of the mucous lining by micro-organisms,
+which gain access either from the urethra,
+the kidneys or the blood-stream. It is easy to see how
+<span class="sidenote">Cystitis.</span>
+the diplococci of gonorrhoea may infect the bladder-membrane by
+direct extension of the inflammation, and how the bacilli which
+are swarming in the neighbouring bowel may find access to the
+urethra or bladder when the intervening tissues have been
+rendered penetrable by a wound or by inflammation. Sometimes,
+however, especially in the female, the germs from the large
+intestine enter the bladder by way of the vulva and the urethra.</p>
+
+<p>Any condition leading to disturbance of the function of the
+bladder, such as enlargement of the prostate, stricture of the
+urethra, stone, or injury, may cause cystitis by preparing the
+way for bacillary invasion. The bacilli of tuberculosis and of
+typhoid fever may set up cystitis by coming down into the
+bladder from the kidneys with the urine, or they reach it by
+the blood-stream, or invade it by the urethra. Another way of
+cystitis being set up is by the introduction of the germs of
+suppuration by a catheter or bougie sweeping them in from the
+urethra; or the instrument itself may be unsterilized and dirty
+and so may introduce them. It used formerly to be thought that
+wet or cold was enough to cause inflammation of the bladder, but
+the probability is that this acts only by lowering the resistance
+of the lining membrane of the bladder, and preparing it for the
+invasion of the germs which were merely waiting for an opportunity.
+In the same way, gout or injury may lead to the lurking
+bacilli being enabled to effect their attack. But in every case
+disease-germs are the cause of the trouble, and they may be found
+in the urine. The first effect of inflammation is to render the
+bladder irritable, so that as soon as a few drops of urine have
+collected, the individual has intense or uncontrollable desire to
+micturate. The effort may be very painful and may be accompanied
+by bleeding from the overloaded blood-vessels of the
+inflamed membrane. In addition to blood, pus is likely to be
+found in the urine, which by this time is alkaline and ammoniacal,
+and teeming with micro-organisms. As regards <i>treatment</i>, the
+patient should be at once sent to bed in a warm room, and should
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page28" id="page28"></a>28</span>
+sit several times a day in a very hot hip-bath. When he has got
+back to bed, a fomentation under oil-silk, or some other waterproof
+material, should be placed over the lower part of the
+abdomen. The diet should be milk (diluted with hot or cold
+water), barley-water, and bread and butter; no alcoholic drink
+should be allowed. If the urine is acid, bicarbonate of soda may
+be given, or citrate of soda; if alkaline, urotropine&mdash;a derivative
+of formic aldehyde&mdash;may prove a useful urinary disinfectant. If
+the straining and distress are great, a suppository of ¼ or ½ a grain
+of morphia may be introduced into the rectum every two or three
+hours. The bowels must be kept freely open. If the urine is foul,
+the bladder should be frequently washed out by a soft catheter
+and two or three feet of india-rubber tubing with a funnel at the
+other end, weak and abundant hot lotions of Sanitas or Condy&rsquo;s
+fluid being used.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chronic cystitis</i> is the condition left when the acute symptoms
+have passed away, but it is liable at any moment to resume the
+acute condition. If the cystitis is very intractable, refusing to
+yield to hot irrigations, and to washings with nitrate of silver
+lotion, it may be advisable to open the bladder from the front,
+and to explore, treat, drain and rest it.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>tuberculous cystitis</i> there is added to the symptoms the
+discovery of the bacilli of tuberculosis in the urine, and cystoscopic
+examination may reveal the presence of tubercles of the
+mucous membrane or even of ulceration. The patient is probably
+losing weight, and he may present foci of tuberculosis at the back
+of the testicle, the lung or kidney, or in a joint or bone, or in a
+lymphatic gland. <i>Treatment</i> is rebellious and unpromising.
+Washings and lotions give but temporary relief, and if the
+bladder is opened for rest, and for a more direct treatment, the
+germs of suppuration may enter, and, working in conjunction
+with the bacilli, may cause great havoc. Koch&rsquo;s tuberculin
+treatment should certainly be given a trial. This consists of the
+injection into the body of an emulsion of dead tubercle bacilli
+which have been sterilized by heat. As a result of this injection
+the blood sets to work to form an &ldquo;opsonin&rdquo;&mdash;a protective
+material which so modifies the disease-germs as to render them
+attractive to the white corpuscles of the patient&rsquo;s blood (phagocytes),
+which then seize upon and destroy them. Sir A.E. Wright
+has devised a delicate method of examination of the blood
+(the calculation of the opsonic index) which tells when the
+tuberculin injections should be resorted to and when withheld
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Blood</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Calculi and Gravel.</i>&mdash;Uric acid is deposited from the urine either
+as small crystals resembling cayenne pepper, or else, in combination
+with soda and ammonia, as an amorphous &ldquo;brick-dust&rdquo;
+deposit, which, on cooling, leaves a red stain on
+<span class="sidenote">Stone.</span>
+the bottom of the vessel, soluble in hot water. These substances
+are derived from the disintegration of nitrogenized food taken in
+excess of demand, and from the breaking down of the human
+tissues. They occur therefore in fevers, in wasting diseases, and
+in the normal subject after excessive muscular exercises, especially
+if these exercises have been accompanied with so much perspiration
+that the excess of water from the blood has escaped by the
+skin rather than by the kidneys. The abundance of this deposit
+is in accordance with the amount of heat developed and work
+done in the body, and corresponds with the dust and ashes raked
+out of the fire-box of the locomotive after a long run. But
+supposing that the uric acid débris continues to be excessive, the
+risk of the formation of renal or vesical calculi becomes considerable,
+and it may be advisable to place the patient on a restricted
+nitrogenized diet, to induce him to drink large quantities of water,
+and to keep his bowels so loose with watery laxatives, such as
+Epsom salts or sulphate of soda, that the waste products of his
+body are made to escape by the bowels rather than by the kidneys.
+In addition to the salts just mentioned, an occasional dose of blue
+pill will prove helpful. A course of treatment at Contrexéville
+or Carlsbad may be taken with advantage.</p>
+
+<p>Alkaline urine is unable to hold the phosphates of ammonia and
+magnesia in solution, so they are deposited in abundance either in
+the kidney or bladder. If the voided urine is allowed to stand in a
+tall glass they sink to the bottom with pus and mucus in a cloudy
+deposit. To remedy this condition it is necessary to treat the
+cystitis with which the bacterial decomposition of the urine is
+associated. It may be that a calculus of acid urine, such as one
+of uric acid or oxalate of lime, has been resting in the bladder and
+keeping up incessant irritation, and that the micro-organisms of
+decomposition or suppuration have found their way to the mucous
+lining of the bladder from either the bowel, the urethra or the
+blood-stream; undergoing cultivation there they break up the
+urea into carbonate of ammonia and so render the urine alkaline.
+This alkaline urine deposits its phosphates, which light upon the
+calculus and encrust it with a mortary shell, which may go on
+increasing in size until it may even fill the bladder. Sometimes
+the nucleus of a calculus is a chip of bone or a blood-clot, or some
+foreign substance which has been introduced into the bladder.
+Sooner or later the urine becomes alkaline and the calculus is
+encrusted with lime salts.</p>
+
+<p>When urine contains a larger amount of chemical constituents
+than it can conveniently hold in solution, a certain quantity crystallizes
+out, and may be deposited in the kidney or in the bladder.
+If the crystals run together in the kidney the resulting concretion
+may either remain in that organ or may find its way into the
+bladder, where it may remain to form the nucleus of a larger
+vesical calculus, or, especially in the case of females, it may,
+while still small, escape from the bladder during micturition.</p>
+
+<p>In children, in whom there is a rapid disintegration of nitrogenized
+tissues, a uric acid calculus in escaping from the bladder
+may block the urethra and give rise to sudden retention of urine.
+On introducing a metal &ldquo;sound,&rdquo; the surgeon may strike the
+stone, and if it happens to be near the bladder he may push it
+back and subsequently remove it by crushing. But if it has made
+its way some distance along the urethra, so that he can feel it
+from the outside, he should remove it by a clean incision.</p>
+
+<p>A stone in the bladder worries the nerves of the mucous
+membrane, and, giving them the impression that the bladder
+contains much water, causes the desire and need for micturition
+to be constant. The irritation causes an excessive secretion of
+mucus, just as a piece of grit under the eyelid causes a constant
+running from the eye. So the urine, if allowed to stand, gives
+a copious deposit. During micturition the contracting bladder
+bruises its congested blood-vessels against the stone, so that
+towards the end of micturition blood appears in the urine.
+Lastly, cystitis occurs, and the urine contains fetid pus. A
+stone in the bladder gives rise to pain at the end of the penis,
+and it is apt suddenly to stop the flow of urine during micturition.</p>
+
+<p>The association of any of these symptoms leads the surgeon
+to suspect the presence of a stone in the bladder, and he confirms
+his suspicions by introducing a slender steel rod, a &ldquo;sound,&rdquo;
+by which he strikes and feels the stone. Further confirmation
+may be obtained by the help of the X-rays, or, in the adult, by
+using a cystoscope. In a child the stone may often be felt
+by a finger in the rectum, the front of the bladder being
+pressed by a hand on the lower part of the abdomen. The
+<i>cystoscope</i> is a straight, hollow metal tube about the size
+of a long cedar pencil, which the surgeon introduces into the
+adult bladder, which has already been filled with warm boracic
+lotion. Down the tube run two fine wires which control a minute
+electric lamp at the bladder end of the instrument. At that end
+also is a small glass window which prevents the fluid escaping
+by the tube, and also a prism; at the other end of the tube is
+an eye-piece. By the use of this slender speculum the practised
+surgeon can recognize the presence of tubercle or tuberculous
+ulceration of the bladder, stone, or other foreign material, and
+innocent or malignant growths. He can also watch the urine
+entering the bladder by the openings of the ureters, and determine
+from which kidney blood or pus is coming.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>treatment</i> of stone in the bladder is governed by various
+conditions. Speaking generally, the surgeon prefers to introduce
+a lithotrite and crush the stone into small fragments, and then
+to flush out the fragments by using a full-sized, hollow metal
+catheter and an india-rubber wash-bottle. Even in children
+this operation may generally be adopted with success, the stone
+being crushed to atoms and the fragments being washed out to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page29" id="page29"></a>29</span>
+the last small chip. But if the stone is a very hard one (as are
+some of the oxalate of lime calculi), or if it is very large, or if
+the bladder or the prostate gland is in a state of advanced
+disease, or if the urethra is not roomy enough to admit instruments
+of adequate calibre, the crushing operation (<i>lithotrity</i>)
+must be deemed unsuitable, and the stone must be removed by
+a cutting operation (<i>lithotomy</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Lithotomy</i>.&mdash;Cutting for stone has been long practised; but
+up to the beginning of the 19th century it was performed only
+by a few men, who, bolder than their contemporaries, had
+specially worked at that operation and had attained celebrity
+as skilful lithotomists. Patients went long distances to be
+operated on by them, and certain of the older surgeons, as
+William Cheselden, performed a large number of operations
+with most excellent results. The operation was by an incision
+from the perineum, and is ordinarily spoken of as <i>lateral</i> lithotomy.
+It was splendidly designed, and gave good results,
+especially in children. But it is now a thing of the past, having
+almost entirely given place to the <i>high</i> or <i>supra-pubic</i> operation.
+In the high operation the patient, being duly prepared, is placed
+upon his back and the bladder is washed out with hot boracic
+lotion, and when the lotion returns quite clean a final injection
+is made until the bladder is felt rising above the pubes. Then
+the india-rubber tube is removed from the silver catheter by
+which the injection has been made, and the end of the catheter
+is plugged by a spigot. An incision is then made in the middle
+line of the abdomen over the bladder region. The incision must
+be kept as low as possible, so that the bladder may be reached
+below the peritoneum, which, higher up, gives it an external,
+serous coat. As the bladder is approached, a good many veins
+are seen to be in the way, some of which have to be wounded.
+The bladder-wall is recognized by its coarse network of pale
+muscular fibres, through which, on each side of the middle line, a
+strong suture is passed, so that when the bladder is opened
+and the lotion comes rushing out, the opening which has been made
+into the bladder may not sink into the depths of the pelvis. A
+finger introduced into the bladder makes out the exact size and
+position of the stone, or stones, and the removal is effected
+by special forceps. Bleeding having ceased, the bladder-wound
+is partly or entirely closed by sutures and allowed to fall into
+the pelvis, the catheter having been removed. It is advisable
+to leave a drainage tube in the abdominal wound for a while,
+so that if urine leaks from the bladder-wound it may find a
+ready escape to the dressings.</p>
+
+<p><i>Litholapaxy</i>.&mdash;Lithotrity consists of two parts&mdash;the crushing
+of the stone, and the removal of the detritus. The two stages
+are now carried out at one &ldquo;sitting,&rdquo; without an interval being
+allowed between them, as was formerly the practice, and the
+term &ldquo;litholapaxy&rdquo; designates this method. The patient
+having been anaesthetized, 10 oz. of hot boracic lotion are
+injected, and the crushing instrument, the lithotrite, is then passed
+into the bladder. The lithotrite has two blades, a &ldquo;male&rdquo; and
+a &ldquo;female,&rdquo; the latter fenestrated, the former solid with its
+surface notched. When the stone is fixed between the blades the
+screw is used, and great pressure is applied evenly, gradually
+and continuously to the stone. The lithotrite is made of very
+tough steel, so that hard stones may be crushed without danger
+of the instrument breaking or bending. Care must be taken not
+to catch the bladder-wall with the lithotrite. This danger is
+avoided by raising the point of the lithotrite immediately after
+grasping the stone and before crushing. The stone breaks into
+two or more pieces, and these fragments must be crushed, one
+by one, until they are powdered fine enough to escape by the
+large evacuating catheter. If the stone be large and hard, half
+an hour or longer may be required to crush it sufficiently fine.
+When the surgeon fails to catch any more large pieces, the
+presumption is that the stone has been thoroughly broken up.
+The lithotrite is then withdrawn and the detritus is washed out
+by an &ldquo;aspirator,&rdquo; which consists of a stiff elastic ball which is
+connected with a trap, into which fragments of stone fall so as
+not to pass out on the instrument being used at later periods in the
+operation. A large catheter, with the eye very near the end of
+the short curve, is passed into the bladder; the aspirator, full
+of boracic lotion, is attached to the catheter, and a few ounces
+of the fluid are expressed from the aspirator into the bladder by
+squeezing the rubber ball. When the pressure is taken off the
+ball, it dilates and draws the fluid out of the bladder, and with
+it some of the detritus, which falls into the trap. This is repeated
+until all the fragments have been removed. After the
+operation the patient sometimes suffers from discomfort. His
+urine should be drawn off by a soft catheter at regular intervals
+for a few days. If the pain be severe, it can generally be relieved
+by fomentations. The patient must be kept in bed after the
+operation, and in cases where the stone has been large and the
+bladder irritable, the surgeon should insist on his remaining
+there for at least a week; in those cases which go on favourably
+the patients are soon able to perform their ordinary duties.
+Fatal terminations, however, do now and again occur from suppression
+of urine, the result of the old-standing kidney disease
+which so often complicates these cases.</p>
+
+<p>To Brigade-Surgeon Lieutenant-Colonel Dennis Francis
+Keegan, of the Indian Medical Service, is due the fact that the
+operation of crushing and promptly removing all fragments of
+a vesical calculus is as well suited for boys as for men. In entire
+opposition to long-standing European prejudices, Keegan&rsquo;s
+operation is now firmly and permanently established. The old
+operation (Cheselden&rsquo;s) of cutting a stone out through the
+bottom of a boy&rsquo;s bladder is now seldom resorted to, and if a
+stone in a boy is found too large or too hard to lend itself to
+the crushing operation, it is removed by a vertical incision
+through the lower part of the anterior wall of the abdomen, as
+described above. For a successful performance of the crushing
+operation in a boy a small lithotrite has, of course, to be used,
+and it must be of the very best English make. The operation
+has to be done with the utmost gentleness and thoroughness,
+not a particle of the crushed stone being left in the bladder,
+since otherwise the piece left becomes the nucleus of a fresh stone
+and the trouble recurs.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment of vesical calculi by other means than operative
+surgery is of little value. Attempts have been made to dissolve
+them by internal remedies, or by the injection of chemical
+agents into the bladder; but, although such methods have for
+a time been apparently successful, they have invariably been
+found worthless for removing calculi once actually formed.
+Nevertheless, much can be done towards <i>preventing</i> the formation
+of calculi in those who have a tendency to their formation, by
+attention to diet, by taking proper exercise, and by the internal
+administration of drugs.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Rupture of the bladder</i> may be caused by a kick or blow over the
+upper part of the abdomen, or by a wheel passing over it; or it
+may be a complication of fracture of the pelvis. If the rupture is in
+that part of the bladder which is uncovered by the peritoneum, the
+extravasated urine may be cut down upon and let out with good
+prospect of success; but if the rupture is in the upper or hinder part
+of the bladder the urine is let loose into the general peritoneal cavity
+and sets up peritonitis, which is more than likely to prove fatal.
+If the surgeon knows that the bladder is ruptured he should operate
+at once in order to provide escape for the urine, and also to sew up
+the rent. If the possibility of the bladder being ruptured be even
+suspected, the surgeon should pass a catheter. Perhaps he draws
+off an ounce or two of blood-stained urine. This makes him doubly
+suspicious, so he injects into the bladder five, eight or ten ounces
+of warm boracic lotion, and, leaving it there for a few minutes, he
+measures the amount which he is able afterwards to withdraw; if
+he finds that a certain amount is lost he is assured that a leakage
+has taken place and he at once proceeds to operate. If only the
+diagnosis is made promptly, and the operation is at once undertaken,
+the outlook is not unfavourable. A generation or so back nearly all
+the cases of rupture of bladder ended fatally.</p>
+
+<p><i>Villous disease</i> of the bladder is innocent; that is to say, it does
+not spread to the neighbouring structures or implicate the lymphatic
+glands. The villi are slender, branched, filamentous processes which,
+springing from the floor of the bladder, float in the urine like seaweed.
+They are freely supplied with blood-vessels, so that when a piece
+of a villus is broken off there is likely to be blood in the urine. Indeed,
+painless haemorrhage is one of the characteristic features of the
+disease, and when fragments of the &ldquo;seaweed&rdquo; are found in the
+urine the diagnosis is clear. If the bladder is opened from the front,
+as already described, the villi may be nipped off by special forceps
+and the disease permanently cured.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page30" id="page30"></a>30</span> </p>
+
+<p><i>Malignant disease</i> of the bladder is almost always the warty form
+of cancer known as epithelioma. It springs as a sessile growth
+from the mucous membrane of the floor near the opening of one of
+the ureters, and, worrying the sensory nerves, causes irritability of
+the bladder and incontinence of urine. In due course septic germs
+reach the bladder, either from the urethra, the bowel, the kidneys
+or the blood-stream, and cystitis sets in. When ulceration has taken
+place, blood occurs in the urine, and the patient&mdash;generally beyond
+middle age&mdash;suffers dull or lancinating pains. Eventually the
+rectum may also be involved and the distress becomes extreme.
+The presence of the growth may be determined by sounding the
+bladder, by the cystoscope, and by the finger in the rectum. If
+the growth invades the outlet, retention of urine may occur, and the
+surgeon may be compelled to open the bladder from the front of the
+abdomen. In cases where operation is out of the question, washing
+the bladder with hot boracic lotion may give great relief. The
+treatment of cancer of the bladder by operation is, as a rule,
+unsatisfactory, because of the close proximity of the growth to the
+ureters and to the rectum. If, however, the disease were recognized
+early and had not invaded the neighbouring structures, and if it
+were upon the upper or the anterior part of the bladder, its removal
+might be hopefully undertaken.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hypertrophy and Dilatation.</i>&mdash;When there is long-continued
+obstruction to the flow of urine, as in stricture of the urethra, or
+enlargement of the prostate, the bladder-wall becomes much
+thickened, the muscular fibres increasing both in size and number;
+the condition is known as &ldquo;hypertrophy.&rdquo; Hypertrophy may be
+accompanied by dilatation of the bladder, a condition which the
+bladder may assume when the voiding of its contents is interfered
+with for a length of time.</p>
+
+<p><i>Paralysis</i> of the bladder is a want of contractile power in the
+muscular fibres of the bladder-wall. It may result from injuries
+whereby the spinal cord is lacerated or pressed upon, so that the
+micturition centre, which is situated in the lumbar region, is thrown
+out of working order. The result may be either retention or
+incontinence of urine; sometimes there is at first retention, which
+later is followed by incontinence. Paralysis is also met with in
+certain nervous diseases, as in locomotor ataxia, and in various
+cerebral lesions, as in apoplexy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Atony</i> of the bladder is a paresis or partial paralysis. It is due
+to a want of tone in the muscular fibres, and is frequently the result
+of over-distension of the bladder, such as may occur in cases of
+enlargement of the prostate. The patient is unable to empty the
+bladder, and the condition of atony gets increasingly worse.</p>
+
+<p>In both paralysis and atony the indication is carefully to
+prevent over-distension by the urine being retained too long, and
+at the same time to treat by appropriate means the cause which
+has produced or is keeping up the condition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incontinence of urine</i> may occur in the adult or in the child, but
+is due to widely different causes in the two cases. In the child it
+may be simply a bad habit, the child not having been properly
+trained; but more frequently there is a want of control in the
+micturition-centre, so that the child passes its water unwittingly,
+especially during the night. In adults it is not so much a condition
+of incontinence in the sense of water being passed against the will,
+but is a suggestion that the bladder is already full, the water which
+passes being the overflow from a too full reservoir. It is usually
+caused by an obstruction external to the bladder, <i>e.g.</i> enlarged prostate
+or stricture of the urethra; a calculus may produce the condition.
+In the child an attempt must be made to improve the tone
+of the micturition-centre by the use of belladonna or strychnine
+internally, and of a blister or faradism externally over the lumbar
+region, and every effort should be made to train the child to pass
+water at stated times and regular intervals. In the adult the cause
+which produces the over-distension must be removed if possible;
+but, as a rule, the patient has to be provided with a catheter, which
+he can pass before the bladder has filled to overflowing. A soft
+flexible catheter should be given in preference to a rigid or semi-rigid
+one. The best form is the red-rubber catheter, and he should
+be taught the need of keeping it absolutely clean. In the case of
+children incontinence of urine means irritability; in adults it means
+overflow.</p>
+
+<p>The condition termed by Sir James Paget <i>stammering micturition</i>
+is analogous to speech stammering, and occurs in those who are
+nervous and easily put out. It would seem to be due to the sphincter
+of the bladder not relaxing synchronously with the contraction of the
+detrusor, and is sometimes caused by external irritation, such as
+preputial adhesions. Occasionally not a drop of urine can be passed,
+or a little passes and then a sudden stoppage occurs; the more the
+patient strains the worse he becomes, until at last there is complete
+retention of urine. The trouble can sometimes be cured by the
+removal of irritating causes, and in these cases, as well as in those in
+which no such cause can be discovered, care should be taken to avoid
+those difficulties which have given rise to the patient&rsquo;s worst failures.
+If at any time he should fail to perform the act of micturition, he
+ought not to strain, but should quietly wait for a little before making
+any further effort. Regularity in the times of making water is also
+of much importance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Retention of urine</i> may occur in paralysis of the bladder, or in
+conditions where the patient is suffering from an illness which blunts
+the nervous sensibility, such as apoplexy, concussion of the brain,
+or typhoid fever. It is, however, more commonly due to obstruction
+anterior to the bladder, as in stricture of the urethra or enlargement
+of the prostate. The distended bladder can be felt as a rounded
+swelling above the pubes, and perhaps reaching to the level of the
+navel. Percussion over it gives a dull note. When the bladder is
+distended, it is necessary to evacuate it as soon as possible. If
+there is no obstruction to the flow of urine, the retention being due
+to atony or paralysis, a soft catheter is passed and the water drawn
+off. But when there is an obstruction which cannot be overcome,
+aspiration has to be resorted to, the needle of the aspirator being
+pushed through the abdominal wall into the bladder. The point of
+puncture in the abdominal wall is in the middle line a few inches
+above the symphysis pubis. The bladder may be emptied in this
+way very many times in the same person with only good result.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Diseases of Prostate Gland.</i></p>
+
+<p>The prostate gland may become acutely inflamed as the result
+of the backward extension of gonorrhoeal inflammation of the
+urethra; it may also be attacked by the germs of ordinary
+suppuration as well as by the bacilli of tuberculosis. A sudden
+enlargement of a large gland lying against the outlets of the
+bladder and the bowel renders micturition difficult, painful or
+impossible, and interferes with defaecation. Pressure of the
+seat of the chair upon the perineum also causes distress, so the
+man sits sideways and on the edge of the seat. If abscess forms,
+it should be incised from the perineum; if allowed to run its
+course it may burst into the bladder, the urethra or the rectum,
+and set up serious complication. The treatment of prostatitis
+(inflammation of the prostate) consists in rest in bed, sitz-baths
+and fomentations. If retention of urine takes place a soft
+catheter must be passed. In the early stage of an acute attack a
+dozen leeches upon the perineum may do good. The bowels
+must be kept freely open, and from time to time, as the pain
+demands, a morphia suppository may be introduced into the
+bowel.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Chronic prostatitis</i> is a legacy from a recent or long-past attack of
+gonorrhoea. The enlargement gives rise to a feeling of weight and
+fulness in the perineum, irritability of the bladder, and a gleety
+urethral discharge. Manual examination reveals the presence of a
+large, hard mass in front of the bladder, and in the mass there can
+often be felt softish or tender areas which seem to threaten abscess.
+On urine being passed into a glass, a cloudiness is seen, and material
+like pieces of vermicelli or broken threads may be noticed. These
+are the castings from the long tubular glands, and are characteristic
+of chronic inflammation of the prostate. The occasional passage of
+a large metal bougie, the use of weak lotions of nitrate of silver, the
+administration of quinine and iron, and the application of blisters
+to the perineum, may be tried as circumstances direct. The patient
+should lead a quiet life, free from sexual excitement. Horse-exercise,
+cycle-riding, rough games and alcohol should be avoided.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Enlargement of the prostate</i> exists in a considerable proportion
+of men of about sixty years of age and onward. It consists of an
+uncontrolled growth of the normal muscular and glandular
+tissue of the prostate, interfering with, or absolutely stopping,
+the outflow of the urine. Gently pushing the bladder upwards
+and backwards, it increases the length of the urethra, so that
+in order to draw off retained urine the catheter must be longer
+than ordinary, but inasmuch as there is no actual narrowing of
+the passage it may be of full calibre. The beak should be well
+turned up so that it may ride in front of, and surmount, the
+median enlargement. Because of the thick, ring-like mass of
+new tissue around the outlet of the bladder, there is difficulty in
+micturition, and because the muscular bladder wall is now
+unable to contract upon all its contents a certain amount of
+urine is retained. As the enlarged prostate bulges up in the
+floor of the bladder, a pouch or hollow forms behind it, from
+which the muscular wall is unable to dislodge the stagnant urine.
+This keeps up constant irritation, and if by chance the germs of
+decomposition find their way thither, cystitis sets in and the
+patient&rsquo;s condition becomes serious, not only because of the risk
+to which his tired and irritated kidneys are submitted, but
+because of the possibility of a phosphatic stone being formed in
+the bladder. The seriousness of enlargement of the prostate
+does not depend upon the size of the growth so much as upon the
+inability of the patient to empty his bladder completely.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The surgeon forms his estimate of the size of the prostate by rectal
+examination. But sometimes a patient has retention of urine from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>31</span>
+enlarged prostate, when by this method of manual examination the
+amount of increase appears quite unimportant. The explanation is
+that the enlargement is chiefly confined to a small piece of the gland
+which protrudes like a tongue into the water-way. Robert McGill of
+Leeds was the first surgeon to remove by a supra-pubic operation
+this tongue-like process of new prostatic growth. Attempts had
+sometimes been made to get rid of it by instrumentation through the
+urethra, but they had not met with much success.</p>
+
+<p>When the surgeon has made out the existence of an enlargement
+of the prostate, the next thing is to find to what extent this interferes
+with the bladder being emptied. To do this, he asks the patient to
+pass as much water as he is able, and then with due precautions
+introduces a soft catheter and measures the amount of urine which he
+thus draws off&mdash;half an ounce, an ounce, two ounces, however much
+it may be. It is this &ldquo;residual urine&rdquo; which causes the annoyance
+and the danger of enlarged prostate, and unless arrangements can
+be made for its regular withdrawal serious trouble is almost certain
+to ensue. The passing of a large catheter may have the effect of so
+opening up the water-way that, at any rate for a time, the irritability
+of the bladder may cease, in which case the patient may be instructed
+in the art of passing a catheter for himself. Or the surgeon may find
+that in addition to the regular passing of a large catheter an occasional
+washing-out of the bladder with hot boracic lotion is all that is
+needed in the way of active treatment. At the same time, however,
+the patient is placed upon a plain and wholesome diet with little or
+no alcohol, and he is instructed to lead in every respect a regular
+and quiet life. To many men with enlarged prostate the passing of
+an instrument night and morning is no great hardship, while to
+others the idea of leading what is called a &ldquo;catheter life&rdquo; appears
+intolerable, or, having for a time been patiently carried out, is found
+not only severely trying but greatly disappointing.</p>
+
+<p>In some people the very first passing of a catheter sets up a local
+and constitutional disturbance, the bladder being rendered irritable
+and intolerant, the temperature going up, and shiverings and
+perspirations manifesting themselves. This condition was formerly
+called &ldquo;catheter fever,&rdquo; and was looked upon as something mysterious
+and peculiar. It is now generally understood to be the
+result of septic inoculation of the interior of the bladder.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, in other persons the passing of the catheter is attended
+with so much difficulty, distress or bleeding, that something more
+helpful and effectual is urgently called for.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Operative Treatment.</i>&mdash;It has long been known that large
+tumours of the uterus sometimes dwindle if the ovaries are
+removed by operation, and Professor William White of Philadelphia
+thought that prostatic growths might be similarly
+influenced by the removal of the testicles. Beyond question
+considerable improvement has followed this operation in cases
+of enlargement of the prostate, especially where the enlargement
+seemed to be general, soft and vascular. A similar though
+perhaps a slower effect is produced when the duct of the testis,
+the vas deferens, is divided on each side of the body. If there
+is no great urgency about the case this treatment may well be
+tried, the bladder being all the while duly emptied by catheter
+and washed by irrigation. But if the case is urgent, there being
+difficulty or bleeding with the passing of the catheter, the
+bladder being excessively irritable and the urine foul, a more
+radical measure is needed. The best operation is that upon the
+lines laid down by Robert McGill, who opened the bladder
+through the anterior abdominal wall and removed that part of
+the prostate gland which was blocking the water-way. McGill&rsquo;s
+operation was improved upon by Eugene Fuller of New York,
+who, in 1895, published a full account of his procedure.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+Having opened the bladder from the front (as in supra-pubic lithotomy),
+he introduced his left index finger into the rectum and thrust the
+prostate gland towards the right index finger, which was then in
+the bladder. With the nail of that finger, or with the end of a
+pair of scissors, he made a rent in the mucous membrane of the
+bladder and the capsule of the gland, and then shelled out the
+mass of new tissue which had caused the prostatic enlargement.
+This operation is called &ldquo;prostatectomy,&rdquo; which means the
+removal of the prostate gland. The prostate gland, however, is
+not removed, but only a muscular and glandular mass (adenoma),
+which, growing within the prostatic capsule, encircles the
+urethra and squeezes the original gland tissue out of existence.
+Following on the lines of McGill and Fuller, P.J. Freyer has done
+excellent work in England towards placing this operation upon
+a sound basis.</p>
+
+<p>Subsequently to the operation the bladder enjoys complete
+and needful rest, and the kidneys, which previously were in a
+condition of perpetual disturbance, improve in working power.
+The wound in the bladder and in the abdominal wall gradually
+closes; the function of the bladder returns, and the patient is
+soon able to go back to his usual occupation in greatly improved
+health and vigour. The operation is, necessarily, a serious one,
+and the age of the patient, the condition of his bladder, of his
+kidneys, and of his blood-vessels, require to be taken into consideration;
+still, the operation gives an excellent account of
+itself in statistics, and if a practical surgeon advises a patient to
+accept its risks his counsel may well be followed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Malignant disease of the prostate</i> is distinguished from senile
+glandular enlargement by the rapidity of its growth, by the freeness
+of the bleeding which is associated with the introduction of a catheter,
+and by the marked wasting which the individual undergoes. Unfortunately,
+by the time that the cancerous nature of the disease is
+definitely recognized, the prospect of relief being afforded by operation
+is small.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Diseases of the Genito-urinary System</i>, by Eugene Fuller, M.D.
+(London and New York, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLADDER-WORT,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> the name given to a submerged water
+plant, <i>Utricularia vulgaris</i>, with finely divided leaves upon which
+are borne small bladders provided with trap-door entrances
+which open only inwards. Small crustaceans and other aquatic
+animals push their way into the bladders and are unable to
+escape. The products of the decay of the organisms thus
+captured are absorbed into the plant by star-shaped hairs which
+line the interior of the bladder. In this way the plant is supplied
+with nitrogenous food from the animal kingdom. Bladder-wort
+bears small, yellow, two-lipped flowers on a stem which rises above
+the surface of the water. It is found in pools and ditches in the
+British Isles, and is widely distributed in the north temperate
+zone. The genus contains about two hundred species in tropical
+and temperate regions.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:517px; height:226px" src="images/img31.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">A, Bladder of <i>Utricularia neglecta</i> (after Darwin), enlarged.
+B, stellate hairs from interior of bladder of <i>U. vulgaris</i>.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLADES, WILLIAM<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1824-1890), English printer and bibliographer,
+was born at Clapham, London, on the 5th of December
+1824. In 1840 he was apprenticed to his father&rsquo;s printing
+business in London, being subsequently taken into partnership.
+The firm was afterwards known as Blades, East &amp; Blades.
+His interest in printing led him to make a study of the volumes
+produced by Caxton&rsquo;s press, and of the early history of printing
+in England. His <i>Life and Typography of William Caxton,
+England&rsquo;s First Printer</i>, was published in 1861-1863, and the
+conclusions which he set forth were arrived at by a careful
+examination of types in the early books, each class of type being
+traced from its first use to the time when, spoilt by wear, it
+passed out of Caxton&rsquo;s hands. Some 450 volumes from the
+Caxton Press were thus carefully compared and classified in
+chronological order. In 1877 Blades took an active part in
+organizing the Caxton celebration, and strongly supported the
+foundation of the Library Association. He was a keen collector
+of old books, prints and medals. His publications relate chiefly
+to the early history of printing, the <i>Enemies of Books</i>, his most
+popular work, being produced in 1881. He died at Sutton in
+Surrey on the 27th of April 1890.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAENAVON,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Blaenafon</span>, an urban district in the northern
+parliamentary division of Monmouthshire, England, 15 m. N. by
+W. of Newport, on the Great Western, London &amp; North Western
+and Rhymney railways. Pop. (1901) 10,869. It lies in the uppermost
+part of the Afon Lwyd valley, at an elevation exceeding
+1000 ft., in a wild and mountainous district, on the eastern
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id="page32"></a>32</span>
+edge of the great coal and iron mining region of Glamorganshire
+and Monmouthshire. There are very extensive iron and steel
+works, with blast furnaces and rolling mills in the district, which
+employ the large industrial population.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAGOVYESHCHENSK,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a town of East Siberia, chief town of
+the Amur government, on the left bank of the Amur, near its
+confluence with the Zeya in 50° 15&prime; N. lat. and 127° 38&prime; E. long.,
+610 m. by river above Khabarovsk. Founded in 1856, the town
+had, in 1900, 37,368 inhabitants, and is the seat of the bishop of
+Amur and Kamchatka. There are steam flour-mills and ironworks.
+It is a centre for tea exported to Russia, cattle brought
+from Transbaikalia and Mongolia for the Amur, and for grain.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAIKIE, WILLIAM GARDEN<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1820-1899), Scottish divine,
+was born on the 5th of February 1820, at Aberdeen, where his
+father had been the first provost of the reformed corporation.
+After studying at the Marischal College, where Alexander Bain
+and David Masson were among his contemporaries, he went in
+1839 to Edinburgh to complete his theological course under
+Thomas Chalmers. In 1842 he was presented to the living of
+Drumblade by Lord Kintore, with whose family he was connected.
+The Disruption controversy reached its climax immediately
+afterwards, and Blaikie, whose sympathies were entirely
+with Chalmers, was one of the 474 ministers who signed the deed
+of demission and gave up their livings. He was Free Church
+minister at Pilrig, between Edinburgh and Leith, from 1844 to
+1868. Keenly interested in questions of social reform, his first
+publication was a pamphlet, which was afterwards enlarged into
+a book called <i>Better Days for Working People</i>. It received public
+commendation from Lord Brougham, and 60,000 copies were
+sold. He formed an association for providing better homes for
+working people, and the Pilrig Model Buildings were erected.
+He also undertook the editorship of the <i>Free Church Magazine</i>,
+and then that of the <i>North British Review</i>, which he carried on
+until 1863. In 1864 he was asked to undertake the Scottish
+editorship of the <i>Sunday Magazine</i>, and for this magazine much
+of his most characteristic literary work was done, especially in
+the editorial notes, then a new feature in magazine literature.</p>
+
+<p>In 1868 Blaikie was called to the chair of apologetics and
+pastoral theology at New College, Edinburgh. In dealing with
+the latter subject he was seen at his very best. He had
+wide experience, a comprehensive grasp of facts, abundant
+sympathy, an extensive knowledge of men, and a great capacity
+for teaching. In 1870 he was one of two representatives chosen
+from the Free Church of Scotland to attend the united general
+assembly of the Presbyterian churches of the United States.
+He prolonged his visit to make a thorough acquaintance with
+American Presbyterianism, and this, followed by a similar tour
+in Europe, fitted him to become the real founder of the Presbyterian
+Alliance. Much of his strength in the later years of life
+was given to this work. In 1892 he was elected to the chairmanship
+of the general assembly, the last of the moderators who had
+entered the church before the disruption. In 1897 he resigned
+his professorship, and died on the 11th of June 1899.</p>
+
+<p>Blaikie was an ardent philanthropist, and an active and
+intelligent temperance reformer, in days when this was far from
+easy. He raised £14,000 for the relief of the Waldensian churches.
+Although he took an active part in the affairs of his denomination,
+he was not a mere ecclesiastic. He had a keen eye for the
+evidences of spiritual growth or decline, and emphasized the need
+of maintaining a high level of spiritual life. He welcomed
+Moody to Scotland, and the evangelist made his headquarters
+with him during his first visit. His best books are <i>The Work
+of the Ministry&mdash;A Manual of Homiletic and Pastoral Theology</i>
+(1873); <i>The Books of Samuel</i> in the <i>Expositors&rsquo; Bible Series</i>
+(2 vols.); <i>The Personal Life of David Livingstone</i> (1880);
+<i>After Fifty Years</i> (1893), an account of the Disruption Movement
+in the form of letters of a grandfather; <i>Thomas Chalmers</i>
+(1896).</p>
+<div class="author">(D. Mn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1830-1893), American statesman,
+was born in West Brownsville, Pennsylvania, on the 31st of
+January 1830, of sturdy Scottish-Irish stock on the side of his
+father. He was the great-grandson of Colonel Ephraim Blaine
+(1741-1804), who during the War of Independence served in
+the American army, from 1778 to 1782 as commissary-general
+of the Northern Department. With many early evidences of
+literary capacity and political aptitude, J.G. Blaine graduated
+at Washington College in Washington, Pennsylvania, in 1847,
+and subsequently taught successively in the Military Institute,
+Georgetown, Kentucky, and in the Institution for the Blind at
+Philadelphia. During this period, also, he studied law. Settling
+in Augusta, Maine, in 1854, he became editor of the <i>Kennebec
+Journal</i>, and subsequently of the <i>Portland Advertiser</i>. But his
+editorial work was soon abandoned for a more active public
+career. He was elected to the lower house of the state legislature
+in 1858, and served four years, the last two as speaker. He also
+became chairman of the Republican state committee in 1859, and
+for more than twenty years personally directed every campaign of
+his party.</p>
+
+<p>In 1862 he was elected to Congress, serving in the House
+thirteen years (December 1863 to December 1876), followed by a
+little over four years in the Senate. He was chosen speaker of the
+House in 1869 and served three terms. The House was the fit
+arena for his political and parliamentary ability. He was a ready
+and powerful debater, full of resource, and dexterous in controversy.
+The tempestuous politics of the war and reconstruction
+period suited his aggressive nature and constructive talent. The
+measures for the rehabilitation of the states that had seceded
+from the Union occupied the chief attention of Congress for
+several years, and Blaine bore a leading part in framing and
+discussing them. The primary question related to the basis of
+representation upon which they should be restored to their full
+rank in the political system. A powerful section contended that
+the basis should be the body of legal voters, on the ground that
+the South could not then secure an increment of political power
+on account of the emancipated blacks unless these blacks were
+admitted to political rights. Blaine, on the other hand, contended
+that representation should be based on population instead
+of voters, as being fairer to the North, where the ratio of voters
+varied widely, and he insisted that it should be safeguarded by
+security for impartial suffrage. This view prevailed, and the
+Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution was substantially
+Blaine&rsquo;s proposition. In the same spirit he opposed a scheme of
+military governments for the southern states, unless associated
+with a plan by which, upon the acceptance of prescribed conditions,
+they could release themselves from military rule and
+resume civil government. He was the first in Congress to oppose
+the claim, which gained momentary and widespread favour in
+1867, that the public debt, pledged in coin, should be paid in
+greenbacks. The protection of naturalized citizens who, on
+return to their native land, were subject to prosecution on
+charges of disloyalty, enlisted his active interest and support, and
+the agitation, in which he was conspicuous, led to the treaty of
+1870 between the United States and Great Britain, which placed
+adopted and native citizens on the same footing.</p>
+
+<p>As the presidential election of 1876 approached, Blaine was
+clearly the popular favourite of his party. His chance for
+securing the nomination, however, was materially lessened by
+persistent charges which were brought against him by the
+Democrats that as a member of Congress he had been guilty of
+corruption in his relations with the Little Rock &amp; Fort Smith and
+the Northern Pacific railways.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> By the majority of Republicans,
+at least, he was considered to have cleared himself completely,
+and in the Republican national convention he missed by only
+twenty-eight votes the nomination for president, being finally
+beaten by a combination of the supporters of all the other
+candidates. Thereupon he entered the Senate, where his activity
+was unabated. Currency legislation was especially prominent.
+Blaine, who had previously opposed greenback inflation now
+resisted depreciated silver coinage. He was the earnest champion
+of the advancement of American shipping, and advocated
+liberal subsidies, insisting that the policy of protection should be
+applied on sea as well as on land. The Republican national
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>33</span>
+convention of 1880, divided between the two nearly equal forces
+of Blaine and General U.S. Grant&mdash;John Sherman of Ohio also
+having a considerable following&mdash;struggled through thirty-six
+ballots, when the friends of Blaine, combining with those of
+Sherman, succeeded in nominating General James A. Garfield.
+In the new administration Blaine became secretary of state, but,
+owing to the assassination of President Garfield and the reorganization
+of the cabinet by President Chester A. Arthur, he
+held the office only until December 1881. His brief service was
+distinguished by several notable steps. In order to promote the
+friendly understanding and co-operation of the nations on the
+American continents he projected a Pan-American congress,
+which, after being arranged for, was frustrated by his retirement.
+He also sought to secure a modification of the Clayton-Bulwer
+treaty, and in an extended correspondence with the British
+government strongly asserted the policy of an exclusive American
+control of any isthmian canal which might be built to connect the
+Atlantic and Pacific oceans.</p>
+
+<p>With undiminished hold on the imagination and devotion of
+his followers he was nominated for president in 1884. After a
+heated canvass, in which he made a series of brilliant speeches,
+he was beaten by a narrow margin in New York. By many,
+including Blaine himself, the defeat was attributed to the effect
+of a phrase, &ldquo;Rum, Romanism and Rebellion,&rdquo; used by a
+clergyman, Rev. Samuel D. Burchard (1812-1891), on the 29th
+of October 1884, in Blaine&rsquo;s presence, to characterize what, in his
+opinion, the Democratic party stood for. The phrase was not
+Blaine&rsquo;s, but his opponents made use of it to misrepresent his
+attitude toward the Roman Catholics, large numbers of whom
+are supposed, in consequence, to have withdrawn their support.
+Refusing to be a presidential candidate in 1888, he became
+secretary of state under President Harrison, and resumed his
+work which had been interrupted nearly eight years before. The
+Pan-American congress, then projected, now met in Washington,
+and Blaine, as its master spirit, presided over and guided its
+deliberation through its session of five months. Its most important
+conclusions were for reciprocity in trade, a continental
+railway and compulsory arbitration in international complications.
+Shaping the tariff legislation for this policy, Blaine negotiated a
+large number of reciprocity treaties which augmented the commerce
+of his country. He upheld American rights in Samoa,
+pursued a vigorous diplomacy with Italy over the lynching of
+eleven Italians, all except three of them American naturalized
+citizens, in New Orleans on the 14th of May 1891, held a firm
+attitude during the strained relations between the United States
+and Chile (growing largely out of the killing and wounding of
+American sailors of the U.S. ship &ldquo;Baltimore&rdquo; by Chileans in
+Valparaiso on the 16th of October 1891), and carried on with
+Great Britain a resolute controversy over the seal fisheries of
+Bering Sea,&mdash;a difference afterwards settled by arbitration. He
+resigned on the 4th of June 1892, on the eve of the meeting of the
+Republican national convention, wherein his name was ineffectually
+used, and he died at Washington, D.C., on the 27th of
+January 1803.</p>
+
+<p>During his later years of leisure he wrote <i>Twenty Years of
+Congress</i> (1884-1886), a brilliant historical work in two volumes.
+Of singularly alert faculties, with a remarkable knowledge of the
+men and history of his country, and an extraordinary memory,
+his masterful talent for politics and state-craft, together with
+his captivating manner and engaging personality, gave him, for
+nearly two decades, an unrivalled hold upon the fealty and
+affection of his party.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Biography of James G. Blaine</i> (Norwich, Conn., 1895) by
+Mary Abigail Dodge (&ldquo;Gail Hamilton&rdquo;), and, in the &ldquo;American
+Statesmen Series,&rdquo; <i>James G. Blaine</i> (Boston, 1905) by C.E. Stanwood;
+also Mrs Blaine&rsquo;s <i>Letters</i> (1908).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. E. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This attack led to a dramatic scene in the House, in which Blaine
+fervidly asseverated his denial.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAINVILLE, HENRI MARIE DUCROTAY DE<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1777-1850),
+French naturalist, was born at Arques, near Dieppe, on the
+12th of September 1777. About 1796 he went to Paris to study
+painting, but he ultimately devoted himself to natural history,
+and attracted the attention of Baron Cuvier, for whom he
+occasionally lectured at the Collège de France and at the
+Athenaeum. In 1812 he was aided by Cuvier to obtain the chair
+of anatomy and zoology in the Faculty of Sciences at Paris, but
+subsequently an estrangement grew up between the two men
+and ended in open enmity. In 1825 Blainville was admitted
+a member of the Academy of Sciences; and in 1830 he was
+appointed to succeed J.B. Lamarck in the chair of natural
+history at the museum. Two years later, on the death of Cuvier,
+he obtained the chair of comparative anatomy, which he continued
+to occupy for the space of eighteen years, proving himself
+no unworthy successor to his great teacher. He died at
+Paris on the 1st of May 1850. Besides many separate memoirs,
+he was the author of <i>Prodrome d&rsquo;une nouvelle distribution méthodique
+du règne animal</i> (1816); <i>Ostéographic ou description
+iconographique comparée du squelette, &amp;c.</i> (1839-1864); <i>Faune
+française</i> (1821-1830); <i>Corns de physiologie générale et comparée</i>
+(1833); <i>Manuel de malacologie et de conchyliologie</i> (1825-1827);
+<i>Histoire des sciences de l&rsquo;organisme</i> (1845).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAIR, FRANCIS PRESTON<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (1791-1876), American journalist
+and politician, was born at Abingdon, Virginia, on the 12th
+of April 1791. He removed to Kentucky, graduated at Transylvania
+University in 1811, took to journalism, and was a
+contributor to Amos Kendall&rsquo;s paper, the <i>Argus</i>, at Frankfort.
+In 1830, having become an ardent follower of Andrew
+Jackson, he was made editor of the Washington <i>Globe</i>, the
+recognized organ of the Jackson party. In this capacity, and
+as a member of Jackson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Kitchen Cabinet,&rdquo; he long exerted
+a powerful influence; the <i>Globe</i> was the administration organ
+until 1841, and the chief Democratic organ until 1845; Blair
+ceased to be its editor in 1849. In 1848 he actively supported
+Martin Van Buren, the Free Soil candidate, for the presidency,
+and in 1852 he supported Franklin Pierce, but soon afterwards
+helped to organize the new Republican party, and presided
+at its preliminary convention at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in
+February 1856. He was influential in securing the nomination
+of John C. Frémont at the June convention (1856), and of
+Abraham Lincoln in 1860. After Lincoln&rsquo;s re-election in 1864
+Blair thought that his former close personal relations with the
+Confederate leaders might aid in bringing about a cessation of
+hostilities, and with Lincoln&rsquo;s consent went unofficially to
+Richmond and induced President Jefferson Davis to appoint commissioners
+to confer with representatives of the United States.
+This resulted in the futile &ldquo;Hampton Roads Conference&rdquo; of the
+3rd of February 1865 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lincoln, Abraham</a></span>). After the Civil
+War Blair became a supporter of President Johnson&rsquo;s reconstruction
+policy, and eventually rejoined the Democratic party.
+He died at Silver Spring, Maryland, on the 18th of October 1876.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Montgomery Blair</span> (1813-1883), politician and
+lawyer, was born in Franklin county, Kentucky, on the 10th of
+May 1813. He graduated at West Point in 1835, but, after a
+year&rsquo;s service in the Seminole War, left the army, studied law,
+and began practice at St Louis, Missouri. After serving as
+United States district attorney (1839-1843), as mayor of St
+Louis (1842-1843), and as judge of the court of common pleas
+(1843-1849), he removed to Maryland (1852), and devoted
+himself to law practice principally in the Federal supreme court.
+He was United States solicitor in the court of claims from 1855
+until 1858, and was associated with George T. Curtis as counsel
+for the plaintiff in the Dred Scott case in 1857. In 1860 he took
+an active part in the presidential campaign in behalf of Lincoln,
+in whose cabinet he was postmaster-general from 1861 until
+September 1864, when he resigned as a result of the hostility
+of the Radical Republican faction, who stipulated that Blair&rsquo;s
+retirement should follow the withdrawal of Frémont&rsquo;s name as
+a candidate for the presidential nomination in that year. Under
+his administration such reforms and improvements as the
+establishment of free city delivery, the adoption of a money
+order system, and the use of railway mail cars were instituted&mdash;the
+last having been suggested by George B. Armstrong
+(d. 1871), of Chicago, who from 1869 until his death was general
+superintendent of the United States railway mail service.
+Differing from the Republican party on the reconstruction policy,
+Blair gave his adherence to the Democratic party after the Civil
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" id="page34"></a>34</span>
+War. He died at Silver Spring, Maryland, on the 27th of July
+1883.</p>
+
+<p>Another son, <span class="sc">Francis Preston Blair</span>, jun. (1821-1875),
+soldier and political leader, was born at Lexington, Kentucky,
+on the 19th of February 1821. After graduating at Princeton
+in 1841 he practised law in St Louis, and later served in the
+Mexican War. He was ardently opposed to the extension of
+slavery and supported Martin Van Buren, the Free Soil candidate
+for the presidency in 1848. He served from 1852 to 1856
+in the Missouri legislature as a Free Soil Democrat, in 1856
+joined the Republican party, and in 1857-1860 and 1861-1862
+was a member of Congress, where he proved an able debater.
+Immediately after South Carolina&rsquo;s secession, Blair, believing
+that the southern leaders were planning to carry Missouri into
+the movement, began active efforts to prevent it and personally
+organized and equipped a secret body of 1000 men to be ready
+for the emergency. When hostilities became inevitable, acting
+in conjunction with Captain (later General) Nathaniel Lyon,
+he suddenly transferred the arms in the Federal arsenal at
+St Louis to Alton, Illinois, and a few days later (May 10, 1861)
+surrounded and captured a force of state guards which had
+been stationed at Camp Jackson in the suburbs of St Louis with
+the intention of seizing the arsenal. This action gave the Federal
+cause a decisive initial advantage in Missouri. Blair was promoted
+brigadier-general of volunteers in August 1862 and a
+major-general in November 1862. In Congress as chairman of
+the important military affairs committee his services were of
+the greatest value. He commanded a division in the Vicksburg
+campaign and in the fighting about Chattanooga, and was one of
+Sherman&rsquo;s corps commanders in the final campaigns in Georgia
+and the Carolinas. In 1866 like his father and brother he
+opposed the Congressional reconstruction policy, and on that
+issue left the Republican party. In 1868 he was the Democratic
+candidate for vice-president on the ticket with Horatio
+Seymour. In 1871-1873 he was a United States senator from
+Missouri. He died in St Louis, on the 8th of July 1875.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAIR, HUGH<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1718-1800), Scottish Presbyterian divine,
+was born on the 7th of April 1718, at Edinburgh, where his
+father was a merchant. Entering the university in 1730 he
+graduated M.A. in 1739; his thesis, <i>De Fundamentis et Obligations
+Legis Naturae</i>, contains an outline of the moral principles
+afterwards unfolded in his sermons. He was licensed to preach
+in 1741, and a few months later the earl of Leven, hearing of his
+eloquence, presented him to the parish of Collessie in Fife. In
+1743 he was elected to the second charge of the Canongate church,
+Edinburgh, where he ministered until removed to Lady Yester&rsquo;s,
+one of the city churches, in 1754. In 1757 the university of
+St Andrews conferred on him the degree of D.D., and in the
+following year he was promoted to the High Church, Edinburgh,
+the most important charge in Scotland. In 1759 he began,
+under the patronage of Lord Kames, to deliver a course of
+lectures on composition, the success of which led to the foundation
+of a chair of rhetoric and <i>belles lettres</i> in the Edinburgh University.
+To this chair he was appointed in 1762, with a salary of £70 a
+year. Having long taken interest in the Celtic poetry of the
+Highlands, he published in 1763 a laudatory <i>Dissertation</i> on
+Macpherson&rsquo;s <i>Ossian</i>, the authenticity of which he maintained.
+In 1777 the first volume of his <i>Sermons</i> appeared. It was
+succeeded by four other volumes, all of which met with the
+greatest success. Samuel Johnson praised them warmly, and
+they were translated into almost every language of Europe.
+In 1780 George III. conferred upon Blair a pension of £200 a
+year. In 1783 he retired from his professorship and published
+his <i>Lectures on Rhetoric</i>, which have been frequently reprinted.
+He died on the 27th of December 1800. Blair belonged to the
+&ldquo;moderate&rdquo; or latitudinarian party, and his <i>Sermons</i> have
+been criticized as wanting in doctrinal definiteness. His works
+display little originality, but are written in a flowing and
+elaborate style. He is remembered chiefly by the place he fills
+in the literature of his time. <i>Blair&rsquo;s Sermons</i> is a typical religious
+book of the period that preceded the Anglican revival.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Hall, <i>Account of Life and Writings of Hugh Blair</i> (1807).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAIR, JAMES<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1656-1743), American divine and educationalist,
+was born in Scotland, probably at Edinburgh, in 1656.
+He graduated M.A. at Edinburgh University in 1673, was
+beneficed in the Episcopal Church in Scotland, and for a time
+was rector of Cranston Parish in the diocese of Edinburgh. In
+1682 he left Scotland for England, and three years later was sent
+by the bishop of London, Henry Compton, as a missionary to
+Virginia. He soon gained great influence over the colonists both
+in ecclesiastical and in civil affairs, and, according to Prof. Moses
+Coit Tyler, &ldquo;probably no other man in the colonial time did so
+much for the intellectual life of Virginia.&rdquo; He was the minister
+of Henrico parish from 1685 until 1694, of the Jamestown church
+from 1694 until 1710, and of Bruton church at Williamsburg
+from 1710 until his death. From 1689 until his death he was the
+commissary of the bishop of London for Virginia, the highest
+ecclesiastical position in the colony, his duties consisting &ldquo;in
+visiting the parishes, correcting the lives of the clergy, and
+keeping them orderly.&rdquo; In 1693, by the appointment of King
+William III., he became a member of the council of Virginia,
+of which he was for many years the president. Largely because
+of charges brought against them by Blair, Governor Sir Edmund
+Andros, Lieutenant-governor Francis Nicholson, and Lieutenant-governor
+Alexander Spotswood were removed in 1698, 1705 and
+1722 respectively. Blair&rsquo;s greatest service to the colony was
+rendered as the founder, and the president from 1693 until his
+death, of the College of William and Mary, for which he himself
+secured a charter in England. &ldquo;Thus, James Blair may be
+called,&rdquo; says Tyler, &ldquo;the creator of the healthiest and most
+extensive intellectual influence that was felt in the Southern
+group of colonies before the Revolution.&rdquo; He died on the 18th
+of April 1743, and was buried at Jamestown, Va. He published
+a collection of 117 discourses under the title <i>Our Saviour&rsquo;s
+Divine Sermon on the Mount</i> (4 vols., 1722; second edition, 1732),
+and, in collaboration with Henry Hartwell and Edward Chilton,
+a work entitled <i>The Present State of Virginia and the College</i>
+(1727; written in 1693), probably the best account of the
+Virginia of that time.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Daniel E. Motley&rsquo;s <i>Life of Commissary James Blair</i> (Baltimore,
+1901; series xix. No. 10, of the Johns Hopkins University Studies
+in Historical and Political Science), and, for a short sketch and an
+estimate, M.C. Tyler&rsquo;s <i>A History of American Literature, 1607-1765</i>
+(New York, 1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAIR, ROBERT<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1699-1746), Scottish poet, eldest son of
+the Rev. Robert Blair, one of the king&rsquo;s chaplains, was born at
+Edinburgh in 1699. He was educated at Edinburgh University
+and in Holland, and in 1731 was appointed to the living of
+Athelstaneford in East Lothian. He married in 1738 Isabella,
+daughter of Professor William Law. The possession of a small
+fortune gave him leisure for his favourite pursuits, gardening
+and the study of English poets. He died at Athelstaneford on
+the 4th of February 1746. His only considerable work, <i>The
+Grave</i> (1743), is a poem written in blank verse of great vigour
+and freshness, and is much less conventional than its gloomy
+subject might lead one to expect. Its religious subject no doubt
+contributed to its great popularity, especially in Scotland; but
+the vogue it attained was justified by its picturesque imagery
+and occasional felicity of expression. It inspired William Blake
+to undertake a series of twelve illustrative designs, which were
+engraved by Louis Schiavonetti, and published in 1808.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the biographical introduction prefixed to his <i>Poetical Works</i>,
+by Dr Robert Anderson, in his <i>Poets of Great Britain</i>, vol. viii.
+(1794.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAIR ATHOLL<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (Gaelic <i>blair</i>, &ldquo;a plain&rdquo;), a village and
+parish of Perthshire, Scotland, 35¼ m. N.W. of Perth by the
+Highland railway. Pop. (1901) 367; of parish, 1722. It is
+situated at the confluence of the Tilt and the Garry. The oldest
+part of Blair Castle, a seat of the duke of Atholl, dates from
+1269; as restored and enlarged in 1869-1872 from the plans of
+David Bryce, R.S.A., it is a magnificent example of the Scottish
+baronial style. It was occupied by the marquess of Montrose
+prior to the battle of Tippermuir in 1644, stormed by the Cromwellians
+in 1653, and garrisoned on behalf of James II. in 1689.
+The Young Pretender stayed in it in 1743, and the duke of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" id="page35"></a>35</span>
+Cumberland in 1746. The body of Viscount Dundee, conveyed
+hither from the battlefield of Killiecrankie, was buried in the
+church of Old Blair, in which a monument was erected to his
+memory in 1889 by the 7th duke of Atholl. The grounds
+surrounding the castle are among the most beautiful in the
+Highlands. A golf course has been laid down south-east of the
+village, between the railway and the Garry, and every September
+a great display of Highland games is held. Ben-y-gloe (3671 ft.
+high), the scene of the hunt given in 1529 by the earl of Atholl
+in honour of James V. and the queen dowager, may be climbed
+by way of Fender Burn, a left-hand tributary of the Tilt. The
+falls of Fender, near the old bridge of Tilt, are eclipsed by the
+falls of Bruar, 4 m. west of Blair Atholl, formed by the Bruar,
+which, rising in Ben Dearg (3304 ft.), flows into the Garry after
+an impetuous course of 10 m.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAIRGOWRIE,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland,
+situated on the Ericht. Pop. (1901) 3378. It is the terminus
+of a branch line of the Caledonian railway from Coupar Angus,
+from which it is 4¾ m. distant, and is 16 m. N. by E. of Perth by
+road. The town is entirely modern, and owes its progress to the
+water-power supplied by the Ericht for linen and jute factories.
+There are also sawmills, breweries and a large factory for bee
+appliances. Strawberries, raspberries and other fruits are
+largely grown in the neighbourhood. A park was presented to
+the town in 1892. On the left bank of the Ericht, opposite
+Blairgowrie, with which it is connected by a four-arched bridge,
+stands the town and police burgh of Rattray (pop. 2019), where
+there are flax and jute mills. Donald Cargill the Covenanter,
+who was executed at Edinburgh, was a native of the parish.
+Four miles west of Blairgowrie, on the coach road to Dunkeld, lies
+Loch Clunie, of some interest historically. On a crannog in the
+lake are the ruins of a small castle which belonged to James
+(&ldquo;the Admirable&rdquo;) Crichton, and the large mound near the loch
+was the site of the castle in which Edward I. lodged on one of his
+Scottish expeditions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAKE, EDWARD<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1833-&emsp;&emsp;), Irish-Canadian statesman,
+eldest son of William Hume Blake of Cashel Grove, Co. Galway,
+who settled in Canada in 1832, and there became a distinguished
+lawyer and chancellor of Ontario, was born on the 13th of
+October 1833 at Adelaide in Middlesex county, Ontario. Educated
+at Upper Canada College and the university of Toronto,
+Blake was called to the bar in 1856 and quickly obtained a good
+practice, becoming Q.C. in 1864. In 1867 he was elected member
+for West Durham in the Dominion parliament, and for South
+Bruce in the provincial legislature, in which he became leader
+of the Liberal opposition two years later. On the defeat of John
+Sandfield Macdonald&rsquo;s government in 1871 Blake became prime
+minister of Ontario, but resigned this office the same year in
+consequence of the abolition of dual representation. He declined
+the leadership of the Liberal party in the Dominion parliament,
+but, having taken an active part in bringing about the overthrow
+of Sir John Macdonald&rsquo;s ministry in 1873, joined the Liberal
+cabinet of Alexander Mackenzie, though without portfolio or
+salary. Impaired health soon compelled him to resign, and to
+take the voyage to Europe; on his return in 1875 he rejoined
+the cabinet as minister of justice, in which office it fell to him to
+take the chief part in framing the constitution of the supreme
+court of Canada. Continued ill-health compelled him in 1877
+again to seek rest in Europe, having first exchanged the portfolio
+of justice for the less exacting office of president of the council.
+During his absence the Liberal government was driven from
+power by the elections of 1878; and Blake himself, having
+failed to secure re-election, was for a short time without a seat
+in parliament. From 1880 to 1887 he was leader of the opposition,
+being succeeded on his resignation of the position in the latter
+year by Mr (afterwards Sir) Wilfrid Laurier. In 1892 he became
+a member of the British House of Commons as an Irish Nationalist,
+being elected for South Longford. But he did not fulfil the
+expectations which had been formed on the strength of his
+colonial reputation; he took no very prominent part in debate,
+and gave little evidence of his undoubted oratorical gifts. In
+1907 he retired from public life. In 1858 he had married
+Margaret, daughter of Benjamin Cronyn, first bishop of
+Huron.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See John Charles Dent, <i>The Last Forty Years: Canada Since the
+Union of 1841</i> (2 vols., Toronto, 1881); J.S. Willison, <i>Sir Wilfrid
+Laurier and the Liberal Party</i> (2 vols., London, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAKE, ROBERT<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1509-1657), English parliamentarian and
+admiral, was born at Bridgwater in Somersetshire. The day of
+his birth is not known, but he was baptized on the 27th of
+September 1599. Blake was the eldest son of a well-to-do
+merchant, and received his early education at the grammar
+school of Bridgwater. In 1615 he was sent to Oxford, entering
+at first St Alban&rsquo;s Hall, but removing afterwards to Wadham
+College, then recently founded. He remained at the university
+till 1625, but failed to obtain any college preferment. Nothing is
+known of his life with certainty for the next fifteen years. An
+anonymous Dutch writer, in the <i>Hollandische Mercurius</i> (1652),
+represents him as saying that he had lived in Schiedam &ldquo;for five
+or six years&rdquo; in his youth. He doubtless engaged in trade, and
+apparently with success. When, after eleven years of kingship
+without parliaments, a parliament was summoned to meet in
+April 1640, Blake was elected to represent his native borough.
+This parliament, named &ldquo;the Short,&rdquo; was dissolved in three
+weeks, and the career of Blake as a politician was suspended.
+Two years later the inevitable conflict began. Blake declared
+for the Parliament, and served under Sir John Horner. In 1643
+he was entrusted with the command of one of the forts of Bristol.
+This he stoutly held during the siege of the town by Prince
+Rupert, and earned the approval of parliament by refusing to
+surrender his post till duly informed of the capitulation. In
+1644 he gained high distinction by the resolute defence of Lyme
+in Dorsetshire. The siege was raised on the 23rd of May, and on
+the 8th of July Blake took Taunton by surprise, and notwithstanding
+its imperfect defences and inadequate supplies, held the
+town for the Parliament against two sieges by the Royalists
+until July 1645, when it was relieved by Fairfax. In 1645 he
+re-entered parliament as member for Taunton, when the Royalist
+Colonel Windham was expelled.</p>
+
+<p>He adhered to the Parliamentary party after the king&rsquo;s death,
+and within a month (February 1649) was appointed, with
+Colonels Dean and Popham, to the command of the fleet, under
+the title of General of the Sea. In April he was sent in pursuit
+of Prince Rupert, who with the Royalist fleet had entered the
+harbour of Kinsale in Ireland. There he blockaded the prince
+for six months; and when the latter, in want of provisions, and
+hopeless of relief, succeeded in making his escape with the fleet
+and in reaching the Tagus, Blake followed him thither, and again
+blockaded him for some months. The king of Portugal refusing
+permission for Blake to attack his enemy, the latter made reprisals
+by falling on the Portuguese fleet, richly laden, returning
+from Brazil. He captured seventeen ships and burnt three,
+bringing his prizes home without molestation. After revictualling
+his fleet, he sailed again, captured a French man-of-war, and
+then pursued Prince Rupert, who had been asked to go away
+by the Portuguese and had entered the Mediterranean. In
+November 1650 Blake destroyed the bulk of the Royalist
+squadron near Cartagena. The thanks of parliament were voted
+to Blake, and he received a grant of £1000. He was continued
+in his office of admiral and general of the sea; and in May
+following he took, in conjunction with Ayscue, the Scilly Islands.
+For this service the thanks of parliament were again awarded
+him, and he was soon after made a member of the council of
+state.</p>
+
+<p>In 1652 war broke out with the Dutch, who had made great
+preparations for the conflict. In March the command of the
+fleet was given to Blake for nine months; and in the middle of
+May the Dutch fleet of forty-five ships, led by their great admiral
+Tromp, appeared in the Downs. Blake, who had only twenty
+ships, sailed to meet them, and the battle took place off Dover
+on the 19th of May. The Dutch were defeated in an engagement
+of four or five hours, lost two ships, and withdrew under cover
+of darkness. Attempts at accommodation were made by the
+states, but they failed. Early in July war was formally declared,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>36</span>
+and in the same month Blake captured a large part of the Dutch
+fishery-fleet and the twelve men-of-war that formed their convoy.
+On the 28th of September Blake and Penn again encountered the
+Dutch fleet, now commanded by De Ruyter and De Witt, off
+the Kentish Knock, defeated it, and chased it for two days.
+The Dutch took refuge in Goree. A third battle was fought
+near the end of November. By this time the ships under Blake&rsquo;s
+command had been reduced in number to forty, and nearly the
+half of these were useless for want of seamen. Tromp, who
+had been reinstated in command, appeared in the Downs, with
+a fleet of eighty ships besides ten fireships. Blake, nevertheless,
+risked a battle off Dungeness, but was defeated, and withdrew
+into the Thames. The English fleet having been refitted, put
+to sea again in February 1653; and on the 18th Blake, at the
+head of eighty ships, encountered Tromp in the Channel. The
+Dutch force, according to Clarendon, numbered 100 ships of
+war, but according to the official reports of the Dutch, only
+seventy. The battle was severe, and continued through three
+days, the Dutch, however, retreating, and taking refuge in the
+shallow waters off the French coast. In this action Blake was
+severely wounded. The three English admirals put to sea again
+in May; and on the 3rd and 4th of June another battle was
+fought near the North Foreland. On the first day Dean and
+Monk were repulsed by Tromp; but on the second day the scales
+were turned by the arrival of Blake, and the Dutch retreated to
+the Texel.</p>
+
+<p>Ill-health now compelled Blake to retire from the service for
+a time, and he did not appear again on the seas for about eighteen
+months; meanwhile he sat as a member of the Little Parliament
+(Barebones&rsquo;s). In November 1654 he was selected by Cromwell
+to conduct a fleet to the Mediterranean to exact compensation
+from the duke of Tuscany, the knights of Malta, and the piratical
+states of North Africa, for wrongs done to English merchants.
+This mission he executed with his accustomed spirit and with
+complete success. Tunis alone dared to resist his demands, and
+Tunis paid the penalty of the destruction of its two fortresses
+by English guns. In the winter of 1655-1656, war being declared
+against Spain, Blake was sent to cruise off Cadiz and the neighbouring
+coasts, to intercept the Spanish shipping. One of his
+captains captured a part of the Plate fleet in September 1656.
+In April 1657 Blake, then in very ill health, suffering from
+dropsy and scurvy, and anxious to have assistance in his arduous
+duties, heard that the Plate fleet lay at anchor in the bay of
+Santa Cruz, in the island of Teneriffe. The position was a very
+strong one, defended by a castle and several forts with guns.
+Under the shelter of these lay a fleet of sixteen ships drawn up
+in crescent order. Captain Stayner was ordered to enter the bay
+and fall on the fleet. This he did. Blake followed him. Broadsides
+were poured into the castle and the forts at the same time;
+and soon nothing was left but ruined walls and charred fragments
+of burnt ships. The wind was blowing hard into the bay; but
+suddenly, and fortunately for the heroic Blake, it shifted, and
+carried him safely out to sea. &ldquo;The whole action,&rdquo; says Clarendon,
+&ldquo;was so incredible that all men who knew the place
+wondered that any sober man, with what courage soever endowed,
+would ever have undertaken it; and they could hardly
+persuade themselves to believe what they had done; while
+the Spaniards comforted themselves with the belief that they
+were devils and not men who had destroyed them in such a
+manner.&rdquo; The English lost one ship and 200 men killed and
+wounded. The thanks of parliament were voted to officers and
+men; and a very costly jewel (diamond ring) was presented to
+Blake, &ldquo;as a testimony,&rdquo; says Cromwell in his letter of 10th
+June, &ldquo;of our own and the parliament&rsquo;s good acceptance of
+your carriage in this action.&rdquo; &ldquo;This was the last action of the
+brave Blake.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>After again cruising for a time off Cadiz, his health failing
+more and more, he was compelled to make homewards before
+the summer was over. He died at sea, but within sight of Plymouth,
+on the 17th of August 1657. His body was brought to
+London and embalmed, and after lying in state at Greenwich
+House was interred with great pomp and solemnity in Westminster
+Abbey. In 1661 Charles II. ordered the exhumation of Blake&rsquo;s
+body, with those of the mother and daughter of Cromwell and
+several others. They were cast out of the abbey, and were
+reburied in the churchyard of St Margaret&rsquo;s. &ldquo;But that regard,&rdquo;
+says Johnson, &ldquo;which was denied his body has been paid to his
+better remains, his name and his memory. Nor has any writer
+dared to deny him the praise of intrepidity, honesty, contempt
+of wealth, and love of his country.&rdquo; Clarendon bears the following
+testimony to his excellence as a commander:&mdash;&ldquo;He was the
+first man that declined the old track, and made it apparent that
+the science might be attained in less time than was imagined.
+He was the first man that brought ships to contemn castles on the
+shore, which had ever been thought very formidable, but were
+discovered by him to make a noise only, and to fright those who
+could be rarely hurt by them.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A life of Blake is included in the work entitled <i>Lives, English and
+Foreign</i>. Dr Johnson wrote a short life of him, and in 1852 appeared
+Hepworth Dixon&rsquo;s fuller narrative, <i>Robert Blake, Admiral and
+General at Sea</i>. Much new matter for the biography of Blake will
+be found in the <i>Letters and Papers Relating to the First Dutch War</i>,
+edited by S.R. Gardiner for the Navy Records Society (1898-1899.)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAKE, WILLIAM<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1757-1827), English poet and painter,
+was born in London, on the 28th of November 1757. His father,
+James Blake, kept a hosier&rsquo;s shop in Broad Street, Golden Square;
+and from the scanty education which the young artist received,
+it may be judged that the circumstances of the family were not
+very prosperous. For the facts of William Blake&rsquo;s early life
+the world is indebted to a little book, called <i>A Father&rsquo;s
+Memoirs on a Child</i>, written by Dr Malkin in 1806. Here we
+learn that young Blake quickly developed a taste for design,
+which his father appears to have had sufficient intelligence to
+recognize and assist by every means in his power. At the age of
+ten the boy was sent to a drawing school kept by Henry Pars
+in the Strand, and at the same time he was already cultivating
+his own taste by constant attendance at the different art sale
+rooms, where he was known as the &ldquo;little connoisseur.&rdquo; Here
+he began to collect prints after Michelangelo, and Raphael,
+Dürer and Heemskerk, while at the school in the Strand he
+had the opportunity of drawing from the antique. After four
+years of this preliminary instruction Blake entered upon another
+branch of art study. In 1777 he was apprenticed to James
+Basire, an engraver of repute, and with him he remained seven
+years. His apprenticeship had an important bearing on Blake&rsquo;s
+artistic education, and marks the department of art in which
+he was made technically proficient. In 1778, at the end of his
+apprenticeship, he proceeded to the school of the Royal Academy,
+where he continued his early study from the antique, and had
+for the first time an opportunity of drawing from the living model.</p>
+
+<p>This is in brief all that is known of Blake&rsquo;s artistic education.
+That he ever, at the academy or elsewhere, systematically
+studied painting we do not know; but that he had already
+begun the practice of water colour for himself is ascertained.
+So far, however, the course of his training in art schools, and
+under Basire, was calculated to render him proficient only as a
+draughtsman and an engraver. He had learned how to draw,
+and he had mastered besides the practical difficulties of engraving,
+and with these qualifications he entered upon his career. In 1780
+he exhibited a picture in the Royal Academy Exhibition, conjectured
+to have been executed in water colours, and he continued
+to contribute to the annual exhibitions up to the year 1808.
+In 1782 he married Catherine Boucher, the daughter of a market-gardener
+at Battersea, with whom he lived always on affectionate
+terms, and the young couple after their marriage established
+themselves in Green Street, Leicester Fields. Blake had already
+become acquainted with some of the rising artists of his time,
+amongst them Stothard, Flaxman and Fuseli, and he now began
+to see something of literary society. At the house of the Rev.
+Henry Mathew, in Rathbone Place, he used to recite and sometimes
+to sing poems of his own composition, and it was through
+the influence of this gentleman, combined with that of Flaxman,
+that Blake&rsquo;s first volume of poetry was printed and published in
+1783. From this time forward the artist came before the
+world in a double capacity. By education as well as native
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" id="page37"></a>37</span>
+talent, he was pledged to the life of a painter, and these <i>Poetical
+Sketches</i>, though they are often no more than the utterances of
+a boy, are no less decisive in marking Blake as a future
+poet.</p>
+
+<p>For a while the two gifts are exhibited in association. To
+the close of his life Blake continued to print and publish, after a
+manner of his own, the inventions of his verse illustrated by
+original designs, but there is a certain period in his career when
+the union of the two gifts is peculiarly close, and when their
+service to one another is unquestionable. In 1784 Blake, moving
+from Green Street, set up in company with a fellow-pupil, Parker,
+as print-seller and engraver next to his father&rsquo;s house in Broad
+Street, Golden Square, but in 1787 this partnership was severed,
+and he established an independent business in Poland Street.
+It was from this house, and in 1787, that the <i>Songs of Innocence</i>
+were published, a work that must always be remarkable for
+beauty both of verse and of design, as well as for the singular
+method by which the two were combined and expressed by the
+artist. Blake became in fact his own printer and publisher.
+He engraved upon copper, by a process devised by himself, both
+the text of his poems and the surrounding decorative design,
+and to the pages printed from the copper plates an appropriate
+colouring was afterwards added by hand. The poetic genius
+already discernible in the first volume of <i>Poetical Sketches</i> is
+here more decisively expressed, and some of the songs in this
+volume deserve to take rank with the best things of their kind in
+our literature. In an age of enfeebled poetic style, when Wordsworth,
+with more weighty apparatus, had as yet scarcely begun
+his reform of English versification, Blake, unaided by any contemporary
+influence, produced a work of fresh and living beauty;
+and if the <i>Songs of Innocence</i> established Blake&rsquo;s claim to the
+title of poet, the setting in which they were given to the world
+proved that he was also something more. For the full development
+of his artistic powers we have to wait till a later date,
+but here at least he exhibits a just and original understanding of
+the sources of decorative beauty. Each page of these poems
+is a study of design, full of invention, and often wrought with
+the utmost delicacy of workmanship. The artist retained to
+the end this feeling for decorative effect; but as time went on,
+he considerably enlarged the imaginative scope of his work,
+and decoration then became the condition rather than the aim
+of his labour.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the distinct and precious qualities of this
+volume, it attracted but slight attention, a fact perhaps not very
+wonderful, when the system of publication is taken into account.
+Blake, however, proceeded with other work of the same kind.
+The same year he published <i>The Book of Thel</i>, more decidedly
+mystic in its poetry, but scarcely less beautiful as a piece of
+illumination; <i>The Marriage of Heaven and Hell</i> followed in
+1790; and in 1793 there are added <i>The Gates of Paradise</i>, <i>The
+Vision of the Daughters of Albion</i>, and some other &ldquo;Prophetic
+Books.&rdquo; It becomes abundantly clear on reaching this point
+in his career that Blake&rsquo;s utterances cannot be judged by ordinary
+rules. The <i>Songs of Experience</i>, put forth in 1794 as a companion
+to the earlier <i>Songs of Innocence</i>, are for the most part intelligible
+and coherent, but in these intervening works of prophecy, as
+they were called by the author, we get the first public expression
+of that phase of his character and of his genius upon which a
+charge of insanity has been founded. The question whether
+Blake was or was not mad seems likely to remain in dispute,
+but there can be no doubt whatever that he was at different
+periods of his life under the influence of illusions for which
+there are no outward facts to account, and that much of what
+he wrote is so far wanting in the quality of sanity as to be without
+a logical coherence. On the other hand, it is equally clear that
+no madness imputed to Blake could equal that which would be
+involved in the rejection of his work on this ground. The greatness
+of Blake&rsquo;s mind is even better established than its frailty, and in
+considering the work that he has left we must remember that
+it is by the sublimity of his genius, and not by any mental defect,
+that he is most clearly distinguished from his fellows. With
+the publication of the <i>Songs of Experience</i> Blake&rsquo;s poetic career,
+so far at least as ordinary readers are concerned, may be said to
+close. A writer of prophecy he continued for many years, but
+the works by which he is best known in poetry are those earlier
+and simpler efforts, supplemented by a few pieces taken from
+various sources, some of which were of later production. But
+although Blake the poet ceases in a general sense at this date,
+Blake the artist is only just entering upon his career. In the
+<i>Songs of Innocence</i> and <i>Experience</i>, and even in some of the
+earlier <i>Books of Prophecy</i>, the two gifts worked together in
+perfect balance and harmony; but at this point the supremacy
+of the artistic faculty asserts itself, and for the remainder of his
+life Blake was pre-eminently a designer and engraver. The
+labour of poetical composition continues, but the product
+passes beyond the range of general comprehension; while, with
+apparent inconsistency, the work of the artist gains steadily in
+strength and coherence, and never to the last loses its hold upon
+the understanding. It may almost be said without exaggeration
+that his earliest poetic work, <i>The Songs of Innocence</i>, and nearly
+his latest effort in design, the illustrations to <i>The Book of Job</i>,
+take rank among the sanest and most admirable products of
+his genius. Nor is the fact, astonishing enough at first sight,
+quite beyond a possible explanation. As Blake advanced in his
+poetic career, he was gradually hindered and finally overpowered
+by a tendency that was most serviceable to him in design. His
+inclination to substitute a symbol for a conception, to make an
+image do duty for an idea, became an insuperable obstacle to
+literary success. He endeavoured constantly to treat the
+intellectual material of verse as if it could be moulded into
+sensuous form, with the inevitable result that as the ideas to
+be expressed advanced in complexity and depth of meaning,
+his poetic gifts became gradually more inadequate to the task
+of interpretation. The earlier poems dealing with simpler
+themes, and put forward at a time when the bent of the artist&rsquo;s
+mind was not strictly determined, do not suffer from this difficulty;
+the symbolism then only enriches an idea of no intellectual
+intricacy; but when Blake began to concern himself with
+profounder problems the want of a more logical understanding of
+language made itself strikingly apparent. If his ways of thought
+and modes of workmanship had not been developed with an
+intensity almost morbid, he would probably have been able to
+distinguish and keep separate the double functions of art and
+literature. As it is, however, he remains as an extreme illustration
+of the ascendancy of the artistic faculty. For this tendency to
+translate ideas into image, and to find for every thought, however
+simple or sublime, a precise and sensuous form, is of the essence
+of pure artistic invention. If this be accepted as the dominant
+bent of Blake&rsquo;s genius, it is not so wonderful that his work in
+art should have strengthened in proportion as his poetic powers
+waned; but whether the explanation satisfies all the requirements
+of the case or not, the fact remains, and cannot be overlooked
+by any student of Blake&rsquo;s career.</p>
+
+<p>In 1796 Blake was actively employed in the work of illustration.
+Edwards, a bookseller of New Bond Street, projected a new
+edition of Young&rsquo;s <i>Night Thoughts</i>, and Blake was chosen to
+illustrate the work. It was to have been issued in parts, but for
+some reason not very clear the enterprise failed, and only a
+first part, including forty-three designs, was given to the world.
+These designs were engraved by Blake himself, and they are
+interesting not only for their own merit but for the peculiar
+system by which the illustration has been associated with the
+text. It was afterwards discovered that the artist had executed
+original designs in water-colour for the whole series, and these
+drawings, 537 in number, form one of the most interesting
+records of Blake&rsquo;s genius. Gilchrist, the painter&rsquo;s biographer,
+in commenting upon the engraved plates, regrets the absence
+of colour, &ldquo;the use of which Blake so well understood, to relieve
+his simple design and give it significance,&rdquo; and an examination
+of the original water-colour drawings fully supports the justice
+of his criticism. Soon after the publication of this work Blake
+was introduced by Flaxman to the poet Hayley, and in the year
+1801 he accepted the suggestion of the latter, that he should
+take up his residence at Felpham in Sussex. The mild and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"></a>38</span>
+amiable poet had planned to write a life of Cowper, and for the
+illustration of this and other works he sought Blake&rsquo;s help and
+companionship. The residence at Felpham continued for three
+years, partly pleasant and partly irksome to Blake, but apparently
+not very profitable to the progress of his art. One of the
+annoyances of his stay was a malicious prosecution for treason
+set on foot by a common soldier whom Blake had summarily
+ejected from his garden; but a more serious drawback was the
+increasing irritation which the painter seems to have experienced
+from association with Hayley. In 1804 Blake returned to London,
+to take up his residence in South Moulton Street, and as the
+fruit of his residence in Felpham, he published, in the manner
+already described, the prophetic books called the <i>Jerusalem</i>,
+<i>The Emanation of the Giant Albion</i>, and <i>Milton</i>. The first of these
+is a very notable performance in regard to artistic invention.
+Many of the designs stand out from the text in complete independence,
+and are now and then of the very finest quality.</p>
+
+<p>In the years 1804-1805 Blake executed a series of designs
+in illustration of Robert Blair&rsquo;s <i>The Grave</i>, of much beauty and
+grandeur, though showing stronger traces of imitation of Italian
+art than any earlier production. These designs were purchased
+from the artist by an adventurous and unscrupulous publisher,
+Cromek, for the paltry sum of £21, and afterwards published in a
+series of engravings by Schiavonetti. Despite the ill treatment
+Blake received in the matter, and the other evils, including
+a quarrel with his friend Stothard as to priority of invention
+of a design illustrating the Canterbury Pilgrims, which his
+association with Cromek involved, the book gained for him a
+larger amount of popularity than he at any other time secured.
+Stothard&rsquo;s picture of the Canterbury Pilgrims was exhibited in
+1807, and in 1809 Blake, in emulation of his rival&rsquo;s success,
+having himself painted in water-colour a picture of the same
+subject, opened an exhibition, and drew up a <i>Descriptive Catalogue</i>,
+curious and interesting, and containing a very valuable criticism
+of Chaucer.</p>
+
+<p>The remainder of the artist&rsquo;s life is not outwardly eventful.
+In 1813 he formed, through the introduction of George Cumberland
+of Bristol, a valuable friendship with John Linnell and other
+rising water-colour painters. Amongst the group Blake seems
+to have found special sympathy in the society of John Varley,
+who, himself addicted to astrology, encouraged Blake to cultivate
+his gift of inspired vision; and it is probably to this influence
+that we are indebted for several curious drawings made from
+visions, especially the celebrated &ldquo;ghost of a flea&rdquo; and the very
+humorous portrait of the builder of the Pyramids. In 1821
+Blake removed to Fountain Court, in the Strand, where he died
+on the 12th of August 1827. The chief work of these last years
+was the splendid series of engraved designs in illustration of the
+book of Job. Here we find the highest imaginative qualities
+of Blake&rsquo;s art united to the technical means of expression
+which he best understood. Both the invention and the engraving
+are in all ways remarkable, and the series may fairly be cited in
+support of a very high estimate of his genius. None of his works
+is without the trace of that peculiar artistic instinct and power
+which seizes the pictorial element of ideas, simple or sublime,
+and translates them into the appropriate language of sense;
+but here the double faculty finds the happiest exercise. The
+grandeur of the theme is duly reflected in the simple and sublime
+images of the artist&rsquo;s design, and in the presence of these plates
+we are made to feel the power of the artist over the expressional
+resources of human form, as well as his sympathy with the
+imaginative significance of his subject.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A life of Blake, with selections from his works, by Alexander
+Gilchrist, was published in 1863 (new edition by W.G. Robertson,
+1906); in 1868 A.C. Swinburne published a critical essay on his
+genius, remarkable for a full examination of the Prophetic Books,
+and in 1874 William Michael Rossetti published a memoir prefixed
+to an edition of the poems. In 1893 appeared <i>The Works of William
+Blake</i>, edited by E.J. Ellis and W.B. Yeats. But for a long time
+all the editors paid too little attention to a correct following of
+Blake&rsquo;s own MSS. The text of the poems was finally edited with
+exemplary care and thoroughness by John Sampson in his edition
+of the <i>Poetical Works</i> (1905), which has rescued Blake from the
+&ldquo;improvements&rdquo; of previous editors. See also <i>The Letters of
+William Blake, together with a Life by Frederick Tatham</i>; edited
+by A.G.B. Russell (1906); and Basil de Selincourt, <i>William Blake</i>
+(1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. C. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAKELOCK, RALPH ALBERT<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1847-&emsp;&emsp;), American
+painter, was born in New York, on the 15th of October, 1847.
+He graduated at the College of the City of New York in 1867.
+In art he was self-taught and markedly original. Until ill-health
+necessitated the abandonment of his profession, he was a most
+prolific worker, his subjects including pictures of North American
+Indian life, and landscapes&mdash;notably such canvases as &ldquo;The
+Indian Fisherman&rdquo;; &ldquo;Ta-wo-koka: or Circle Dance&rdquo;;
+&ldquo;Silvery Moonlight&rdquo;; &ldquo;A Waterfall by Moonlight&rdquo;; &ldquo;Solitude&rdquo;;
+and &ldquo;Moonlight on Long Island Sound.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAKENEY, WILLIAM BLAKENEY,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1672-1761),
+British soldier, was born at Mount Blakeney in Limerick in 1672.
+Destined by his father for politics, he soon showed a decided
+preference for a military career, and at the age of eighteen headed
+the tenants in defending the Blakeney estate against the Rapparees.
+As a volunteer he went to the war in Flanders, and at
+the siege of Venlo in 1702 won his commission. He served as
+a subaltern throughout Marlborough&rsquo;s campaigns, and is said
+to have been the first to drill troops by signal of drum or colour.
+For many years after the peace of Utrecht he served unnoticed,
+and was sixty-five years of age before he became a colonel.
+This neglect, which was said to be due to the hostility of Lord
+Verney, ceased when the duke of Richmond was appointed
+colonel of Blakeney&rsquo;s regiment, and thenceforward his advance
+was rapid. Brigadier-general in the Cartagena expedition of
+1741, and major-general a little later, he distinguished himself
+by his gallant and successful defence of Stirling Castle against
+the Highlanders in 1745. Two years later George II. made him
+lieutenant-general and lieutenant-governor of Minorca. The
+governor of that island never set foot in it, and Blakeney was
+left in command for ten years.</p>
+
+<p>In 1756 the Seven Years&rsquo; War was preluded by a swift descent
+of the French on Minorca. Fifteen thousand troops under
+marshal the duc de Richelieu, escorted by a strong squadron
+under the marquis de la Gallisonnière, landed on the island on
+the 18th of April, and at once began the siege of Fort St Philip,
+where Blakeney commanded at most some 5000 soldiers and
+workmen. The defence, in spite of crumbling walls and rotted
+gun platforms, had already lasted a month when a British fleet
+under vice-admiral the Hon. John Byng appeared. La Gallisonnière
+and Byng fought, on the 20th of May, an indecisive battle,
+after which the relieving squadron sailed away and Blakeney
+was left to his fate. A second expedition subsequently appeared
+off Minorca, but it was then too late, for after a heroic resistance
+of seventy-one days the old general had been compelled to
+surrender the fort to Richelieu (April 18-June 28, 1756). Only
+the ruined fortifications were the prize of the victors. Blakeney
+and his little garrison were transported to Gibraltar with absolute
+liberty to serve again. Byng was tried and executed; Blakeney,
+on his return to England, found himself the hero of the nation.
+Rewards came freely to the veteran. He was made colonel of
+the Enniskillen regiment of infantry, knight of the Bath, and
+Baron Blakeney of Mount Blakeney in the Irish peerage. A
+little later Van Most&rsquo;s statue of him was erected in Dublin, and
+his popularity continued unabated for the short remainder of
+his life. He died on the 20th of September 1761, and was buried
+in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memoirs of General William Blakeney</i> (1757).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAKESLEY, JOSEPH WILLIAMS<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1808-1885), English
+divine, was born in London on the 6th of March 1808, and was
+educated at St Paul&rsquo;s school, London, and at Corpus Christi and
+Trinity Colleges, Cambridge. In 1831 he was elected a fellow,
+and in 1839 a tutor of Trinity. In 1833 he took holy orders, and
+from 1845 to 1872 held the college living of Ware, Hertfordshire.
+Over the signature &ldquo;Hertfordshire Incumbent&rdquo; he contributed
+a large number of letters to <i>The Times</i> on the leading social and
+political subjects of the day, and he also wrote many reviews of
+books for that paper. In 1863 he was made a canon of Canterbury,
+and in 1872 dean of Lincoln. Dean Blakesley was the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page39" id="page39"></a>39</span>
+author of the first English <i>Life of Aristotle</i> (1839), an edition of
+Herodotus (1852-1854) in the <i>Bibliotheca Classica</i>, and <i>Four
+Months in Algeria</i> (1859). He died on the 18th of April 1885.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAMIRE, SUSANNA<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1747-1794), English poet, daughter of
+a Cumberland yeoman, was born at Cardew Hall, near Dalston,
+in January 1747. Her mother died while she was a child, and she
+was brought up by her aunt, a Mrs Simpson of Thackwood, who
+sent her niece to the village school at Raughton Head. Susanna
+Blamire&rsquo;s earliest poem is &ldquo;Written in a Churchyard, on seeing
+a number of cattle grazing,&rdquo; in imitation of Gray. She lived an
+uneventful life among the farmers of the neighbourhood, and her
+gaiety and good-humour made her a favourite in rustic society.
+In 1767 her elder sister Sarah married Colonel Graham of Gartmore.
+&ldquo;An Epistle to her friends at Gartmore&rdquo; gives a playful
+description of the monotonous simplicity of her life. To her
+Perthshire visits her songs in the Scottish vernacular are no
+doubt partly due. Her chief friend was Catharine Gilpin of
+Scaleby Castle. The two ladies spent the winters together in
+Carlisle, and wrote poems in common. Susanna Blamire died
+in Carlisle on the 5th of April 1794. The poems which were not
+collected during her lifetime, were first published in 1842 by
+Henry Lonsdale as <i>The Poetical Works of Miss Susanna Blamire,
+&ldquo;the Muse of Cumberland,&rdquo;</i> with a memoir by Mr Patrick
+Maxwell. Some of her songs rank among the very best of north-country
+lyrics. &ldquo;And ye shall walk in silk attire&rdquo; and &ldquo;What
+ails this heart o&rsquo; mine,&rdquo; are well known, and were included in
+Johnson&rsquo;s <i>Scots&rsquo; Musical Museum</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANC,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Jean Joseph Charles</span>) <span class="bold">LOUIS</span> (1811-1882), French
+politician and historian, was born on the 29th of October 1811
+at Madrid, where his father held the post of inspector-general of
+finance under Joseph Bonaparte. Failing to receive aid from
+Pozzo di Borgo, his mother&rsquo;s uncle, Louis Blanc studied law in
+Paris, living in poverty, and became a contributor to various
+journals. In the <i>Revue du progrès</i>, which he founded, he published
+in 1839 his study on <i>L&rsquo;Organisation du travail</i>. The principles
+laid down in this famous essay form the key to Louis Blanc&rsquo;s
+whole political career. He attributes all the evils that afflict
+society to the pressure of competition, whereby the weaker are
+driven to the wall. He demanded the equalization of wages, and
+the merging of personal interests in the common good&mdash;&ldquo;<i>à
+chacun selon ses besoins, de chacun selon ses facultés</i>.&rdquo; This was
+to be effected by the establishment of &ldquo;social workshops,&rdquo; a sort
+of combined co-operative society and trade-union, where the
+workmen in each trade were to unite their efforts for their
+common benefit. In 1841 he published his <i>Histoire de dix ans
+1830-1840</i>, an attack upon the monarchy of July. It ran through
+four editions in four years.</p>
+
+<p>In 1847 he published the two first volumes of his <i>Histoire de la
+Revolution Française</i>. Its publication was interrupted by the
+revolution of 1848, when Louis Blanc became a member of the
+provisional government. It was on his motion that, on the 25th
+of February, the government undertook &ldquo;to guarantee the
+existence of the workmen by work&rdquo;; and though his demand
+for the establishment of a ministry of labour was refused&mdash;as
+beyond the competence of a provisional government&mdash;he was
+appointed to preside over the government labour commission
+(<i>Commission du Gouvernement pour les travailleurs</i>) established
+at the Luxembourg to inquire into and report on the labour
+question. On the 10th of May he renewed, in the National
+Assembly, his proposal for a ministry of labour, but the temper
+of the majority was hostile to socialism, and the proposal was
+again rejected. His responsibility for the disastrous experiment
+of the national workshops he himself denied in his <i>Appel aux
+honnêtes gens</i> (Paris, 1849), written in London after his flight;
+but by the insurgent mob of the 15th of May and by the victorious
+Moderates alike he was regarded as responsible. Between the
+<i>sansculottes</i>, who tried to force him to place himself at their head,
+and the national guards, who maltreated him, he was nearly done
+to death. Rescued with difficulty, he escaped with a false
+passport to Belgium, and thence to London; in his absence he
+was condemned by the special tribunal established at Bourges,
+<i>in contumaciam</i>, to deportation. Against trial and sentence he
+alike protested, developing his protest in a series of articles in the
+<i>Nouveau Monde</i>, a review published in Paris under his direction.
+These he afterwards collected and published as <i>Pages de l&rsquo;histoire
+de la revolution de 1848</i> (Brussels, 1850).</p>
+
+<p>During his stay in England he made use of the unique collection
+of materials for the revolutionary period preserved at the
+British Museum to complete his <i>Histoire de la Révolution Française</i>
+12 vols. (1847-1862). In 1858 he published a reply to Lord
+Normanby&rsquo;s <i>A Year of Revolution in Paris</i> (1858), which he
+developed later into his <i>Histoire de la révolution de 1848</i> (2 vols.,
+1870-1880). As far back as 1839 Louis Blanc had vehemently
+opposed the idea of a Napoleonic restoration, predicting that it
+would be &ldquo;despotism without glory,&rdquo; &ldquo;the Empire without the
+Emperor.&rdquo; He therefore remained in exile till the fall of the
+Second Empire in September 1870, after which he returned to
+Paris and served as a private in the national guard. On the 8th
+of February 1871 he was elected a member of the National
+Assembly, in which he maintained that the republic was &ldquo;the
+necessary form of national sovereignty,&rdquo; and voted for the
+continuation of the war; yet, though a member of the extreme
+Left, he was too clear-minded to sympathize with the Commune,
+and exerted his influence in vain on the side of moderation. In
+1878 he advocated the abolition of the presidency and the senate.
+In January 1879 he introduced into the chamber a proposal for
+the amnesty of the Communists, which was carried. This was
+his last important act. His declining years were darkened by
+ill-health and by the death, in 1876, of his wife (Christina Groh),
+an Englishwoman whom he had married in 1865. He died at
+Cannes on the 6th of December 1882, and on the 12th of December
+received a state funeral in the cemetery of Père-Lachaise.</p>
+
+<p>Louis Blanc possessed a picturesque and vivid style, and
+considerable power of research; but the fervour with which he
+expressed his convictions, while placing him in the first rank of
+orators, tended to turn his historical writings into political
+pamphlets. His political and social ideas have had a great
+influence on the development of socialism in France. His
+<i>Discours politiques</i> (1847-1881) was published in 1882. His
+most important works, besides those already mentioned, are
+<i>Lettres sur l&rsquo;Angleterre</i> (1866-1867), <i>Dix années de l&rsquo;histoire de
+l&rsquo;Angleterre</i> (1879-1881), and <i>Questions d&rsquo;aujourd&rsquo;hui et de demain</i>
+(1873-1884).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Fiaux, <i>Louis Blanc</i> (1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANC, MONT,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> the culminating point (15,782 ft.) of the
+mountain range of the same name, which forms part of the
+Pennine Alps, and is divided unequally between France, Italy
+and Switzerland. The actual highest summit is wholly French
+and is the loftiest peak in the Alps, and in Europe also, if certain
+peaks in the Caucasus be excluded. At Geneva the mountain
+was in former days named the Montagne Maudite, but the
+present name seems to have been always used locally. On the
+north is the valley of Chamonix, and on the east the head of the
+valley of Aosta. Among the great glaciers which stream from the
+peak the most noteworthy are those of Bossons and Taconnaz
+(northern slope) and of Brenva and Miage (southern slope).
+The first ascent was made in 1786 by two Chamonix men, Jacques
+Balmat and Dr Michel Paccard, and the second in 1787 by Balmat
+with two local men. Later in 1787 H.B. de Saussure made the
+third ascent, memorable in many respects, and was followed a
+week later by Colonel Beaufoy, the first Englishman to gain the
+top. These ascents were all made from Chamonix, which is still
+the usual starting point, though routes have been forced up the
+peak from nearly every side, those on the Italian side being much
+steeper than that from Chamonix. The ascent from Chamonix
+is now frequently made in summer (rarely in winter also), but,
+owing to the great height of the mountain, the view is unsatisfactory,
+though very extensive (Lyons is visible). There is an inn
+at the Grands Mulets (9909 ft.). In 1890 M. Vallot built an
+observatory and shelter hut (14,312 ft.) on the Bosses du Dromadaire
+(north-west ridge of the mountain), and in 1893 T.J.C.
+Janssen constructed an observatory just below the very summit.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Durier, <i>Le Mont Blanc</i> (4th ed., Paris, 1897); C.E. Mathews,
+<i>The Annals of Mont Blanc</i> (London, 1898); P. Güssfeldt, <i>Der</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" id="page40"></a>40</span>
+<i>Montblanc,</i> (Berlin, 1894, also a French translation, Geneva, 1899);
+L. Kurz, <i>Climbers&rsquo; Guide to the Chain of Mont Blanc</i>, section vi.
+(London, 1892); L. Kurz and X. Imfeld, <i>Carte de la chaine du Mont
+Blanc</i> (1896, new edition 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANCHARD, SAMUEL LAMAN<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1804-1845), British author
+and journalist, the son of a painter and glazier, was born at Great
+Yarmouth on the 15th of May 1804. He was educated at St
+Olave&rsquo;s school, Southwark, and then became clerk to a proctor
+in Doctors&rsquo; Commons. At an early age he developed literary
+tastes, contributing dramatic sketches to a paper called <i>Drama</i>.
+For a short time he was a member of a travelling dramatic
+company, but subsequently became a proof-reader in London,
+and wrote for the <i>Monthly Magazine</i>. In 1827 he was made
+secretary of the Zoological Society, a post which he held for three
+years. In 1828 he published <i>Lyric Offerings</i>, dedicated to Charles
+Lamb. He had a very varied journalistic experience, editing in
+succession the <i>Monthly Magazine</i>, the <i>True Sun</i>, the <i>Constitutional</i>,
+the <i>Court Journal</i>, the <i>Courier</i>, and <i>George Cruikshank&rsquo;s
+Omnibus</i>; and from 1841 till his death he was connected with
+the <i>Examiner</i>. In 1846 Bulwer-Lytton collected a number of his
+prose-essays under the title <i>Sketches of Life</i>, to which a memoir of
+the author was prefixed. His verse was collected in 1876 by
+Blanchard Jerrold. Over-work broke down his strength, and,
+unnerved by the death of his wife, he died by his own hand on
+the 15th of February 1845.</p>
+
+<p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">Sidney Laman Blanchard</span>, who was the author
+of <i>Yesterday and To-day in India</i>, died in 1883.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANCHE, JACQUES ÉMILE<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1861-&emsp;&emsp;), French painter, was
+born in Paris. He enjoyed an excellent cosmopolitan education,
+and was brought up at Passy in a house once belonging to the
+princesse de Lamballe, which still retained the atmosphere of
+18th-century elegance and refinement and influenced his taste
+and work. Although he received some instruction in painting
+from Gervex, he may be regarded as self-taught. He acquired a
+great reputation as a portrait painter; his art is derived from
+French and English sources, refined, sometimes super-elegant,
+but full of character. Among his chief works are his portraits of
+his father, of Pierre Louÿs, the Thaulow family, Aubrey Beardsley
+and Yvette Guilbert.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANCHE OF CASTILE<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1188-1252), wife of Louis VIII. of
+France, third daughter of Alphonso VIII., king of Castile, and of
+Eleanor of England, daughter of Henry II., was born at Valencia.
+In consequence of a treaty between Philip Augustus and John of
+England, she was betrothed to the former&rsquo;s son, Louis, and was
+brought to France, in the spring of 1200, by John&rsquo;s mother
+Eleanor. On the 22nd of May 1200 the treaty was finally signed,
+John ceding with his niece the fiefs of Issoudun and Graçay,
+together with those that André de Chavigny, lord of Châteauroux,
+held in Berry, of the English crown. The marriage was celebrated
+the next day, at Portmort on the right bank of the Seine, in John&rsquo;s
+domains, as those of Philip lay under an interdict.</p>
+
+<p>Blanche first displayed her great qualities in 1216, when Louis,
+who on the death of John claimed the English crown in her right,
+invaded England, only to find a united nation against him. Philip
+Augustus refused to help his son, and Blanche was his sole
+support. The queen established herself at Calais and organized
+two fleets, one of which was commanded by Eustace the Monk,
+and an army under Robert of Courtenay; but all her resolution
+and energy were in vain. Although it would seem that her
+masterful temper exercised a sensible influence upon her
+husband&rsquo;s gentler character, her role during his reign (1223-1226)
+is not well known. Upon his death he left Blanche regent and
+guardian of his children. Of her twelve or thirteen children, six
+had died, and Louis, the heir&mdash;afterwards the sainted Louis IX.,&mdash;was
+but twelve years old. The situation was critical, for the
+hard-won domains of the house of Capet seemed likely to fall to
+pieces during a minority. Blanche had to bear the whole burden
+of affairs alone, to break up a league of the barons (1226), and to
+repel the attack of the king of England (1230). But her energy
+and firmness overcame all dangers. There was an end to the
+calumnies circulated against her, based on the poetical homage
+rendered her by Theobald IV., count of Champagne, and the
+prolonged stay in Paris of the papal legate, Romano Bonaventura,
+cardinal of Sant&rsquo; Angelo. The nobles were awed by her warlike
+preparations or won over by adroit diplomacy, and their league
+was broken up. St Louis owed his realm to his mother, but
+he himself always remained somewhat under the spell of her
+imperious personality. After he came of age (1236) her influence
+upon him may still be traced. In 1248 she again became regent,
+during Louis IX.&rsquo;s absence on the crusade, a project which she
+had strongly opposed. In the disasters which followed she maintained
+peace, while draining the land of men and money to aid
+her son in the East. At last her strength failed her. She fell ill
+at Melun in November 1252, and was taken to Paris, but lived
+only a few days. She was buried at Maubuisson.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides the works of Joinville and William of Nangis, see Élie
+Berger, &ldquo;Histoire de Blanche de Castille, reine de France,&rdquo; in
+<i>Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d&rsquo;Athènes et de Rome</i>, vol. lxx.
+(Paris, 1895); Le Nain de Tillemont, &ldquo;Vie de Saint Louis,&rdquo; ed. by
+J. de Gaulle for the <i>Société de l&rsquo;histoire de France</i> (6 vols., 1847-1851);
+and Paulin Paris, &ldquo;Nouvelles recherches sur les moeurs de la
+reine Blanche et de Thibaud,&rdquo; in <i>Cabinet historique</i> (1858).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANCH FEE,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Blanch Holding</span> (from Fr. <i>blanc</i>, white),
+an ancient tenure in Scottish land law, the duty payable being in
+silver or white money in contradistinction to gold. The phrase
+was afterwards applied to any holding of which the quit-rent was
+merely nominal, such as a penny, a peppercorn, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANDFORD,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Blandford Forum</span>, a market town, and
+municipal borough in the northern parliamentary division of
+Dorsetshire, England, on the Stour, 19 m. N.W. of Bournemouth
+by the Somerset &amp; Dorset railway. Pop. (1901) 3649. The
+town is ancient, but was almost wholly destroyed by fire in the
+18th century. The church of St Peter and St Paul, a classical
+building, was built in 1732. There are a grammar-school
+(founded in 1521 at Milton Abbas, transferred to Blandford in
+1775), a Blue Coat school (1729), and other educational charities.
+Remnants of a mansion of the 14th century, Damory Court, are
+seen in a farmhouse, and an adjoining Perpendicular chapel is
+used as a barn. There are numerous early earthworks on the
+chalk hills in the neighbourhood. The fine modern mansion of
+Bryanston, in the park adjoining the town, is the seat of Lord
+Portman. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen
+and 12 councillors. Area, 145 acres.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANDRATA,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Biandrata</span>, <span class="bold">GIORGIO</span> (c. 1515-1588),
+Italian physician and polemic, who came of the De Blandrate
+family, powerful from the early part of the 13th century, was
+born at Saluzzo, the youngest son of Bernardino Blandrata.
+He graduated in arts and medicine at Montpellier in 1533, and
+specialized in the functional and nervous disorders of women.
+In 1544 he made his first acquaintance with Transylvania;
+in 1553 he was with Alciati in the Grisons; in 1557 he spent a
+year at Geneva, in constant intercourse with Calvin, who distrusted
+him. He attended the English wife (Jane Stafford) of
+Count Celso Massimiliano Martinengo, preacher of the Italian
+church at Geneva, and fostered anti-trinitarian opinions in that
+church. In 1558 he found it expedient to remove to Poland,
+where he became a leader of the heretical party at the synods
+of Pinczów (1558) and Ksionzh (1560 and 1562). His point
+was the suppression of extremes of opinion, on the basis of a
+confession literally drawn from Scripture. He obtained the
+position of court physician to the queen dowager, the Milanese
+Bona Sforza. She had been instrumental in the burning (1539)
+of Catharine Weygel, at the age of eighty, for anti-trinitarian
+opinions; but the writings of Ochino had altered her views,
+which were now anti-Catholic. In 1563 Blandrata transferred
+his services to the Transylvanian court, where the daughters
+of his patroness were married to ruling princes. He revisited
+Poland (1576) in the train of Stephen Báthory, whose tolerance
+permitted the propagation of heresies; and when (1579) Christopher
+Báthory introduced the Jesuits into Transylvania,
+Blandrata found means of conciliating them. Throughout his
+career he was accompanied by his two brothers, Ludovico and
+Alphonso, the former being canon of Saluzzo. In Transylvania,
+Blandrata co-operated with Francis Dávid (d. 1579), the anti-trinitarian
+bishop, but in 1578 two circumstances broke the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page41" id="page41"></a>41</span>
+connexion. Blandrata was charged with &ldquo;Italian vice&rdquo;;
+Dávid renounced the worship of Christ. To influence Dávid,
+Blandrata sent for Faustus Socinus from Basel. Socinus was
+Dávid&rsquo;s guest, but the discussion between them led to no result.
+At the instance of Blandrata, Dávid was tried and condemned
+to prison at Déva (in which he died) on the charge of innovation.
+Having amassed a fortune, Blandrata returned to the communion
+of Rome. His end is obscure. According to the Jesuit,
+Jacob Wujek, he was strangled by a nephew (Giorgio, son of
+Alphonso) in May 1588. He published a few polemical writings,
+some in conjunction with Dávid.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Malacarne, <i>Commentario delle Opere e delle Vicende di G.
+Blandrata</i> (Padova, 1814); Wallace, <i>Anti-trinitarian Biography</i>,
+vol. ii. (1850).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANE, SIR GILBERT<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1740-1834), Scottish physician,
+was born at Blanefield, Ayrshire, on the 29th of August 1749.
+He was educated at Edinburgh university, and shortly after
+his removal to London became private physician to Lord Rodney,
+whom he accompanied to the West Indies in 1779. He did much
+to improve the health of the fleet by attention to the diet of the
+sailors and by enforcing due sanitary precautions, and it was
+largely through him that in 1795 the use of lime-juice was made
+obligatory throughout the navy as a preventive of scurvy.
+Enjoying a number of court and hospital appointments he built
+up a good practice for himself in London, and the government
+constantly consulted him on questions of public hygiene. He
+was made a baronet in 1812 in reward for the services he rendered
+in connexion with the return of the Walcheren expedition.
+He died in London on the 26th of June 1834. Among his works
+were <i>Observations on the Diseases of Seamen</i> (1795) and <i>Elements
+of Medical Logic</i> (1819).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANFORD, WILLIAM THOMAS<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1832-1905), English
+geologist and naturalist, was born in London on the 7th of
+October 1832. He was educated in private schools in Brighton
+and Paris, and with a view to the adoption of a mercantile career
+spent two years in a business house at Civita Vecchia. On returning
+to England in 1851 he was induced to enter the newly established
+Royal School of Mines, which his younger brother Henry
+F. Blanford (1834-1893), afterwards head of the Indian Meteorological
+Department, had already joined; he then spent a year
+in the mining school at Freiburg, and towards the close of 1854
+both he and his brother obtained posts on the Geological Survey
+of India. In that service he remained for twenty-seven years,
+retiring in 1882. He was engaged in various parts of India, in
+the Raniganj coalfield, in Bombay, and in the coalfield near
+Talchir, where boulders considered to have been ice-borne
+were found in the Talchir strata&mdash;a remarkable discovery confirmed
+by subsequent observations of other geologists in equivalent
+strata elsewhere. His attention was given not only to
+geology but to zoology, and especially to the land-mollusca and
+to the vertebrates. In 1866 he was attached to the Abyssinian
+expedition, accompanying the army to Mágdala and back;
+and in 1871-1872 he was appointed a member of the Persian
+Boundary Commission. The best use was made of the exceptional
+opportunities of studying the natural history of those
+countries. For his many contributions to geological science
+Dr Blanford was in 1883 awarded the Wollaston medal by the
+Geological Society of London; and for his labours on the zoology
+and geology of British India he received in 1901 a royal medal
+from the Royal Society. He had been elected F.R.S. in 1874,
+and was chosen president of the Geological Society in 1888.
+He was created C.I.E. in 1904. He died in London on the 23rd
+of June 1905. His principal publications were: <i>Observations
+on the Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia</i> (1870), and <i>Manual of
+the Geology of India</i>, with H.B. Medlicott (1879).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Biography, with bibliography and portrait, in <i>Geological Magazine</i>,
+January 1905.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANK<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>blanc</i>, white), a word used in various
+senses based on that of &ldquo;left white,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> requiring something
+to be filled in; thus a &ldquo;blank cheque&rdquo; is one which requires
+the amount to be inserted, an insurance policy in blank, where
+the name of the beneficiary is lacking, &ldquo;blank verse&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>)
+verse without rhyme, &ldquo;blank cartridge&rdquo; that contains only
+powder and no ball or shot. The word is also used, as a substantive,
+for a ticket in a lottery or sweepstake which does not
+carry a number or the name of a horse running or for an
+unstamped metal disc in coining.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANKENBERGHE,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> a seaside watering-place on the North
+Sea in the province of West Flanders, Belgium, 12 m. N.E.
+of Ostend, and about 9 m. N.W. of Bruges, with which it
+is connected by railway. It is more bracing than Ostend, and
+has a fine parade over a mile in length. During the season,
+which extends from June to September, it receives a large
+number of visitors, probably over 60,000 altogether, from
+Germany as well as from Belgium. There is a small fishing port
+as well as a considerable fishing-fleet. Two miles north of this
+place along the dunes is Zeebrugge, the point at which the new
+ship-canal from Bruges enters the North Sea. Fixed population
+(1904) 5925.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANKENBURG.<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1) A town and health resort of Germany,
+in the duchy of Brunswick, at the N. foot of the Harz Mountains,
+12 m. by rail S.W. from Halberstadt. Pop. (1901) 10,173. It
+has been in large part rebuilt since a fire in 1836, and possesses
+a castle, with various collections, a museum of antiquities, an old
+town hall and churches. There are pine-needle baths and a
+hospital for nervous diseases. Gardening is a speciality. In the
+vicinity is a cliff or ridge of rock called Teufelsmauer (Devil&rsquo;s
+wall), from which fine views are obtained across the plain and
+into the deep gorges of the Harz Mountains.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Another <span class="sc">Blankenburg</span>, also a health-resort, is situated
+in Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Thuringia, at the confluence of the
+rivers Rinne and Schwarza, and at the entrance of the Schwarzatal.
+Its environs are charming, and to the north of it, on an
+eminence, rise the fine ruins of the castle of Greifenstein, built
+by the German king Henry I., and from 1275 to 1583 the seat
+of a cadet branch of the counts of Schwarzburg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANKETEERS,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> the nickname given to some 5000 operatives
+who on the 10th of March 1817 met in St Peter&rsquo;s Field, near
+Manchester, to march to London, each carrying blankets or rugs.
+Their object was to see the prince regent and lay their grievances
+before him. The Habeas Corpus Act was suspended, and the
+leaders were seized and imprisoned. The bulk of the demonstration
+yielded at once. The few stragglers who persisted in
+the march were intercepted by troops, and treated with considerable
+severity. Eventually the spokesmen had an interview with
+the ministers, and some reforms were the result.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANK VERSE,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> the unrhymed measure of iambic decasyllable
+in five beats which is usually adopted in English epic
+and dramatic poetry. The epithet is due to the absence of the
+rhyme which the ear expects at the end of successive lines. The
+decasyllabic line occurs for the first time in a Provençal poem
+of the 10th century, but in the earliest instances preserved it is
+already constructed with such regularity as to suggest that it
+was no new invention. It was certainly being used almost
+simultaneously in the north of France. Chaucer employed it
+in his <i>Compleynte to Pitie</i> about 1370. In all the literatures of
+western Europe it became generally used, but always with
+rhyme. In the beginning of the 16th century, however, certain
+Italian poets made the experiment of writing decasyllabics
+without rhyme. The tragedy of <i>Sophonisba</i> (1515) of G.G.
+Trissino (1478-1550) was the earliest work completed in this
+form; it was followed in 1525 by the didactic poem <i>Le Api</i>
+(The Bees), of Giovanni Rucellai (1475-1525), who announced
+his intention of writing <i>&rdquo;Con verso Etrusco dalle rime sciolto,&rdquo;</i>
+in consequence of which expression this kind of metre was called
+<i>versi sciolti</i> or blank verse. In a very short time this form was
+largely adopted in Italian dramatic poetry, and the comedies
+of Ariosto, the <i>Aminta</i> of Tasso and the <i>Pastor Fido</i> of Guarini
+are composed in it. The iambic blank verse of Italy was, however,
+mainly hendecasyllabic, not decasyllabic, and under French
+influences the habit of rhyme soon returned.</p>
+
+<p>Before the close of Trissino&rsquo;s life, however, his invention had
+been introduced into another literature, where it was destined
+to enjoy a longer and more glorious existence. Towards the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>42</span>
+close of the reign of Henry VIII., Henry Howard, earl of Surrey,
+translated two books of the <i>Aeneid</i> into English rhymeless verse,
+&ldquo;drawing&rdquo; them &ldquo;into a strange metre.&rdquo; Surrey&rsquo;s blank verse
+is stiff and timid, permitting itself no divergence from the exact
+iambic movement:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Who can express the slaughter of that night,</p>
+<p class="i05">Or tell the number of the corpses slain,</p>
+<p class="i05">Or can in tears bewail them worthily?</p>
+<p class="i05">The ancient famous city falleth down,</p>
+<p class="i05">That many years did hold such seignory.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Surrey soon found an imitator in Nicholas Grimoald, and in
+1562 blank verse was first applied to English dramatic poetry
+in the <i>Gorboduc</i> of Sackville and Norton. In 1576, in the <i>Steel
+Glass</i> of Gascoigne, it was first used for satire, and by the year
+1585 it had come into almost universal use for theatrical purposes.
+In Lyly&rsquo;s <i>The Woman in the Moon</i> and Peek&rsquo;s <i>Arraignment of
+Paris</i> (both of 1584) we find blank verse struggling with rhymed
+verse and successfully holding its own. The earliest play written
+entirely in blank verse is supposed to be <i>The Misfortunes of
+Arthur</i> (1587) of Thomas Hughes. Marlowe now immediately
+followed, with the magnificent movement of his <i>Tamburlaine</i>
+(1589), which was mocked by satirical critics as &ldquo;the swelling
+bombast of bragging blank verse&rdquo; (Nash) and &ldquo;the spacious
+volubility of a drumming decasyllable&rdquo; (Greene), but which
+introduced a great new music into English poetry, in such
+&ldquo;mighty lines&rdquo; as</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Still climbing after knowledge infinite,</p>
+<p class="i05">And always moving as the restless spheres,&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">or:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center ptb1">&ldquo;See where Christ&rsquo;s blood streams in the firmament!&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Except, however, when he is stirred by a particularly vivid
+emotion, the blank verse of Marlowe continues to be monotonous
+and uniform. It still depends too exclusively on a counting of
+syllables. But Shakespeare, after having returned to rhyme
+in his earliest dramas, particularly in <i>The Two Gentlemen of
+Verona</i>, adopted blank verse conclusively about the time that
+the career of Marlowe was closing, and he carried it to the greatest
+perfection in variety, suppleness and fulness. He released it
+from the excessive bondage that it had hitherto endured; as
+Robert Bridges has said, &ldquo;Shakespeare, whose early verse may
+be described as syllabic, gradually came to write a verse dependent
+on stress.&rdquo; In comparison with that of his predecessors and
+successors, the blank verse of Shakespeare is essentially regular,
+and his prosody marks the admirable mean between the stiffness
+of his dramatic forerunners and the laxity of those who followed
+him. Most of Shakespeare&rsquo;s lines conform to the normal type
+of the decasyllable, and the rest are accounted for by familiar
+and rational rules of variation. The ease and fluidity of his
+prosody were abused by his successors, particularly by Beaumont
+and Fletcher, who employed the soft feminine ending to excess;
+in Massinger dramatic blank verse came too near to prose, and
+in Heywood and Shirley it was relaxed to the point of losing all
+nervous vigour.</p>
+
+<p>The later dramatists gradually abandoned that rigorous
+difference which should always be preserved between the cadence
+of verse and prose, and the example of Ford, who endeavoured
+to revive the old severity of blank verse, was not followed. But
+just as the form was sinking into dramatic desuetude, it took
+new life in the direction of epic, and found its noblest proficient
+in the person of John Milton. The most intricate and therefore
+the most interesting blank verse which has been written is that
+of Milton in the great poems of his later life. He reduced the
+elisions, which had been frequent in the Elizabethan poets, to
+law; he admitted an extraordinary variety in the number of
+stresses; he deliberately inverted the rhythm in order to produce
+particular effects; and he multiplied at will the caesurae or
+breaks in a line. Such verses as</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Arraying with reflected purple and gold&mdash;</p>
+<p class="i05">Shoots invisible virtue even to the deep&mdash;</p>
+<p class="i05">Universal reproach, far worse to bear&mdash;</p>
+<p class="i05">Me, me only, just object of his ire&rdquo;&mdash;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">are not mistaken in rhythm, nor to be scanned by forcing them
+to obey the conventional stress. They are instances, and
+<i>Paradise Lost</i> is full of such, of Milton&rsquo;s exquisite art in ringing
+changes upon the metrical type of ten syllables, five stresses and
+a rising rhythm, so as to make the whole texture of the verse
+respond to his poetical thought. Writing many years later
+in <i>Paradise Regained</i> and in <i>Samson Agonistes</i>, Milton retained
+his system of blank verse in its general characteristics, but he
+treated it with increased dryness and with a certain harshness
+of effect. It is certainly in his biblical drama that blank verse
+has been pushed to its most artificial and technical perfection,
+and it is there that Milton&rsquo;s theories are to be studied best; yet
+it must be confessed that learning excludes beauty in some of
+the very audacious irregularities which he here permits himself
+in <i>Samson Agonistes</i>. Such lines as</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Made arms ridiculous, useless the forgery&mdash;</p>
+<p class="i05">My griefs not only pain me as a lingering disease&mdash;</p>
+<p class="i05">Drunk with idolatry, drunk with wine&mdash;</p>
+<p class="i05">Justly, yet despair not of his final pardon&rdquo;&mdash;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">are constructed with perfect comprehension of metrical law, yet
+they differ so much from the normal structure of blank verse that
+they need to be explained, and to imitate them would be perilous.
+A persistent weakness in the third foot has ever been the snare of
+English blank verse, and it is this element of monotony and
+dulness which Milton is ceaselessly endeavouring to obviate by
+his wonderful inversions, elisions and breaks.</p>
+
+<p>After the Restoration, and after a brief period of experiment
+with rhymed plays, the dramatists returned to the use of blank
+verse, and in the hands of Otway, Lee and Dryden, it recovered
+much of its magnificence. In the 18th century, Thomson and
+others made use of a very regular and somewhat monotonous
+form of blank verse for descriptive and didactic poems, of which
+the <i>Night Thoughts</i> of Young is, from a metrical point of view,
+the most interesting. With these poets the form is little open to
+licence, while inversions and breaks are avoided as much as
+possible. Since the 18th century, blank verse has been subjected
+to constant revision in the hands of Wordsworth, Coleridge,
+Shelley, Keats, Tennyson, the Brownings and Swinburne, but
+no radical changes, of a nature unknown to Shakespeare and
+Milton, have been introduced into it.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.A. Symonds, <i>Blank Verse</i> (1895);
+Walter Thomas, <i>Le Décasyllabe romain et sa fortune en Europe</i> (1904);
+Robert Bridges <i>Milton&rsquo;s Prosody</i> (1894);
+Ed. Guest, <i>A History of English Rhythms</i> (1882);
+J. Motheré, <i>Les Théories du vers héreoïque anglais</i> (1886);
+J. Schipper, <i>Englische Metrik</i> (1881-1888).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANQUI, JERÔME ADOLPHE<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1798-1854), French economist,
+was born at Nice on the 21st of November 1798. Beginning
+life as a schoolmaster in Paris, he was attracted to the study
+of economics by the lectures of J.B. Say, whose pupil and
+assistant he became. Upon the recommendation of Say he was in
+1825 appointed professor of industrial economy and of history
+at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. In 1833 he succeeded
+Say as professor of political economy at the same institution,
+and in 1838 was elected a member of the Académie des Sciences
+Morales et Politiques. In 1838 appeared his most important
+work, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;économie politique en Europe, depuis les
+anciens jusqu&rsquo;à nos jours</i>. He was indefatigable in research,
+and for the purposes of his economic inquiries travelled over
+almost the whole of Europe and visited Algeria and the East.
+He contributed much to our knowledge of the conditions of the
+working-classes, especially in France. Other works of Blanqui
+were <i>De la situation économique et morale de l&rsquo;Espagne en 1846;
+Résumé de l&rsquo;histoire du commerce et de l&rsquo;industrie</i> (1826); <i>Précis
+élémentaire d&rsquo;économie politique</i> (1826); <i>Les Classes ouvrières
+en France</i> (1848).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANQUI, LOUIS AUGUSTE<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1805-1881), French publicist,
+was born on the 8th of February 1805 at Puget-Théniers, where
+his father, Jean Dominique Blanqui, was at that time sub-prefect.
+He studied both law and medicine, but found his real
+vocation in politics, and at once constituted himself a champion
+of the most advanced opinions. He took an active part in the
+revolution of July 1830, and continuing to maintain the doctrine
+of republicanism during the reign of Louis Philippe, was
+condemned to repeated terms of imprisonment. Implicated in the
+armed outbreak of the Société des Saisons, of which he was a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page43" id="page43"></a>43</span>
+leading spirit, he was in the following year, 1840, condemned
+to death, a sentence that was afterwards commuted to imprisonment
+for life. He was released by the revolution of 1848, only
+to resume his attacks on existing institutions. The revolution,
+he declared, was a mere change of name. The violence of the
+<i>Société républicaine centrale</i>, which was founded by Blanqui to
+demand a modification of the government, brought him into
+conflict with the more moderate Republicans, and in 1849 he
+was condemned to ten years&rsquo; imprisonment. In 1865, while
+serving a further term of imprisonment under the Empire, he
+contrived to escape, and henceforth continued his propaganda
+against the government from abroad, until the general amnesty
+of 1869 enabled him to return to France. Blanqui&rsquo;s leaning
+towards violent measures was illustrated in 1870 by two unsuccessful
+armed demonstrations: one on the 12th of January
+at the funeral of Victor Noir, the journalist shot by Pierre
+Bonaparte; the other on the 14th of August, when he led an
+attempt to seize some guns at a barrack. Upon the fall of the
+Empire, through the revolution of the 4th of September, Blanqui
+established the club and journal <i>La patrie en danger</i>. He was one
+of the band that for a moment seized the reins of power on the
+31st of October, and for his share in that outbreak he was again
+condemned to death on the 17th of March of the following year.
+A few days afterwards the insurrection which established the
+Commune broke out, and Blanqui was elected a member of the
+insurgent government, but his detention in prison prevented
+him from taking an active part. Nevertheless he was in 1872
+condemned along with the other members of the Commune to
+transportation; but on account of his broken health this
+sentence was commuted to one of imprisonment. In 1879 he
+was elected a deputy for Bordeaux; although the election was
+pronounced invalid, Blanqui was set at liberty, and at once
+resumed his work of agitation. At the end of 1880, after a speech
+at a revolutionary meeting in Paris, he was struck down by
+apoplexy, and expired on the 1st of January 1881. Blanqui&rsquo;s
+uncompromising communism, and his determination to enforce
+it by violence, necessarily brought him into conflict with every
+French government, and half his life was spent in prison. Besides
+his innumerable contributions to journalism, he published an
+astronomical work entitled <i>L&rsquo;Éternité par les astres</i> (1872), and
+after his death his writings on economic and social questions
+were collected under the title of <i>Critique sociale</i> (1885).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A biography by G. Geffroy, <i>L&rsquo;Enfermé</i> (1897), is highly coloured
+and decidedly partisan.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANTYRE,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> the chief town of the Nyasaland protectorate,
+British Central Africa. It is situated about 3000 ft. above the
+sea in the Shiré Highlands 300 m. by river and rail N.N.W. of
+the Chínde mouth of the Zambezi. Pop. about 6000 natives
+and 100 whites. It is the headquarters of the principal trading
+firms and missionary societies in the protectorate. It is also a
+station on the African trans-continental telegraph line. The
+chief building is the Church of Scotland church, a fine red brick
+building, a mixture of Norman and Byzantine styles, with lofty
+turrets and white domes. It stands in a large open space and is
+approached by an avenue of cypresses and eucalyptus. The
+church was built entirely by native labour. Blantyre was
+founded in 1876 by Scottish missionaries, and is named after the
+birthplace of David Livingstone.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLANTYRE<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (Gaelic, &ldquo;the warm retreat&rdquo;), a parish of
+Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 14,145. The parish lies a
+few miles south-east of Glasgow, and contains High Blantyre
+(pop. 2521), Blantyre Works (or Low Blantyre), Stonefield
+and several villages. The whole district is rich in coal, the
+mining of which is extensively carried on. Blantyre Works
+(pop. 1683) was the birthplace of David Livingstone (1813-1873)
+and his brother Charles (1821-1873), who as lads were
+both employed as piecers in a local cotton-mill. The scanty
+remains of Blantyre Priory, founded towards the close of the
+13th century, stand on the left bank of the Clyde, almost opposite
+the beautiful ruins of Bothwell Castle. High Blantyre and
+Blantyre Works are connected with Glasgow by the Caledonian
+railway. Stonefield (pop. 7288), the most populous place in
+the parish, entirely occupied with mining, lies between High
+Blantyre and Blantyre Works, Calderwood Castle on Rotten
+Calder Water, near High Blantyre, is situated amid picturesque
+scenery.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLARNEY,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> a small town of Co. Cork, Ireland, in the mid
+parliamentary division, 5 m. N.W. of the city of Cork on
+the Cork &amp; Muskerry light railway. Pop. (1901) 928. There
+is a large manufacture of tweed. The name &ldquo;blarney&rdquo; has
+passed into the language to denote a peculiar kind of persuasive
+eloquence, alleged to be characteristic of the natives of Ireland.
+The &ldquo;Blarney Stone,&rdquo; the kissing of which is said to confer this
+faculty, is pointed out within the castle. The origin of this
+belief is not known. The castle, built <i>c</i>. 1446 by Cormac
+McCarthy, was of immense strength, and parts of its walls are
+as much as 18 ft. thick. To its founder is traced by some the
+origin of the term &ldquo;blarney,&rdquo; since he delayed by persuasion
+and promises the surrender of the castle to the lord president.
+Richard Millikin&rsquo;s song, &ldquo;The Groves of Blarney&rdquo; (<i>c</i>. 1798),
+contributed to the fame of the castle, which is also bound up
+with the civil history of the county and the War of the Great
+Rebellion.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLASHFIELD, EDWIN HOWLAND<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (1848-&emsp;&emsp;), American
+artist, was born on the 15th of December 1848 in New York City.
+He was a pupil of Bonnat in Paris, and became (1888) a member
+of the National Academy of Design in New York. For some
+years a genre painter, he later turned to decorative work, marked
+by rare delicacy and beauty of colouring. He painted mural
+decorations for a dome in the manufacturers&rsquo; building at the
+Chicago Exposition of 1893; for the dome of the Congressional
+library, Washington; for the capitol at St Paul, Minnesota;
+for the Baltimore court-house; in New York City for the Appellate
+court house, the grand ball-room of the Waldorf-Astoria hotel,
+the Lawyers&rsquo; club, and the residences of W.K. Vanderbilt and
+Collis P. Huntington; and in Philadelphia for the residence of
+George W. Drexel. With his wife he wrote <i>Italian Cities</i> (1900)
+and edited Vasari&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the Painters</i> (1896), and was well
+known as a lecturer and writer on art. He became president of
+the Society of Mural Painters, and of the Society of American
+Artists.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLASIUS<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Blaise</span>), <span class="bold">SAINT</span>, bishop of Sebaste or Sivas in
+Asia Minor, martyred under Diocletian on the 3rd of February
+316. The Roman Catholic Church holds his festival on the 3rd
+of February, the Orthodox Eastern Church on the 11th. His
+flesh is said to have been torn with woolcombers&rsquo; irons before he
+was beheaded, and this seems to be the only reason why he has
+always been regarded as the patron saint of woolcombers. In
+pre-Reformation England St Blaise was a very popular saint,
+and the council of Oxford in 1222 forbade all work on his festival.
+Owing to a miracle which he is alleged to have worked on a child
+suffering from a throat affection, who was brought to him on his
+way to execution, St Blaise&rsquo;s aid has always been held potent in
+throat and lung diseases. The woolcombers of England still
+celebrate St Blaise&rsquo;s day with a procession and general festivities.
+He forms one of a group of fourteen (<i>i.e.</i> twice seven) saints, who
+for their help in time of need have been associated as objects of
+particularly devoted worship in Roman Catholic Germany since
+the middle of the 15th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See William Hone, <i>Every Day Book</i>, i. 210.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLASPHEMY<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (through the Fr. from Gr. <span class="grk" title="blasphaemia">&#946;&#955;&#945;&#963;&#966;&#951;&#956;&#943;&#945;</span>, profane
+language, slander, probably derived from root of <span class="grk" title="blaptein">&#946;&#955;&#940;&#960;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to
+injure, and <span class="grk" title="phaemae">&#966;&#942;&#956;&#951;</span>, speech), literally, defamation or evil speaking,
+but more peculiarly restricted to an indignity offered to the
+Deity by words or writing. By the Mosaic law death by stoning
+was the punishment for blasphemy (Lev. xxiv. 16). The 77th
+Novel of Justinian assigned death as the penalty, as did also the
+Capitularies. The common law of England treats blasphemy as
+an indictable offence. All blasphemies against God, as denying
+His being, or providence, all contumelious reproaches of Jesus
+Christ, all profane scoffing at the Holy Scriptures, or exposing
+any part thereof to contempt or ridicule, are punishable by the
+temporal courts with fine, imprisonment and also infamous
+corporal punishment. An act of Edward VI. (1547; repealed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>44</span>
+1553 and revived 1558) enacts that persons reviling the sacrament
+of the Lord&rsquo;s Supper, by contemptuous words or otherwise,
+shall suffer imprisonment. Persons denying the Trinity were
+deprived of the benefit of the Act of Toleration by an act of 1688.
+An act of 1697-1698, commonly called the Blasphemy Act,
+enacts that if any person, educated in or having made profession
+of the Christian religion, should by writing, preaching, teaching or
+advised speaking, deny any one of the Persons of the Holy Trinity
+to be God, or should assert or maintain that there are more gods
+than one, or should deny the Christian religion to be true, or the
+Holy Scriptures to be of divine authority, he should, upon the
+first offence, be rendered incapable of holding any office or place
+of trust, and for the second incapable of bringing any action, of
+being guardian or executor, or of taking a legacy or deed of gift,
+and should suffer three years&rsquo; imprisonment without bail. It
+has been held that a person offending under the statute is also
+indictable at common law (<i>Rex</i> v. <i>Carlisle</i>, 1819, where Mr
+Justice Best remarks, &ldquo;In the age of toleration, when that
+statute passed, neither churchmen nor sectarians wished to
+protect in their infidelity those who disbelieved the Holy
+Scriptures&rdquo;). An act of 1812-1813 excepts from these enactments
+&ldquo;persons denying as therein mentioned respecting the
+Holy Trinity,&rdquo; but otherwise the common and the statute law on
+the subject remain as stated. In the case of <i>Rex</i> v. <i>Woolston</i>
+(1728) the court declared that they would not suffer it to be
+debated whether to write against Christianity in <i>general</i> was not
+an offence punishable in the temporal courts at common law, but
+they did not intend to include disputes between learned men on
+<i>particular</i> controverted points.</p>
+
+<p>The law against blasphemy has practically ceased to be put in
+active operation. In 1841 Edward Moxon was found guilty of
+the publication of a blasphemous libel (Shelley&rsquo;s <i>Queen Mab</i>), the
+prosecution having been instituted by Henry Hetherington, who
+had previously been condemned to four months&rsquo; imprisonment
+for a similar offence, and wished to test the law under which he
+was punished. In the case of <i>Cowan</i> v. <i>Milbourn</i> (1867) the
+defendant had broken his contract to let a lecture-room to the
+plaintiff, on discovering that the intended lectures were to
+maintain that &ldquo;the character of Christ is defective, and his
+teaching misleading, and that the Bible is no more inspired than
+any other book,&rdquo; and the court of exchequer held that the
+publication of such doctrine was blasphemy, and the contract
+therefore illegal. On that occasion the court reaffirmed the
+dictum of Chief Justice Hale, that Christianity is part of the laws
+of England. The commissioners on criminal law (sixth report)
+remark that &ldquo;although the law forbids <i>all</i> denial of the being and
+providence of God or the Christian religion, it is only when
+irreligion assumes the form of an insult to God and man that the
+interference of the criminal law has taken place.&rdquo; In England
+the last prominent prosecution for blasphemy was the case of
+<i>R.</i> v. <i>Ramsey &amp; Foote</i>, 1883, 48 L.T. 739, when the editor,
+publisher and printer of the <i>Freethinker</i> were sentenced to
+imprisonment; but police court proceedings were taken as late
+as 1908 against an obscure Hyde Park orator who had become a
+public nuisance.</p>
+
+<p>Profane cursing and swearing is made punishable by the
+Profane Oaths Act 1745, which directs the offender to be brought
+before a justice of the peace, and fined five shillings, two shillings
+or one shilling, according as he is a gentleman, below the rank of
+gentleman, or a common labourer, soldier, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>By the law of Scotland, as it originally stood, the punishment
+of blasphemy was death, but by an act of 1825, amended in
+1837, blasphemy was made punishable by fine or imprisonment
+or both.</p>
+
+<p>In France, blasphemy (which included, also, speaking against
+the Holy Virgin and the saints, denying one&rsquo;s faith, or speaking
+with impiety of holy things) was from very early times punished
+with great severity. The punishment was death in various
+forms, burning alive, mutilation, torture or corporal punishment.
+In the United States the common law of England was largely
+followed, and in most of the states, also, statutes were enacted
+against the offence, but, as in England, the law is practically
+never put in force. In Germany, the punishment for blasphemy
+is imprisonment varying from one day to three years, according
+to the gravity of the offence. To constitute the offence, the
+blasphemy must be uttered in public, be offensive in character,
+and have wounded the religious susceptibilities of some other
+person. In Austria, whoever commits blasphemy by speech or
+writing is liable to imprisonment for any term from six months
+up to ten years, according to the seriousness of the offence.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLASS, FRIEDRICH<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1843-1907), German classical scholar,
+was born on the 22nd of January 1843 at Osnabrück. After
+studying at Göttingen and Bonn from 1860 to 1863, he lectured at
+several gymnasia and at the university of Königsberg. In 1876
+he was appointed extraordinary professor of classical philology
+at Kiel, and ordinary professor in 1881. In 1892 he accepted a
+professorship at Halle, where he died on the 5th of March 1907.
+He frequently visited England, and was intimately acquainted
+with leading British scholars. He received an honorary degree
+from Dublin University in 1892, and his readiness to place the
+results of his labours at the disposal of others, together with the
+courtesy and kindliness of his disposition, won the respect of all
+who knew him. Blass is chiefly known for his works in connexion
+with the study of Greek oratory: <i>Die griechische Beredsamkeit
+von Alexander bis auf Augustus</i> (1865); <i>Die attische Beredsamkeit</i>
+(1868-1880; 2nd ed., 1887-1898), his greatest work; editions
+for the Teubner series of Andocides (1880), Antiphon (1881),
+Hypereides (1881, 1894), Demosthenes (Dindorf&rsquo;s ed., 1885),
+Isocrates (1886), Dinarchus (1888), Demosthenes (Rehdantz&rsquo; ed.,
+1893), Aeschines (1896), Lycurgus, <i>Leocrates</i> (1902); <i>Die
+Rhythmen der attischen Kunstprosa</i> (1901); <i>Die Rhythmen der
+asianischen und römischen Kunstprosa</i> (1905). Among his other
+works are editions of Eudoxus of Cnidus (1887), the <span class="grk" title="Athaenaion politeia">&#902;&#952;&#951;&#957;&#945;&#943;&#969;&#957; &#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span> (4th ed., 1903), a work of great importance, and Bacchylides
+(3rd. ed., 1904); <i>Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Griechisch</i>
+(1902; Eng. trans, by H. St John Thackeray, 1905); <i>Hermeneutik
+und Kritik and Paläographie, Buchwesen, und Handschriftenkunde</i>
+(vol. i. of Müller&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>,
+1891); <i>Über die Aussprache des Griechischen</i> (1888;
+Eng. trans, by W.J. Purton, 1890); <i>Die Interpolationen in der
+Odyssee</i> (1904); contributions to Collitz&rsquo;s <i>Sammlung der griechischen
+Dialektinschriften</i>; editions of the texts of certain portions
+of the New Testament (Gospels and <i>Acts</i>). His last work was an
+edition of the <i>Choephori</i> (1906).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See notices in the <i>Academy</i>, March 16, 1907 (J.P. Mahaffy);
+<i>Classical Review</i>, May 1907 (J.E. Sandys), which contains also a
+review of <i>Die Rhythmen der asianischen und römischen Kunstprosa</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLASTING,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> the process of rending or breaking apart a solid
+body, such as rock, by exploding within it or in contact with it
+some explosive substance. The explosion is accompanied by the
+sudden development of gas at a high temperature and under a
+tension sufficiently great to overcome the resistance of the
+enclosing body, which is thus shattered and disintegrated.
+Before the introduction of explosives, rock was laboriously
+excavated by hammer and chisel, or by the ancient process of
+&ldquo;fire-setting,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> building a fire against the rock, which, on
+cooling, splits and flakes off. To hasten disintegration, water
+was often applied to the heated rock, the loosened portion being
+afterwards removed by pick or hammer and wedge. In modern
+times blasting has become a necessity for the excavation of rock
+and other hard material, as in open surface cuts, quarrying,
+tunnelling, shaft-sinking and mining operations in general.</p>
+
+<p>For blasting, a hole is generally drilled to receive the charge of
+explosive. The depth and diameter of the hole and the quantity
+of explosive used are all variable, depending on the character of
+the rock and of the explosive, the shape of the mass to be blasted,
+the presence or absence of cracks or fissures, and the position of the
+hole with respect to the free surface of the rock. The shock of
+a blast produces impulsive waves acting radially in all directions,
+the force being greatest at the centre of explosion and varying
+inversely as the square of the distance from the charge. This
+is evidenced by the observed facts. Immediately surrounding
+the explosive, the rock is often finely splintered and crushed.
+Beyond this is a zone in which it is completely broken and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page45" id="page45"></a>45</span>
+displaced or projected, leaving an enveloping mass of more or
+less ragged fractured rock only partially loosened. Lastly, the
+diminishing waves produce vibrations which are transmitted to
+considerable distances. Theoretically, if a charge of explosive be
+fired in a solid material of perfectly homogeneous texture and at
+a proper distance from the free surface, a conical mass will be
+blown out to the full depth of the drill hole, leaving a funnel-shaped
+cavity. No rock, however, is of uniform mineralogical
+and physical character, so that in practice there is only a rough
+approximation to the conical crater, even under the most favourable
+conditions. Generally, the shape of the mass blasted out is
+extremely irregular, because of the variable texture of the rock
+and the presence of cracks, fissures and cleavage planes. The
+ultimate or resultant useful effect of the explosion of a confined
+charge is in the direction where the least resistance is presented.
+In the actual work of rock excavation it is only by trial, or by
+deductions based on experience, that the behaviour of a given
+rock can be determined and the quantity of explosive required
+properly proportioned.</p>
+
+<p>Blasting, as usually carried on, comprises several operations:
+(1) drilling holes in the rock to be blasted; (2) placing in the hole
+the charge of explosive, with its fuze; (3) tamping the charge, <i>i.e.</i>
+compacting it and filling the remainder of the hole with some
+suitable material for preventing the charge from blowing out
+without breaking the ground; (4) igniting or detonating the
+charge; (5) clearing away the broken material. The holes for
+blasting are made either by hand, with hammer and drill or
+jumper, or by machine drill, the latter being driven by steam,
+compressed air, or electricity, or, in rare cases, by hydraulic power.
+Drill holes ordinarily vary in diameter from 1 to 3 in., and in
+depth from a few inches up to 15 or 20 ft. or more. The deeper
+holes are made only in surface excavation of rock, the shallower,
+to a maximum depth of say 12 ft., being suitable for tunnelling
+and mining operations.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 100px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:23px; height:183px" src="images/img45a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Hand Drilling</i>.&mdash;The work is either &ldquo;single-hand&rdquo; or &ldquo;double-hand.&rdquo;
+In single-hand drilling, the miner wields the hammer with
+one hand, and with the other holds the drill or &ldquo;bit,&rdquo; rotating it
+slightly after every blow in order to keep the hole round and
+prevent the drill from sticking fast; in double-hand work,
+one man strikes, while the other holds and rotates the
+drill. For large and deep holes, two hammermen are
+sometimes employed.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:292px; height:93px" src="images/img45b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.&mdash;Sledge-hammer.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A miner&rsquo;s drill is a steel bar, occasionally round but
+generally of octagonal cross-section, one end of which is
+forged out to a cutting edge (fig. 1). The edge of the drill
+is made either straight, like that of a chisel, or with a
+convex curve, the latter shape being best for very hard
+rock. For hard rock the cutting edge should be rather
+thicker and blunter, and therefore stronger, than for soft
+rock. Drills are made of high-grade steel, as they must
+be tempered accurately and uniformly. The diameter of
+drill steel for hand work is usually from ¾ to 1 in., and the
+length of cutting edge, or gauge, of the drill is always greater
+than the diameter of the shank, in the proportion of from 7.4
+to 4.3. Holes over 10 or 12 in. deep generally require the use of a
+set of drills of different lengths and depending in number on the
+depth required. The shortest drill, for starting the hole, has the
+widest cutting edge, the edges of the others being successively
+narrower and graduated to follow each other properly, as drill after
+drill is dulled in deepening the hole. Thus the hole decreases
+in diameter as it is made deeper. The miner&rsquo;s hammer (fig. 2)
+ranges in weight from 3½ to 4½ &#8468; for single-hand drilling, up to
+8 or 10 &#8468; for double-hand. If the hole is directed downward, a
+little water is poured into it at intervals, to keep the cutting edge
+of the drill cool and make a thin mud of the cuttings. From time
+to time the hole is cleaned out by the &ldquo;scraper&rdquo; or &ldquo;spoon,&rdquo; a
+long slender iron bar, forged
+in the shape of a hollow
+semi-cylinder, with one end
+flattened and turned over at
+right angles. If the hole is
+directed steeply upward and
+the rock is dry, the cuttings
+will run out continuously
+during the drilling; otherwise
+the scraper is necessary, or a small pipe with a plunger like
+a syringe is used for washing out the cuttings. The &ldquo;jumper&rdquo; is a
+long steel bar, with cutting edges on one or both ends, which is
+alternately raised and dropped in the hole by one or two men. In
+rock work the jumper is rarely used except for holes directed steeply
+downward, though for coal or soft shale or slate it may be employed
+for drilling holes horizontally or upward. Other tools used
+in connexion with rock-drilling are the pick and gad.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:279px; height:420px" src="images/img45c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.&mdash;Ingersoll-Sergeant Mining Drill.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Holes drilled by hand usually vary in depth from say 18 to 36 in.,
+according to the nature of the rock and purpose of the work, though
+deeper holes are often made. For soft rock, single-hand drilling is
+from 20 to 30% cheaper than double-hand, but this difference does
+not hold good for the harder rocks. For these double-hand drilling
+is preferable, and may even be
+essential, to secure a reasonable
+speed of work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Machine Drills.</i>&mdash;The introduction
+of machine drills in
+the latter part of the 19th century
+exerted an important influence
+on the work of rock
+excavation in general, and
+specially on the art of mining.
+By their use many great tunnels
+and other works involving
+rock excavation under adverse
+conditions have been rapidly
+and successfully carried out.
+Before the invention of
+machine drills such work progressed
+slowly and with difficulty.
+Nearly all machine
+drills are of the reciprocating
+or percussive type, in which
+the drill bit is firmly clamped
+to the piston rod and delivers
+a rapid succession of strong
+blows on the bottom of the
+hole. The ordinary compressed
+air drill (which may, for surface
+work, be operated also by
+steam) may be taken as an
+illustration. The piston works
+in a cylinder, provided with a valve motion somewhat similar to
+that of a steam-engine, together with an automatic device for
+producing the necessary rotation of the piston and drill bit. While
+at work the machine is mounted on a heavy tripod (fig. 3); or, if
+underground, sometimes on an iron column or bar, firmly wedged in
+position between the roof and floor, or side walls, of the tunnel or
+mine working. As the hole is deepened, the entire drill head is
+gradually fed forward on its support by a screw feed, a succession
+of longer and longer drill bits being used as required.</p>
+
+<p>Among the numerous types and makes of percussion drill may
+be named the following:&mdash;Adelaide, Climax, Darlington, Dubois-François,
+Ferroux, Froelich, Hirnant, Ingersoll, Jeffrey, Leyner,
+McKiernan, Rand, Schram, Sergeant, Sullivan and Wood.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:538px; height:418px" src="images/img45d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs</span>. 4 and 5.&mdash;Darlington&rsquo;s Rock Drill.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>One of the simplest of the machine drills is the Darlington (figs. 4
+and 5): <i>a</i> is the cylinder; <i>b</i>, piston rod; <i>c</i>, bit; <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>, air inlets,
+either being used according to the position of the drill while at
+work; <i>h</i>, piston; <i>j</i>, rifle-bar for rotating piston and bit; <i>k</i>, ratchet
+attached to <i>j</i>; <i>l</i>, brass nut, screwed into <i>h</i>, and in which <i>j</i> works;
+<i>f</i>, chuck for holding drill-bit; <i>n</i>, air port communicating between
+ends of cylinder, front and back of piston; <i>o</i>, exhaust port. This
+machine has no valve. From its construction, the compressed air
+(or steam) is always acting on the annular shoulder round the forward
+end of the piston. The piston is thereby forced back on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" id="page46"></a>46</span>
+in-stroke until the port <i>n</i> is uncovered. This admits the compressed air
+to the rear end of the cylinder, and as the area of this end of the piston
+is much greater than that of the shoulder on the other end, the piston
+is driven forward and strikes its blow. When it has advanced far
+enough to cover the exhaust port <i>o</i>, the air behind the piston is
+exhausted, and, under the constant inward pressure noted above,
+the stroke is reversed. The rotation of piston and bit is caused by
+the rifle-bar <i>j</i>. On the outward stroke, <i>j</i>, with its ratchet <i>k</i>, is free
+to turn under a couple of pawls and springs, and consequently the
+piston delivers its blow without rotation. On the inward stroke the
+ratchet is held fast by the pawls, and the piston and bit are forced to
+rotate through a small part of a revolution. The cylinder is fed
+forward with respect to the shell <i>r</i>, by rotating the handle <i>p</i>, which
+works a long screw-bar engaging with a nut on the under side of the
+cylinder. The shell <i>r</i> is bolted to the clamp <i>s</i>, which in turn is
+mounted on the hollow column or bar <i>g</i>, or on a tripod, according to
+the character of the work. By means of the adjustable clamp <i>s</i>,
+the machine can be set for drilling a hole in any desired direction.
+The drill makes from 400 to 800 strokes per minute.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;New Ingersoll&rdquo; drill, which may be taken as an example
+of the numerous machines in which valves are used, is shown in
+section in fig. 6. The steam or compressed air is distributed through
+the ports alternately to the ends of the cylinder, by the reciprocations
+of a spool-valve working in a chest mounted on the cylinder. The
+movements of this valve are caused by the strokes of the main
+piston, which, by means of the wide annular groove around the
+middle of the piston, alternately open and close the spool-valve
+exhaust ports. Fig. 3 shows the Ingersoll &ldquo;Light Mining drill,&rdquo;
+as mounted on a tripod, and in position for drilling a hole vertically
+downward. In the Leyner drill the drill-bit is not connected to
+the piston, but is struck a quick succession of blows by the latter.
+An important feature of this machine is the provision for directing
+a stream of water into the hole for clearing out the cuttings. For
+this purpose the shank of the drill-bit is perforated longitudinally,
+the water being supplied under pressure from a small tank, to which
+compressed air is led.</p>
+
+<p>A rock drill of entirely different design, the Brandt, has been
+successfully used in Europe for driving railway tunnels. It is
+operated by hydraulic power, the pressure water being supplied by
+a pump. The hollow drill-bit, which has a serrated cutting edge, is
+forced under heavy pressure against the bottom of the hole, and is
+rotated slowly&mdash;at six to eight revolutions per minute&mdash;by a pair of
+small hydraulic cylinders, thus grinding and crushing the rock instead
+of chipping it. The bottom of the hole is kept clean and the drill-bit
+cooled by a stream of water passing down through its hollow shank.
+On account of its size and weight, this machine is not suitable for
+mine work.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:586px; height:168px" src="images/img46a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 6.&mdash;New Ingersoll Drill.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Most of the machine drills are made in a number of sizes, from
+2 in. up to 5 in. diameter of cylinder, the larger sizes being capable
+of drilling holes 5 in. diameter and 30 ft. deep. They range in weight
+from say 95 to 690 &#8468; for the drill head (unmounted), the tripods
+weighing from 40 to 260 &#8468;, exclusive of the weights placed for
+stability on the tripod legs (fig. 3). The sizes in most common use
+for mining are from 2½ in. to 3<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. diameter of cylinder. In rock of
+average hardness the best drills make from 4 to 7.5 linear ft. of hole
+per hour. For use in narrow veins, or other confined workings
+underground, several extremely small and light compressed air
+drills have been introduced, as, for example, the Franke and Wonder,
+the first of which weighs complete only 16 &#8468;, and the second 18 &#8468;
+These drills are held in the hands of the miner in the required position,
+and strike a rapid succession of light blows. A large number of
+mechanical drills operated by hand power have been invented.
+Some imitate hand-drilling in the mode of delivering the blow; in
+others the drill-bit is caused to reciprocate by means of combinations
+of crank and spring. None of these machines is entirely satisfactory,
+and but few are in use.</p>
+
+<p>Among percussion rock-drills operated by electricity are the
+Bladray, Box, Durkee, Marvin and Siemens-Halske. The Marvin
+drill works with a solenoid; most of the others have crank and spring
+movements for producing the reciprocations of the piston. Power
+is furnished by a small electric motor, either mounted on the machine
+itself, as with the Box drill, or more often standing on the ground
+and transmitting its power through a flexible shaft. Although rather
+frequently used, electric percussion drills cannot yet be considered
+entirely successful, at least for mine service, in competition with
+compressed air machines. Another type of electric drill, however,
+has been successfully used in collieries, viz. rotary auger drills,
+mounted on light columns and driven through gearing by diminutive
+motors. These are intended for boring in coal, slate or other similar
+soft material. Hand augers resembling a carpenter&rsquo;s brace and bit
+are also often used in collieries.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be the method of drilling, after the hole has been
+completed to the depth required, it is finally cleaned out by a scraper
+or swab; or, when compressed air drills are used, by a jet of air
+directed into the hole by a short piece of pipe connected through a
+flexible hose with the compressed air supply pipe. The hole is then
+ready for the charge.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:475px; height:191px" src="images/img46b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 7.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 8.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Location and Arrangement of Holes</i>.&mdash;For hand drilling in mining
+the position of the holes is determined largely by the character and
+shape of the face of rock to be blasted. The miner observes the
+joints and cracks of the rock, placing the holes to take advantage
+of them and so obtain the best result from the blast. In driving a
+tunnel or drift, as in figs. 7 and 8, the rock joints can be made of
+material assistance by beginning with hole No. 1 and following in
+succession by Nos. 2, 3 and 4. Frequently the ore, or vein matter,
+is separated from the wall-rock by a thin, soft layer of clay (D, D,
+fig. 8). This would act almost as a free face, and the first holes of
+the round would be directed at an angle towards it, for blasting out
+a wedge; after which the positions of the other holes would be
+chosen.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:354px; height:162px" src="images/img46c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 9.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 10.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>When machine drills are employed, less attention is given to
+natural cracks or joints, chiefly because when the drill is once set up
+several holes at
+different angles
+can be drilled in
+succession by
+merely swinging
+the cylinder of
+the machine into
+a new position
+with respect to
+its mounting.
+According to one
+method, the holes
+are placed with
+some degree of symmetry, in roughly concentric rings, as shown
+by figs. 9 and 10. The centre holes are blasted first, and are
+followed by the others in one or more volleys as indicated by the
+dotted lines. Another method is the &ldquo;centre cut,&rdquo; in which the
+holes are drilled in parallel rows on each side of the centre line of the
+tunnel, drift or shaft. Those in the two rows nearest the middle are
+directed towards each other, and enclose a prism of rock, which is
+first blasted put by heavy charges, after which the rows of side holes
+will break with relatively light charges.</p>
+
+<p><i>Explosives</i>.&mdash;A great variety of explosives are in use for blasting
+purposes. Up to 1864, gunpowder was the only available
+explosive, but in that year Alfred Nobel first applied nitroglycerin
+for blasting, and in 1867 invented dynamite. This
+name was originally applied to his mixture of nitroglycerin
+with kieselguhr, but now includes also other mechanical
+mixtures or chemical compounds which develop a high
+explosive force as compared with gunpowder. Besides these
+there are the so-called flameless or safety explosives, used
+in collieries where inflammable gases are given off from the
+coal.</p>
+
+<p>Gunpowder, or black powder, is seldom used for rock-blasting,
+except in quarrying building-stone, where slow
+explosives of relatively low power are desirable to avoid
+shattering the stone, and in such collieries as do not require the
+use of safety explosives. Gunpowder is exploded by deflagration,
+by means of a fuze, and exerts a comparatively slow and rending
+force. The high explosives, on the other hand, are exploded by
+detonation, through the agency of a fuze and fulminating cap,
+exerting a quick, shattering, rather than a rending force. Dynamites
+and flameless explosives are made in a variety of strengths,
+and are packed in waterproofed cartridges of different sizes. The
+grades of dynamite most commonly employed contain from 35
+to 60% of nitroglycerin; the stronger are used for tough rock
+or deep holes, or for holes unfavourably placed in narrow mine
+workings, as sometimes in shaft-sinking or tunnelling. When of
+good quality high explosives are safer to handle than gunpowder,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page47" id="page47"></a>47</span>
+as they cannot be ignited by sparks and are not so easily exploded.
+The ordinary dynamites used in mining are about four times as
+powerful as gunpowder.</p>
+
+<p>Nitroglycerin in its liquid form is now rarely used for blasting,
+partly because its full strength is not often necessary but chiefly
+because of the difficulty and danger of transporting, handling and
+charging it. If employed at all, it is charged in thin tinned plate
+cases or rubber-cloth cartridges.</p>
+
+<p><i>Blasting with Black Powder</i>.&mdash;The powder is coarse-grained,
+usually from <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> to <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> in. in size, and is charged in paper cartridges,
+8 to 10 in. long and of a proper diameter to fit loosely in the drill
+hole. A piece of fuze, long enough to reach a little beyond the
+mouth of the hole, is inserted in the cartridge and tied fast. For
+wet holes paraffined paper is used, the miner waterproofing the joints
+with grease. When more than one cartridge is required for the blast,
+that which has the fuze attached is usually charged last. The
+cartridges are carefully rammed down by a wooden tamping bar
+and the remainder of the hole filled with tamping. This consists of
+finely broken rock, dry clay or other comminuted material, carefully
+compacted by the tamping bar on top of the charge. The fuze is a
+cord, having in the centre a core of gunpowder, enclosed in several
+layers of linen or hemp waterproofed covering. It is ignited by the
+miner&rsquo;s candle or lamp, or by a candle end so placed at the mouth
+of the hole that the flame must burn its way through the fuze covering.
+As the fuze burns slowly, at the rate of 2 or 3 ft. per minute,
+the miner uses a sufficient length to allow him to reach a place of
+safety.</p>
+
+<p>For blasting in coal, &ldquo;squibs&rdquo; instead of fuzes are often used.
+A squib is simply a tiny paper rocket, about <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. diameter by 3 in.
+long, containing fine gunpowder and having a sulphur slow-match
+at one end. It is fired into the charge through a channel in the
+tamping. This channel may be formed by a piece of ¼ in. gas pipe,
+tamped in the hole and reaching the charge; or a &ldquo;needle,&rdquo; a long
+taper iron rod, is laid longitudinally in the hole, with its point
+entering the charge, and after the tamping is finished, by carefully
+withdrawing the needle a little channel is left, through which the
+squib is fired. In this connexion it may be noted that for breaking
+ground in gassy collieries several substitutes for explosives have
+been used to a limited extent, <i>e.g.</i> plugs of dry wood driven tightly
+into a row of drill holes, and which on being wetted swell and split
+the coal; quicklime cartridges, which expand powerfully on the
+application of water; simple wedges, driven by hammer into the
+drill holes; multiple wedges, inserted in the holes and operated
+by hydraulic pressure from a small hand force-pump.</p>
+
+<p><i>Blasting with High Explosives</i>.&mdash;High explosives are fired either
+by ordinary fuze and detonating cap or by electric fuze. Detonating
+caps of ordinary strength contain 10 to 15 grains of fulminating
+mixture. The cap is crimped tight on the end of the fuze, embedded
+in the cartridge, and on being exploded by fire from the fuze detonates
+the charge. The number of cartridges charged depends on the depth
+of hole, the length of the line of least resistance, and the toughness
+and other characteristics of the rock. Each cartridge should be
+solidly tamped, and, to avoid waste spaces in the hole, which would
+reduce the effect of the blast, it is customary to split the paper
+covering lengthwise with a knife. This allows the dynamite to
+spread under the pressure of the tamping bar. The cap is often
+placed in the cartridge preceding the last one charged, but it is
+better to insert it last, in a piece of cartridge called a &ldquo;primer.&rdquo;
+Though the dynamites are not exploded by sparks, they should
+nevertheless always be handled carefully. It is not so essential to
+fill the hole completely and so thoroughly to compact the tamping,
+as in charging black powder, because of the greater rapidity and
+shattering force of the explosion of dynamite; tamping, however,
+should never be omitted, as it increases the efficiency of the blast.
+In exploding dynamite, strong caps, containing say 15 grains of
+fulminating powder, produce the best results. Weaker caps are not
+economical, as they do not produce complete detonation of the
+dynamite. This is specially true if the weather be cold. Dynamite
+then becomes less sensitive, and the cartridges should be gently
+warmed before charging, to a temperature of not more than 80° F.
+Poisonous fumes are often produced by the explosion of the nitroglycerin
+compounds. These are probably largely due to incomplete
+detonation, by which part of the nitroglycerin is vaporized or
+merely burned. This is most likely to occur when the dynamite is
+chilled, or of poor quality, or when the cap is too weak. There is
+generally but little inconvenience from the fumes, except in confined
+underground workings, where ventilation is imperfect.</p>
+
+<p>Like nitroglycerin, the common dynamites freeze at a temperature
+of from 42° to 46° F. They are then comparatively safe, and so far
+as possible should be transported in the frozen state. At very low
+temperatures dynamite again becomes somewhat sensitive to shock.
+When it is frozen at ordinary temperatures even the strongest
+detonating caps fail to develop the full force. In thawing dynamite,
+care must be exercised. The fact that a small quantity will often
+burn quietly has led to the dangerously mistaken notion that mere
+heating will not cause explosion. It is chiefly a question of temperature.
+If the quantity ignited by flame be large enough to heat the
+entire mass to the detonating point (say 360° F.) before all is consumed,
+an explosion will result. Furthermore, dynamite, when
+even moderately heated, becomes extremely sensitive to shocks.
+There are several accepted modes of thawing dynamite: (1) In a
+water bath, the cartridges being placed in a vessel surrounded on
+the sides and bottom by warm water contained in a larger enclosing
+vessel. The warm water may be renewed from time to time, or
+the water bath placed over a candle or small lamp, <i>not</i> on a stove.
+(2) In two vessels, similar to the above, with the space between them
+occupied by air, provided the heat applied can be definitely limited,
+as by using a candle. (3) When large quantities of dynamite are
+used a supply may be kept on shelves in a wooden room or chamber,
+warmed by a stove, or by a coil of pipe heated by exhaust steam
+from an engine. Live steam should not be used, as the heat might
+become excessive. Thawing should always take place slowly, never
+before an open fire or by direct contact with a stove or steam pipes
+and care must be taken that the heat does not rise high enough to
+cause sweating or exudation of liquid nitroglycerin from the
+cartridges, which would be a source of danger.</p>
+
+<p>For the storage of explosives at mines, &amp;c., proper magazines must
+be provided, situated in a safe place, not too near other buildings,
+and preferably of light though fireproof construction. Masonry
+magazines, though safer from some points of view, may be the cause
+of greater damage in event of an explosion, because the brick or
+stones act as projectiles. Isolated and abandoned mine workings,
+if dry, are sometimes used as magazines.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 130px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:46px; height:372px" src="images/img47.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span> 11. Electrical Fuze.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Firing blasts by electricity has a wide application for both surface
+and underground work. An electrical fuze (fig. 11) consists of a
+pair of fine, insulated copper wires, several feet long and about <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">40</span>
+of an inch in diameter, with their bare ends inserted in a detonating
+cap. For firing, the fuze wires are joined to long leading wires,
+connected with some source of electric current. By joining the fuze
+wires in series or in groups, any number of holes may be
+fired simultaneously, according to the current available.
+A round of holes fired in this way, as for driving
+tunnels, sinking shafts, or in large surface excavations,
+produces better results, both in economy of explosive
+and effect of the blast, than when the holes are fired
+singly or in succession. Also, the miners are enabled to
+prepare for the blast with more care and deliberation,
+and then to reach a place of safety before the current
+is transmitted. Another advantage is that there is no
+danger of a hole &ldquo;hanging fire,&rdquo; which sometimes
+causes accidents in using ordinary fuzes.</p>
+
+<p>Hanging fire may be due to a cut, broken or damaged
+powder fuze, which may smoulder for some time
+before communicating fire to the charge. &ldquo;Miss-fires,&rdquo;
+which also are of not infrequent occurrence with both
+ordinary and electric fuzes, are cases where explosion
+from any cause fails to take place. After waiting a
+sufficient length of time before approaching the charged
+hole, the miner carefully removes the tamping down to
+within a few inches of the explosives and inserts and
+fires another cartridge, the concussion usually detonating
+the entire charge. Sometimes another hole is
+drilled near the one which has missed. No attempt to
+remove the old charge should ever be made.</p>
+
+<p>High tension electricity, generated by a frictional
+machine, provided with a condenser, was formerly
+much used for blasting. The bare ends of the fuze
+wires in the detonating cap are placed say <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. apart, leaving
+a gap across which a spark is discharged, passing through a
+priming charge of some sensitive composition. The priming
+is not only combustible but also a conductor of electricity,
+such as an intimate mixture of potassium chlorate with copper
+sulphide and phosphide. By the combustion of the priming the
+fulminate mixture in the cap is detonated. As these fuzes are more
+apt to deteriorate when exposed to dampness than fuzes for low-tension
+current, and the generating machine is rather clumsy and
+fragile, low-tension current is more generally employed. It may be
+generated by a small, portable dynamo, operated by hand, or may be
+derived from a battery or from any convenient electric circuit. The
+ends of the fuze wires in the detonating cap are connected by a
+fine platinum filament (fig. 11), embedded in a guncotton priming
+on top of the fulminating mixture, and explosion results from the
+heat generated by the resistance opposed to the passage of the
+current through the filament. Blasting machines are made in
+several sizes, the smaller ones being capable of firing simultaneously
+from ten to twenty holes. The fuzes must obviously be of uniform
+electrical resistance, to ensure that all the connected charges will
+explode simultaneously. The premature explosion of any one of the
+fuzes would break the circuit.</p>
+
+<p>In the actual operations of blasting, definite rules for the proportioning
+of the charges are rarely observed, and although the blasts
+made by a skilful miner seldom fail to do their work, it is a common
+fault that too much, rather than too little, explosive is used. The
+high explosives are specially liable to be wasted, probably through
+lack of appreciation of their power as compared with that of black
+powder. Among the indications of excessive charges are the production
+of much finely broken rock or of crushed and splintered rock
+around the bottom of the hole, and excessive displacement or
+projection of the rock broken by the blast. In beginning any new
+piece of work, such waste may be avoided or reduced by making
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>48</span>
+trial shots with different charges and depths of hole, and noting the
+results; also by letting contracts under which the workmen pay for
+the explosive. In surface rock excavation the location and determination
+of the depth of the holes and the quantity of explosive
+used, are occasionally put in charge of one or more skilled men,
+who direct the work and are responsible for the results obtained.</p>
+
+<p>Blasting in surface excavations and quarries is sometimes done
+on an immense scale&mdash;called &ldquo;mammoth blasting.&rdquo; Shafts are
+sunk, or tunnels driven, in the mass of rock to be blasted, and,
+connected with them, a number of chambers are excavated to
+receive the charges of explosive. The preparation for such blasts
+may occupy months, and many tons of gunpowder or dynamite
+are at times exploded simultaneously, breaking or dislodging thousands,
+or even hundreds of thousands, of tons of rock. This method
+is adopted for getting stone cheaply, as for building macadamized
+roads, dams and breakwaters, obtaining limestone for blast furnace
+flux, and occasionally in excavating large railway cuttings. It is
+also applied in submarine blasting for the removal of reefs obstructing
+navigation, and sometimes for loosening extensive banks of partly
+cemented gold-bearing gravel, preparatory to washing by hydraulic
+mining.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;For further information on drilling and blasting
+see:&mdash;Callon, <i>Lectures on Mining</i> (1876), vol. i. chs. v. and vi.;
+Foster, <i>Text-book of Ore and Stone Mining</i>, (1900), ch. iv.; Hughes,
+<i>Text-book of Coal Mining</i> (1901), ch. iii.; H.S. Drinker, <i>Tunnelling,
+Explosive Compounds and Rock Drills</i> (1878); M.C. Ihlseng, <i>Manual
+of Mining</i> (1905), pp. 596-696; Köhler, <i>Der Bergbaukunde</i> (1897),
+pp. 104-208; Daw, <i>The Blasting of Rock</i> (1898); Prelini, <i>Earth and
+Rock Excavation</i> (1905), chs. v., vi. and vii.; Gillette, <i>The Excavation
+of Rock</i> (1904); Guttmann, <i>Blasting</i> (1892); Spon&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of
+Engineering</i>, art. &ldquo;Boring and Blasting&rdquo;; Eissler, <i>Modern High
+Explosives</i> (1893), pts. ii. and iii.; Walke, <i>Lectures on Explosives</i>
+(1897), chs. xix.-xxii. Also: <i>Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.</i> (London),
+vol. lxxxv. p. 264; <i>Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.</i> (England), vols. xiv., xv.
+and xvi. (arts, by W. Maurice), vol. xxvi. pp. 322, 348, vol. xxiv.
+p. 526 and vol. xxv. p. 108; <i>Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng.</i>, vol. xxvii.
+p. 530; <i>Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng.</i>, vol. xviii. p. 370, vol. xxix
+p. 405 and vol. xxxiv. p. 871; <i>South Wales Inst. Eng.</i> (1888);
+<i>Jour. Ass. Eng. Socs.</i>, vol. vii. p. 58; <i>Jour. Chem. Met. and Mining
+Soc. of South Africa</i>, August 1905; <i>School of Mines Quarterly</i>, N.Y.,
+vol. ix. p. 308; <i>Colliery Guardian</i>, April 15, 1898, and February 6,
+1903; <i>Mines and Minerals</i>, February 1905, p. 348, January 1906,
+p. 259, and April 1906, p. 393; <i>Eng. and Mining Jour.</i>, April 19,
+1902, p. 552; <i>The Engineer</i>, February 24, 1905; <i>Elec. Rev.</i>, June 9,
+1899; <i>Eng. News</i>, vol. xxxii. p. 249, and August 3, 1905; <i>Gluckauf</i>,
+September 28, 1901, and July 5, 1902; <i>Österr. Zeitschr. f. Berg- u.
+Hüttenwesen</i>, May 18, 25, 1901, April 18, 1903 and November, 18,
+1905; <i>Annales des mines</i>, vol. xviii. pp. 217-248.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. P.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAUBEUREN,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
+Württemberg, 12 m. W. of Ulm, with which it is connected by
+railway. Pop. (1900) 3114. It is romantically situated in a wild
+and deep valley of the Swabian Alps at an altitude of 1600 ft. and
+is partly surrounded by ancient walls. Of the three churches
+(two Evangelical and one Roman Catholic) the most remarkable
+is the abbey church (<i>Klosterkirche</i>), a late Gothic building dating
+from 1465-1496, the choir of which contains beautiful 15th
+century carved choir-stalls and a fine high altar with a triptych
+(1496). The choir only is used for service (Protestant), the nave
+being used as a gymnasium. The town church (<i>Stadtkirche</i>) also
+has a fine altar with triptych. The Benedictine abbey, founded
+in 1095, was used after the Reformation as a school, and is now
+an Evangelical theological seminary. There are two hospitals
+in the town.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAVATSKY, HELENA PETROVNA<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (1831-1891), Russian
+theosophist, was born at Ekaterinoslav, on the 31st of July (O.S.)
+1831, the daughter of Colonel Peter Hahn, a member of a Mecklenburg
+family, settled in Russia. She married in her seventeenth
+year a man very much her senior, Nicephore Blavatsky, a
+Russian official in Caucasia, from whom she was separated after
+a few months; in later days, when seeking to invest herself with
+a halo of virginity, she described the marriage as a nominal one.
+During the next twenty years Mme Blavatsky appears to have
+travelled widely in Canada, Texas, Mexico and India, with two
+attempts on Tibet. In one of these she seems to have crossed
+the frontier alone in disguise, been lost in the desert, and, after
+many adventures, been conducted back by a party of horsemen.
+The years from 1848 to 1858 were alluded to subsequently as &ldquo;the
+veiled period&rdquo; of her life, and she spoke vaguely of a seven years&rsquo;
+sojourn in &ldquo;Little and Great Tibet,&rdquo; or preferably of a &ldquo;Himalayan
+retreat.&rdquo; In 1858 she revisited Russia, where she created
+a sensation as a spiritualistic medium. About 1870 she acquired
+prominence among the spiritualists of the United States, where
+she lived for six years, becoming a naturalized citizen. Her
+leisure was occupied with the study of occult and kabbalistic
+literature, to which she soon added that of the sacred writings of
+India, through the medium of translations. In 1875 she conceived
+the plan of combining the spiritualistic &ldquo;control&rdquo; with the
+Buddhistic legends about Tibetan sages. Henceforth she
+determined to exclude all control save that of two Tibetan adepts
+or &ldquo;mahatmas.&rdquo; The mahatmas exhibited their &ldquo;astral
+bodies&rdquo; to her, &ldquo;precipitated&rdquo; messages which reached her
+from the confines of Tibet in an instant of time, supplied her with
+sound doctrine, and incited her to perform tricks for the conversion
+of sceptics. At New York, on the 17th of November
+1875, with the aid of Colonel Henry S. Olcott, she founded the
+&ldquo;Theosophical Society&rdquo; with the object of (1) forming a universal
+brotherhood of man, (2) studying and making known the ancient
+religions, philosophies and sciences, (3) investigating the laws of
+nature and developing the divine powers latent in man. The
+Brahmanic and Buddhistic literature supplied the society with
+its terminology, and its doctrines were a curious amalgam of
+Egyptian, kabbalistic, occultist, Indian and modern spiritualistic
+ideas and formulas. Mme Blavatsky&rsquo;s principal books were
+<i>Isis Unveiled</i> (New York, 1877), <i>The Secret Doctrine, the Synthesis
+of Science, Religion and Philosophy</i> (1888), <i>The Key to Theosophy</i>
+(1891). The two first of these are a mosaic of unacknowledged
+quotations from such books as K.R.H. Mackenzie&rsquo;s <i>Royal
+Masonic Encyclopaedia</i>, C.W. King&rsquo;s <i>Gnostics</i>, Zeller&rsquo;s <i>Plato</i>, the
+works on magic by Dunlop, E. Salverte, Joseph Ennemoser, and
+Des Mousseaux, and the mystical writings of Eliphas Levi (L.A.
+Constant). <i>A Glossary of Theosophical Terms</i> (1890-1892) was
+compiled for the benefit of her disciples. But the appearance of
+Home&rsquo;s <i>Lights and Shadows of Spiritualism</i> (1877) had a prejudicial
+effect upon the propaganda, and Heliona P. Blavatsky
+(as she began to style herself) retired to India. Thence she contributed
+some clever papers, &ldquo;From the Caves and Jungles of
+Hindostan&rdquo; (published separately in English, London, 1892) to
+the <i>Russky Vyestnik</i>. Defeated in her object of obtaining employment
+in the Russian secret service, she resumed her efforts
+to gain converts to theosophy. For this purpose the exhibition
+of &ldquo;physical phenomena&rdquo; was found necessary. Her jugglery
+was cleverly conceived, but on three occasions was exposed
+in the most conclusive manner. Nevertheless, her cleverness,
+volubility, energy and will-power enabled her to maintain her
+ground, and when she died on the 8th of May 1891 (White
+Lotus Day), at the theosophical headquarters in the Avenue
+Road, London, she was the acknowledged head of a community
+numbering not far short of 100,000, with journalistic organs in
+London, Paris, New York and Madras.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Much information respecting her will be found in V.S. Solovyov&rsquo;s
+<i>Modern Priestess of Isis</i>, translated by Walter Leaf (1895), in Arthur
+Lillie&rsquo;s <i>Madame Blavatsky and Her Theosophy</i> (1895), and in the
+report made to the Society for Psychical Research by the Cambridge
+graduate despatched to investigate her doings in India. See also
+the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theosophy</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAYDES, FREDERICK HENRY MARVELL<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1818-1908),
+English classical scholar, was born at Hampton Court Green, on
+the 29th of September 1818, being a collateral descendant of
+Andrew Marvell, the satirist and friend of Milton. He was
+educated at St Peter&rsquo;s school, York, and Christ Church, Oxford.
+He was Hertford scholar in 1838, took a second class in literae
+humaniores in 1840, and was subsequently elected to a studentship
+at Christ Church. In 1842 he took orders, and from 1843
+to 1886 was vicar of Harringworth in Northamptonshire. During
+a long life he devoted himself almost entirely to the study of the
+Greek dramatists. His editions and philological papers are
+remarkable for bold conjectural emendations of corrupt (and
+other) passages. His distinction was recognized by his being
+made an honorary LL.D. of Dublin, Ph.D. of the university of
+Buda Pest and a fellow of the royal society of letters at Athens.
+He died at Southsea on the 7th of September 1908.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works include:&mdash;Aristophanes: <i>Comedies and Fragments</i>,
+with critical notes and commentary (1880-1893); <i>Clouds, Knights,
+Frogs, Wasps</i> (1873-1878); <i>Opera Omnia</i>, with critical notes (1886);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>49</span>
+Sophocles; <i>Oedipus Coloneus, Oedipus Tyrannus</i> and <i>Antigone</i> (in
+the Bibliotheca Classica, 1859); <i>Philoctetes</i> (1870), <i>Trachiniae</i> (1871),
+<i>Electra</i> (1873), <i>Ajax</i> (1875), <i>Antigone</i> (1005); Aeschylus: <i>Agamemnon</i>
+(1898), <i>Choephori</i> (1899), <i>Eumenides</i> (1900), <i>Adversaria Critica in
+Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta</i> (1890); <i>in Tragicorum Graec.
+Frag.</i> (1894), <i>in Aeschylum</i> (1895), <i>in Varios Poetas Graecos et
+Latinos</i> (1898), <i>in Aristophanem</i> (1899), <i>in Sophoclem</i> (1899), <i>in
+Euripidem</i> (1901), <i>in Herodotum</i> (1901); <i>Analecta Comica Graeca</i>
+(1905); <i>Analecta Tragica Graeca</i> (1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAYDON,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> an urban district in the Chester-le-Street parliamentary
+division of Durham, England, on the Tyne, 4 m. W. of
+Newcastle by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1881)
+10,687; (1901) 19,617. The chief industries are coal-mining,
+iron-founding, pipe, fire-brick, chemical manure and bottle
+manufactures. In the vicinity is the beautiful old mansion of
+Stella, and below it Stellaheugh, to which the victorious Scottish
+army crossed from Newburn on the Northumberland bank in
+1640, after which they occupied Newcastle.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAYE-ET-STE LUCE,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> a town of south-western France,
+capital of an arrondissement in the department of Gironde, on
+the right bank of the Gironde (here over 2 m. wide), 35 m. N. of
+Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906) of the town, 3423; of the commune,
+4890. The town has a citadel built by Vauban on a rock
+beside the river, and embracing in its enceinte ruins of an old
+Gothic château. The latter contains the tomb of Caribert, king
+of Toulouse, and son of Clotaire II. Blaye is also defended by
+the Fort Pâté on an island in the river and the Fort Médoc on its
+left bank, both of the 17th century. The town is the seat of a
+sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce
+and a communal college. It has a small river-port, and carries
+on trade in wine, brandy, grain, fruit and timber. The industries
+include the building of small vessels, distilling, flour-milling, and
+the manufacture of oil and candles. Fine red wine is produced
+in the district.</p>
+
+<p>In ancient times Blaye (<i>Blavia</i>) was a port of the Santones.
+Tradition states that the hero Roland was buried in its basilica,
+which was on the site of the citadel. It was early an important
+stronghold which played an important part in the wars against
+the English and the Religious Wars. The duchess of Berry was
+imprisoned in its fortress in 1832-1833.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAZE<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (A.-S. <i>blaese</i>, a torch), a fire or bright flame; more
+nearly akin to the Ger. <i>blass</i>, pale or shining white, is the use
+of the word for the white mark on the face of a horse or cow,
+and the American use for a mark made on a tree by cutting off
+a piece of the bark. The word &ldquo;to blaze,&rdquo; in the sense of to
+noise abroad, comes from the A.-S. <i>blaesan</i>, to blow, cf. the Ger.
+<i>blasen</i>; in sense, if not in origin, it is confused with &ldquo;blazon&rdquo;
+in heraldry.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLAZON,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> a heraldic shield, a coat of arms properly &ldquo;described&rdquo;
+according to the rules of heraldry, hence a proper
+heraldic description of such a coat. The O. Fr. <i>blason</i> seems
+originally to have meant simply a shield as a means of defence
+and not a shield-shaped surface for the display of armorial
+bearings, but this is difficult to reconcile with the generally
+accepted derivation from the Ger. <i>blasen</i>, to blow, proclaim,
+English &ldquo;blaze,&rdquo; to noise abroad, to declare. In the 16th
+century the heraldic term, and &ldquo;blaze&rdquo; and &ldquo;blazon&rdquo; in the
+sense of proclaim, had much influence on each other.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLEACHING,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> the process of whitening or depriving objects
+of colour, an operation incessantly in activity in nature by the
+influence of light, air and moisture. The art of bleaching, of
+which we have here to treat, consists in inducing the rapid
+operation of whitening agencies, and as an industry it is mostly
+directed to cotton, linen, silk, wool and other textile fibres, but
+it is also applied to the whitening of paper-pulp, bees&rsquo;-wax and
+some oils and other substances. The term bleaching is derived
+from the A.-S. <i>blaecan</i>, to bleach, or to fade, from which also
+comes the cognate German word <i>bleichen</i>, to whiten or render
+pale. Bleachers, down to the end of the 18th century, were
+known in England as &ldquo;whitsters,&rdquo; a name obviously derived
+from the nature of their calling.</p>
+
+<p>The operation of bleaching must from its very nature be of
+the same antiquity as the work of washing textures of linen,
+cotton or other vegetable fibres. Clothing repeatedly washed,
+and exposed in the open air to dry, gradually assumes a whiter
+and whiter hue, and our ancestors cannot have failed to notice
+and take advantage of this fact. Scarcely anything is known
+with certainty of the art of bleaching as practised by the nations
+of antiquity. Egypt in early ages was the great centre of textile
+manufactures, and her white and coloured linens were in high
+repute among contemporary nations. As a uniformly well-bleached
+basis is necessary for the production of a satisfactory
+dye on cloth, it may be assumed that the Egyptians were fairly
+proficient in bleaching, and that still more so were the Phoenicians
+with their brilliant and famous purple dyes. We learn,
+from Pliny, that different plants, and likewise the ashes of plants,
+which no doubt contained alkali, were employed as detergents.
+He mentions particularly the <i>Struthium</i> as much used for
+bleaching in Greece, a plant which has been identified by some
+with <i>Gypsophila Struthium</i>. But as it does not appear from
+John Sibthorp&rsquo;s <i>Flora Graeca</i>, edited by Sir James Smith, that
+this species is a native of Greece, Dr Sibthorp&rsquo;s conjecture that
+the <i>Struthium</i> of the ancients was the <i>Saponaria officinalis</i>, a
+plant common in Greece, is certainly more probable.</p>
+
+<p>In modern times, down to the middle of the 18th century,
+the Dutch possessed almost a monopoly of the bleaching trade
+although we find mention of bleach-works at Southwark near
+London as early as the middle of the 17th century. It was
+customary to send all the brown linen, then largely manufactured
+in Scotland, to Holland to be bleached. It was sent away in the
+month of March, and not returned till the end of October, being
+thus out of the hands of the merchant more than half a year.</p>
+
+<p>The Dutch mode of bleaching, which was mostly conducted
+in the neighbourhood of Haarlem, was to steep the linen first
+in a waste lye, and then for about a week in a potash lye poured
+over it boiling hot. The cloth being taken out of this lye and
+washed, was next put into wooden vessels containing buttermilk,
+in which it lay under a pressure for five or six days. After
+this it was spread upon the grass, and kept wet for several
+months, exposed to the sunshine of summer.</p>
+
+<p>In 1728 James Adair from Belfast proposed to the Scottish
+Board of Manufactures to establish a bleachfield in Galloway;
+this proposal the board approved of, and in the same year resolved
+to devote £2000 as premiums for the establishment of
+bleachfields throughout the country. In 1732 a method of
+bleaching with kelp, introduced by R. Holden, also from Ireland,
+was submitted to the board; and with their assistance Holden
+established a bleachfield for prosecuting his process at Pitkerro,
+near Dundee.</p>
+
+<p>The bleaching process, as at that time performed, was very
+tedious, occupying a complete summer. It consisted in steeping
+the cloth in alkaline lyes for several days, washing it clean,
+and spreading it upon the grass for some weeks. The steeping
+in alkaline lyes, called <i>bucking</i>, and the bleaching on the grass,
+called <i>crofting</i>, were repeated alternately for five or six times.
+The cloth was then steeped for some days in sour milk, washed
+clean and crofted. These processes were repeated, diminishing
+every time the strength of the alkaline lye, till the linen had
+acquired the requisite whiteness.</p>
+
+<p>For the first improvement in this tedious process, which was
+faithfully copied from the Dutch bleachfields, manufacturers
+were indebted to Dr Francis Home of Edinburgh, to whom the
+Board of Trustees paid £100 for his experiments in bleaching.
+He proposed to substitute water acidulated with sulphuric acid
+for the sour milk previously employed, a suggestion made in
+consequence of the new mode of preparing sulphuric acid, contrived
+some time before by Dr John Roebuck, which reduced
+the price of that acid to less than one-third of what it had
+formerly been. When this change was first adopted by the
+bleachers, there was the same outcry against its corrosive effects
+as arose when chlorine was substituted for crofting. A great
+advantage was found to result from the use of sulphuric acid,
+which was that a souring with sulphuric acid required at the
+longest only twenty-four hours, and often not more than twelve;
+whereas, when sour milk was employed, six weeks, or even two
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>50</span>
+months, were requisite, according to the state of the weather.
+In consequence of this improvement, the process of bleaching
+was shortened from eight months to four, which enabled the
+merchant to dispose of his goods so much the sooner, and consequently
+to trade with less capital.</p>
+
+<p>No further modification of consequence was introduced in
+the art till the year 1787, when a most important change was
+initiated by the use of chlorine (<i>q.v.</i>), an element which had been
+discovered by C.W. Scheele in Sweden about thirteen years
+before. The discovery that this gas possesses the property of
+destroying vegetable colours, led Berthollet to suspect that it
+might be introduced with advantage into the art of bleaching, and
+that it would enable practical bleachers greatly to shorten their
+processes. In a paper on chlorine or oxygenated muriatic
+acid, read before the Academy of Sciences at Paris in April
+1785, and published in the <i>Journal de Physique</i> for May of the
+same year (vol. xxvi. p. 325), he mentions that he had tried the
+effect of the gas in bleaching cloth, and found that it answered
+perfectly. This idea is still further developed in a paper on the
+same substance, published in the <i>Journal de Physique</i> for 1786.
+In 1786 he exhibited the experiment to James Watt, who,
+immediately upon his return to England, commenced a practical
+examination of the subject, and was accordingly the person
+who first introduced the new method of bleaching into Great
+Britain. We find from Watt&rsquo;s own testimony that chlorine was
+practically employed in the bleachfield of his father-in-law,
+Mr Macgregor, in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, in March 1787.
+Shortly thereafter the method was introduced at Aberdeen by
+Messrs Gordon, Barron &amp; Co., on information received from
+De Saussure through Professor Patrick Copland of Aberdeen.
+Thomas Henry of Manchester was the first to bleach with chlorine
+in the Lancashire district, and to his independent investigations
+several of the early improvements in the application of the
+material were due.</p>
+
+<p>In these early experiments, the bleacher had to make his own
+chlorine and the goods were bleached either by exposing them
+in chambers to the action of the gas or by steeping them in its
+aqueous solution. If we consider the inconveniences which must
+have arisen in working with such a pungent substance as free
+chlorine, with its detrimental effect on the health of the work-people,
+it will be readily understood that the process did not at
+first meet with any great amount of success. The first important
+improvement was the introduction in 1792 of <i>eau de Javel</i>,
+which was prepared at the Javel works near Paris by absorbing
+chlorine in a solution of potash (1 part) in water (8 parts) until
+effervescence began. The greatest impetus to the bleaching
+industry was, however, given by the introduction in 1799 of
+chloride of lime, or bleaching-powder, by Charles Tennant of
+Glasgow, whereby the bleacher was supplied with a reagent in
+solid form which contained up to one-third of its weight of available
+chlorine. Latterly frequent attempts have been made to
+replace bleaching-powder by hypochlorite of soda, which is
+prepared by the bleacher as required, by the electrolytic decomposition
+of a solution of common salt in specially constructed
+cells, but up to the present this mode of procedure has met with
+only a limited success (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alkali Manufacture</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Bleaching of Cotton.</i></p>
+
+<p>Cotton is bleached in the raw state, as yarn and in the piece.
+In the raw state, and as yarn, the only impurities present are
+those which are naturally contained in the fibres and which
+include cotton wax, fatty acids, pectic substances, colouring
+matters, albuminoids and mineral matter, amounting in all to
+some 5% of the weight of the material. Both in the raw state
+and in the manufactured condition cotton also contains small
+black particles which adhere firmly to the material and are
+technically known as &ldquo;motes.&rdquo; These consist of fragments of
+the cotton seed husk, which cannot be completely removed by
+mechanical means. The bleaching of cotton pieces is more
+complicated, since the bleacher is called upon to remove the
+sizing materials with which the manufacturer strengthens the
+warp before weaving (see below).</p>
+
+<p>In principle, the bleaching of cotton is a comparatively simple
+process in which three main operations are involved, viz. (1)
+boiling with an alkali; (2) bleaching the organic colouring matters
+by means of a hypochlorite or some other oxidizing agent;
+(3) souring, <i>i.e.</i> treating with weak hydrochloric or sulphuric
+acid. For loose cotton and yarn these three operations are
+sufficient, but for piece goods a larger number of operations is
+usually necessary in order to obtain a satisfactory result.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Loose Cotton</i>.&mdash;The bleaching of loose or raw cotton previous to
+spinning is only carried out to a very limited extent, and consists
+essentially in first steeping the material in a warm solution of soda
+for some hours, after which it is washed and treated with a solution
+of bleaching powder or sodium hypochlorite. It is then again
+washed, soured with weak sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, and
+ultimately washed free from acid. Careful treatment is necessary
+in order to avoid any undue matting of the fibres, while any drastic
+treatment, such as heating with caustic soda and soap, as used for
+other cotton materials, cannot be employed, since the natural wax
+would thereby be removed, and this would detract from the spinning
+qualities of the fibre. In case the cotton is not intended to be spun,
+but is to serve for cotton wool or for the manufacture of gun cotton,
+more drastic treatment can be employed, and is, in fact, desirable.
+Thus, cotton waste is first extracted with petroleum spirit or some
+other suitable solvent, in order to remove any mineral oil or grease
+which may be present. It is then boiled with dilute caustic soda
+and resin soap, washed, bleached white with bleaching-powder,
+washed, soured and finally washed free from acid. In these operations,
+a certain amount of matting is unavoidable, and it is consequently
+necessary to open out the material after drying, in
+scutchers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cotton Yarn</i>.&mdash;Cotton yarn is bleached in the form of cops, hanks
+or warps. In principle the processes employed are the same in each
+case, but the machinery necessarily differs. Most yarn is bleached
+in the hank, and it will suffice to give an account of this process
+only. The sequence of operations is the same as in the bleaching of
+cotton waste, and these can be conducted for small lots in an ordinary
+rectangular wooden vat as used in dyeing, in which the yarn is
+suspended in the liquor from poles which rest with their ends on
+the two longer sides of the vat. For bleaching yarn in bulk, however,
+this mode of procedure would involve so much manual labour that
+the process would become too expensive. It is, therefore, mainly
+with the object of economy that machinery has been introduced,
+by means of which large quantities can be dealt with at a time.</p>
+
+<p>The first operation, viz. that of boiling in alkali, is carried out in
+a &ldquo;kier,&rdquo; a large, egg-ended, upright cylindrical vessel, constructed
+of boiler-plate and capable of treating from one to three tons of yarn
+at a time. In construction, the kiers used for yarn bleaching are
+similar in construction to those used for pieces (see below). The
+yarn to be bleached is evenly packed in the kier, and is then boiled
+by means of steam with the alkaline lye (3-4% of soda ash or 2%
+caustic soda on the weight of the cotton being usually employed)
+for periods varying from six to twelve hours. It is essential that a
+thorough circulation of the liquor should be maintained during the
+boiling, and this is effected either by means of a steam injector, or
+in other ways. As a rule low pressure kiers (working up to 10 lb
+pressure) are employed for yarn bleaching, though some bleachers
+prefer to use high pressure kiers for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>When the boiling has continued for the requisite time (6-8 hours),
+the steam is shut off, and the kier liquor blown off, when the yarn is
+washed in the kier by filling the latter with water and then running
+off, this operation being repeated two or three times. The hanks are
+now transferred to a stone cistern provided with a false bottom,
+from beneath which a pipe connects the cistern with a well situated
+below the floor line. The well contains a solution of bleaching-powder,
+usually of 2° Tw. strength, and this is drawn up by means
+of a centrifugal brass pump and showered over the top of the goods
+through a perforated wooden tray, passing then by gravitation
+through the goods back into the well. The circulation is maintained
+for one and a half to two hours, when the yarn will be found to be
+white. The bleaching-powder solution is now allowed to drain off,
+and water is circulated through the cistern to wash out what bleaching
+powder remains in the goods. The souring is next carried out
+either in the same or in a separate cistern by circulating hydrochloric
+or sulphuric acid of 2° Tw. for about half an hour. This is also
+allowed to drain, and the yarn is thoroughly washed to remove all
+acid, when it is taken out and wrung or hydroextracted. At this
+stage the yarn may be dyed in light or bright shades without further
+treatment, but if it is to be sold as white yarn, it is blued. The
+blueing may either be effected by dyeing or tinting with a colouring
+matter like Victoria blue 4R or acid violet, or by treatment in wash
+stocks with a suspension of ultramarine in weak soap until the colour
+is uniformly distributed throughout the material. The yarn is now
+straightened out and dried.</p>
+
+<p>The bleaching of cotton yarn is a very straightforward process,
+and it is very seldom that either complications or faults arise,
+providing that reasonable care and supervision are exercised.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>raison d&rsquo;être</i> of the various operations is comparatively simple.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>51</span>
+The effect of boiling with alkali is to remove the pectic acid, the fatty
+acids, part of the cotton wax and the bulk of the colouring matter,
+while the albuminoids are destroyed and the motes swelled up. If
+soap be used along with the alkali, the whole of the wax is removed
+by emulsification. In the operation of bleaching proper, the calcium
+hypochlorite of the chloride of lime through coming into contact
+with the carbonic acid of the atmosphere suffers decomposition
+according to the equation, Ca(OCl)<span class="su">2</span> + CO<span class="su">2</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>O &#8594; CaCO<span class="su">3</span> + 2HOCl,
+and the hypochlorous acid thus liberated destroys the colouring
+matter still remaining from the first operation, by oxidation. At
+the same time the motes which were swelled up by the alkali are
+broken up into small fragments and are thus removed. In the
+operation of souring, the lime which has been deposited on the
+fibres during the treatment with bleaching powder is dissolved,
+while at the same time any other metallic oxides (iron, copper,
+&amp;c.) are removed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cotton Pieces</i>.&mdash;By far the largest bulk of cotton is bleached in
+the piece, as it can be more conveniently and more economically
+dealt with in this form than in any other. Though similar in principle
+to yarn bleaching, the process of piece bleaching is somewhat
+more complex because the pieces contain in addition to the natural
+impurities of the cotton a considerable amount of foreign matter
+in the form of size which has been incorporated with the warp before
+weaving, with the object of strengthening it. This size consists
+essentially of starch (farina), with additions of tallow, zinc chloride,
+and occasionally other substances such as paraffin wax, magnesium
+chloride, soap, &amp;c., all of which must be removed if a perfect bleach
+is to result. Besides, mineral oil stains from the machinery of the
+weaving-shed are of common occurrence in piece goods.</p>
+
+<p>Cotton pieces are bleached either for whites, for prints or for dyed
+goods. The processes employed for these different classes vary but
+slightly and only in detail. The most drastic bleach is that required
+for goods which are subsequently to be printed. For dyed goods,
+the main object is not so much to obtain a perfect white as to remove
+any impurities which might interfere with the dyeing, while avoiding
+the formation of any oxycellulose. In bleaching for whites (&ldquo;market
+bleaching&rdquo;) it is essential that the white should be as perfect as
+possible, and such goods are consequently invariably blued after
+bleaching.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:318px; height:241px" src="images/img51a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.&mdash;Section of a Dash-wheel.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>For small lots (1-20 pieces) the bleaching can be conducted on
+very simple machinery. Thus many small piece dyers conduct the
+whole of their bleaching on the jigger, a simple form of dyeing
+machine on which most cotton piece goods are dyed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dyeing</a></span>).
+For muslins, laces and other very light fabrics, which will not stand
+rough handling, the operations are conducted mainly by hand,
+washing being effected in the dash-wheel (fig. 1), which consists of a
+cylindrical box, revolving
+on its axis. It has
+four divisions, as shown
+by the dotted lines, and
+an opening into each
+division. A number of
+pieces are put into
+each, abundance of
+water is admitted behind,
+and the knocking
+of the pieces as they
+alternately dash from
+one side of the division
+to the other during the
+revolution of the wheel
+effects the washing.
+The process lasts from
+four to six minutes.</p>
+
+<p>For velveteens, corduroys,
+heavy drills, pocketings and other fabrics in which creasing
+has to be avoided as much as possible, the so-called &ldquo;open bleach&rdquo;
+is resorted to, which differs from the ordinary process chiefly in that
+the goods are treated throughout at full width.</p>
+
+<p>The great bulk of cotton pieces is bleached in rope form, <i>i.e.</i>
+stitched together end to end and laterally collapsed, so that they
+will pass through a ring of 4 to 5 in. in diameter.</p>
+
+<p>The first operation which the goods undergo on arriving in the
+grey-room of the bleachworks is that of stamping with tar or some
+other indelible material in order that they may be identified after
+passing through the whole process. They are then stitched together
+end to end by means of special sewing machines, the stitch being of
+such a nature (chain stitch) that the thread can be ripped out at one
+pull at the end of the operations.</p>
+
+<p><i>Singeing</i>.&mdash;In the condition in which the pieces leave the loom
+and come into the hands of the bleacher, the surface of the fabric
+is seen to be covered with a <i>nap</i> of projecting fibres which gives it a
+downy appearance. For some classes of goods this is not a disadvantage,
+but in the majority of cases, especially for prints where
+a clean surface is essential, the nap is removed before bleaching.
+This is usually effected by running the pieces at full width over a
+couple of arched copper plates heated to a full red heat by direct
+fire. An arrangement of the kind is shown in fig. 2, in which the
+singe-plates, <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, are mounted over the flues of a coal fire. The
+plate <i>b</i> is most highly heated, <i>a</i> being at the end of the flue farthest
+removed from the fire. The cloth enters over a rail A, and in passing
+over the plate <i>a</i> is thoroughly dried and prepared for the singeing
+it receives when it comes to the highly-heated plate <i>b</i>. A block <i>d</i>,
+carrying two rails in the space between the plates, can be raised or
+lowered so as to increase or lessen the pressure of the cloth against
+the plates, or, if necessary, to lift it quite free of contact with them.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:447px; height:295px" src="images/img51b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.&mdash;Section of Singe-stove.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The pieces on leaving the singeing machine are passed either
+through a water trough or through a steam box with the object of
+extinguishing sparks, and are then plaited down. The speed at
+which the pieces travel over the singe plates is necessarily considerable
+and varies with different classes of material.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In lieu of plates, a cast-iron cylinder is sometimes employed
+(&ldquo;roller singeing&rdquo;), the heating being effected by causing the flame
+of the fire to be drawn through the roller, which is carried on two
+small rollers at each end and revolves slowly in the reverse direction
+to that followed by the piece, thus exposing continuously a freshly
+heated surface and avoiding uneven cooling.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:362px; height:222px" src="images/img51c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.&mdash;Gas Singeing Apparatus.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>For figured pieces which have an uneven surface, it is obvious
+that plate or roller singeing would only affect the portions which
+project most, leaving the rest untouched. For such goods, &ldquo;gas
+singeing&rdquo; is employed, which consists in running the pieces over a
+non-luminous gas flame, the breadth of which slightly exceeds that of
+the piece, or in drawing the flame right through the piece.<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The
+construction of an ordinary gas singeing apparatus is seen in section
+in fig. 3. Coal gas mixed with air is sent under pressure through
+pipe <i>a</i> <span class="correction" title="amended from ino">into</span> the burners <i>b, b</i>, where the mixture burns with an intense
+heat. The cloth travels in the direction of the arrows, and in
+passing over the
+small nap rollers <i>c</i>
+comes into contact
+with the flame four
+times in succession
+before leaving the
+machine.</p>
+
+<p>Gas singeing is
+also used for plain
+goods, and being
+cleaner and under
+better control has
+largely replaced
+plate singeing.</p>
+
+<p>At this stage the
+goods which have
+been browned on
+the surface by singeing are ready for the bleaching operations. A
+great many innovations have been introduced in recent years in
+the bleaching of calico, but although it is generally admitted that
+in point of view of time and economy many of these processes
+offer considerable advantages, the old process, in which a lime boil
+precedes the other operations, is still the one which is most largely
+employed by bleachers in England. In this, the sequence of
+operations is the following&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Grey Washing</i>.&mdash;This operation (which is sometimes omitted)
+simply consists in running the pieces through an ordinary washing
+machine (as shown in fig. 5) through water in order to wet them out.
+On leaving the machine they are piled in a heap and left over night,
+when fermentation sets in, which results in the starch being to a
+large extent hydrolysed and rendered soluble in water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lime Boil</i>.&mdash;In this operation, which is also known as <i>bowking</i>
+(Ger. <i>beuchen</i>), the pieces are first run through milk of lime
+contained in an ordinary washing machine and of such a strength
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" id="page52"></a>52</span>
+that they take up about 4% of their weight of lime (CaO). They
+are then run over winches and guided through smooth porcelain
+rings (&ldquo;pot-eyes&rdquo;) into the kier, where they are evenly packed by
+boys who enter the vessel through the manhole at the top. It is
+of the greatest importance that the goods should be evenly packed,
+for, if channels or loosely-packed places are left, the liquor circulating
+through the kier, when boiling is subsequently in progress, will
+follow the line of least resistance, and the result is an uneven
+treatment. Of the numerous forms of kier in use, the injector kier is
+the one most generally adopted. This consists of an egg-ended
+cylindrical vessel constructed of stout boiler plate and shown in
+sectional elevation in fig. 4. The kier is from 10 to 12 ft. in height
+and from 6 to 7 ft. in diameter, and stands on three iron legs riveted
+to the sides, but not shown in the figure. The bottom exit pipe E
+is covered with a shield-shaped false bottom of boiler plate, or (and
+this is more usual) the whole bottom of the kier is covered with large
+rounded stones from the river bed, the object in either case being
+simply to provide space for the accumulation of liquor and to prevent
+the pipe E being blocked. The cloth is evenly packed up to within
+about 3 to 4 ft. of the manholes M, when lime water is run in through
+the liquor pipe until the level of the liquid reaches within about 2 ft.
+of the top of the goods. The manholes are now closed, and steam
+is turned on at the injector J by opening the valve <i>v</i>. The effect
+of this is to suck the liquor through E, and to force it up through
+pipe P into the top of the kier, where it dashes against the umbrella-shaped
+shield U and is distributed over the pieces, through which
+it percolates, until on arriving at E it is again carried to the top of
+the kier, a continuous circulation being thus effected. As the
+circulation proceeds, the steam condensing in the liquor rapidly
+heats the latter to the boil, and as soon as, in the opinion of the foreman,
+all air has been expelled, the blow-through tap is closed and
+the boiling is continued for periods varying from six to twelve
+hours under 20-60 &#8468; pressure. Steam is now turned off, and by
+opening the valve V the liquor, which is of a dark-brown colour, is
+forced out by the pressure of the steam it contains.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:455px; height:642px" src="images/img52a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span> 4.&mdash;High Pressure Blow-through Kier.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The pieces are now run through a continuous washing machine,
+which is provided with a plentiful supply of water. The machine,
+which is shown in fig. 5, consists essentially of a wooden vat, over
+which there is a pair of heavy wooden (sycamore) bowls or squeezers.
+The pieces enter the machine at each end, as indicated by the arrows,
+and pass rapidly through the bowls down to the bottom of the vat
+over a loose roller, thence between the first pair of guide pegs through
+the bowls again, and travel thus in a spiral direction until they arrive
+at the middle of the machine, when they leave at the side opposite
+to that on which they entered. The same type of machine is used
+for liming, chemicking, and souring.</p>
+
+<p>The next operation is the &ldquo;grey sour,&rdquo; in which the goods are
+run through a washing machine containing hydrochloric acid of
+2° Tw. strength, with the object of dissolving out the lime which
+the goods retain in considerable quantity after the lime boil. The
+goods are then well washed, and are now boiled again in the ash
+bowking kier, which is similar in construction to the lime kier, with
+soda ash (3%) and a solution of rosin (1½%) in caustic soda (1¼%)
+for eight to ten hours. For white bleaching the rosin soap is omitted,
+soda ash alone being employed.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:598px" src="images/img52b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span> 5.&mdash;Roller Washing Machine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The pieces are now washed free from alkali and the bleaching
+proper or &ldquo;chemicking&rdquo; follows. This operation may be effected
+in various ways, but the most efficient is to run the goods in a
+washing machine through bleaching powder solution at ½°-1° Tw.,
+and allow them to lie loosely piled over night, or in some cases for
+a longer period. They are now washed, run through dilute sulphuric
+or hydrochloric acid at 2° Tw. (&ldquo;white sour&rdquo;) and washed again.
+Should the white not appear satisfactory at this stage (and this is
+usually the case with very heavy or dense materials), they are boiled
+again in soda ash, chemicked with bleaching powder at <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>° Tw. or
+even weaker, soured and washed. It is of the utmost importance
+that the final washing should be as thorough as possible, in order
+to completely remove the acid, for if only small quantities of the
+latter are left in the goods, they are liable to become tender in the
+subsequent drying, through formation of hydrocellulose.</p>
+
+<p>The modern processes of bleaching cotton pieces differ from the
+one described above, chiefly in that the lime boil is entirely dispensed
+with, its place being taken by a treatment in the kier with caustic
+soda (or a mixture of caustic soda and soda ash) and resin soap.
+The best known and probably the most widely practised of these
+processes is one which was worked out by the late M. Horace
+Koechlin in conjunction with Sir William Mather, and this differs
+from the old process not only in the sequence of the operations but
+also in the construction of the kier. This consists of a horizontal
+egg-ended cylinder, and is shown in transverse and longitudinal
+sections in figs. 6 and 7. One of the ends E constitutes a door
+which can be raised or lowered by means of the power-driven chain
+C.  The goods to be bleached are packed in wagons W outside the
+kier, and when filled these are pushed home into the kier, so that the
+pipes p fit with their flanges on to the fixed pipes at the bottom of
+the kier. The heating is effected by means of steam pipes at the
+lowest extremity of the kier, while the circulation of the liquor is
+brought about by means of the centrifugal pump P, which draws
+the liquor through the pipes p from beneath the false bottoms of the
+wagons and showers it over distributors D on to the goods. By
+this mode of working a considerable economy is effected in point of
+time, as the kier can be worked almost continuously; for as soon
+as one lot of goods has been boiled, the wagons are run out and two
+freshly-packed wagons take their place. The following is the
+sequence of operations:&mdash;The goods are first steeped over night in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" id="page53"></a>53</span>
+dilute sulphuric acid, after which they are washed and run through
+old kier liquor from a previous operation. They are then packed
+evenly in the wagons which are pushed into the kier, and, the door
+having been closed, they are boiled for about eight hours at 7-15 lb
+pressure with a liquor containing soda ash, caustic soda, resin soap
+and a small quantity of sulphite of soda. The rest of the operations
+(chemicking, souring and washing) are the same as in the old process.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:522px; height:453px" src="images/img53a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 6.&mdash;The Mather Kier, cross section.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:780px; height:782px" src="images/img53b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 7.&mdash;The Mather Kier, longitudinal section.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A somewhat different principle is involved in the Thies-Herzig
+process. In this the kier is vertical, and the circulation of the liquor
+is effected by means of a centrifugal or other form of pump, while the
+heating of the liquor is brought about outside the kier in a separate
+vessel between the pump and the kier by means of indirect steam. The
+sequence of operations is similar to that adopted in the Mather-Koechlin
+process, differing chiefly from the latter in the first operation,
+which consists in running the goods, after singeing, through
+very dilute boiling sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, containing in
+either case a small proportion of hydrofluoric acid, and then running
+them through a steam box, the whole operation lasting from twenty
+to sixty seconds.</p>
+
+<p>Bleached by any of the above processes, the cloth is next passed
+over a mechanical contrivance known as a &ldquo;scutcher,&rdquo; which opens
+it out from the rope form to its full breadth, and is then dried on a
+continuous drying machine. Fig. 8 shows the appearance and
+construction of an improved form of the horizontal drying machine,
+which is in more common use for piece goods than the vertical form.
+The machine consists essentially of a series of copper or tinned iron
+cylinders, which are geared together so as to run at a uniform
+speed. Steam at 10-15 &#8468; pressure is admitted through the journalled
+bearings at one side of the machine, and the condensed water is
+forced out continuously through the bearings at the other side.
+The pieces pass in the direction of the arrow (fig. 9) over a scrimp
+rail or expanding roller round the first cylinder, then in a zigzag
+direction over all succeeding cylinders, and ultimately leave the
+machine dry, being mechanically plaited down at the other end.</p>
+
+<p>If the bleaching process has been properly conducted, the pieces
+should not only show a uniform pure white colour, but their strength
+should remain unimpaired. Careful experiments conducted by the
+late Mr. Charles O&rsquo;Neill showed in fact that carefully bleached cotton
+may actually be stronger than in the unbleached condition, and
+this result has since been corroborated by others. Excessive blueing,
+which is frequently resorted to in order to cover the defects of
+imperfect bleaching, can readily be detected by washing a sample of
+the material in water, or, better still, in water containing a little
+ammonia, and then comparing with the original. The formation of
+oxycellulose during the bleaching process may either take place in
+boiling under pressure with lime or caustic soda in consequence of
+the presence of air in the kier, or through excessive action of bleaching
+powder, which may either result from the latter not being properly
+dissolved or being used too strong. Its detection may be effected by
+dyeing a sample of the bleached
+cotton in a cold, very dilute
+solution of methylene blue for
+about ten minutes, when any
+portions of the fabric in which
+the cellulose has been converted
+into oxycellulose will
+assume a darker colour than
+the rest. The depth of the
+colour is at the same time an
+indication of the extent to
+which such conversion has taken
+place. Most bleached cotton
+contains some oxycellulose, but
+as long as the formation has not
+proceeded far enough to cause
+tendering, its presence is of no
+importance in white goods. If,
+on the other hand, the cotton
+has to be subsequently dyed
+with direct cotton colours
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dyeing</a></span>), the presence of
+oxycellulose may result in uneven
+dyeing. Tendering of the
+pieces, due to insufficient washing
+after the final souring
+operation, is a common defect in
+bleached goods. As a rule the
+free acid can be detected by
+extracting the tendered material
+with distilled water and adding
+to the extract a drop of methyl
+orange solution, when the latter
+will turn pink if free acid be
+present. Other defects which
+may occur in bleached goods are
+iron stains, mineral oil stains,
+and defects due to the addition
+of paraffin wax in the size.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Bleaching of Linen.</i></p>
+
+<p>The bleaching of linen is
+a much more complicated
+and tedious process than the
+bleaching of cotton. This is
+due in part to the fact that in
+linen the impurities amount to
+20% or more of the weight of
+the fibre, whereas in cotton
+they do not usually exceed 5%. Furthermore these impurities,
+which include colouring matter, intracellular substances
+and a peculiar wax known as &ldquo;flax wax,&rdquo; are more
+difficult to attack than those which are present in cotton, and
+the difficulty is still further enhanced in the case of piece
+goods owing to their dense or impervious character.</p>
+
+<p>Till towards the end of the 18th century the bleaching of linen
+both in the north of Ireland and in Scotland was accomplished
+by bowking in cows&rsquo; dung and souring with sour milk, the pieces
+being exposed to light on the grass between these operations for
+prolonged periods. Subsequently potash and later on soda
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>54</span>
+was substituted for the cows&rsquo; dung, while sour milk was replaced
+by sulphuric acid. This &ldquo;natural bleach&rdquo; is still in use in
+Holland, a higher price being paid for linen bleached in this way
+than for the same material bleached with the aid of bleaching
+powder. In the year 1744 Dr. James Ferguson of Belfast received
+a premium of £300 from the Irish Linen Board for the application
+of lime in the bleaching of linen. Notwithstanding this reward,
+the use of lime in the bleaching of linen was for a long time
+afterwards forbidden in Ireland under statutory penalties, and so
+late as 1815 Mr Barklie, a respectable linen bleacher of Linen
+Vale, near Keady, was &ldquo;prosecuted for using lime in the whitening
+of linens in his bleachyard.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:741px; height:548px" src="images/img54a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 8.&mdash;Mather &amp; Platt&rsquo;s Horizontal Drying Machine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The methods at present employed for the bleaching of linen
+are, except in one or two unimportant particulars, the same as
+were used in the middle of the 19th century. In principle they
+resemble those used in cotton bleaching, but require to be frequently
+repeated, while an additional operation, which is a relic
+of the old-fashioned process, viz. that of &ldquo;grassing&rdquo; or &ldquo;crofting,&rdquo;
+is still essential for the production of the finest whites.
+Considerably more care has to be exercised in linen bleaching
+than is the case with cotton, and the process consequently
+necessitates a greater amount of manual labour. The practical
+result of this is that whereas cotton pieces can be bleached and
+finished in less than a week, linen pieces require at least six weeks.
+Many attempts have naturally been made to shorten and cheapen
+the process, but without success. The use of stronger reagents
+and more drastic treatment, which would at first suggest itself,
+incurs the risk of injury to the fibre, not so much in respect to
+actual tendering as to the destruction of its characteristic gloss,
+while if too drastic a treatment is employed at the beginning
+the colouring matter is liable to become set in the fibre, and it is
+then almost impossible to remove it. Among the many modern
+improvements which have been suggested, mention may be made
+of the use of hypochlorite of soda in place of bleaching powder,
+the use of oil in the first treatment in alkali (Cross &amp; Parkes),
+while de Keukelaere suggests the use of sodium sulphide for
+this purpose. With the object of dispensing with the operation
+of grassing, which besides necessitating much manual labour
+is subject to the influences of the atmospheric conditions, Siemens
+&amp; Halske of Berlin have suggested exposure of the goods in a
+chamber to the action of electrolytically prepared ozone. Jardin
+seeks to achieve the same object by steeping the linen in dilute
+nitric acid.</p>
+
+<p>Since the qualities of linen which are submitted to the bleacher
+vary considerably, and the mode of treatment has to be varied
+accordingly, it is not possible to give more than a bare outline
+of linen bleaching.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Linen is bleached in the yarn and in the piece. Whenever one
+of the operations is repeated, the strength of the reagent is
+successively diminished. In yarn-bleaching the sequence of the
+operations is about as follows:&mdash;(1)
+Boil in kier with soda ash. (2) Reel
+in bleaching powder. This operation,
+which is peculiar to linen bleaching,
+consists in suspending the hanks from
+a square roller into bleaching powder
+solution contained in a shallow stone
+trough. The roller revolves slowly, so
+that the hanks, while passing continuously
+through the bleaching powder,
+are for the greater part of the time
+being exposed to the air. (3) Sour in
+sulphuric acid. (4) Scald in soda ash.
+(The term &ldquo;scalding&rdquo; means boiling
+in a kier.) (5) Reel in bleaching powder.
+(6) Sour in sulphuric acid. (7)
+Scald in soda ash. (8) Dip, <i>i.e.</i> steep
+in bleaching powder. (9) Sour in
+sulphuric acid. (10) Scald in soda ash.
+(11) Dip in bleaching powder. (12)
+Sour in sulphuric acid. For a full
+white, two more operations are usually
+required, viz. (13) scald in soda ash,
+and (14) dip in bleaching powder.
+Washing intervenes between all these
+operations.</p>
+
+<p>Pieces are not stamped as in the
+case of cotton, but thread-marked by
+hand with cotton dyed Turkey red.
+They are then sewn together end to
+end, and subjected to the following
+operations:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Boil with lime in kier.</p>
+
+<p>The pieces are now separated and
+made up into bundles (except in the
+case of very light linens, which may
+pass through the whole of the operations in rope form) and soured
+with sulphuric acid.</p>
+
+<p>First lye boil with soda ash and caustic soda.</p>
+
+<p>Second lye boil. For some classes of goods no less than six lye
+boils may be required.</p>
+
+<p>Grass between lye boils (according to their number).</p>
+
+<p>Rub with rubbing boards. This is also a speciality in linen
+bleaching, and consists of a mechanical treatment with soft soap,
+the object of which is to remove black stains in the yarn.</p>
+
+<p>Bleach with hypochlorite of soda.</p>
+
+<p>Scald. The two latter treatments are repeated three to five times,
+each series constituting a &ldquo;turn.&rdquo; Grassing intervenes between
+each turn, and in some instances the pieces are rubbed before the
+last soda boil.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:492px; height:225px" src="images/img54b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 9.&mdash;Diagram showing the Horizontal Drying Machine
+threaded with Cloth.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The pieces are next steeped in large vessels (kiers) in weak hypochlorite
+of soda, and then in weak sulphuric acid, these treatments
+being repeated several times.</p>
+
+<p>Ultimately the goods are mill-washed, blued with smalt and dried.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Bleaching of other Vegetable Textile Fabrics.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Hemp</i> may be bleached by a process similar to that used for
+linen, but this is seldom done owing to the expense entailed.
+<i>China grass</i> is bleached like cotton. <i>Jute</i> contains in its raw
+state a considerable amount of colouring matter and intracellular
+substance. Since the individual fibres are very short, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page55" id="page55"></a>55</span>
+complete removal of the latter would be attended by a disintegration
+of the material. Although it is possible to bleach jute
+white, this is seldom if ever carried out on a large scale owing
+to the great expense involved. A half-bleach on jute is obtained
+by steeping the goods alternately in bleaching powder (or hypochlorite
+of soda) and sulphuric acid, washing intervening. For
+a cream these treatments are repeated.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Bleaching of Straw.</i></p>
+
+<p>In the Luton district, straw is bleached principally in the form
+of plait, in which form it is imported. The bleaching is effected
+by steeping the straw for periods varying from twelve hours to
+several days in fairly strong alkaline peroxide of hydrogen.
+The number of baths depends upon the quality of straw and the
+degree of whiteness required. Good whites are thus obtained,
+and no further process would be necessary if the hats had not
+subsequently to be &ldquo;blocked&rdquo; or pressed at a high temperature
+which brings about a deterioration of the colour. After
+bleaching with peroxide and drying, the straw consequently
+undergoes a further process of sulphuring, <i>i.e.</i> exposure to gaseous
+sulphurous acid. Panama hats are bleached after making up,
+but in this case only peroxide of hydrogen is used and a very
+lengthy treatment entailing sometimes fourteen days&rsquo; steeping
+is required.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Bleaching of Wool.</i></p>
+
+<p>In the condition in which it is delivered to the manufacturers
+wool is generally a very impure article, even if it has been washed
+on the sheep&rsquo;s back before shearing. The impurities which it
+contains consist in the main of the natural grease (in reality
+a kind of wax) exuded from the skin of the sheep and technically
+known as the &ldquo;yolk,&rdquo; the dried-up perspiration from the body
+of the sheep; technically called &ldquo;suint,&rdquo; and dust, dirt, burrs,
+&amp;c., which mechanically adhere to the sticky surfaces of the
+fibres. In this condition wool is quite unfit for any manufacturing
+purposes and must be cleansed before any mechanical operations
+can be commenced. Formerly the washing was effected in stale
+urine, which owed its detergent properties mainly to the presence
+of ammonium carbonate. The stale urine or <i>lant</i> was diluted
+with four to five times its bulk of water, and in this liquor, heated
+to 40°-50° C., the washing was effected.</p>
+
+<p>At the present day this method has been entirely abandoned,
+the washing or &ldquo;scouring&rdquo; being effected with soap, assisted
+by ammonia, potash, soda or silicate of soda. The finest qualities
+of wool are washed with soft soap and potash, while for
+inferior qualities, cheaper detergents are employed. The
+operation is in principle perfectly simple, the wool being submerged
+in the warm soap solution, where it is moved about with
+forks and then taken out and allowed to drain. A second
+treatment in weaker soap serves to complete the process. In
+dealing with large quantities, wool-washing machines are employed,
+which consist essentially of long cast-iron troughs which
+contain the soap solution. The wool to be washed is fed in at
+one end of the machine and is slowly propelled to the other end
+by means of a system of mechanically-driven forks or rakes. As
+it passes from the machine, it is squeezed through a pair of rollers.
+Three such machines are usually required for efficient washing,
+the first containing the strongest and the third the weakest soap.</p>
+
+<p>The washing of wool is in the main a mechanical process, in
+which the water dissolves out the suint while the soap emulsifies
+the yolk and thus removes it from the fibre. The attendant
+earthy impurities pass mechanically into the surrounding liquid
+and are swilled away.</p>
+
+<p>In some works the wool is washed first with water alone, the
+aqueous extract thus obtained being evaporated to dryness and
+the residue calcined. A very good quality of potash is thus
+obtained as a by-product. In many works in Yorkshire and
+elsewhere, the dirty soap liquors obtained in wool-washing are
+not allowed to run to waste, but are run into tanks and there
+treated with sulphuric acid. The effect of this treatment
+is to decompose the soap, and the fatty acids along with the
+wool-grease rise as a magma to the surface. The purified product
+is known in the trade as &ldquo;Yorkshire grease.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Attempts have been made from time to time to extract the
+natural grease from wool by means of organic solvents, such as
+carbon bisulphide, carbon tetrachloride, petroleum spirit, &amp;c.,
+but have not met with much success.</p>
+
+<p>Worsted yarn spun on the English system, as well as woollen
+yarn and fabrics made from them, contain oil which has been
+incorporated with the wool to facilitate the spinning. This oil
+must be got rid of previous to bleaching, and this is effected by
+scouring in warm soap with or without the assistance of alkalis.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The actual bleaching of wool may be effected in two ways, viz.
+by treating the material either with sulphurous acid or with hydrogen
+peroxide. Sulphurous acid may either be applied in the gaseous
+form or in solution as bisulphite of soda. In working by the first
+method, which is technically known as &ldquo;stoving,&rdquo; the scoured yarn
+is wetted in very weak soap containing a small amount of blue
+colouring matter, wrung or hydro-extracted and then suspended in
+a chamber or stove. Sulphur contained in a vessel on the floor of
+the chamber is now lighted, and the door having been closed, is
+allowed to burn itself out. The goods are left thus exposed to the
+sulphur dioxide overnight, when they are taken out and washed
+in water. For piece goods a somewhat different arrangement is
+employed, the pieces passing through a slit into a chamber supplied
+with sulphur dioxide, then slowly up and down over a large number
+of rollers and ultimately emerging again at the same slit. Wool
+may also be bleached by steeping in a fairly strong solution of
+bisulphite of soda and then washing well in water. Wool bleached
+with sulphurous acid or bisulphite is readily affected by alkalis,
+the natural yellow colour returning on washing with soap or soda.
+A more permanent bleach is obtained by steeping the wool in
+hydrogen peroxide (of 12 volumes strength), let down with about
+three times its bulk of water and rendered slightly alkaline with
+ammonia or silicate of soda. Black or brown wools cannot be
+bleached white, but when treated with peroxide they assume a
+golden colour, a change which is frequently desired in human hair.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Bleaching of Silk.</i></p>
+
+<p>In raw silk, the fibre proper is uniformly coated with a proteid
+substance known as <i>silk-gum, silk-glue</i> or <i>sericine</i> which amounts
+to 19-25% of the weight of the material, and it is only after the
+removal of this coating that the characteristic properties of the
+fibre become apparent. This is effected by the process of
+&ldquo;discharging&rdquo; or &ldquo;boiling-off,&rdquo; which consists in suspending the
+hanks of raw silk over poles or sticks in a vat containing a strong
+hot soap solution (30% of soap on the weight of the silk). The
+liquor is kept just below boiling point for two or three hours, the
+hanks being turned from time to time. During the process, the
+sericine at first swells up considerably, the fibres becoming
+slippery, but as the operation proceeds it passes into solution.
+It is important that only soft water should be used for boiling-off
+since calcareous impurities are liable to mar the lustre of the silk.</p>
+
+<p>The silk is now rinsed in weak soda solution and wrung. In this
+condition it is suitable for being dyed, but if it is to be bleached,
+the hanks are tied up loosely with smooth tape, put into coarse
+linen bags to prevent the silk becoming entangled, and boiled
+again in soap solution which is half as strong as that used in the
+first operation. The hanks are now taken out, rinsed in a weak
+soda solution, washed in water and wrung.</p>
+
+<p>The actual bleaching of silk is usually effected by stoving as in
+the case of wool, with this difference, that the operation is repeated
+several times and blueing or tinting with other colours is effected
+after bleaching. Silk may also be bleached with peroxide of
+hydrogen, but this method is only used for certain qualities of
+spun silk and for tussore.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Ornamental feathers</i> are best bleached by steeping in peroxide of
+hydrogen, rendered slightly alkaline by the addition of ammonia.
+The same treatment is applied to the bleaching of <i>ivory</i>. If peroxide
+of hydrogen could be prepared at a moderate cost, it would doubtless
+find a much more extensive application in bleaching, since it combines
+efficiency with safety, and gives good results with both vegetable and
+animal substances.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. K.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Besides being used for cotton goods, plate singeing is also employed
+for certain classes of worsted goods (alpacas, bunting, &amp;c.),
+and for most union goods (cotton warp and worsted weft).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A machine working on this principle has been constructed by
+F. Binder, and the makers of the machine (Messrs Mather &amp; Platt,
+Ltd.) claim that it does better service than the machines constructed
+on the older principle.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLEAK,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Blick</span> (<i>Alburnus lucidus</i>), a small fish of the
+Cyprinid family, allied to the bream and the minnow, but with
+a more elongate body, resembling a sardine. It is found in
+European streams, and is caught by anglers, being also a favourite
+in aquariums. The well-known and important industry of
+&ldquo;Essence Orientale&rdquo; and artificial pearls, carried on in France
+and Germany with the crystalline silvery colouring matter of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page56" id="page56"></a>56</span>
+the bleak, was introduced from China about the middle of the
+17th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLEEK, FRIEDRICH<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (1793-1859), German Biblical scholar,
+was born on the 4th of July 1793, at Ahrensbök, in Holstein, a
+village near Lübeck. His father sent him in his sixteenth year
+to the gymnasium at Lübeck, where he became so much interested
+in ancient languages that he abandoned his idea of a legal
+career and resolved to devote himself to the study of theology.
+After spending some time at the university of Kiel, he went to
+Berlin, where, from 1814 to 1817, he studied under De Wette,
+Neander and Schleiermacher. So highly were his merits
+appreciated by his professors&mdash;Schleiermacher was accustomed
+to say that he possessed a special <i>charisma</i> for the science of
+&ldquo;Introduction&rdquo;&mdash;that in 1818 after he had passed the examinations
+for entering the ministry he was recalled to Berlin as
+<i>Repetent</i> or tutorial fellow in theology, a temporary post which
+the theological faculty had obtained for him. Besides discharging
+his duties in the theological seminary, he published
+two dissertations in Schleiermacher&rsquo;s and G.C.F. Lücke&rsquo;s
+<i>Journal</i>(1819-1820,1822), one on the origin and composition of the
+Sibylline Oracles &ldquo;Über die Entstehung und Zusammensetzung
+der Sibyllinischen Orakel,&rdquo; and another on the authorship and
+design of the Book of Daniel, &ldquo;Über Verfasser und Zweck des
+Buches Daniel.&rdquo; These articles attracted much attention, and
+were distinguished by those qualities of solid learning, thorough
+investigation and candour of judgment which characterized
+all his writings. Bleek&rsquo;s merits as a rising scholar were recognized
+by the minister of public instruction, who continued his
+stipend as <i>Repetent</i> for a third year, and promised further
+advancement in due time. But the attitude of the political
+authority underwent a change. De Wette was dismissed from
+his professorship in 1819, and Bleek, a favourite pupil, incurred
+the suspicion of the government as an extreme democrat.
+Not only was his stipend as <i>Repetent</i> discontinued, but his
+nomination to the office of professor extraordinarius, which
+had already been signed by the minister Karl Altenstein, was
+withheld. At length it was found that Bleek had been confounded
+with a certain Baueleven Blech, and in 1823 he received
+the appointment.</p>
+
+<p>During the six years that Bleek remained at Berlin, he twice
+declined a call to the office of professor ordinarius of theology,
+once to Greifswald and once to Königsberg. In 1829, however,
+he was induced to accept Lücke&rsquo;s chair in the recently-founded
+university of Bonn, and entered upon his duties there in the
+summer of the same year. For thirty years he laboured with
+ever-increasing success, due not to any attractions of manner or
+to the enunciation of novel or bizarre opinions, but to the soundness
+of his investigations, the impartiality of his judgments, and
+the clearness of his method. In 1843 he was raised to the office
+of consistorial councillor, and was selected by the university
+to hold the office of rector, a distinction which has not since
+been conferred upon any theologian of the Reformed Church.
+He died suddenly of apoplexy on the 27th of February 1859.</p>
+
+<p>Bleek&rsquo;s works belong entirely to the departments of Biblical
+criticism and exegesis. His views on questions of Old Testament
+criticism were &ldquo;advanced&rdquo; in his own day; for on all the
+disputed points concerning the unity and authorship of the
+books of the Old Covenant he was opposed to received opinion.
+But with respect to the New Testament his position was conservative.
+An opponent of the Tübingen school, his defence of
+the genuineness and authenticity of the gospel of St. John is
+among the ablest that have been written; and although on
+some minor points his views did not altogether coincide with
+those of the traditional school, his critical labours on the New
+Testament must nevertheless be regarded as among the most
+important contributions to the maintenance of orthodox
+opinions. His greatest work, his commentary on the epistle to
+the Hebrews (<i>Brief an die Hebräer erläutert durch Einleitung,
+Übersetzung, und fortlaufenden Commentar</i>, in three parts, 1828,
+1836 and 1840) won the highest praise from men like De Wette
+and Fr. Delitzsch. This work was abridged by Bleek for his
+college lectures, and was published in that condensed form in
+1868. In 1846 he published his contributions to the criticism
+of the gospels (<i>Beiträge zur Evangelien Kritik</i>, pt. i.), which
+contained his defence of St John&rsquo;s gospel, and arose out of a
+review of J.H.A. Ebrard&rsquo;s <i>Wissenschaftliche Kritik der Evangelischen Geschichte</i> (1842).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>After his death were published:&mdash;(1) His <i>Introduction to the Old
+Testament</i> (<i>Einleitung in das Alte Testament</i>), (3rd ed., 1869); Eng. trans. by G.H. Venables (from 2nd ed., 1869); in 1878 a new
+edition (the 4th) appeared under the editorship of J. Wellhausen,
+who made extensive alterations and additions; (2) his <i>Introduction
+to the New Testament</i> (3rd ed., W. Mangold, 1875), Eng. trans. (from
+2nd German ed.) by William Urwick (1869, 1870); (3) his <i>Exposition
+of the First Three Gospels</i> (<i>Synoptische Erklarung der drei ersten
+Evangelien</i>), by H. Holtzmann (1862); (4) his <i>Lectures on the
+Apocalypse</i> (<i>Vorlesungen über die Apokalypse</i>), (Eng. trans. 1875).
+Besides these there has also appeared a small volume containing
+<i>Lectures on Colossians, Philemon and Ephesians</i> (Berlin, 1865).
+Bleek also contributed many articles to the <i>Studien und Kritiken</i>.
+For further information as to Bleek&rsquo;s life and writings, see
+Kamphausen&rsquo;s article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopadie</i>; Frédéric Lichtenberger&rsquo;s <i>Histoire des idées religieuses en Allemagne</i>, vol. iii.;
+Diestel&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte des Allen Testamentes</i> (1869); and T.K. Cheyne&rsquo;s <i>Founders of Old Testament Criticism</i> (1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLEEK, WILHELM HEINRICH IMMANUEL<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1827-1875),
+German philologist, son of Friedrich Bleek, was born in 1827
+at Berlin. He studied first at Bonn and afterwards at Berlin,
+where his attention was directed towards the philological
+peculiarities of the South African languages. In his doctor&rsquo;s
+dissertation (Bonn, 1851), <i>De nominum generibus linguarum
+Africae Australis</i>, he endeavoured to show that the Hottentot
+language was of North African descent. In 1854 his health
+prevented him accompanying Dr W.B. Baikie in the expedition
+to the Niger; but in the following year he accompanied Bishop
+Colenso to Natal, and was enabled to prosecute his researches
+into the language and customs of the Kaffirs. Towards the close
+of 1856 he settled at Cape Town, and in 1857 was appointed
+interpreter by Sir George Grey. In 1859 he was compelled by
+ill health to visit Europe, and on his return in the following year
+he was made librarian of the valuable collection of books presented
+to the colony by Sir George Grey. In 1869 he visited
+England, where the value of his services was recognized by a
+pension from the civil list. He died at Cape Town on the 17th
+of August 1875. His works, which are of considerable importance
+for African and Australian philology, consist of the <i>Vocabulary
+of the Mozambique Language</i> (London, 1856); <i>Handbook of
+African, Australian and Polynesian Philology</i> (Cape Town and
+London, 3 vols., 1858-1863); <i>Comparative Grammar of, the
+South African Languages</i> (vol. i., London, 1869); <i>Reynard the
+Fox in South Africa, or Hottentot Fables and Tales</i> (London, 1864);
+<i>Origin of Language</i> (London, 1869).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:185px; height:170px" src="images/img56.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">BLENDE,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Sphalerite</span>, a naturally occurring zinc sulphide,
+ZnS, and an important ore of zinc. The name blende was used
+by G. Agricola in 1546, and is from the German <i>blenden</i>, to
+blind, or deceive, because the mineral resembles lead ore in
+appearance but contains no lead, and was consequently often
+rejected as worthless. Sphalerite, introduced by E.F. Glocker
+in 1847, has the same meaning (<span class="grk" title="sphaleros">&#963;&#966;&#945;&#955;&#949;&#961;&#972;&#962;</span>, deceptive), and
+so have the miners&rsquo; terms &ldquo;mock ore,&rdquo; &ldquo;false lead,&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;blackjack.&rdquo; The term &ldquo;blende&rdquo; was at one time used in a generic sense, and as such enters into the construction of
+several old names of German origin;
+the species under consideration is therefore
+sometimes distinguished as zinc-blende.</p>
+
+<p>Crystals of blende belong to that subclass
+of the cubic system in which there
+are six planes of symmetry parallel to
+the faces of the rhombic dodecahedron
+and none parallel to the cubic faces; in other words, the
+crystals are cubic with inclined hemihedrism, and have no
+centre of symmetry. The fundamental form is the tetrahedron.
+Fig. 1 shows a combination of two tetrahedra, in which the
+four faces of one tetrahedron are larger than the four faces of
+the other: further, the two sets of faces differ in surface
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>57</span>
+characters, those of one set being dull and striated, whilst
+those of the other set are bright and smooth. A common
+form, shown in fig. 2, is a combination of the rhombic
+dodecahedron with a three-faced tetrahedron <i>y</i> (311);
+the six faces meeting in each triad axis are often rounded
+together into low conical forms. The crystals are frequently
+twinned, the twin-axis coinciding with a triad axis; a rhombic
+dodecahedron so twinned (fig. 3) has no re-entrant angles. An
+important character of blende is the perfect dodecahedral
+cleavage, there being six directions of cleavage parallel to the
+faces of the rhombic dodecahedron, and angles between which
+are 60°.</p>
+
+<p>When chemically pure, which is rarely the case, blende is
+colourless and transparent; usually, however, the mineral is
+yellow, brown or black, and often opaque, the depth of colour
+and degree of transparency depending on the amount of iron
+present. The streak, or colour of the powder, is brownish or
+light yellow, rarely white. The lustre is resinous to adamantine,
+and the index of refraction high (2.369 for sodium light). The
+substance is usually optically isotropic, though sometimes it
+exhibits anomalous double refraction; fibrous zinc sulphide
+which is doubly refracting is to be referred to the hexagonal
+species wurtzite. The specific gravity is 4.0, and the hardness
+4. Crystals exhibit pyroelectrical characters, since they possess
+four uniterminal triad axes of symmetry.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:442px; height:194px" src="images/img57.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Crystals of blende are of very common occurrence, but owing
+to twinning and distortion and curvature of the faces, they are
+often rather complex and difficult to decipher. For this reason
+the mineral is not always readily recognized by inspection,
+though the perfect dodecahedral cleavage, the adamantine
+lustre, and the brown streak are characters which may be relied
+upon. The mineral is also frequently found massive, with a
+coarse or fine granular structure and a crystalline fracture;
+sometimes it occurs as a soft, white, amorphous deposit resembling
+artificially precipitated zinc sulphide. A compact
+variety of a pale liver-brown colour and forming concentric
+layers with a reniform surface is known in Germany as <i>Schalenblende</i>
+or <i>Leberblende</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A few varieties of blende are distinguished by special names,
+these varieties depending on differences in colour and chemical
+composition. A pure white blende from Franklin in New Jersey
+is known as cleiophane; snow-white crystals are also found at
+Nordmark in Vermland, Sweden. Black blende containing
+ferrous sulphide, in amounts up to 15 or 20% isomorphously
+replacing zinc sulphide, is known as marmatite (from Marmato
+near Guayabal in Colombia, South America) and christophite
+(from St Christophe mine at Breitenbrunn near Eibenstock in
+Saxony). Transparent blende of a red or reddish-brown colour,
+such as that found near Holywell in Flintshire, is known as
+&ldquo;ruby-blende&rdquo; or &ldquo;ruby-zinc.&rdquo; P&#345;ibramite is the name
+given to a cadmiferous blende from P&#345;ibram in Bohemia.
+Other varieties contain small amounts of mercury, tin, manganese
+or thallium. The elements gallium and indium were
+discovered in blende.</p>
+
+<p>Blende occurs in metalliferous veins, often in association with
+galena, also with chalcopyrite, barytes, fluorspar, &amp;c. In ore-deposits
+containing both lead and zinc, such as those filling
+cavities in the limestones of the north of England and of Missouri,
+the galena is usually found in the upper part of the deposit, the
+blende not being reached until the deeper parts are worked.
+Blende is also found sporadically in sedimentary rocks; for
+example, in nodules of clay-ironstone in the Coal Measures, in the
+cement-doggers of the Lias, and in the casts of fossil shells. It
+has occasionally been found on the old timbers of mines. In
+these cases the zinc sulphide has probably arisen from the
+reduction of sulphate by organic matter.</p>
+
+<p>Localities for fine crystallized specimens are numerous.
+Mention may be made of the brilliant black crystals from Alston
+Moor in Cumberland, St Agnes in Cornwall and Derbyshire.
+Yellow crystals are found at Kapnik-Bánya, near Nagy-Bánya
+in Hungary. Transparent yellow cleavage masses of large
+size occur in limestone in the zinc mines at Picos de
+Europa in the province of Santander, Spain. Beautiful
+isolated tetrahedra of transparent yellow blende are found
+in the snow-white crystalline dolomite of the Binnenthal in
+the Valais, Switzerland.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLENHEIM<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Blindheim</i>), a village of Bavaria, Germany,
+in the district of Swabia, on the left bank of the Danube, 30 m.
+N.E. from Ulm by rail, a few miles below Höchstädt. Pop. 700.
+It was the scene of the defeat of the French and Bavarians under
+Marshals Tallard and Marsin, on the 13th of August 1704, by the
+English and the Austrians under the duke of Marlborough and
+Prince Eugene. In consideration of his military services and
+especially his decisive victory, a princely mansion was erected by
+parliament for the duke of Marlborough near Woodstock in
+Oxfordshire, England, and was named Blenheim Palace after
+this place.</p>
+
+<p>The battle of Blenheim is also called Höchstädt, but the title
+accepted in England has the advantage that it distinguishes this
+battle from that won on the same ground a year previously, by
+the elector of Bavaria over the imperial general Styrum (9-20
+September 1703), and from the fighting between the Austrians
+under Krag and the French under Moreau in June 1800 (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolutionary Wars</a></span>). The ground between the
+hills and the marshy valley of the Danube forms a defile through
+which the main road from Donauwörth led to Ulm; parallel
+streams divide the narrow plain into strips. On one of these
+streams, the Nebel, the French and Bavarians (somewhat
+superior in numbers) took up their position facing eastward,
+their right flank resting on the Danube, their left in the under-features
+of the hilly ground, and their front covered by the Nebel,
+on which were the villages of Oberglau, Unterglau and Blenheim.
+The imperialist army of Eugene and the allies under Marlborough
+(52,000 strong) encamped 5 m. to the eastward along another
+stream, their flanks similarly protected. On the 2nd-13th of
+August 1704 Eugene and Marlborough set their forces in motion
+towards the hostile camps; several streams had to be crossed on
+the march, and it was seven o&rsquo;clock (five hours after moving off)
+when the British of Marlborough&rsquo;s left wing, next the Danube,
+deployed opposite Blenheim, which Tallard thereupon garrisoned
+with a large force of his best infantry, aided by a battery of
+24-pounder guns. The French and Bavarians were taken
+somewhat by surprise, and were arrayed in two separate armies,
+each with its cavalry on the wings and its foot in the centre.
+Thus the centre of the combined forces consisted of the cavalry
+of Marsin&rsquo;s right and of Tallard&rsquo;s left.</p>
+
+<p>Here was the only good ground for mounted troops, and
+Marlborough followed Tallard&rsquo;s example when forming up to
+attack, but it resulted from the dispositions of the French
+marshal that this weak point of junction of his two armies was
+exactly that at which decisive action was to be expected.
+Tallard therefore had a few horse on his right between the
+Danube and Blenheim, a mass of infantry in his centre at Blenheim
+itself, and a long line of cavalry supported by a few battalions
+forming his left wing in the plain, and connecting with the right
+of Marsin&rsquo;s army. This army was similarly drawn up. The
+cavalry right wing was in the open, the French infantry near
+Oberglau, which was strongly held, the Bavarian infantry next
+on the left, and finally the Bavarian cavalry with a force of foot
+on the extreme left in the hills. The elector of Bavaria commanded
+his own troops in person. Marlborough and Eugene on
+their part were to attack respectively Tallard and Marsin. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" id="page58"></a>58</span>
+right wing under Eugene had to make a difficult march over
+broken ground before it could form up for battle, and Marlborough
+waited, with his army in order of battle between
+Unterglau and Blenheim, until his colleague should be ready.
+At 12.30 the battle opened. Lord Cutts, with a detachment of
+Marlborough&rsquo;s left wing, attacked Blenheim with the utmost
+fury. A third of the leading brigade (British) was killed and
+wounded in the vain attempt to break through the strong defences
+of the village, and some French squadrons charged upon it as it
+retired; a colour was captured in the <i>mêlée</i>, but a Hessian
+brigade in second line drove back the cavalry and retook the
+colour. After the repulse of these squadrons, in which some
+British cavalry from the centre took part, Cutts again moved
+forward. The second attack, though pressed even more fiercely,
+fared no better than the first, and the losses were heavier than
+before. The duke then ordered Cutts to observe the enemy in
+Blenheim, and concentrated all his attention on the centre.
+Here, between Unterglau and Blenheim, preparations were being
+made, under cover of artillery, for the crossing of the Nebel, and
+farther up-stream a corps was sent to attack Oberglau. This
+attack failed completely, and it was not until Marlborough
+himself, with fresh battalions, drove the French back into
+Oberglau that the allies were free to cross the Nebel.</p>
+
+<p>In the meanwhile the first line of Marlborough&rsquo;s infantry had
+crossed lower down, and the first line of cavalry, following them
+across, had been somewhat severely handled by Tallard&rsquo;s cavalry.
+The squadrons under the Prussian general Bothmar, however,
+made a dashing charge, and achieved considerable temporary
+success. Eugene was now closely engaged with the elector of
+Bavaria, and both sides were losing heavily. But Eugene carried
+out his holding attack successfully. Marsin dared not reinforce
+Tallard to any extent, and the duke was preparing for the grand
+attack. His whole force, except the detachment of Cutts, was
+now across the Nebel, and he had formed it in several lines with
+the cavalry in front. Marlborough himself led the cavalry;
+the French squadrons received the attack at the halt, and were
+soon broken. Marsin&rsquo;s right swung back towards its own army.
+Those squadrons of Tallard&rsquo;s left which retained their order fell
+back towards the Danube, and a great gap was opened in the
+centre of the defence, through which the victorious squadrons
+poured. Wheeling to their left the pursuers drove hundreds of
+fugitives into the Danube, and Eugene was now pressing the
+army of Marsin towards Marlborough, who re-formed and faced
+northward to cut off its retreat. Tallard was already a prisoner,
+but in the dusk and confusion Marsin slipped through between
+the duke and Eugene. General Churchill, Marlborough&rsquo;s brother,
+had meanwhile surrounded the French garrison of Blenheim;
+and after one or two attempts to break out, twenty-four battalions
+of infantry and four regiments of dragoons, many of them the
+finest of the French army, surrendered.</p>
+
+<p>The losses of the allies are stated at 4500 killed and 7500
+wounded (British 670 killed and 1500 wounded). Of the French
+and Bavarians 11,000 men, 100 guns and 200 colours and
+standards were taken; besides the killed and wounded, the
+numbers of which vere large but uncertain&mdash;many were drowned
+in the Danube. Marsin&rsquo;s army, though it lost heavily, was
+drawn off in good order; Tallard&rsquo;s was almost annihilated.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLENNERHASSETT, HARMAN<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1765-1831), Irish-American
+lawyer, son of an Irish country gentleman of English stock
+settled in Co. Kerry, was born on the 8th of October 1765. He
+was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1790 was called
+to the Irish bar. After living for several years on the continent,
+he married in 1796 his niece, Margaret Agnew, daughter of
+Robert Agnew, the lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Man.
+Ostracised by their families for this step the couple decided to
+settle in America, where Blennerhassett in 1798 bought an
+island in the Ohio river about 2 m. below Parkersburg, West
+Virginia. Here in 1805 he received a visit from Aaron Burr (<i>q.v.</i>),
+in whose conspiracy he became interested, furnishing liberal funds
+for its support, and offering the use of his island as a rendezvous
+for the gathering of arms and supplies and the training of
+volunteers. When the conspiracy collapsed, the mansion and
+island were occupied and plundered by the Virginia militia.
+Blennerhassett fled, was twice arrested and remained a prisoner
+until after Burr&rsquo;s release. The island was then abandoned, and
+Blennerhassett was in turn a cotton planter in Mississippi, and
+a lawyer (1819-1822) in Montreal, Canada. After returning to
+Ireland, he died in the island of Guernsey on the 2nd of February
+1831. His wife, who had considerable literary talent and who
+published <i>The Deserted Isle</i> (1822) and <i>The Widow of the Rock
+and Other Poems</i> (1824), returned to the United States in 1840,
+and died soon afterward in New York City while attempting to
+obtain through Congress payment for property destroyed on the
+island.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See William H. Safford, <i>Life of Harman Blennerhassett</i> (Cincinnati,
+1853); W.H. Safford (editor), <i>The Blennerhassett Papers</i> (Cincinnati,
+1864); and &ldquo;The True Story of Harman Blennerhassett,&rdquo; by
+Therese Blennerhassett-Adams, in the <i>Century Magazine</i> for July
+1901, vol. lxii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLERA<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (mod. <i>Bieda</i>), an ancient Etruscan town on the Via
+Clodia, about 32 m. N.N.W. of Rome. It was of little importance,
+and is only mentioned by geographers and in inscriptions. It
+is situated on a long, narrow tongue of rock at the junction of
+two deep glens. Some remains of the town walls still exist, and
+also two ancient bridges, both belonging to the Via Clodia, and
+many tombs hewn in the rock&mdash;small chambers imitating the
+architectural forms of houses, with beams and rafters represented
+in relief. See G. Dennis, <i>Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria</i>, i. 207.
+There was another Blera in Apulia, on the road from Venusia to
+Tarentum.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLESSINGTON, MARGUERITE,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> <span class="sc">Countess of</span> (1789-1849),
+Irish novelist and miscellaneous writer, daughter of Edmund
+Power, a small landowner, was born near Clonmel, Co. Tipperary,
+Ireland, on the 1st of September 1789. Her childhood was made
+unhappy by her father&rsquo;s character and poverty,&mdash;and her early
+womanhood wretched by her compulsory marriage at the age
+of fifteen to a Captain Maurice St Leger Farmer, whose drunken
+habits brought him at last as a debtor to the king&rsquo;s bench prison,
+where, in October 1817, he died. His wife had left him some
+time before, and in February 1818 she married Charles John
+Gardiner, earl of Blessington. Of rare beauty, charm and wit,
+she was no less distinguished for her generosity and for the
+extravagant tastes which she shared with her husband, which
+resulted in encumbering his estates with a load of debt. In the
+autumn of 1822 they went abroad, spent four months of the next
+year at Genoa in close intimacy with Byron, and remained on
+the continent till Lord Blessington&rsquo;s death in May 1829. Some
+time before this they had been joined by Count D&rsquo;Orsay, who in
+1827 married Lady Harriet Gardiner, Lord Blessington&rsquo;s only
+daughter by a former wife. D&rsquo;Orsay, who had soon separated
+from his wife, now accompanied Lady Blessington to England
+and lived with her till her death. Their home, first at Seamore
+Place, and afterwards Gore House, Kensington, became a centre
+of attraction for whatever was distinguished in literature,
+learning, art, science and fashion. After her husband&rsquo;s death
+she supplemented her diminished income by contributing to
+various periodicals as well as by writing novels. She was for
+some years editor of <i>The Book of Beauty</i> and <i>The Keepsake</i>,
+popular annuals of the day. In 1834 she published her <i>Conversations
+with Lord Byron</i>. Her <i>Idler in Italy</i> (1839-1840), and
+<i>Idler in France</i> (1841) were popular for their personal gossip and
+anecdote, descriptions of nature and sentiment. Early in 1849,
+Count D&rsquo;Orsay left Gore House to escape his creditors; the
+furniture and decorations were sold, and Lady Blessington joined
+the count in Paris, where she died on the 4th of June 1849.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Her <i>Literary Life and Correspondence</i> (3 vols.), edited by R.R.
+Madden, appeared in 1855. Her portrait was painted in 1808 by
+Sir Thomas Lawrence.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLIDA,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> a town of Algeria, in the department of Algiers,
+32 m. by railway S.W. from Algiers, on the line to Oran.
+Pop. (1906) 16,866. It lies surrounded with orchards and
+gardens, 630 ft. above the sea, at the base of the Little Atlas,
+on the southern edge of the fertile plain of the Metija, and the
+right bank of the Wad-el-Kebir affluent of the Chiffa. The
+abundant water of this stream provides power for large corn
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>59</span>
+mills and several factories, and also supplies the town, with its
+numerous fountains and irrigated gardens. Blida is surrounded
+by a wall of considerable extent, pierced by six gates, and is
+further defended by Fort Mimieh, crowning a steep hill on the
+left bank of the river. The present town, French in character,
+has well-built modern streets with many arcades, and numbers
+among its buildings several mosques and churches, extensive
+barracks and a large military hospital. The principal square,
+the place d&rsquo;Armes, is surrounded by arcaded houses and shaded
+by trees. The centre of a fertile district, and a post on one of
+the main routes in the country, Blida has a flourishing trade,
+chiefly in oranges and flour. The orange groves contain over
+50,000 trees, and in April the air for miles round is laden with
+the scent of the orange blossoms. In the public gardens is a
+group of magnificent olive trees. The products of the neighbouring
+cork trees and cedar groves are a source of revenue
+to the town. In the vicinity are the villages of Joinville and
+Montpensier, which owe their origin to military camps established
+by Marshal Valée in 1838; and on the road to Medea
+are the tombs of the marabout Mahommed-el-Kebir, who died
+in 1580, and his two sons.</p>
+
+<p>Blida, <i>i.e. boleida</i>, diminutive of the Arab word <i>belad</i>, city,
+occupies the site of a military station in the time of the Romans,
+but the present town appears to date from the 16th century.
+A mosque was built by order of Khair-ed-din Barbarossa, and
+under the Turks the town was of some importance. In 1825
+it was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, but was speedily
+rebuilt on a site about a mile distant from the ruins. It was not
+till 1838 that it was finally held by the French, though they had
+been in possession for a short time eight years before. In
+April 1906 it was chosen as the place of detention of Behanzin,
+the ex-king of Dahomey, who died in December of that
+year.</p>
+
+<p>Blida is the chief town of a commune of the same name,
+having (1906) a population of 33,332.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLIGH, WILLIAM<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1754-1817), English admiral, was born
+of a good Cornish family in 1754. He accompanied Captain
+Cook in his second expedition (1772-1774) as sailing-master of
+the &ldquo;Resolution.&rdquo; During the voyage, the bread-fruit, already
+known to Dampier, was found by them at Otaheite; and after
+seeing service under Lord Howe and elsewhere, &ldquo;Bread-fruit
+Bligh,&rdquo; as he was nicknamed, was despatched at the end of 1787
+to the Pacific in command of H.M.S. &ldquo;Bounty,&rdquo; for the purpose
+of introducing it into the West Indies from the South Sea Islands.
+Bligh sailed from Otaheite, after remaining there about six
+months; but, when near the Friendly Islands, a mutiny (April
+28, 1789) broke out on board the &ldquo;Bounty,&rdquo; headed by
+Fletcher Christian, the master&rsquo;s mate, and Bligh, with eighteen
+others, was set adrift in the launch. The mutineers themselves
+settled on Pitcairn Island (<i>q.v.</i>), but some of them were afterwards
+captured, brought to England and in three cases executed.
+This mutiny, which forms the subject of Byron&rsquo;s Island, did
+not arise so much from tyranny on the part of Bligh as from
+attachments contracted between the seamen and the women
+of Otaheite. After suffering severely from hunger, thirst
+and storms, Bligh and his companions landed at Timor in the
+East Indies, having performed a voyage of about 4000 m. in
+an open boat. Bligh returned to England in 1790, and he was
+soon afterwards appointed to the &ldquo;Providence,&rdquo; in which he
+effected the purpose of his former appointment by introducing
+the bread-fruit tree into the West India Islands. He showed
+great courage at the mutiny of the Nore in 1797, and in the same
+year took part in the battle of Camperdown, where Admiral
+Duncan defeated the Dutch under De Winter. In 1801 he
+commanded the &ldquo;Glatton&rdquo; (54) at the battle of Copenhagen,
+and received the personal commendations of Nelson. In 1805
+he was appointed &ldquo;captain general and governor of New South
+Wales.&rdquo; As he made himself intensely unpopular by the
+harsh exercise of authority, he was deposed in January 1808
+by a mutiny headed by Major George Johnston of the 102nd
+foot, and was imprisoned by the mutineers till 1810. He returned
+to England in 1811, was promoted to rear-admiral in
+that year, and to vice-admiral in 1814. Major Johnston was
+tried by court martial at Chelsea in 1811, and was dismissed the
+service. Bligh, who was an active, persevering and courageous
+officer, died in London in 1817.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLIND, MATHILDE<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1841-1896), English author, was born
+at Mannheim on the 21st of March 1841. Her father was a
+banker named Cohen, but she took the name of Blind after her
+step-father, the political writer, Karl Blind (1826-1907), one
+of the exiled leaders of the Baden insurrection in 1848-1849,
+and an ardent supporter of the various 19th-century movements
+for the freedom and autonomy of struggling nationalities. The
+family was compelled to take refuge in England, where Mathilde
+devoted herself to literature and to the higher education of
+women. She produced also three long poems, &ldquo;The Prophecy
+of St Oran&rdquo; (1881), &ldquo;The Heather on Fire&rdquo; (1886), an indignant
+protest against the evictions in the Highlands, and
+&ldquo;The Ascent of Man&rdquo; (1888), which was to be the epic of the
+theory of evolution. She wrote biographies of George Eliot
+(1883) and Madame Roland (1886), and translated D.F. Strauss&rsquo;s
+<i>The Old Faith and the New</i> (1873-1874) and the <i>Memoirs
+of Marie Bashkirtseff</i> (1890). She died on the 26th of November
+1896, bequeathing her property to Newnham College,
+Cambridge.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete edition of her poems was edited by Mr Arthur Symons
+in 1900, with a biographical introduction by Dr Richard Garnett.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLIND HOOKEY,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a game of chance, played with a full pack
+of cards. The deal, which is an advantage, is decided as at
+whist, the cards being shuffled and cut as at whist. The dealer
+gives a parcel of cards to each player including himself. Each
+player puts the amount of his stake on his cards, which he must
+not look at. The dealer has to take all bets. He then turns up
+his parcel, exposing the bottom card. Each player in turn does
+the same, winning or losing according as his cards are higher
+or lower than the dealer&rsquo;s. Ties pay the dealer. The cards rank
+as at whist. The suits are of no importance, the cards taking
+precedence according to their face-value.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLINDING,<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> a form of punishment anciently common in many
+lands, being inflicted on thieves, adulterers, perjurers and other
+criminals. The inhabitants of Apollonia (Illyria) are said to
+have inflicted this penalty on their &ldquo;watch&rdquo; when found asleep
+at their posts. It was resorted to by the Roman emperors in
+their persecutions of the Christians. The method of destroying
+the sight varied. Sometimes a mixture of lime and vinegar, or
+barely scalding vinegar alone, was poured into the eyes. Sometimes
+a rope was twisted round the victim&rsquo;s head till the eyes
+started out of their sockets. In the middle ages the punishment
+seems to have been changed from total blindness to a permanent
+injury to the eyes, amounting, however, almost to blindness,
+produced by holding a red-hot iron dish or basin before the face.
+Under the forest laws of the Norman kings of England blinding
+was a common penalty. Shakespeare makes King John order
+his nephew Arthur&rsquo;s eyes to be burnt out.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLINDMAN&rsquo;S-BUFF<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (from an O. Fr. word, <i>buffe</i>, a blow,
+especially a blow on the cheek), a game in which one player is
+blindfolded and made to catch and identify one of the others,
+who in sport push him about and &ldquo;buffet&rdquo; him.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLINDNESS,<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> the condition of being blind (a common Teutonic
+word), <i>i.e.</i> devoid of sight (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vision</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eye</a></span>: <i>Diseases</i>).
+The data furnished in various countries by the census of 1901
+showed generally a decrease in blindness, due to the progress in
+medical science, use of antiseptics, better sanitation, control of
+infectious diseases, and better protection in shops and factories.
+Blindness is much more common in hot countries than in
+temperate and cold regions, but Finland and Iceland are exceptions
+to the general rule.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In hot countries the eyes are affected
+by the glaring sunlight, the dust and the dryness of the air.
+From statistics in Italy, France and Belgium, localities on the
+coast seem to have more blind persons than those at a distance
+from the sea.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" id="page60"></a>60</span> </p>
+
+<p>The following table gives the number of blind persons as reported
+in the census of each country. Unless otherwise stated, it refers to
+the statistics of 1900.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Country.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Number.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Number<br />per Million<br />of Population.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Austria</td> <td class="tcr rb">14,582</td> <td class="tcr rb">540</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Belgium</td> <td class="tcr rb">3448</td> <td class="tcr rb">487</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Canada</td> <td class="tcr rb">3279</td> <td class="tcr rb">610</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Denmark</td> <td class="tcr rb">1047</td> <td class="tcr rb">427</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">England</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,317</td> <td class="tcr rb">778</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">France</td> <td class="tcr rb">27,174</td> <td class="tcr rb">698</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Finland<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcr rb">3229</td> <td class="tcr rb">1191</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Germany</td> <td class="tcr rb">34,334</td> <td class="tcr rb">609</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Hungary</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,377</td> <td class="tcr rb">1006</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Ireland</td> <td class="tcr rb">4263</td> <td class="tcr rb">954</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Italy</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,160</td> <td class="tcr rb">1175</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Holland (1890)</td> <td class="tcr rb">2114</td> <td class="tcr rb">414</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Norway</td> <td class="tcr rb">1879</td> <td class="tcr rb">838</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Portugal</td> <td class="tcr rb">5650</td> <td class="tcr rb">1040</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Sweden</td> <td class="tcr rb">3413</td> <td class="tcr rb">664</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Switzerland (1895)</td> <td class="tcr rb">2107</td> <td class="tcr rb">722</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Scotland</td> <td class="tcr rb">3253</td> <td class="tcr rb">727</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Spain (1877)</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,608</td> <td class="tcr rb">1006</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb">Russia</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcr rb">about 2000</td></tr>
+<tr> <td class="tcl lb rb bb">United States (corrected census)</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">85,662</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1125</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Causes and Prevention</p>
+
+<p>There are many cases of complete or partial blindness which
+might have been prevented, and a knowledge of the best methods
+of prevention and cure should be spread as widely as possible.
+Magnus, Bremer, Steffen and Rössler are of opinion that 40% of
+the cases of blindness might have been prevented. Hayes gives
+33.35% as positively avoidable, 38.75% possibly avoidable,
+and 46.27% as a conservative estimate. Cohn regards blindness
+as certainly preventable in 33%, as probably preventable in
+43%, and as quite unpreventable in only 24%. If we take the
+lowest of these figures, and assume that 400 out of every 1000
+blind persons might have been saved from such a calamity,
+we realize the importance of preventative measures. For the
+physiology and pathology of the eye generally, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vision</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eye</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The great majority of these cases are due to infantile purulent
+ophthalmia. This arises from inoculation of the eyes with
+hurtful material at time of birth. If the contagious
+discharges are allowed to remain, violent inflammation
+<span class="sidenote">Ophthalmia.</span>
+is set up which usually ends in the loss of sight. It
+depends on the presence of a microbe, and the effective application
+of a weak solution of nitrate of silver is curative, if made in a
+proper manner at an early period of the case. In Germany,
+midwives are expressly prohibited by law from treating any
+affection of the eyes or eyelids of infants, however slight. On the
+appearance of the first symptoms, they are required to represent
+to the parents, or others in charge, that medical assistance is
+urgently needed, or, if necessary, they are themselves to report
+to the local authorities and the district doctor. Neglect of
+these regulations entails liability to punishment. Eleven of the
+United States of America have enacted laws requiring that, if
+one or both eyes of an infant should become inflamed, swollen or
+reddened at any time within two weeks of its birth, it shall be the
+duty of the midwife or nurse having charge of such infant to
+report in writing within six hours, to the health officer or some
+legally qualified physician, the fact that such inflammation,
+swelling or redness exists. The penalty for failure to comply is
+fine or imprisonment.</p>
+
+<p>The following weighty words, from a paper prepared by Dr
+Park Lewis, of Buffalo, N.Y., for the American Medical Association,
+show that laws are not sufficient to prevent evil, unless
+supported by strong public sentiment:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;When an enlightened, civilized and progressive nation quietly
+and passively, year after year, permits a multitude of its people unnecessarily
+to become blind, and more especially when one-quarter
+of these are infants, the reason for such a startling condition of
+affairs demands explanation. That such is the fact, practically all
+reliable ophthalmologists agree.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;From a summary of carefully tabulated statistics it has been
+demonstrated that at least four-tenths of all existing blindness
+might have been avoided had proper preventative or curative
+measures been employed, while one-quarter of this, or one-tenth of
+the whole, is due to <i>ophthalmia neonatorum</i>, an infectious, preventable
+and almost absolutely curable disease. Perhaps this statement
+will take on a new meaning when it is added that there are in the
+state of New York alone more than 6000, and in the United States
+more than 50,000 blind people; of these 600 in the one state, and
+5000 in the country, would have been saved from lives of darkness
+and unhappiness, in having lost all the joys that come through sight,
+and of more or less complete dependence&mdash;for no individual can be
+as self-sufficient without as with eyes&mdash;if a simple, safe and easily
+applied precautionary measure had been taken at the right time
+and in the right way to prevent this affliction. The following three
+vital facts are not questioned, but are universally accepted by those
+qualified to know:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;1. The ophthalmia of infancy is an infectious germ disease.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;2. By the instillation of a silver salt in the eyes of a new-born
+infant the disease is prevented from developing in all but an exceedingly
+small number of the cases in which it would otherwise have
+appeared.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;3. In practically all those few exceptional cases the disease is
+absolutely curable, if like treatment is employed at a sufficiently
+early period.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Since these facts are no longer subjects of discussion, but are
+universally accepted by all educated medical men, the natural
+inquiry follows: Why, as a common-sense proposition, are not
+these simple, harmless, preventive measures invariably employed,
+and why, in consequence of this neglect, does a nation sit quietly
+and indifferently by, making no attempt to prevent this enormous
+and needless waste of human eyes?</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The reasons are three-fold, and lie&mdash;first, with the medical
+profession; second, with the lay public; third, with the state.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;For the education of its blind children annually New York alone
+pays <i>per capita</i> at least $350, and a yearly gross sum amounting to
+much more than $100,000. If, as sometimes happens, the blind
+citizen is a dependent throughout a long life, the cost of maintenance
+is not less than $10,000, and the mere cost in money will be multiplied
+many times in that a productive factor, by reason of blindness,
+has been removed from the community.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;If, therefore, as an economic proposition, it were realized how
+vitally it concerns the state that not one child shall needlessly
+become blind, thereby increasing the public financial burden, there
+is no doubt that early and effective measures would be instituted to
+protect the state from this unnecessary and extravagant expenditure
+of public funds.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Eleven states have passed legislative enactments requiring that
+the midwife shall report each case to the proper health authority,
+and affixing a penalty for the failure to do so. As has been intimated,
+however, it is not by any means always under the ministration of
+midwives that these cases occur, and, like all laws behind which is
+not a strong and well-informed public sentiment, this law is rarely
+enforced. A more effective method must be devised. Every
+physician having to do with the parturient woman, every obstetrician,
+every midwife, must be frequently and constantly advised
+of the dangers and possibilities of this disease, the necessity of
+prevention, and the value of early and correct treatment. They
+must then have placed in their hands, ready for instant use, a safe
+and efficient preparation, issued by the health authorities as a
+guarantee as to its quality and efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;An important step was taken in this direction when a resolution
+was passed by the House of Delegates at the annual meeting of the
+New York State Medical Society, requesting the various health
+officers of the state to include <i>ophthalmia neonatorum</i> among
+contagious diseases which must be reported to the local boards of
+health.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The second essential, in order that the cause of infantile
+ophthalmia be abolished, is that a solution of the necessary silver
+salt be prepared under the authority of somebody capable of inspiring
+universal confidence, and that it be distributed by the health
+department of every state gratuitously to every obstetrician,
+physician or midwife qualified to care for the parturient woman.
+The nature of the solution, together with the character of the
+descriptive card which should accompany it, should be determined
+by a committee, chosen by the president of the American Medical
+Association, which should have among its members at least one
+representative ophthalmologist, one obstetrician and one sanitarian.
+The conclusions of this committee should be reported back to the
+House of Delegates, so that the preparation and its text should carry
+with it, on the great authority of this association, the assurance that
+the solution is entirely safe and necessary, and that its use should
+invariably be part of the toilet of every new-born child. The
+solution, probably silver nitrate, could be put up either by the state
+itself or by some trustworthy pharmacist, at an insignificant cost;
+its purity and sterility should be vouched for by the board of health
+of the state. It should be enclosed in specially prepared receptacles,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" id="page61"></a>61</span>
+each containing a special quantity, and so arranged that it may
+be used drop by drop. These, properly enclosed, accompanied by a
+brief lucid explanation of the danger of the disease, the necessity of
+this germicide, the method of its employment, and the right subsequent
+care of the eyes, should be sent to the obstetrician on the
+receipt of each birth certificate.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;I have said that responsibility for the indifference that is annually
+resulting in such frightful disaster lies primarily with the state,
+the public and the medical profession.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The state is already aroused to the necessity of taking effective
+measures to wipe out this controllable plague. Bills have been
+introduced in the legislature of Massachusetts and of New York,
+providing for the appointment of commissions for the blind, one of
+whose duties will be to study the causes of unnecessary blindness
+and to suggest preventative measures.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the most common diseases of the eye is trachoma, often
+called &ldquo;granular lids,&rdquo; because the inner surface of the lid
+seems to be covered with little granulations. The
+disease sometimes lasts for years without causing
+<span class="sidenote">Trachoma.</span>
+blindness, though it gives rise to great irritation. It is generally
+attended by a discharge, which is highly contagious, producing
+the same disease if it gets into other eyes. Want of cleanliness
+is one of the most important factors in the propagation of
+trachoma, hence its great prevalence in Oriental countries.
+Trachoma is very prevalent in Egypt, where those suffering
+from total or partial blindness are said to amount to 10%
+of the population. During Napoleon&rsquo;s Egyptian campaign,
+nearly every soldier, out of an army of 32,000 men, was affected.
+During the following twenty years the disease spread through
+almost all European armies. In the Belgian army, there was
+one trachomatous soldier out of every five, and up to 1834 no
+less than 4000 soldiers had lost both eyes and 10,000 one eye.
+It is a disease which is very common in workhouse schools,
+orphan asylums and similar establishments. Unlike ophthalmia
+of new-born children, it is difficult to cure, and a total separation
+of the diseased from the healthy children should be effected.</p>
+
+<p>About one-half of those who are blinded by injuries lose the
+second eye by sympathetic ophthalmia. It is a constant source
+of danger to those who retain an eye blinded by
+<span class="sidenote">Sympathetic inflammation.</span>
+injury. Blindness from this cause can be prevented
+by the removal of the injured eye, but unfortunately
+the proposal often meets with opposition from the
+patient.</p>
+
+<p>Glaucoma is a disease which almost invariably leads to total
+<span class="sidenote">Glaucoma.</span>
+blindness; but in most cases it can be arrested by
+a simple operation if the case is seen sufficiently
+early.</p>
+
+<p>Myopia, or &ldquo;short-sight,&rdquo; makes itself apparent in children
+between the ages of seven and nine. Neglect of a year or two
+may do serious mischief. Short-sight, when not
+inherited, is produced by looking intently and continuously
+<span class="sidenote">Short-sight.</span>
+at near objects. Children should be
+encouraged to describe objects at a distance, with which they are
+unacquainted, and parents should choose out-door occupations
+and amusements for children who show a tendency to shortsightedness.</p>
+
+<p>A report was issued in 1906, by the school board of Glasgow,
+as to an investigation by Dr H. Wright Thomas, ophthalmic
+surgeon, regarding the eyesight of school children, which includes
+the following passage. Dr Wright Thomas states that
+the teachers tested the visual acuteness of 52,493 children, and
+found 18,565, or 35%, to be below what is regarded as the
+normal standard. He examined the 18,565 defectives by retinoscopy,
+and found that 11,209, or 21% of the whole, had ocular
+defects. The proportion of these cases was highest in the poor
+and closely-built districts and in old schools, and was lowest
+in the better-class schools and those near the outskirts of the
+city. Defective vision, apart from ocular defect, seems to be
+due partly to want of training of the eyes for distant objects
+and partly to exhaustion of the eyes, which is easily induced
+when work is carried on in bad light, or the nutrition of the
+children is defective from bad feeding and unhealthy surroundings.
+Regarding training of the eyes for distant objects, much
+might be done in the infant department by the total abolition
+of sewing, which is definitely hurtful to such young eyes, and
+the substitution of competitive games involving the recognition
+of small objects at a distance of 20 ft. or more. An annual testing
+by the teachers, followed by medical inspection of the children
+found defective, would soon cause all existing defects to be
+corrected, and would lead to the detection of those which
+develop during school life.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">History of Institutions</p>
+
+<p>Although there is a record of a hospital established by St Basil
+at Caesarea, Cappadocia, in the 4th century, a refuge by the
+hermit St Lymnee (d. <i>c</i>. 455) at Syr, Syria, in the 5th century,
+and an institution by St Bertrand, bishop of Le Mans, in the
+7th century, the first public effort to benefit the blind was the
+founding of a hospital at Paris, in 1260, by Louis IX., for 300
+blind persons. The common legend is that he founded it as an
+asylum for 300 of his soldiers who had become blinded in the
+crusade in Egypt, but the statutes of the founder are preserved,
+and no mention is made of crusaders. This Hospice des Quinze-Vingts,
+increased by subsequent additions to its funds, still
+assists the adult blind of France. The pensioners are divided
+into two classes&mdash;those who are inmates of the hospital (300), and
+those who receive pensions in the form of out-door relief. All
+appointments to inmates or pensions are vested in the minister
+of the Interior, and applicants must be of French nationality,
+totally blind and not less than forty years of age.</p>
+
+<p>From the time of St Louis to the 18th century, there are
+records of isolated cases of blind persons who were educated,
+and of efforts to devise tangible apparatus to assist them.</p>
+
+<p>Girolamo Cardan, the 16th-century Italian physician, conceived
+the idea that the blind could be taught to read and write
+by means of touch. About 1517 Francesco Lucas in Spain,
+and Rampazetto in Italy, made use of large letters cut in wood
+for instructing the blind. In 1646 a book, on the condition of
+the blind, was written by an Italian, and published in Italian
+and French, under the title of <i>L&rsquo;Aveugle affligé et consolé</i>. In
+1670 a book was written on the instruction of the blind by
+Lana Terzi, the Jesuit. In 1676 Jacques Bernoulli, the Swiss
+savant, taught a blind girl to read, but the means of her instruction
+were not made known. In 1749 D. Diderot wrote his
+<i>Lettre sur les aveugles à l&rsquo;usage de ceux qui voient</i>, to show how
+far the intellectual and moral nature of man is modified by
+blindness. Dr S.G. Howe, who many years after translated
+and printed the &ldquo;Letter&rdquo; in embossed type, characterizes it as
+abounding with errors of fact and inference, but also with
+beauties and suggestions. The heterodox speculations contained
+in his &ldquo;Letter on the Blind&rdquo; caused Diderot to be imprisoned
+three months in the Bastille. He was released because his services
+were required for the forthcoming <i>Encyclopaedia</i>. Rousseau
+visited Diderot in prison, and is reported to have suggested a
+system of embossed printing. J. Locke, G.W. Leibnitz,
+Molineau and others discussed the effect of blindness on the
+human mind. In Germany, Weissembourg had used signs in
+relief and taught Mlle Paradis.</p>
+
+<p>Prior to the 18th century, blind beggars existed in such
+numbers that they struggled for standing room in positions
+favourable for asking alms. Their very affliction led to their
+being used as spectacles for the amusement of the populace.
+The degraded state of the masses of the blind in France attracted
+the attention of Valentin Haüy. In 1771, at the annual fair of
+St Ovid, in Paris, an innkeeper had a group of blind men attired
+in a ridiculous manner, decorated with peacock tails, asses&rsquo; ears,
+and pasteboard spectacles without glasses, in which condition
+they gave a burlesque concert, for the profit of their employer.
+This sad scene was repeated day after day, and greeted with
+loud laughter by the gaping crowds. Among those who gazed
+at this outrage to humanity was the philanthropist Valentin
+Haüy, who left the disgraceful scene full of sorrow. &ldquo;Yes,&rdquo;
+he said to himself, &ldquo;I will substitute truth for this mocking
+parody. I will make the blind to read, and they shall be enabled
+to execute harmonious music.&rdquo; Haüy collected all the information
+he could gain respecting the blind, and began teaching
+a blind boy who had gained his living by begging at a church
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id="page62"></a>62</span>
+door. Encouraged by the success of his pupil, Haüy collected
+other blind persons, and in 1785 founded in Paris the first school
+for the blind (the Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles),
+and commenced the first printing in raised characters. In 1786,
+before Louis XVI. and his court at Versailles, he exhibited the
+attainments of his pupils in reading, writing, arithmetic, geography
+and music, and in the same year published an account
+of his methods, entitled <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;education des aveugles</i>. As
+the novelty wore off, contributions almost came to an end, and
+the Blind School must have ceased to exist, had it not been taken,
+in 1791, under the protection of the state.</p>
+
+<p>The emperor of Russia, and later the dowager empress, having
+learned of Haüy&rsquo;s work, invited him to visit St Petersburg
+for the purpose of establishing a similar institution in the Russian
+capital. On his journey Haüy was invited by the king of
+Prussia to Charlottenburg. He took part in the deliberations
+of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, and as a result a school
+was founded there.</p>
+
+<p>Edward Rushton, a blind man, was the projector of the first
+institution for the blind in England&mdash;the School for the Indigent
+Blind, Liverpool. In 1790 Rushton suggested to the literary
+and philosophical society of which he was a member, the establishment
+of a benefit club for the indigent blind. The idea was
+communicated to his friend, J. Christie, a blind musician, and
+the latter thought the scheme should also include the instruction
+of young blind persons. They circulated letters amongst
+individuals who would be likely to give their assistance, and the
+Rev. Henry Dannett warmly advocated the undertaking. It
+was mainly due to his co-operation and zeal that Messrs Rushton
+and Christie&rsquo;s plan was carried out, and the Liverpool asylum
+was opened in 1791. Thomas Blacklock of Edinburgh, a blind
+poet and scholar, translated Haüy&rsquo;s work on the <i>Education
+of the Blind</i>. He interested Mr David Millar, a blind gentleman,
+the Rev. David Johnston and others in the subject, and
+after Blacklock&rsquo;s death the Edinburgh Asylum for the Relief
+of the Indigent and Industrious Blind was established (1793).
+Institutions were established in the United Kingdom in the
+following order:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">School for the Indigent Blind, Liverpool</td> <td class="tcc cl">1791</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Royal Blind Asylum, Edinburgh</td> <td class="tcc">1793</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Bristol Asylum</td> <td class="tcc cl">1793</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">School for the Indigent Blind Southwark (now
+  removed to Leatherhead)</td> <td class="tcc">1799</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Norwich Asylum and School</td> <td class="tcc cl">1805</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Richmond Asylum, Dublin</td> <td class="tcc">1810</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Aberdeen Asylum</td> <td class="tcc cl">1812</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Molyneux Asylum, Dublin</td> <td class="tcc">1815</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Glasgow Asylum and School</td> <td class="tcc cl">1827</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Belfast School</td> <td class="tcc">1831</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Wilberforce School, York</td> <td class="tcc cl">1833</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Limerick Asylum</td> <td class="tcc">1834</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">London Society for Teaching the Blind to Read, St
+  John&rsquo;s Wood, N.</td> <td class="tcc cl">1838</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Royal Victoria School for the Blind,
+  Newcastle-on-Tyne</td> <td class="tcc">1838</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">West of England Institute for the Blind, Exeter</td> <td class="tcc cl">1838</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Henshaw&rsquo;s Blind Asylum, Manchester</td> <td class="tcc">1839</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">County and City of Cork Asylum</td> <td class="tcc cl">1840</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Catholic Asylum, Liverpool</td> <td class="tcc">1841</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Brighton Asylum</td> <td class="tcc cl">1842</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Midland Institute for the Blind, Nottingham</td> <td class="tcc">1843</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">General Institute for the Blind, Birmingham</td> <td class="tcc cl">1848</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Macan Asylum, Armagh</td> <td class="tcc">1854</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">St Joseph&rsquo;s Asylum, Dublin</td> <td class="tcc cl">1858</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">St Mary&rsquo;s Asylum, Dublin</td> <td class="tcc">1858</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Institute for the Blind, Devonport</td> <td class="tcc cl">1860</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">South Devon and Cornwall Institute for the Blind,
+  Plymouth</td> <td class="tcc">1860</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">School for the Blind, Southsea</td> <td class="tcc cl">1864</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Institute for the Blind, Dundee</td> <td class="tcc">1865</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">South Wales Institute for the Blind, Swansea</td> <td class="tcc cl">1865</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">School for the Blind, Leeds</td> <td class="tcc">1866</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">College for the Sons of Gentlemen, Worcester</td> <td class="tcc cl">1866</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Northern Counties Institute for the Blind, Inverness</td> <td class="tcc">1866</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Royal Normal College and Academy of Music for the
+  Blind, Upper Norwood</td> <td class="tcc cl">1872</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">School for the Blind, Sheffield</td> <td class="tcc">1879</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Barclay Home and School for Blind Girls, Brighton</td> <td class="tcc cl">1893</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Homes for Blind Children, Preston</td> <td class="tcc">1895</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">North Stafford School, Stoke-on-Trent</td> <td class="tcc cl">1897</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Many of the early institutions were asylums, and to the present
+day schools for the blind are regarded by the public as asylums
+rather than as educational establishments. With nearly all
+these schools workshops were connected. In 1856 Miss Gilbert,
+the blind daughter of the bishop of Chichester, established a
+workshop in Berners Street, London, and since that date
+workshops have been started in many of the provincial
+towns.</p>
+
+<p>After the beginning of the 19th century, institutions for the
+blind were established in various parts of Europe. The institution
+at Vienna was founded in 1804 by Dr W. Klein, a blind man,
+and he remained at its head for fifty years. That of Berlin was
+established in 1806, Amsterdam, Prague and Dresden in 1808,
+Copenhagen in 1811. There are more than 150 on the European
+continent, most of them receiving aid from the government,
+and being under government supervision.</p>
+
+<p>The first school for the blind in the United States was founded
+in Boston, Mass., chiefly through the efforts of Dr John D. Fisher,
+a young physician who visited the French school. It was
+incorporated in 1829, and in honour of T.H. Perkins (1764-1854)
+who gave his mansion to the institution was named the Perkins
+Institution and Massachusetts Asylum (now School) for the Blind.
+Aid was granted by the state from the beginning. In 1831 Dr
+Samuel G. Howe (<i>q.v.</i>) was appointed director, and held that
+position for nearly forty-four years; being succeeded by his
+son-in-law Michael Anagnos (d. 1906), who established a kindergarten
+for the blind at Jamaica Plain, in connexion with the
+Perkins Institution. Dr Howe was interested in many charitable
+and sociological movements, but his life-work was on behalf of
+the blind. One of his most notable achievements was the
+education of Laura Bridgman (<i>q.v.</i>) who was deaf, dumb and
+blind, and this has since led to the education of Helen Keller
+and other blind deaf-mutes. The New York Institution was
+incorporated in 1831, and the Pennsylvania Institution was
+founded at Philadelphia by the Society of Friends in 1833. The
+Ohio was founded at Columbus in 1837, Virginia at Staunton in
+1839, Kentucky at Louisville in 1842, Tennessee at Nashville
+in 1844, and now every state in the Union makes provision for
+the education of the blind.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Statistics</p>
+
+<p>In England and Wales the total number of persons returned
+in 1901 as afflicted with blindness was 25,317, being in the
+proportion of 778 per million living, or 1 blind person
+in every 1285 of the population. The following table
+<span class="sidenote">England and Wales.</span>
+shows that the proportion of blind persons to population
+has diminished at each successive enumeration
+since 1851, in which year particulars of those afflicted in this
+manner were ascertained for the first time. It will, however,
+be noted that, although the decrease in the proportion of blind
+in the latest intercensal period was still considerable, yet the
+rate of decrease which had obtained between 1871 and 1891 was
+not maintained.&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Number of<br />Blind.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Blind per Million<br />of the Population.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Persons Living to<br />one Blind Person.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1851</td> <td class="tcc rb">18,306</td> <td class="tcc rb">1021</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;979</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1861</td> <td class="tcc rb">19,352</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;964</td> <td class="tcc rb">1037</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1871</td> <td class="tcc rb">21,590</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;951</td> <td class="tcc rb">1052</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1881</td> <td class="tcc rb">22,832</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;879</td> <td class="tcc rb">1138</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891</td> <td class="tcc rb">23,467</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;809</td> <td class="tcc rb">1236</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">1901</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">25,317</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&ensp;778</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1285</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The following table, which gives the proportions of blind
+per million living at the earlier age-groups, shows that in the
+decennium 1891-1901, as also in recent previous intercensal
+periods, there was a decrease in the proportion of blind children
+in England and Wales generally; it thus lends support to the
+contention, in the <i>General Report</i> for 1891, that the decrease was
+due either to the lesser prevalence, or to the more efficient
+treatment, of purulent ophthalmia and other infantile maladies
+which may result in blindness.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page63" id="page63"></a>63</span> </p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Age-Period.</td> <td class="tcc allb">1851</td> <td class="tcc allb">1861</td> <td class="tcc allb">1871</td> <td class="tcc allb">1881</td> <td class="tcc allb">1891</td> <td class="tcc allb">1901</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Under 5 years</td> <td class="tcc rb">198</td> <td class="tcc rb">196</td> <td class="tcc rb">185</td> <td class="tcc rb">166</td> <td class="tcc rb">155</td> <td class="tcc rb">129</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&ensp;5-10</td> <td class="tcc rb">297</td> <td class="tcc rb">256</td> <td class="tcc rb">259</td> <td class="tcc rb">288</td> <td class="tcc rb">188</td> <td class="tcc rb">192</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10-15</td> <td class="tcc rb">365</td> <td class="tcc rb">366</td> <td class="tcc rb">359</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">290</td> <td class="tcc rb">323</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">15-20</td> <td class="tcc rb">416</td> <td class="tcc rb">415</td> <td class="tcc rb">404</td> <td class="tcc rb">388</td> <td class="tcc rb">370</td> <td class="tcc rb">239</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">20-25</td> <td class="tcc rb">481</td> <td class="tcc rb">443</td> <td class="tcc rb">451</td> <td class="tcc rb">422</td> <td class="tcc rb">385</td> <td class="tcc rb">359</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Total under 25</td> <td class="tcc allb">339</td> <td class="tcc allb">322</td> <td class="tcc allb">317</td> <td class="tcc allb">298</td> <td class="tcc allb">269</td> <td class="tcc allb">261</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In 1886 a royal commission on the blind, deaf and dumb was
+appointed by the government, and, after taking much valuable
+evidence, issued an exhaustive and instructive report. Following
+on the practical recommendations submitted by this commission,
+the Elementary Education (Blind and Deaf Children) Act 1893,
+was passed, under which the education of the blind became for
+the first time compulsory. In terms of this statute, the school
+authorities were made responsible for the provision of suitable
+elementary education for blind children up to sixteen years of
+age, and grants of £3, 3s. for elementary subjects, and of £2, 2s.
+for industrial training, were contributed by the state towards
+the cost of educating children in schools certified as efficient
+within the meaning of the Elementary Education Act 1876.
+The principal aim of the Education Act of 1893 was to supply
+education in some useful profession or trade which will enable
+the blind to earn their livelihood and to become useful citizens;
+but the weak spot was that no provision was made therein for
+the completion of their education and industrial training after
+the age of sixteen.</p>
+
+<p>In England and Wales, in 1907, there were twenty-four
+resident schools and forty-three workshops for the blind. In
+many of the large towns, day classes for the education of blind
+children have been established by local education authorities.
+There are forty-six home teaching societies, who send teachers
+to visit the blind in their homes, to teach adults who wish to
+learn to read, to act as colporteurs, to lend and exchange useful
+books, and to act as Scripture readers to those who are aged and
+infirm. All the home teaching societies for the blind and many
+public libraries lend embossed books. The public library at
+Oxford has nearly 400 volumes of classical works for the use of
+university students.</p>
+
+<p>A society was instituted in 1847 by Dr W. Moon for stereotyping
+and embossing the Scriptures and other books in
+&ldquo;Moon&rdquo; type. The type has been adapted to over 400
+languages and dialects. After Dr Moon&rsquo;s death in 1884 the work
+was carried on by his daughter, Miss Adelaide Moon, and the
+books are much used by the adult blind.</p>
+
+<p>In 1868 Dr T.R. Armitage, being aware of the great improvements
+which had been made in the education of the blind in
+other countries, founded the British and Foreign Blind Association.
+This association was formed for the purpose of promoting
+the education and employment of the blind, by ascertaining
+what had been done in these respects in various countries, by
+endeavouring to supply deficiencies where these were found to
+exist, and by attempting to bring about greater harmony of
+action between the different existing schools and institutions.
+It gave a new impetus to the education and training of the blind
+in the United Kingdom. At that time their education was in
+a state of chaos. The Bible, or a great part of it, had been
+printed in five different systems. The founders took as an axiom
+that the relative merits of the various methods of education
+through the sense of touch should be decided by those and those
+only who have to rely on this sense. The council, who were all
+totally or partially blind, spent two years in comparing the
+different systems of embossed print. In 1869 and 1870 Dr
+Armitage corresponded with Dr J.R. Russ in regard to the New
+York Point. No trouble was spared to arrive at a right conclusion.
+The Braille system was finally adopted, and the association
+at once became a centre for supplying frames for writing Braille,
+printed books, maps, music and other educational apparatus
+for the blind. All books printed by the association are printed
+from stereotyped plates embossed by blind copyists. About
+3000 separate works, varying in length from 1 to 12 volumes,
+have been copied by hand to meet the requirements of public
+libraries and individuals. About 700 ladies, who give their
+services, make the first Braille copy of these books, and they are
+recopied by blind scribes, chiefly women and girls, who are paid
+for their work.</p>
+
+<p>The National Lending library, London, was founded in 1882.
+It has over 5500 volumes in Braille and other types. Books are
+forwarded to all parts of the United Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>There are fourteen magazines published in embossed type in
+the United Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>There are thirty-six pension societies&mdash;the principal are
+Hetherington&rsquo;s, Day&rsquo;s, the Clothworkers&rsquo;, the Cordwainers&rsquo;,
+the National Blind Relief Society, Royal Blind Pension Society
+and Indigent Blind Visiting Society.</p>
+
+<p>The Gardner Trust administers the income of £300,000 left
+by Henry Gardner in 1879. The income is used for instructing
+the blind in the profession of music, in suitable
+trades, handicrafts and professions other than music, for
+pensions, and free grants to institutions and individuals for
+special purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>According to the census of 1901, Scotland had 3253 (or 727 per
+million) blind persons, as against 2797 in 1891, but in a paper read
+at the conference in Edinburgh, 1906, the superintendent
+of the Glasgow Mission to the Out-door Blind stated
+<span class="sidenote">Scotland.</span>
+that there were 758 employed or being educated in institutions, and
+3238 known as &ldquo;out-door blind,&rdquo; making a total of 3996. There are
+in Scotland ten missions, so distributed as to cover the whole country,
+and regular visits are made as far north as the Orkney and Shetland
+Islands. In carrying on the work, there are twenty-four paid
+missionaries or teachers and a large number of voluntary helpers.
+These societies originated in a desire to teach the blind to read
+in their own homes, and to provide them with the Scriptures and
+other religious books, but the social, intellectual and temporal needs
+of the blind also receive a large share of attention. These teachers
+afford the best means of circulating embossed literature, therefore
+the library committee of the Glasgow corporation has agreed to
+purchase books and place them in the mission library instead of in
+the public library. As the institutions provide for only a small
+number of the blind, strenuous efforts are made by the committee
+and teachers of missions to find some employment for the many
+adults who come under their care.</p>
+
+<p>In Glasgow, a ladies&rsquo; auxiliary furnishes work for 150 knitters,
+and takes the responsibility of disposing of their work. In Scotland
+there are five schools for the young blind, and in connexion with
+each is a workshop for adults. In Edinburgh the school is at West
+Craigmillar, and the workshop in the city, but both are under the
+same board of directors.</p>
+
+<p>According to the census of 1901, there were 4253 totally blind
+persons in Ireland, a proportion of 954 per million, as against 1135
+in 1891. Of these, 2430 were over 60 years of age and
+11 over 100. These figures do not include the partially
+<span class="sidenote">Ireland.</span>
+blind, who numbered 1217. The fact that so many aged blind
+persons are to be found in Ireland is doubtless due to an ophthalmic
+epidemic which occurred during the Irish famine. There are twelve
+institutions, a home mission and home teaching society; nine of
+these institutions are asylums, that system having been largely
+adopted in Ireland. The scarcity of manufacturing industries,
+except in a few northern counties, entails a lack of work suited to
+the blind. The Elementary Education Act (Blind and Deaf) does
+not extend to Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The following table gives the number of blind in age-groups in
+1901:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">Age-Period.</td> <td class="tcc lb tb bb rb2">Number.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Age-Period.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Number.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Under 5 years</td> <td class="tcc rb2">&ensp;10</td> <td class="tcc rb">50-55</td> <td class="tcc rb">392</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&ensp;5-10</td> <td class="tcc rb2">&ensp;38</td> <td class="tcc rb">55-60</td> <td class="tcc rb">314</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10-15</td> <td class="tcc rb2">&ensp;64</td> <td class="tcc rb">60-65</td> <td class="tcc rb">617</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">15-20</td> <td class="tcc rb2">&ensp;73</td> <td class="tcc rb">65-70</td> <td class="tcc rb">382</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">20-25</td> <td class="tcc rb2">&ensp;95</td> <td class="tcc rb">70-75</td> <td class="tcc rb">540</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">25-30</td> <td class="tcc rb2">116</td> <td class="tcc rb">75-80</td> <td class="tcc rb">306</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">30-35</td> <td class="tcc rb2">146</td> <td class="tcc rb">80-85</td> <td class="tcc rb">372</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">35-40</td> <td class="tcc rb2">146</td> <td class="tcc rb">85-90</td> <td class="tcc rb">118</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">40-45</td> <td class="tcc rb2">205</td> <td class="tcc rb">95 and upwards</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;95</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">45-50</td> <td class="tcc rb2 bb">224</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In the Dominion of Canada, South Africa, the states of the
+Australian Commonwealth and New Zealand, provision is made by
+the government for the education of the young blind, and
+<span class="sidenote">British Colonies.</span>
+in some cases for training the adults in handicrafts.
+Embossed literature is carried free of expense, and on the
+Victorian railways no charge is made for the guide who accompanies
+a blind person.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page64" id="page64"></a>64</span> </p>
+
+<p>The following were the census returns for 1901:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Victoria</td> <td class="tcl rb2">1082</td> <td class="tcl">Tasmania</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;173</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">New South Wales</td> <td class="tcl rb2">&ensp;884</td> <td class="tcl">New Zealand</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;274 (1891)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">South Australia</td> <td class="tcl rb2">&ensp;315</td> <td class="tcl">Natal</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;68</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Queensland</td> <td class="tcl rb2">&ensp;209</td> <td class="tcl">Cape Colony</td> <td class="tcl">2802 (1904)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">West Australia</td> <td class="tcl rb2">&ensp;121</td> <td class="tcl">Canada</td> <td class="tcl">3279</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In Australia there are institutions for the blind at Melbourne,
+Sydney, Adelaide, Brighton, Brisbane and Maylands near Perth. In
+New Zealand the institution is at Auckland.</p>
+
+<p>In Cape Colony between 1875 and 1891, there was an extraordinary
+increase in blindness, but between 1891 and 1904 the rate per 10,000
+has decreased 23.78%. There is an institution at
+Worcester for deaf-mutes and blind, founded in
+1881. It is supported by a government grant,
+fees and subscription.</p>
+
+<p>Schools for the blind were established by the
+Dominion government at Brantford, Ontario
+(1871), and Halifax, Nova Scotia (1867).</p>
+
+<p>In Montreal there are two private institutions,
+the M&lsquo;Kay Institute for Protestant Deaf-Mutes
+and Blind, and a school for Roman Catholic
+children under the charge of the Sisters of Charity.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the United States the education of the
+blind is not regarded as a charity, but forms
+part of the educational system of the
+country, and is carried on at the
+public expense. According to the
+<i>Annual Report</i> of the Commissioner of Education
+<span class="sidenote">United States.</span>
+for 1908, there were 40 state schools, with
+4340 pupils. The value of apparatus, grounds
+and buildings was $9,201,161. For salaries
+and other expenditure, the aggregate was
+$1,460,732. The United States government
+appropriates $10,000 annually for printing embossed
+books, which are distributed among the
+different state schools for the blind. Beside
+these state schools, there are workshops for the
+blind subsidized by the state government or the
+municipality. Commissions composed of able
+men have recently been appointed in several
+of the states to take charge of the affairs of
+the blind from infancy to old age. The exhaustive
+summary of the 12th census enables these commissions
+to communicate with every blind person in their respective states.</p>
+
+<p>At the 12th census a change was made in the plan for securing
+the returns, and the work of the enumerators was restricted to a
+brief preliminary return, showing only the name, sex, age, post
+office address, and nature of the existing defects in all persons
+alleged to be blind or deaf. Dr Alexander Graham Bell, of
+Washington, D.C., was appointed expert special agent of the
+census office for the preparation of a report on the deaf and blind.
+He was empowered to conduct in his own name a correspondence
+relating to this branch of the census inquiry. A circular containing
+eighteen questions was addressed to every blind person
+given in the census, and from the data contained in the replies
+the following tables (I., II., III., IV.) have been compiled.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table I</span>.&mdash;<i>The Blind, by Degree of Blindness and Sex.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Sex.</td> <td class="tccm allb">The<br />Blind.</td> <td class="tccm allb">The<br />Totally<br />Blind.</td> <td class="tccm allb">The<br />Partially<br />Blind.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Number&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Total</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,763</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,645</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,118</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Male</td> <td class="tcr rb">37,054</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,144</td> <td class="tcr rb">16,190</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Female</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">27,709</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">15,501</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">12,208</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Per cent distribution&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Total</td> <td class="tcr rb">100.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">100.0</td> <td class="tcr rb">100.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Male</td> <td class="tcr rb">57.2</td> <td class="tcr rb">56.5</td> <td class="tcr rb">58.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Female</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">42.8</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">43.5</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">41.9</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Number per 1,000,000 population of same sex&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Both sexes</td> <td class="tcr rb">852</td> <td class="tcr rb">469</td> <td class="tcr rb">383</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Male</td> <td class="tcr rb">955</td> <td class="tcr rb">519</td> <td class="tcr rb">436</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Female</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">745</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">417</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">328</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The enumerators reported a total of 101,123 persons alleged to be
+blind as defined in the instructions contained in the schedules, but
+this number was greatly reduced as a result of the correspondence
+directly with the individuals, 8842 reporting that the alleged defect
+did not exist, and 6544 that they were blind only in one eye but
+were able to see with the other, and hence did not come within the
+scope of the inquiry. No replies were received in 19,884 cases in
+which personal schedules were sent, although repeated inquiries
+were made; consequently these cases were dropped. In 380 cases
+the personal schedules returned were too incomplete for use, and
+in 75 cases duplication was discovered. The number of cases
+remaining for statistical treatment, after making the eliminations
+and corrections, was 64,763, representing 35,645 totally blind, and
+29,118 partially blind. This number, however, can be considered
+only as the minimum, as an unknown proportion of the blind were
+not located by the enumerators, and doubtless a considerable
+proportion of the 19,884 persons who failed to return the personal
+schedules should be included in the total.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Blindness, either total or partial, is so largely a defect of the
+aged, and occurs with so much greater frequency as the age advances
+and the population diminishes, that in any comparison of the proportion
+of the blind in the general population of different classes,
+such as native and foreign-born whites, or white and coloured, the
+age distribution of the population of each class should be constantly
+borne in mind. The differences in this respect account for many of
+the differences in the gross ratios, and it is only when ratios are
+compared for classes of population of identical ages that their relative
+liability to blindness can be properly inferred.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table II</span>.&mdash;<i>The Blind, by Degree of Blindness, Age-Periods, Colour and Nativity.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Degree of Blindness and<br />Age-Period.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">All Classes.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="3">White.</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Coloured.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Native.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Foreign-<br />born.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Number&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;The blind</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,763</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,535</td> <td class="tcr rb">45,479</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,694</td> <td class="tcr rb">8228</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Under 20 years</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,308</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,252</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,937</td> <td class="tcr rb">231</td> <td class="tcr rb">1056</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;20 years and over</td> <td class="tcr rb">56,165</td> <td class="tcr rb">49,067</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,388</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,420</td> <td class="tcr rb">7098</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;&emsp;Age unknown</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">290</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">216</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">154</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">43</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">74</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;The totally blind</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,645</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,359</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,636</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,511</td> <td class="tcr rb">5286</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Under 20 years</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,123</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,543</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,377</td> <td class="tcr rb">129</td> <td class="tcr rb">580</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;20 years and over</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,363</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,704</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,179</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,636</td> <td class="tcr rb">4639</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;&emsp;Age unknown</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">159</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">112</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">80</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">19</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">27</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;The partially blind</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,118</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,176</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,843</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,183</td> <td class="tcr rb">2942</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Under 20 years</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,185</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,709</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,560</td> <td class="tcr rb">102</td> <td class="tcr rb">476</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;20 years and over</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,802</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,363</td> <td class="tcr rb">18,209</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,057</td> <td class="tcr rb">2439</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;&emsp;Age unknown</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">131</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">104</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">74</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">24</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">27</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Number  per  1,000,000<br />&ensp;population of same age&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;The blind</td> <td class="tcr rb">852</td> <td class="tcr rb">846</td> <td class="tcr rb">804</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,047</td> <td class="tcr rb">896</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Under 20 years</td> <td class="tcr rb">247</td> <td class="tcr rb">250</td> <td class="tcr rb">248</td> <td class="tcr rb">215</td> <td class="tcr rb">229</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;&emsp;20 years and over</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,334</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,305</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,348</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,143</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1574</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;The totally blind</td> <td class="tcr rb">469</td> <td class="tcr rb">454</td> <td class="tcr rb">418</td> <td class="tcr rb">637</td> <td class="tcr rb">576</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Under 20 years</td> <td class="tcr rb">123</td> <td class="tcr rb">122</td> <td class="tcr rb">121</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr rb">126</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;&emsp;20 years and over</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">745</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">710</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">708</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">698</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1033</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;The partially blind</td> <td class="tcr rb">383</td> <td class="tcr rb">392</td> <td class="tcr rb">386</td> <td class="tcr rb">410</td> <td class="tcr rb">320</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Under 20 years</td> <td class="tcr rb">124</td> <td class="tcr rb">128</td> <td class="tcr rb">127</td> <td class="tcr rb">95</td> <td class="tcr rb">103</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;&emsp;20 years and over</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">589</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">595</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">639</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">445</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">541</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Table II. shows the classification, by degree of blindness, of the
+blind under twenty years of age, twenty years of age and over, and of
+unknown age, with respect to colour and nativity, with the number
+at the specified ages per million of population in the same age-group.</p>
+
+<p>The relationship or consanguinity of parents of the 64,763 blind
+was reported in 56,507 cases, in 2527 (or 4.5%) of which the parents
+were related as cousins.</p>
+
+<p>In 57,726 cases the inquiry as to the existence of blind relatives
+was answered; 10,967 (or 19%) of this number reported that they
+had blind relatives.</p>
+
+<p>Of the 2527 blind persons whose parents were cousins, 993 (or
+39.3%) had blind relatives,&mdash;844 having blind brothers, sisters or
+ancestors, and 149 having blind collateral relatives or descendants.</p>
+
+<p>Of the 53,980 blind whose parents were not related, 9490 (or
+17.6%) had blind relatives, 7395 having blind brothers, sisters or
+ancestors, and 2095 having blind collateral relatives or descendants.</p>
+
+<p>It was found that, of the 2527 blind whose parents were cousins,
+632 (or 25%) were congenitally blind, of whom 350 (or 55.4%)
+had also blind relatives of the classes specified; while, among the
+53,980 whose parents were not so related, the number of congenitally
+blind was 3666 (or but 6.8%), of whom only 1023 (or 27.9%) had
+blind relatives.</p>
+
+<p>In 1883 the number of blind in France was estimated at 32,056,
+the total population of the country being 38,000,000; 2548 of the
+<span class="sidenote">France.</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" id="page65"></a>65</span>
+blind were under, and 29,508 above, 21 years of age; of the former
+857 were receiving instruction in 21 schools supported by the state,
+by the city of Paris, by some of the departments, and by
+some religious bodies. The four Parisian institutions
+are the Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles, the École Braille
+(founded in 1883), the Établissement des Soeurs Aveugles de St Paul
+(founded in 1852), and that of the Frères de Saint Jean de Dieu
+(founded in 1875).</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table III</span>.&mdash;<i>The Blind, by Degree of Blindness and Age-Periods.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Age-Period.</td> <td class="tccm allb">The<br />Blind.</td> <td class="tccm allb">The<br />Totally<br />Blind.</td> <td class="tccm allb">The<br />Partially<br />Blind.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Number&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;All Ages</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,763</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,645</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,118</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Under 10 years</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,307</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,262</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,045</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;10-19 years</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,001</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,861</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,140</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;20-29&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,861</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,851</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,010</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;30-39&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,024</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,077</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,947</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;40-49&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,504</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,778</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,726</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;50-59&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,530</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,791</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,739</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;60-69&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,507</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,835</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,672</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;70-79&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,421</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,132</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,289</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;80-89&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,490</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,885</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,605</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;90-99&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,596</td> <td class="tcr rb">851</td> <td class="tcr rb">745</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;100 years and over</td> <td class="tcr rb">232</td> <td class="tcr rb">163</td> <td class="tcr rb">69</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Age unknown</td> <td class="tcr rb">290</td> <td class="tcr rb">159</td> <td class="tcr rb">131</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Number per 1,000,000 population<br />&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;of same age&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;All ages</td> <td class="tcr rb">852</td> <td class="tcr rb">469</td> <td class="tcr rb">383</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Under 10 years</td> <td class="tcr rb">128</td> <td class="tcr rb">70</td> <td class="tcr rb">58</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;10-19 years</td> <td class="tcr rb">384</td> <td class="tcr rb">183</td> <td class="tcr rb">201</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;20-29&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">351</td> <td class="tcr rb">206</td> <td class="tcr rb">145</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;30-39&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">478</td> <td class="tcr rb">293</td> <td class="tcr rb">185</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;40-49&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">845</td> <td class="tcr rb">491</td> <td class="tcr rb">354</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;50-59&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,655</td> <td class="tcr rb">930</td> <td class="tcr rb">725</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;60-69&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,396</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,886</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,510</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;70-79&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,136</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,368</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,768</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;80-89&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">22,022</td> <td class="tcr rb">11,423</td> <td class="tcr rb">10,599</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;90-99&emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">52,746</td> <td class="tcr rb">28,125</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,621</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;100 years and over</td> <td class="tcr rb">66,210</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,518</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,692</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;&emsp;Age unknown</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,446</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">793</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">653</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The number of the blind in Germany was about 39,000, or 870 per
+million in 1885. The number of institutions was 28, nearly all
+being educational, with a total of 2139 pupils. All these
+institutions, except two which are supported entirely by
+<span class="sidenote">Germany.</span>
+private munificence, are largely assisted by the state, the communes
+or the provinces. Seventeen of them derive their entire
+requirements from the state, so that they are quite
+independent of private charity, while the remainder
+are only supplemented from public funds so far
+as the private contributions fall short of the expenses.</p>
+
+<p>The following extracts were made from an official
+communication from Hofrath Büttner, director of
+the institution for the blind in Dresden,
+<span class="sidenote">Saxony system.</span>
+to the royal commission, concerning the
+care and supervision (<i>Fürsorge</i>) of the
+blind after their discharge from the institution:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;When twenty years of age, the blind are usually
+discharged from the institution. Long experience
+has taught us that the care and supervision of
+the blind after their discharge from the institution
+are quite as important as their education and
+training in the institution. It would, in our opinion,
+be unjust to remove them from their sad surroundings,
+educate and accustom them to higher wants,
+and then allow them to sink backward into their
+former miserable way of life. After much deliberation
+it was decided to remain in connexion with the
+discharged blind, to visit them in their places of
+abode, to learn their wants, to study the difficulties
+which they experienced in supporting themselves
+independently, and, as far as possible, to remove
+their grievances. Director Georgi began this
+work in 1843. Director Reinhard continued it
+from 1867 to 1879, and the present director has
+followed the same path. With the knowledge of
+these difficulties the <i>Fürsorge</i> (care) for
+discharged blind steadily advanced, and has won the
+confidence of the Saxon people. It was decided that,
+on the discharge of the blind person, the director should select
+a trustworthy person, residing in his future place of abode, to give
+him advice and practical help, to protect him from imposition, and
+to keep up communication with the director. If this guardian is
+unable to advise or help, he then writes to the director, who, if
+necessary, comes to the place, and this is all the easier as he travels
+free on all railways in Saxony. The result of these visits, as well as all
+communications from the guardian, the letters from the blind person,
+and every document relating to him, are entered in a register kept
+at the institution. These guardians are respectable, benevolent,
+practical men, capable of procuring custom for their wards. But
+there was no doubt that, in spite of these arrangements, the discharged
+blind were unable to support themselves without the assistance
+of capital, whether in money or outfit. The blind man can do
+as good work as the man who can see; but as a rule he does not
+work so quickly, and if the man who is not blind has to use every
+exertion to support himself and his family, the blind man to do the
+same requires some special help, without which he will either not
+be able to compete, or will have to lead a life of great privation.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The first difficulty when a blind pupil is starting in life is to
+provide himself with the necessary tools and material. These the
+institution supplies to him, and continues through life to afford him
+moral and material help; and by this means the greater part of the
+blind are enabled to save money for sickness and old age. Those
+who cannot return to their relations cannot at once meet all their
+expenses, and the weak and old need special help. A part of the
+money for their board and lodging is paid for those who have to be
+settled in other places on account of the death or untrustworthiness
+of their relatives.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The fund for the discharged blind is administered by the director
+of the institution. The number of those assisted amounts at present
+to about 400, who live respectably in all parts of Saxony, are almost
+self-supporting, and feel themselves free men. For, just as a son
+does not feel galled by a gift from his father, so they are not ashamed
+to receive assistance from their second paternal home, the institution.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The number of the blind in Holland, according to the census of the
+1st of December 1869, was 1593, or one in every 2247 of the general
+population. The Protestants and Roman Catholics were
+about equally balanced. No cognizance was taken of the
+<span class="sidenote">Holland.</span>
+blind in the census of 1879. There is only one blind institution,
+that of Amsterdam, with 60 pupils, with a preparatory school at
+Benuchem (with 20 pupils) and an asylum for adults with 52 inmates
+(unmarried). Besides these, there are workshops at Amsterdam,
+Rotterdam, the Hague, Utrecht and Middelburg.</p>
+
+<p>According to the census of 1870, there were in Denmark 1249 blind
+(577 males and 672 females), or one blind for every 1428 persons.
+One institution has been established by government,
+<i>i.e.</i> the Royal Institution for the Blind, at Copenhagen;
+<span class="sidenote">Denmark.</span>
+100 children, aged 10 and upwards, are here educated. There is a
+preparatory school for blind children under 10 years of age, and an
+asylum for blind females, most of whom are former pupils of the
+royal school. An association for promoting the self-dependence of
+the blind assists not only former pupils of the school but every blind
+man or woman willing and able to work.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table IV</span>.&mdash;<i>The Blind, by Consanguinity of Parents, Degree
+of Blindness, and Blind Relatives of Other Classes.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Consanguinity<br />of Parents.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">Blind<br />Brothers,<br />Sisters or<br />Ancestors.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Collateral<br />Relatives<br />or De-<br />scendants<br />alone,<br />Blind.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">No Blind<br />Relatives<br />or Rela-<br />tives by<br />Marriage<br />alone,<br />Blind.</td>
+ <td class="tccm allb">Not<br />Stated.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">All Classes&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;The blind</td> <td class="tcr rb">64,763</td> <td class="tcr rb">8629</td> <td class="tcr rb">2338</td> <td class="tcr rb">46,759</td> <td class="tcr rb">7037</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Totally blind</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,645</td> <td class="tcr rb">4378</td> <td class="tcr rb">1215</td> <td class="tcr rb">25,349</td> <td class="tcr rb">3703</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;&emsp;Partially blind</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">29,118</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">4251</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1123</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">20,410</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3334</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Parents cousins&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;The blind</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,527</td> <td class="tcr rb">844</td> <td class="tcr rb">149</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,456</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Totally blind</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,291</td> <td class="tcr rb">435</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcr rb">739</td> <td class="tcr rb">39</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;&emsp;Partially blind</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1,236</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">409</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">71</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">717</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">39</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Parents not cousins&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;The blind</td> <td class="tcr rb">53,980</td> <td class="tcr rb">7395</td> <td class="tcr rb">2095</td> <td class="tcr rb">43,368</td> <td class="tcr rb">1122</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Totally blind</td> <td class="tcr rb">29,892</td> <td class="tcr rb">3720</td> <td class="tcr rb">1090</td> <td class="tcr rb">24,541</td> <td class="tcr rb">541</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;&emsp;Partially blind</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">24,088</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3675</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">1005</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">18,827</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">581</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Consanguinity of parents not stated&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;The blind</td> <td class="tcr rb">8,256</td> <td class="tcr rb">390</td> <td class="tcr rb">94</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,935</td> <td class="tcr rb">5837</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">&emsp;&emsp;Totally blind</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,462</td> <td class="tcr rb">223</td> <td class="tcr rb">47</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,069</td> <td class="tcr rb">3123</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&emsp;&emsp;Partially blind</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">3,794</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">167</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">47</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">866</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2714</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The number of blind persons in Sweden, according to the census
+of December 1880, was 3723, being at the rate of one blind person
+for every 1226 of the general population. At the beginning of the
+year 1879, the instruction of the blind in Sweden was completely
+<span class="sidenote">Sweden.</span>
+separated from that of the deaf and dumb, on the grounds that
+it hindered the intellectual development of the blind&mdash;a
+conclusion which experience shows to be tolerably correct. Since
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page66" id="page66"></a>66</span>
+July 1888 the Royal Institution of the Blind has obtained a new
+building at Tomteboda, near Stockholm.</p>
+
+<p>The law of the 8th of July 1881, concerning the instruction of
+abnormal children, has imposed on the state the duty of establishing
+a sufficient number of schools for the blind in Norway
+<span class="sidenote">Norway.</span>
+as well as for the other abnormal children. All the blind
+of the country, from 9 years of age until the age of 21, are compelled
+to be educated, with a maximum of 8 years of instruction for each
+pupil.</p>
+
+<p>The census of 1873 showed that in Finland there were 7959 blind
+in a total population of about 2,000,000 inhabitants, the proportion
+reaching the very high figure of one for every 251 of the
+<span class="sidenote">Finland.</span>
+total population. Nevertheless there were only 160 of
+school age. For these there are two institutions, one at Helsingfors
+where the instruction is given in the Swedish language, and where
+there are about 12 pupils, and another at Kuopio, where the instruction
+is given in the Finnish language, and where the pupils
+number about 30.</p>
+
+<p>According to information received from the I.R. Central Commission
+for Statistics, the number of blind in the provinces represented
+in the Austrian Reichsrath amounted to 15,582 in the year
+<span class="sidenote">Austria.</span>
+1884. Of these, 2345 were children up to 15 years of age,
+namely 433 below 5, 779 from 5 to 10, and 1113 from 10 to 15 years.
+The total number of institutions for blind children in Austria amounts
+to 8. The blind children of school age who are not placed in special
+institutions are compulsorily taught in the public general free schools,
+as far as practicable. The number of blind in the whole dominion
+of the crown of St Stephen was 208,391.</p>
+
+<p>The number of blind persons in Italy was 21,718, according to the
+census of 1881, and those of school age were estimated to form 25%
+<span class="sidenote">Italy.</span>
+of the whole, or about 5429 in number. But no special
+cognizance of the blind is taken in the government census.
+There are 20 institutions, schools and workshops for the blind.</p>
+
+<p>Statistics with regard to the number and condition of the blind
+in the Russian empire are of a very limited character, and it is only
+of late years that any attempt has been made to draw
+<span class="sidenote">Russia.</span>
+up any accurate returns with regard to them. The total
+number of the blind throughout the empire is generally reckoned at
+from 160,000 to 200,000, thus making 1600 to 2000 per million
+inhabitants. In Russia there are 21 institutions for the support of
+the blind.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In Egypt the blind are very numerous in comparison with other
+countries, and although no exact statistics are at present obtainable
+on this point, it is computed that the proportion is at
+least one totally blind person to every 50 of the population.
+<span class="sidenote">Egypt</span>
+This is principally the result of acute ophthalmia occurring in infancy,
+and it is fostered by the superstitious observance which prevents the
+mothers from washing their children from the time of birth until
+they are two years old, at which late date only they are weaned.
+There is also a great deal of infection carelessly and ignorantly
+conveyed direct from eye to eye, by means of unwashed fingers, and
+this is accountable for the occurrence of much more eye-disease than
+any that may be caused by the proverbial flies. The only employment
+followed by the blind, both Mahommedan and Coptic (or native
+Christian), and that only to a limited extent, is recitation aloud&mdash;the
+former repeating portions of the Koran at funerals, and the latter
+chanting the church-ritual in their services; the blind girls and
+women are without occupation. Practically no education is given
+to the blind as a class, and anything which they learn has to be
+acquired orally by frequent repetition. The blind were not always
+so completely neglected, as the native ecclesiastical authorities
+(Wakf) gave an annual grant of £2000 for the continued maintenance
+of a school for the blind and the deaf and dumb in Cairo, which taught
+about 80 day-pupils; the latter years of the school were passed
+under the ministry of education, and it was ultimately discontinued.
+Such a condition of affairs appealed to Dr T.R. Armitage, and
+explains his motive in trying to establish some proper means for
+affording the blind in Egypt the necessary scholastic instruction and
+other training. In Egypt, as in other countries, it is occasionally
+very difficult, and takes some time, to start any enterprise such as
+this on a satisfactory and practical footing, and it was left for
+Mrs T.R. Armitage to be the means of successfully carrying out her
+husband&rsquo;s wishes in this particular. In 1900 Mrs Armitage asked
+Dr Kenneth Scott to prepare a scheme for the education and welfare
+of the blind in Egypt, on lines suggested to her. This, through the
+British and Foreign Blind Association, was submitted to Queen
+Victoria, who graciously commanded it to be sent, through the
+foreign office, to the khedive, who in mark of approbation and
+encouragement generously gave a handsome donation towards its
+realization. The Institution for the Blind was established at
+Zeitoun, Cairo, early in the year 1901, through funds provided by
+Mrs T.R. Armitage. The object of the institution, which is wholly
+unsectarian in character, is to educate and train the blind mentally
+and physically and in industrial occupations, and at the same time
+to improve their moral standard, so that eventually they may
+become in great measure, or even completely, self-supporting.&rdquo;
+(Dr Kenneth Scott.)</p>
+
+<p>India has a large proportion of blind inhabitants, ranging from
+one in 600 in some provinces, to one in 400 in others, with a total
+of more than half a million. Until recently, little had been done in
+the way of organized effort to educate them, though many of the
+<span class="sidenote">India.</span>
+missionaries had helped individual cases. At Amritsar a large and
+well-organized work for the blind has been carried on
+for many years. This school has now been moved to
+Rajpur, and helps 70 blind women and children. In 1903 a government
+school and hospital were established at Bombay as a memorial
+to Queen Victoria. Reading, writing, arithmetic, tailoring, typewriting,
+carpentering, lathe-work and carpet-weaving are taught.
+There are small schools at Parantij, Calcutta, Palancottah, Calicut,
+Coorg, Chota-Nagpur, and at Moulmein in Burma. The memorial
+to Queen Victoria in Ceylon took the form of work for the blind.
+J. Knowles, with the help of L. Garthwaite of the Indian Civil
+Service, devised a scheme of oriental Braille, which has been adopted
+by the British and Foreign Bible Society for the production of the
+Scriptures in Eastern languages.</p>
+
+<p>Blindness is very prevalent in China, and to eye-diseases, neglect
+and dirt, must be added leprosy and smallpox as causes. Blind
+beggars may be seen on every highway, clamouring for
+alms. As in India their pitiful condition attracted the
+<span class="sidenote">China.</span>
+attention of the missionaries. W.H. Murray, a Scottish missionary
+in Peking, made a simple and ingenious adaptation of the Braille
+symbols to the complicated system of Chinese printing, in which over
+4000 characters are required. It was necessary to represent at least
+408 sounds, and each one was given a corresponding Braille number.
+When a pupil reads the number he knows instantly the sound for
+which it stands. A school for the blind was established at Peking,
+and the version of the Scriptures printed at Peking can be read in all
+the provinces where the Northern Mandarin dialect is spoken (see Miss
+Gordon Cumming, <i>The Inventor of the Numeral Type for China</i>).
+A Braille code has recently been arranged for Mandarin, based on a
+system of initials and finals, by Miss Garland of the China Inland
+Mission. At Foochow there is a large school for boys and girls in
+connexion with the Church Missionary Society. At Ningpo, Amoy,
+Canton and Fukien work for the blind is carried on by the
+missionaries.</p>
+
+<p>The blind in Japan have long been trained in massage, acupuncture
+and music, and until recently, with few exceptions, none but the
+blind engaged in these occupations. From three to five
+years are required to become proficient in massage, but a
+<span class="sidenote">Japan.</span>
+blind person is then able to support himself. In Yokohama, with a
+population of half a million, there are 1000 men and women engaged
+in massage, and all but about 100 of these are blind. In 1878 a
+school for the blind and deaf-mutes was established in Kyoto, and
+soon after one in Tokyo. Japan has four schools for the blind, and
+seven combined schools for the blind and deaf-mutes.</p>
+
+<p>As in other Eastern countries, blindness is very prevalent in
+Palestine. Ophthalmic hospitals and medical attendance are now
+<span class="sidenote">Palestine.</span>
+available in the larger towns, and the missionary schools
+have done much to inculcate habits of cleanliness, therefore
+there is a slight decrease in the number of the blind. The home
+and school for blind girls in Jerusalem is the outcome of a day school
+opened in 1896 by an American missionary. There is also a small
+school at Urfa under the auspices of the American mission in that town.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Education</p>
+
+<p>As more sensations are received through the eye than through
+any other organ, the mind of a blind child is vacant, and the
+training should begin early or the mind will degenerate.
+Indirectly the loss of sight results in inaction. If no
+<span class="sidenote">Early training.</span>
+one encourages a blind child to move, he will sit
+quietly in a corner, and when he leaves his seat will move timidly
+about. This want of activity produces bad physical effects, and
+further delays mental growth. The blind are often injured,
+some of them ruined for life, through the ignorance and mistaken
+kindness of their friends during early childhood. They should
+be taught to walk, to go up and down stairs, to wash, dress and
+feed themselves.</p>
+
+<p>They should be carefully taught correct postures and attitudes,
+and to avoid making grimaces. They should be told the requirements
+of social conventions which a seeing child learns through
+watching his elders. They have no consciousness that their
+habits are disagreeable, and the earlier unsightly mannerisms are
+corrected the better. It is a fallacy to suppose that the other
+senses of the blind are naturally sharper than those of the seeing.
+It is only when the senses of hearing and touch have been
+cultivated that they partially replace sight, and such cultivation
+can begin with very young children.</p>
+
+<p>Blind children have a stronger claim upon the public for
+education than other children, because they start at a disadvantage
+in life, they carry a burden in their infirmity, they
+come mostly of poor parents, and without special instruction and
+training they are almost certain to become a public charge
+during life.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page67" id="page67"></a>67</span> </p>
+
+<p>Public authorities should adopt the most efficient plan for
+preparing blind children to become active, independent men
+and women, rather than consider the cheapest and easiest
+method of educating them. We cannot afford to give the blind
+an education that is not the best of its kind in the trade or
+profession they will have to follow. There are many seeing
+persons with little education who are useful citizens and successful
+in various industries, but an uneducated blind person is helpless,
+and must become dependent.</p>
+
+<p>The surroundings of the blind do not favour the development
+of activity, self-reliance and independence. Parents and friends
+find it easier to attend to the wants and requirements of their
+blind children than to teach them to be self-helpful in the common
+acts of everyday life. A mistaken kindness leads the friends to
+guard every movement and prevent physical exertion. As a rule,
+the vitality of the blind is much below the average vitality of
+seeing persons, and any system of education which does not
+recognize and overcome this defect will be a failure. It is the
+lack of energy and determination, not the want of sight, that
+causes so many failures among the blind.</p>
+
+<p>A practical system of education, which has for its object to
+make the blind independent and self-sustaining, must be based
+upon a comprehensive course of physical development.
+<span class="sidenote">Physical training.</span>
+A blind man who has received mechanical training,
+general education, or musical instruction, without
+physical development, is like an engine provided with everything
+necessary except motive power.</p>
+
+<p>Schools for the blind should be provided with well-equipped
+gymnasia, and the physical training should include various kinds
+of mass and apparatus work. Large and suitable playgrounds
+are also essential. Besides a free space where they can run and
+play, it should have a supply of swings, tilts, jumping-boards,
+stilts, chars-à-bancs, skittle-alleys, &amp;c. Any game that allows
+of sides being taken adds greatly to the enjoyment, and is a
+powerful incentive to play. The pupils should be encouraged to
+enter into various competitions, as walking, running, jumping,
+leap-frog, sack-racing, shot-pitching, tug-of-war, &amp;c. Cycling,
+rowing, swimming and roller-skating are not only beneficial but
+most enjoyable.</p>
+
+<p>The subjects in the school curriculum should be varied
+according to the age and capacity of the pupils, but those
+which cultivate the powers of observation and the
+perceptive faculties should have a first place. Object
+<span class="sidenote">Mental training.</span>
+lessons or nature study should have a large share of
+attention. Few people realize that a blind child knows nothing
+of the size, shape and appearance of common objects that lie
+beyond the reach of his arm. When he has once been shown how
+to learn their characteristics, he will go on acquiring a knowledge
+of his surroundings unaided by a teacher. Again, a careful drill
+in mental arithmetic, combining accuracy with rapidity, is
+essential. A good command of English should be cultivated
+by frequent exercises in composition, and by committing to
+memory passages of standard prose and poetry. In his secondary
+course, the choice of subjects must depend upon his future
+career. Above all, stimulate a love of good reading.</p>
+
+<p>From the earliest years manual dexterity should be cultivated
+by kindergarten work, modelling, sewing, knitting and sloyd.
+Blind children who have not had the advantage of
+<span class="sidenote">Early manual training.</span>
+this early handwork find much more difficulty when
+they begin a regular course in technical training.
+Early manual training cultivates the perceptive
+faculties, gives activity to the body, and prepares the hands and
+finger for pianoforte-playing, pianoforte-tuning and handicrafts.</p>
+
+<p>Besides a good general education, the blind must have careful
+and detailed training in some handicraft, or thorough preparation
+for some profession. The trades and professions open
+to them are few, and if they fail in one of these they
+<span class="sidenote">Choice of occupation</span>
+cannot turn quickly to some other line of work. Those
+who have charge of their education should avail
+themselves of the knowledge that has been gained in all countries,
+in order to decide wisely in regard to the trade or occupation
+for which each pupil should be prepared. It may be some kind
+of handicraft, pianoforte-tuning, school-teaching, or the profession
+of music; the talent and ability of each child should be
+carefully considered before finally deciding his future occupation.
+The failure to give the blind a practical education often means
+dependence through life.</p>
+
+<p>Pianoforte-tuning as an employment for the blind originated
+in Paris. About 1830 Claud Montal and a blind fellow-pupil
+attempted to tune a piano. The seeing tuner in charge
+of the school pianos complained to the director, and
+<span class="sidenote">Pianoforte-tuning.</span>
+they were forbidden to touch the works, but the two
+friends procured an old piano and continued their
+efforts. Finally, the director, convinced of their skill, gave
+them charge of all the school pianos, and classes were soon
+started for the other pupils. When Montal left the institution
+he encountered great prejudice, but his skill in tuning became
+known to the professors of the Conservatoire, and his work
+rapidly increased and success was assured. Montal afterwards
+established a manufactory, and remained at its head for many
+years. Tuning is an excellent employment for the blind, and
+one in which they have certain advantages. The seeing who
+excel in the business go through a long apprenticeship, and one
+must give the blind even more careful preparation. They must
+work a number of hours daily, under suitable tuition, for several
+years. After a careful examination by an expert pianoforte-tuning
+authority, every duly qualified tuner should be furnished
+with an official certificate of proficiency, and tuners who cannot
+take the required examinations ought not to be allowed to
+impose upon the public.</p>
+
+<p>Music in its various branches, when properly taught, is the
+best and most lucrative employment for the blind. To become
+successful in the profession, it is necessary for the
+blind to have opportunities of instruction, practice,
+<span class="sidenote">Musical training.</span>
+study, and hearing music equal to those afforded the
+seeing, with whom they will have to compete in the open market.
+If the blind musician is to rise above mediocrity, systematic
+musical instruction in childhood is indispensable, and good
+instruction will avail little unless the practice is under constant
+and judicious supervision. The musical instruction, in its
+several branches of harmony, pianoforte, organ and vocal
+culture, must be addressed to the mind, not merely to the ear.
+This is the only possible method by which musical training
+can be made of practical use to the blind. The blind music
+teacher or organist must have a well-disciplined mind, capable
+of analysing and dealing with music from an intellectual point
+of view. If the mental faculties have not been developed and
+thoroughly disciplined, the blind musician, however well he may
+play or sing, will be a failure as a teacher. The musical instruction
+must be more thorough, more analytical, more comprehensive,
+than corresponding instruction given to seeing
+persons. In 1871 Dr Armitage published a book on the
+education and employment of the blind, in which he stated that
+of the blind musicians trained in the United Kingdom not more
+than one-half per cent were able to support themselves, whereas
+of those trained in the Paris school 30% supported themselves
+fully, and 30% partially, by the profession of music.</p>
+
+<p>To provide a better education and improve the musical
+training of the blind, the Royal Normal College was established
+in 1872.<a name="fa3g" id="fa3g" href="#ft3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Its object was to afford the young blind
+a thorough general and musical education, to qualify
+<span class="sidenote">Royal Normal College.</span>
+them to earn a living by various intellectual pursuits,
+especially as organists, pianists, teachers and pianoforte-tuners.
+From the first, the founders of the college maintained
+that the blind could only be made self-sustaining by
+increasing their intelligence, bodily activity and dexterity,
+by inculcating business habits, by arousing their self-respect,
+and by creating in their minds a belief in the possibility
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id="page68"></a>68</span>
+of future self-maintenance. A kindergarten department was
+opened in 1881. In July 1896 Queen&rsquo;s Scholarship examinations
+were held at the Royal Normal College, for the first time,
+for blind students, and the institution recognized by the Education
+Department as a training college for blind school-teachers.</p>
+
+<p>From the first day a pupil enters school until he finishes his
+course of training, care must be taken to implant business habits.
+Blind children are allowed to be idle and helpless at
+home; they do not learn to appreciate the value of
+<span class="sidenote">Educational needs. </span>
+time, and in after years this is one of the most difficult
+lessons to inculcate. Having drifted through childhood,
+they are content to drift through life. The important
+habits of punctuality, regularity and precision should be cultivated
+in all the arrangements and requirements. A great effort
+should be made to lift the blind from pauperism. As soon as
+pupils enter a school, all semblance of pauper origin should be
+removed. They must be inspired with a desire for independence
+and a belief in its possibility. In the public mind blindness has
+been so long and closely associated with dependence and pauperism
+that schools for the blind, even the most progressive, have
+been regarded hitherto as asylums rather than educational
+establishments. A sad mistake in the training of the blind is
+the lack of an earnest effort to improve their social condition.
+The fact that their education has been left to charity has helped
+to keep them in the ranks of dependents.</p>
+
+<p>The question of day-classes versus boarding-schools has been
+much discussed. It is claimed by some that a blind child gains
+more independence if kept at home and educated in a school
+with the seeing. This theory is not verified by practical experience.
+At home its blindness makes the child an exception,
+and often it takes little or no part in the active duties of everyday
+life. Again, in a class of seeing children the blind member
+is treated as an exception. The memory is cultivated at the
+expense of the other faculties, and the facility with which it
+recites in certain subjects causes it to make a false estimate
+of its attainments. The fundamental principles in different
+branches are imperfectly understood, from the failure to follow
+the illustrations of the teacher. In the playgrounds, a few
+irrepressibles join in active games, but most of the blind children
+prefer a quiet corner.</p>
+
+<p>For the sake of economy, schools for deaf-mutes and the
+blind are sometimes united. As the requirements of the two
+classes are entirely separate and distinct, the union is undesirable,
+whether for general education or industrial training. The plan
+was tried in America, but has been given up in most of the
+states. To meet the difficulty of proper classification with small
+numbers, blind boys and girls are taught in the same classes.
+The acquaintances then made lead to intimacy in later years
+and foster intermarriage among the blind. Intermarriage among
+the blind is a calamity, both for them and for their children;
+some who might have been successful business men are to-day
+begging in the streets in consequence of intermarriage.</p>
+
+<p>In every school or class there will be a certain number of
+young blind children who, from neglect, want of food, or other
+causes, are feeble in body and defective in intellect; such
+children are a great burden in any class or school, and require
+special treatment and instruction. Educational authorities
+should unite and have one or two schools in a healthful locality
+for mentally defective blind children.</p>
+
+<p>More and more, in educational work for the seeing, there is
+a tendency to specialize, and thus enable each student to have
+the best possible instruction in the subjects that bear most
+directly on his future calling. To prepare the blind for self-maintenance,
+there should be an equally careful study of the
+ability of each child.</p>
+
+<p>A scheme of education which has for its object to make
+the blind a self-sustaining class should include: kindergarten
+schools for children from 5 to 8 years of age; preparatory
+schools from 8 to 11; intermediate schools from 11 to 14. At
+14 an intelligent opinion can be formed in regard to the future
+career of the pupils. They will fall naturally into the following
+categories:&mdash;(<i>a</i>) A certain number will succeed better in
+handicraft than in any other calling, and should be drafted into a
+suitable mechanical school. (<i>b</i>) A few will have special gifts for
+general business, and should be educated accordingly. (<i>c</i>) A
+few will have the ability and ambition to prepare for the
+university, and the special college should afford them the most
+thorough preparation for the university examinations. (<i>d</i>)
+Some will have the necessary talent, combined with the requisite
+character and industry, to succeed in the musical profession;
+in addition to a liberal education, these should have musical
+instruction, equal to that given to the seeing, in the best
+schools of music. (<i>e</i>) Some may achieve excellent success as
+pianoforte-tuners, and in a pianoforte-tuning school strict
+business habits should be cultivated, and the same attention
+to work required as is demanded of seeing workmen in well-regulated
+pianoforte factories.</p>
+
+<p>The United Kingdom stands almost alone in allowing the
+education of the blind to depend upon charity. In the United
+States, each state government not only makes liberal provision
+for the education and training of the blind, but most of them
+provide grounds, buildings and a complete equipment in all departments.
+Although it costs much more <i>per capita</i>, from £40 to
+£60 per annum, the blind are as amply provided with the means
+of education as the seeing. The government of the United
+States appropriates $10,000 per annum for printing embossed
+books for the blind. Most of the European countries and the
+English colonies provide by taxation for the education of the blind.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Types</p>
+
+<p>The earliest authentic records of tangible letters for the blind
+describe a plan of engraving the letters upon blocks of wood, the
+invention of Francesco Lucas, a Spaniard, who dedicated it to
+Philip II. of Spain in the 16th century. In 1640 Pierre Moreau,
+a writing-master in Paris, cast a movable leaden type for the use
+of the blind, but being without means to carry out his plan,
+abandoned it. Pins inserted in cushions were next tried, and
+large wooden letters. After these came a contrivance of Du
+Puiseaux, a blind man, who had metal letters cast and set them
+in a small frame with a handle. Whilst these experiments were
+going on in France, attempts had also been made in Germany.
+R. Weissembourg (a resident of Mannheim), who lost his sight
+when about seven years of age, made use of letters cut in cardboard,
+and afterwards pricked maps in the same material. By
+this method he taught Mlle Paradis, the talented blind musician
+and the friend of Valentin Haüy.</p>
+
+<p>To Haüy belongs the honour of being the first to emboss paper
+as a means of reading for the blind; his books were embossed in
+large and small italics, from movable type set by his pupils. The
+following is an account of the origin of his discovery. Haüy&rsquo;s
+first pupil was François Lesueur, a blind boy whom he found
+begging at the porch door of St Germain des Prés. While
+Lesueur was sorting the papers on his teacher&rsquo;s desk, he came
+across a card strongly indented by the types in the press. The
+blind lad showed his master he could decipher several letters on
+the card. Immediately Haüy traced with the handle of his pen
+some signs on paper. The boy read them, and the result was
+printing in relief, the greatest of Haüy&rsquo;s discoveries. In 1821
+Lady Elizabeth Lowther brought embossed books and types from
+Paris, and with the types her son, Sir Charles Lowther, Bart.,
+printed for his own use the Gospel of St Matthew. The work of
+Haüy was taken up by Mr Gall of Edinburgh, Mr Alston of
+Glasgow, Dr Howe of Boston, Mr Friedlander of Philadelphia,
+and others. In 1827 James Gall of Edinburgh embossed some
+elementary works, and published the Gospel of St John in 1834.
+His plan was to use the common English letter and replace
+curves by angles.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:511px; height:436px" src="images/img69a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.&mdash;Moon Alphabet.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In 1832 the Edinburgh Society of Arts offered a gold medal for
+the best method of printing for the blind, and it was awarded to
+Dr Edmond Fry of London, whose alphabet consisted of ordinary
+capital letters without their small strokes. In 1836 the Rev. W.
+Taylor of York and John Alston in Glasgow began to print with
+Fry&rsquo;s type. Mr Alston&rsquo;s appeal for a printing fund met with a
+hearty response, and a grant of £400 was made by the treasury;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>69</span>
+in 1838 he completed the New Testament, and at the end of 1840
+the whole Bible was published in embossed print. In 1833
+printing for the blind was commenced in the United States at
+Boston and Philadelphia. Dr S.G. Howe in Boston used small
+English letters without capitals, angles being employed instead
+of curves, while J.R. Friedlander in Philadelphia used only
+Roman capitals. About 1838 T.M. Lucas of Bristol, a shorthand
+writer, and J.H. Frere of Blackheath, each introduced an
+alphabet of simpler forms, and based their systems on stenography.
+In 1847 Dr Moon of Brighton brought out a system
+which partially retains the outline of the Roman letters. This
+type is easily read by the adult blind, and is still much used by
+the home teaching societies. The preceding methods are all
+known as line types, but the one which is now in general use is a
+point type.</p>
+
+<p>In the early part of the 19th century Captain Charles Barbier,
+a French officer, substituted embossed dots for embossed lines.
+The slate for writing was also invented by him.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:338px; height:440px" src="images/img69b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Apparatus for writing Braille.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:501px; height:322px" src="images/img69c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Braille Alphabet. The black dots represent the raised points of
+the sign in their position in relation to the group of six.<br /><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Barbier arranged a table of speech sounds, consisting of six
+lines with six sounds in each line. His rectangular cell contained
+two vertical rows of six points each. The number of points in the
+left-hand row indicates in which horizontal line, and that in the
+right-hand row in which vertical line, of the printed table the
+speech sound is to be found.</p>
+
+<p>Louis Braille, a pupil and afterwards a professor of the Institution
+Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles, Paris, studied all the various
+methods in which arbitrary characters were used. Barbier&rsquo;s
+letter, although it gave a large number of combinations, was too
+long to be covered by the finger in reading, and Louis Braille
+reduced the number of dots. In 1834 Braille perfected his
+system. Dr Armitage considered it was the greatest advance
+that had ever been made in the education of the blind.</p>
+
+<p>The Braille alphabet consists of varying combinations of six
+dots in an oblong, of which the vertical side contains three, and the
+horizontal two dots <img style="width:22px; height:34px" src="images/img69d.jpg" alt="" />. There are 63 possible combinations
+of these six dots, and after the letters of the alphabet have been
+supplied, the remaining signs are used for punctuation, contractions,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;For writing, a ruler is used, consisting of a metal bed either
+grooved or marked by groups of little pits, each group consisting of
+six; over this bed is fitted a brass guide, punched with oblong
+holes whose vertical diameter is three-tenths of an inch, while the
+horizontal diameter is two-tenths. The pits are arranged in two
+parallel lines, and the guide is hinged on the bed in such a way that
+when the two are locked together the openings in the guide correspond
+exactly to the pits in the bed. The brass guide has a double
+row of openings, which enables the writer to write two lines; when
+these are written, he shifts his guide downwards until two little pins,
+which project from the under surface at its ends, drop into corresponding
+holes of a wooden board; then two more lines are written,
+and this operation is repeated until the bottom of the page is reached.
+The paper is introduced between the frame and the metal bed. The
+instrument for writing is a blunt awl, which carries a little cap of
+paper before it into the grooves or pits of the bed, thereby producing
+a series of little pits in the paper on the side next the writer. When
+taken out and turned over, little prominences are felt, corresponding
+to the pits on the other side. The reading is performed from left to
+right, consequently the writing is from right to left; but this reversal
+presents no practical difficulty as soon as the pupil had caught the
+idea that in reading and writing alike he has to go <i>forwards</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The first ten letters, from &lsquo;a&rsquo; to &lsquo;j,&rsquo; are formed in the upper
+and middle grooves; the next ten, from &lsquo;k&rsquo; to &lsquo;t,&rsquo; are formed by
+adding one lower back dot to each letter of the first series; the third
+row is formed from the first by adding two lower dots to each letter;
+the fourth row, similarly, by adding one lower front dot.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The first ten letters, when preceded by the prefix for numbers,
+stand for the nine
+numbers and the
+cipher. The same
+signs, written in the
+lower and middle
+grooves, instead of
+the upper and middle,
+serve for punctuation.
+The seven last
+letters of each series
+stand for the seven
+musical notes&mdash;the
+first series representing
+quavers, the
+second minims, the
+third semibreves, the
+fourth crotchets.
+Rests, accidentals,
+and every other sign
+used in music can be
+readily and clearly
+expressed without
+having recourse to
+the staff of five lines
+which forms the basis
+of ordinary musical
+notation, and which,
+though it has been
+reproduced tor the
+blind, can only be
+considered as serving
+to give them an
+idea of the method employed by the seeing, and cannot, of course, be
+written. By means of this dotted system, a blind man is able to
+keep memoranda or accounts, write his own music, emboss his own
+books from dictation, and carry on correspondence.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Braille system for literature and music was brought into
+general use in England by Dr T.R. Armitage. Through his wise,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page70" id="page70"></a>70</span>
+untiring zeal and noble generosity, every blind man, woman and
+child throughout the English-speaking world can now obtain
+not only the best literature, but the best music.</p>
+
+<p>In America there are two modifications of the point type,
+known as New York point and American braille. In each of
+these the most frequently recurring letters are represented by
+the least number of dots.</p>
+
+<p>The original Braille is used by the institutions for the blind in
+the British empire, European countries, Mexico, Brazil and
+Egypt.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Appliances for Educational Work</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus for writing point alphabets has already been
+described. Frank H. Hall, former superintendent of the School
+for the Blind, Jacksonville, Ill., U.S.A., has invented a Braille
+typewriter and stereotype maker; the latter embosses metal plates
+from which any number of copies can be printed. An automatic
+Braille-writer has been brought out in Germany, and William
+B. Wait (principal of the Institution for the Blind in New York
+City) has invented a machine for writing New York point. These
+machines are expensive, but A. Wayne of Birmingham has brought
+out a cheap and effective Braille-writer. H. Stainsby, secretary of
+the Birmingham institution, and Wayne have invented a machine
+for writing Braille shorthand.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:517px; height:510px" src="images/img70.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.&mdash;Arithmetic Board, Pin and Characters. A, Shape of
+opening in the board for pin; B and C, pin.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Many boards have been constructed to enable the blind to
+work arithmetical problems. The one which is most used was
+invented by the Rev. W. Taylor. The board has star-shaped
+openings in which a square pin fits in eight different positions.
+The pin has on one end a plain ridge and on the other a notched
+ridge; sixteen characters can be formed with the two ends.
+The board is also used for algebra, another set of type furnishing
+the algebraic symbols.</p>
+
+<p>Books are prepared with raised geometrical diagrams; figures
+can be formed with bent wires on cushions, or on paper with a
+toothed wheel attached to one end of a pair of compasses.</p>
+
+<p>Geography is studied by means of relief maps, manufactured
+in wood or paper. The physical maps and globes prepared for
+seeing children are used also for the blind.</p>
+
+<p>Chiefly owing to the unremitting energy and liberality of
+Dr T.R. Armitage, in connexion with the British and Foreign
+Blind Association, all school appliances for the blind have been
+greatly improved and cheapened.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Employment</p>
+
+<p>Reference has been made to the fact that music in its various
+branches furnishes the best and most lucrative employment for
+the blind. But those who have not the ability, or are too old
+to be trained for music or some other profession, must depend
+upon handicrafts for their support. The principal ones taught
+in the various institutions are the making of baskets, brushes,
+mats, sacks, ships&rsquo; fenders, brooms and mattresses, upholstery,
+wire-work, chair-caning, wood-chopping, &amp;c. Females are
+taught to make fancy baskets and brushes, chair-caning, knitting,
+netting, weaving, sewing&mdash;hand and machine&mdash;crocheting, &amp;c.
+It is difficult to find employment for blind girls. It is hoped
+that typewriting and massage will prove remunerative.</p>
+
+<p>The blind, whether educated for the church, trained as teachers,
+musicians, pianoforte-tuners, or for any other trade or occupation,
+generally require assistance at the outset. They need help in
+finding suitable employment, recommendations for establishing
+a connexion, pecuniary assistance in providing outfits of books,
+tools, instruments, &amp;c., help in the selection and purchase of the
+best materials at the lowest wholesale rates, in the sale of their
+manufactured goods in the best markets, and if overtaken by
+reverses, judicious and timely help towards a fresh start. Every
+institution should keep in touch with its old pupils. The superintendent
+who carefully studies the successes and failures of his
+pupils when they go into the world, will more wisely direct the
+work and energies of his present and future students.</p>
+
+<p>Within recent years great improvements have been made in
+some of the progressive workshops for the blind. At the conference
+in London in 1902 Mr T. Stoddart gave the following
+information in regard to the work in Glasgow:&mdash;&ldquo;We are building
+very extensive additions to our workshops, which will enable
+us to accommodate 600 blind people. We mean to employ the
+most up-to-date methods, and are introducing electric power
+to drive the machinery and light the workshops. We have to do
+with the average blind adult recently deprived of sight after he
+has attained an age of from 25 to 40 or even 50 years. In Glasgow
+we have developed an industry eminently suitable for the
+employment of the blind, namely, the manufacture of new and
+the remaking of old bedding. There are industries which are
+purely local, where certain articles of manufacture largely used
+in one district are useless, or nearly so, in another; but the field
+in which this industry may be promoted is practically without
+limit. It is perhaps the employment <i>par excellence</i> for the blind,
+and among other advantages it has the following to recommend
+it: employment is provided for the blind of both sexes and of
+all ages; there is no accumulation nor deterioration of stock;
+it yields an excellent profit, and its use is universal. We have
+been pushing this industry for years, our annual turnover in
+this particular department having exceeded £7000, and as we
+find it so suited to the capabilities of all grades of blind people,
+it is our intention to provide facilities for doing a turnover of
+three times that amount. Instead of the thirty sewing-machines
+which we have at present running by power, we hope to employ
+100 blind women. At cork-fender-making, also an industry of
+the most suitable kind, we are at present employing about
+thirty workers. It is also our intention to greatly develop and
+extend our mat-making department.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the United States many blind persons are engaged in
+agricultural pursuits, and some are very successful in commercial
+pursuits. When a man loses his sight in adult life,
+if he can possibly follow the business in which he has previously
+been engaged, it is the best course for him. In the present day,
+work in manufactories is subdivided to such an extent that often
+some one portion can be done by a blind person; but it needs
+the interest of some enthusiastic believer in the capabilities of
+the blind to persuade the seeing manager that blind people can
+be safely employed in factories.</p>
+
+<p>In England, at the time of the royal commission of 1889,
+upwards of 8000 blind persons, above the age of 21, were in
+receipt of relief from the guardians, of whom no less than 3278
+were resident in workhouses or workhouse infirmaries. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id="page71"></a>71</span>
+census returns for 1901 indicate that the number at that time
+was equally large. It would certainly be more economical to
+establish workshops where the able-bodied adult blind can
+be trained in some handicraft and employed.</p>
+
+<p>The papers read at the various conferences show that, even
+under the most favourable circumstances, some are not able
+to earn enough for their support; nevertheless, employment
+improves their condition; there is no greater calamity than
+to live a life of compulsory idleness in total darkness. The cry
+of the blind is not alms but work. One of the workshops
+in western America has adopted the motto, &ldquo;Independence
+through Industry,&rdquo; and it should be the aim of every civilized
+country to hasten the time when blindness and pauperism shall
+no longer be synonymous terms.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Biography</p>
+
+<p>It may be interesting, in conclusion, to mention some of the
+names of prominent blind people in history:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed list">
+<p>Timoleon (c. 410-336 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a Greek general.</p>
+
+<p>Aufidius, a Roman senator.</p>
+
+<p>Bela II. (d. 1141), king of Hungary.</p>
+
+<p>John, king of Bohemia (1296-1346), killed in the battle of Crécy.</p>
+
+<p>John Zizca (c. 1376-1424), Bohemian general.</p>
+
+<p>Basil III. (d. 1462), prince of Moscow.</p>
+
+<p>Shah Alam (d. 1806), the last of the Great Moguls.</p>
+
+<p>Diodorus, the instructor of Cicero.</p>
+
+<p>Didymus of Alexandria (c. 308-395), mathematician, theologian and linguist.</p>
+
+<p>Nicase of Malines (d. 1492), professor of law in the university
+     of Cologne. The degree of doctor of divinity was conferred
+     on him by the university of Louvain, and the pope granted
+     a dispensation suspending the law of the Church, that he
+     might be ordained as a priest.</p>
+
+<p>Ludovico Scapinelli (b. 1585), professor at the universities of Bologna, Modena and Pisa.</p>
+
+<p>James Schegkius (d. 1587), professor of philosophy and medicine at Tübingen.</p>
+
+<p>Franciscus Salinas, professor of music at the university of Salamanca, in the 16th century.</p>
+
+<p>Nicholas Bacon (16th century), doctor of laws in the university of Brussels.</p>
+
+<p>Count de Pagan of Avignon (b. 1604), mathematician of note.</p>
+
+<p>John Milton (1608-1674), the poet.</p>
+
+<p>Rev. Richard Lucas (1648-1715), prebendary of Westminster.</p>
+
+<p>Nicholas Saunderson (<i>q.v.</i>; 1682-1739).</p>
+
+<p>John Stanley (1713-1786), Mus. Bac. Oxon., was born in London
+     in 1713. At seven he began to study music, and made such
+     rapid progress that he was appointed organist of All-Hallows,
+     Bread Street, at the age of eleven. He graduated as Mus.
+     Bac. at Oxford when sixteen, and was organist of the
+     Temple church at the age of twenty-one. He composed a
+     number of cantatas, and after the death of Handel he
+     superintended the performance of Handel&rsquo;s oratorios at
+     Covent Garden. He received the degree of doctor of
+     music, and was master of the king&rsquo;s band.</p>
+
+<p>Leonard Euler (1707-1783), the celebrated mathematician and astronomer.</p>
+
+<p>John Metcalf (b. 1717), road-builder and contractor.</p>
+
+<p>Sir John Fielding (d. 1780), eminent lawyer and magistrate.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Blacklock (<i>q.v.</i>; 1721-1791), Scottish scholar and poet.</p>
+
+<p>François Huber (1750-1831), Swiss naturalist, noted for his observations on bees.</p>
+
+<p>Edward Rushton (b. 1756). At six years of age he entered the
+     Liverpool free grammar school, and at eleven shipped for
+     his first voyage in a West India merchantman. On a later
+     voyage he was shipwrecked, and owed his life to the self-sacrifice
+     of a negro. Rushton and the black man swam for
+     their lives to a floating cask; the negro reached it first,
+     saw Rushton about to sink, pushed the cask to the failing
+     lad, and struck out for the shore, but never reached it.
+     This incident made Rushton an enthusiastic champion
+     through life of the cause of the negro. During a voyage to
+     Dominica malignant ophthalmia broke out among the slave
+     cargo, and Rushton caught the disease by attending them
+     in the hold when all others refused help. This attack
+     deprived him of sight, and cut short a promising nautical
+     career at the age of nineteen. He struggled bravely against
+     difficulties, and besides entering successfully into various
+     literary engagements, maintained himself and family as a
+     bookseller. A volume of his poems containing a memoir
+     was published in 1824.</p>
+
+<p>Marie Thérèse von Paradis (b. 1759), the daughter of an imperial
+     councillor in Vienna. She was a godchild of the empress
+     Marie Thérèse, and as her parents possessed rank and
+     wealth, no expense was spared in her education. Weissembourg,
+     a blind man, was her tutor, and she learned to spell
+     with letters cut out of pasteboard, and read words pricked
+     upon cards with pins. She studied the piano with Richter
+     (of Holland) and Kozeluch. She was a highly esteemed
+     pianist, and Mozart wrote a concerto for her; she also
+     attained considerable skill on the organ, in singing and in
+     composition. She made a concert tour of Europe, visiting
+     the principal courts and everywhere achieving great success.
+     She remained four months in England, under the patronage
+     of the queen. On her return to Vienna, through Paris, she
+     met Valentin Haüy. Towards the close of her life she
+     devoted herself to teaching singing and the pianoforte with
+     great success.</p>
+
+<p>James Holman (<i>q.v.</i>; 1786-1857), traveller.</p>
+
+<p>William H. Prescott (<i>q.v.</i>; 1796-1859), the American historian.</p>
+
+<p>Several early 19th-century musicians held situations as organists
+     in London; among them Grenville, Scott, Lockhart,
+     Mather, Stiles and Warne.</p>
+
+<p>Louis Braille (1809-1852). In 1819 he went to the school for
+     the blind in Paris. He became proficient on the organ, and
+     held a post in one of the Paris churches. While a professor
+     at the Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles, he
+     perfected his system of point writing.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander Rodenbach, Belgian statesman. When a member of
+     the chamber of deputies, in 1836, he introduced and
+     succeeded in establishing by law the right of blind and
+     deaf-mute children to an education.</p>
+
+<p>Dr William Moon (1818-1894), the inventor of the type for the blind which bears his name.</p>
+
+<p>Rev. W.H. Milburn, D.D. (1823-1903), the American chaplain,
+     known in the United States as &ldquo;The Blind Man Eloquent.&rdquo;
+     He often travelled from thirty to fifty thousand miles a
+     year, speaking and preaching every day. He was three
+     times chaplain of the House of Representatives, and in 1893
+     was chosen to the chaplaincy of the senate.</p>
+
+<p>Dr T.R. Armitage (b. 1824). After spending his youth on the
+     continent, he became a medical student, first at King&rsquo;s
+     College, and afterwards at Paris and Vienna. His career
+     promised to be a brilliant one, but at the age of thirty-six
+     failing sight caused him to abandon his profession. For
+     the rest of his life he devoted his time and fortune to the
+     interests of the blind. He reorganized the Indigent Blind
+     Visiting Society, endowed its Samaritan fund, founded the
+     British and Foreign Blind Association, and, in conjunction
+     with the late duke of Westminster and others, founded the
+     Royal Normal College.</p>
+
+<p>Elizabeth Gilbert (b. 1826), daughter of the bishop of Chichester.
+     She lost her sight at the age of three. She was educated at
+     home, and took her full share of household duties and cares
+     and pleasures. When she was twenty-seven, she began to
+     consider the condition of the poor blind of London. She
+     saw some one must befriend those who had been taught
+     trades, some one who could supply material, give employment
+     or dispose of the articles manufactured. In 1854 her
+     scheme was started, and work was given to six men in their
+     own homes, but the number soon increased. In 1856 a
+     committee was formed, a house converted into a factory,
+     and the Association for Promoting the General Welfare of
+     the Blind was founded.</p>
+
+<p>Rev. George Matheson, D.D. (b. 1842), preacher and writer of
+     the Church of Scotland. The degree of D.D. was conferred
+     on him by the university of Edinburgh in 1879, and he was
+     appointed Baird Lecturer in 1881, and St Giles&rsquo; Lecturer
+     in 1882.</p>
+
+<p>Henry Fawcett (1833-1884), professor of political economy at Cambridge, and postmaster-general.</p>
+
+<p>W.H. Churchman of Pennsylvania, who was instrumental in
+     establishing the schools for the blind in Tennessee, Indiana
+     and Wisconsin.</p>
+
+<p>H.L. Hall, founder of the workshops and home for the blind
+     in Philadelphia; by his energetic management he raised
+     the standard of work for the adult blind throughout
+     America.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;See also W.H. Levy, <i>Blindness and the Blind</i>
+(1872); J. Wilson, <i>Biography of the Blind</i> (1838); Dr T.R. Armitage,
+Education and Employment of the Blind (2nd ed., 1882); R.H. Blair,
+<i>Education of the Blind</i> (1868); M. Anagnos, <i>Education of the Blind</i>
+(1882); H.J. Wilson, <i>Institutions, Societies and Classes for the Blind
+in England and Wales</i> (1907); Guillié, <i>Instruction and Amusements
+of the Blind</i> (1819); Dr W. Moon, <i>Light for the Blind</i> (1875); R. Meldrum,
+<i>Light on Dark Paths</i> (2nd ed., 1891); Dr H. Roth, <i>Prevention
+of Blindness</i> (1885), and his <i>Physical Education of the Blind</i>
+(1885); <i>Report of Royal Commission</i> (1889); Gavin Douglas,
+<i>Remarkable Blind Persons</i> (1829); John Bird, <i>Social Pathology</i>
+(1862); M. de la Sizeranne, <i>The Blind in Useful Avocations</i> (Paris,
+1881), <i>True Mission of Smaller Schools</i> (Paris, 1884), <i>The Blind in
+France</i> (Paris, 1885), <i>Two Years&rsquo; Study and Work for the Blind</i>
+(Paris, 1890), and <i>The Blind as seen by a Blind Man</i> [translated
+by Dr Park Lewis] (Paris, 1893); Dr Émile Javal, <i>The Blind
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page72" id="page72"></a>72</span>
+Man&rsquo;s World</i> [translated by Ernest Thomson] (Paris, 1904);
+Prof. A. Mell, <i>Encyklopadisches Handbuch des Blindenwesens</i>
+(Vienna, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. J. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There are no late returns for Iceland, but the last available
+statistics gave 3400 per million. A paper written in 1903 on blindness
+in Egypt stated that 1 in every 50 of the population was blind.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Previous returns from Finland have shown a much larger number
+of blind persons, but these statistics were supplied by the British
+consul in St Petersburg from the last census.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3g" id="ft3g" href="#fa3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Its principal (responsible, with Dr Armitage, the duke of Westminster
+and others, for its foundation) was Sir F.J. Campbell,
+LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.S.A., himself a blind man, who, born in Tennessee,
+U.S.A., in 1832, and educated at the Nashville school, and afterwards
+in music at Leipzig and Berlin, had from 1858 to 1869 been
+associated with Dr Howe at the Perkins Institution, Boston. He
+was knighted in 1909.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (1833-&emsp;&emsp;), American merchant
+and politician, was born at Fall River, Massachusetts, on
+the 26th of January 1833. He was educated in his native city
+and in New Orleans, where he early entered his step-father&rsquo;s
+counting-house. Returning to Massachusetts in 1849, he
+became a clerk and subsequently a junior partner in a prominent
+Boston commercial house. Later he removed to New York
+City to establish a branch of the firm. In 1881 he organized
+and became president of Bliss, Fabyan &amp; Company, one of the
+largest wholesale dry-goods houses in the country. A consistent
+advocate of the protective tariff, he was one of the organizers,
+and for many years president, of the American Protective
+Tariff League. In politics an active Republican, he was chairman
+of the Republican state committee in 1887 and 1888, and
+contributed much to the success of the Harrison ticket in New
+York in the latter year. He was treasurer of the Republican
+national committee from 1892 to 1904, and was secretary of the
+interior in President McKinley&rsquo;s cabinet from 1897 to 1899.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLISTER<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (a word found in many forms in Teutonic languages,
+cf. Ger. <i>Blase</i>; it is ultimately connected with the same root as
+in &ldquo;blow,&rdquo; cf. &ldquo;bladder&rdquo;), a small vesicle filled with serous
+fluid raised on the skin by a burn, by rubbing on a hard surface,
+as on the hand in rowing, or by other injury; the term is also
+used of a similar condition of the skin caused artificially, as a
+counter-irritant in cases of inflammation, by the application of
+mustard, of various kinds of fly (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cantharides</a></span>) and of
+other vesicatories. Similar small swellings, filled with fluid or
+air, on plants and on the surface of steel or paint, &amp;c., are also
+called &ldquo;blisters.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLIZZARD<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (origin probably onomatopoeic, cf. &ldquo;blast,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;bluster&rdquo;), a furious wind driving fine particles of choking,
+blinding snow whirling in icy clouds. The conditions to which
+the name was originally given occur with the northerly winds
+in rear of the cyclones crossing the eastern states of America
+during winter.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOCK, MARK ELIEZER<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (c. 1723-1799), German naturalist,
+was born at Ansbach, of poor Jewish parents, about 1723. After
+taking his degree as doctor at Frankfort-on-Oder he established
+himself as a physician at Berlin. His first scientific work of
+importance was an essay on intestinal worms, which gained a
+prize from the Academy of Copenhagen, but he is best known
+by his important work on fishes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ichthyology</a></span>). Bloch
+was fifty-six when he began to write on ichthyological subjects.
+To begin at his time of life a work in which he intended not
+only to give full descriptions of the species known to him from
+specimens or drawings, but also to illustrate each species in a
+style truly magnificent for his time, was an undertaking the
+execution of which most men would have despaired of. Yet he
+accomplished not only this task, but even more than he at first
+contemplated. He died at Carlsbad on the 6th of August 1799.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOCK, MAURICE<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1816-1901), French statistician, was
+born in Berlin of Jewish parents on the 18th of February 1816.
+He studied at Bonn and Giessen, but settled in Paris, becoming
+naturalized there. In 1844 he entered the French ministry of
+agriculture, becoming in 1852 one of the heads of the statistical
+department. He retired in 1862, and thenceforth devoted himself
+entirely to statistical studies, which have gained for him
+a wide reputation. He was elected a member of the Académie
+des Sciences Morales et Politiques in 1880. He died in Paris on
+the 9th of January 1901. His principal works are: <i>Dictionnaire
+de l&rsquo;administration française</i> (1856); <i>Statistique de la France</i>
+(1860); <i>Dictionnaire général de la politique</i> (1862); <i>L&rsquo;Europe
+polilique et sociale</i> (1869); <i>Traité théorique et pratique de statistique</i>
+(1878); <i>Les Progrés de l&rsquo;économie politique depuis Adam
+Smith</i> (1890); he also edited from 1856 <i>L&rsquo;Annuaire de l&rsquo;économie
+politique et de la statistique</i>, and wrote in German <i>Die Bevolkerung
+des französischen Kaiserreichs</i> (1861); <i>Die Bevolkerung
+Spaniens und Portugals</i> (1861); and <i>Die Machtstellung der
+europäischen Staaten</i> (1862).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOCK<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>bloc</i>, and possibly connected with an Old
+Ger. <i>Block</i>, obstruction, cf. &ldquo;baulk&rdquo;), a piece of wood. The word
+is used in various senses, <i>e.g.</i> the block upon which people were
+beheaded, the block or mould upon which a hat is shaped, a
+pulley-block, a printing-block, &amp;c. From the sense of a solid
+mass comes the expression, a &ldquo;block&rdquo; of houses, <i>i.e.</i> a rectangular
+space covered with houses and bounded by four streets.
+From the sense of &ldquo;obstruction&rdquo; comes a &ldquo;block&rdquo; in traffic, a
+block in any proceedings, and the block system of signalling on
+railways.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOCKADE<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (Fr. <i>blocus</i>, Ger. <i>Blokade</i>), a term used in
+maritime warfare. Originally a blockade by sea was probably
+nothing more than the equivalent in maritime warfare of a
+blockade or siege on land in which the army investing the
+blockaded or besieged place is in actual physical possession of a
+zone through which it can prevent and forbid ingress and egress.
+An attempt to cross such a zone without the consent of the
+investing army would be an act of hostility against the besiegers.
+A maritime blockade, when it formed part of a siege, would
+obviously also be a close blockade, being part of the military
+cordon drawn round the besieged place. Even from the first,
+however, differences would begin to grow up in the conditions
+arising out of the operations on land and on sea. Thus whereas
+conveying merchandise across military lines would be a deliberate
+act of hostility against the investing force, a neutral ship which
+had sailed in ignorance of the blockade for the blockaded place
+might in good faith cross the blockade line without committing
+a hostile act against the investing force. With the development
+of recognition of neutral rights the involuntary character of the
+breach would be taken into account, and notice to neutral states
+and to approaching vessels would come into use. With the
+employment in warfare of larger vessels in the place of the more
+numerous small ones of an earlier age, notice, moreover, would
+tend to take the place of <i>de facto</i> investment, and at a time when
+communication between governments was still slow and precarious,
+such notice would sometimes be given as a possible
+measure of belligerent tactics before the blockade could be
+actually carried out. Out of these circumstances grew up the
+abuse of &ldquo;paper blockades.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The climax was reached in the &ldquo;Continental Blockade&rdquo;
+decreed by Napoleon in 1806, which continued till it was abolished
+by international agreement in 1812. This blockade forbade all
+countries under French dominion or allied with France to have
+any communication with Great Britain. Great Britain replied
+in 1807 by a similar measure. The first nation to protest against
+these fictitious blockades was the United States. Already in
+1800 John Marshall, secretary of state, wrote to the American
+minister in Great Britain pointing out objections which have
+since been universally admitted. In the following interesting
+passage he said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Ports not effectually blockaded by a force capable of completely
+investing them have yet been declared in a state of blockade....
+If the effectiveness of the blockade be dispensed with, then every port
+of the belligerent powers may at all times be declared in that state,
+and the commerce of neutrals be thereby subjected to universal
+capture. But if this principle be strictly adhered to, the capacity
+to blockade will be limited by the naval force of the belligerent and,
+in consequence, the mischief to neutral commerce cannot be very
+extensive. It is, therefore, of the last importance to neutrals that
+this principle be maintained unimpaired. I observe that you have
+pressed this reasoning on the British minister, who replies that an
+occasional absence of a fleet from a blockaded port ought not to
+change the state of the place. Whatever force this observation may
+be entitled to, where that occasional absence has been produced by
+an accident, as a storm, which for a moment blows off a fleet and
+forces it from its station, which station it immediately resumes, I
+am persuaded that where a part of the fleet is applied, though only
+for a time, to other objects or comes into port, the very principle
+requiring an effective blockade, which is that the mischief can only be
+coextensive with the naval force of the belligerent, requires that
+during such temporary absence the commerce to the neutrals to the
+place should be free.&rdquo;<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>73</span> </p>
+
+<p>Again in 1803 James Madison wrote to the then American
+minister in London:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The law of nations requires to constitute a blockade that there
+should be the presence and position of a force rendering access to
+the prohibited place manifestly difficult and dangerous.&rdquo;<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In 1826 and 1827 Great Britain as well as the United States
+asserted that blockades in order to be binding must be effective.
+This became gradually the recognized view, and when in 1856
+the powers represented at the congress of Paris inserted in the
+declaration there adopted that &ldquo;blockades in order to be
+binding must be effective, that is to say, maintained by a force
+sufficient really to prevent access to the coast of an enemy,&rdquo; they
+were merely enunciating a rule which neutral states had already
+become too powerful to allow belligerents to disregard.</p>
+
+<p>Blockade is universally admitted to be a belligerent right to
+which under international law neutrals are obliged to submit. It
+is now also universally admitted that the above-quoted rule of
+the Declaration of Paris forms part of international law, independently
+of the declaration. Being, however, exclusively a
+belligerent right, it cannot be exercised except by a belligerent
+force. Even a <i>de facto</i> belligerent has the right to institute a
+blockade binding on neutrals if it has the means of making it
+effective, though the force opposed to it may treat the <i>de facto</i>
+belligerent as rebels.</p>
+
+<p>It is also admitted that, being exclusively a belligerent right,
+it cannot be exercised in time of peace, but there has been some
+inconsistency in practice (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pacific Blockade</a></span>) which will
+probably lead governments, in order to avoid protests of neutral
+powers against belligerent rights being exercised in mere coercive
+proceedings, to exercise all the rights of belligerents and carry on
+<i>de facto</i> war to entitle them to use violence against neutral infringers.
+This was done in the case of the blockade of Venezuela
+by Great Britain, Germany and Italy in 1902-1903.</p>
+
+<p>The points upon which controversy still arises are as to what
+constitutes an &ldquo;effective&rdquo; blockade and what a sufficient
+notice of blockade to warrant the penalties of violation, viz.
+confiscation of the ship and of the cargo unless the evidence
+demonstrates the innocence of the cargo owners. A blockade
+to be effective must be maintained by a sufficient force to
+prevent the entrance of neutral vessels into the blockaded port
+or ports, and it must be duly proclaimed. Subject to these
+principles being complied with, &ldquo;the question of the legitimacy
+and effectiveness of a blockade is one of fact to be determined in
+each case upon the evidence presented&rdquo; (Thomas F. Bayard,
+American secretary of state, to Messrs Kamer &amp; Co., 19th of
+February 1889). The British manual of naval prize law sums
+up the cases in which a blockade, validly instituted, ceases to be
+effectively maintained, as follows:&mdash;(1) If the blockading force
+abandons its position, unless the abandonment be merely
+temporary or caused by stress of weather, or (2) if it be driven
+away by the enemy, or (3) if it be negligent in its duties, or
+(4) if it be partial in the execution of its duties towards one ship
+rather than another, or towards the ships of one nation rather
+than those of another. These cases, however, are based on
+decisions of the British admiralty court and cannot be relied on
+absolutely as a statement of international law.</p>
+
+<p>As regards notice the following American instructions vere
+given to blockading officers in June 1898:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Neutral vessels are entitled to notification of a blockade before
+they can be made prize for its attempted violation. The character
+of this notification is not material. It may be actual, as by a vessel
+of the blockading force, or <i>constructive, as by a proclamation of the
+government maintaining the blockade, or by common notoriety</i>. If a
+neutral vessel can be shown to have had notice of the blockade in
+any way, she is good prize, and should be sent in for adjudication;
+but should formal notice not have been given, <i>the rule of constructive
+knowledge arising from notoriety</i> should be construed in a manner
+liberal to the neutral.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Vessels appearing before a blockaded port, having sailed without
+notification, are entitled to actual notice by a blockading vessel.
+They should be boarded by an officer, who should enter in the ship&rsquo;s
+log the fact of such notice, such entry to include the name of the
+blockading vessel giving notice, the extent of the blockade, the date
+and place, verified by his official signature. The vessel is then to be
+set free; and should she again attempt to enter the same or any
+other blockaded port as to which she has had notice, she is good
+prize. Should it appear from a vessel&rsquo;s clearance that she sailed after
+notice of blockade had been communicated to the country of her
+port of departure, or <i>after the fact of blockade had, by a fair presumption,
+become commonly known</i> at that port, she should be sent in as
+a prize.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The passages in italics are not in accordance with the views
+held by other states, which do not recognize the binding character
+of a diplomatic notification or of constructive notice from
+notoriety.</p>
+
+<p>The subject was brought up at the second Hague Conference
+(1907). The Italian and Mexican delegations submitted projects,
+but after a declaration by the British delegate in charge of the
+subject (Sir E. Satow) that blockade not having been included
+in the Russian programme, his government had given him no instructions
+upon it, the subject, at his suggestion, was dropped.
+A <i>Voeu</i>, however, was adopted in favour of formulating rules
+on all branches of the laws and customs of naval war, and a convention
+was agreed to for the establishment of an international
+Prize Court (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Prize</a></span>). Under Art. 7 of the latter convention
+the Court was to apply the &ldquo;rules of international law,&rdquo; and in
+their absence the &ldquo;general principles of justice and equity.&rdquo;
+As soon as possible after the close of the second Hague Conference
+the British government took steps to call a special
+conference of the maritime powers, which sat from December 4,
+1908 to February 26, 1909. Among the subjects dealt with
+was Blockade, the rules relating to which are as follow:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Art. 1. A blockade must not extend beyond the ports and coasts
+belonging to or occupied by the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 2. In accordance with the Declaration of Paris of 1856, a
+blockade, in order to be binding, must be effective&mdash;that is to say,
+it must be maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access
+to the enemy coastline.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 3. The question whether a blockade is effective is a question
+of fact.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 4. A blockade is not regarded as raised if the blockading force
+is temporarily withdrawn on account of stress of weather.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 5. A blockade must be applied impartially to the ships of all
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 6. The commander of a blockading force may give permission
+to a warship to enter, and subsequently to leave, a blockaded port.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 7. In circumstances of distress, acknowledged by an officer
+of the blockading force, a neutral vessel may enter a place under
+blockade and subsequently leave it, provided that she has neither
+discharged nor shipped any cargo there.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 8. A blockade, in order to be binding, must be declared in
+accordance with Article 9, and notified in accordance with Articles
+11 and 16.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 9. A declaration of blockade is made either by the blockading
+power or by the naval authorities acting in its name. It specifies (1)
+the date when the blockade begins; (2) the geographical limits of
+the coastline under blockade; (3) the period within which neutral
+vessels may come out.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 10. If the operations of the blockading power, or of the naval
+authorities acting in its name, do not tally with the particulars, which,
+in accordance with Article 9 (1) and (2), must be inserted in the
+declaration of blockade, the declaration is void, and a new declaration
+is necessary in order to make the blockade operative.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 11. A declaration of blockade is notified: (1) to neutral
+powers, by the blockading power by means of a communication
+addressed to the governments direct, or to their representatives
+accredited to it; (2) to the local authorities, by the officer commanding
+the blockading force. The local authorities will, in turn, inform
+the foreign consular officers at the port or on the coastline under
+blockade as soon as possible.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 12. The rules as to declaration and notification of blockade
+apply to cases where the limits of a blockade are extended, or where
+a blockade is re-established after having been raised.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 13. The voluntary raising of a blockade, as also any restriction
+in the limits of a blockade, must be notified in the manner
+prescribed by Article 11.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 14. The liability of a neutral vessel to capture for breach of
+blockade is contingent on her knowledge, actual or presumptive, of
+the blockade.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 15. Failing proof to the contrary, knowledge of the blockade
+is presumed if the vessel left a neutral port subsequently to the
+notification of the blockade to the power to which such port belongs,
+provided that such notification was made in sufficient time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page74" id="page74"></a>74</span> </p>
+
+<p>Art. 16. If a vessel approaching a blockaded port has no knowledge,
+actual or presumptive, of the blockade, the notification must
+be made to the vessel itself by an officer of one of the ships of the
+blockading force. This notification should be entered in the vessel&rsquo;s
+logbook, and must state the day and hour, and the geographical
+position of the vessel at the time. If through the negligence of the
+officer commanding the blockading force no declaration of blockade
+has been notified to the local authorities, or if in the declaration,
+as notified, no period has been mentioned within which neutral vessels
+may come out, a neutral vessel coming out of the blockaded port
+must be allowed to pass free.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 17. Neutral vessels may not be captured for breach of
+blockade except within the area of operations of the warships
+detailed to render the blockade effective.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 18. The blockading forces must not bar access to neutral
+ports or coasts.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 19. Whatever may be the ulterior destination of a vessel
+or of her cargo, she cannot be captured for breach of blockade, if, at
+the moment, she is on her way to a non-blockaded port.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 20. A vessel which has broken blockade outwards, or
+which has attempted to break blockade inwards, is liable to capture
+so long as she is pursued by a ship of the blockading force. If
+the pursuit is abandoned, or if the blockade is raised, her capture
+can no longer be effected.</p>
+
+<p>Art. 21. A vessel found guilty of breach of blockade is liable
+to condemnation. The cargo is also condemned, unless it is
+proved that at the time of the shipment of the goods the shipper
+neither knew nor could have known of the intention to break the
+blockade.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. Ba.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> John Marshall, secretary of state, to Rufus King, minister to
+England, 20th of September 1800, Am. State Papers, Class I, For. Rel.
+II, No. 181, J.B. Moore, <i>Digest of International Law</i>, vii. 788.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> James Madison, secretary of state, to Mr Thornton, 27th of October
+1803, 14 MS. Dom. Let. 215. Moore, <i>Digest of International Law</i>, vii.
+789.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOCKHOUSE,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> in fortification, a small roofed work serving
+as a fortified post for a small garrison. The word, common
+since 1500, is of uncertain origin, and was applied to what is now
+called a <i>fort d&rsquo;arrêt</i>, a detached fort blocking the access to a
+landing, channel, pass, bridge or defile. The modern blockhouse
+is a building, sometimes of two storeys, which is loopholed on all
+sides, and not infrequently, in the case of two-storey blockhouses,
+provided with a <i>mâchicoulis</i> gallery. Blockhouses are built of
+wood, brick, stone, corrugated iron or any material available.
+During the South African War (1899-1902) they were often sent
+from England to the front in ready-made sections.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOEMAERT, ABRAHAM<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (1564-1651), Dutch painter and
+engraver, was born at Gorinchem, the son of an architect. He
+was first a pupil of Gerrit Splinter (pupil of Frans Floris) and of
+Joos de Beer, at Utrecht. He then spent three years in Paris,
+studying under several masters, and on his return to his native
+country received further training from Hieronymus Francken.
+In 1591 he went to Amsterdam, and four years later settled
+finally at Utrecht, where he became dean of the Gild of St Luke.
+He excelled more as a colourist than as a draughtsman, was
+extremely productive, and painted and etched historical and
+allegorical pictures, landscapes, still-life, animal pictures and
+flower pieces. Among his pupils are his four sons, Hendrick,
+Frederick, Cornelis and Adriaan (all of whom achieved considerable
+reputation as painters or engravers), the two Honthorsts
+and Jacob G. Cuyp.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOEMEN, JAN FRANS VAN<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (1662-1740), Flemish painter,
+was born at Antwerp, and studied and lived in Italy. At Rome
+he was styled Orizonte, on account of his painting of distance
+in his landscapes, which are reminiscent of Gaspard Poussin and
+much admired. His brothers Pieter (1657-1719), styled Standaart
+(from his military pictures), and Norbert (1670-1746),
+were also well-known painters.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOEMFONTEIN,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> capital of the Orange Free State, in
+29º 8&prime; S., 26º 18&prime; E. It is situated on the open veld, surrounded
+by a few low kopjes, 4518 ft. above the sea, 105 m. by rail E.
+by S. of Kimberley, 750 N.E. by E. of Cape Town, 450 N. by E.
+of Port Elizabeth, and 257 S.W. of Johannesburg.</p>
+
+<p>Bloemfontein is a very pleasant town, regularly laid out with
+streets running at right angles and a large central market square.
+Many of the houses are surrounded by large wooded gardens.
+Through the town runs the Bloemspruit. After a disastrous
+flood in 1904 the course of this spring was straightened and six
+stone bridges placed across it. There are several fine public
+buildings, mostly built of red brick and a fine-grained white
+stone quarried in the neighbourhood. The Raadzaal, a building
+in the Renaissance style, faces Market Square. Formerly the
+meeting-place of the Orange Free State Raad, it is now the seat
+of the provincial council. In front of the old Raadzaal (used
+as law courts) is a statue of President Brand. In Douglas Street
+is an unpretentious building used in turn as a church, a raadzaal,
+a court-house and a museum. In it was signed (1854) the
+convention which recognized the independence of the Free
+State Boers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Orange Free State</a></span>: <i>History</i>). Among
+the churches the most important, architecturally, are the
+Dutch Reformed, a building with two spires, and the Anglican
+cathedral, which has a fine interior. The chief educational
+establishment is Grey University College, built 1906-1908 at
+a cost of £125,000. It stands in grounds of 300 acres, a mile
+and a half from the town. In the town is the original Grey
+College, founded in 1856 by Sir George Grey, when governor of
+Cape Colony. The post and telegraph office in Market Square
+is one of the finest buildings in the town. The public library
+is housed in a handsome building in Warden Street. Opposite
+it is the new national museum.</p>
+
+<p>Bloemfontein possesses few manufactures, but is the trading
+centre of the province. Having a dry healthy climate, it is a
+favourite residential town and a resort for invalids, being recommended
+especially for pulmonary disease. The mean maximum
+temperature is 76.7° Fahr., the mean minimum 45.8°; the mean
+annual rainfall about 24 in. There is an excellent water-supply,
+obtained partly from Bloemspruit, but principally from the
+Modder river at Sanna&rsquo;s Post, 22 m. to the east, and from
+reservoirs at Moches Dam and Magdepoort.</p>
+
+<p>The population in 1904 was 33,883, of whom, including the
+garrison of 3487, 15,501 were white, compared with a white
+population of 2077 in 1890. The coloured inhabitants are mostly
+Bechuana and Basuto. Most of the whites are of British origin,
+and English is the common language of all, including the Dutch.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>spruit</i> or spring which gives its name to the town was
+called after one of the emigrant farmers, Jan Bloem. The town
+dates from 1846, in which year Major H.D. Warden, then
+British resident north of the Orange, selected the site as the
+seat of his administration. When in 1854 independence was
+conferred on the country the town was chosen by the Boers as
+the seat of government. It became noted for the intelligence
+of its citizens, and for the educational advantages it offered at
+the time when education among the Boers was thought of very
+lightly. In 1892 the railway connecting it with Cape Town and
+Johannesburg was completed. During the Anglo-Boer War
+of 1899-1902 it was occupied by the British under Lord Roberts
+without resistance (13th of March 1900), fourteen days after the
+surrender of General Cronje at Paardeberg. In Market Square
+on the 28th of the following May the annexation of the Orange
+Free State to the British dominions was proclaimed. In 1907
+the first session of the first parliament elected under the constitution
+granting the colony self-government was held in
+Bloemfontein. In 1910 when the colony became a province
+of the Union of South Africa under its old designation of Orange
+Free State, Bloemfontein was chosen as the seat of the Supreme
+Court of South Africa. Its growth as a business centre after the
+close of the war in 1902 was very marked. The rateable value
+increased from £709,000 in 1901 to £2,400,000 in 1905.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOET, ROBERT<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (d. 1123), English bishop, was chancellor
+to William I. and Rufus. From the latter he received the see
+of Lincoln (1093) in succession to Remigius. His private character
+was indifferent; but he administered his see with skill
+and prudence, built largely, and kept a magnificent household,
+which served as a training-school even for the sons of nobles.
+Bloet was active in assisting Henry I. during the rebellion of
+1102, and became that monarch&rsquo;s justiciar. Latterly, however,
+he fell out of favour, and, although he had been very rich, was
+impoverished by the fines which the king extorted from him.
+Perhaps his wealth was his chief offence in the king&rsquo;s eyes;
+for he was in attendance on Henry when seized with his last
+illness. He was the patron of the chronicler Henry of Huntingdon,
+whom he advanced to an archdeaconry.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Henry of Huntingdon and W. Malmesbury (<i>De Gestis Pontificum</i>)
+are original authorities. See E.A. Freeman&rsquo;s <i>William Rufus</i>; Sir
+James Ramsay, <i>The Foundations of England</i>, vol. ii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>75</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BLOIS, LOUIS DE<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1506-1566), Flemish mystical writer,
+generally known under the name of <span class="sc">Blosius</span>, was born in
+October 1506 at the château of Donstienne, near Liége, of an
+illustrious family to which several crowned heads were allied.
+He was educated at the court of the Netherlands with the future
+emperor Charles V. of Germany, who remained to the last his
+staunch friend. At the age of fourteen he received the Benedictine
+habit in the monastery of Liessics in Hainaut, of which
+he became abbot in 1530. Charles V. pressed in vain upon
+him the archbishopric of Cambrai, but Blosius studiously
+exerted himself in the reform of his monastery and in the
+composition of devotional works. He died at his monastery on
+the 7th of January 1566.</p>
+
+<p>Blosius&rsquo;s works, which were written in Latin, have been
+translated into almost every European language, and have
+appealed not only to Roman Catholics, but to many English
+laymen of note, such as W.E. Gladstone and Lord Coleridge.
+The best editions of his collected works are the first edition by
+J. Frojus (Louvain, 1568), and the Cologne reprints (1572,
+1587). His best-known works are:&mdash;the <i>Institutio Spiritualis</i>
+(Eng. trans., <i>A Book of Spiritual Instruction</i>, London, 1900);
+<i>Consolatio Pusillanimium</i> (Eng. trans.,
+<i>Comfort for the Faint-Hearted</i>, London, 1903);
+<i>Sacellum Animae Fidelis</i> (Eng. trans.,
+<i>The Sanctuary of the Faithful Soul</i>, London, 1905);
+all these three works were translated and edited by Father Bertrand
+Wilberforce, O.P., and have been reprinted several times;
+and especially <i>Speculum Monachorum</i> (French trans. by Félicité
+de Lamennais, Paris, 1809; Eng. trans., Paris, 1676; re-edited
+by Lord Coleridge, London, 1871, 1872, and inserted in
+&ldquo;Paternoster&rdquo; series, 1901).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Georges de Blois, <i>Louis de Blois, un Bénédictin au XVI<span class="sp">ème</span>
+siècle</i> (Paris, 1875), Eng. trans. by Lady Lovat (London, 1878, &amp;c.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOIS,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> a town of central France, capital of the department
+of Loir-et-Cher, 35 m. S.W. of Orleans, on the Orleans railway
+between that city and Tours. Pop. (1906) 18,457. Situated
+in a thickly-wooded district on the right bank of the Loire, it
+covers the summits and slopes of two eminences between which
+runs the principal thoroughfare of the town named after the
+philosopher Denis Papin. A bridge of the 18th century from
+which it presents the appearance of an amphitheatre, unites
+Blois with the suburb of Vienne on the left bank of the river.
+The streets of the higher and older part of the town are narrow
+and tortuous, and in places so steep that means of ascent is
+provided by flights of steps. The famous château of the family
+of Orleans (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>: <i>Renaissance Architecture in
+France</i>), a fine example of Renaissance architecture, stands on
+the more westerly of the two hills. It consists of three main
+wings, and a fourth and smaller wing, and is built round a
+courtyard. The most interesting portion is the north-west wing,
+which was erected by Francis I., and contains the room where
+Henry, duke of Guise, was assassinated by order of Henry III.
+The striking feature of the interior façade is the celebrated spiral
+staircase tower, the bays of which, with their beautifully sculptured
+balustrades, project into the courtyard (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>,
+Plate VIII. fig. 84). The north-east wing, in which is the entrance
+to the castle, was built by Louis XII. and is called after him;
+it contains picture-galleries and a museum. Opposite is the
+Gaston wing, erected by Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of
+Louis XIII., which contains a majestic domed staircase. In the
+north corner of the courtyard is the Salle des États, which,
+together with the donjon in the west corner, survives from the
+13th century. Of the churches of Blois, the cathedral of St Louis,
+a building of the end of the 17th century, but in Gothic style,
+is surpassed in interest by St Nicolas, once the church of the
+abbey of St Laumer, and dating from the 12th and 13th centuries.
+The picturesqueness of the town is enhanced by many old
+mansions, the chief of which is the Renaissance Hôtel d&rsquo;Alluye,
+and by numerous fountains, among which that named after
+Louis XII. is of very graceful design. The prefecture, the law
+court, the corn-market and the fine stud-buildings are among
+the chief modern buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Blois is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, and a court of assizes.
+It has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a board
+of trade arbitration, a branch of the Bank of France, a communal
+college and training-colleges. The town is a market for the
+agricultural and pastoral regions of Beauce and Sologne, and has
+a considerable trade in grain, the wines of the Loire valley, and
+in horses and other live-stock. It manufactures boots and
+shoes, biscuits, chocolate, upholstering materials, furniture,
+machinery and earthenware, and has vinegar-works, breweries,
+leather-works and foundries.</p>
+
+<p>Though of ancient origin, Blois is first distinctly mentioned by
+Gregory of Tours in the 6th century, and was not of any importance
+till the 9th century, when it became the seat of a powerful
+countship (see below). In 1196 Count Louis granted privileges
+to the townsmen; the commune, which survived throughout
+the middle ages, probably dated from this time. The counts of
+the Châtillon line resided at Blois more often than their
+predecessors, and the oldest parts of the chateau (13th century)
+were built by them. In 1429 Joan of Arc made Blois her base
+of operations for the relief of Orleans. After his captivity in
+England, Charles of Orleans in 1440 took up his residence in the
+château, where in 1462 his son, afterwards Louis XII., was born.
+In the 16th century Blois was often the resort of the French
+court. Its inhabitants included many Calvinists, and it was
+in 1562 and 1567 the scene of struggles between them and the
+supporters of the Roman church. In 1576 and 1588 Henry III.,
+king of France, chose Blois as the meeting-place of the states-general,
+and in the latter year he brought about the murders of
+Henry, duke of Guise, and his brother, Louis, archbishop of
+Reims and cardinal, in the château, where their deaths were
+shortly followed by that of the queen-mother, Catherine de&rsquo;
+Medici. From 1617 to 1619 Marie de&rsquo; Medici, wife of King
+Henry IV., exiled from the court, lived at the château, which
+was soon afterwards given by Louis XIII. to his brother Gaston,
+duke of Orleans, who lived there till his death in 1660. The
+bishopric dates from the end of the 17th century. In 1814
+Blois was for a short time the seat of the regency of Marie Louise,
+wife of Napoleon I.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. de la Saussaye, <i>Blois et ses environs</i> (1873); <i>Histoire du
+château de Blois</i> (1873); L. Bergevin et A. Dupré, <i>Histoire de Blois</i>
+(1847).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOIS,<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> <span class="sc">Countship of</span>. From 865 to about 940 the countship
+of Blois was one of those which were held in fee by the margrave
+of Neustria, Robert the Strong, and by his successors, the abbot
+Hugh, Odo (or Eudes), Robert II. and Hugh the Great. It then
+passed, about 940 and for nearly three centuries, to a new family
+of counts, whose chiefs, at first vassals of the dukes of France,
+Hugh the Great and Hugh Capet, became in 987, by the accession
+of the Capetian dynasty to the throne of France, the direct
+vassals of the crown. These new counts were orjginally very
+powerful. With the countship of Blois they united, from 940 to
+1044, that of Touraine, and from about 950 to 1218, and afterwards
+from 1269 to 1286, the countship of Chartres remained in
+their possession.</p>
+
+<p>The counts of Blois of the house of the Theobalds (Thibauds)
+began with Theobald I., the Cheat, who became count about 940.
+He was succeeded by his son, Odo (Eudes) I., about 975.
+Theobald II., eldest son of Odo I., became count in 996, and
+was succeeded by Odo II., younger son of Odo I., about 1005.
+Odo II. was one of the most warlike barons of his time. With
+the already considerable domains which he held from his
+ancestors, he united the heritage of his kinsman, Stephen I.,
+count of Troyes. In 1033 he disputed the crown of Burgundy
+with the emperor, Conrad the Salic, and perished in 1037 while
+fighting in Lorraine. He was succeeded in 1037 by his eldest son,
+Theobald III., who was defeated by the Angevins in 1044, and
+was forced to give up the town of Tours and its dependencies
+to the count of Anjou. In 1089 Stephen Henry, eldest son of
+Theobald III., became count. He took part in the first crusade,
+fell into the hands of the Saracens, and died in captivity; he
+married Adela, daughter of William I., king of England. In
+1102 Stephen Henry was succeeded by his son, Theobald IV.
+the Great, who united the countship of Troyes with his domains
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page76" id="page76"></a>76</span>
+in 1128. In 1135, on the death of his maternal uncle, Henry I.,
+king of England, he was called to Normandy by the barons of
+the duchy, but soon renounced his claims on learning that his
+younger brother, Stephen, had just been proclaimed king of
+England. In 1152 Theobald V. the Good, second son of Theobald
+IV., became count; he died in 1191 in Syria, at the siege of Acre.
+His son Louis succeeded in 1191, took part in the fourth crusade,
+and after the taking of Constantinople was rewarded with the
+duchy of Nicaea. He was killed at the battle of Adrianople in
+1205, in which year he was succeeded by his son, Theobald VI.
+the Young, who died childless. In 1218 the countship passed
+to Margaret, eldest daughter of Theobald V., and to Walter
+(Gautier) of Avesnes, her third husband.</p>
+
+<p>The Châtillon branch of the counts of Blois began in 1230
+with Mary of Avesnes, daughter of Margaret of Blois and her
+husband, Hugh of Châtillon, count of St Pol. In 1241 her
+brother, John of Châtillon, became count of Blois, and was
+succeeded in 1279 by his daughter, Joan of Châtillon, who
+married Peter, count of Alençon, fifth son of Louis IX., king of
+France. In 1286 Joan sold the countship of Chartres to the king
+of France. Hugh of Châtillon, her first-cousin, became count
+of Blois in 1293, and was succeeded by his son, Guy I., in 1307.
+In 1342 Louis II., eldest son of Guy I., died at the battle of
+Crécy, and his brother, Charles of Blois, disputed the duchy of
+Brittany with John of Montfort. Louis III., eldest son of
+Louis II., became count in 1346, and was succeeded by John II.,
+second son of Louis II., in 1372. In 1381 Guy II., brother of
+Louis III. and John II., succeeded in 1381, but died childless.
+Overwhelmed with debt, he had sold the countship of Blois to
+Louis I., duke of Orleans, brother of King Charles VI., who took
+possession of it in 1397.</p>
+
+<p>In 1498 the countship of Blois was united with the crown by
+the accession of King Louis XII., grandson and second successor
+of Louis I., duke of Orleans.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bernier, <i>Histoire de Blois</i> (1682); La Saussaye,
+<i>Histoire de la ville de Blois</i> (1846).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Lo.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOMEFIELD, FRANCIS<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1705-1752), English topographer
+of the county of Norfolk, was born at Fersfield, Norfolk, on
+the 23rd of July 1705. On leaving Cambridge in 1727 he was
+ordained, becoming in 1729 rector of Hargham, Norfolk, and
+immediately afterwards rector of Fersfield, his father&rsquo;s family
+living. In 1733 he mooted the idea of a history of Norfolk, for
+which he had begun collecting material at the age of fifteen, and
+shortly afterwards, while collecting further information for
+his book, discovered some of the famous <i>Paston Letters</i>. By
+1736 he was ready to put some of the results of his researches into
+type. At the end of 1739 the first volume of the <i>History of
+Norfolk</i> was completed. It was printed at the author&rsquo;s own press,
+bought specially for the purpose. The second volume was ready
+in 1745. There is little doubt that in compiling his book Blomefield
+had frequent recourse to the existing historical collections
+of Le Neve, Kirkpatrick and Tanner, his own work being to a
+large extent one of expansion and addition. To Le Neve in
+particular a large share of the credit is due. When half-way
+through his third volume, Blomefield, who had come up to London
+in connexion with a special piece of research, caught smallpox,
+of which he died on the 16th of January 1752. The remainder of
+his work was published posthumously, and the whole eleven
+volumes were republished in London between 1805 and 1810.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOMFIELD, SIR ARTHUR WILLIAM<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (1829-1899), English
+architect, son of Bishop C.J. Blomfield, was born on the 6th of
+March 1829, and educated at Rugby and Trinity, Cambridge.
+He was then articled as an architect to P.C. Hardwick, and
+subsequently obtained a large practice on his own account. He
+became president of the Architectural Association in 1861, and a
+fellow (1867) and vice-president (1886) of the Royal Institute of
+British Architects. In 1887 he became architect to the Bank of
+England, and designed the law courts branch in Fleet Street, and
+he was associated with A.E. Street in the building of the law
+courts. In 1889 he was knighted. He died on the 30th of
+October 1899. He was twice married, and brought up two sons,
+Charles J. Blomfield and Arthur Conran Blomfield, to his own
+profession, of which they became distinguished representatives.
+Among the numerous churches which Sir Arthur Blomfield
+designed, his work at St Saviour&rsquo;s, Southwark, is a notable
+example of his use of revived Gothic, and he was highly regarded
+as a restorer.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1786-1857), English divine,
+was born on the 29th of May 1786 at Bury St Edmunds. He was
+educated at the local grammar school and at Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where he gained the Browne medals for Latin and
+Greek odes, and carried off the Craven scholarship. In 1808 he
+graduated as third wrangler and first medallist, and in the
+following year was elected to a fellowship at Trinity College.
+The first-fruits of his scholarship was an edition of the <i>Prometheus</i>
+of Aeschylus in 1810; this was followed by editions of the <i>Septem
+contra Thebas, Persae, Choephorae</i>, and <i>Agamemnon</i>, of
+Callimachus, and of the fragments of Sappho, Sophron and Alcaeus.
+Blomfield, however, soon ceased to devote himself entirely to
+scholarship. He had been ordained in 1810, and held in quick
+succession the livings of Chesterford, Quarrington, Dunton, Great
+and Little Chesterford, and Tuddenham. In 1817 he was
+appointed private chaplain to Wm. Howley, bishop of London.
+In 1819 he was nominated to the rich living of St Botolph&rsquo;s,
+Bishopsgate, and in 1822 he became archdeacon of Colchester.
+Two years later he was raised to the bishopric of Chester where
+he carried through many much-needed reforms. In 1828 he was
+translated to the bishopric of London, which he held for twenty-eight
+years. During this period his energy and zeal did much to
+extend the influence of the church. He was one of the best
+debaters in the House of Lords, took a leading position in the
+action for church reform which culminated in the ecclesiastical
+commission, and did much for the extension of the colonial
+episcopate; and his genial and kindly nature made him an
+invaluable mediator in the controversies arising out of the
+tractarian movement. His health at last gave way, and in 1856
+he was permitted to resign his bishopric, retaining Fulham
+Palace as his residence, with a pension of £6000 per annum. He
+died on the 5th of August 1857. His published works, exclusive
+of those above mentioned, consist of charges, sermons, lectures
+and pamphlets, and of a <i>Manual of Private and Family Prayers</i>.
+He was a frequent contributor to the quarterly reviews, chiefly
+on classical subjects.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memoirs of Charles James Blomfield, D.D., Bishop of London,
+with Selections from his Correspondence</i>, edited by his son,
+Alfred Blomfield (1863);
+G.E. Biber, <i>Bishop Blomfield and his Times</i> (1857).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOMFIELD, EDWARD VALENTINE<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1788-1816), English
+classical scholar, brother of Bishop C.J. Blomfield, was born at
+Bury St Edmunds on the 14th of February 1788. Going to
+Caius College, Cambridge, he was thirteenth wrangler in 1811,
+obtained several of the classical prizes of the university, and
+became a fellow and lecturer at Emmanuel College. In 1813 he
+travelled in Germany and made the acquaintance of some of
+the great scholars of Germany. On his return, he published in
+the <i>Museum Criticum</i> (No. ii.) an interesting paper on &ldquo;The
+Present State of Classical Literature in Germany.&rdquo; Blomfield is
+chiefly known by his translation of Matthiae&rsquo;s <i>Greek Grammar</i>
+(1819), which was prepared for the press by his brother. He died
+on the 9th of October 1816, his early death depriving Cambridge
+of one who seemed destined to take a high place amongst her
+most brilliant classical scholars.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See &ldquo;Memoir of Edward Valentine Blomfield,&rdquo; by Bishop Monk,
+in <i>Museum Criticum</i>, No. vii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLONDEL, DAVID<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1591-1655), French Protestant clergyman,
+was born at Châlons-sur-Marne in 1591, and died on the 6th of
+April 1655. In 1650 he succeeded G.J. Vossius in the professorship
+of history at Amsterdam. His works were very numerous;
+in some of them he showed a remarkable critical faculty, as in his
+dissertation on Pope Joan (1647, 1657), in which he came to the
+conclusion, now universally accepted, that the whole story is a
+mere myth. Considerable Protestant indignation was excited
+against him on account of this book.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLONDEL, JACQUES FRANÇOIS<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1705-1774), French architect,
+began life as an architectural engraver, but developed
+into an architect of considerable distinction, if of no great
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id="page77"></a>77</span>
+originality. As architect to Louis XV. from 1755 he necessarily
+did much in the rococo manner, although it would seem that he
+conformed to fashion rather than to artistic conviction. He
+was among the earliest founders of schools of architecture in
+France, and for this he was distinguished by the Academy; but
+he is now best remembered by his voluminous work <i>L&rsquo;Architecture
+française</i>, in which he was the continuator of Marot. The book is
+a precious collection of views of famous buildings, many of which
+have disappeared or been remodelled.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLONDIN<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1824-1897), French tight-rope walker and acrobat,
+was born at St Omer, France, on the 28th of February 1824.
+His real name was Jean François Gravelet. When five years
+old he was sent to the École de Gymnase at Lyons and, after six
+months&rsquo; training as an acrobat, made his first public appearance
+as &ldquo;The Little Wonder.&rdquo; His superior skill and grace as well
+as the originality of the settings of his acts, made him a popular
+favourite. He especially owed his celebrity and fortune to his
+idea of crossing Niagara Falls on a tight-rope, 1100 ft. long,
+160 ft. above the water. This he accomplished, first in 1859,
+a number of times, always with different theatric variations:
+blindfold, in a sack, trundling a wheelbarrow, on stilts, carrying
+a man on his back, sitting down midway while he made and ate
+an omelette. In 1861 Blondin first appeared in London, at the
+Crystal Palace, turning somersaults on stilts on a rope stretched
+across the central transept, 170 ft. from the ground. In 1862
+he again gave a series of performances at the Crystal Palace,
+and elsewhere in England, and on the continent. After a period
+of retirement he reappeared in 1880, his final performance
+being given at Belfast in 1896. He died at Ealing, London,
+on the 19th of February 1897.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOOD,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> the circulating fluid in the veins and arteries of
+animals. The word itself is common to Teutonic languages;
+the O. Eng. is <i>blód</i>, cf. Gothic <i>bloth</i>, Dutch
+<i>bloed</i>, Ger. <i>Blut</i>. It is probably ultimately
+connected with the root which appears in &ldquo;blow,&rdquo; &ldquo;bloom,&rdquo;
+meaning flourishing or vigorous. The Gr. word for blood,
+<span class="grk" title="aima">&#945;&#7991;&#956;&#945;</span>, appears as a prefix <i>haemo-</i> in many
+compound words. As that on which the life depends, as the
+supposed seat of the passions and emotions, and as that part
+which a child is believed chiefly to inherit from its parents,
+the word &ldquo;blood&rdquo; is used in many figurative and transferred
+senses; thus &ldquo;to have his blood,&rdquo; &ldquo;to fire the blood,&rdquo; &ldquo;cold
+blood,&rdquo; &ldquo;blood-royal,&rdquo; &ldquo;half&rdquo; or &ldquo;whole blood,&rdquo; &amp;c. The
+expression &ldquo;blue blood&rdquo; is from the Spanish <i>sangre azul.</i> The
+nobles of Castile claimed to be free from all admixture with the
+darker blood of Moors or Jews, a proof being supposed to lie in
+the blue veins that showed in their fairer skins. The common
+English expletive &ldquo;bloody,&rdquo; used as an adjective or adverb,
+has been given many fanciful origins; it has been supposed to
+be a contraction of &ldquo;by our Lady,&rdquo; or an adaptation of the oath
+common during the 17th century, &ldquo;&rsquo;sblood,&rdquo; a contraction of
+&ldquo;God&rsquo;s blood.&rdquo; The exact origin of the expression is not quite
+clear, but it is certainly merely an application of the adjective
+formed from &ldquo;blood.&rdquo; The <i>New English Dictionary</i> suggests
+that it refers to the use of &ldquo;blood&rdquo; for a young rowdy of
+aristocratic birth, which was common at the end of the 17th
+century, and later became synonymous with &ldquo;dandy,&rdquo; &ldquo;buck,&rdquo; &amp;c.;
+&ldquo;bloody drunk&rdquo; meant therefore &ldquo;drunk as a blood,&rdquo; &ldquo;drunk
+as a lord.&rdquo; The expression came into common colloquial use
+as a mere intensive, and was so used till the middle of the 18th
+century. There can be little doubt that the use of the word
+has been considerably affected by the idea of blood as the vital
+principle, and therefore something strong, vigorous, and parallel
+as an intensive epithet with such expressions as &ldquo;thundering,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;awfully&rdquo; and the like.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Anatomy and Physiology</p>
+
+<p>In all living organisms, except the most minute, only a minimum
+number of cells can come into immediate contact with the
+general world, whence is to be drawn the food supply for the
+whole organism. Hence those cells&mdash;and they are by far the
+most numerous&mdash;which do not lie on the food-absorbing surface,
+must gain their nutriment by some indirect means. Further,
+each living cell produces waste products whose accumulation
+would speedily prove injurious to the cell, hence they must be
+constantly removed from its immediate neighbourhood and
+indeed from the organism as a whole. In this instance again,
+only a few cells can lie on a surface whence such materials can
+be directly discharged to the exterior. Hence the main number
+of the cells of the organism must depend upon some mechanism
+by which the waste products can be carried away from them
+to that group of cells whose duty it is to modify them, or
+discharge them from the body. These two ends are attained by the
+aid of a circulating fluid, a fluid which is constantly flowing
+past every cell of the body. From it the cells extract the food
+materials they require for their sustenance, and into it they
+discharge the waste materials resulting from their activity.
+This circulating medium is the blood.</p>
+
+<p>Whilst undoubtedly the two functions of this circulating
+fluid above given are the more prominent, there are yet others
+of great importance. For instance, it is known that many tissues
+as a result of their activity produce certain chemical substances
+which are of essential importance to the life of other tissue cells.
+These substances&mdash;<i>internal secretions</i> as they are termed&mdash;are
+carried to the second tissue by the blood stream. Again, many
+instances are known in which two distant tissues communicate
+with one another by means of chemical messengers, bodies termed
+<i>hormones</i> (<span class="grk" title="ormaein">&#8001;&#961;&#956;&#940;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to stir up), which are produced
+by one group of cells, and sent to the other group to excite
+them to activity. Here, also, the path by which such messengers
+travel is the blood stream. A further and most important manner
+in which the circulating fluid is utilized in the life of an
+animal is seen in the way in which it is employed in protecting
+the body should it be invaded by micro-organisms.</p>
+
+<p>Hence it is clear that the blood is of the most vital importance
+to the healthy life of the body. But the fact that it is present as
+a circulating medium exposes the animal to a great danger, viz.
+that it may be lost should any vessel carrying it become ruptured.
+This is constantly liable to happen, but to minimize as far as
+possible any such loss, the blood is endowed with the peculiar
+property of <i>clotting</i>, <i>i.e.</i> of setting to a solid or stiff
+jelly by means of which the orifices of the torn vessels become
+plugged and the bleeding stayed.</p>
+
+<p>The performance of these essential functions depends upon
+the maintenance of a continuous flow past all tissue cells, and
+this is attained by the circulatory mechanism, consisting of a
+central pump, the heart, and a system of ramifying tubes, the
+arteries, through which the blood is forced from the heart to
+every tissue (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vascular System</a></span>). A second set of tubes,
+the veins, collects the blood and returns it to the heart. In
+many invertebrates the circulating fluid is actually poured into
+the tissue spaces from the open terminals of the arteries. From
+these spaces it is in turn drained away by the veins. Such a
+system is termed a <i>haemolymph system</i> and the circulating
+fluid the haemolymph. Here the essential point gained is that
+the fluid is brought into direct contact with the tissue cells.
+In all vertebrates, the ends of the arteries are united to the
+commencements of the veins by a plexus of extremely minute
+tubes, the capillaries, consequently the blood is always retained
+within closed tubes and never comes into contact with the tissue
+cells. It is while passing through the capillaries that the blood
+performs its work; here the blood stream is at its slowest and
+is brought nearest to the tissue cell, only being separated from
+it by the extremely thin wall of the capillary and by an equally
+thin layer of fluid. Through this narrow barrier the interchanges
+between cell and blood take place.</p>
+
+<p>The advantage gained in the vertebrate animal by retaining
+the blood in a closed system of tubes lies in the great diminution
+of resistance to the flow of blood, and the consequent great
+increase in rate of flow past the tissue cells. Hence any food
+stuffs which can travel quickly through the capillary wall to
+the tissue cell outside can be supplied in proportionately greater
+quantity within a given time, without requiring any very great
+increase in the concentration of that substance in the blood.
+Conversely, any highly diffusible substance may be withdrawn
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>78</span>
+from the tissues by the blood at a similarly increased pace.
+These conditions are more peculiarly of importance for the
+supply of oxygen and the removal of carbonic acid-especially
+for the former, because the amount of it which can be carried
+by the blood is small. But as the rate at which a tissue lives,
+<i>i.e</i>. its activity, depends upon the rate of its chemical reactions,
+and as these are fundamentally oxidative, the more rapidly
+oxygen is carried to a tissue the more rapidly it can live, and the
+greater the amount of work it can perform within a given time.
+The rate of supply is of much less importance in the case of
+the other food substances because they are far more soluble in
+water, so that the supply in sufficient quantity can easily be
+met by a relatively slow blood flow. Hence we find that the
+gradual evolution of the animal kingdom goes hand in hand
+with the gradual development of a greater oxygen-carrying
+capacity of the blood and an increase in the rate of its flow.</p>
+
+<p>In the groundwork of a tissue are a number of spaces&mdash;the
+<i>tissue spaces</i>. They are filled with fluid and intercommunicate
+freely, finally connecting with a number of fine tubes, the
+lymphatics, through which excess of fluid or any solid particles
+present are drained away. The contained fluid acts as an intermediary
+between the blood and the cell; from it, the cell takes
+its various food stuffs, these having in the first instance been
+derived from the blood, and into it the cell discharges its waste
+products. On the course of the lymphatics a number of typical
+structures, the lymphatic glands, are placed, and the lymph
+has to pass through these structures where any deleterious
+products are retained, and the fluid thus purified is drained
+away by further lymphatics and finally returned to the blood.
+Thus there is a second stream of fluid from the tissues, but one
+vastly slower than that of the blood. The flow is too slow for it
+to act as the vehicle for the removal of those waste products
+(carbonic acid, &amp;c.) which must of necessity be removed quickly.
+These must be removed by the blood. The same is true for the
+main number of other waste products, which, however, being
+of small molecular size are readily absorbed into the blood
+stream.</p>
+
+<p>But in addition to fluid, the tissue spaces may at times be
+found to contain solid matter in the form of particles, which
+may represent the debris of destroyed cells, or which are, as is
+quite commonly the case, micro-organisms. Apparently such
+material cannot be removed from a tissue by absorption into
+the blood stream&mdash;indeed in the case of living organisms such
+an absorption would in many instances rapidly prove fatal, and
+special provision is made to prevent such an accident. These,
+therefore, are made to travel along the lymphatic channels,
+and so, before gaining access to the blood stream and thus to the
+body generally, have to run the gauntlet of the protective
+mechanism provided by the lymphatic glands, where in the major
+number of cases they are readily destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Hence we see that first and foremost we have to regard the
+blood as a food-carrier to all the cells of the body; in the second
+place as the vehicle carrying away most if not all the waste
+products; in a third direction, it is acting as a means for transmitting
+chemical substances manufactured in one tissue to
+distant cells of the body for whose nutrition or excitation they
+may be essential; and in addition to these important functions
+there is yet another whose value it is almost impossible to overestimate,
+for it plays the essential rôle in rendering the animal
+immune to the attacks of invading organisms. The question of
+immunity is discussed elsewhere, and it is sufficient merely
+to indicate the chief means by which the blood subserves this
+essential protective mechanism. Should living organisms find
+their way into the surface cells or within the tissue spaces, the
+body fights them in a number of ways, (1) It may produce one
+or more chemical substances capable of neutralizing the toxic
+material produced by the organism. (2) It may produce chemical
+substances which act as poisons to the micro-organism, either
+paralysing it or actually killing it. Or (3) the organism may be
+attacked and taken up into the body of wandering cells, <i>e.g</i>.
+certain of the leucocytes, and then digested by them. Such cells
+are therefore called phagocytes (<span class="grk" title="phagein">&#966;&#940;&#947;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to eat). Thus, by its
+power of reacting in these ways the body has become capable
+of withstanding the attacks of many different varieties of
+micro-organisms, of both animal and vegetable origin.</p>
+
+<p><i>General Properties</i>.&mdash;Blood is an opaque, viscid liquid of
+bright red colour possessing a distinct and characteristic odour,
+especially when warm. Its opacity is due to the presence of a
+very large number of solid particles, the blood corpuscles, having
+a higher refractive index than that of the liquid in which they
+float. The specific gravity in man averages about 1.055. The
+specific gravity of the liquid portion, the plasma (Gr. <span class="grk" title="plasma">&#960;&#955;&#940;&#963;&#956;&#945;</span>,
+something formed or moulded, <span class="grk" title="plassein">&#960;&#955;&#940;&#963;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to mould), is about
+1.027, whilst that of the corpuscles amounts to 1.088. To litmus
+it reacts as a weak alkali.</p>
+
+<p><i>Blood Plasma</i>.&mdash;The plasma is a solution in water of a varied
+number of substances, and as a solvent it confers on the blood
+its power of acting as a carrier of food stuffs and waste products.
+One important food substance, oxygen, is, however, only partly
+carried in solution, being mainly combined with haemoglobin
+in the red corpuscles. The food stuffs carried by the plasma
+are proteins, carbohydrates, salts and water. The main waste
+products dissolved in it are ammonium carbonate, urea, urates,
+xanthin bases, creatin and small amounts of other nitrogenous
+bodies, carbonic acid as carbonates, other carbon compounds
+such as cholesterin, lecithin and a number of other substances.
+Thus, if we take mammalian blood as a type, the plasma would
+have the following approximate composition:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1000 grms. plasma&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Water</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">901.51</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Substances not vaporizing at 120° C.&mdash;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Fibrin</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">8.06</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Other proteins and organic substances</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">81.92</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;Inorganic substances&mdash;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Chlorine</td> <td class="tcr">3.536</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Sulphuric acid</td> <td class="tcr">0.129</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Phosphoric acid</td> <td class="tcr">0.145</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Potassium</td> <td class="tcr">0.314</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Sodium</td> <td class="tcr">3.410</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Calcium</td> <td class="tcr">0.298</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Magnesium</td> <td class="tcr">0.218</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp;Oxygen</td> <td class="tcr">0.455</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">8.505</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">98.49</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">1000.00</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Proteins</i>.&mdash;The proteins of the blood plasma belong to the two
+classes of the albumins and the globulins. The globulins present
+are named fibrinogen and serum-globulin; as its name implies,
+the chief physiological property of fibrinogen is that it can give
+rise to fibrin, the solid substance formed when blood clots. It
+possesses the typical properties of a globulin, <i>i.e.</i> it coagulates
+on heating (in this instance at a temperature of 56°C.), and is
+precipitated by half saturating its solution with ammonium
+sulphate. It differs from other globulins in that it is less soluble.
+It is only present in very small quantities, 0.4%. The other
+globulin, serum-globulin, is not coagulated until 75°C. is reached,
+and we now know that it is in reality a mixture of several
+proteins, but so far these have not been completely separated
+from one another and obtained in a pure form. On dialysing a
+solution of serum-globulin a part is precipitated, and this portion
+has been termed the eu-globulin fraction, the remainder being
+known, in contradistinction, as the pseudo-globulin. Again, on
+diluting a solution and adding a small amount of acetic acid a
+precipitate is formed which in some respects differs from the
+remainder of the globulin present. Whether in these two
+instances we are dealing with approximately pure substances
+is extremely doubtful. A further important point in connexion
+with the chemistry of the globulins is that dextrose may be
+found among their decomposition products, <i>i.e.</i> that a part of
+it, or possibly the whole, possesses a glucoside character.</p>
+
+<p>Serum-albumin gives all the typical colour and precipitation
+reactions of the albumins. If plasma be weakly acidified with
+sulphuric acid, then treated with crystals of ammonium sulphate
+until a slight precipitate forms, filtered and the filtrate allowed
+to evaporate very slowly, typical crystals of serum-albumin
+may form. According to many it is a uniform and specific
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page79" id="page79"></a>79</span>
+substance, but others hold the view that it consists of at least
+three distinct substances, as shown by the fact that if a solution
+be gradually heated coagulation will occur at three different
+temperatures, viz. at 73°, 77° and 84° C. On the other hand the
+close agreement between different analyses of even the amorphous
+preparations points to there being but one serum-albumin.</p>
+
+<p>When blood clots two new proteins make their appearance in
+the fluid part of the blood, or serum, as it is now called. The first
+of these is fibrin ferment (for its origin see section on <i>Clotting</i>
+below). The other, fibrinoglobulin, possesses all the typical
+characteristics of the globulins and coagulates at 64° C.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carbohydrates</i>.&mdash;Three several carbohydrates are described
+as occurring in plasma, viz. glycogen, animal gum and dextrose.
+If glycogen is present in solution in the plasma it is there in very
+small quantities only, and has probably arisen from the destruction
+of the white blood corpuscles, since some leucocytes undoubtedly
+contain glycogen. A small amount of carbohydrate
+having the formula for starch and yielding a reducing sugar on
+hydrolysis with acid has also been described. The constant
+carbohydrate constituent of plasma, however, is dextrose. This
+is present to the approximate amount of 0.15% in arterial blood.
+The amount may be much greater in the blood of the portal vein
+during carbohydrate absorption, and according to some observers
+there is less in venous than in arterial blood, but the difference is
+small and falls within the error of observation. The statement
+that when no absorption is taking place the blood of the hepatic
+vein is richer in dextrose than that of the portal vein (Bernard)
+is denied by Pavy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fats</i>.&mdash;Plasma or serum is as a rule quite clear, but after a meal
+rich in fats it may become quite milky owing to the presence of
+neutral fats in a very fine state of subdivision. This suspended
+fat rapidly disappears from the blood after fat absorption has
+ceased. To some extent it varies in composition with that of the
+fat absorbed, but usually consists of the glycerides of the common
+fatty acids&mdash;palmitic, stearic and oleic. In addition, there is a
+small amount of fatty acid in solution in the plasma. As to the
+form in which this occurs there is some uncertainty. It is
+possibly present as a soap or even as a neutral fat, since a little can
+be dissolved in plasma, the solvent substance being probably
+protein or cholesterin. Fatty acids also appear to be present to
+some extent combined with cholesterin forming cholesterin esters
+(about 0.06%).</p>
+
+<p><i>Other Organic Compounds</i>.&mdash;In addition to the substances
+above described, belonging to the three main classes of food stuffs,
+there are still other organic bodies present in plasma in small
+amounts, which for convenience we may classify as non-nitrogenous
+and nitrogenous. Among the former may be mentioned
+lactic acid, glycerin, a lipochrome, and probably many other
+substances of a similar type whose separation has not yet been
+effected.</p>
+
+<p>The non-protein nitrogenous constituents consist of the
+following: ammonia as carbonate or carbamate (0.2 to 0.6%),
+urea (0.02 to 0.05%), creatine, creatinine, uric acid, xanthine,
+hypoxanthine and occasionally hippuric acid. Three ferments
+are also described as being present: (1) a glycolytic ferment
+exerting an action upon dextrose; (2) a lipase or fat-splitting
+ferment; and (3) a diastase capable of converting starch into
+sugar.</p>
+
+<p><i>Salts</i>.&mdash;The saline constituents of plasma comprise chlorides,
+phosphates, carbonates and possibly sulphates, of sodium,
+potassium, calcium and magnesium. The most abundant metal
+is sodium and the most abundant acid is hydrochloric. These
+two are present in sufficient amount to form about 0.65% of
+sodium chloride. The phosphate is present to about 0.02%.
+Sulphuric acid is always present if the blood has been calcined
+for the purposes of the analysis, and may then be present to about
+0.013%. This is, however, probably produced during the
+destruction of the protein, since it has been shown that no
+sulphate can be removed from normal plasma by dialysis. The
+amount of potassium present (0.03%) is less than one-tenth of
+that of the sodium, and the quantities of calcium and magnesium
+are even less.</p>
+
+<p><i>Formed Elements.</i>&mdash;When viewed under the microscope the
+main number of these are seen to be small yellow bodies of very
+uniform size, size and shape varying, however, in different
+animals. When observed in bulk they have a red colour, their
+presence in fact giving the typical colour to blood. These are the
+<i>red blood corpuscles</i> or <i>erythrocytes</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="erythros">&#7952;&#961;&#965;&#952;&#961;&#972;&#962;</span>, red). Mingled with
+them in the blood are a smaller number of corpuscles which possess
+no colour and have therefore been called <i>white blood corpuscles</i>
+or <i>leucocytes</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="leukos">&#955;&#949;&#965;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, white). Lastly, there are present a large
+number of small lens-shaped structures, less in number than the
+red corpuscles, and much more difficult to distinguish. These are
+known as <i>blood platelets</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Red Corpuscles.</i>&mdash;These are present in very large numbers and,
+under normal conditions, all possess exactly the same appearance.
+With rare exceptions their shape is that of a biconcave disk with
+bevelled edges, the size varying somewhat in different animals,
+as is seen in the following table which gives their diameters:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Man</td> <td class="tcc">0.0075 mm.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Dog</td> <td class="tcc">0.0073 mm.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Rabbit</td> <td class="tcc">0.0069 mm.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cat</td> <td class="tcc">0.0065 mm.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Goat</td> <td class="tcc">0.0041 mm.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The coloured corpuscles of amphibia as well as of nearly all
+vertebrates below mammals are biconvex and elliptical. The
+following are the dimensions of some of the more common:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Pigeon</td> <td class="tcl">0.0147 mm. long by 0.0065 mm. wide.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Frog</td> <td class="tcl">0.0223&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&ensp;0.0157&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&ensp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Newt</td> <td class="tcl">0.0293&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&ensp;0.0195&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&ensp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Proteus</td> <td class="tcl">0.0580&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&ensp;0.0350&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&ensp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Amphiuma</td> <td class="tcl">0.0770&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&ensp;0.0460&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&ensp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Their number also varies as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Man</td> <td class="tcr">4,000,000</td> <td class="tcl">to  &ensp;5,000,000 per cub. mm.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Goat</td> <td class="tcr">9,000,000</td> <td class="tcl">to 10,000,000&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sheep</td> <td class="tcr">13,000,000</td> <td class="tcl">to 14,000,000&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Birds</td> <td class="tcr">1,000,000</td> <td class="tcl">to &ensp;4,000,000&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Fish</td> <td class="tcr">250,000</td> <td class="tcl">to &ensp;2,000,000&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Frog</td> <td class="tcr">500,000</td> <td class="tcl">per cub. mm.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Proteus</td> <td class="tcr">36,000</td> <td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;&emsp;&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In mammals they are apparently homogeneous in structure,
+have no nucleus, but possess a thin envelope. Their specific
+gravity is distinctly higher than that of the plasma (1.088), so
+that if clotting has been prevented, blood on standing yields a
+large deposit which may form as much as half the total volume
+of the blood.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chemical Composition.</i>&mdash;On destruction the red corpuscles
+yield two chief proteins, haemoglobin and a nucleo-protein, and
+a number of other substances similar to those usually obtained
+on the break-down of any cellular tissue, such for instance as
+lecithin, cholesterin and inorganic salts. The most important
+protein is the haemoglobin. To it the corpuscle owes its distinctive
+property of acting as an oxygen carrier, for it possesses
+the power of combining chemically with oxygen and of yielding
+up that same oxygen whenever there is a decrease in the concentration
+of the oxygen in the solvent. Thus in a given solution
+of haemoglobin the amount of it which is combined with oxygen
+depends absolutely on the oxygen concentration. The greatest
+dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin occurs as the oxygen tension falls
+from about 40 to 20 mm. of mercury. That the oxygen forms a
+definite compound with the haemoglobin is proved by the fact
+that haemoglobin thoroughly saturated with oxygen (oxyhaemoglobin)
+has a definite absorption spectrum showing two
+bands between the D and E lines, whilst haemoglobin from which
+the oxygen has been completely removed only gives one band
+between those lines. In association with this, oxyhaemoglobin
+has a typical bright red colour, whereas haemoglobin is dark
+purple. A further striking characteristic of haemoglobin is that
+it contains iron in its molecule. The amount present, though
+small bears a perfectly definite quantitative relation to the
+amount of oxygen with which the haemoglobin is capable of
+combining (two atoms of oxygen to one of iron). One gram of
+haemoglobin crystals can combine with 1.34 cc. of oxygen. On
+destruction with an acid or alkali, haemoglobin yields a pigment
+portion, haematin, and a protein portion, globin, the latter
+belonging to the group of the histones (Gr. <span class="grk" title="istos">&#7985;&#963;&#964;&#972;&#962;</span>, web, tissue).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>80</span>
+In this cleavage the iron is found in the pigment. By the use of
+a strong acid, it may be made to yield iron-free pigment, the
+remainder of the molecule being much further decomposed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Destruction and Formation</i>.&mdash;In the performance of their work
+the corpuscles gradually deteriorate. They are then destroyed,
+chiefly in the liver, but whether the whole of this process is
+effected by the liver alone is not decided. It is proved, however,
+that the destruction of the haemoglobin is entirely effected there.
+It was for a long time considered to be one of the functions of the
+spleen to examine the red corpuscles and to destroy or in some
+way to mark those no longer fitted for the performance of their
+work. It is proved that the destruction of the haemoglobin is
+entirely effected in the liver, since both the main cleavage products
+may be traced to this organ, which discharges the pigmentary
+portion as the bile pigment, but retains the iron-protein moiety
+at any rate for a time. The amount of bile pigment eliminated
+during the day indicates that the destruction must be considerable,
+and since the number of corpuscles does not vary there must
+be an equivalent formation of new ones. This takes place in the
+red bone-marrow, where special cells are provided for their
+continuous production. In embryonic life their formation is
+effected in another way. Certain mesodermic cells, resembling
+those of the connective tissue, collect masses of haemoglobin, and
+from these elaborate red blood corpuscles which thus come to
+lie in the fluid part of the cell. By a canalization of the branches
+of these cells which unite with branches of other cells the precursors
+of the blood capillaries are formed.</p>
+
+<p><i>White Blood Corpuscles</i>.&mdash;These constitute the second important
+group of formed elements in the blood, and number about
+12,000 to 20,000 per cubic mm. They are typical wandering cells
+carried to all parts of the body by the blood stream, but often
+leave that stream and gain the tissue spaces by passing through
+the capillary wall. They exist in many varieties and were first
+classified according as, under the microscope, they presented a
+granular appearance or appeared clear. The cells were also
+distinguished from one another according as they possessed fine
+or coarse granules. The granules are confined to the protoplasm
+of the cell, and it has been shown that they differ chemically,
+because their staining properties vary. Thus, some granules
+select an acid stain, and the cells containing them are then
+designated <i>acidophile</i> or <i>eosinophile</i>;<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> other granules select a basic
+stain and are called <i>basophile</i>, while yet others prefer a neutral
+stain (<i>neutrophile</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In human blood the following varieties of leucocytes may be
+distinguished:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Polymorphonuclear Cell</i>.&mdash;This possesses a nucleus of
+very complicated outline and a fair amount of protoplasm filled
+with numbers of fine granules which stain with eosin. They vary
+in size but are usually about 0.01 mm. in diameter. They are
+highly amoeboid and phagocytic, and form about 70% of the
+total number of leucocytes.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Coarsely Granular Eosinophile Cell</i>.&mdash;These large cells
+contain a number of well-defined granules which stain deeply
+with acid dyes. The nucleus is crescentic. The cells amount to
+about 2% of the total number of leucocytes, though the proportion
+varies considerably. They are actively amoeboid.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Lymphocyte</i>.&mdash;This is the smallest leucocyte, being
+only about 0.0065 mm. in diameter. It has a large spherical
+nucleus with a small rim of clear protoplasm surrounding it.
+It forms from 15 to 40% of the number of leucocytes, and is less
+markedly amoeboid than the other varieties.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Hyaline</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hualinos">&#8017;&#940;&#955;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, glassy, crystalline, <span class="grk" title="ualos">&#8020;&#945;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, glass)
+<i>cell or macrocyte</i> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="makros">&#956;&#945;&#954;&#961;&#972;&#962;</span>, long or large).&mdash;This is a cell
+similar to the last with a spherical, oval or indented nucleus, but
+it has much more protoplasm. It constitutes about 4% of all
+the leucocytes and is highly amoeboid and phagocytic.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>The Basophile Cell</i>.&mdash;This possesses a spherical nucleus and
+the protoplasm contains a small number of granules staining
+deeply with basic dyes. It is rarely found in the blood of adults
+except in certain diseases.</p>
+
+<p><i>Functions</i>.&mdash;These cells act as scavengers or as destroyers of
+living organisms that may have gained access to the tissue
+spaces. They play an important part in the chemical processes
+underlying the phenomena of immunity, and some at least are
+of importance in starting the process of clotting.</p>
+
+<p>They are constantly suffering destruction in the performance
+of their work. Many, too, are lost to the body by their passage
+through the different mucous surfaces. Their origin is still
+obscure in many points. The lymphocytes are derived from
+lymphoid tissue, wherever it exists in the different parts of the
+body. The polymorphonuclear and eosinophile cells are derived
+from the bone-marrow, each by division of specific mother cells
+located in that tissue. The macrocyte is believed by many to
+represent a further stage in the development of the lymphocyte.
+Their rate of formation may be influenced by a variety of
+conditions&mdash;for instance, they are found to vary in number
+according to the diet and also, to a considerable extent, in
+disease.</p>
+
+<p><i>Platelets</i>.&mdash;The platelets or thrombocytes (Gr. <span class="grk" title="thrombos">&#952;&#961;&#972;&#956;&#946;&#959;&#962;</span>, clot)
+are the third class of formed elements occurring in mammalian
+blood. There are still, however, many observers who consider
+that platelets are not present in the normal circulating blood,
+but only make their appearance after it has been shed or otherwise
+injured. They are minute lens-shaped structures, and may
+amount to as many as 800,000 per cubic mm. Under certain
+conditions, examination has shown that they are protoplasmic
+and amoeboid, and that each one contains a central body of
+different staining properties from the remainder of the structure.
+This has been regarded by some as a nucleus. On being brought
+into contact with a foreign surface they adhere to it firmly, very
+rapidly passing through a number of phases resulting ultimately
+in the formation of granular debris. In shed blood they tend to
+collect into groups, and during clotting, fibrin filaments may be
+observed to shoot out from these clumps.</p>
+
+<p><i>Variations in the Blood of different Animals</i>.&mdash;If we contrast
+the blood of different animals of the vertebrate class we find
+striking differences both in microscopic appearances and in
+chemical properties. In the first place, the corpuscles vary in
+amount and in kind. Thus, whilst in a mammal the corpuscles
+form 40 to 50% of the total volume of the blood, in the lower
+vertebrates the volume is much less, <i>e.g.</i> in frogs as low as 25%
+and in fishes even lower. The deficiency is chiefly in the red
+corpuscles, the ratio of white to red increasing as we examine the
+blood from animals lower in the scale. The corpuscles themselves
+are also found to vary, especially the red ones. In the mammal
+they are biconcave disks with bevelled edges, they do not contain
+a nucleus so that they are not cells. In the bird they are larger,
+ellipsoidal in shape and have a large nucleus in the centre of
+the cell. In reptiles and amphibia the red corpuscles are also
+nucleated, but the <i>stroma</i> portion containing the haemoglobin
+is arranged in a thickened annular part encircling the nucleus.
+When seen from the flat they are oval in section. In fishes the
+corpuscles show very much the same structure. A further very
+significant difference to be observed between the bloods of
+different vertebrates is in the amount of haemoglobin they
+contain; thus in the lower classes, fishes and amphibia, not only
+is the number of red corpuscles small but the amount of haemoglobin
+each corpuscle contains is relatively low. The concentration
+of the haemoglobin in the corpuscles attains its maximum
+in the mammal and the bird. Since the haemoglobin is practically
+the same from whatever animal it is obtained and can only combine
+with the same amount of oxygen, the oxygen-capacity of the
+blood of any vertebrate is in direct proportion to the amount of
+haemoglobin it contains. Therefore we see that as we ascend
+the scale in the vertebrate series the oxygen-carrying capacity
+of the blood rises. This increase was a natural preliminary
+condition for the progress of evolution. In order that a more
+active animal might be developed the main essential was that
+the chemical processes of the cell should be carried out more
+rapidly, and as these processes are fundamentally oxidative,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page81" id="page81"></a>81</span>
+increased activity entails an increased rate of supply of oxygen.
+This latter has been brought about in the animal kingdom in
+two ways, first by an increase in the concentration of the haemoglobin
+of the blood effected by an increase both in the number of
+corpuscles and in the amount of haemoglobin contained in each,
+and secondly by an increase in the rate at which the blood has
+been made to pass through the tissues. In the lower vertebrates
+the blood pressure is low and the haemoglobin content of the
+blood is low, consequently both rate of blood-flow and oxygen-content
+are low. In contrast with this, in higher vertebrates the
+blood pressure is high and the haemoglobin content of the blood
+is high, consequently both rate of blood-flow and oxygen-content
+are high. We must associate with this important step in evolution
+the means employed for the more rapid absorption of
+oxygen and for its increased rate of discharge to the tissues, the
+most important features of which are a diminution in the size of
+the corpuscle and the attainment of its peculiar shape, both
+resulting in the production of a relatively enormous corpuscular
+surface in a unit volume of blood.</p>
+
+<p>Variations are also found in the white corpuscles as well as in
+the red, but these differences are not so striking and lie chiefly
+in unimportant details of structure of individual cells. Enormous
+variations are to be found in different species of mammals, but
+the cells generally conform to the types of secreting cells or
+phagocytes.</p>
+
+<p>The platelets also differ in the different species. In the frog,
+for instance, many are spindle-shaped and contain a nucleus-like
+structure. Birds&rsquo; blood is stated to contain no platelets. The
+variations in number of these bodies have not been satisfactorily
+ascertained on account of the difficulties involved in any attempt
+to preserve them and to render them visible under the microscope.</p>
+
+<p>Differences are also found in the chemical composition of the
+plasma. The chief variation is in the amount of protein present,
+which attains its maximum concentration in birds and mammals,
+while in reptiles, amphibia and fishes it is much less. The
+bloods of the latter two classes are much more watery than that
+of the mammal. Moreover, it has been proved that there are
+specific differences in the chemical nature of the various proteins
+present even between different varieties of mammals. Thus the
+ratio of the globulin fraction to the albumin fraction may vary
+considerably, and again, one or other of the proteins may be
+quite specific for the animal from which it is derived.</p>
+
+<p><i>Clotting.</i>&mdash;If a sample of blood be withdrawn from an animal,
+within a short time it undergoes a series of changes and becomes
+converted into a stiff jelly. It is said to <i>clot</i>. If the process is
+watched it is seen to start first from the surfaces where it is in
+contact with any foreign body; thence it extends through the
+blood until the whole mass sets solid. A short time elapses
+before this process commences&mdash;a time dependent upon two
+chief conditions, viz. the temperature at which the blood is kept
+and the extent of foreign surface with which it is brought into
+contact. Thus in a mammal the blood clots most quickly at a
+temperature a little above body temperature, while if the blood
+be cooled quickly the clotting is considerably delayed and in the
+case of some animals altogether prevented. For example, human
+blood kept at body temperature clots in three minutes, while if
+allowed to cool to room temperature the first sign of clotting may
+not make its appearance until eight minutes after its removal
+from the body. The process of clotting is also considerably
+accelerated by making the blood flow in a thin stream over a
+wide surface. The full completion of the process occupies some
+time if the blood be kept quiet, but ultimately the whole mass
+of the blood becomes converted into a solid. At this stage the
+containing vessel may be inverted without any drop of fluid
+escaping. A short time after this stage has been reached drops
+of a yellow fluid appear upon the surface and, increasing in size
+and number, run together to form a layer of fluid separated from
+the clot. This fluid is termed <i>serum</i>; its appearance is due to the
+contraction of the clot, which thus squeezes out the fluid from
+between its solid constituents. Contraction continues for about
+twenty-four hours, at the end of which time a large quantity
+(one-third or more of the total volume) of serum may have
+been separated. The clot contracts uniformly, thus preserving
+throughout the same general shape as that of the vessel in which
+the blood has been collected. Finally the clot swims freely in
+the serum which it has expressed.</p>
+
+<p>The cause of the clot formation has been found to be the
+precipitation of a solid from the liquid plasma of the blood.
+This solid is in the form of very minute threads and hence is
+termed <i>fibrin</i>. The threads traverse the mass of blood in every
+possible direction, interlacing and thus confining in their meshes
+all the solid elements of the blood. Soon after their deposition
+they begin to contract, and as the meshwork they form is very
+minute they carry with them all the corpuscles of the blood.
+These with the fibrin form the shrunken clot.</p>
+
+<p>If the rate at which blood clots be retarded either by cooling
+or by some other process the corpuscles may have time to settle,
+partially or completely, in which case distinct layers may form.
+The lowermost of these contains chiefly the red corpuscles, the
+second layer may be grey owing to the high percentage of leucocytes
+present, while a third, marked by opalescence only, may
+be very rich in platelets. Above these a clear layer of fluid
+may be found. This is <i>plasma</i>. The formation of these layers
+depends solely upon the rate of sedimentation of these elements,
+the rate depending partly upon differences in specific gravity,
+and partly upon the tendency the corpuscles have to run into
+clumps. Horse&rsquo;s blood offers one of the best instances of the
+clumping of red corpuscles, and in this animal sedimentation
+of the red corpuscles is most rapid.</p>
+
+<p>If now such a sedimented blood is allowed to clot the process
+is found to start in the middle two layers, <i>i.e.</i> in those
+containing the white corpuscles and platelets. From these
+layers it spreads through the rest of the liquid, being most
+retarded, however, in the red corpuscle layer, and particularly
+so if the sedimentation has been very complete. Not only does
+the clotting process start from the layers containing the leucocytes
+and platelets, but in them it also proceeds more quickly.
+These observations clearly indicate that the clotting process is
+initiated by some change starting from these elements.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the clotting of the blood is quite clear. It is
+to prevent, as far as possible, any loss of blood when there is
+an injury to an animal&rsquo;s vessels. The shed blood becomes converted
+into a solid, and this, extending into the interior of the
+ruptured vessel, forms a plug and thus arrests the bleeding.
+It is found that clotting is especially accelerated whenever
+the blood touches a foreign tissue, for instance, the outer layers
+of a torn blood-vessel wall, muscle tissue, &amp;c., <i>i.e.</i> in exactly
+those conditions in which rapid clotting becomes of the greatest
+importance. Yet another very pregnant fact in connexion
+with clotting is that if an animal be bled rapidly and the blood
+collected in successive samples it is found that those collected
+last clot most quickly. Hence the more excessive the haemorrhage
+in any case, the greater becomes the onset of the natural
+cure for the bleeding, viz. clotting.</p>
+
+<p>When we begin to inquire into the nature of clotting we have
+to determine in the first place whence the fibrin is derived.
+It has long been known that two chemical substances at least
+are requisite for its production. Thus certain fluids are known,
+<i>e.g.</i> some samples of hydrocele or pericardial fluid, which will
+not clot spontaneously, but will clot rapidly when a small
+quantity of serum or of an old blood-clot is added to it. The
+constituent substance which is present in the first-named fluids
+is known as fibrinogen, and that present in the serum or the
+clot is known as fibrin-ferment or <i>thrombin</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Fibrinogen is present in living blood dissolved in the plasma;
+it is also present in such fluids as hydrocele or pericardial effusions,
+which, though capable of clotting, do not clot spontaneously.
+Thrombin, on the other hand, does not exist in living blood, but
+only makes its appearance there after blood is shed. It is not
+yet certain what is the nature of the final reaction between
+fibrinogen and thrombin. The possibilities are, that thrombin
+may act&mdash;(1) by acting upon fibrinogen, which it in some way
+converts into fibrin, (2) by uniting with fibrinogen to form fibrin,
+or (3) by yielding part of itself to the fibrinogen which thus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page82" id="page82"></a>82</span>
+becomes converted into fibrin. The experimental study of the
+rate of fibrin formation, when different strengths of thrombin
+solutions are allowed to act upon a fibrinogen solution, leads
+us to the probable conclusion that the first of these three possibilities
+is the correct one, and that thrombin therefore exerts
+a true ferment action upon fibrinogen. It is known that in the
+reaction, in addition to the formation of fibrin, yet another
+protein makes its appearance. This is known as fibrinoglobulin,
+and apparently it arises from the fibrinogen, so that the change
+would be one of cleavage into fibrin and fibrinoglobulin. It
+is very noteworthy that although the amount of fibrin formed
+during the clotting appears very bulky, yet the actual weight
+is extremely small, not more than 0.4 grms. from 100 cc. of
+blood.</p>
+
+<p>Having ascertained that the clotting is due to the action of
+thrombin upon fibrinogen, we now see that the next step to be
+explained is the origin of thrombin. It has been shown that the
+final step in its formation consists in the combination of another
+substance, termed prothrombin, with calcium. Any soluble
+calcium salt is found to be effective in this respect, and conversely
+the removal of soluble calcium (<i>e.g.</i> by sodium oxalate)
+will prevent the formation of thrombin and therefore of clotting.</p>
+
+<p>In the next place it can be proved that prothrombin does not
+exist as such in circulating blood, so that the problem becomes
+an inquiry as to the origin of prothrombin. Experiment has
+shown that in its turn prothrombin arises from yet another
+precursor, which is named thrombogen, and that thrombogen
+also is not to be found in circulating blood but only makes its
+appearance after the blood is shed. The conversion of thrombogen
+into prothrombin has been proved to be due to the action
+of a second ferment which has been named thrombokinase, and
+this latter is again absent from living blood. Hence the question
+arises, whence are derived thrombogen and thrombokinase?
+In the study of this question it has been found that if the blood
+of birds be collected direct from an artery through a perfectly
+clean cannula into a clean and dust-free glass vessel, it does not
+clot spontaneously. The plasma collected from such blood is
+found to contain thrombogen but no thrombokinase. A somewhat
+similar plasma may be prepared from a mammal&rsquo;s blood
+by collecting samples of blood from an artery into vessels which
+have been thoroughly coated with paraffin, though in this instance
+thrombogen may be absent as well as thrombokinase. If
+plasma containing thrombogen but no thrombokinase be treated
+with a saline extract of any tissues it will soon clot. The saline
+extract contains thrombokinase. This ferment can therefore
+be derived from most tissues, including also the white blood
+corpuscles and the platelets. Thrombogen is produced from the
+leucocytes, but it is not yet certain whether it is also formed
+from the platelets. The discovery of the origin of the thrombokinase
+from tissue cells explains a fact that has long been
+known, namely, that if in collecting blood, it is allowed to flow
+over cut tissues, clotting is most markedly accelerated. The
+fact that birds&rsquo; blood if very carefully collected will not clot
+spontaneously tends to prove that thrombokinase is not derived
+from the leucocytes, and makes probable its origin from the
+platelets, for it is known that birds&rsquo; blood apparently does not
+contain platelets, at any rate in the form in which they are
+found in mammalian blood. When examining the general
+properties of platelets, attention was drawn to the remarkably
+rapid manner in which they undergo change on coming into
+contact with a foreign surface. It is apparently the actual
+contact which initiates these changes, changes which are fundamentally
+chemical in character, resulting in the production of
+thrombokinase and possibly also of thrombogen.</p>
+
+<p>Thus as our knowledge at present stands the following
+statement gives a recapitulated account of the changes which
+constitute the many phases of clotting. When blood escapes
+from a blood-vessel it comes into contact with a foreign surface,
+either a tissue or the damaged walls of the cut vessel. Very
+speedily this contact results in the discharge of thrombogen and
+thrombokinase, the former from the white blood corpuscles and
+also possibly from the platelets, the latter from the platelets
+or from the tissue with which the blood comes in contact. The
+interaction of these two bodies next results in the formation of
+prothrombin, which, combining with the calcium of any soluble
+lime salt present, forms thrombin or fibrin-ferment. The last
+step in the change is the action of thrombin upon fibrinogen
+to form fibrin, and the clot is complete.</p>
+
+<p>The intrinsic value to the animal of these changes is quite
+plain. The power of clotting and thus stopping haemorrhage
+is of essential importance, and yet this clotting must not occur
+within the living blood-vessels, or it would speedily result in
+death. That the tissues should be able to accelerate the process
+is of very obvious value. That the inner lining of the blood-vessels
+does not act as a foreign tissue is possibly due to the
+extreme smoothness of their surface.</p>
+
+<p>Further, an animal must always be exposed to a possible
+danger in the absorption of some thrombin from a mass of clotted
+blood still retained within the body, and we know that if a
+quantity of active ferment be injected into the blood-stream
+intravascular clotting does result. Under all usual conditions
+this is obviated, the protective mechanism being of a twofold
+character. First, it is found that thrombin becomes converted
+very quickly into an inactive modification. Serum, for instance,
+very quickly loses its power of inducing clotting in fibrinogen
+solutions. Secondly, the body has been found to possess the
+power of making a substance, antithrombin, which can combine
+with thrombin forming a substance which is quite inactive as
+far as clotting is concerned. Finally, there is evidence that
+normal blood contains a small quantity of this substance,
+antithrombin, and that under certain conditions the amount
+present may be enormously increased.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. G. Br.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Pathology of the Blood.</i></p>
+
+<p>The changes in the blood in disease are probably as numerous
+and varied as the diseases which attack the body, for the blood
+is not only the medium of respiration, but also of nutrition, of
+defence against organisms and of many other functions, none
+of which can be affected without corresponding alterations
+occurring in the circulating fluid. The immense majority of
+these changes are, however, so subtle that they escape detection
+by our present methods. But in certain directions, notably
+in regard to the relations with micro-organisms, changes in the
+blood-plasma can be made out, though they are not associated
+in all cases with changes in the formed elements which float in
+it, nor with any obvious microscopical or chemical alterations.</p>
+
+<p>The phenomena of immunity to the attacks of bacteria or
+their toxins, of agglutinative action, of opsonic action, of the
+precipitin tests, and of haemolysis, are all largely
+dependent on the inherent or acquired characters
+<span class="sidenote">Immunity.</span>
+of the blood serum. It is a commonplace that different
+people vary in their susceptibility to the attacks of different
+organisms, and different species of animals also vary greatly.
+This &ldquo;natural immunity&rdquo; is due partly to the power possessed
+by the leucocytes or white blood corpuscles of taking into their
+bodies and digesting or holding in an inert state organisms which
+reach the blood&mdash;phagocytosis,&mdash;partly to certain bodies in
+the blood serum which have a bactericidal action, or whose
+presence enables the phagocytes to deal more easily with the
+organisms. This natural immunity can be heightened when
+it exists, or an artificial immunity can be produced in various
+ways. Doses of organisms or their toxins can be injected on
+one or several occasions, and provided that the lethal dose
+be not reached, in most cases an increased power of resistance is
+produced. The organisms may be injected alive in a virulent
+condition, or with their virulence lessened by heat or cold,
+by antiseptics, by cultivation in the presence of oxygen, or by
+passage through other animals, or they may first be killed, or
+their toxins alone injected. The method chosen in each case
+depends on the organism dealt with. The result of this treatment
+is that in the animal treated protective substances appear
+in the serum, and these substances can be transferred to the
+serum of another animal or of man; in other words the active
+immunity of the experimental animal can be translated into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page83" id="page83"></a>83</span>
+the passive immunity of man. According to the nature of the
+substances injected into the former, its serum may be antitoxic,
+if it has been immunized against any particular toxin, or antibacterial,
+if against an organism. Familiar examples of these
+are, of the former diphtheria antitoxin, of the latter anti-plague
+and anti-typhoid sera. An antitoxin exerts its effects by actual
+combination with the respective toxin, the combination being
+inert. It is probable that the ultimate source of the antitoxin is
+to be found in the living cells of the tissues and that it passes
+from them into the blood. The action of an antibacterial serum
+depends on the presence in it of a substance known as &ldquo;immune-body,&rdquo;
+which has a special affinity and power of combining
+with the bacterium used. In order that it may exert this power
+it requires the presence of a substance normally present in the
+serum known as &ldquo;complement.&rdquo; The development of these
+&ldquo;anti-bodies,&rdquo; though it has been studied mainly in connexion
+with bacteria and their toxins, is not confined to their action,
+but can be demonstrated in regard to many other substances,
+such as ferments, tissue cells, red corpuscles, &amp;c. In some
+animals, for example, the blood serum has the power of dissolving
+the red corpuscles of an animal of different species; <i>e.g.</i> the
+guinea-pig&rsquo;s serum is &ldquo;haemolytic&rdquo; to the red corpuscles of
+the ox. This haemolytic power (haemolysis) can be increased
+by repeated injections of red corpuscles from the other animal,
+in this case also, as in the bacterial case, by the production and
+action of immune-body and complement. The antiserum produced
+in the case of the red corpuscles may sometimes, if injected
+into the first animal, whose red corpuscles were used, cause
+extensive destruction of its red corpuscles, with haemoglobinuria,
+and sometimes a fatal result.</p>
+
+<p>Opsonic action depends on the presence of a substance, the
+&ldquo;opsonin,&rdquo; in the serum of an immunized animal, which makes
+the organism in question more easily taken up by the phagocytes
+(leucocytes) of the blood. The opsonin becomes fixed to the
+organisms. It is present to a certain extent in normal serum,
+but can be greatly increased by the process of immunization;
+and the &ldquo;opsonic index,&rdquo; or relation between the number of
+organisms taken up by leucocytes when treated with the serum
+of a healthy person or &ldquo;control,&rdquo; and with the serum of a
+person affected with any bacterial disease and under treatment
+by immunization, is regarded by some as representing the degree
+of immunity produced.</p>
+
+<p>Agglutinative action is evidence of the presence in a serum
+of a somewhat similar set of substances, known as &ldquo;agglutinins.&rdquo;
+When a portion of an antiserum is added to an emulsion of the
+corresponding organism, the organisms, if they are motile, cease
+to move, and in any case become gathered together into clumps.
+In all probability several different bodies are concerned in this
+process. This reaction, in its practical applications at least,
+may be regarded as a reaction of infection rather than of immunization
+as ordinarily understood, for it is found that the
+blood serum of patients suffering from typhoid, Malta fever,
+cholera, and many other bacterial diseases, agglutinates the
+corresponding organisms. This fact has come to be of great
+importance in diagnosis.</p>
+
+<p>The precipitin test depends on a somewhat analogous reaction.
+If the serum of an animal be injected repeatedly into another
+animal of different species, a &ldquo;precipitin&rdquo; appears in the serum
+of the animal treated, which causes a precipitate when added
+to the serum of the first animal. The special importance of this
+fact is that it can be utilized as a method of distinguishing
+between human blood and that of animals, which is often of
+importance in medical jurisprudence.</p>
+
+<p>In this summary the facts adduced are practically all biological,
+and are due to the extraordinary activity with which the study
+of bacteriology (<i>q.v.</i>) has been pursued in recent years. The
+chemistry of the blood has not hitherto been found to give
+information of clinical or diagnostic importance, and nothing
+need here be added to what is said above on the physiology of
+the blood. Enough has been said, however, to show the extraordinary
+complexity of the apparently simple blood serum.</p>
+
+<p>The methods at present employed in examining the blood
+clinically are: the enumeration of the red and white corpuscles
+per cubic millimetre; the estimation of the percentage of
+haemoglobin and of the specific gravity of the blood; the microscopic
+examination of freshly-drawn blood and of blood films
+made upon cover-glasses, fixed and stained. In special cases the
+alkalinity and the rapidity of coagulation may be ascertained,
+or the blood may be examined bacteriologically. We have no
+universally accepted means of estimating, during life, the total
+amount of blood in the body, though the method of J.S. Haldane
+and J. Lorrain Smith, in which the total oxygen capacity of the
+blood is estimated, and its total volume worked out from that
+datum, has seemed to promise important results (<i>Journ. of
+Physiol</i>. vol. xxv. p. 331, 1900). After death the amount of
+blood sometimes seems to be increased, and sometimes, as in
+&ldquo;pernicious anaemia,&rdquo; it is certainly diminished. But the high
+counts of red corpuscles which are occasionally reported as
+evidence of plethora or increase of the total blood are really only
+indications of concentration of the fluid except in certain rare
+cases. It is necessary, therefore, in examining blood diseases,
+to confine ourselves to the study of the blood-unit, which is
+always taken as the cubic millimetre, without reference to the
+number of units in the body.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anaemia</i> is often used as a generic term for all blood diseases,
+for in almost all of them the haemoglobin is diminished, either
+as a result of diminution in the number of the red
+corpuscles in which it is contained, or because the
+<span class="sidenote">Anaemia.</span>
+individual red corpuscles contain a smaller amount of haemoglobin
+than the normal. As haemoglobin is the medium of
+respiratory interchange, its diminution causes obvious symptoms,
+which are much more easily appreciated by the patient than
+those caused by alterations in the plasma or the leucocytes. It
+is customary to divide anaemias into &ldquo;primary&rdquo; and &ldquo;secondary&rdquo;:
+the primary are those for which no adequate cause has
+as yet been discovered; the secondary, those whose cause is
+known. Among the former are usually included chlorosis,
+pernicious anaemia, and sometimes the leucocythaemias;
+among the latter, the anaemias due to such agencies as malignant
+disease, malaria, chronic metallic poisoning, chronic haemorrhage,
+tubercle, Bright&rsquo;s disease, infective processes, intestinal
+parasites, &amp;c. As our knowledge advances, however, this distinction
+will probably be given up, for the causes of several
+of the primary anaemias have been discovered. For example,
+the anaemia due to <i>bothriocephalus</i>, an intestinal parasite, is
+clinically indistinguishable from the other forms of pernicious
+anaemia with which it used to be included, and leucocythaemia
+has been declared by Löwit, though probably erroneously, to
+be due to a blood parasite closely related to that of malaria.
+In all these conditions there is a considerable similarity in the
+symptoms produced and in the pathological anatomy. The
+general symptoms are pallor of the skin and mucous membranes,
+weakness and lassitude, shortness of breath, palpitation, a
+tendency to fainting, and usually also gastro-intestinal disturbance,
+headache and neuralgia. The heart is often dilated, and
+on auscultation the systolic murmurs associated with that
+condition are heard. In fatal cases the internal organs are
+found to be pale, and very often their cells contain an excessive
+amount of fat. In many anaemias there is a special tendency
+to haemorrhage. Most of the above symptoms and organic
+changes are directly due to diminished respiratory interchange
+from the loss of haemoglobin, and to its effect on the various
+organs involved. The diagnosis depends ultimately in all cases
+upon the examination of the blood.</p>
+
+<p>Though the relative proportions of the leucocytes are probably
+continually undergoing change even in health, especially as the
+result of taking food, the number of red corpuscles remains much
+more constant. Through the agency of some unknown mechanism,
+the supply of fresh red corpuscles from the bone-marrow
+keeps pace with the destruction of effete corpuscles, and in
+health each corpuscle contains a definite and constant amount
+of haemoglobin. The disturbance of this arrangement in
+anaemia may be due to loss or to increased destruction of corpuscles,
+to the supply of a smaller number of new ones, to a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page84" id="page84"></a>84</span>
+diminution of the amount of haemoglobin in the individual
+new corpuscles, or to a combination of these causes. It is most
+easy to illustrate this by describing what happens after a haemorrhage.
+If this is small, the loss is replaced by the fully-formed
+corpuscles held in reserve in the marrow, and there is no disturbance.
+If it is larger, the amount of fluid lost is first made up
+by fluid drawn from the tissues, so that the number of corpuscles
+is apparently diminished by dilution of the blood; the erythroblasts,
+or formative red corpuscles, of the bone-marrow are
+stimulated to proliferation, and new corpuscles are quickly
+thrown into the circulation. These are apt, however, to be small
+and to contain a subnormal amount of haemoglobin, and it is
+only after some time that they are destroyed and their place
+taken by normal corpuscles. If the loss has been very great,
+nucleated red corpuscles may even be carried into the blood-stream.
+The blood possesses a great power of recovery, if time
+be given it, because the organ (bone-marrow) which forms so
+many of its elements never, in health, works at high pressure.
+Only a part of the marrow, the so-called red marrow, is normally
+occupied by erythroblastic tissue, the rest of the medullary
+cavity of the bones being taken up by fat. If any long-continued
+demand for red corpuscles is made, the fat is absorbed, and its
+place gradually taken by red marrow. This compensatory change
+is found in all chronic anaemias, no matter what their cause may
+be, except in some rare cases in which the marrow does not react.</p>
+
+<p>It is often very difficult, especially in &ldquo;secondary&rdquo; anaemias,
+to say which of the above processes is mainly at work. In acute
+anaemias, such as those associated with septicaemia, there is no
+doubt that blood destruction plays the principal part. But if
+the cause of anaemia is a chronic one, a gastric cancer, for
+instance, though there may possibly be an increased amount of
+destruction of corpuscles in some cases, and though there is often
+loss by haemorrhage, the cancer interferes with nutrition, the
+blood is impoverished and does not nourish the erythroblasts
+in the marrow sufficiently, and the new corpuscles which are
+turned out are few and poor in haemoglobin. In chronic
+anaemias, regeneration always goes on side by side with destruction,
+and it is important to remember that the state of the blood
+in these conditions gives the measure, not of the amount of
+destruction which is taking place so much as of the amount of
+regeneration of which the organism is capable. The evidence of
+destruction has often to be sought for in other organs, or in
+secretions or excretions.</p>
+
+<p>Of the so-called primary anaemias the most common is
+<i>chlorosis</i>, an anaemia which occurs only in the female sex,
+between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five as a rule. Its
+symptoms are those caused by a diminution of haemoglobin,
+and though it is never directly fatal, and is extremely amenable
+to treatment with iron preparations, its subjects very frequently
+suffer from relapses at varying intervals after the first attack.
+Its causation is probably complex. Bad hygienic conditions,
+over-fatigue, want of proper food, especially of the iron-containing
+proteids of meat, the strain put upon the blood and blood-forming
+organs by the accession of puberty and the occurrence
+of menstruation, all probably play a part in it. It has also been
+suggested that internal secretions may be concerned in stimulating
+the bone-marrow, and that in the female sex in particular
+the genital organs may act in this way. Imperfect assumption
+of function by these organs at puberty, caused perhaps by some
+of the above-mentioned conditions, might lead to sluggishness
+in the bone-marrow, and to the supply to the blood of the
+poorly-formed corpuscles deficient in haemoglobin which are
+characteristic of the disease. Chlorosis is the type of anaemias
+from imperfect blood-formation. Lorrain Smith has produced
+evidence to show that the total amount of haemoglobin in the
+body is not diminished in this disease, but that the blood-plasma
+is greatly increased in amount, so that the haemoglobin is diluted
+and the amount in each blood-unit greatly lessened.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pernicious anaemia</i> is a rarer disease than chlorosis, occurs
+usually later in life, and is distributed nearly equally between
+the two sexes. But it is of great importance because of its
+almost uniformly fatal termination, though its downward course
+is generally broken by temporary improvement on one or more
+occasions. The symptoms are those of a progressive anaemia,
+in which gastro-intestinal disturbance usually plays a large part,
+and nervous symptoms are common, and they become at last
+much more severe than those of any secondary anaemia. The
+patient may die in the first attack, but more usually, when things
+seem to be at their worst, improvement sets in, either spontaneously
+or as the result of treatment, and the patient slowly
+regains apparent health. This remission may be followed by a
+relapse, that again by a remission, and so on, but as a rule the
+disease is fatal within, at the outside, two or three years.</p>
+
+<p>The prime cause of the disease is not known. It seems probable
+indeed that the causal factors are numerous. Severe malarial
+infection, syphilis, pregnancy, chronic gastro-intestinal disease,
+chronic gas-poisoning, are all, in different cases, known to have
+been causally associated with it, and it is probable that a congenital
+weakness of the bone-marrow has often to do with its
+production, as in many cases a family or hereditary history of
+the disease can be obtained. The condition is now regarded as
+a chronic toxaemia, partly because of the clinical symptoms
+and pathological appearances, partly because analogous conditions
+can be produced experimentally by such poisons as
+saponin and toluylendiamin, and partly because of the facts of
+<i>bothriocephalus</i> anaemia. The site of production of the toxin,
+or toxins, for it is possible that several may have the same effect
+on the blood, is possibly not always the same, but must often
+be the alimentary canal, as <i>bothriocephalus</i> anaemia proves.
+Not all persons affected with this intestinal tapeworm contract
+the disease, but only those in whose intestines the worm is dead
+and decomposing or sometimes only &ldquo;sick.&rdquo; The expulsion
+of the worm puts an end to the absorption of the toxin and the
+patients recover. No adequate explanation of the formation
+of the toxin in the immense majority of the cases, in which there
+is no tapeworm, has yet been given. It is certain that no
+organism as yet known is concerned.</p>
+
+<p>This toxaemia affects the marrow and through it the blood,
+the gastro-intestinal apparatus and the nervous system, especially
+the spinal cord, in different proportions in different cases.
+The effect upon the marrow is to alter the type of red corpuscle
+formation, causing a reversion to the embryonic condition, in
+which the nucleated red corpuscles are large (megaloblasts), and
+the corpuscles in the blood formed from them are also large, are
+apparently ill suited to the needs of the adult, and easily break
+down, as the deposits of iron in the liver, spleen, kidneys and
+marrow prove. Whether this reversion is due to an exhaustion
+of the normal process or to an inhibition of it is not definitely
+known. The result is that the circulating red corpuscles are
+enormously diminished; it is usual to find 1,000,000 or less in
+the cubic millimetre instead of the normal 5,000,000. Though
+the haemoglobin is of course absolutely diminished, it is always,
+in severe cases, present in relatively higher percentage than the
+red corpuscles, because the average red corpuscle is larger and
+contains more haemoglobin than the normal. The large
+nucleated red corpuscles (megaloblasts) with which the marrow
+is crowded, often appear in the blood.</p>
+
+<p>Other anaemias, such as those known as <i>lymphadenoma</i>, or
+Hodgkin&rsquo;s disease, <i>splenic anaemia</i>, <i>chloroma</i>, <i>leucanaemia</i> and
+the <i>anaemia pseudo-leucaemica</i> of children, need not be described
+here, as they are either rare or their occurrence or nature is still
+too much under discussion.</p>
+
+<p>The number and nature of the leucocytes in the blood bears
+no constant or necessary relation to the number or condition
+of the red corpuscles, and their variations depend
+on entirely different conditions. The number in the
+<span class="sidenote">Leucocytosis.</span>
+cubic millimetre is usually about 7000, but may vary
+in health from 5000 to 10,000. A diminution in their number
+is known as <i>leucopenia</i>, and is found in starvation, in some
+infective diseases, as for example in typhoid fever, in malaria
+and Malta fever, and in pernicious anaemia. An increase is
+very much more frequent, and is known as <i>leucocytosis</i>, though
+in this term is usually connoted a relative increase in the
+proportion of the polymorphonuclear neutrophile leucocytes.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>85</span>
+Leucocytosis occurs under a great variety of conditions, normally
+to a slight extent during digestion, during pregnancy, and after
+violent exercise, and abnormally after haemorrhage, in the course
+of inflammations and many infective diseases, in malignant
+disease, in such toxic states as uraemia, and after the ingestion
+of nuclein and other substances. It does not occur in some
+infective diseases, the most important of which are typhoid fever,
+malaria, influenza, measles and uncomplicated tuberculosis.
+In all cases where it is sufficiently severe and long continued,
+the reserve space in the bone-marrow is filled up by the active
+proliferation of the leucocytes normally found there, and is used
+as a nursery for the leucocytes required in the blood. In many
+cases leucocytosis is known to be associated with the defence of
+the organism from injurious influences, and its amount depends
+on the relation between the severity of the attack and the power
+of resistance. There may be an increase in the proportions
+present in the blood of lymphocytes (<i>lymphocytosis</i>), and of
+eosinophile cells (<i>eosinophilia</i>). This latter change is associated
+specially with some forms of asthma, with certain skin diseases,
+and with the presence of animal parasites in the body, such as
+ankylostoma and filaria.</p>
+
+<p>The disease in which the number of leucocytes in the blood
+is greatest is <i>leucocythaemia</i> or leucaemia. There are two main
+forms of this disease, in both of which there are
+anaemia, enlargement of the spleen and lymphatic
+<span class="sidenote">Leucaemia.</span>
+glands, or of either of them, leucocytic hypertrophy of the
+bone-marrow, and deposits of leucocytes in the liver, kidney
+and other organs. The difference lies in the kind of leucocytes
+present in excess in the blood, blood-forming organs and
+deposits in the tissues. In the one form these are lymphocytes,
+which are found in health mainly in the marrow, the blood itself,
+the lymph glands and in the lymphatic tissue round the alimentary
+canal; in the other they are the kinds of leucocytes
+normally found in the bone-marrow-myelocytes, neutrophile,
+basophile and eosinophile, and polymorphonuclear cells, also
+neutrophile, basophile and eosinophile. The clinical course of
+the two forms may differ. The first, known as lymphatic
+leucaemia or <i>lymphaemia</i>, may be acute, and prove fatal in a
+few weeks or even days with rapidly advancing anaemia, or
+may be chronic and last for one or two years or longer. The
+second, known as spleno-myelogenous leucaemia or <i>myelaemia</i>,
+is almost always chronic, and may last for several years. Recovery
+does not take place, though remissions may occur. The
+use of the X-rays has been found to influence the course of this
+disease very favourably. The most recent view of the pathology
+of the disease is that it is due to an overgrowth of the bone-marrow
+leucocytes, analogous in some respects to tumour
+growth and caused by the removal of some controlling mechanism
+rather than by stimulation. The anaemia accompanying the
+disease is due partly to the leucocyte overgrowth, which takes
+up the space in the marrow belonging of right to red corpuscle
+formation and interferes with it.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. L. G.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The suffix <i>-phile</i>, Greek <span class="grk" title="philein">&#966;&#953;&#955;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>, to love, prefer, is in scientific
+terminology frequently applied to substances that exhibit such
+preference for particular stains or reagents, the names of which form
+the first part of the word.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOOD-LETTING.<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> There are certain morbid conditions when
+a patient may obtain marked relief from the abstraction of a
+certain amount of blood, from three or four ounces up to twenty
+or even thirty in extreme cases. This may be effected by venesection,
+or the application of leeches, or more rarely by cupping
+(<i>q.v.</i>). Unfortunately, in years gone by, blood-letting was used to
+such excess, as a cure for almost every known disease, that public
+opinion is now extremely opposed to it. In certain pathological
+conditions, however, it brings relief and saves life when no other
+means would act with sufficient promptness to take its place.</p>
+
+<p>Venesection, in which the blood is usually withdrawn from
+the median-basilic vein of the arm, has the disadvantage that it
+can only be performed by the medical man, and that the patient&rsquo;s
+friends are generally very much opposed to the idea. But the
+public are not nearly so prejudiced against the use of leeches;
+and as the nurse in charge can be instructed to use these if
+occasion arises, this is the form of blood-letting usually practised
+to-day. From one to twelve leeches are applied at the time,
+the average leech withdrawing some two drachms of blood.
+Should this prove insufficient, as much again can be abstracted
+by the immediate application of hot fomentations to the wounds.
+They should always be applied over some bony prominence,
+that pressure may be effectively used to stop the haemorrhage
+afterwards. They should never be placed over superficial veins,
+or where there is much loose subcutaneous tissue. If, as is often
+the case, there is any difficulty in making them bite, the skin
+should be pricked at the desired spot with the point of a sterilized
+needle, and the leech will then attach itself without further
+trouble. Also they must be left to fall off of their own accord,
+the nurse never dragging them forcibly off. If cold and pressure
+fail to stop the subsequent haemorrhage, a little powdered alum
+or other styptic may be inserted in the wound. The following are
+the main indications for their use, though in some cases they are
+better replaced by venesection, (1) For stagnation of blood on
+the right side of the heart with constant dyspnoea, cyanosis, &amp;c.
+In acute lung disease, the sudden obstruction to the passage of
+blood through the lungs throws such an increased strain on the
+right ventricle that it may dilate to the verge of paralysis; but
+by lessening the total volume of blood, the heart&rsquo;s work is
+lightened for a time, and the danger at the moment tided over.
+This is a condition frequently met with in the early stages of
+acute pneumonia, pleurisy and bronchitis, when the obstruction
+is in the lungs, the heart being normal. But the same result is
+also met with as a result of failure of compensation with back
+pressure in certain forms of heart disease (<i>q.v.</i>). (2) To lower
+arterial tension. In the early stages of cerebral haemorrhage
+(before coma has supervened), when the heart is working
+vigorously and the tension of the pulse is high, a timely venesection
+may lead to arrest of the haemorrhage by lowering the
+blood pressure and so giving the blood in the ruptured vessel
+an opportunity to coagulate. (3) In various convulsive attacks,
+as in acute uraemia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOOD-MONEY,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> colloquially, the reward for betraying a
+criminal to justice. More strictly it is used of the money-penalty
+paid in old days by a murderer to the kinsfolk of his victim.
+These fines completely protected the offender from the vengeance
+of the injured family. The system was common among the
+Scandinavian and Teutonic races previous to the introduction of
+Christianity, and a scale of payments, graduated according to
+the heinousness of the crime, was fixed by laws, which further
+settled who could exact the blood-money, and who were entitled
+to share it. Homicide was not the only crime thus expiable:
+blood-money could be exacted for all crimes of violence. Some
+acts, such as killing any one in a church or while asleep, or within
+the precincts of the royal palace, were &ldquo;bot-less&rdquo;; and the
+death penalty was inflicted. Such a criminal was outlawed, and
+his enemies could kill him wherever they found him.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOODSTONE,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> the popular name of the mineral heliotrope,
+which is a variety of dark green chalcedony or plasma, with
+bright red spots, splashes and streaks. The green colour is due
+to a chloritic mineral; the red to haematite. Some coarse kinds
+are opaque, resembling in this respect jasper, and some writers
+have sought to restrict the name &ldquo;bloodstone&rdquo; to green jasper,
+with red markings, thus making heliotrope a translucent and
+bloodstone an opaque stone, but, though convenient, such a
+distinction is not generally recognized. A good deal of bloodstone
+comes from India, where it occurs in the Deccan traps, and is cut
+and polished at Cambay. The stone is used for seals, knife-handles
+and various trivial ornaments. Bloodstone is not very
+widely distributed, but is found in the basaltic rocks of the Isle
+of Rum in the west of Scotland, and in a few other localities.
+Haematite (Gr. <span class="grk" title="aima">&#945;&#7991;&#956;&#945;</span>, blood), or native peroxide of iron, is also
+sometimes called &ldquo;bloodstone.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOOM<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (from A.S. <i>blôma</i>, a flower), the blossom of flowering
+plants, or the powdery film on the skin of fresh-picked fruit;
+hence applied to the surface of newly-minted coins or to a cloudy
+appearance on the varnish of painting due to moisture; also,
+in metallurgy, a term used of the rough billets of iron and steel,
+which have undergone a preliminary hammering or rolling, and
+are ready for further working.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOOMER, AMELIA JENKS<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1818-1894), American dress-reformer
+and women&rsquo;s rights advocate, was born at Homer, New
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page86" id="page86"></a>86</span>
+York, on the 27th of May 1818. After her marriage in 1840 she
+established a periodical called <i>The Lily</i>, which had some success.
+In 1849 she took up the idea&mdash;previously originated by Mrs
+Elizabeth Smith Miller&mdash;of a reform in woman&rsquo;s dress, and the
+wearing of a short skirt, with loose trousers, gathered round the
+ankles. The name of &ldquo;bloomers&rdquo; gradually became popularly
+attached to any divided-skirt or knickerbocker dress for women.
+Until her death on the 30th of December 1894 Mrs Bloomer took
+a prominent part in the temperance campaign and in that for
+woman&rsquo;s suffrage.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOOMFIELD, MAURICE<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (1855-&emsp;&emsp;), American Sanskrit
+scholar, was born on the 23rd of February 1855, in Bielitz,
+Austrian Silesia. He went to the United States in 1867, and ten
+years later graduated from Furman University, Greenville, South
+Carolina. He then studied Sanskrit at Yale, under W.D.
+Whitney, and at Johns Hopkins, to which university he returned
+as associate professor in 1881 after a stay of two years in Berlin
+and Leipzig, and soon afterwards was promoted professor of
+Sanskrit and comparative philology. His papers in the <i>American
+Journal of Philology</i> number a few in comparative linguistics,
+such as those on assimilation and adaptation in congeneric
+classes of words, and many valuable &ldquo;Contributions to the
+Interpretation of the Vedas,&rdquo; and he is best known as a student
+of the Vedas. He translated, for Max-Müller&rsquo;s <i>Sacred Books of
+the East</i>, the Hymns of the Atharva-Veda (1897); contributed to
+the Bühler-Kielhorn <i>Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie und
+Altertumskunde</i> the section &ldquo;The Atharva-Veda and the Gopatha
+Brahmana&rdquo; (1899); was first to edit the Kauçika-Sutra (1890),
+and in 1907 published, in the Harvard Oriental series, <i>A Vedic
+Concordance</i>. In 1905 he published <i>Cerberus, the Dog of Hades</i>, a
+study in comparative mythology.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (1766-1823), English poet, was born
+of humble parents at the village of Honington, Suffolk, on the 3rd
+of December 1766. He was apprenticed at the age of eleven to a
+farmer, but he was too small and frail for field labour, and four
+years later he came to London to work for a shoemaker. The
+poem that made his reputation, <i>The Farmer&rsquo;s Boy</i>, was written
+in a garret in Bell Alley. The manuscript, declined by several
+publishers, fell into the hands of Capell Lofft, who arranged for
+its publication with woodcuts by Bewick in 1800. The success of
+the poem was remarkable, over 25,000 copies being sold in the
+next two years. His reputation was increased by the appearance
+of his <i>Rural Tales</i> (1802), <i>News from the Farm</i> (1804), <i>Wild
+Flowers</i> (1806) and <i>The Banks of the Wye</i> (1811). Influential
+friends attempted to provide for Bloomfield, but ill-health and
+possibly faults of temperament prevented the success of these
+efforts, and the poet died in poverty at Shefford, Bedfordshire,
+on the 19th of August 1823. His <i>Remains in Poetry and Verse</i>
+appeared in 1824.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOOMFIELD,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> a town of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
+about 12 m. W. of New York, and directly adjoining the city of
+Newark on the N. Pop. (1900) 9668, of whom 2267 were foreign-born;
+(1905, state census) 11,668; (1910), 15,070. Area, 5.42 sq. m.
+Bloomfield is served by the Erie, and the Delaware, Lackawanna
+&amp; Western railways, and by several electric lines connecting
+with Newark, Montclair, Orange, East Orange and other
+neighbouring places. It is a residential suburb of Newark and
+New York, is the seat of a German theological school (Presbyterian,
+1869) and has the Jarvie Memorial library (1902). There
+is a Central Green, and in 1908 land was acquired for another
+park. Among the town&rsquo;s manufactures are silk and woollen
+goods, paper, electric elevators, electric lamps, rubber goods,
+safety pins, hats, cream separators, brushes and novelties. The
+value of the town&rsquo;s factory products increased from $3,370,924
+in 1900 to $4,645,483 in 1905, or 37.8%. First settled about
+1670-1675 by the Dutch and by New Englanders from the
+Newark colony, Bloomfield was long a part of Newark, the
+principal settlement at first being known as Wardsesson. In
+1796 it was named Bloomfield in honour of General Joseph
+Bloomfield (1753-1823), who served (1775-1778) in the War of
+American Independence, reaching the rank of major, was
+governor of New Jersey in 1801-1802 and 1803-1812, brigadier-general
+in the United States army during the War of 1812, and
+a Democratic representative in Congress from 1817 to 1821.
+The township of Bloomfield was incorporated in 1812. From it
+were subsequently set off Belleville (1839), Montclair (1868) and
+Glen Ridge (1895).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOOMINGTON,<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of McLean
+county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the central part of the state, about
+125 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 20,484; (1900) 23,286,
+of whom 3611 were foreign-born, there being a large German
+element; (1910 census) 25,768. The city is served by the
+Chicago &amp; Alton, the Illinois Central, the Cleveland, Chicago,
+Cincinnati &amp; St Louis, and the Lake Erie &amp; Western railways,
+and by electric inter-urban lines. Bloomington is the seat of
+the Illinois Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal, co-educational,
+founded in 1850), which comprises a college of
+liberal arts, an academy, a college of law, a college of music and
+a school of oratory, and in 1907 had 1350 students. In the town
+of <span class="sc">Normal</span> (pop. in 1900, 3795), 2 m. north of Bloomington, are
+the Illinois State Normal University (opened at Bloomington
+in 1857 and removed to its present site in 1860), one of the first
+normal schools in the Middle West, and the state soldiers&rsquo;
+orphans&rsquo; home (1869). Bloomington has a public library, and
+Franklin and Miller parks; among its principal buildings are
+the court house, built of marble, and the Y.M.C.A. building.
+Among the manufacturing establishments are foundries and
+machine shops, including the large shops of the Chicago &amp; Alton
+railway, slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, flour
+and grist mills, printing and publishing establishments, a caramel
+factory and lumber factories. The value of the city&rsquo;s factory
+products increased from $3,011,899 in 1900 to $5,777,000 in
+1905, or 91.8%. There are valuable coal mines in and near
+the city, and the city is situated in a fine farming region.
+Bloomington derives its name from Blooming Grove, a small
+forest which was crossed by the trails leading from the Galena
+lead mines to Southern Illinois, from Lake Michigan to St Louis,
+and from the Eastern to the far Western states. The first settlement
+was made in 1822, but the town was not formally founded
+until 1831, when it became the county-seat of McLean county.
+The first city charter was obtained in 1850, and in 1857 the
+public school system was established. In 1856 Bloomington
+was the meeting place of a state convention called by the Illinois
+editors who were opposed to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill (see
+DECATUR). This was the first convention of the Republican
+party in Illinois; among the delegates were Abraham Lincoln,
+Richard Yates, John M. Palmer and Owen Lovejoy. The city
+has been the residence of a number of prominent men, including
+David Davis (1815-1886), an associate justice of the United
+States Supreme Court in 1862-1877, a member of the United
+States Senate in 1877-1883, and president <i>pro tempore</i> of the
+Senate in 1881-1883; Governor John M. Hamilton (1847-1905),
+Governor Joseph W. Fifer (b. 1840); and Adlai Ewing
+Stevenson (b. 1835), a Democratic representative in Congress in
+1875-1877 and 1879-1881, and vice-president of the United
+States in 1893-1897. Bloomington&rsquo;s prosperity increased after
+1867, when coal was first successfully mined in the vicinity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the <i>Transactions</i> of the Illinois State Historical Society for
+1905 may be found a paper, &ldquo;The Bloomington Convention of 1856
+and Those Who Participated in it.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOOMINGTON,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Monroe county,
+Indiana, U.S.A., about 45 m. S. by W. of Indianapolis. Pop.
+(1890) 4018; (1900) 6460, including 396 negroes; (1910) 8838.
+It is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis &amp; Louisville and the
+Indianapolis Southern (Illinois Central) railways. Bloomington
+is the seat of the Indiana University (co-educational since 1868),
+established as a state seminary in 1820, and as Indiana College
+in 1828, and chartered as the State university in 1838; in 1907-1908
+it had 80 instructors, 2051 students, and a library of 65,000
+volumes; its school of law was established in 1842, suspended
+in 1877 and re-established in 1889; its school of medicine was
+established in 1903; but most of the medical course is given
+in Indianapolis; a graduate school was organized in 1904; and
+a summer school (or summer term of eleven weeks) was first
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>87</span>
+held in 1905. Dr David Starr Jordan was the first president of
+the university in 1885-1891, when it was thoroughly reorganized
+and its curriculum put on the basis of major subjects and departments.
+The university&rsquo;s biological station is on Winona Lake,
+Kosciusko county. Among the manufactures of Bloomington
+are furniture and wooden ware. There are valuable limestone
+quarries in the vicinity. The city was first settled about 1818.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOOMSBURG,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> a town and the county-seat of Columbia
+county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on Fishing Creek, 2 m. from its
+confluence with the Susquehanna, and about 40 m. S.W. of
+Wilkes-Barre. Pop. (1890) 4635; (1900) 6170 (213 foreign-born);
+(1910) 7413. It is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna
+&amp; Western, the Philadelphia &amp; Reading, and the Bloomsburg
+&amp; Sullivan and the Susquehanna, Bloomsburg &amp; Berwick
+railways (the last two only 30 m. and 39 m. long respectively);
+and is connected with Berwick, Catawissa and Danville by
+electric lines. The town is built on a bluff commanding extensive
+views. Among the manufactures of Bloomsburg are
+railway cars, carriages, silk and woollen goods, furniture, carpets,
+wire-drawing machines and gun carriages. Iron ore was formerly
+obtained from the neighbouring hills. The town is the
+seat of a state normal school, established as such in 1869.
+Bloomsburg was laid out as a town in 1802, became the county-seat
+in 1846, and was incorporated in 1870.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOUNT, CHARLES<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (1654-1693), English author, was born
+at Upper Holloway on the 27th of April 1654. His father,
+Sir Henry Blount (1602-1682), was the author of a <i>Voyage to
+the Levant</i>, describing his own travels. He gave his son a careful
+education, and is said to have helped him in his <i>Anima Mundi;
+or An Historical Narration of the Opinions of the Antients concerning
+Man&rsquo;s Soul after his Life, according to unenlightened Nature</i>
+(1679), which gave great offence by the sceptical views expressed
+in it. It was suppressed by order of the bishop of London, and
+even burnt by some over-zealous official, but a re-issue was
+permitted. Blount was an admirer of Hobbes, and published
+his &ldquo;Last Sayings&rdquo; (1679), a pamphlet consisting of extracts
+from <i>The Leviathan. Great is Diana of the Ephesians, or the
+Original of Idolatry, together with the Political Institution of the
+Gentiles&rsquo; Sacrifices</i> (1680) attracted severe criticism on the ground
+that in deprecating the evils of priestcraft Blount was attacking
+Christianity itself. His best-known book, <i>The Two First Books
+of Philostratus concerning the Life of Apollonius Tyaneus...</i>
+(1680), is said to have been prohibited in 1693, chiefly on account
+of the notes, which are stated by Bayle (note, <i>s.v. Apollonius</i>) to
+have been taken mainly from a MS. of Lord Herbert of Cherbury.
+Blount contributed materially to the removal of the restrictions
+on the freedom of the press, with two pamphlets (1693) by
+&ldquo;Philopatris,&rdquo; mainly derived from Milton&rsquo;s <i>Areopagitica</i>.
+He also laid a successful trap for the censor, Edmund Bohun.
+Under the name of &ldquo;Junius Brutus&rdquo; he wrote a pamphlet
+entitled &ldquo;King William and Queen Mary Conquerors.&rdquo; The
+title-page set forth the theory of the justice of title by conquest,
+which Blount knew to be agreeable to Bohun. It was duly
+licensed, but was ordered by the House of Commons to be
+burnt by the common hangman, as being diametrically opposed
+to the attitude of William&rsquo;s government on the subject. These
+proceedings showed the futility of the censorship, and hastened
+its overthrow.</p>
+
+<p>Blount had fallen in love with his deceased wife&rsquo;s sister, and,
+in despair of overcoming her scruples as to the legality of such
+a marriage, shot himself in the head. He survived for some
+time, refusing help except from his sister-in-law. Alexander
+Pope asserted (<i>Epilogue to the Satires</i>, Note, i. 124) that he
+wounded himself in the arm, pretending to kill himself, and that
+the result was fatal contrary to his expectations. He died in
+August 1693.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Shortly before his death a collection of his pamphlets and private
+papers was printed with a preface by Charles Gildon, under the title
+of the <i>Oracles of Reason</i>. His <i>Miscellaneous Works</i> (1695) is a fuller
+edition by the same editor.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOUNT<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Blunt</span>), <span class="bold">EDWARD</span> (b. 1565?), the printer, in
+conjunction with Isaac Jaggard, of <i>Mr William Shakespeares
+Comedies, Histories and Tragedies. Published according to the
+true Originall Copies</i> (<i>1623</i>), usually known as the first folio of
+Shakespeare. It was produced under the direction of John
+Heming (d. 1630) and Henry Condell (d. 1627), both of whom
+had been Shakespeare&rsquo;s colleagues at the Globe theatre, but as
+Blount combined the functions of printer and editor on other
+occasions, it is fair to conjecture that he to some extent edited
+the first folio. The Stationers&rsquo; <i>Register</i> states that he was the
+son of Ralph Blount or Blunt, merchant tailor of London, and
+apprenticed himself in 1578 for ten years to William Ponsonby, a
+stationer. He became a freeman of the Stationers&rsquo; Company in
+1588. Among the most important of his publications are
+Giovanni Florio&rsquo;s Italian-English dictionary and his translation
+of Montaigne, Marlowe&rsquo;s <i>Hero and Leander</i>, and the <i>Sixe Court
+Comedies</i> of John Lyly. He himself translated <i>Ars Aulica, or the
+Courtier&rsquo;s Arte</i> (1607) from the Italian of Lorenzo Ducci, and
+<i>Christian Policie</i> (1632) from the Spanish of Juan de Santa
+Maria.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOUNT, THOMAS<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (1618-1679), English antiquarian, was the
+son of one Myles Blount, of Orleton in Herefordshire. He was
+born at Bordesley, Worcestershire. Few details of his life are
+known. It appears that he was called to the bar at the Inner
+Temple, but, being a zealous Roman Catholic, his religion interfered
+considerably with the practice of his profession. Retiring to his
+estate at Orleton, he devoted himself to the study of the law as
+an amateur, and also read widely in other branches of knowledge.
+He died at Orleton on the 26th of December 1679. His principal
+works are <i>Glossographia; or, a dictionary interpreting the hard
+words of whatsoever language, now used in our refined English
+tongue</i> (1656, reprinted in 1707), which went through several
+editions and remains most amusing and instructive reading;
+<i>Nomolexicon: a law dictionary interpreting such difficult and,
+obscure words and terms as are found either in our common or
+statute, ancient or modern lawes</i> (1670; third edition, with
+additions by W. Nelson, 1717); and <i>Fragmenta Antiquitatis:
+Ancient Tenures of land, and jocular customs of some mannors</i>
+(1679; enlarged by J. Beckwith and republished, with additions
+by H.M. Beckwith, in 1815; again revised and enlarged by
+W.C. Hazlitt, 1874). Blount&rsquo;s <i>Boscobel</i> (1651), giving an account
+of Charles II.&rsquo;s preservation after Worcester, with the addition of
+the king&rsquo;s own account dictated to Pepys, has been edited with
+a bibliography by C.G. Thomas (1894).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOUNT, SIR THOMAS POPE<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1649-1697), English author,
+eldest son of Sir Henry Blount and brother of Charles Blount
+(<i>q.v.</i>), was born at Upper Holloway on the 12th of September
+1649. He succeeded to the estate of Tittenhanger on his mother&rsquo;s
+death in 1678, and in the following year was created a baronet.
+He represented the borough of St Albans in the two last parliaments
+of Charles II. and was knight of the shire from the revolution
+till his death. He married Jane, daughter of Sir Henry
+Caesar, by whom he had five sons and nine daughters. He died
+at Tittenhanger on the 30th of June 1697. His <i>Censura celebrorum
+authorum sive tractatus in quo varia virorum doctorum de
+clarissimis cujusque seculi scriptoribus judicia traduntur</i> (1690)
+was originally compiled for Blount&rsquo;s own use, and is a dictionary
+in chronological order of what various eminent writers have said
+about one another. This necessarily involved enormous labour
+in Blount&rsquo;s time. It was published at Geneva in 1694 with all
+the quotations from modern languages translated into Latin,
+and again in 1710. His other works are <i>A Natural History,
+containing many not common observations extracted out of the best
+modern writers</i> (1693), <i>De re poetica, or remarks upon Poetry, with
+Characters and Censures of the most considerable Poets.... </i>(1694),
+and <i>Essays on Several Occasions</i> (1692). It is on this last work
+that his claims to be regarded as an original writer rest. The
+essays deal with the perversion of learning, a comparison between
+the ancients and the moderns (to the advantage of the latter),
+the education of children, and kindred topics. In the third
+edition (1697) he added an eighth essay, on religion, in which
+he deprecated the multiplication of ceremonies. He displays
+throughout a hatred of pedantry and convention, which makes
+his book still interesting.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page88" id="page88"></a>88</span> </p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Kippis, <i>Biographia Britannica</i> (1780), vol. ii. For an
+account of Blount&rsquo;s family see Robert Clutterbuck. <i>History and
+Antiquities of the County of Hertford</i> (1815), vol. i. pp. 207-212.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOUNT, WILLIAM<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (1749-1800), American politician, was
+born in Bertie county, North Carolina, on the 26th of March 1749.
+He was a member of the Continental Congress in 1783-1784 and
+again in 1786-1787, of the constitutional convention at Philadelphia
+in 1787, and of the state convention which ratified the
+Federal constitution for North Carolina in 1789. From 1790
+until 1796 he was, by President Washington&rsquo;s appointment,
+governor of the &ldquo;Territory South of the Ohio River,&rdquo; created
+out of land ceded to the national government by North Carolina
+in 1789. He was also during this period the superintendent of
+Indian affairs for this part of the country. In 1791 he laid out
+Knoxville (Tennessee) as the seat of government. He presided
+over the constitutional convention of Tennessee in 1796, and, on
+the state being admitted to the Union, became one of its first
+representatives in the United States Senate. In 1797 his
+connexion became known with a scheme, since called &ldquo;Blount&rsquo;s
+Conspiracy,&rdquo; which provided for the co-operation of the American
+frontiersmen, assisted by Indians, and an English force, in the
+seizure on behalf of Great Britain of the Floridas and Louisiana,
+then owned by Spain, with which power England was then at
+war. As this scheme, if carried out, involved the corrupting of
+two officials of the United States, an Indian agent and an
+interpreter, a breach of the neutrality of the United States, and
+the breach of Article V. of the treaty of San Lorenzo el Real
+(signed on the 27th of October 1795) between the United States
+and Spain, by which each power agreed not to incite the Indians
+to attack the other, Blount was impeached by the House of
+Representatives on the 7th of July 1797, and on the following
+day was formally expelled from the Senate for &ldquo;having been
+guilty of high misdemeanor, entirely inconsistent with his public
+trust and duty as a senator.&rdquo; On the 29th of January 1798
+articles of impeachment were adopted by the House of Representatives.
+On the 14th of January 1799, however, the Senate,
+sitting as a court of impeachment, decided that it had no jurisdiction,
+Blount not then being a member of the Senate, and, in the
+Senate&rsquo;s opinion, not having been, even as a member, a civil
+officer of the United States, within the meaning of the constitution.
+The case is significant as being the first case of
+impeachment brought before the United States Senate. &ldquo;In a
+legal point of view, all that the case decides is that a senator of
+the United States who has been expelled from his seat is not after
+such expulsion subject to impeachment&rdquo; (Francis Wharton, <i>State
+Trials</i>). In effect, however, it also decided that a member of
+Congress was not in the meaning of the constitution a civil officer
+of the United States and therefore could not be impeached.
+The &ldquo;conspiracy&rdquo; was disavowed by the British government,
+which, however, seems to have secretly favoured it. Blount
+was enthusiastically supported by his constituents, and upon his
+return to Tennessee was made a member and the presiding officer
+of the state senate. He died at Knoxville on the 21st of March
+1800.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a defence of Blount, see General Marcus J. Wright&rsquo;s <i>Account
+of the Life and Services of William Blount</i> (Washington, D.C., 1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOUSE,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> a word (taken from the French) used for any loosely
+fitting bodice belted at the waist. In France it meant originally
+the loose upper garment of linen or cotton, generally blue, worn
+by French workmen to preserve their clothing, and, by transference,
+the workman himself.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOW, JOHN<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (1648-1708), English musical composer, was
+born in 1648, probably at North Collingham in Nottinghamshire.
+He became a chorister of the chapel royal, and distinguished
+himself by his proficiency in music; he composed several
+anthems at an unusually early age, including <i>Lord, Thou hast
+been our refuge; Lord, rebuke me not</i>; and the so-called &ldquo;club
+anthem,&rdquo; <i>I will always give thanks</i>, the last in collaboration with
+Pelham Humphrey and William Turner, either in honour of a
+victory over the Dutch in 1665, or&mdash;more probably&mdash;simply to
+commemorate the friendly intercourse of the three choristers.
+To this time also belongs the composition of a two-part setting
+of Herrick&rsquo;s <i>Goe, perjur&rsquo;d man</i>, written at the request of Charles
+II. to imitate Carissimi&rsquo;s <i>Dite, o cieli</i>. In 1669 Blow became
+organist of Westminster Abbey. In 1673 he was made a gentleman
+of the chapel royal, and in the September of this year he
+was married to Elizabeth Braddock, who died in childbirth ten
+years later. Blow, who by the year 1678 was a doctor of music,
+was named in 1685 one of the private musicians of James II.
+Between 1680 and 1687 he wrote the only stage composition by
+him of which any record survives, the <i>Masque for the Entertainment
+of the King: Venus and Adonis</i>. In this Mary Davies
+played the part of Venus, and her daughter by Charles II., Lady
+Mary Tudor, appeared as Cupid. In 1687 he became master of
+the choir of St Paul&rsquo;s church; in 1695 he was elected organist of
+St Margaret&rsquo;s, Westminster, and is said to have resumed his post
+as organist of Westminster Abbey, from which in 1680 he had
+retired or been dismissed to make way for Purcell. In 1699 he
+was appointed to the newly created post of composer to the
+chapel royal. Fourteen services and more than a hundred
+anthems by Blow are extant. In addition to his purely ecclesiastical
+music Blow wrote <i>Great sir, the joy of all our hearts</i>, an ode
+for New Year&rsquo;s day 1681-1682; similar compositions for 1683,
+1686, 1687, 1688, 1689, 1693 (?), 1694 and 1700; odes, &amp;c., for
+the celebration of St Cecilia&rsquo;s day for 1684, 1691, 1695 and 1700;
+for the coronation of James II. two anthems, <i>Behold, O God, our
+Defender</i>, and <i>God spake sometimes in visions</i>; some harpsichord
+pieces for the second part of Playford&rsquo;s <i>Musick&rsquo;s Handmaid</i>
+(1869); <i>Epicedium for Queen Mary</i> (1695); <i>Ode on the Death of
+Purcell</i> (1696). In 1700 he published his Amphion Anglicus, a
+collection of pieces of music for one, two, three and four voices,
+with a figured-bass accompaniment. A famous page in Burney&rsquo;s
+<i>History of Music</i> is devoted to illustrations of &ldquo;Dr Blow&rsquo;s
+Crudities,&rdquo; most of which only show the meritorious if immature
+efforts in expression characteristic of English music at the time,
+while some of them (where Burney says &ldquo;Here we are lost&rdquo;)
+are really excellent. Blow died on the 1st of October 1708 at his
+house in Broad Sanctuary, and was buried in the north aisle of
+Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOW-GUN,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> a weapon consisting of a long tube, through
+which, by blowing with the mouth, arrows or other missiles can
+be shot accurately to a considerable distance. Blow-guns are
+used both in warefare and the chase by the South American
+Indian tribes inhabiting the region between the Amazon and
+Orinoco rivers, and by the Dyaks of Borneo. In the 18th century
+they were also known to certain North American Indians,
+especially the Choctaws and Cherokees of the lower Mississippi.
+Captain Bossu, in his <i>Travels through Louisiana</i> (1756), says of
+the Choctaws: &ldquo;They are very expert in shooting with an instrument
+made of reeds about 7 ft. long, into which they put a little
+arrow feathered with the wool of the thistle (wild cotton?).&rdquo;
+The blow-guns of the South American Indians differ in style and
+workmanship. That of the Macusis of Guiana, called <i>pucuna</i>, is
+the most perfect. It is made of two tubes, the inner of which,
+called <i>oorah</i>, is a light reed ½ in. in diameter which often grows
+to a length of 15 ft. without a joint. This is enclosed, for protection
+and solidity, in an outer tube of a variety of palm (<i>Iriartella
+setigera</i>). The mouth-piece is made of a circlet of silk-grass, and
+the farther end is feruled with a kind of nut, forming a sight. A
+rear open sight is formed of two teeth of a small rodent. The
+length of the <i>pucuna</i> is about 11 ft. and its weight 1½ &#8468; The
+arrows, which are from 12 to 18 in. long and very slender, are
+made of ribs of the cocorite palm-leaf. They are usually feathered
+with a tuft of wild cotton, but some have in place of the cotton a
+thin strip of bark curled into a cone, which, when the shooter
+blows into the <i>pucuna</i>, expands and completely fills the tube,
+thus avoiding windage. Another kind of arrow is furnished
+with fibres of bark fixed along the shaft, imparting a rotary
+motion to the missile, a primitive example of the theory of the
+rifle. The arrows used in Peru are only a few inches long and as
+thin as fine knitting-needles. All South American blow-gun
+arrows are steeped in poison. The natives shoot very accurately
+with the <i>pucuna</i> at distances up to 50 or 60 yds.</p>
+
+<p>The blow-gun of the Borneo Dyaks, called <i>sumpitan</i>, is from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page89" id="page89"></a>89</span>
+6 to 7 ft. long and made of ironwood. The bore, of ½ in., is made
+with a long pointed piece of iron. At the muzzle a small iron
+hook is affixed, to serve as a sight, as well as a spear-head like a
+bayonet and for the same purpose. The arrows used with the
+<i>sumpitan</i> are about 10 in. long, pointed with fish-teeth, and
+feathered with pith. They are also envenomed with poison.</p>
+
+<p>Poisoned arrows are also used by the natives of the Philippine
+island of Mindanao, whose blow-pipes, from 3 to 4 ft. long and
+made of bamboo, are often richly ornamented and even jewelled.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of the blow-gun is, of course, the same as that
+of the common &ldquo;pea-shooter.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Sport with Rod and Gun in American Woods and Waters</i>, by
+A.M. Mayer, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1884); <i>Wanderings in South
+America</i>, &amp;c., by Charles Waterton (London, 1828); <i>The Head
+Hunters of Borneo</i>, by Carl Bock (London, 1881).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOWITZ, HENRI GEORGES STEPHAN ADOLPHE DE<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span>
+(1825-1903), Anglo-French journalist, was born, according to the
+account given in his memoirs, at his father&rsquo;s chateau in Bohemia
+on the 28th of December 1825. At the age of fifteen he left home,
+and travelled over Europe for some years in company with a
+young professor of philology, acquiring a thorough knowledge
+of French, German and Italian and a mixed general education.
+The finances of his family becoming straitened, young Blowitz
+was on the point of starting to seek his fortune in America, when
+he became acquainted in Paris with M. de Falloux, minister of
+public instruction, who appointed him professor of foreign
+languages at the Tours Lycée, whence, after some years, he was
+transferred to the Marseilles Lycée. After marrying in 1859 he
+resigned his professorship, but remained at Marseilles, devoting
+himself to literature and politics. In 1869 information which he
+supplied to a legitimist newspaper at Marseilles with regard to
+the candidature of M. de Lesseps as deputy for that city led to
+a demand for his expulsion from France. He was, however,
+allowed to remain, but had to retire to the country. In 1870 his
+predictions of the approaching fall of the Empire caused the
+demand for his expulsion to be renewed. While his case was
+under discussion the battle of Sedan was fought, and Blowitz
+effectually ingratiated himself with the authorities by applying
+for naturalization as a French subject. Once naturalized, he
+returned to Marseilles, where he was fortunately able to render
+considerable service to Thiers, who subsequently employed him
+in collecting information at Versailles, and when this work was
+finished offered him the French consulship at Riga. Blowitz was
+on the point of accepting this post when Laurence Oliphant,
+then Paris correspondent of <i>The Times</i>, for which Blowitz had
+already done some occasional work, asked him to act as his
+regular assistant for a time, Frederick Hardman, the other Paris
+correspondent of <i>The Times</i>, being absent. Blowitz accepted
+the offer, and when, later on, Oliphant was succeeded by Hardman
+he remained as assistant correspondent. In 1873 Hardman died,
+and Blowitz became chief Paris correspondent to <i>The Times</i>.
+In this capacity he soon became famous in the world of journalism
+and diplomacy. In 1875 the duc de Decazcs, then French
+foreign minister, showed Blowitz a confidential despatch from
+the French ambassador in Berlin (in which the latter warned his
+government that Germany was contemplating an attack on
+France), and requested the correspondent to expose the German
+designs in <i>The Times</i>. The publication of the facts effectually
+aroused European public opinion, and any such intention was
+immediately thwarted. Blowitz&rsquo;s most sensational journalistic
+feat was achieved in 1878, when his enterprise enabled <i>The
+Times</i> to publish the whole text of the treaty of Berlin at the
+actual moment that the treaty was being signed in Germany.
+In 1877 and again in 1888 Blowitz rendered considerable service
+to the French government by his exposure of internal designs
+upon the Republic. He died on the 18th of January 1903.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>My Memoirs</i>, by H.S. de Blowitz, was published in 1903.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLOWPIPE,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> in the arts and chemistry, a tube for directing
+a jet of air into a fire or into the flame of a lamp or gas jet, for
+the purpose of producing a high temperature by accelerating
+the combustion. The blowpipe has been in common use from
+the earliest times for soldering metals and working glass, but
+its introduction into systematic chemical analysis is to be
+ascribed to A.F. Cronstedt, and not to Anton Swab, as has been
+maintained (see J. Landauer, <i>Ber</i>. 26, p. 898). The first work
+on this application of the blowpipe was by G. v. Engeström,
+and was published in 1770 as an appendix to a treatise on
+mineralogy. Its application has been variously improved at
+the hands of T.O. Bergman, J.G. Gahn, J.J. Berzelius,
+C.F. Plattner and others, but more especially by the two last-named
+chemists.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest and oldest form of blowpipe is a conical brass
+tube, about 7 in. in length, curved at the small end into a right
+angle, and terminating in a small round orifice, which is applied
+to the flame, while the larger end is applied to the mouth.
+Where the blast has to be kept up for only a few seconds, this
+instrument is quite serviceable, but in longer chemical operations
+inconvenience arises from the condensation of moisture exhaled
+by the lungs in the tube. Hence most blowpipes are now made
+with a cavity for retaining the moisture. Cronstedt placed a
+bulb in the centre of his blowpipe. Dr Joseph Black&rsquo;s instrument
+consists of a conical tube of tin plate, with a small brass
+tube, supporting the nozzle, inserted near the wider end, and
+a mouth-piece at the narrow end.</p>
+
+<p>The sizes of orifice recommended by Plattner are 0.4 and
+0.5 mm. A trumpet mouth-piece is recommended from the
+support it gives to the cheeks when inflated. The mode of
+blowing is peculiar, and requires some practice; an uninterrupted
+blast is kept up by the muscular action of the cheeks, while the
+ordinary respiration goes on through the nostrils.</p>
+
+<p>If the flame of a candle or lamp be closely examined, it will
+be seen to consist of four parts&mdash;(<i>a</i>) a deep blue ring at the base,
+(<i>b</i>) a dark cone in the centre, (<i>c</i>) a luminous portion round this,
+and (<i>d</i>) an exterior pale blue envelope (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flame</a></span>). In blowpipe
+work only two of these four parts are made use of, viz.
+the pale envelope, for oxidation, and the luminous portion, for
+reduction. To obtain a good <i>oxidizing flame</i>, the blowpipe is held
+with its nozzle inserted in the edge of the flame close over the
+level of the wick, and blown into gently and evenly. A conical
+jet is thus produced, consisting of an inner cone, with an outer
+one commencing near its apex&mdash;the former, corresponding to
+(<i>a</i>) in the free flame, blue and well defined; the latter corresponding
+to (<i>d</i>), pale blue and vague. The heat is greatest just
+beyond the point of the inner cone, combustion being there
+most complete. Oxidation is better effected (if a very high
+temperature be not required) the farther the substance is from
+the apex of the inner cone, for the air has thus freer access. To
+obtain a good <i>reducing flame</i> (in which the combustible matter,
+very hot, but not yet burned, is disposed to take oxygen from
+any compound containing it), the nozzle, with smaller orifice,
+should just touch the flame at a point higher above the wick,
+and a somewhat weaker current of air should be blown. The
+flame then appears as a long, narrow, luminous cone, the end
+being enveloped by a dimly visible portion of flame corresponding
+to that which surrounds the free flame, while there is also a
+dark nucleus about the wick. The substance to be reduced is
+brought into the luminous portion, where the reducing power
+is strongest.</p>
+
+<p>Various materials are used as supports for substances in the
+blowpipe flame; the principal are charcoal, platinum and glass
+or porcelain. Charcoal is valuable for its infusibility and low
+conductivity for heat (allowing substances to be strongly heated
+upon it), and for its powerful reducing properties; so that it is
+chiefly employed in testing the fusibility of minerals and in
+reduction. The best kind of charcoal is that of close-grained
+pine or alder; it is cut in short prisms, having a flat smooth
+surface at right angles to the rings of growth. In this a shallow
+hole is made for receiving the substance to be held in the flame.
+Gas-carbon is sometimes used, since it is more permanent in
+the flame than wood charcoal. <i>Platinum</i> is employed in oxidizing
+processes, and in the fusion of substances with fluxes;
+also in observing the colouring effect of substances on the blowpipe
+flame (which effect is apt to be somewhat masked by charcoal).
+Most commonly it is used in the form of wire, with a
+small bend or loop at the end.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page90" id="page90"></a>90</span> </p>
+
+<p>The mouth blowpipe is unsuitable for the production of a
+large flame, and cannot be used for any lengthy operations;
+hence recourse must be made to types in which the air-blast
+is occasioned by mechanical means. The laboratory form in
+common use consists of a bellows worked by either hand or
+foot, and a special type of gas burner formed of two concentric
+tubes, one conveying the blast, the other the gas; the supply
+of air and gas being regulated by stopcocks. The <i>hot blast blowpipe</i>
+of T. Fletcher, in which the blast is heated by passing
+through a copper coil heated by a separate burner, is only of
+service when a pointed flame of a fairly high temperature is
+required. Blowpipes in which oxygen is used as the blast
+have been manufactured by Fletcher, Russell &amp; Co., and have
+proved of great service in conducting fusions which require a
+temperature above that yielded by the air-blowpipe.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the applications of the blowpipe in chemical analysis see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemistry</a></span>: <i>Analytical</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLÜCHER, GEBHARD LEBERECHT VON<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (1742-1819),
+Prussian general field marshal, prince of Wahlstadt in Silesia,
+was born at Rostock on the 16th of December 1742. In his
+fourteenth year he entered the service of Sweden, and in the
+Pomeranian campaign of 1760 he was taken prisoner by the
+Prussians. He was persuaded by his captors to enter the
+Prussian service. He took part in the later battles of the Seven
+Years&rsquo; War, and as a hussar officer gained much experience of
+light cavalry work. In peace, however, his ardent spirit led him
+into excesses of all kinds, and being passed over for promotion
+he sent in his resignation, to which Frederick replied, &ldquo;Captain
+Blücher can take himself to the devil&rdquo; (1773). He now settled
+down to farming, and in fifteen years he had acquired an honourable
+independence. But he was unable to return to the army until
+after the death of Frederick the Great. He was then reinstated
+as major in his old regiment, the Red Hussars. He took part
+in the expedition to Holland in 1787, and in the following year
+became lieutenant-colonel. In 1789 he received the order <i>pour
+le mérite</i>, and in 1794 he became colonel of the Red Hussars. In
+1793 and 1794 he distinguished himself in cavalry actions against
+the French, and for his success at Kirrweiler he was made a
+major-general. In 1801 he was promoted lieutenant-general.</p>
+
+<p>He was one of the leaders of the war party in Prussia in
+1805-1806, and served as a cavalry general in the disastrous
+campaign of the latter year. At Auerstädt Blücher repeatedly
+charged at the head of the Prussian cavalry, but without success.
+In the retreat of the broken armies he commanded the rearguard
+of Prince Hohenlohe&rsquo;s corps, and upon the capitulation of the
+main body of Prenzlau he carried off a remnant of the Prussian
+army to the northward, and in the neighbourhood of Lübeck
+he fought a series of combats, which, however, ended in his
+being forced to surrender at Ratkau (November 7, 1806). His
+adversaries testified in his capitulation that it was caused by
+&ldquo;want of provisions and ammunition.&rdquo; He was soon exchanged
+for General Victor, and was actively employed in Pomerania,
+at Berlin, and at Königsberg until the conclusion of the war.
+After the war, Blücher was looked upon as the natural leader
+of the patriot party, with which he was in close touch during
+the period of Napoleonic domination. His hopes of an alliance
+with Austria in the war of 1809 were disappointed. In this
+year he was made general of cavalry. In 1812 he expressed
+himself so openly on the alliance of Russia with France that he
+was recalled from his military governorship of Pomerania and
+virtually banished from the court.</p>
+
+<p>When at last the Napoleonic domination was ended by the
+outbreak of the War of Liberation in 1813, Blücher of course
+was at once placed in high command, and he was present at
+Lützen and Bautzen. During the armistice he worked at the
+organization of the Prussian forces, and when the war was
+resumed Blücher became commander-in-chief of the Army of
+Silesia, with Gneisenau and Müffling as his principal staff officers,
+and 40,000 Prussians and 50,000 Russians under his control.
+The autumn campaign of 1813 will be found described in the
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>, and it will here be sufficient
+to say that the most conspicuous military quality displayed by
+Blücher was his unrelenting energy. The irresolution and
+divergence of interests usual in allied armies found in him a
+restless opponent, and the knowledge that if he could not induce
+others to co-operate he was prepared to attempt the task in hand
+by himself often caused other generals to follow his lead. He
+defeated Marshal Macdonald at the Katzbach, and by his victory
+over Marmont at Möckern led the way to the decisive overthrow
+of Napoleon at Leipzig, which place was stormed by Blücher&rsquo;s
+own army on the evening of the last day of the battle. On the
+day of Mockern (October 16, 1813) Blücher was made a general
+field marshal, and after the victory he pursued the routed French
+with his accustomed energy. In the winter of 1813-1814
+Blücher, with his chief staff officers, was mainly instrumental
+in inducing the allied sovereigns to carry the war into France
+itself. The combat of Brienne and the battle of La Rothière
+were the chief incidents of the first stage of the celebrated
+campaign of 1814, and they were quickly followed by the victories
+of Napoleon over Blücher at Champaubert, Vauxchamps and
+Montmirail. But the courage of the Prussian leader was undiminished,
+and his great victory of Laon (March 9 to 10)
+practically decided the fate of the campaign. After this Blücher
+infused some of his own energy into the operations of Prince
+Schwarzenberg&rsquo;s Army of Bohemia, and at last this army and
+the Army of Silesia marched in one body direct upon Paris.
+The victory of Montmartre, the entry of the allies into the French
+capital, and the overthrow of the First Empire were the direct
+consequences. Blücher was disposed to make a severe retaliation
+upon Paris for the calamities that Prussia had suffered from
+the armies of France had not the allied commanders intervened
+to prevent it. Blowing up the bridge of Jena was said to be one
+of his contemplated acts. On the 3rd of June 1814 he was made
+prince of Wahlstadt (in Silesia on the Katzbach battlefield),
+and soon afterwards he paid a visit to England, being received
+everywhere with the greatest enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p>After the peace he retired to Silesia, but the return of Napoleon
+soon called him to further service. He was put in command of
+the Army of the Lower Rhine with General Gneisenau as his
+chief of staff (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Waterloo Campaign</a></span>). In the campaign of
+1815 the Prussians sustained a very severe defeat at the outset
+at Ligny (June 16), in the course of which the old field marshal
+was ridden over by cavalry charges, his life being saved only
+by the devotion of his aide-de-camp, Count Nostitz. He was
+unable to resume command for some hours, and Gneisenau drew
+off the defeated army. The relations of the Prussian and the
+English headquarters were at this time very complicated, and it
+is uncertain whether Blücher himself was responsible for the
+daring resolution to march to Wellington&rsquo;s assistance. This
+was in fact done, and after an incredibly severe march Blücher&rsquo;s
+army intervened with decisive and crushing effect in the battle
+of Waterloo. The great victory was converted into a success
+absolutely decisive of the war by the relentless pursuit of the
+Prussians, and the allies re-entered Paris on the 7th of July.
+Prince Blücher remained in the French capital for some months,
+but his age and infirmities compelled him to retire to his Silesian
+residence at Krieblowitz, where he died on the 12th of September
+1819, aged seventy-seven. He retained to the end of his life
+that wildness of character and proneness to excesses which had
+caused his dismissal from the army in his youth, but however
+they may be regarded, these faults sprang always from the ardent
+and vivid temperament which made Blücher a dashing leader of
+horse. The qualities which made him a great general were his
+patriotism and the hatred of French domination which inspired
+every success of the War of Liberation. He was twice married,
+and had, by his first marriage, two sons and a daughter. Statues
+were erected to his memory at Berlin, Breslau and Rostock.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of the various lives of Prince Blücher, that by Varnhagen von
+Ense (1827) is the most important. His war diaries of 1793-1794,
+together with a memoir (written in 1805) on the subject of a national
+army, were edited by Golz and Ribbentrop (Campagne Journal
+1793-4 von <i>Gl. Lt. v. Blücher</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLUE<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (common in different forms to most European
+languages), the name of a colour, used in many colloquial
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page91" id="page91"></a>91</span>
+phrases. From the fact of various parties, political and other,
+having adopted the colour blue as their badge, various classes of
+people have come to be known as &ldquo;blue&rdquo; or &ldquo;blues&rdquo;; thus
+&ldquo;true blue&rdquo; meant originally a staunch Presbyterian, the
+Covenanters having adopted blue as their colour as opposed to
+red, the royal colour; similarly, in the navy, there was in the
+18th century a &ldquo;Blue Squadron,&rdquo; Nelson being at one time
+&ldquo;Rear-Admiral of the Blue&rdquo;; again, in 1690, the Royal Horse
+Guards were called the &ldquo;Blues&rdquo; from their blue uniforms, or,
+from their leader, the earl of Oxford, the &ldquo;Oxford Blues&rdquo;;
+also, from the blue ribbon worn by the knights of the Garter
+comes the use of the phrase as the highest mark of distinction
+that can be worn, especially applied on the turf to the winning
+of the Derby. The &ldquo;blue Peter&rdquo; is a rectangular blue flag, with
+a white square in the centre, hoisted at the top of the foremast
+as a signal that a vessel is about to leave port. At Oxford and
+Cambridge a man who represents his university in certain
+athletic sports is called a &ldquo;blue&rdquo; from the &ldquo;colours&rdquo; he is
+then entitled to wear, dark blue for Oxford and light blue for
+Cambridge.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLUEBEARD,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> the monster of Charles Perrault&rsquo;s tale of <i>Barbe
+Bleue</i>, who murdered his wives and hid their bodies in a locked
+room. Perrault&rsquo;s tale was first printed in his <i>Histoires et contes
+du <span class="correction" title="amended from tems">temps</span> passé</i> (1697). The essentials of the story&mdash;Bluebeard&rsquo;s
+prohibition to his wife to open a certain door during his absence,
+her disobedience, her discovery of a gruesome secret, and her
+timely rescue from death&mdash;are to be found in other folklore
+stories, none of which, however, has attained the fame of
+<i>Bluebeard</i>. A close parallel exists in an Esthonian legend of a
+husband who had already killed eleven wives, and was prevented
+from killing the twelfth, who had opened a secret room, by a
+gooseherd, the friend of her childhood. In &ldquo;The Feather Bird&rdquo;
+of Grimm&rsquo;s <i>Hausmärchen</i>, three sisters are the victims, the third
+being rescued by her brothers. Bluebeard, though Perrault
+does not state the number of his crimes, is generally credited
+with the murder of seven wives. His history belongs to the
+common stock of folklore, and has even been ingeniously fitted
+with a mythical interpretation. In France the Bluebeard legend
+has its local habitation in Brittany, but whether the existing
+traditions connecting him with Gilles de Rais (<i>q.v</i>.) or Comorre
+the Cursed, a Breton chief of the 6th century, were anterior
+to Perrault&rsquo;s time, we have no means of determining. The
+identification of Bluebeard with Gilles de Rais, the <i>bête d&rsquo;extermination</i>
+of Michelet&rsquo;s forcible language, persists locally in the
+neighbourhood of the various castles of the baron, especially at
+Machecoul and Tiffauges, the chief scenes of his infamous crimes.
+Gilles de Rais, however, had only one wife, who survived him,
+and his victims were in the majority of cases young boys. The
+traditional connexion may arise simply from the not improbable
+association of two monstrous tales. The less widespread identification
+of Bluebeard with Comorre is supported by a series of
+frescoes dating only a few years later than the publication of
+Perrault&rsquo;s story, in a chapel at St Nicolas de Bieuzy dedicated
+to St Tryphine, in which the tale of Bluebeard is depicted as
+the story of the saint, who in history was the wife of Comorre.
+Comorre or Conomor had his original headquarters at Carhaix,
+in Finistère. He extended his authority by marriage with the
+widow of Iona, chief of Domnonia, and attempted the life of
+his stepson Judwal, who fled to the Frankish court. About 547
+or 548 he obtained in marriage, through the intercession of
+St Gildas, Tryphine, daughter of Weroc, count of Vannes. The
+pair lived in peace at Castel Finans for some time, but Comorre,
+disappointed in his ambitions in the Vannetais, presently
+threatened Tryphine. She took flight, but her husband found
+her hiding in a wood, when he gave her a wound on the skull and
+left her for dead. She was tended and restored to health by
+St Gildas, and after the birth of her son retired to a convent of
+her own foundation. Eventually Comorre was defeated and
+slain by Judwal. In legend St Tryphine was decapitated and
+miraculously restored to life by Gildas. Alain Bouchard (<i>Grandes
+croniques</i>, Nantes, 1531) asserts that Comorre had already put
+several wives to death before he married Tryphine. In the
+<i>Légendes bretonnes</i> of the count d&rsquo;Amezeuil the church legend
+becomes a charming fairy tale.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also E.A. Vizetclly, <i>Bluebeard</i> (1902); E. Sidney Hartland,
+&ldquo;The Forbidden Chamber,&rdquo; in <i>Folklore</i>, vol. iii. (1885); and the
+editions of the <i>Contes</i> of Charles Perrault (<i>q.v.</i>). Cf. A. France,
+<i>Les Sept Femmes de Barbe Bleue</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLUE-BOOK,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> the general name given to the reports and
+other documents printed by order of the parliament of the
+United Kingdom, so called from their being usually covered
+with blue paper, though some are bound in drab and others have
+white covers. The printing of its proceedings was first adopted
+by the House of Commons in 1681, and in 1836 was commenced
+the practice of selling parliamentary papers to the public. All
+notices of questions, resolutions, votes and proceedings in both
+Houses of Parliament are issued each day during the session;
+other publications include the various papers issued by the
+different government departments, the reports of committees
+and commissions of inquiry, public bills, as well as returns,
+correspondence, &amp;c., specially ordered to be printed by either
+house. The papers of each session are so arranged as to admit
+of being bound up in regular order, and are well indexed. The
+terms upon which blue-books, single papers, &amp;c., are issued
+to the general public are one halfpenny per sheet of four pages,
+but for an annual subscription of £20 all the parliamentary
+publications of the year may be obtained; but subscriptions can
+be arranged so that almost any particular class of publication
+can be obtained&mdash;for example, the daily votes and proceedings
+can be obtained for an annual subscription of £3, the House
+of Lords papers for £10, or the House of Commons papers for
+£15. Any publication can also be purchased separately.</p>
+
+<p>Most foreign countries have a distinctive colour for the binding
+of their official publications. That of the United Slates varies,
+but foreign diplomatic correspondence is bound in red. The
+United States government publications are not only on sale (as a
+rule) but are widely supplied gratis, with the result that important
+publications soon get out of print, and it is difficult to obtain access
+to many valuable reports or other information, except at a
+public library. German official publications are bound in white;
+French, in yellow; Austrian, in red; Portuguese, in white; Italian,
+in green; Spanish, in red; Mexican, in green; Japanese, in grey;
+Chinese, in yellow.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLUESTOCKING,<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> a derisive name for a literary woman.
+The term originated in or about 1750, when Mrs Elizabeth
+Montagu (<i>q.v.</i>) made a determined effort to introduce into
+society a healthier and more intellectual tone, by holding
+assemblies at which literary conversation and discussions were
+to take the place of cards and gossip. Most of those attending
+were conspicuous by the plainness of their dress, and a Mr
+Benjamin Stillingfleet specially caused comment by always
+wearing blue or worsted stockings instead of the usual black
+silk. It was in special reference to him that Mrs Montagu&rsquo;s
+friends were called the Bluestocking Society or Club, and the
+women frequenting her house in Hill Street came to be known
+as the &ldquo;Bluestocking Ladies&rdquo; or simply &ldquo;bluestockings.&rdquo; As
+an alternative explanation, the origin of the name is attributed
+to Mrs Montagu&rsquo;s deliberate adoption of blue stockings (in
+which fashion she was followed by all her women friends) as
+the badge of the society she wished to form. She is said to have
+obtained the idea from Paris, where in the 17th century there
+was a revival of a social reunion in 1590 on the lines of that
+formed in 1400 at Venice, the ladies and men of which wore
+blue stockings. The term had been applied in England as early
+as 1653 to the Little Parliament, in allusion to the puritanically
+plain and coarse dress of the members.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLUFF<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> (a word of uncertain origin; possibly connected with
+an obsolete Dutch word, <i>blaf</i>, broad), an adjective used of a
+ship, meaning broad and nearly vertical in the bows; similarly,
+of a cliff or shore, presenting a bold and nearly perpendicular
+front; of a person, good-natured and frank, with a rough or
+abrupt manner. Another word &ldquo;bluff,&rdquo; perhaps connected
+with German <i>verblüffen</i>, to baffle, meant originally a horse&rsquo;s
+blinker, the corresponding verb meaning to blindfold: it survives
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page92" id="page92"></a>92</span>
+as a term in such games as poker, where &ldquo;to bluff&rdquo; means
+to bet heavily on a hand so as to make an opponent believe it
+to be stronger than it is; hence such phrases as &ldquo;the game of
+bluff,&rdquo; &ldquo;a policy of bluff.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLUM, ROBERT FREDERICK<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (1857-1903), American artist,
+was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 9th of July 1857. He was
+employed for a time in a lithographic shop, and studied at the
+McMicken Art School of Design in Cincinnati, and at the Pennsylvania
+Academy of Fine Arts in Philadelphia, but he was
+practically self-taught, and early showed great and original
+talent. He settled in New York in 1879, and his first published
+sketches&mdash;of Japanese jugglers&mdash;appeared in <i>St Nicholas</i>. His
+most important work is a large frieze in the Mendelssohn Music
+Hall, New York, &ldquo;Music and the Dance&rdquo; (1895). His pen-and-ink
+work for the Century magazine attracted wide attention, as
+did his illustrations for Sir Edwin Arnold&rsquo;s <i>Japonica</i>. In the
+country and art of Japan he had been interested for many years.
+&ldquo;A Daughter of Japan,&rdquo; drawn by Blum and W.J. Baer, was
+the cover of <i>Scribner&rsquo;s Magazine</i> for May 1893, and was one of
+the earliest pieces of colour-printing for an American magazine.
+In <i>Scribner&rsquo;s</i> for 1893 appeared also his &ldquo;Artist&rsquo;s Letters from
+Japan.&rdquo; He was an admirer of Fortuny, whose methods somewhat
+influenced his work. Blum&rsquo;s Venetian pictures, such as
+&ldquo;A Bright Day at Venice&rdquo; (1882), had lively charm and
+beauty. He died on the 8th of June 1903 in New York City.
+He was a member of the National Academy of Design, being
+elected after his exhibition in 1892 of &ldquo;The Ameya&rdquo;; and
+was president of the Painters in Pastel. Although an excellent
+draughtsman and etcher, it was as a colourist that he chiefly
+excelled.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (1752-1840), German
+physiologist and anthropologist, was born at Gotha on the 11th
+of May 1752. After studying medicine at Jena, he graduated
+doctor at Göttingen in 1775, and was appointed extraordinary
+professor of medicine in 1776 and ordinary professor in 1778.
+He died at Göttingen on the 22nd of January 1840. He was
+the author of <i>Institutiones Physiologicae</i> (1787), and of a <i>Handbuch
+der vergleichenden Anatomie</i> (1804), both of which were
+very popular and went through many editions, but he is best
+known for his work in connexion with anthropology, of which
+science he has been justly called the founder. He was the first
+to show the value of comparative anatomy in the study of man&rsquo;s
+history, and his craniometrical researches justified his division
+of the human race into several great varieties or families, of
+which he enumerated five&mdash;the Caucasian or white race, the
+Mongolian or yellow, the Malayan or brown race, the Negro or
+black race, and the American or red race. This classification has
+been very generally received, and most later schemes have been
+modifications of it. His most important anthropological work
+was his description of sixty human crania published originally
+in <i>fasciculi</i> under the title <i>Collectionis suae craniorum diversarum
+gentium illustratae decades</i> (Göttingen, 1790-1828).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLUMENTHAL, LEONHARD,<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count von</span> (1810-1900),
+Prussian field marshal, son of Captain Ludwig von Blumenthal
+(killed in 1813 at the battle of Dennewitz), was born at Schwedt-on-Oder
+on the 30th of July 1810. Educated at the military
+schools of Culm and Berlin, he entered the Guards as 2nd lieutenant
+in 1827. After serving in the Rhine provinces, he joined
+the topographical division of the general staff in 1846. As
+lieutenant of the 31st foot he took part in 1848 in the suppression
+of the Berlin riots, and in 1849 was promoted captain on the
+general staff. The same year he served on the staff of General
+von Bonin in the Schleswig-Holstein campaign, and so distinguished
+himself, particularly at Fredericia, that he was appointed
+chief of the staff of the Schleswig-Holstein army. In 1850 he
+was general staff officer of the mobile division under von Tietzen
+in Hesse-Cassel. He was sent on a mission to England in that
+year (4th class of Red Eagle), and on several subsequent occasions.
+Having attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, he was
+appointed personal adjutant to Prince Frederick Charles in 1859.
+In 1860 he became colonel of the 31st, and later of the 71st,
+regiment. He was chief of the staff of the III. army corps when,
+on the outbreak of the Danish War of 1864, he was nominated
+chief of the general staff of the army against Denmark, and
+displayed so much ability, particularly at Düppel and the
+passage to Alsen island, that he was promoted major-general
+and given the order <i>pour le mérite</i>. In the war of 1866 Blumenthal
+occupied the post of chief of the general staff to the crown
+prince of Prussia, commanding the 2nd army. It was upon
+this army that the brunt of the fighting fell, and at Königgrätz
+it decided the fortunes of the day. Blumenthal&rsquo;s own part in
+these battles and in the campaign generally was most conspicuous.
+On the field of Königgrätz the crown prince said to
+his chief of staff, &ldquo;I know to whom I owe the conduct of my
+army,&rdquo; and Blumenthal soon received promotion to lieutenant-general
+and the oak-leaf of the order <i>pour le mérite</i>. He was also
+made a knight of the Hohenzollern Order. From 1866 to 1870
+he commanded the 14th division at Düsseldorf. In the Franco-German
+War of 1870-71 he was chief of staff of the 3rd army
+under the crown prince. Blumenthal&rsquo;s soldierly qualities and
+talent were never more conspicuous than in the critical days
+preceding the battle of Sedan, and his services in the war have
+been considered as scarcely less valuable and important than
+those of Moltke himself. In 1871 Blumenthal represented
+Germany at the British manoeuvres at Chobham, and was given
+the command of the IV. army corps at Magdeburg. In 1873 he
+became a general of infantry, and ten years later he was made a
+count. In 1888 he was made a general field marshal, after which
+he was in command of the 4th and 3rd army inspections. He
+retired in 1896, and died at Quellendorf near Köthen on the 21st
+of December 1900.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Blumenthal&rsquo;s diary of 1866 and 1870-1871 has been edited by
+his son, Count Albrecht von Blumenthal (<i>Tagebuch des G.F.M. von
+Blumenthal</i>), 1902; an English translation (<i>Journals of Count von
+Blumenthal</i>) was published in 1903.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLUNDERBUSS<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (a corruption of the Dutch <i>donder</i>, thunder,
+and the Dutch <i>bus</i>; cf. Ger. <i>Büchse</i>, a box or tube, hence a
+thunder-box or gun), an obsolete muzzle-loading firearm with
+a bell-shaped muzzle. Its calibre was large so that it could
+contain many balls or slugs, and it was intended to be fired at
+a short range, so that some of the charge was sure to take effect.
+The word is also used by analogy to describe a blundering and
+random person or talker.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLUNT, JOHN HENRY<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (1823-1884), English divine, was born
+at Chelsea in 1823, and before going to the university of Durham
+in 1850 was for some years engaged in business as a manufacturing
+chemist. He was ordained in 1852 and took his M.A. degree
+in 1855, publishing in the same year a work on <i>The Atonement</i>.
+He held in succession several preferments, among them the
+vicarage of Kennington near Oxford (1868), which he vacated
+in 1873 for the crown living of Beverston in Gloucestershire.
+He had already gained some reputation as an industrious
+theologian, and had published among other works an annotated
+edition of the Prayer Book (1867), a <i>History of the English
+Reformation</i> (1868), and a <i>Book of Church Law</i> (1872), as well as
+a useful <i>Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology</i> (1870).
+The continuation of these labours was seen in a <i>Dictionary of
+Sects and Heresies</i> (1874), an <i>Annotated Bible</i> (3 vols., 1878-1879),
+and a <i>Cyclopaedia of Religion</i> (1884), and received recognition
+in the shape of the D.D. degree bestowed on him in 1882. He
+died in London on the 11th of April 1884.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLUNT, JOHN JAMES<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (1794-1855), English divine, was born
+at Newcastle-under-Lyme in Staffordshire, and educated at
+St John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, where he took his degree as
+fifteenth wrangler and obtained a fellowship (1816). He was
+appointed a Wort&rsquo;s travelling bachelor 1818, and spent some
+time in Italy and Sicily, afterwards publishing an account of his
+journey. He proceeded M.A. in 1819, B.D. 1826, and was
+Hulsean Lecturer in 1831-1832 while holding a curacy in Shropshire.
+In 1834 he became rector of Great Oakley in Essex, and
+in 1839 was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity at
+Cambridge. In 1854 he declined the see of Salisbury, and he
+died on the 18th of June 1855. His chief book was <i>Undesigned
+Coincidences in the Writings both of the Old and New Testaments</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id="page93"></a>93</span>
+(1833; fuller edition, 1847). Some of his writings, among them
+the <i>History of the Christian Church during the First Three Centuries</i>
+and the lectures <i>On the Right Use of the Early Fathers</i>, were
+published posthumously.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A short memoir of him appeared in 1856 from the hand of William
+Selwyn, his successor in the divinity professorship.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (1840-&emsp;&emsp;), English poet and
+publicist, was born on the 17th of August 1840 at Petworth
+House, Sussex, the son of Francis Scawen Blunt, who served in
+the Peninsular War and was wounded at Corunna. He was
+educated at Stonyhurst and Oscott, and entered the diplomatic
+service in 1858, serving successively at Athens, Madrid, Paris and
+Lisbon. In 1867 he was sent to South America, and on his
+return to England retired from the service on his marriage with
+Lady Anne Noel, daughter of the earl of Lovelace and a grand-daughter
+of the poet Byron. In 1872 he succeeded, by the death
+of his elder brother, to the estate of Crabbet Park, Sussex, where
+he established a famous stud for the breeding of Arab horses.
+Mr and Lady Anne Blunt travelled repeatedly in northern Africa,
+Asia Minor and Arabia, two of their expeditions being described
+in Lady Anne&rsquo;s <i>Bedouins of the Euphrates</i> (2 vols., 1879) and
+<i>A Pilgrimage to Nejd</i> (2 vols., 1881). Mr Blunt became known
+as an ardent sympathizer with Mahommedan aspirations, and in his
+<i>Future of Islam</i> (1888) he directed attention to the forces
+which afterwards produced the movements of Pan-Islamism and
+Mahdism. He was a violent opponent of the English policy in
+the Sudan, and in <i>The Wind and the Whirlwind</i> (in verse, 1883)
+prophesied its downfall. He supported the national party in
+Egypt, and took a prominent part in the defence of Arabi Pasha.
+<i>Ideas about India</i> (1885) was the result of two visits to that
+country, the second in 1883-1884. In 1885 and 1886 he stood
+unsuccessfully for parliament as a Home Ruler; and in 1887 he
+was arrested in Ireland while presiding over a political meeting in
+connexion with the agitation on Lord Clanricarde&rsquo;s estate, and
+was imprisoned for two months in Kilmainham. His best-known volume
+of verse, <i>Love Sonnets of Proteus</i> (1880), is a revelation of
+his real merits as an emotional poet. <i>The Poetry of Wilfrid Blunt</i>
+(1888), selected and edited by W.E. Henley and Mr George Wyndham,
+includes these sonnets, together with &ldquo;Worth Forest, a Pastoral,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Griselda&rdquo; (described as a &ldquo;society novel in rhymed verse&rdquo;),
+translations from the Arabic, and poems which had appeared
+in other volumes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLUNTSCHLI, JOHANN KASPAR<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> (1808-1881), Swiss jurist and
+politician, was born at Zürich on the 7th of March 1808, the
+son of a soap and candle manufacturer. From school he passed
+into the <i>Politische Institut</i> (a seminary of law and political
+science) in his native town, and proceeding thence to the universities
+of Berlin and Bonn, took the degree of <i>doctor juris</i> in the
+latter in 1829. Returning to Zurich in 1830, he threw himself
+with ardour into the political strife which was at the time
+unsettling all the cantons of the Confederation, and in this year
+published <i>Über die Verfassung der Stadt Zürich</i> (On the
+Constitution of the City of Zurich). This was followed by <i>Das Volk
+und der Souverän</i> (1830), a work in which, while pleading for
+constitutional government, he showed his bitter repugnance of
+the growing Swiss radicalism. Elected in 1837 a member of the
+Grosser Rath (Great Council), he became the champion of the
+moderate conservative party. Fascinated by the metaphysical
+views of the philosopher Friedrich Rohmer (1814-1856), a man who
+attracted little other attention, he endeavoured in <i>Psychologische
+Studien über Staat und Kirche</i> (1844) to apply them to
+political science generally, and in particular as a panacea for the
+constitutional troubles of Switzerland. Bluntschli, shortly before
+his death, remarked, &ldquo;I have gained renown as a jurist, but
+my greatest desert is to have comprehended Rohmer.&rdquo; This
+philosophical essay, however, coupled with his uncompromising
+attitude towards both radicalism and ultramontanism, brought
+him many enemies, and rendered his continuance in the council,
+of which he had been elected president, impossible. He resigned
+his seat, and on the overthrow of the Sonderbund in 1847,
+perceiving that all hope of power for his party was lost, took
+leave of Switzerland with the pamphlet <i>Stimme eines Schweizers
+über die Bundesreform</i> (1847), and settled at Munich, where he
+became professor of constitutional law in 1848.</p>
+
+<p>At Munich he devoted himself with energy to the special work
+of his chair, and, resisting the temptation to identify himself
+with politics, published <i>Allgemeines Staatsrecht</i> (1851-1852);
+<i>Lehre vom modernen Staat</i> (1875-1876); and, in conjunction with
+Karl Ludwig Theodor Brater (1819-1869), <i>Deutsches Staats-wörterbuch</i>
+(II vols., 1857-1870: abridged by Edgar Loening in
+3 vols., 1869-1875). Meanwhile he had assiduously worked at his
+code for the canton of Zürich, <i>Privatrechtliches Gesetzbuch für den
+Kanton Zürich</i> (4 vols., 1854-1856), a work which was much
+praised at the time, and which, particularly the section devoted
+to contracts, served as a model for codes both in Switzerland and
+other countries. In 1861 Bluntschli received a call to Heidelberg
+as professor of constitutional law (Staatsrecht), where he again
+entered the political arena, endeavouring in his <i>Geschichte des
+allgemeinen Staatsrechts und der Politik</i> (1864) &ldquo;to stimulate,&rdquo;
+as he said, &ldquo;the political consciousness of the German people, to
+cleanse it of prejudices and to further it intellectually.&rdquo; In his
+new home, Baden, he devoted his energies and political influence,
+during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, towards keeping the
+country neutral. From this time Bluntschli became active in
+the field of international law, and his fame as a jurist belongs
+rather to this province than to that of constitutional law. His
+<i>Das moderne Kriegsrecht</i> (1866); <i>Das moderns Völkerrecht</i>
+(1868), and <i>Das Beuterecht im Krieg</i> (1878) are likely to remain
+invaluable text-books in this branch of the science of jurisprudence.
+He also wrote a pamphlet on the &ldquo;Alabama&rdquo; case.</p>
+
+<p>Bluntschli was one of the founders, at Ghent in 1873, of the
+Institute of International Law, and was the representative of the
+German emperor at the conference on the international laws of
+war at Brussels. During the latter years of his life he took a
+lively interest in the <i>Protestantenverein</i>, a society formed to
+combat reactionary and ultramontane views of theology. He
+died suddenly at Karlsruhe on the 21st of October 1881. His
+library was acquired by Johns Hopkins University at Baltimore,
+U.S.A.</p>
+
+<p>Among his works, other than those before mentioned, may be
+cited <i>Deutsches Privatrecht</i> (1853-1854); <i>Deutsche Staatslehre
+für Gebildete</i> (1874); and <i>Deutsche Staatslehre und die heutige
+Staatenwelt</i> (1880).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For notices of Bluntschli&rsquo;s life and works see his interesting
+autobiography, <i>Denkwurdiges aus meinem Leben</i> (1884); von
+Holtzendorff, <i>Bluntschli und seine Verdienste um die Staatswissenschaften</i>
+(1882); Brockhaus, <i>Konversations-Lexicon</i> (1901); and a
+biography by Meyer von Kronau, in <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BLYTH,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> a market town and seaport of Northumberland,
+England, in the parliamentary borough of Morpeth, 9 m. E.S.E.
+of that town, at the mouth of the river Blyth, on a branch of the
+North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5472.
+This is the port for a considerable coal-mining district, and its
+harbour, on the south side of the river, is provided with
+mechanical appliances for shipping coal. There are five dry
+docks, and upwards of 1 ½ m. of quayage. Timber is largely
+imported. Some shipbuilding and the manufacture of rope,
+sails and ship-fittings are carried on, and the fisheries are
+valuable. Blyth is also in considerable favour as a watering-place;
+there are a pleasant park, a pier, protecting the harbour,
+about 1 m. in length, and a sandy beach affording sea-bathing.
+The river Blyth rises near the village of Kirkheaton, and has an
+easterly course of about 25 m. through a deep, well-wooded and
+picturesque valley.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">B&rsquo;NAI B&rsquo;RITH<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Sons of the Covenant</span>), <span class="bold">INDEPENDENT
+ORDER OF,</span> a Jewish fraternal society. It was founded at New
+York in 1843 by a number of German Jews, headed by Henry
+Jones, and is the oldest as well as the largest of the Jewish
+fraternal organizations. Its membership in 1908 was 35,870,
+its 481 lodges and 10 grand lodges being distributed over the
+United States, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Rumania, Egypt
+and Palestine. Its objects are to promote a high morality among
+Jews, regardless of differences as to dogma and ceremonial
+customs, and especially to inculcate the supreme virtues of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page94" id="page94"></a>94</span>
+charity and brotherly love. Political and religious discussions
+were from the first excluded from the debates of the order. In
+1851 the first grand lodge was established at New York; in 1856,
+the number of district lodges having increased, the supreme
+authority was vested in a central body consisting of one member
+from each lodge; and by the present constitution, adopted in
+1868, this authority is vested in a president elected for five years,
+an executive committee and court of appeals (elected as before).
+The first lodge in Germany was instituted at Berlin in 1883. A
+large number of charitable and other public institutions have
+been established in the United States and elsewhere by the order,
+of which may be mentioned the large orphan asylum in Cleveland,
+the home for the aged and infirm at Yonkers, N.Y., the National
+Jewish hospital for consumptives at Denver, and the Maimonides
+library in New York City. The B&rsquo;nai B&rsquo;rith society has also
+co-operated largely with other Jewish philanthropic organizations
+in succouring distressed Israelites throughout the world.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Jewish Encyclopaedia</i> (1902), <i>s.v.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOA,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> a name formerly applied to all large serpents which,
+devoid of poison fangs, kill their prey by constriction; but now
+confined to that subfamily of the <i>Boidae</i> which are devoid of
+teeth in the praemaxilla and are without supraorbital bones.
+The others are known as pythons (<i>q.v.</i>). The true boas comprise
+some forty species; most of them are American, but the genus
+<i>Eryx</i> inhabits North Africa, Greece and south-western Asia;
+the genus <i>Enygrus</i> ranges from New Guinea to the Fiji; <i>Casarea
+dussumieri</i> is restricted to Round Island, near Mauritius; and
+two species of <i>Boa</i> and one of <i>Corallus</i> represent this subfamily
+in Madagascar, while all the other boas live in America, chiefly
+in tropical parts. All <i>Boidae</i> possess vestiges of pelvis and hind
+limbs, appearing externally as claw-like spurs on each side of the
+vent, but they are so small that they are practically without
+function in climbing. The usually short tail is prehensile.</p>
+
+<p>One of the commonest species of the genus <i>Boa</i> is the <i>Boa
+constrictor</i>, which has a wide range from tropical Mexico to
+Brazil. The head is covered with small scales, only one of the
+preoculars being enlarged. The general colour is a delicate pale
+brown, with about a dozen and a half darker cross-bars, which are
+often connected by a still darker dorso-lateral streak, enclosing
+large oval spots. On each side is a series of large dark brown
+spots with light centres. On the tail the markings become
+bolder, brick red with black and yellow. The under parts are
+yellowish with black dots. This species rarely reaches a length
+of more than 10 ft. It climbs well, prefers open forest in the
+neighbourhood of water, is often found in plantations where it
+retires into a hole in the ground, and lives chiefly on birds and
+small mammals. Like most true boas, it is of a very gentle
+disposition and easily domesticates itself in the palm or reed
+thatched huts of the natives, where it hunts the rats during the
+night.</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;boa&rdquo; is applied by analogy to a long article of
+women&rsquo;s dress wound round the neck.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOABDIL<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> (a corruption of the name Abu Abdullah), the last
+Moorish king of Granada, called <i>el chico</i>, the little, and also <i>el
+zogoybi</i>, the unfortunate. A son of Muley Abu&rsquo;l Hassan, king of
+Granada, he was proclaimed king in 1482 in place of his father,
+who was driven from the land. Boabdil soon after sought to
+gain prestige by invading Castile. He was taken prisoner at
+Lucena in 1483, and only obtained his freedom by consenting to
+hold Granada as a tributary kingdom under Ferdinand and
+Isabella, king and queen of Castile and Aragon. The next few
+years were consumed in struggles with his father and his
+uncle Abdullah ez Zagal. In 1491 Boabdil was summoned by
+Ferdinand and Isabella to surrender the city of Granada, and
+on his refusal it was besieged by the Castilians. Eventually, in
+January 1492, Granada was surrendered, and the king spent
+some time on the lands which he was allowed to hold in Andalusia.
+Subsequently he crossed to Africa, and is said to have been
+killed in battle fighting for his kinsman, the ruler of Fez. The
+spot from which Boabdil looked for the last time on Granada is
+still shown, and is known as &ldquo;the last sigh of the Moor&rdquo; (<i>el
+ultimo suspire del Moro</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.A. Conde, <i>Dominácion de los Arabes en España</i> (Paris,
+1840), translated into English by Mrs J. Foster (London, 1854-1855);
+Washington Irving, <i>The Alhambra</i> (New York, ed. 1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOADICEA,<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> strictly <span class="sc">Boudicca</span>, a British queen in the time
+of the emperor Nero. Her husband Prasutagus ruled the Ic&#277;ni
+(in what is now Norfolk) as an autonomous prince under Roman
+suzerainty. On his death (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 61) without male heir, his
+dominions were annexed, and the annexation was carried out
+brutally. He had by his will divided his private wealth between
+his two daughters and Nero, trusting thereby to win imperial
+favour for his family. Instead, his wife was scourged (doubtless
+for resisting the annexation), his daughters outraged, his chief
+tribesmen plundered. The proud, fierce queen and her people
+rose, and not alone. With them rose half Britain, enraged, for
+other causes, at Roman rule. Roman taxation and conscription
+lay heavy on the province; in addition, the Roman government
+had just revoked financial concessions made a few years earlier,
+and L. Annaeus Seneca, who combined the parts of a moralist
+and a money-lender, had abruptly recalled large loans made
+from his private wealth to British chiefs. A favourable chance
+for revolt was provided by the absence of the governor-general,
+Suetonius Paulinus, and most of his troops in North Wales and
+Anglesey. All south-east Britain joined the movement. Paulinus
+rushed back without waiting for his troops, but he could do nothing
+alone. The Britons burnt the Roman municipalities of Verulam
+and Colchester, the mart of London, and several military posts,
+massacred &ldquo;over 70,000&rdquo; Romans and Britons friendly to Rome,
+and almost annihilated the Ninth Legion marching from Lincoln
+to the rescue. At last Paulinus, who seems to have rejoined his
+army, met the Britons in the field. The site of the battle is
+unknown. One writer has put it at Chester; others at London,
+where King&rsquo;s Cross had once a narrow escape of being christened
+Boadicea&rsquo;s Cross, and actually for many years bore the name of
+Battle Bridge, in supposed reference to this battle. Probably,
+however, it was on Watling Street, between London and Chester.
+In a desperate soldiers&rsquo; battle Rome regained the province.
+Boadicea took poison; thousands of Britons fell in the fight or
+were hunted down in the ensuing guerrilla. Finally, Rome
+adopted a kindlier policy, and Britain became quiet. But the
+scantiness of Romano-British remains in Norfolk may be due to
+the severity with which the Ic&#277;ni were crushed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, xiv.; <i>Agric</i>. xv.; Dio lxii. The name
+Boudicca seems to mean in Celtic much the same as Victoria.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. J. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOAR<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>b&#257;r</i>; the word is found only in W. Ger.
+languages, cf. Dutch <i>beer</i>, Ger. <i>Eber</i>), the name given to the un-castrated
+male of the domestic pig (<i>q.v.</i>), and to some wild species
+of the family <i>Suidae</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Swine</a></span>). The European wild boar (<i>Sus
+scrofa</i>) is distributed over Europe, northern Africa, and central
+and northern Asia. It has long been extinct in the British
+Isles, where it once abounded, but traces have been found of its
+survival in Chartley Forest, Staffordshire, in an entry of 1683
+in an account-book of the steward of the manor, and it possibly
+remained till much later in the more remote parts of Scotland
+and Ireland (J.E. Harting, <i>Extinct British Animals</i>, 1880).
+The wild boar is still found in Europe, in marshy woodland
+districts where there is plenty of cover, and it is fairly plentiful
+in Spain, Austria, Russia and Germany, particularly in the
+Black Forest.</p>
+
+<p>From the earliest times, owing to its great strength, speed,
+and ferocity when at bay, the boar has been one of the favourite
+beasts of the chase. Under the old forest laws of England it was
+one of the &ldquo;beasts of the forest,&rdquo; and, as such, under the Norman
+kings the unprivileged killing of it was punishable by death or
+the loss of a member. It was hunted in England and in Europe
+on foot and on horseback with dogs, while the weapon of attack
+was always the spear. In Europe the wild boar is still hunted
+with dogs, but the spear, except when used in emergencies and
+for giving the <i>coup de grâce</i>, has been given up for the gun. It
+is also shot in great forest drives in Austria, Germany and
+Russia. The Indian wild boar (<i>Sus cristatus</i>) is slightly taller
+than <i>Sus scrofa</i>, standing some 30 to 40 in. at the shoulder. It
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>95</span>
+is found throughout India, Ceylon and Burma. Here the horse
+and spear are still used, and the sport is one of the most popular
+in India. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pig-sticking</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The boar is one of the four heraldic beasts of venery, and was
+the cognizance of Richard III., king of England. As an article
+of food the boar&rsquo;s head was long considered a special delicacy,
+and its serving was attended with much ceremonial. At Queen&rsquo;s
+College, Oxford, the dish is still brought on Christmas day in
+procession to the high-table, accompanied by the singing of a
+carol.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOARD<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>bord</i>), a plank or long narrow piece of
+timber. The word comes into various compounds to describe
+boards used for special purposes, or objects like boards (drawing-board,
+ironing-board, sounding-board, chess-board, cardboard,
+back-board, notice-board, scoring-board). The phrase &ldquo;to
+keep one&rsquo;s name on the boards,&rdquo; at Cambridge University,
+signifies to remain a member of a college; at Oxford it is &ldquo;on
+the books.&rdquo; In bookbinding, pasteboard covers are called
+boards. Board was early used of a table, hence such phrases
+as &ldquo;bed and board,&rdquo; &ldquo;board and lodging&rdquo;; or of a gaming-table,
+as in the phrase &ldquo;to sweep the board,&rdquo; meaning to pocket
+all the stakes, hence, figuratively, to carry all before one. The
+same meaning leads to &ldquo;Board of Trade,&rdquo; &ldquo;Local Government
+Board,&rdquo; &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>From the meaning of border or side, and especially ship&rsquo;s
+side, comes &ldquo;sea-board,&rdquo; meaning sea-coast, and the phrases
+&ldquo;aboard&rdquo; (Fr. <i>abord</i>), &ldquo;over-board,&rdquo; &ldquo;by the board&rdquo;;
+similarly &ldquo;weather-board,&rdquo; the side of a ship which is to windward;
+&ldquo;larboard and starboard&rdquo; (the former of uncertain
+origin, Mid. Eng. <i>laddeboard</i> or <i>latheboard</i>; the latter meaning
+&ldquo;steering side,&rdquo; O. Eng. <i>steorbord</i>, the rudder of early ships
+working over the steering side), signifying (to one standing at
+the stern and looking forward) the left and right sides of the
+ship respectively.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOARDING-HOUSE,<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> a private house in which the proprietor
+provides board and lodging for paying guests. The position
+of a guest in a boarding-house differs in English law, to some
+extent, on the one hand from that of a lodger in the ordinary
+sense of the term, and on the other from that of a guest in an
+inn. Unlike the lodger, he frequently has not the exclusive
+occupation of particular rooms. Unlike the guest in an inn,
+his landlord has no lien upon his property for rent or any other
+debt due in respect of his board (<i>Thompson v. Lacy</i>, 1820, 3 B.
+and Ald. 283). The landlord is under an obligation to take
+reasonable care for the safety of property brought by a guest
+into his house, and is liable for damages in case of breach of this
+obligation (<i>Scarborough v. Cosgrove</i>, 1905, 2 K.B. 803). Again,
+unlike the innkeeper, a boarding-house keeper does not hold
+himself out as ready to receive all travellers for whom he has
+accommodation, for which they are ready to pay, and of course
+he is entitled to get rid of any guest on giving reasonable notice
+(see <i>Lamond v. Richard</i>, 1897, I Q.B. 541, 548). What is
+reasonable notice depends on the terms of the contract; and,
+subject thereto, the course of payment of rent is a material
+circumstance (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Landlord and Tenant</a></span>). Apparently the
+same implied warranty of fitness for habitation at the commencement
+of the tenancy which exists in the case of furnished lodgings
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lodger and Lodgings</a></span>) exists also in the case of
+boarding-houses; and the guest in a boarding-house, like a lodger,
+is entitled to all the usual and necessary conveniences of a
+dwelling-house.</p>
+
+<p>The law of the United States is similar to English law.</p>
+
+<p>Under the French Code Civil, claims for subsistence furnished
+to a debtor and his family during the last year of his life by
+boarding-house keepers (<i>maîtres de pension</i>) are privileged over
+the generality of moveables, the privilege being exerciseable
+after legal expenses, funeral expenses, the expenses of the last
+illness, and the wages of servants for the year elapsed and what
+is due for the current year (art. 2101 (5)). Keepers of taverns
+(<i>aubergistes</i>) and hotels (<i>hôteliers</i>) are responsible for the goods
+of their guests&mdash;the committal of which to their custody is
+regarded as a deposit of necessity (<i>dépôt nécessaire</i>). They are
+liable for the loss of such goods by theft, whether by servants
+or strangers, but not where the loss is due to <i>force majeure</i> (arts.
+1952-1954). Their liability for money and bearer securities not
+actually deposited is limited to 1000 francs (law of 18th of April
+1889). These provisions are reproduced in substance in the
+Civil Codes of Quebec (arts. 1814, 1815, 1994, 2006) and of
+St Lucia (art. 1889). In Quebec, boarding-house keepers have
+a lien on the goods of their guests for the value or price of any
+food or accommodation furnished to them, and have also a right
+to sell their baggage and other property, if the amount remains
+unpaid for three months, under conditions similar to those
+imposed on innkeepers in England (art. 1816 A; and see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inns
+and Innkeepers</a></span>); also in the Civil Code of St Lucia (arts.
+1578, 1714, 1715)</p>
+<div class="author">(A. W. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOARDING-OUT SYSTEM,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> in the English poor law, the
+boarding-out of orphan or deserted children with suitable
+foster-parents. The practice was first authorized in 1868, though
+for many years previously it had been carried out by some
+boards of guardians on their own initiative. Boarding-out is
+governed by two orders of the Local Government Board, issued
+in 1889. The first permits guardians to board-out children within
+their own union, except in the metropolis. The second governs
+the boarding-out of children in localities outside the union.
+The sum payable to the foster-parents is not to exceed 4s. per
+week for each child. The system has been much discussed by
+authorities on the administration of the poor law. It has been
+objected that few working-men with an average-sized family
+can afford to devote such an amount for the maintenance of
+each child, and that, therefore, boarded-out children are better
+off than the children of the independent (Fawcett, <i>Pauperism</i>).
+Working-class guardians, also, do not favour the system, being
+suspicious as to the disinterestedness of the foster-parents.
+On the other hand, it is argued that from the economic and
+educational point of view much better results are obtained by
+boarding-out children; they are given a natural life, and when
+they grow up they are without effort merged in the general
+population (Mackay, <i>Hist. Eng. Poor Law</i>). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poor
+Law</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;boarding-out&rdquo; of lunatics is, in Scotland, a regular part
+of the lunacy administration. It has also been successfully
+adopted in Belgium. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Insanity</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOARDMAN, GEORGE DANA<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (1801-1831), American
+Baptist missionary, was born at Livermore, Me., and educated
+at Waterville College and Andover Theological Seminary. In
+1825 he went to India as a missionary, and in 1827 to Burma,
+where his promising work among the Karens was cut short
+by his early death. His widow married another well-known
+Burmese missionary, Adoniram Judson.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">George Dana Boardman</span>, the younger (1828-1903),
+made the voyage from Burma to America alone when six years
+of age. He graduated in 1852 at Brown University, and from
+the Newton Theological Institution in 1855. He held Baptist
+pastorates at Rochester (1856-1864), and at Philadelphia, and
+was president of the American Baptist Missionary Union, 1880-1884.
+At Philadelphia he is said to have taken his congregation
+through every verse of the New Testament in 643 Wednesday
+evening lectures, which occupied nearly eighteen years, and
+afterwards to have begun on the Old Testament in similar
+fashion. Among his published works are <i>Studies in the Model
+Prayer</i> (1879), and <i>Epiphanies of the Risen Lord</i> (1879).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOASE, HENRY SAMUEL<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> (1799-1883), English geologist,
+the eldest son of Henry Boase (1763-1827), banker, of Madron,
+Cornwall, was born in London on the 2nd of September 1799.
+Educated partly at Tiverton grammar-school, and partly at
+Dublin, where he studied chemistry, he afterwards proceeded
+to Edinburgh and took the degree of M.D. in 1821. He then
+settled for some years as a medical practitioner at Penzance;
+there geology engaged his particular attention, and he became
+secretary of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. The
+results of his observations were embodied in his <i>Treatise on
+Primary Geology</i> (1834), a work of considerable merit in regard
+to the older crystalline and igneous rocks and the subject of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>96</span>
+mineral veins. In 1837 he removed to London, where he
+remained for about a year, being elected F.R.S. In 1838 he
+became partner in a firm of bleachers at Dundee. He retired
+in 1871, and died on the 5th of May 1883.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOAT<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>bât</i>; the true etymological connexion with
+Dutch and Ger. <i>boot</i>, Fr. <i>bateau</i>, Ital. <i>battello</i> presents great
+difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.), a comparatively
+small open craft for conveyance on water, usually propelled
+by some form of oar or sail.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the word &ldquo;boat&rdquo; is probably to be looked
+for in the A.S. <i>bât</i> = a stem, a stick, a piece of wood. If
+this be so, the term in its inception referred to the material of
+which the primitive vessel was constructed, and in this respect
+may well be contrasted with the word &ldquo;ship,&rdquo; of which the
+primary idea was the <i>process</i> by which the material was fashioned
+and adapted for the use of man.</p>
+
+<p>We may assume that primitive man, in his earliest efforts to
+achieve the feat of conveying himself and his belongings by
+water, succeeded in doing so&mdash;(1) by fastening together a
+quantity of material of sufficient buoyancy to float and carry
+him above the level of the water; (2) by scooping out a fallen
+tree so as to obtain buoyancy enough for the same purpose.
+In these two processes is to be found the genesis of both boat and
+ship, of which, though often used as convertible terms, the
+former is generally restricted to the smaller type of vessel such
+as is dealt with in this article. For the larger type the reader
+is referred to <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ship</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>Great must have been the triumph of the man who first
+discovered that the rushes or the trunks he had managed to tie
+together would, propelled by a stick or a branch (cf. <i>ramus</i> and
+<i>remus</i>) used as pole or paddle, convey him safely across the river
+or lake, which had hitherto been his barrier. But use multiplies
+wants, discovers deficiencies, suggests improvements. Man soon
+found out that he wanted to go faster than the raft would move,
+that the water washed over and up through it, and this need of
+speed, and of dry carrying power, which we find operative
+throughout the history of the boat down to the present day,
+drove him to devise other modes of flotation as well as to try
+to improve his first invention.</p>
+
+<p>The invention of the hollowed trunk, of the &ldquo;dug-out&rdquo;
+(monoxylon), however it came about, whenever and wherever
+it came into comparison with the raft, must have superseded the
+latter for some purposes, though not by any means for all. It
+was superior to the raft in speed, and was, to a certain extent,
+water-tight. On the other hand it was inferior in carrying
+power and stability. But the two types once conceived had
+come to stay, and to them severally, or to attempts to combine
+the useful properties of both, may be traced all the varieties of
+vessel to which the name of boat may be applied.</p>
+
+<p>The development of the raft is admirably illustrated in the
+description, given us by Homer in the Odyssey, of the construction
+by the hero Ulysses of a vessel of the kind. Floating timber
+is cut down and carefully shaped and planed with axe and adze,
+and the timbers are then exactly fitted face to face and compacted
+with trenails and dowels, just as the flat floor of a lump
+or lighter might be fashioned and fitted nowadays. A platform
+is raised upon the floor and a bulwark of osiers contrived to
+keep out the wash of the waves (cf. <i>infra</i>, Malay boats).
+It seems as if the poet, who was intimately acquainted with the
+sea ways of his time, intended to convey the idea of progress in
+construction, as illustrated by the technical skill of his hero,
+and the use of the various tools with which he supplies him.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand the dug-out had its limitations. The
+largest tree that could be thrown and scooped out afforded but
+a narrow space for carrying goods, and presented problems as
+to stability which must have been very difficult to solve. The
+shaping of bow and stern, the bulging out of the sides, the
+flattening of the bottom, the invention of a keel piece, the
+attempt to raise the sides by building up with planks, all led
+on towards the idea of constructing a boat properly so called, or
+perhaps to the invention of the canoe, which in some ways may
+be regarded as the intermediate stage between dug-out and boat.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the raft had undergone improvements such as
+those which Homer indicates. It had arrived at a floor composed
+of timbers squared and shaped. It had risen to a platform, the
+prototype of a deck. It was but a step to build up the sides and
+turn up the ends, and at this point we reach the genesis of ark
+and punt, of sanpan and junk, or, in other words, of all the many
+varieties of flat-bottomed craft.</p>
+
+<p>When once we have reached the point at which the improvements
+in the construction of the raft and dug-out bring them,
+as it were, within sight of each other, we can enter upon the
+history of the development of boats properly so called, which,
+in accordance with the uses and the circumstances that dictated
+their build, may be said to be descended from the raft or the
+dug-out, or from the attempt to combine the respective advantages
+of the two original types.</p>
+
+<p>Uses and circumstances are infinite in variety and have
+produced an infinite variety of boats. But we may safely say
+that in all cases the need to be satisfied, the nature of the material
+available, and the character of the difficulties to be overcome
+have governed the reason and tested the reasonableness of the
+architecture of the craft in use.</p>
+
+<p>It is not proposed in this article to enter at any length into
+the details of the construction of boats, but it is desirable, for
+the sake of clearness, to indicate certain broad distinctions
+in the method of building, which, though they run back into the
+far past, in some form or other survive and are in use at the
+present day.</p>
+
+<p>The tying of trunks together to form a raft is still not unknown
+in the lumber trade of the Danube or of North America, nor was
+it in early days confined to the raft. It extended to many
+boats properly so called, even to many of those built by the
+Vikings of old. It may still be seen in the Madras surf boats,
+and in those constructed out of driftwood by the inhabitants of
+Easter Island in the south Pacific. Virgil, who was an archaeologist,
+represents Charon&rsquo;s boat on the Styx as of this construction,
+and notes the defect, which still survives, in the craft
+of the kind when loaded&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p style="margin-left: 4em;">&ldquo;Gemuit sub pondere cymba</p>
+<p>Sutilis, et multam accepit rimosa paludem!&rdquo;</p>
+<p style="margin-left: 12em;"><i>Aen.</i> vi. 303.</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Next to the raft, and to be counted in direct descent from it,
+comes the whole class of flat-bottomed boats including punts
+and lighters. As soon as the method of constructing a solid
+floor, with trenails and dowels, had been discovered, the method
+of converting it into a water-tight box was pursued, sides were
+attached plank fashion, with strong knees to stiffen them, and
+cross pieces to <i>yoke</i> or <i>key</i> (cf. <span class="grk" title="zugon, klaeis">&#950;&#973;&#947;&#959;&#957; &#954;&#955;&#951;&#943;&#962;</span>) them together.
+These thwarts once fixed naturally suggested seats for those
+that plied the paddle or the oar. The ends of the vessel were
+shaped into bow or stern, either turned up, or with the side
+planking convergent in stem or stern post, or joined together
+fore and aft by bulkheads fitted in, while interstices were made
+water-tight by caulking, and by smearing with bitumen or some
+resinous material.</p>
+
+<p>The evolution of the boat as distinct from the punt, or flat-bottomed
+type, and following the configuration of the dug-out
+in its length and rounded bottom, must have taxed the inventive
+art and skill of constructors much more severely than that of
+the raft. It is possible that the coracle or the canoe may have
+suggested the construction of a framework of sufficient stiffness
+to carry a water-tight wooden skin, such as would successfully
+resist the pressure of wind and water. And in this regard two
+methods were open to the builder, both of which have survived
+to the present day: (1) the construction first of the shell of
+the boat, into which the stiffening ribs and cross ties were
+subsequently fitted; (2) the construction first of a framework
+of requisite size and shape, on to which the outer skin of the
+boat was subsequently attached.</p>
+
+<p>Further, besides the primitive mode of tying the parts together,
+two main types of build must be noticed, in accordance
+with which a boat is said to be either carvel-built or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page97" id="page97"></a>97</span>
+clinker-built. (1) A boat is carvel-built when the planks are
+laid edge to edge so that they present a smooth surface without.
+(2) A boat is clinker-built when each plank is laid on so as to
+overlap the one below it, thus presenting a series of ledges
+running longitudinally.</p>
+
+<p>The former method is said to be of Mediterranean, or perhaps
+of Eastern origin. The latter was probably invented by the
+old Scandinavian builders, and from them handed down through
+the fishing boats of the northern nations to our own time.</p>
+
+<p>The accounts of vessels used by the Egyptians and Phoenicians
+generally refer to larger craft which naturally fall under
+the head of <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ship</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>). The Nile boats, however,
+described by Herodotus (ii. 60), built of acacia wood,
+<span class="sidenote">Ancient boats.</span>
+were no doubt of various sizes, some of them quite
+small, but all following the same type of construction, built up
+brick fashion, the blocks being fastened internally to long poles
+secured by cross pieces, and the interstices caulked with papyrus.
+The ends rose high above the water, and to prevent hogging were
+often attached by a truss running longitudinally over crutches
+from stem to stern.</p>
+
+<p>The Assyrian and Babylonian vessels described by Herodotus
+(i. 194), built up of twigs and boughs, and covered with skins
+smeared with bitumen, were really more like huge coracles
+and hardly deserve the name of boats.</p>
+
+<p>The use of boats by the Greeks and Romans is attested by
+the frequent reference to them in Greek and Latin literature,
+though, as regards such small craft, the details given are
+hardly enough to form the basis of an accurate classification.</p>
+
+<p>We hear of small boats attendant on a fleet (<span class="grk" title="kelaetion">&#954;&#949;&#955;&#942;&#964;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>,
+Thuc. i. 53), and of similar craft employed in piracy (Thuc. iv. 9), and
+in one case of a sculling boat, or pair oar (<span class="grk" title="akation amphaerikon">&#7936;&#954;&#940;&#964;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#7936;&#956;&#966;&#951;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#957;</span>,
+Thuc. iv. 67), which was carted up and down between the town
+of Megara and the sea, being used for the purpose of marauding
+at night. We are also familiar with the passage in the Acts
+(xxvii.) where in the storm they had hard work &ldquo;to come by
+the boat&rdquo;; which same boat the sailors afterwards &ldquo;let down
+into the sea, under colour as though they would have cast anchors
+out of the foreship,&rdquo; and would have escaped to land in her
+themselves, leaving the passengers to drown, if the centurion
+and soldiers acting upon St Paul&rsquo;s advice had not cut off the
+ropes of the boat and let her fall off.</p>
+
+<p>There can be little doubt that boat races were in vogue among
+the Greeks (see Prof. Gardner, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>,
+ii. 91 ff.), and probably formed part of the Panathenaic and
+Isthmian festivals. It is, however, difficult to prove that small
+boats took part in these races, though it is not unlikely that
+they may have done so. The testimony of the coins, such as it
+is, points to galleys, and the descriptive term (<span class="grk" title="neon amilla">&#957;&#949;&#8182;&#957; &#7941;&#956;&#953;&#955;&#955;&#945;</span>)
+leads to the same conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>It is hardly possible now to define the differences which separated
+<span class="grk" title="akatos">&#7940;&#954;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, <span class="grk" title="akation">&#7936;&#954;&#940;&#964;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="kelaes">&#954;&#941;&#955;&#951;&#962;</span>,
+<span class="grk" title="kelaetion">&#954;&#949;&#955;&#942;&#964;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>, or from <span class="grk" title="lembos">&#955;&#941;&#956;&#946;&#959;&#962;</span> or <span class="grk" title="karabos">&#954;&#940;&#961;&#945;&#946;&#959;&#962;</span>.
+They seem all to have been rowing
+boats, probably carvel-built, some with keels (<i>acatii modo
+carinata</i>, Plin. ix. 19), and to have varied in size, some being
+simply sculling boats, and others running up to as many as thirty
+oars.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly in Latin authors we have frequent mention of boats
+accompanying ships of war. Of this there is a well-known
+instance in the account of Caesar&rsquo;s invasion of Britain
+(<i>B.G.</i> iv. 26), when the boats of the fleet, and the pinnaces,
+were filled
+with soldiers and sent to assist the Legionaries who were being
+fiercely attacked as they waded on to the shore. There is also
+an instance in the civil war, which is a prototype of a modern
+attack of torpedo boats upon men of war, when Antonius manned
+the pinnaces of his large ships to the number of sixty, and with
+them attacked and defeated an imprudent squadron of Quadriremes
+(<i>B.C.</i> iii. 24). The class of boats so frequently mentioned
+as <i>actuariae</i> seems to have contained craft of all sizes, and to
+have been used for all purposes, whether as pleasure boats or as
+despatch vessels, or for piracy. In fact the term was employed
+vaguely just as we speak of craft in general.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>lembus</i>, which is often referred to in Livy and Polybius,
+seems to have been of Illyrian origin, with fine lines and sharp
+bows. The class contained boats of various sizes and with a
+variable number of oars (biremis, Livy xxiv. 40, sexdecim,
+Livy xxxiv. 35); and it is interesting to note the origin in this
+case, as the invention of the light Liburnian galleys, which won
+the battle of Actium, and altered the whole system of naval
+construction, came from the same seaboard.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these, the piratical <i>myoparones</i> (see Cic. <i>In Verrem</i>),
+and the poetical <i>phaselus</i>, deserve mention, but here again we
+are met with the difficulty of distinguishing boats from ships.
+There is also an interesting notice in Tacitus (<i>Hist</i>. iii. 47) of
+boats hastily constructed by the natives of the northern coast
+of Asia Minor, which he describes as of broad beam with narrow
+sides (probably meaning that the sides &ldquo;tumbled home&rdquo;),
+joined together without any fastenings of brass or iron. In
+a sea-way the sides were raised with planks added till they were
+cased in as with a roof, whence their name <i>camarae</i>, and so they
+rolled about in the waves, having prow and stern alike and
+convertible rowlocks, so that it was a matter of indifference
+and equally safe, or perhaps unsafe, whichever way they
+rowed.</p>
+
+<p>Similar vessels were constructed by Germanicus in his north
+German campaign (<i>Ann</i>. ii. 6) and by the Suiones (<i>Ger</i>. 44).
+These also had stem and stern alike, and remind us of the old
+Norse construction, being rowed either way, having the oars
+loose in the rowlock, and not, as was usual in the south, attached
+by a thong to the thowl pin.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, as a class of boat directly descended from the raft,
+we may notice the flat-bottomed boats or punts or lighters which
+plied on the Tiber as ferry-boats, or carrying goods, which were
+called <i>codicariae</i> from <i>caudex</i>, the old word for a plank.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1">It is difficult to trace any order of development in the construction
+of boats during the Byzantine period, or the middle ages.
+Sea-going vessels according to their size carried one or more
+boats, some of them small boats with two or four oars, others
+boats of a larger size fitted with masts and sail as well as with
+oars. We find <i>lembus</i> and <i>phaselus</i> as generic names in the
+earlier period, but the indications as to size and character are
+vague and variable. The same may be said of the <i>batelli, coquets,
+chaloupes, chalans, gattes</i>, &amp;c., of which, in almost endless number
+and variety, the nautical erudition of M. Jal has collected the
+names in his monumental works, <i>Archéologie navale</i> and the
+<i>Glossaire nautique</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear, however, that in many instances the names,
+originally applied to boats properly so called, gradually attached
+themselves to larger vessels, as in the case of <i>chaloupe</i> and others,
+a fact which leads to the conclusion that the type of build
+followed originally in smaller vessels was often developed on a
+larger scale, according as it was found useful and convenient,
+while the name remained the same. Many of these types still
+survive and may be found in the Eastern seas, or in the Mediterranean
+or in the northern waters, each of which has its own
+peculiarities of build and rig.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1">It would be impossible within our limits to do justice to the
+number and variety of existing types in sea-going boats, and for
+more detailed information concerning them the reader
+<span class="sidenote">Existing types.</span>
+would do well to consult <i>Mast and Sail in Europe and
+Asia</i>, by H. Warington Smyth, an excellent and
+exhaustive work, from which much of the information which
+follows regarding them has been derived.</p>
+
+<p>In the Eastern seas the Chinese <i>sanpan</i> is ubiquitous. Originally
+a small raft of three timbers with fore end upturned, it grew
+into a boat in very early times, and has given its name to a very
+large class of vessels. With flat bottom, and considerable width
+in proportion to its length, the normal sanpan runs out into two
+tails astern, the timbers rounding up, and the end being built
+in like a bulkhead, with room for the rudder to work between
+it and the transom which connects the two projecting upper
+timbers of the stern. Some of them are as much as 30 ft. in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page98" id="page98"></a>98</span>
+length and 8 to 10 ft. in beam. They are good carriers and
+speedy under sail.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese in all probability were the earliest of all peoples
+to solve the chief problems of boat building, and after their own
+fashion to work out the art of navigation, which for them has
+now been set and unchanged for thousands of years. They
+appear to have used the lee-board and centre-board in junks and
+sanpans, and to have extended their trade to India and even
+beyond, centuries before anything like maritime enterprise is
+heard of in the north of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the practice of long boat racing on rivers or tidal
+waters the Chinese are easily antecedent in time to the rest of
+the world. On great festivals in certain places the Dragon boat
+race forms part of the ceremony. The Dragon boats are just
+over 73 ft. long, with 4 ft. beam, and depth 21 in. The rowing
+or paddling space is about 63 ft. and the number of thwarts 27,
+thus giving exactly the same number of rowers as that of the
+Zygites in the Greek trireme. The two extremities of the boat
+are much cambered and rise to about 2 ft. above the water. At
+about 15 ft. from each end the single plank gives place to three,
+so as to offer a concave surface to the water. The paddle blade
+is spade-like in form and about 6½ in. broad.</p>
+
+<p>Both in Siam and Burma there is a very large river population,
+and boat racing is on festival days a common amusement. The
+typical craft, however, is the Duck-boat, which in the shape of
+hull is in direct contrast to the dug-out form, and primarily
+intended for sailing. It is interesting to note that the Siamese
+method of slinging and using quarter rudders is the oldest used
+by men in sailing craft, being in fact the earliest development
+from the simple paddle rudder, which has in all ages been the
+first method of steering boats. The king of Siam&rsquo;s state barge,
+we are told, is steered by long paddles, precisely in the same way
+as is figured in the case of the Egyptian boats of the 3rd dynasty
+(6000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). On the other hand the slung quarter rudders are the
+same in fashion as those used by Roman and Greek merchantmen,
+by Norsemen and Anglo-Saxons, and by medieval seamen down
+to about the 14th century.</p>
+
+<p>The Malays have generally the credit of being expert boat-builders,
+but the local conditions are not such as to favour the
+construction of a good type of boat. &ldquo;Small displacement,
+hollow lines, <b>V</b>-shaped sections, shallow draught and lack of
+beam&rdquo; result in want of stability and weatherliness. But it is
+among them that the ancient process of dug-out building still
+survives and flourishes, preserving all the primitive and ingenious
+methods of hollowing the tree trunk, of forcing its sides outwards,
+and in many cases building them up with added planks, so that
+from the dug-out a regular boat is formed, with increased though
+limited carrying power, increased though still hardly sufficient
+stability.</p>
+
+<p>To ensure this last very necessary quality many devices and
+contrivances are resorted to.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases (just as Ulysses is described as doing by Homer,
+<i>Od</i>. v. 256) the boatman fastens bundles of reeds or of bamboos
+all along the sides of his boat. These being very buoyant not
+only act as a defence against the wash of the waves, but are
+sufficient to keep the boat afloat in any sea.</p>
+
+<p>But the most characteristic device is the outrigger, a piece of
+floating wood sharpened at both ends, which is fixed parallel to
+the longer axis of the boat, at a distance of two or three beams,
+by two or more poles laid at right angles to it. This, while not
+interfering materially with the speed of the boat, acts as a
+counterpoise to any pressure on it which would tend, owing to its
+lack of stability, to upset it, and makes it possible for the long
+narrow dug-out to face even the open sea. It is remarkable
+that this invention, which must have been seen by the Egyptians
+and Phoenicians in very early times, was not introduced by them
+into the Mediterranean. Possibly this was owing to the lack of
+large timber suitable for dug-outs, and the consequent evolution
+by them of boat from raft, with sufficient beam to rely upon for
+stability.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand in the boats of India the influence of
+Egyptian and Arab types of build is apparent, and the dinghy of
+the Hugli is cited as being in form strangely like the ancient
+Egyptian model still preserved in the Ghizeh museum. Coming
+westward the dominant type of build is that of the Arab <i>dhow</i>,
+the boat class of which has all the characteristics of the larger
+vessel developed from it, plenty of beam, overhanging stem and
+transom stern. The planking of the shell over the wooden frame
+has a double thickness which conduces to dryness and durability
+in the craft.</p>
+
+<p>On the Nile it is interesting to find the <i>naggar</i> preserving, in its
+construction out of blocks of acacia wood pinned together, the
+old-world fashion of building described by Herodotus. The
+<i>gaiassa</i> and <i>dahabiah</i> are too large to be classed as boats, but they
+and their smaller sisters follow the Arab type in build and rig.</p>
+
+<p>It is noteworthy that nothing apparently of the ancient
+Egyptian or classical methods of build survives in the Mediterranean,
+while the records of the development of boat-building
+in the middle ages are meagre and confusing. The best illustrations
+of ancient methods of construction, and of ancient seamanship,
+are to be found, if anywhere, in the East, that conservative
+storehouse of types and fashions, to which they were either
+communicated, or from which they were borrowed, by Egyptians
+or Phoenicians, from whom they were afterwards copied by
+Greeks and Romans.</p>
+
+<p>In the Mediterranean the chief characteristics of the types
+belonging to it are &ldquo;carvel-build, high bow, round stern and
+deep rudder hung on stern post outside the vessel.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the eastern basin the long-bowed wide-sterned <i>caique</i> of the
+Bosporus is perhaps the type of boat best known, but both Greek
+and Italian waters abound with an unnumbered variety of boats
+of &ldquo;beautiful lines and great carrying power.&rdquo; In the Adriatic,
+the Venetian gondola, and the light craft generally, are of the
+type developed from the raft, flat-bottomed, and capable of
+navigating shallow waters with minimum of draught and
+maximum of load.</p>
+
+<p>In the western basin the majority of the smaller vessels are of
+the sharp-sterned build. Upon the boats of the <i>felucca</i> class,
+long vessels with easy lines and low free-board, suitable for
+rowing as well as sailing, the influence of the long galley of the
+middle ages was apparent. In Genoese waters at the beginning
+of the 19th century there were single-decked rowing vessels,
+which preserved the name of galley, and were said to be the
+descendants of the Liburnians that defeated the many-banked
+vessels of Antonius at Actium. But the introduction of steam
+vessels has already relegated into obscurity these memorials
+of the past.</p>
+
+<p>Along the Riviera and the Spanish coast a type of boat is
+noticeable which is peculiar for the inward curve of both stem
+and stern from a keel which has considerable camber, enabling
+them to be beached in a heavy surf.</p>
+
+<p>On the Douro, in Portugal, it is said that the boats which may
+be seen laden with casks of wine, trailing behind them an
+enormously long steering paddle, are of Phoenician ancestry,
+and that the curious signs, which many of them have painted on
+the cross board over the cabin, are of Semitic origin though now
+undecipherable.</p>
+
+<p>Coming to the northern waters, as with men, so with boats,
+we meet with a totally different type. Instead of the smooth
+exterior of the carvel-build, we have the more rugged form of
+clinker-built craft with great beam, and raking sterns and stems,
+and a wide flare forward. In the most northern waters the
+strakes of the sea-going boats are wide and of considerable
+thickness, of oak or fir, often compacted with wooden trenails,
+strong and fit to do battle with the rough seas and rough usage
+which they have to endure.</p>
+
+<p>In most of these the origin of form and character is to be
+sought for in the old Viking vessels or long <i>keeles</i> of the 5th century
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span>, with curved and elevated stem and stern posts, and without
+decks or, at the most, half decked.</p>
+
+<p>In the Baltic and the North Sea most of the fishing boats
+follow this type, with, however, considerable variety in details.
+It is noticeable that here also, as in other parts of the world, and
+at other times, the pressing demand for speed and carrying power
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>99</span>
+has increased the size in almost all classes of boats till they pass
+into the category of ships. At the same time the carvel-build is
+becoming more common, while, in the struggle for life, steam and
+motor power are threatening to obliterate the old types of rowing
+and sailing boats altogether.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the Norse skiff and its descendants, perhaps the oldest
+type of boat in northern waters is to be found in Holland,
+where the conditions of navigation have hardly altered for
+centuries. It is to the Dutch that we chiefly owe the original
+of our pleasure craft, but, though we have developed these
+enormously, the Dutch boats have remained pretty much the
+same. The clinker-build and the wide rounded bow are now
+very much of the same character as they are represented in the
+old pictures of the 17th and 18th centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The development of boat-building in the British Isles during
+the 19th century has been unceasing and would need a treatise
+to itself to do it justice. The expansion of the fishing industry
+and the pressure of competition have stimulated constant
+improvement in the craft engaged, and here also are observable
+the same tendencies to substitute carvel, though it is more
+expensive, for clinker build, and to increase the length and size
+of the boats, and the gradual supersession of sail and oar by steam
+power. Under these influences we hear of the <i>fifie</i> and the
+<i>skaffie</i> classes, old favourites in northern waters, being superseded
+by the more modern <i>Zulu</i>, which is supposed to unite the good
+qualities of both; and these in turn running to such a size as to
+take them outside the category of boats. But even in the case
+of smaller boats the <i>Zulu</i> model is widely followed, so that they
+have actually been imported to the Irish coast for the use of the
+crofter fishermen in the congested districts.</p>
+
+<p>For the Shetland <i>sexern</i> and the broad boats of the Orkneys,
+and the <i>nabbies</i> of the west coast of Scotland, the curious will do
+well to refer to H. Warington Smyth&rsquo;s most excellent account.</p>
+
+<p>On the eastern coast of England the influence of the Dutch
+type of build is manifest in many of the flat-bottomed and mostly
+round-ended craft, such as the Yorkshire <i>Billyboy</i>, and partly in
+the <i>coble</i>, which latter is interesting as built for launching off
+beaches against heavy seas, and as containing relics of Norse
+influence, though in the main of Dutch origin.</p>
+
+<p>The life-boats of the eastern coast are in themselves an admirable
+class of boat, with fine lines, great length, and shallow
+draught, wonderful in their daring work in foul weather and
+heavy seas, in which as a rule their services are required. Here,
+however, as in the fishing boats, the size is increasing, and steam
+is appropriating to itself the provinces of the sail and the oar.</p>
+
+<p>The wherry of the Norfolk Broads has a type of its own, and is
+often fitted out as a pleasure boat. It is safe and comfortable for
+inland waters, but not the sort of boat to live in a sea-way in
+anything but good weather.</p>
+
+<p>The Thames and its estuary rejoice in a great variety of boats,
+of which the old <i>Peter</i> boat (so called after the legend of the
+foundation of the abbey on Thorney Island) preserved a very
+ancient type of build, shorter and broader than the old Thames
+pleasure wherry. But these and the old <i>hatch</i> boat have now
+almost disappeared. Possibly survivors may still be seen on the
+upper part of the tidal river. Round the English coast from the
+mouth of the Thames southwards the conditions of landing and
+of hauling up boats above high-water mark affect the type,
+demanding strong clinker-build and stout timbers. Hence there
+is a strong family resemblance in most of the short boats in use
+from the North Foreland round to Brighton. Among these are
+the life-boats of Deal and the other Channel ports, which have
+done and are still doing heroic work in saving life from wrecks
+upon the Goodwins and the other dangerous shoals that beset
+the narrowing sleeve of the English Channel.</p>
+
+<p>Farther down, along the southern coast, and to the west, where
+harbours are more frequent, a finer and deeper class of boats,
+chiefly of carvel-build, is to be found. The Cornish ports are the
+home of a great boat-building industry, and from them a large
+number of the finest fishing boats in the world are turned out
+annually. Most of them are built with stem and stern alike, with
+full and bold quarters, and ample floor.</p>
+
+<p>It is not possible here to enumerate, much less to describe
+in detail, the variety of types in sea-going boats which have
+been elaborated in England and in America. For this purpose
+reference should be made to the list of works given at the end of
+the article.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a list of the boats at present used in the royal
+navy. They have all of them a deep fore foot, and with the
+exception of the whalers and Berthon boats, upright stems and
+transom sterns. The whalers have a raking stem and a sharp
+stern, and a certain amount of sheer in the bows.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm">Length.<br />Feet.</td> <td class="tccm">Beam.<br />Ft. In.</td> <td class="tccm">Depth.<br />Ft. In.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl cl"><p>1a. Dinghy. Freeboard about 9 in.
+      Weight 3 cwt. 2 qr. Between
+      thwarts 2 ft. 9 in. Elm.</p></td> <td class="tccb cl">13½</td> <td class="tclb cl">4&prime; 8&Prime;</td> <td class="tclb cl">2&prime; 2&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><p>1b. Skiff dinghy for torpedo boats.
+      Freeboard about 9 in. Carry about
+      ten men in moderate weather.
+      Between thwarts 2 ft. 7½ in.
+      Weight 3 cwt. 4 &#8468; Yellow pine.</p></td> <td class="tccb">16</td> <td class="tclb">4&prime; 6&Prime;</td> <td class="tclb">1&prime; 10&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl"><p>2a. Whaler for destroyers. 5 in. sheer.
+      Yellow pine.</p></td> <td class="tccb cl">25</td> <td class="tclb cl">5&prime; 6&Prime;</td> <td class="tclb cl">2&prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><p>2b. Whaler. Between thwarts 2 ft. 10 in.
+      Freeboard about 12 in. Weight,
+      8 cwt. Strakes No. 13. Lap
+      ¾ in. Elm.</p></td> <td class="tccb">27</td> <td class="tclb">5&prime; 6&Prime;</td> <td class="tclb">2&prime; 2&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;(All have bilge strakes with hand-holes.)</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tclb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl"><p>3. Gig. Between thwarts 2 ft.  9½ in.
+     Weight 8 cwt. 2 qr. 15 &#8468; 13
+     Strakes. Elm.</p></td> <td class="tccb cl">30</td> <td class="tclb cl">5&prime; 6&Prime;</td> <td class="tclb cl">2&prime; 2&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><p>4. Cutter. Between thwarts 3 ft. 1 in.
+     To carry 49 men. Carvel built.</p></td> <td class="tccb">30</td> <td class="tclb">8&prime; 1&Prime;</td> <td class="tclb" style="white-space: nowrap;">2&prime; 8½&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl"><p>5. Pinnace. Between thwarts 3 ft.
+     Carvel-built. Elm.</p></td> <td class="tccb cl">36</td> <td class="tclb cl">10&prime; 2&Prime;</td> <td class="tclb cl">3&prime; 5&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><p>6. Launch. Between thwarts 3 ft. 1 in.
+     To carry 140 men. Double skin
+     diagonal. Teak.</p></td> <td class="tccb">42</td> <td class="tclb">11&prime; 6&Prime;</td> <td class="tclb">4&prime; 6&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl"><p>7. Berthon collapsible boats weighing
+  7 cwt. for destroyers.</p></td> <td class="tclb cl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tclb cl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tclb cl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>With the exception of the larger classes, viz. cutters, pinnaces
+and launches, the V-shape of bottom is still preserved, which
+does not tend to stability, and it is difficult to see why the
+smaller classes have not followed the improvement made in their
+larger sisters.</p>
+
+<p>Though the number and variety of sea-going boats is of much
+greater importance, no account of boats in general would be
+complete without reference to the development of pleasure
+craft upon rivers and inland waters, especially in
+<span class="sidenote">Pleasure boats and racing.</span>
+England, during the past century. There is a legend,
+dating from Saxon times, which tells of King Edgar
+the Peaceable being rowed on the Dee from his palace in Chester
+to the church of St John, by eight kings, himself the ninth,
+steering this ancient 8-oar; but not much is heard of rowing
+in England until 1453, when John Norman, lord mayor of
+London, set the example of going by water to Westminster,
+which, we are told, made him popular with the watermen of his
+day, as in consequence the use of pleasure boats by the citizens
+became common. Thus it was that the old Thames pleasure
+wherry, with its high bows and low sharp stern and V-shaped
+section, and the old skiff came into vogue, both of which have
+now given way to boats, mostly of clinker-build, but with
+rounder bottoms and greater depth, safer and more comfortable
+to row in.</p>
+
+<p>In 1715 Thomas Doggett (<i>q.v.</i>) founded a race which is still
+rowed in peculiar sculling boats, straked, and with sides flaring
+up to the sill of the rowlock. Strutt tells us of a regatta in 1775
+in which watermen contended in pair-oared boats or skiffs.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the 19th century numerous rowing clubs
+flourished on the upper tidal waters of the Thames, and we hear
+of four-oared races from Westminster to Putney, and from
+Putney to Kew, in what we should now consider large and
+heavy boats, clinker-built, with bluff entry.</p>
+
+<p>Longer boats, 8-oars, and 10-oars, seem to have been existent
+at the end of the 18th century. Eton certainly had one
+10-oar, and three 8-oars, and two 6-oars, before 1811. The
+record of 8-oar races at Oxford begins in 1815, at Cambridge in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id="page100"></a>100</span>
+1827. Pair-oar and sculling races in lighter boats seem to have
+come in soon after 1820, and the first Oxford and Cambridge
+eight-oared race was rowed in 1829, in which year also Eton
+and Westminster contended at Putney.</p>
+
+<p>Henley regatta was founded in 1839, and since that date the
+building of racing boats, eights, fours, pairs, and sculling boats,
+has made great progress. The products of the present time are
+such, in lightness of build and swiftness of propulsion, as
+would have been thought impossible between 1810 and 1830.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle of the 19th century the long boats in use were
+mostly clinker-built with a keel. At Oxford the torpids were
+rowed, as now, in clinker-built craft, but the summer races
+were rowed in carvel-built boats, which also had a keel.</p>
+
+<p>In 1855 the first keelless 8-oar made its appearance at
+Henley, built by Mat Taylor for the Royal Chester Rowing Club.
+The new type was constructed on moulds, bottom upwards,
+a cedar skin bent and fitted on to the moulds, and the ribs
+built in after the boat had been turned over.</p>
+
+<p>In 1857 Oxford rowed in a similar boat at Putney, 55 ft. long,
+25 in. beam. From that time the keelless racing boat has held
+its own, fours and pairs and sculling boats all following suit.
+But with the introduction of sliding seats racing eights have
+developed in length to 63 ft. or more, with considerable camber,
+and a beam of 23-24 in. There are, however, still advocates of
+the shorter type with broader beam, and it is noticeable that
+the Belgian boat that won the Grand Challenge at Henley in
+1906 did not exceed 60 ft. The boat in which Oxford won the
+University race in 1901 was 56 ft. long with 27 in. of beam.</p>
+
+<p>In sculling boats the acceptance of the Australian type of
+build has led to the construction of a much shorter boat with
+broader beam than that which was in vogue twenty years ago.
+The same tendency has not shown itself so pronouncedly in pair
+oars, but will no doubt be manifest in time as the build improves.
+In fact we may expect the controversy between long and short
+racing boats, and the proper method of propelling them
+respectively, to be carried a step farther. The tendency, with the
+long slide, and long type of boat, is to try to avoid &ldquo;pinch&rdquo;
+by adopting the scullers&rsquo; method of easy beginning, and strong
+drive with the legs, and sharp finish to follow, but it remains
+to be seen whether superior pace is not to be obtained in a
+shorter boat by sharp beginning at a reasonable angle to the
+boat&rsquo;s side, and a continuous drive right out to the finish
+of the stroke.</p>
+
+<p>Appended is a list of pleasure boats in use (1909) on the
+Thames, with their measurements (in feet and inches).</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc">Class of Boat.</td> <td class="tcc">Length.</td> <td class="tcc">Beam.</td> <td class="tcc">Depth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Racing eight</td> <td class="tcl cl">56&prime; to 63&prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">23&Prime; to 27&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">9&Prime; to 10&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Clinker eight</td> <td class="tcl">56&prime; to 60&prime;</td> <td class="tcl">24&Prime; to 27&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl">9&Prime; to 10&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Clinker four</td> <td class="tcl cl">38&prime; to 42&prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">23&Prime; to 24&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">8&Prime; to 9&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Tub fours</td> <td class="tcl">30&prime; to 32&prime;</td> <td class="tcl">3&prime;8&Prime;-3&prime;10&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl">13&Prime; from keel to top of stem</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Outrigger pair</td> <td class="tcl cl">30&prime; to 34&prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">14&Prime; to 16&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">7&Prime; to 8&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Outrigger sculls</td> <td class="tcl">25&prime; to 30&prime;</td> <td class="tcl">10&Prime; to 13&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl">5½&rdquo; to 6&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Coaching gigs</td> <td class="tcl cl">26&prime; to 28&prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">3&prime; to 3&prime;4&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">10½&rdquo; to 14&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Skiffs (Thames)</td> <td class="tcl">24&prime; to 26&prime;</td> <td class="tcl">3&prime;9&Prime; to 4&prime;</td> <td class="tcl">12&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Skiffs (Eton)</td> <td class="tcl cl">27&prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">2&prime;3&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">9½&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Gigs (pleasure)</td> <td class="tcl">24&prime; to 36&prime;</td> <td class="tcl">4&prime;</td> <td class="tcl">15&Prime; to 16&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Randans</td> <td class="tcl cl">27&prime; to 30&prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">4&prime; to 4&prime;6&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">13&Prime; from keel to top of stem</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Whiffs</td> <td class="tcl">20&prime; to 23&prime;</td> <td class="tcl">1&prime;4&Prime; to 1&prime;6&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl">6&Prime; from keel to top of stem</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Whiff Gigs</td> <td class="tcl cl">19&prime; to 20&prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">2&prime;8&Prime; to 2&prime;10&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">12&Prime; over all</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Punts racers</td> <td class="tcl">30&prime; to 34&prime;</td> <td class="tcl">1&prime;3&Prime; to 1&prime;6&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl">6&Prime; to 7&Prime;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;semi racers</td> <td class="tcl cl">28&prime; to 30&prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">2&prime;</td> <td class="tcl cl">9&Prime; to 10½&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&rdquo;&emsp;pleasure</td> <td class="tcl">26&prime; to 28&prime;</td> <td class="tcl">2&prime;9&Prime; to 3&prime;</td> <td class="tcl">12&Prime; to 13&Prime;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;For ancient boats: <i>Dict. Ant.</i>, &ldquo;Navis&rdquo;;
+C. Torr, <i>Ancient Ships</i>;
+Smith, <i>Voyage and Shipwreck of St Paul</i>;
+Graser, <i>De re navali</i>;
+Breusing, <i>Die Nautik der Alten</i>;
+Contre-amiral Serre, <i>La Marine des anciens</i>;
+Jules Var, <i>L&rsquo;Art nautique dans l&rsquo;antiquité</i>.
+Medieval: Jal, <i>Archéologie navale</i>, and <i>Glossaire nautique</i>;
+Marquis de Folin, <i>Bateaux et navires, progrès de la construction navale</i>;
+W.S. Lindsay, <i>History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce</i>.
+Modern: H. Warington Smyth, <i>Mast and Sail in Europe and Asia</i>;
+Dixon Kempe, <i>Manual of Yacht and Boat Sailing</i>;
+H.C. Folkhard, <i>The Sailing Boat</i>;
+F.G. Aflato, <i>The Sea Fishing Industry of England and Wales</i>;
+R.C. Leslie, <i>Old Sea Wings</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Wa.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOATSWAIN<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> (pronounced &ldquo;bo&rsquo;sun&rdquo;; derived from &ldquo;boat&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;swain,&rdquo; a servant), the warrant officer of the navy who
+in sailing-ships had particular charge of the boats, sails, rigging,
+colours, anchors and cordage. He superintended the rigging
+of the ship in dock, and it was his duty to summon the crew
+to work by a whistle. The office still remains, though with
+functions modified by the introduction of steam. In a merchant
+ship the boatswain is the foreman of the crew and is sometimes
+also third or fourth mate.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOBBILI,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Vizagapatam district
+of Madras, 70 m. north of Vizagapatam town. Pop. (1901) 17,387.
+It is the residence of a raja of old family, whose estate
+covers an area of 227 sq. m.; estimated income, £40,000;
+permanent land revenue, £9000.</p>
+
+<p>The attack on the fort at Bobbili made by General Bussy in
+1756 is one of the most memorable episodes in Indian history.
+There was a constant feud between the chief of Bobbili and the
+raja of Vizianagram; and when Bussy marched to restore order
+the raja persuaded him that the fault lay with the chief of
+Bobbili and joined the French with 11,000 men against his rival.
+In spite of the fact that the French field-pieces at once made
+practicable breaches in the mud walls of the fort, the defenders
+held out with desperate valour. Two assaults were repulsed
+after hours of hand-to-hand fighting; and when, after a fresh
+bombardment, the garrison saw that their case was hopeless,
+they killed their women and children, and only succumbed at
+last to a third assault because every man of them was either
+killed or mortally wounded. An old man, however, crept out
+of a hut with a child, whom he presented to Bussy as the son
+of the dead chief. Three nights later four followers of the chief
+of Bobbili crept into the tent of the raja of Vizianagram and
+stabbed him to death. The child, Chinna Ranga Rao, was
+invested by Bussy with his father&rsquo;s estate, but during his minority
+it was seized by his uncle. After a temporary arrangement of
+terms with the raja of Vizianagram the old feud broke out again,
+and the Bobbili chief was forced to take refuge in the nizam&rsquo;s
+country. In 1794, however, on the break-up of the Vizianagram
+estate, Chinna Ranga Rao was restored by the British, and
+in 1801 a permanent settlement was made with his son. The
+title of raja was recognized as hereditary in the family; that
+of maharaja was conferred as a personal distinction on Sir
+Venkataswetachalapati Ranga Rao, K.C.I.E., the adopted
+great-great-grandson of Chinna Ranga Rao.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the siege see <i>Imp. Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, 1908),
+<i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Bobbili Estate.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOBBIO,<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, in the
+province of Pavia, 32½ m. S.W. of Piacenza by road. Pop. (1901) 4848.
+Its most important building is the church dedicated
+to St Columban, who became first abbot of Bobbio in 595 or 612,
+and died there in 615. It was erected in Lombard style in the
+11th or 12th century (to which period the campanile belongs)
+and restored in the 13th. The cathedral is also interesting.
+Bobbio was especially famous for the manuscripts which belonged
+to the monastery of St Columban, and are now dispersed, the
+greater part being in the Vatican library at Rome, and others
+at Milan and Turin. The cathedral archives contain documents
+of the 10th and 11th centuries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M. Stokes, <i>Six Months in the Apennines</i> (London, 1892),
+154 seq.; C. Cipolla, in <i>L&rsquo;Arte</i> (1904), 241.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOBER,<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> a river of Germany, the most considerable of the left
+bank tributaries of the Oder; it rises at an altitude of 2440 ft.,
+on the northern (Silesian) side of the Riesengebirge. In its
+upper course it traverses a higher plateau, whence, after passing
+the town of Landeshut, it descends through a narrow and fertile
+valley to Kupferberg. Here its romantic middle course begins,
+and after dashing through a deep ravine between the towns of
+Hirschberg and Löwenberg, it gains the plain. In its lower
+course it meanders through pleasant pastures, bogland and pine
+forests in succession, receives the waters of various mountain
+streams, passes close by Bunzlau and through Sagan, and finally,
+after a course of 160 m., joins the Oder at Crossen. Swollen by
+the melting of the winter snows and by heavy rains in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>101</span>
+mountains, it is frequently a torrent, and is thus, except in the
+last few miles, unnavigable for either boats or rafts.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOBRUISK,<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> a town and formerly a first-class fortress of
+Russia, in the government of Minsk, and 100 m. by rail S.E.
+of the town of Minsk, in 53° 15&prime; N. lat. and 28° 52&prime; E. long., on
+the right bank of the Berezina river, and on the railway from
+Libau and Vilna to Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1860) 23,761; (1897)
+35,177, of whom one-half were Jews. In the reign of Alexander I.
+there was erected here, at the confluence of the Bobruiska with
+the Berezina, nearly a mile from the town, a fort, which successfully
+withstood a bombardment by Napoleon in 1812, and was
+made equal to the best in Europe by the emperor Nicholas I.
+It was demolished in 1897, the defences being antiquated. The
+town has a military hospital and a departmental college. There
+are ironworks and flour-mills; and corn and timber are shipped
+to Libau. The town was half burnt down in 1902.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOCAGE, MANUEL MARIA BARBOSA DE<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> (1765-1805),
+Portuguese poet, was a native of Setubal. His father had held
+important judicial and administrative appointments, and his
+mother, from whom he took his last surname, was the daughter
+of a Portuguese vice-admiral of French birth who had fought
+at the battle of Matapan. Bocage began to make verses in
+infancy, and being somewhat of a prodigy grew up to be flattered,
+self-conscious and unstable. At the age of fourteen, he suddenly
+left school and joined the 7th infantry regiment; but tiring of
+garrison life at Setubal after two years, he decided to enter the
+navy. He proceeded to the royal marine academy in Lisbon,
+but instead of studying he pursued love adventures, and for the
+next five years burnt incense on many altars, while his retentive
+memory and extraordinary talent for improvisation gained him
+a host of admirers and turned his head. The Brazilian <i>modinhas</i>,
+little rhymed poems sung to a guitar at family parties, were then
+in great vogue, and Bocage added to his fame by writing a number
+of these, by his skill in extemporizing verses on a given theme,
+and by allegorical idyllic pieces, the subjects of which are similar
+to those of Watteau&rsquo;s and Boucher&rsquo;s pictures. In 1786 he was
+appointed <i>guardamarinha</i> in the Indian navy, and he reached
+Goa by way of Brazil in October. There he came into an ignorant
+society full of petty intrigue, where his particular talents found
+no scope to display themselves; the glamour of the East left
+him unmoved and the climate brought on a serious illness. In
+these circumstances he compared the heroic traditions of Portugal
+in Asia, which had induced him to leave home, with the reality,
+and wrote his satirical sonnets on &ldquo;The Decadence of the
+Portuguese Empire in Asia,&rdquo; and those addressed to Affonso
+de Albuquerque and D. João de Castro. The irritation caused
+by these satires, together with rivalries in love affairs, made it
+advisable for him to leave Goa, and early in 1789 he obtained the
+post of lieutenant of the infantry company at Damaun; but
+he promptly deserted and made his way to Macao, where he
+arrived in July-August. According to a modern tradition much
+of the <i>Lusiads</i> had been written there, and Bocage probably
+travelled to China under the influence of Camoens, to whose life
+and misfortunes he loved to compare his own. Though he
+escaped the penalty of his desertion, he had no resources and
+lived on friends, whose help enabled him to return to Lisbon in
+the middle of the following year.</p>
+
+<p>Once back in Portugal he found his old popularity, and
+resumed his vagabond existence. The age was one of reaction
+against the Pombaline reforms, and the famous intendant of
+police, Manique, in his determination to keep out French revolutionary
+and atheistic propaganda, forbade the importation of
+foreign classics and the discussion of all liberal ideas. Hence
+the only vehicle of expression left was satire, which Bocage
+employed with an unsparing hand. His poverty compelled him
+to eat and sleep with friends like the turbulent friar José Agostinho de Macedo (<i>q.v.</i>), and he soon fell under suspicion with
+Manique. He became a member of the New Arcadia, a literary
+society founded in 1790, under the name of Elmano Sadino, but
+left it three years later. Though including in its ranks most
+of the poets of the time, the New Arcadia produced little of
+real merit, and before long its adherents became enemies and
+descended to an angry warfare of words. But Bocage&rsquo;s reputation
+among the general public and with foreign travellers grew
+year by year. Beckford, the author of <i>Vathek</i>, for instance,
+describes him as &ldquo;a pale, limber, odd-looking young man, the
+queerest but perhaps the most original of God&rsquo;s poetical creatures.
+This strange and versatile character may be said to possess
+the true wand of enchantment which at the will of its master
+either animates or petrifies.&rdquo; In 1797 enemies of Bocage belonging
+to the New Arcadia delated him to Manique, who on the
+pretext afforded by some anti-religious verses, the <i>Epistola
+á Marilia</i>, and by his loose life, arrested him when he was about
+to flee the country and lodged him in the Limoeiro, where he
+spent his thirty-second birthday. His sufferings induced him
+to a speedy recantation, and after much importuning of friends,
+he obtained his transfer in November from the state prison to
+that of the Inquisition, then a mild tribunal, and shortly afterwards
+recovered his liberty. He returned to his bohemian life
+and subsisted by writing empty <i>Elogios Dramaticos</i> for the
+theatres, printing volumes of verses and translating the didactic
+poems of Delille, Castel and others, some second-rate French
+plays and Ovid&rsquo;s <i>Metamorphoses</i>. These resources and the help
+of brother Freemasons just enabled him to exist, and a purifying
+influence came into his life in the shape of a real affection for the
+two beautiful daughters of D. Antonio Bersane Leite, which
+drew from him verses of true feeling mixed with regrets for the
+past. He would have married the younger lady, D. Anna
+Perpetua (Analia), but excesses had ruined his health. In 1801
+his poetical rivalry with Macedo became more acute and personal,
+and ended by drawing from Bocage a stinging extempore poem,
+<i>Pena de Talião</i>, which remains a monument to his powers of
+invective. In 1804 the malady from which he suffered increased,
+and the approach of death inspired some beautiful sonnets,
+including one directed to D. Maria (<i>Marcia</i>), elder sister of
+Analia, who visited and consoled him. He became reconciled
+to his enemies, and breathed his last on the 21st of December
+1805. His end recalled that of Camoens, for he expired in
+poverty on the eve of the French invasion, while the singer of
+the <i>Lusiads</i> just failed to see the occupation of Portugal by the duke of Alva&rsquo;s army. The gulf that divides the life and achievements of these two poets is accounted for, less by difference of talent and temperament than by their environment, and it
+gives an accurate measure of the decline of Portugal in the two
+centuries that separate 1580 from 1805.</p>
+
+<p>To Beckford, Bocage was &ldquo;a powerful genius,&rdquo; and Link
+was struck by his nervous expression, harmonious versification
+and the fire of his poetry. He employed every variety of lyric
+and made his mark in all. His roundels are good, his epigrams
+witty, his satires rigorous and searching, his odes often full of
+nobility, but his fame must rest on his sonnets, which almost
+rival those of Camoens in power, elevation of thought and tender
+melancholy, though they lack the latter&rsquo;s scholarly refinement
+of phrasing. So dazzled were contemporary critics by his
+brilliant and inspired extemporizations that they ignored
+Bocage&rsquo;s licentiousness, and overlooked the slightness of his
+creative output and the artificial character of most of his
+poetry. In 1871 a monument was erected to the poet in the
+chief square of Setubal, and the centenary of his death was
+kept there with much circumstance in 1905.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best editions of his collected works are those of I.F. da
+Silva, with a biographical and literary study by Rebello da Silva, in
+6 vols. (Lisbon, 1853), and of Dr Theophilo Braga, in 8 vols. (Oporto,
+1875-1876). See also I.F. da Silva <i>Diccionario Bibliographico
+Portuguez</i>, vol. vi. pp. 45-53, and vol. xvi. pp. 260-264; Dr T. Braga,
+<i>Bocage, sua vida e epoca litteraria</i> (Oporto, 1902). A striking portrait
+of Bocage by H.J. da Silva was engraved by Bartolozzi, who spent
+his last years in Lisbon.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOCAGE<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> (from O. Fr. <i>boscage</i>, Late Lat. <i>boscum</i>, a wood), a
+French topographical term applied to several regions of France,
+the commonest characteristics of which are a granite formation
+and an undulating or hilly surface, consisting largely of heath
+or reclaimed land, and dotted with clumps of trees. The
+most important districts designated by the word are (1) the
+Bocage of Normandy, which comprises portions of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page102" id="page102"></a>102</span>
+departments of Calvados, Manche and Orne; (2) the Bocage of
+Vendée, situated in the departments of Vendée, Deux-Sèvres,
+Maine-et-Loire, and Loire-Inférieure.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> (1313-1375), Italian author, whose
+<i>Decameron</i> is one of the classics of literature, was born in 1313,
+as we know from a letter of Petrarch, in which that poet,
+who was born in 1304, calls himself the senior of his friend by
+nine years. The place of his birth is somewhat doubtful&mdash;Florence,
+Paris and Certaldo being all mentioned by various
+writers as his native city. Boccaccio undoubtedly calls himself
+a Florentine, but this may refer merely to the Florentine citizenship
+acquired by his grandfather. The claim of Paris has been
+supported by Baldelli and Tiraboschi, mainly on the ground
+that his mother was a lady of good family in that city, where
+she met Boccaccio&rsquo;s father. There is a good deal in favour of
+Certaldo, a small town or castle in the valley of the Elsa, 20 m.
+from Florence, where the family had some property, and where
+the poet spent much of the latter part of his life. He always
+signed his name Boccaccio da Certaldo, and named that town
+as his birthplace in his own epitaph. Petrarch calls his friend
+Certaldese; and Filippo Villani, a contemporary, distinctly says
+that Boccaccio was born in Certaldo.</p>
+
+<p>Boccaccio, an illegitimate son, as is put beyond dispute by the
+fact that a special licence had to be obtained when he desired
+to become a priest, was brought up with tender care by his
+father, who seems to have been a merchant of respectable rank.
+His elementary education he received from Giovanni da Strada,
+an esteemed teacher of grammar in Florence. But at an early
+age he was apprenticed to an eminent merchant, with whom he
+remained for six years, a time entirely lost to him, if we may
+believe his own statement. For from his tenderest years his soul
+was attached to that &ldquo;<i>alma poesis</i>,&rdquo; which, on his tombstone,
+he names as the task and study of his life. In one of his works
+he relates that, in his seventh year, before he had ever seen
+a book of poetry or learned the rules of metrical composition,
+he began to write verse in his childish fashion, and earned for
+himself amongst his friends the name of &ldquo;the poet.&rdquo; It is uncertain
+where Boccaccio passed these six years of bondage;
+most likely he followed his master to various centres of commerce
+in Italy and France. We know at least that he was in Naples
+and Paris for some time, and the youthful impressions received
+in the latter city, as well as the knowledge of the French
+language acquired there, were of considerable influence on his
+later career. Yielding at last to his son&rsquo;s immutable aversion
+to commerce, the elder Boccaccio permitted him to adopt a
+course of study somewhat more congenial to the literary tastes
+of the young man. He was sent to a celebrated professor of
+canon law, at that time an important field of action both to the
+student and the practical jurist. According to some accounts&mdash;far
+from authentic, it is true&mdash;this professor was Cino da
+Pistoia, the friend of Dante, and himself a celebrated poet and
+scholar. But, whoever he may have been, Boccaccio&rsquo;s master
+was unable to inspire his pupil with scientific ardour. &ldquo;Again,&rdquo;
+Boccaccio says, &ldquo;I lost nearly six years. And so nauseous was
+this study to my mind, that neither the teaching of my master,
+nor the authority and command of my father, nor yet the
+exertions and reproof of my friends, could make me take to it,
+for my love of poetry was invincible.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>About 1333 Boccaccio settled for some years at Naples,
+apparently sent there by his father to resume his mercantile
+pursuits, the canon law being finally abandoned. The place,
+it must be confessed, was little adapted to lead to a practical
+view of life one in whose heart the love of poetry was firmly
+rooted. The court of King Robert of Anjou at Naples was
+frequented by many Italian and French men of letters, the great
+Petrarch amongst the number. At the latter&rsquo;s public examination
+in the noble science of poetry by the king, previous to his
+receiving the laurel crown at Rome, Boccaccio was present,&mdash;without,
+however, making his personal acquaintance at this
+period. In the atmosphere of this gay court, enlivened and
+adorned by the wit of men and the beauty of women, Boccaccio
+lived for several years. We can imagine how the tedious duties
+of the market and the counting-house became more and more
+distasteful to his aspiring nature. We are told that, finding
+himself by chance on the supposed grave of Virgil, near Naples,
+Boccaccio on that sacred spot took the firm resolution of devoting
+himself for ever to poetry. But perhaps another event, which
+happened some time after, led quite as much as the first-mentioned
+occurrence to this decisive turning-point in his life. On
+Easter-eve, 1341, in the church of San Lorenzo, Boccaccio saw
+for the first time the natural daughter of King Robert, Maria,
+whom he immortalized as Fiammetta in the noblest creations
+of his muse. Boccaccio&rsquo;s passion on seeing her was instantaneous,
+and (if we may accept as genuine the confessions contained in
+one of her lover&rsquo;s works) was returned with equal ardour on the
+part of the lady. But not till after much delay did she yield to
+the amorous demands of the poet, in spite of her honour and her
+duty as the wife of another. All the information we have with
+regard to Maria or Fiammetta is derived from the works of
+Boccaccio himself, and owing to several apparently contradictory
+statements occurring in these works, the very existence of the
+lady has been doubted by commentators, who seem to forget
+that, surrounded by the chattering tongues of a court, and
+watched perhaps by a jealous husband, Boccaccio had all possible
+reason to give the appearance of fictitious incongruity to the
+effusions of his real passion. But there seems no more reason to
+call into question the main features of the story, or even the
+identity of the person, than there would be in the case of Petrarch&rsquo;s
+Laura or of Dante&rsquo;s Beatrice. It has been ingeniously pointed
+out by Baldelli, that the fact of her descent from King Robert
+being known only to Maria herself, and through her to Boccaccio,
+the latter was the more at liberty to refer to this circumstance,&mdash;the
+bold expression of the truth serving in this case to increase
+the mystery with which the poets of the middle ages loved, or
+were obliged, to surround the objects of their praise. From
+Boccaccio&rsquo;s <i>Ameto</i> we learn that Maria&rsquo;s mother was, like his
+own, a French lady, whose husband, according to Baldelli&rsquo;s
+ingenious conjecture, was of the noble house of Aquino, and
+therefore of the same family with the celebrated Thomas Aquinas.
+Maria died, according to his account, long before her lover, who
+cherished her memory to the end of his life, as we see from a
+sonnet written shortly before his death.</p>
+
+<p>The first work of Boccaccio, composed by him at Fiammetta&rsquo;s
+command, was the prose tale, <i>Filocopo</i>, describing the romantic
+love and adventures of Florio and Biancafiore, a favourite
+subject with the knightly minstrels of France, Italy and Germany.
+The treatment of the story by Boccaccio is not remarkable for
+originality or beauty, and the narrative is encumbered by classical
+allusions and allegorical conceits. The style also cannot be held
+worthy of the future great master of Italian prose. Considering,
+however, that this prose was in its infancy, and that this was
+Boccaccio&rsquo;s first attempt at remoulding the unwieldy material
+at his disposal, it would be unjust to deny that <i>Filocopo</i> is a
+highly interesting work, full of promise and all but articulate
+power. Another work, written about the same time by Fiammetta&rsquo;s
+desire and dedicated to her, is the <i>Teseide</i>, an epic poem,
+and indeed the first heroic epic in the Italian language. The
+name is chosen somewhat inappropriately, as King Theseus plays
+a secondary part, and the interest of the story centres in the two
+noble knights, Palemone and Arcito, and their wooing of the
+beautiful Emelia. The <i>Teseide</i> is of particular interest to the
+student of poetry, because it exhibits the first example of the
+<i>ottava rima</i>, a metre which was adopted by Tasso and Ariosto,
+and in English by Byron in <i>Don Juan</i>. Another link between
+Boccaccio&rsquo;s epic and English literature is formed by the fact of
+Chaucer having in the <i>Knight&rsquo;s Tale</i> adopted its main features.</p>
+
+<p>Boccaccio&rsquo;s poetry has been severely criticized by his countrymen,
+and most severely by the author himself. On reading
+Petrarch&rsquo;s sonnets, Boccaccio resolved in a fit of despair to burn
+his own attempts, and only the kindly encouragement of his
+great friend prevented the holocaust. Posterity has justly
+differed from the author&rsquo;s sweeping self-criticism. It is true,
+that compared with Dante&rsquo;s grandeur and passion, and with
+Petrarch&rsquo;s absolute mastership of metre and language, Boccaccio&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page103" id="page103"></a>103</span>
+poetry seems to be somewhat thrown into shade. His verse is
+occasionally slip-shod, and particularly his epic poetry lacks
+what in modern parlance is called poetic diction,&mdash;the quality,
+that is, which distinguishes the elevated pathos of the recorder
+of heroic deeds from the easy grace of the mere <i>conteur</i>. This
+latter feature, so charmingly displayed in Boccaccio&rsquo;s prose, has
+to some extent proved fatal to his verse. At the same time, his
+narrative is always fluent and interesting, and his lyrical pieces,
+particularly the poetic interludes in the <i>Decameron</i>, abound with
+charming gallantry, and frequently rise to lyrical pathos.</p>
+
+<p>About the year 1341 Boccaccio returned to Florence by
+command of his father, who in his old age desired the assistance
+and company of his son. Florence, at that time disturbed by
+civil feuds, and the silent gloom of his father&rsquo;s house could not
+but appear in an unfavourable light to one accustomed to the
+gay life of the Neapolitan court. But more than all this, Boccaccio
+regretted the separation from his beloved Fiammetta. The
+thought of her at once embittered and consoled his loneliness.
+Three of his works owe their existence to this period. With all
+of them Fiammetta is connected; of one of them she alone is the
+subject. The first work, called <i>Ameto</i>, describes the civilizing
+influence of love, which subdues the ferocious manners of the
+savage with its gentle power. Fiammetta, although not the
+heroine of the story, is amongst the nymphs who with their tales
+of true love soften the mind of the huntsman. <i>Ameto</i> is written
+in prose alternating with verse, specimens of which form occur
+in old and middle Latin writings. It is more probable, however,
+that Boccaccio adopted it from that sweetest and purest blossom
+of medieval French literature, <i>Aucassin et Nicolette</i>, which dates
+from the 13th century, and was undoubtedly known to him. So
+pleased was Boccaccio with the idea embodied in the character
+of <i>Ameto</i> that he repeated its essential features in the Cimone of
+his <i>Decameron</i> (Day 5th, tale i.). The second work referred to is
+a poem in fifty chapters, called <i>L&rsquo;amorosa Visione</i>. It describes
+a dream in which the poet, guided by a lady, sees the heroes and
+lovers of ancient and medieval times. Boccaccio evidently has
+tried to imitate the celebrated <i>Trionfi</i> of Petrarch, but without
+much success. There is little organic development in the poem,
+which reads like the <i>catalogue raisonné</i> of a picture gallery; but
+it is remarkable from another point of view. It is perhaps the
+most astounding instance in literature of ingenuity wasted on
+trifles; even Edgar Poe, had he known Boccaccio&rsquo;s puzzle,
+must have confessed himself surpassed. For the whole of the
+<i>Amorosa Visione</i> is nothing but an acrostic on a gigantic scale.
+The poem is written, like the <i>Divina Commedia</i>, in <i>terza rima</i>, and
+the initial letters of all the triplets throughout the work compose
+three poems of considerable length, in the first of which the whole
+is dedicated to Boccaccio&rsquo;s lady-love, this time under her real
+name of Maria. In addition to this, the initial letters of the first,
+third, fifth, seventh and ninth lines of the dedicatory poem form
+the name of Maria; so that here we have the acrostic in the
+second degree. No wonder that thus entrammelled the poet&rsquo;s
+thought begins to flag and his language to halt. The third
+important work written by Boccaccio during his stay at Florence,
+or soon after his return to Naples, is called <i>L&rsquo;amorosa Fiammetta</i>;
+and although written in prose, it contains more real poetry than
+the elaborate production just referred to. It purports to be
+Fiammetta&rsquo;s complaint after her lover, following the call of
+filial duty, had deserted her. Bitterly she deplores her fate, and
+upbraids her lover with coldness and want of devotion. Jealous
+fears add to her torture, not altogether unfounded, if we believe
+the commentators&rsquo; assertion that the heroine of <i>Ameto</i> is in
+reality the beautiful Lucia, a Florentine lady loved by Boccaccio.
+Sadly Fiammetta recalls the moments of former bliss, the first
+meeting, the stolen embrace. Her narrative is indeed our chief
+source of information for the incidents of this strange love-story.
+It has been thought unlikely, and indeed impossible, that
+Boccaccio should thus have become the mouthpiece of a real
+lady&rsquo;s real passion for himself; but there seems nothing incongruous
+in the supposition that after a happy reunion the poet
+should have heard with satisfaction, and surrounded with the
+halo of ideal art, the story of his lady&rsquo;s sufferings. Moreover, the
+language is too full of individual intensity to make the conjecture
+of an entirely fictitious love affair intrinsically probable. <i>L&rsquo;amorosa
+Fiammetta</i> is a monody of passion sustained even to the
+verge of dulness, but strikingly real, and therefore artistically
+valuable.</p>
+
+<p>By the intercession of an influential friend, Boccaccio at last
+obtained (in 1344) his father&rsquo;s permission to return to Naples,
+where in the meantime Giovanna, grand-daughter of King Robert,
+had succeeded to the crown. Being young and beautiful, fond of
+poetry and of the praise of poets, she received Boccaccio with all
+the distinction due to his literary fame. For many years she
+remained his faithful friend, and the poet returned her favour
+with grateful devotion. Even when the charge of having
+instigated, or at least connived at, the murder of her husband
+was but too clearly proved against her, Boccaccio was amongst
+the few who stood by her, and undertook the hopeless task of
+clearing her name from the dreadful stain. It was by her desire,
+no less than by that of Fiammetta, that he composed (between
+1344 and 1350) most of the stories of his <i>Decameron</i>, which
+afterwards were collected and placed in the mouths of the
+Florentine ladies and gentlemen. During this time he also
+composed the <i>Filostrato</i>, a narrative poem, the chief interest of
+which, for the English reader, lies in its connexion with Chaucer.
+With a boldness pardonable only in men of genius, Chaucer
+adopted the main features of the plot, and literally translated
+parts of Boccaccio&rsquo;s work, without so much as mentioning the
+name of his Italian source.</p>
+
+<p>In 1350 Boccaccio returned to Florence, owing to the death
+of his father, who had made him guardian to his younger brother
+Jacopo. He was received with great distinction, and entered
+the service of the Republic, being at various times sent on
+important missions to the margrave of Brandenburg, and to the
+courts of several popes, both in Avignon and Rome. Boccaccio
+boasts of the friendly terms on which he had been with the great
+potentates of Europe, the emperor and pope amongst the number.
+But he was never a politician in the sense that Dante and
+Petrarch were. As a man of the world he enjoyed the society
+of the great, but his interest in the internal commotions of the
+Florentine state seems to have been very slight. Besides, he
+never liked Florence, and the expressions used by him regarding
+his fellow-citizens betray anything but patriotic prejudice. In
+a Latin eclogue he applies to them the term &ldquo;Batrachos&rdquo; (frogs),
+by which, he adds parenthetically&mdash;<i>Ego intelligo Florentinorum
+morem; loquacissimi enim sumus, verum in rebus bellicis nihil
+valemus.</i> The only important result of Boccaccio&rsquo;s diplomatic
+career was his intimacy with Petrarch. The first acquaintance
+of these two great men dates from the year 1350, when Boccaccio,
+then just returned to Florence, did all in his power to make the
+great poet&rsquo;s short stay in that city agreeable. When in the
+following year the Florentines were anxious to draw men of
+great reputation to their newly-founded university, it was again
+Boccaccio who insisted on the claims of Petrarch to the most
+distinguished position. He himself accepted the mission of
+inviting his friend to Florence, and of announcing to Petrarch
+at the same time that the forfeited estates of his family had been
+restored to him. In this manner an intimate friendship grew up
+between them to be parted only by death. Common interests
+and common literary pursuits were the natural basis of their
+friendship, and both occupy prominent positions in the early
+history of that great intellectual revival commonly called the
+Renaissance.</p>
+
+<p>During the 14th century the study of ancient literature was
+at a low ebb in Italy. The interest of the lay world was engrossed
+by political struggles, and the treasures of classical history and
+poetry were at the mercy of monks, too lazy or too ignorant to
+use, or even to preserve them. Boccaccio himself told that,
+on asking to see the library of the celebrated monastery of
+Monte Cassino, he was shown into a dusty room without a door
+to it. Many of the valuable manuscripts were mutilated; and
+his guide told him that the monks were in the habit of tearing
+leaves from the codices to turn them into psalters for children,
+or amulets for women at the price of four or five <i>soldi</i> apiece.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104"></a>104</span>
+Boccaccio did all in his power to remove by word and example
+this barbarous indifference. He bought or copied with his own
+hand numerous valuable manuscripts, and an old writer remarks
+that if Boccaccio had been a professional copyist, the amount of
+his work might astonish us. His zealous endeavours for the
+revival of the all but forgotten Greek language in western
+Europe are well known. The most celebrated Italian scholars
+about the beginning of the 15th century were unable to read the
+Greek characters. Boccaccio deplored the ignorance of his age.
+He took lessons from Leone Pilato, a learned adventurer of the
+period, who had lived a long time in Thessaly and, although born
+in Calabria, pretended to be a Greek. By Boccaccio&rsquo;s advice
+Leone Pilato was appointed professor of Greek language and
+literature in the university of Florence, a position which he held
+for several years, not without great and lasting benefit for the
+revival of classical learning. Boccaccio was justly proud of
+having been intimately connected with the foundation of the
+first chair of Greek in Italy. But he did not forget, in his admiration
+of classic literature, the great poets of his own country.
+He never tires in his praise of the sublime Dante, whose works
+he copied with his own hand. He conjures his friend Petrarch
+to study the great Florentine, and to defend himself against
+the charges of wilful ignorance and envy brought against him.
+A life of Dante, and the commentaries on the first sixteen
+cantos of the <i>Inferno</i>, bear witness to Boccaccio&rsquo;s learning and
+enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p>In the chronological enumeration of our author&rsquo;s writings we
+now come to his most important work, the <i>Decameron</i>, a collection
+of one hundred stories, published in their combined form in 1353,
+although mostly written at an earlier date. This work marks in
+a certain sense the rise of Italian prose. It is true that Dante&rsquo;s
+<i>Vita Nuova</i> was written before, but its involved sentences,
+founded essentially on Latin constructions, cannot be compared
+with the infinite suppleness and precision of Boccaccio&rsquo;s prose.
+The <i>Cento Novelle Antiche</i>, on the other hand, which also precedes
+the <i>Decameron</i> in date, can hardly be said to be written in
+artistic language according to definite rules of grammar and
+style. Boccaccio for the first time speaks a new idiom, flexible
+and tender, like the character of the nation, and capable of
+rendering all the shades of feeling, from the coarse laugh of
+cynicism to the sigh of hopeless love. It is by the name of
+&ldquo;Father of Italian Prose&rdquo; that Boccaccio ought to be chiefly
+remembered.</p>
+
+<p>Like most progressive movements in art and literature,
+Boccaccio&rsquo;s remoulding of Italian prose may be described as a
+&ldquo;return to nature.&rdquo; It is indeed the nature of the Italian people
+itself which has become articulate in the <i>Decameron</i>; here we
+find southern grace and elegance, together with that unveiled
+<i>naïveté</i> of impulse which is so striking and so amiable a quality
+of the Italian character. The undesirable complement of the
+last-mentioned feature, a coarseness and indecency of conception
+and expression hardly comprehensible to the northern mind,
+also appears in the <i>Decameron</i>, particularly where the life and
+conversation of the lower classes are the subject of the story.
+At the same time, these descriptions of low life are so admirable,
+and the character of popular parlance rendered with such
+humour, as often to make the frown of moral disgust give way
+to a smile.</p>
+
+<p>It is not surprising that a style so concise and yet so pliable
+so typical and yet so individual, as that of Boccaccio was of
+enormous influence on the further progress of a prose in a manner
+created by it. This influence has indeed prevailed down to the
+present time, to an extent beneficial upon the whole, although
+frequently fatal to the development of individual writers.
+Novelists like Giovanni Fiorentino or Franco Sacchetti are
+completely under the sway of their great model; and Boccaccio&rsquo;s
+influence may be discerned equally in the plastic fulness of
+Machiavelli and in the pointed satire of Aretino. Without
+touching upon the individual merits of Lasca, Bandello and other
+novelists of the <i>cinque-cento</i>, it may be asserted that none of them
+created a style independent of their great predecessor. One
+cannot indeed but acquiesce in the authoritative utterance of
+the Accademia della Crusca, which holds up the <i>Decameron</i> as
+the standard and model of Italian prose. Even the Della Cruscan
+writers themselves have been unable to deprive the language
+wholly of the fresh spontaneity of Boccaccio&rsquo;s manner, which
+in modern literature we again admire in Manzoni&rsquo;s <i>Promessi
+sposi</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A detailed analysis of a work so well known as the <i>Decameron</i>
+would be unnecessary. The description of the plague of Florence
+preceding the stories is universally acknowledged to be a masterpiece
+of epic grandeur and vividness. It ranks with the paintings
+of similar calamities by Thucydides, Defoe and Manzoni. Like
+Defoe, Boccaccio had to draw largely on hearsay and his own
+imagination, it being almost certain that in 1348 he was at Naples,
+and therefore no eye-witness of the scenes he describes. The
+stories themselves, a hundred in number, range from the highest
+pathos to the coarsest licentiousness. A creation like the patient
+Griselda, which international literature owes to Boccaccio, ought
+to atone for much that is morally and artistically objectionable
+in the <i>Decameron</i>. It may be said on this head, that his age and
+his country were not only deeply immoral, but in addition
+exceedingly outspoken. Moreover, his sources were anything
+but pure. Most of his improper stories are either anecdotes
+from real life, or they are taken from the <i>fabliaux</i> of medieval
+French poets. On comparing the latter class of stories (about
+one-fifth of the whole <i>Decameron</i>) with their French originals,
+one finds that Boccaccio has never added to, but has sometimes
+toned down the revolting ingredients. Notwithstanding this,
+it cannot be denied that the artistic value of the <i>Decameron</i> is
+greatly impaired by descriptions and expressions, the intentional
+licentiousness of which is but imperfectly veiled by an attempt
+at humour.</p>
+
+<p>Boccaccio has been accused of plagiarism, particularly by
+French critics, who correctly state that the subjects of many
+stories in the <i>Decameron</i> are borrowed from their literature. A
+similar objection might be raised against Chaucer, Shakespeare,
+Goethe (in <i>Faust</i>), and indeed most of the master minds of all
+nations. Power of invention is not the only nor even the chief
+criterion of a great poet. He takes his subjects indiscriminately
+from his own fancy, or from the consciousness of his and other
+nations. Stories float about in the air, known to all yet realized
+by few; the poet gathers their <i>disjecta membra</i> into an organic
+whole, and this he inspires and calls into life with the breath
+of his genius. It is in this sense that Boccaccio is the creator of
+those innumerable beautiful types and stories, which have since
+become household words amongst civilized nations. No author
+can equal him in these contributions to the store of international
+literature. There are indeed few great poets who have not in
+some way become indebted to the inexhaustible treasure of
+Boccaccio&rsquo;s creativeness. One of the greatest masterpieces of
+German literature, Lessing&rsquo;s <i>Nathan the Wise</i>, contains a story
+from Boccaccio (<i>Decameron</i>, Day 1st, tale iii.), and the list of
+English poets who have drawn from the same source comprises,
+among many others, the names of Chaucer, Lydgate, Dryden,
+Keats and Tennyson.</p>
+
+<p>For ten years Boccaccio continued to reside in Florence,
+leaving the city only occasionally on diplomatic missions or on
+visits to his friends. His fame in the meantime began to spread
+far and wide, and his <i>Decameron</i>, in particular, was devoured
+by the fashionable ladies and gentlemen of the age. About
+1360 he seems to have retired from the turbulent scenes of
+Florence to his native Certaldo, the secluded charms of which
+he describes with rapture. In the following year took place that
+strange turning-point in Boccaccio&rsquo;s career which is generally
+described as his conversion. It seems that a Carthusian monk
+came to him while at Certaldo charged with a posthumous
+message from another monk of the same order, to the effect
+that if Boccaccio did not at once abandon his godless ways in
+life and literature his death would ensue after a short time. It
+is also mentioned that the revelation to the friar on his deathbed
+of a secret known only to Boccaccio gave additional import to
+this alarming information. Boccaccio&rsquo;s impressionable nature
+was deeply moved. His life had been far from virtuous; in his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105"></a>105</span>
+writings he had frequently sinned against the rules of morality,
+and worse still, he had attacked with bitter satire the institutions
+and servants of holy mother church. Terrified by the approach
+of immediate death, he resolved to sell his library, abandon
+literature, and devote the remainder of his life to penance and
+religious exercise. To this effect he wrote to Petrarch. We
+possess the poet&rsquo;s answer; it is a masterpiece of writing, and
+what is more, a proof of tenderest friendship. The message of
+the monk Petrarch is evidently inclined to treat simply as pious
+fraud, without, however, actually committing himself to that
+opinion. &ldquo;No monk is required to tell thee of the shortness
+and precariousness of human life. Of the advice received accept
+what is good; abandon worldly cares, conquer thy passions,
+and reform thy soul and life of degraded habits. But do not
+give up the studies which are the true food of a healthy mind.&rdquo;
+Boccaccio seems to have acted on this valuable advice. His
+later works, although written in Latin and scientific in character,
+are by no means of a religious kind. It seems, however, that
+his entering the church in 1362 is connected with the events
+just related.</p>
+
+<p>In 1363 Boccaccio went on a visit to Naples to the seneschal
+Acciajuoli (the same Florentine who had in 1344 persuaded the
+elder Boccaccio to permit his son&rsquo;s return to Naples), who
+commissioned him to write the story of his deeds of valour.
+On his arrival, however, the poet was treated with shameful
+neglect, and revenged himself by denying the possibility of relating
+any valorous deeds for want of their existence. This declaration,
+it must be confessed, came somewhat late, but it was
+provoked by a silly attack on the poet himself by one of the
+seneschal&rsquo;s indiscreet friends.</p>
+
+<p>During the next ten years Boccaccio led an unsettled life,
+residing chiefly at Florence or Certaldo, but frequently leaving
+his home on visits to Petrarch and other friends, and on various
+diplomatic errands in the service of the Republic. He seems to
+have been poor, having spent large sums in the purchase of books,
+but his independent spirit rejected the numerous splendid offers
+of hospitality made to him by friends and admirers. During
+this period he wrote four important Latin works&mdash;<i>De Genealogia
+Deorum libri XV.</i>, a compendium of mythological knowledge
+full of deep learning; <i>De Montium, Silvarum, Lacuum, et
+Marium nominibus liber</i>, a treatise on ancient geography; and
+two historical books&mdash;<i>De Casibus Virorum et Feminarum
+Illustrium libri IX.</i>, interesting to the English reader as the
+original of John Lydgate&rsquo;s <i>Fall of Princes</i>; and <i>De Claris
+Mulieribus</i>. To the list of his works ought to be added <i>Il Ninfale
+Fiesolano</i>, a beautiful love-story in verse, and <i>Il Corbaccio ossia
+Il Laberinto d&rsquo;Amore</i>, a coarse satire on a Florentine widow who
+had jilted the poet, written about 1355, not to mention many
+eclogues in Latin and miscellaneous <i>Rime</i> in Italian (the latter
+collected by his biographer Count Baldelli in 1802).</p>
+
+<p>In 1373 we find Boccaccio again settled at Certaldo. Here
+he was attacked by a terrible disease which brought him to the
+verge of death, and from the consequences of which he never
+quite recovered. But sickness could not subdue his intellectual
+vigour. When the Florentines established a chair for the explanation
+of the <i>Divina Commedia</i> in their university, and
+offered it to Boccaccio, the senescent poet at once undertook
+the arduous duty. He delivered his first lecture on the 23rd
+of October 1373. The commentary on part of the <i>Inferno</i>,
+already alluded to, bears witness of his unabated power of
+intellect. In 1374 the news of the loss of his dearest friend
+Petrarch reached Boccaccio, and from this blow he may be said
+to have never recovered. Almost his dying efforts were devoted
+to the memory of his friend; urgently he entreated Petrarch&rsquo;s
+son-in-law to arrange the publication of the deceased poet&rsquo;s
+Latin epic <i>Africa</i>, a work of which the author had been far more
+proud than of his immortal sonnets to Laura.</p>
+
+<p>In his last will Boccaccio left his library to his father confessor,
+and after his decease to the convent of Santo Spirito in Florence.
+His small property he bequeathed to his brother Jacopo. His
+own natural children had died before him. He himself died on
+the 21st of December 1375 at Certaldo, and was buried in the
+church of SS. Jacopo e Filippo of that town. On his tombstone
+was engraved the epitaph composed by himself shortly before
+his death. It is calm and dignified, worthy indeed of a great
+life with a great purpose. These are the lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Hac sub mole jacent cineres ac ossa Joannis;</p>
+<p class="i05">Mens sedet ante Deum, meritis ornata laborum</p>
+<p class="i05">Mortalis vitae. Genitor Boccaccius illi;</p>
+<p class="i05">Patria Certaldum; studium fuit alma poesis.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A complete edition of Boccaccio&rsquo;s Italian writings, in 17 vols.,
+was published by Moutier (Florence, 1834). The life of Boccaccio
+has been written by Tiraboschi, Mazzuchelli, Count Baldelli (<i>Vita
+di Boccaccio</i>, Florence, 1806), and others. In English the best
+biography is Edward Hutton (1909.) The first printed edition
+of the <i>Decameron</i> is without date, place or printer&rsquo;s name; but it is
+believed to belong to the year 1469 or 1470, and to have been printed
+at Florence. Besides this, Baldelli mentions eleven editions during
+the 15th century. The entire number of editions by far exceeds a
+hundred. A curious expurgated edition, authorized by the pope,
+appeared at Florence, 1573. Here, however, the grossest indecencies
+remain, the chief alteration being the change of the improper
+personages from priests and monks into laymen. The best
+old edition is that of Florence, 1527. Of modern reprints, that by
+Forfoni (Florence, 1857) deserves mention. Manni has written a
+<i>Storia del Decamerone</i> (1742), and a German scholar, M. Landau,
+who published (Vienna, 1869) a valuable investigation of the sources
+of the <i>Decameron</i>, subsequently brought out in 1877 a general study
+of Boccaccio&rsquo;s life and works. An interesting English translation
+of the <i>Decameron</i> appeared in 1624, under the title <i>The Model of
+Mirth, Wit, Eloquence and Conversation</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOCCALINI, TRAJANO<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> (1556-1613), Italian satirist, was born
+at Loretto in 1556. The son of an architect, he himself adopted
+that profession, and it appears that he commenced late in life to
+apply to literary pursuits. Pursuing his studies at Rome, he had
+the honour of teaching Bentivoglio, and acquired the friendship
+of the cardinals Gaetano and Borghesi, as well as of other
+distinguished personages. By their influence he obtained various
+posts, and was even appointed by Gregory XIII. governor of
+Benevento in the states of the church. Here, however, he seems
+to have acted imprudently, and he was soon recalled to Rome,
+where he shortly afterwards composed his most important work,
+the <i>Ragguagli di Parnaso</i>, in which Apollo is represented as
+receiving the complaints of all who present themselves, and
+distributing justice according to the merits of each particular
+case. The book is full of light and fantastic satire on the actions
+and writings of his eminent contemporaries, and some of its
+happier hits are among the hackneyed felicities of literature. To
+escape, it is said, from the hostility of those whom his shafts had
+wounded, he returned to Venice, and there, according to the
+register in the parochial church of Sta Maria Formosa, died of
+colic, accompanied with fever, on the 16th of November 1613.
+It was asserted, indeed, by contemporary writers that he had
+been beaten to death with sand-bags by a band of Spanish
+bravadoes, but the story seems without foundation. At the
+same time, it is evident from the <i>Pietra del Paragone</i>, which
+appeared after his death in 1615, that whatever the feelings of
+the Spaniards towards him, he cherished against them feelings of
+the bitterest hostility. The only government, indeed, which is
+exempt from his attacks is that of Venice, a city for which he
+seems to have had a special affection.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Ragguagli</i>, first printed in 1612, has frequently been republished.
+The <i>Pietra</i> has been translated into French, German,
+English and Latin; the English translator was Henry, earl of
+Monmouth, his version being entitled <i>The Politicke Touchstone</i>
+(London, 1674). Another posthumous publication of Boccalini
+was his <i>Commentarii sopra Cornelia Tacito</i> (Geneva, 1669). Many
+of his manuscripts are preserved still unprinted.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOCCHERINI, LUIGI<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> (1743-1805), Italian composer, son of
+an Italian bass-player, was born at Lucca, and studied at Rome,
+where he became a fine &rsquo;cellist, and soon began to compose. He
+returned to Lucca, where for some years he was prominent as a
+player, and there he produced two oratorios and an opera. He
+toured in Europe, and in 1768 was received in Paris by Gossec
+and his circle with great enthusiasm, his instrumental pieces being
+highly applauded; and from 1769 to 1785 he held the post of
+&ldquo;composer and virtuoso&rdquo; to the king of Spain&rsquo;s brother, the
+infante Luis, at Madrid. He afterwards became &ldquo;chamber-composer&rdquo;
+to King Frederick William II. of Prussia, till 1797,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>106</span>
+when he returned to Spain. He died at Madrid on the 28th of
+May 1805.</p>
+
+<p>As an admirer of Haydn, and a voluminous writer of instrumental
+music, chiefly for the violoncello, Boccherini represents
+the effect of the rapid progress of a new art on a mind too refined
+to be led into crudeness, too inventive and receptive to neglect
+any of the new artistic resources within its cognizance, and too
+superficial to grasp their real meaning. His mastery of the
+violoncello, and his advanced sense of beauty in instrumental
+tone-colour, must have made even his earlier works seem to
+contemporaries at least as novel and mature as any of those
+experiments at which Haydn, with eight years more of age and
+experience, was labouring in the development of the true new
+forms. Most of Boccherini&rsquo;s technical resources proved useless
+to Haydn, and resemblances occur only in Haydn&rsquo;s earliest works
+(<i>e.g.</i> most of the slow movements of the quartets in <i>op</i>. 3 and in
+some as late as <i>op</i>. 17); whichever derived the characteristics of
+such movements from the other, the advantage is decidedly with
+Boccherini. But the progress of music did not lie in the production
+of novel beauties of instrumental tone in a style in which
+polyphonic organization was either deliberately abandoned or
+replaced by a pleasing illusion, while the form in its larger aspects
+was a mere inorganic amplification of the old suite-forms, which
+presupposed a genuine polyphonic organization as the vitalizing
+principle of their otherwise purely decorative nature. The true
+tendency of the new sonata forms was to make instrumental
+music dramatic in its variety and contrasts, instead of merely
+decorative. Haydn from the outset buried himself with the
+handling of new rhythmic proportions; and if it is hardly an
+exaggeration to say that the surprising beauty of colour in such
+a specimen of Boccherini&rsquo;s 125 string-quintets as that in E major
+(containing the popular minuet) is perhaps more modern and
+certainly safer in performance than any special effect Haydn ever
+achieved, it is nevertheless true that even this beauty fails to
+justify the length and monotony of the work. Where Haydn
+uses any fraction of the resources of such a style, the ultimate
+effect is in proportion to a purpose of which Boccherini, with all
+his genuine admiration of his elder brother in art, could form no
+conception. Boccherini&rsquo;s works are, however, still indispensable
+for violoncellists, both in their education and their concert
+repertories; and his position in musical history is assured as that
+of the most original and, next to Tartini, perhaps the greatest
+writer of music for stringed instruments in the late Italian
+amplifications of the older quasi-polyphonic sonata or suite-form
+that survived into the beginning of the 19th century in the works
+of Nardini. Boccherini may safely be regarded as its last real
+master. He was wittily characterized by the contemporary
+violinist Puppo as &ldquo;the wife of Haydn&rdquo;; which is very true, if
+man and woman are two different species; but not as true as
+<i>e.g.</i> the equally common saying that &ldquo;Schubert is the wife of
+Beethoven,&rdquo; and still less true than that &ldquo;Vittoria is the wife of
+Palestrina.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His life, with a <i>Catalogue raisonné</i>, was published by L. Picquot
+(1851).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. F. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOCCHUS,<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> king of Mauretania (about 110 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and father-in-law
+of Jugurtha. In 108 he vacillated between Jugurtha and
+the Romans, and joined Jugurtha only on his promising him the
+third part of his kingdom. The two kings were twice defeated.
+Bocchus again made overtures to the Romans, and after an
+interview with Sulla, who was Marius&rsquo;s quaestor at that time,
+sent ambassadors to Rome. At Rome the hope of an alliance
+was encouraged, but on condition that Bocchus showed himself
+deserving of it. After further negotiations with Sulla, he finally
+agreed to send a message to Jugurtha requesting his presence.
+Jugurtha fell into the trap and was given up to Sulla. Bocchus
+concluded a treaty with the Romans, and a portion of Numidia
+was added to his kingdom. Further to conciliate the Romans and
+especially Sulla, he sent to the Capitol a group of Victories guarding
+a device in gold showing Bocchus handing over Jugurtha to Sulla.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jugurtha</a></span>; also Sallust, <i>Jugurtha</i>, 80-120; Plutarch, <i>Marius</i>,
+8-32, <i>Sulla</i>, 3; A.H.J. Greenidge, <i>History of Rome</i> (London, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Bocchus</span>, was king of Mauretania, jointly with a
+younger brother Bogud. As enemies of the senatorial party,
+their title was recognized by Caesar (49 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). During the African
+war they invaded Numidia and conquered Cirta, the capital of
+the kingdom of Juba, who was thus obliged to abandon the idea
+of joining Metellus Scipio against Caesar. At the end of the war,
+Caesar bestowed upon Bocchus part of the territory of Massinissa,
+Juba&rsquo;s ally, which was recovered after Caesar&rsquo;s murder by
+Massinissa&rsquo;s son Arabion. Dio Cassius says that Bocchus sent
+his sons to support Sextus Pompeius in Spain, while Bogud
+fought on the side of Caesar, and there is no doubt that after
+Caesar&rsquo;s death Bocchus supported Octavian, and Bogud Antony.
+During Bogud&rsquo;s absence in Spain, his brother seized the whole of
+Numidia, and was confirmed sole ruler by Octavian. After his
+death in 33, Numidia was made a Roman province.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Bell. Afric.</i> 25; Dio Cassius xli. 42, xliii. 36, xlviii. 45; Appian,
+<i>Bell. Civ.</i> ii. 96, iv. 54.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOCHART, SAMUEL<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> (1599-1667), French scholar, was born
+at Rouen on the 30th of May 1599. He was for many years a
+pastor of a Protestant church at Caen, and became tutor to
+Wentworth Dillon, earl of Roscommon. In 1646 he published
+his <i>Phaleg</i> and <i>Chanaan</i> (Caen, 1646 and 1651), the two parts
+of his <i>Geographia Sacra</i>. His <i>Hierozoicon</i>, which treats of the
+animals of Scripture, was printed in London (2 vols., 1663). In
+1652 Christina of Sweden invited him to Stockholm, where he
+studied the Arabian manuscripts in the queen&rsquo;s possession.
+He was accompanied by Pierre Daniel Huet, afterwards bishop
+of Avranches. On his return to Caen he was received into
+the academy of that city. Bochart was a man of profound
+erudition; he possessed a thorough knowledge of the principal
+Oriental languages, including Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldaic and
+Arabic; and at an advanced age he wished to learn Ethiopic.
+He was so absorbed in his favourite study, that he saw Phoenician
+and nothing but Phoenician in everything, even in Celtic
+words, and hence the number of chimerical etymologies which
+swarm in his works. He died at Caen on the 16th of May 1667.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete edition of his works was published at Leiden, under
+the title of <i>Sam. Bochart Opera Omnia</i> (1675, 2 vols. folio; 4th ed.,
+3 vols., 1712). An <i>Essay on the Life and Writings of Samuel Bochart</i>,
+by W.R. Whittingham, appeared in 1829.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOCHOLT,<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Westphalia, near the frontier of Holland, 12 m. by rail north
+of Wesel. It is a seat of the cotton industry. Pop. (1900)
+21,278.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOCHUM,<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
+Westphalia, 11 m. by rail west from Dortmund. Pop. (1905)
+118,000. It is a centre of the iron and steel industries, producing
+principally cast steel, cast iron, iron pipes, wire and wire ropes,
+and lamps, with tin and zinc works, coal-mining, factories for
+carpets, calcium carbide and paper-roofing, brickworks and
+breweries. The Bochumer Verein für Bergbau (mining) und
+Gusstahl Fabrication (steel manufacture) is one of the principal
+trusts in this industry, founded in 1854. There are a mining
+and a metallurgical school.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BÖCKH, PHILIPP AUGUST<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> (1785-1867), German classical
+scholar and antiquarian, was born in Karlsruhe on the 24th of
+November 1785. He was sent to the gymnasium of his native
+place, and remained there until he left for the university of
+Halle (1803), where he devoted himself to the study of theology.
+F.A. Wolf was then creating there an enthusiasm for classical
+studies; Böckh fell under the spell, passed from theology to
+philology, and became the greatest of all Wolf&rsquo;s scholars. In
+1807 he established himself as privat-docent in the university
+of Heidelberg and was shortly afterwards appointed a professor
+extraordinarius, becoming professor two years later. In 1811
+he removed to the new Berlin University, having been appointed
+professor of eloquence and classical literature. He remained
+there till his death on the 3rd of August 1867. He was elected
+a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin in 1814, and
+for a long time acted as its secretary. Many of the speeches
+contained in his <i>Kleine Schriften</i> were delivered in this latter
+capacity.</p>
+
+<p>Böckh worked out the ideas of Wolf in regard to philology,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107"></a>107</span>
+and illustrated them by his practice. Discarding the old notion
+that philology consisted in a minute acquaintance with words
+and the exercise of the critical art, he regarded it as the entire
+knowledge of antiquity, historical and philosophical. He
+divides philology into five parts: first, an inquiry into public
+acts, with a knowledge of times and places, into civil institutions,
+and also into law; second, an inquiry into private affairs;
+third, an exhibition of the religions and arts of the ancient
+nations; fourth, a history of all their moral and physical speculations
+and beliefs, and of their literatures; and fifth, a complete
+explanation of the language. These ideas in regard to philology
+Böckh set forth in a Latin oration delivered in 1822 (<i>Gesammelte
+kleine Schriften</i>, i.). In his speech at the opening of the congress
+of German philologists in 1850, he defined philology as the
+historical construction of the entire life&mdash;therefore, of all forms
+of culture and all the productions of a people in its practical
+and spiritual tendencies. He allows that such a work is too great
+for any one man; but the very infinity of subjects is the stimulus
+to the pursuit of truth, and men strive because they have not
+attained (<i>ib</i>. ii.). An account of Böckh&rsquo;s division of philology
+will be found in Freund&rsquo;s <i>Wie studirt man Philologie?</i></p>
+
+<p>From 1806 till his death Böckh&rsquo;s literary activity was unceasing.
+His principal works were the following:&mdash;(1) An edition
+of Pindar, the first volume of which (1811) contains the text of
+the Epinician odes; a treatise, <i>De Metris Pindari</i>, in three books;
+and <i>Notae Criticae</i>: the second (1819) contains the <i>Scholia</i>;
+and part ii. of volume ii. (1821) contains a Latin translation, a
+commentary, the fragments and indices. It is still the most
+complete edition of Pindar that we have. But it was especially
+the treatise on the metres which placed Böckh in the first rank
+of scholars. This treatise forms an epoch in the treatment of
+the subject. In it the author threw aside all attempts to determine
+the Greek metres by mere subjective standards, pointing
+out at the same time the close connexion between the music
+and the poetry of the Greeks. He investigated minutely the
+nature of Greek music as far as it can be ascertained, as well as
+all the details regarding Greek musical instruments; and he
+explained the statements of the ancient Greek writers on rhythm.
+In this manner he laid the foundation for a scientific treatment
+of Greek metres. (2) <i>Die Staatshaushaltung der Athener</i>, 1817
+(2nd ed. 1851, with a supplementary volume <i>Urkunden über das
+Seewesen des attischen Staats</i>; 3rd ed. by Fränkel, 1886),
+translated into English by Sir George Cornewall Lewis (1828)
+under the title of <i>The Public Economy of Athens</i>. In it he
+investigated a subject of peculiar difficulty with profound
+learning. He amassed information from the whole range of
+Greek literature, carefully appraised the value of the information
+given, and shows throughout every portion of it rare
+critical ability and insight. A work of a similar kind was his
+<i>Metrologische Untersuchungen über Gewichte, Münzfüsse, und
+Masse des Alterthums</i> (1838). (3) Böckh&rsquo;s third great work arose
+out of his second. In regard to the taxes and revenue of the
+Athenian state he derived a great deal of his most trustworthy
+information from inscriptions, many of which are given in his
+book. It was natural, therefore, that when the Berlin Academy
+of Sciences projected the plan of a <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum</i>,
+Böckh should be chosen as the principal editor. This
+great work (1828-1877) is in four volumes, the third and fourth
+volumes being edited by J. Franz, E. Curtius, A. Kirchhoff and
+H. Röhl.</p>
+
+<p>Böckh&rsquo;s activity was continually digressing into widely
+different fields. He gained for himself a foremost position
+amongst the investigators of ancient chronology, and his name
+occupies a place by the side of those of Ideler and Mommsen.
+His principal works on this subject were: <i>Zur Geschichte der
+Mondcyclen der Hellenen</i> (1855); <i>Epigraphisch-chronologische
+Studien</i> (1856); <i>Über die vierjährigen Sonnenkreise der Alten</i>
+(1863), and several papers which he published in the <i>Transactions
+of the Berlin Academy</i>. Böckh also occupied himself with
+philosophy. One of his earliest papers was on the Platonic
+doctrine of the world, <i>De Platonica corporis mundani fabrica</i>
+(1809), followed by <i>De Platonico Systemate Caelestium globorum
+et de vera Indole Astronomiae Philolaice</i> (1810), to which may be
+added <i>Manetho und die Hundsternperiode</i> (1845). In opposition
+to Otto Gruppe (1804-1876), he denied that Plato affirmed the
+diurnal rotation of the earth (<i>Untersuchungen über das kosmische
+System des Platon</i>, 1852), and when in opposition to him Grote
+published his opinions on the subject (Plato and the Rotation
+of the Earth) Böckh was ready with his reply. Another of his
+earlier papers, and one frequently referred to, was <i>Commentatio
+Academica de simultate quae Platoni cum Xenophonte intercessisse
+fertur</i> (1811). Other philosophical writings were <i>Commentatio
+in Platonis qui vulgo fertur Minoem</i> (1806), and <i>Philolaos&rsquo; des
+Pythagoreers Lehren nebst den Bruchstücken</i> (1819), in which he
+endeavoured to show the genuineness of the fragments.</p>
+
+<p>Besides his edition of Pindar, Böckh published an edition
+of the Antigone of Sophocles (1843) with a poetical translation
+and essays. An early and important work on the Greek tragedians
+is his <i>Graecae Tragoediae Principum ... num ea quae
+supersunt et genuina omnia sint et forma primitiva servata</i> (1808).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The smaller writings of Böckh began to be collected in his lifetime.
+Three of the volumes were published before his death, and four after
+(<i>Gesammelte kleine Schriften</i>, 1858-1874). The first two consist of
+orations delivered in the university or academy of Berlin, or on
+public occasions. The third, fourth, fifth and sixth contain his
+contributions to the <i>Transactions of the Berlin Academy</i>, and the
+seventh contains his critiques. Böckh&rsquo;s lectures, delivered from
+1809-1865, were published by Bratuschek under the title of <i>Encyclopädie
+und Methodologie der philologischen Wissenschaften</i> (2nd ed,
+Klussmann, 1886). His philological and scientific theories are set
+forth in Elze, <i>Über Philologie als System</i> (1845), and Reichhardt, <i>Die
+Gliederung der Philologie entwickelt</i> (1846). His correspondence with
+Ottfried Müller appeared at Leipzig in 1883. See Sachse, <i>Erinnerungen
+an August Böckh</i> (1868); Stark, in the <i>Verhandlungen der
+Würzburger Philologensammlung</i> (1868); Max Hoffmann, <i>August
+Böckh</i> (1901); and S. Reiter, in <i>Neue Jahrbucher für das klassische
+Altertum</i> (1902), p. 436.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BÖCKLIN, ARNOLD<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> (1827-1901), Swiss painter, was born
+at Basel on the 16th of October 1827. His father, Christian
+Frederick Böcklin (b. 1802), was descended from an old family
+of Schaffhausen, and engaged in the silk trade. His mother,
+Ursula Lippe, was a native of the same city. In 1846 he began
+his studies at the Düsseldorf academy under Schirmer, who
+recognized in him a student of exceptional promise, and sent him
+to Antwerp and Brussels, where he copied the works of Flemish
+and Dutch masters. Böcklin then went to Paris, worked at the
+Louvre, and painted several landscapes; his &ldquo;Landscape and
+Ruin&rdquo; reveals at the same time a strong feeling for nature and
+a dramatic conception of scenery. After serving his time in the
+army he set out for Rome in March 1850, and the sight of the
+Eternal City was a fresh stimulus to his mind. So, too, was
+the influence of Italian nature and that of the dead pagan world.
+At Rome he married (June 20, 1853) Angela Rosa Lorenza
+Pascucci. In 1856 he returned to Munich, and remained there
+four years. He then exhibited the &ldquo;Great Park,&rdquo; one of his
+earliest works, in which he treated ancient mythology with the
+stamp of individuality, which was the basis of his reputation.
+Of this period, too, are his &ldquo;Nymph and Satyr,&rdquo; &ldquo;Heroic
+Landscape&rdquo; (Diana Hunting), both of 1858, and &ldquo;Sappho&rdquo;
+(1859). These works, which were much discussed, together with
+Lenbach&rsquo;s recommendation, gained him his appointment as
+professor at the Weimar academy. He held the office for two
+years, painting the &ldquo;Venus and Love,&rdquo; a &ldquo;Portrait of Lenbach,&rdquo;
+and a &ldquo;Saint Catherine.&rdquo; He was again at Rome from 1862 to
+1866, and there gave his fancy and his taste for violent colour
+free play in his &ldquo;Portrait of Mme Böcklin,&rdquo; now in the Basel
+gallery, in &ldquo;An Anchorite in the Wilderness&rdquo; (1863); a &ldquo;Roman
+Tavern,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Villa on the Sea-shore&rdquo; (1864); this last, one of his
+best pictures. He returned to Basel in 1866 to finish his frescoes
+in the gallery, and to paint, besides several portraits, &ldquo;The
+Magdalene with Christ&rdquo; (1868); &ldquo;Anacreon&rsquo;s Muse&rdquo; (1869);
+and &ldquo;A Castle and Warriors&rdquo; (1871). His &ldquo;Portrait of Myself,&rdquo;
+with Death playing a violin (1873), was painted after his return
+again to Munich, where he exhibited his famous &ldquo;Battle of the
+Centaurs&rdquo; (in the Basel gallery); &ldquo;Landscape with Moorish
+Horsemen&rdquo; (in the Lucerne gallery); and &ldquo;A Farm&rdquo; (1875).
+From 1876 to 1885 Böcklin was working at Florence, and painted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108"></a>108</span>
+a &ldquo;Pietà,&rdquo; &ldquo;Ulysses and Calypso,&rdquo; &ldquo;Prometheus,&rdquo; and the
+&ldquo;Sacred Grove.&rdquo; From 1886 to 1892 he settled at Zürich.
+Of this period are the &ldquo;Naiads at Play,&rdquo; &ldquo;A Sea Idyll,&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;War.&rdquo; After 1892 Böcklin resided at San Domenico, near
+Florence. An exhibition of his collected works was held at
+Basel from the 20th of September to the 24th of October 1897.
+He died on the 16th of January 1901.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His life has been written by Henri Mendelssohn. See also F.
+Hermann, <i>Gazette des Beaux Arts</i> (Paris, 1893); Max Lehrs, <i>Arnold
+Böcklin, Ein Leitfaden zum Verständniss seiner Kunst</i> (Munich,
+1897); W. Ritter, <i>Arnold Böcklin</i> (Gand, 1895); <i>Katalog der
+Böcklin Jubiläums Ausstellung</i> (Basel, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Fr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOCLAND,<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> <span class="sc">Bockland</span> or <span class="sc">Bookland</span> (from A.S. <i>boc</i>, book),
+an original mode of tenure of land, also called charter-land or
+deed-land. Bocland was folk-land granted to individuals in
+private ownership by a document (charter or book) in writing,
+with the signatures of the king and witenagemot; at first it was
+rarely, if ever, held by laymen, except for religious purposes.
+Bocland to a certain extent resembled full ownership in the
+modern sense, in that the owner could grant it in his lifetime,
+in the same manner as he had received it, by <i>boc</i> or book, and
+also dispose of it by will. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Folkland</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOCSKAY, STEPHEN<a name="ar240" id="ar240"></a></span> [<span class="sc">István</span>] (1557-1606), prince of Transylvania,
+the most eminent member of the ancient Bocskay
+family, son of György Bocskay and Krisztina Sulyok, was born
+at Kolozsvár, Hungary. As the chief councillor of Prince
+Zsigmond Báthory, he advised his sovereign to contract an
+alliance with the emperor instead of holding to the Turk, and
+rendered important diplomatic services on frequent missions to
+Prague and Vienna. The enmity towards him of the later
+Báthory princes of Transylvania, who confiscated his estates,
+drove him to seek protection at the imperial court (1599); but
+the attempts of the emperor Rudolph II. to deprive Hungary
+of her constitution and the Protestants of their religious liberties
+speedily alienated Bocskay, especially after the terrible outrages
+inflicted on the Transylvanians by the imperial generals Basta
+and Belgiojoso from 1602 to 1604. Bocskay, to save the independence
+of Transylvania, assisted the Turks; and in 1605, as
+a reward for his part in driving Basta out of Transylvania, the
+Hungarian diet, assembled at Modgyes, elected him prince (1605),
+on which occasion the Ottoman sultan sent a special embassy
+to congratulate him and a splendid jewelled crown made in Persia.
+Bocskay refused the royal dignity, but made skilful use of the
+Turkish alliance. To save the Austrian provinces of Hungary,
+the archduke Matthias, setting aside his semi-lunatic imperial
+brother Rudolph, thereupon entered into negotiations with
+Bocskay, and ultimately the peace of Vienna was concluded
+(June 23, 1606), which guaranteed all the constitutional and
+religious rights and privileges of the Hungarians both in Transylvania
+and imperial Hungary. Bocskay, at the same time, was
+acknowledged as prince of Transylvania by the Austrian court,
+and the right of the Transylvanians to elect their own independent
+princes in future was officially recognized. The fortress of
+Tokaj and the counties of Bereg, Szatmár and Ugocsa were at
+the same time ceded to Bocskay, with reversion to Austria if
+he should die childless. Simultaneously, at Zsitvatorok, a peace,
+confirmatory of the peace of Vienna, was concluded with the
+Turks. Bocskay survived this signal and unprecedented triumph
+only a few months. He is said to have been poisoned (December
+29, 1606) by his chancellor, Mihály Kátay, who was hacked
+to bits by Bocskay&rsquo;s adherents in the market-place of Kassa.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Political Correspondence of Stephen Bocskay</i> (Hung.), edited by
+Károly Szábo (Budapest, 1882); Jenö Thury, <i>Stephen Bocskay&rsquo;s
+Rebellion</i> (Hung.), Budapest, 1899.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODE, JOHANN ELERT<a name="ar241" id="ar241"></a></span> (1747-1826), German astronomer,
+was born at Hamburg on the 19th of January 1747. Devoted
+to astronomy from his earliest years, he eagerly observed the
+heavens at a garret window with a telescope made by himself,
+and at nineteen began his career with the publication of a short
+work on the solar eclipse of the 5th of August 1766. This was
+followed by an elementary treatise on astronomy entitled
+<i>Anleitung zur Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels</i> (1768, 10th ed.
+1844), the success of which led to his being summoned to Berlin
+in 1772 for the purpose of computing ephemerides on an
+improved plan. There resulted the foundation by him, in 1774,
+of the well-known <i>Astronomisches Jahrbuch</i>, 51 yearly volumes
+of which he compiled and issued. He became director of the
+Berlin observatory in 1786, withdrew from official life in 1825,
+and died at Berlin on the 23rd of November 1826. His works
+were highly effective in diffusing throughout Germany a taste
+for astronomy. Besides those already mentioned he wrote:&mdash;
+<i>Sammlung astronomischer Tafeln</i> (3 vols., 1776); <i>Erläuterung
+der Sternkunde</i> (1776, 3rd ed. 1808); <i>Uranographia</i> (1801), a
+collection of 20 star-maps accompanied by a catalogue of 17,240
+stars and nebulae. In one of his numerous incidental essays he
+propounded, in 1776, a theory of the solar constitution similar
+to that developed in 1795 by Sir William Herschel. He gave
+currency, moreover, to the empirical rule known as &ldquo;Bode&rsquo;s
+Law,&rdquo; which was actually announced by Johann Daniel Titius
+of Wittenberg in 1772. It is expressed by the statement that
+the proportionate distances of the several planets from the sun
+may be represented by adding 4 to each term of the series;
+0, 3, 6, 12, 24, &amp;c. The irregularity will be noticed of the first
+term, which should be 1½ instead of 0. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solar System</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.F. Encke, <i>Berlin Abhandlungen</i> (1827), p. xi.; H.C. Schumacher.
+<i>Astr. Nach.</i> v. 255, 367 (1827); Poggendorff, <i>Biog. literarisches
+Handwörterbuch; Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, iii. 1.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODEL, JEHAN<a name="ar242" id="ar242"></a></span> (died <i>c.</i> 1210), French <i>trouvère</i>, was born at
+Arras in the second half of the 12th century. Very little is
+known of his life, but in 1205 he was about to start for the
+crusade when he was attacked by leprosy. In a touching poem
+called <i>Le Congé</i> (pr. by Méon in <i>Recueil de fabliaux et contes</i>, vol. i.),
+he bade farewell to his friends and patrons, and begged for a
+nomination to a leper hospital. He wrote <i>Le Jeu de Saint
+Nicolas</i>, one of the earliest miracle plays preserved in French
+(printed in Monmerqué and Michel&rsquo;s <i>Théâtre français du moyen
+âge</i>, 1839, and for the <i>Soc. des bibliophiles français</i>, 1831); the
+<i>Chanson des Saisnes</i> (ed. F. Michel 1839), four <i>pastourelles</i>
+(printed in K. Bartsch&rsquo;s <i>Altfranz. Romanzen und Pastourellen</i>,
+Leipzig, 1870); and probably, the eight <i>fabliaux</i> attributed to
+an unknown Jean Bedel. The legend of Saint Nicholas had
+already formed the subject of the Latin <i>Ludus Sancti Nicholai</i>
+of Hilarius. Bodel placed the scene partly on a field of battle in
+Africa, where the crusaders perish in a hopeless struggle, and
+partly in a tavern. The piece, loosely connected by the miracle
+of Saint Nicholas narrated in the prologue, ends with a wholesale
+conversion of the African king and his subjects. The dialogue
+in the tavern scenes is written in thieves&rsquo; slang, and is very
+obscure. The <i>Chanson des Saisnes</i>, Bodel&rsquo;s authorship of which
+has been called in question, is a <i>chanson de geste</i> belonging to the
+period of decadence, and is really a <i>roman d&rsquo;aventures</i> based on
+earlier legends belonging to the Charlemagne cycle. It relates
+the wars of Charlemagne against the Saxons under Guiteclin de
+Sassoigne (Witikind or Widukind), with the second revolt of the
+Saxons and their final submission and conversion. Jehan Bodel
+makes no allusion to Ogier the Dane and many other personages
+of the Charlemagne cycle, but he mentions the defeat of Roland
+at Roncevaux. The romance is based on historical fact, but is
+overlaid with romantic detail. It really embraces three distinct
+legends&mdash;those of the wars against the Saxons, of Charlemagne&rsquo;s
+rebellious barons, and of Baudouim and Sebille. The earlier
+French poems on the subject are lost, but the substance of them
+is preserved in the Scandinavian versions of the Charlemagne
+cycle (supposed to have been derived from English sources)
+known as the <i>Karlamagnussaga</i> (ed. Unger, Christiania, 1860)
+and <i>Keiser Karl Magnus Krönike</i> (Romantisk Digtnung, ed.
+C.J. Brandt, Copenhagen, 1877).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also the article on Jehan Bodel by Paulin Paris in <i>Hist. litt,
+de la France</i>, xx. pp. 605-638; Gaston Paris, <i>Histoire poétique de
+Charlemagne</i> (1865); Léon Gautier, <i>Les Épopées françaises</i> (revised
+edition, vol. iii. pp. 650-684), where there is a full analysis of the
+<i>Chanson des Saisnes</i> and a bibliography; H. Meyer, in <i>Ausgaben und
+Abhandlungen aus ... der romanischen Philologie</i> (Marburg, 1883),
+pp. 1-76, where its relation to the rest of the Charlemagne cycle is
+discussed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page109" id="page109"></a>109</span> </p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODENBACH<a name="ar243" id="ar243"></a></span> (Czech <i>Podmokly</i>), a town of Bohemia, Austria,
+83 m. N.N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 10,782, almost
+exclusively German. It is situated on the left bank of the Elbe
+opposite Tetschen, and is an important railway junction, containing
+also an Austrian and a Saxon custom-house. Bodenbach,
+which in the middle of the 19th century had only a few hundred
+inhabitants, has become a very important industrial centre.
+Its principal manufactures include cotton and woollen goods,
+earthenware and crockery, chemicals, chicory, chocolate, sweetmeats
+and preserves, and beer. It has also a very active transit
+trade.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODENSTEDT, FRIEDRICH MARTIN VON<a name="ar244" id="ar244"></a></span> (1819-1892),
+German author, was born at Peine, in Hanover, on the 22nd of
+April 1819. He studied in Göttingen, Munich and Berlin. His
+career was determined by his engagement in 1841 as tutor in the
+family of Prince Gallitzin at Moscow, where he gained a thorough
+knowledge of Russian. This led to his appointment in 1844 as
+the head of a public school at Tiflis, in Transcaucasia. He took
+the opportunity of his proximity to Persia to study Persian
+literature, and in 1851 published a volume of original poetry in
+oriental guise under the fanciful title, <i>Die Lieder des Mirza
+Schaffy</i> (English trans. by E. d&rsquo;Esterre, 1880). The success of
+this work can only be compared with that of Edward FitzGerald&rsquo;s
+<i>Omar Khayyam</i>, produced in somewhat similar circumstances,
+but differed from it in being immediate. It has gone through
+160 editions in Germany, and has been translated into almost all
+literary languages. Nor is this celebrity undeserved, for although
+Bodenstedt does not attain the poetical elevation of FitzGerald,
+his view of life is wider, more cheerful and more sane, while the
+execution is a model of grace. On his return from the East,
+Bodenstedt engaged for a while in journalism, married the
+daughter of a Hessian officer (Matilde, the <i>Edlitam</i> of his poems),
+and was in 1854 appointed professor of Slavonic at Munich. The
+rich stores of knowledge which Bodenstedt brought back from
+the East were turned to account in two important books, <i>Die
+Völker des Kaukasus und ihre Freiheits-Kämpfe gegen die Russen</i>
+(1848), and <i>Tausend und ein Tag im Orient</i> (1850). For some
+time Bodenstedt continued to devote himself to Slavonic subjects,
+producing translations of Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgweniev, and
+of the poets of the Ukraines, and writing a tragedy on the false
+Demetrius, and an epic, <i>Ada die Lesghierin</i>, on a Circassian
+theme. Finding, probably, this vein exhausted, he exchanged
+his professorship in 1858 for one of Early English literature, and
+published (1858-1860) a valuable work on the English dramatists
+contemporary with Shakespeare, with copious translations.
+In 1862 he produced a standard translation of Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+sonnets, and between 1866 and 1872 published a complete
+version of the plays, with the help of many coadjutors. In 1867
+he undertook the direction of the court theatre at Meiningen,
+and was ennobled by the duke. After 1873 he lived successively
+at Altona, Berlin and Wiesbaden, where he died on the 19th of
+April 1892. His later works consist of an autobiography (1888),
+successful translations from Hafiz and Omar Khayyam, and
+lyrics and dramas which added little to his reputation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An edition of his collected works in 12 vols. was published at
+Berlin (1866-1869), and his <i>Erzahlungen und Romane</i> at Jena (1871-1872).
+For further biographical details, see Bodenstedt&rsquo;s <i>Erinnerungen
+aus meinem Leben</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1888-1890); and
+G. Schenck, <i>Friedrich von Bodenstedt. Ein Dichterleben in seinen
+Briefen</i> (Berlin, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODHI VAMSA,<a name="ar245" id="ar245"></a></span> a prose poem in elaborate Sanskritized Pali,
+composed by Upatissa in the reign of Mahinda IV. of Ceylon
+about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 980. It is an adaptation of a previously existing
+work in Sinhalese on the same subject, and describes the bringing
+of a branch of the celebrated Bo or Bodhi tree (<i>i.e.</i> Wisdom Tree,
+under which the Buddha had attained wisdom) to Ceylon in the
+3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The Bodhi Vamsa quotes verses from the
+Mahavamsa, but draws a great deal of its material from other
+sources; and it has occasionally preserved details of the older
+tradition not found in any other sources known to us.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Edition in Pali for the Pali Text Society by S. Arthur Strong
+(London, 1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODICHON, BARBARA LEIGH SMITH<a name="ar246" id="ar246"></a></span> (1827-1891), English
+educationalist, was born at Watlington, Norfolk, on the 8th of
+April 1827, the daughter of Benjamin Smith (1783-1860), long
+M.P. for Norwich. She early showed a force of character and
+catholicity of sympathy that later won her a prominent place
+among philanthropists and social workers. In 1857 she married
+an eminent French physician, Dr Eugene Bodichon, and,
+although wintering many years in Algiers, continued to lead the
+movements she had initiated in behalf of Englishwomen. In
+1869 she published her <i>Brief Summary of the Laws of England
+concerning Women</i>, which had a useful effect in helping forward
+the passage of the Married Women&rsquo;s Property Act. In 1866,
+co-operating with Miss Emily Davies, she matured a scheme for
+the extension of university education to women, and the first
+small experiment at Hitchin developed into Girton College, to
+which Mme Bodichon gave liberally of her time and money.
+With all her public interests she found time for society and her
+favourite art of painting. She studied under William H. Hunt,
+and her water-colours, exhibited at the Salon, the Academy and
+elsewhere, showed great originality and talent, and were admired
+by Corot and Daubigny. Her London salon included many of
+the literary and artistic celebrities of her day; she was George
+Eliot&rsquo;s most intimate friend, and, according to her, the first
+to recognize the authorship of <i>Adam Bede</i>. Her personal
+appearance is said to be described in that of Romola. Mme
+Bodichon died at Robertsbridge, Sussex, on the 11th of June
+1891.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODIN, JEAN<a name="ar247" id="ar247"></a></span> (1530-1596), French political philosopher, was
+born at Angers in 1530. Having studied law at Toulouse and
+lectured there on jurisprudence, he settled in Paris as an advocate,
+but soon applied himself to literature. In 1555 he published his
+first work, a translation of Oppian&rsquo;s <i>Cynegeticon</i> into Latin verse,
+with a commentary. The celebrated scholar, Turnebus, complained
+that some of his emendations had been appropriated
+without acknowledgment. In 1588, in refutation of the views
+of the seigneur de Malestroit, comptroller of the mint, who
+maintained that there had been no rise of prices in France during
+the three preceding centuries, he published his <i>Responsio ad
+Paradoxa Malestretti</i> (<i>Réponse aux paradoxes de M. Malestroit</i>),
+which the first time explained in a nearly satisfactory manner
+the revolution of prices which took place in the 16th century.
+Bodin showed a more rational appreciation than many of his
+contemporaries of the causes of this revolution, and the relation
+of the variations in money to the market values of wares in
+general as well as to the wages of labour. He saw that the
+amount of money in circulation did not constitute the wealth
+of the community, and that the prohibition of the export of the
+precious metals was rendered inoperative by the necessities
+of trade. This tract, the <i>Discours sur les causes de l&rsquo;extèrme
+cherté qui èst aujourdhuy en France</i> (1574), and the disquisition
+on public revenues in the sixth book of the <i>République</i>,
+entitle Bodin to a distinguished position among the earlier
+economists.</p>
+
+<p>His learning, genial disposition, and conversational powers
+won him the favor of Henry III. and of his brother, the duc
+d&rsquo;Alençon; and he was appointed king&rsquo;s attorney at Laon in
+1576. In this year he married, performed his most brilliant
+service to his country, and completed his greatest literary work.
+Elected by the <i>tiers état</i> of Vermandois to represent it in the
+states-general of Blois, he contended with skill and boldness in
+extremely difficult circumstances for freedom of conscience,
+justice and peace. The nobility and clergy favoured the League,
+and urged the king to force his subjects to profess the Catholic
+religion. When Bodin found he could not prevent this resolution
+being carried, he contrived to get inserted in the petition drawn
+up by the states the clause &ldquo;without war,&rdquo; which practically
+rendered nugatory all its other clauses. While he thus resisted
+the clergy and nobility he successfully opposed the demand of
+the king to be allowed to alienate the public lands and royal
+demesnes, although the chief deputies had been won over to
+assent. This lost him the favour of the king, who wanted money
+on any terms. In 1581 he acted as secretary to the duc d&rsquo;Alençon
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" id="page110"></a>110</span>
+when that prince came over to England to seek the hand of
+Queen Elizabeth. Here he had the pleasure of finding that the
+<i>République</i> was studied at London and Cambridge, although
+in a barbarous Latin translation. This determined him to
+translate his work into Latin himself (1586). The latter part of
+Bodin&rsquo;s life was spent at Laon, which he is said to have persuaded
+to declare for the League in 1589, and for Henry IV.
+five years afterwards. He died of the plague in 1596, and was
+buried in the church of the Carmelites.</p>
+
+<p>With all his breadth and liberality of mind Bodin was a
+credulous believer in witchcraft, the virtues of numbers and the
+power of the stars, and in 1580 he published the <i>Démonomanie
+des sorciers</i>, a work which shows that he was not exempt from the
+prejudices of the age. Himself regarded by most of his contemporaries
+as a sceptic, and by some as an atheist, he denounced
+all who dared to disbelieve in sorcery, and urged the burning of
+witches and wizards. It might, perhaps, have gone hard with
+him if his counsel had been strictly followed, as he confessed to
+have had from his thirty-seventh year a friendly demon, who,
+if properly invoked, touched his right ear when he purposed
+doing what was wrong, and his left when he meditated doing
+good.</p>
+
+<p>His chief work, the <i>Six livres de la République</i> (Paris, 1576),
+which passed through several editions in his lifetime, that of
+1583 having as an appendix <i>L&rsquo;Apologie de René Herpin</i> (Bodin
+himself), was the first modern attempt to construct an elaborate
+system of political science. It is perhaps the most important
+work of its kind between Aristotle and modern writers. Though
+he was much indebted to Aristotle he used the material to
+advantage, adding much from his own experience and historical
+knowledge. In harmony with the conditions of his age, he
+approved of absolute governments, though at the same time
+they must, he thought, be controlled by constitutional laws.
+He entered into an elaborate defence of individual property
+against Plato and More, rather perhaps because the scheme of
+his work required the treatment of that theme than because it
+was practically urgent in his day, when the excesses of the Anabaptists
+had produced a strong feeling against communistic
+doctrines. He was under the general influence of the mercantilist
+views, and approved of energetic governmental interference
+in industrial matters, of high taxes on foreign manufactures
+and low duties on raw materials and articles of food, and
+attached great importance to a dense population. But he was
+not a blind follower of the system; he wished for unlimited
+freedom of trade in many cases; and he was in advance of his
+more eminent contemporary Montaigne in perceiving that the
+gain of one nation is not necessarily the loss of another. To the
+public finances, which he called &ldquo;the sinews of the state,&rdquo; he
+devoted much attention, and insisted on the duties of the government
+in respect to the right adjustment of taxation. In general
+he deserves the praise of steadily keeping in view the higher aims
+and interests of society in connexion with the regulation and
+development of its material life.</p>
+
+<p>Among his other works are <i>Oratio de instituenda in republica
+juventate</i> (1559); <i>Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem</i>
+(1566); <i>Universale Naturae Theatrum</i> (1596, French trans. by
+Fougerolles, 1597), and the <i>Colloquium Heptaplomeres de abditis
+rerum sublimium arcanis</i>, written in 1588, published first by
+Guhrauer (1841), and in a complete form by L. Noack (1857). The
+last is a philosophy of naturalism in the form of a conversation
+between seven learned men&mdash;a Jew, a Mahommedan, a Lutheran,
+a Zwinglian, a Roman Catholic, an Epicurean and a Theist.
+The conclusion to which they are represented as coming is that
+they will live together in charity and toleration, and cease from
+further disputation as to religion. It is curious that Leibnitz,
+who originally regarded the <i>Colloquium</i> as the work of a professed
+enemy of Christianity, subsequently described it as
+a most valuable production (cf. M. Carrière, <i>Weltanschauung</i>,
+p. 317).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Baudrillart, <i>J. Bodin et son temps</i> (Paris, 1853); Ad.
+Franck, <i>Réformateurs et publicistes de l&rsquo;Europe</i> (Paris, 1864); N.
+Planchenault, <i>Études sur Jean Bodin</i> (Angers, 1858); E. de Barthélemy,
+<i>Étude sur J. Bodin</i> (Paris, 1876); for the political philosophy
+of Bodin, see P. Janet, <i>Hist. de la science polit.</i> (3rd ed., Paris, 1887);
+Hancke, <i>B. Studien über d. Begriff d. Souveränität</i> (Breslau, 1894),
+A. Bardoux. <i>Les Légistes et leur influence sur la soc. française</i>; Fournol,
+<i>Bodin prédécesseur de Montesquieu</i> (Paris, 1896); for his political
+economy, J.K. Ingram, <i>Hist. of Pol. Econ.</i> (London, 1888); for
+his ethical teaching, A. Desjardins, <i>Les Moralistes français du
+seizième siècle</i>, ch. v.; and for his historical views, R. Flint&rsquo;s
+<i>Philosophy of History in Europe</i> (ed. 1893), pp. 190 foll.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODKIN<a name="ar248" id="ar248"></a></span> (Early Eng. <i>boydekin</i>, a dagger, a word of unknown
+origin, possibly connected with the Gaelic <i>biodag</i>, a short sword),
+a small, needle-like instrument of steel or bone with a flattened
+knob at one end, used in needlework. It has one or more slits
+or eyes, through which cord, tape or ribbon can be passed, for
+threading through a hem or series of loops. The word is also
+used of a small piercing instrument for making holes in cloth, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODLE<a name="ar249" id="ar249"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Boddle</span> (said to be from Bothwell, the name of a
+mint-master), a Scottish copper coin worth about one-sixth of an
+English penny, first issued under Charles II. It survives in the
+phrase &ldquo;not to care a bodle.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODLEY, GEORGE FREDERICK<a name="ar250" id="ar250"></a></span> (1827-1907), English
+architect, was the youngest son of a physician at Brighton, his
+elder brother, the Rev. W.H. Bodley, becoming a well-known
+Roman Catholic preacher and a professor at Oscott. He was
+articled to the famous architect Sir Gilbert Scott, under whose
+influence he became imbued with the spirit of the Gothic revival,
+and he gradually became known as the chief exponent of 14th-century
+English Gothic, and the leading ecclesiastical architect
+in England. One of his first churches was St Michael and All
+Angels, Brighton (1855), and among his principal erections may
+be mentioned All Saints, Cambridge; Eton Mission church,
+Hackney Wick; Clumber church; Eccleston church; Hoar
+Cross church; St Augustine&rsquo;s, Pendlebury; Holy Trinity,
+Kensington; Chapel Allerton, Leeds; St Faith&rsquo;s, Brentford;
+Queen&rsquo;s College chapel, Cambridge; Marlborough College
+chapel; and Burton church. His domestic work included the
+London School Board offices, the new buildings at Magdalen,
+Oxford, and Hewell Grange (for Lord Windsor). From 1872 he
+had for twenty years the partnership of Mr T. Garner, who worked
+with him. He also designed (with his pupil James Vaughan) the
+cathedral at Washington, D.C., U.S.A., and cathedrals at San
+Francisco and in Tasmania; and when Mr Gilbert Scott&rsquo;s design
+for his new Liverpool cathedral was successful in the competition
+he collaborated with the young architect in preparing for its
+erection. Bodley began contributing to the Royal Academy in
+1854, and in 1881 was elected A.R.A., becoming R.A. in 1902.
+In addition to being a most learned master of architecture, he
+was a beautiful draughtsman, and a connoisseur in art; he published
+a volume of poems in 1899; and he was a designer of
+wall-papers and chintzes for Watts &amp; Co., of Baker Street,
+London; in early life he had been in close alliance with the
+Pre-Raphaelites, and he did a great deal, like William Morris, to
+improve public taste in domestic decoration and furniture. He
+died on the 21st of October 1907, at Water Eaton, Oxford.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODLEY, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar251" id="ar251"></a></span> (1545-1613), English diplomatist and
+scholar, founder of the Bodleian library, Oxford, was born at
+Exeter on the 2nd of March 1545. During the reign of Queen
+Mary, his father, John Bodley, being obliged to leave the kingdom
+on account of his Protestant principles, went to live at Geneva.
+In that university, in which Calvin and Beza were then teaching
+divinity, young Bodley studied for a short time. On the accession
+of Queen Elizabeth he returned with his father to England, and
+soon after entered Magdalen College, Oxford. In 1563 he took
+his B.A. degree, and was admitted a fellow of Merton College. In
+1565 he read a Greek lecture in hall, took his M.A. degree the year
+after, and read natural philosophy in the public schools. In 1569
+he was proctor, and for some time after was deputy public orator.
+Quitting Oxford in 1576, he made the tour of Europe; shortly
+after his return he became gentleman-usher to Queen Elizabeth;
+and in 1587, apparently, he married Ann Ball, a widow lady of
+considerable fortune, the daughter of a Mr Carew of Bristol. In
+1584 he entered parliament as member for Portsmouth, and
+represented St German&rsquo;s in 1586. In 1585 Bodley was entrusted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111"></a>111</span>
+with a mission to form a league between Frederick II. of Denmark
+and certain German princes to assist Henry of Navarre. He was
+next despatched on a secret mission to France; and in 1588 he
+was sent to the Hague as minister, a post which demanded great
+diplomatic skill, for it was in the Netherlands that the power of
+Spain had to be fought. The essential difficulties of his mission
+were complicated by the intrigues of the queen&rsquo;s ministers at
+home, and Bodley repeatedly begged that he might be recalled.
+He was finally permitted to return to England in 1596, but finding
+his preferment obstructed by the jarring interests of Burleigh
+and Essex, he retired from public life. He was knighted on the
+18th of April 1604. He is, however, remembered specially as the
+founder of the Bodleian at Oxford, practically the earliest public
+library in Europe (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Libraries</a></span>). He determined, he said, &ldquo;to
+take his farewell of state employments and to set up his staff at
+the library door in Oxford.&rdquo; In 1598 his offer to restore the old
+library was accepted by the university. Bodley not only used
+his private fortune in his undertaking, but induced many of his
+friends to make valuable gifts of books. In 1611 he began its
+permanent endowment, and at his death in London on the 28th
+of January 1613, the greater part of his fortune was left to it.
+He was buried in the choir of Merton College chapel where a
+monument of black and white marble was erected to him.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Sir Thomas wrote his own life to the year 1609, which, with the
+first draft of the statutes drawn up for the library, and his letters
+to the librarian, Thomas James, was published by Thomas Hearne,
+under the title of <i>Reliquiae Bodleianae, or Authentic Remains of Sir
+Thomas Bodley</i> (London, 1703, 8vo).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODMER, JOHANN JAKOB<a name="ar252" id="ar252"></a></span> (1698-1783), Swiss-German
+author, was born at Greifensee, near Zürich, on the 19th of July
+1698. After first studying theology and then trying a commercial
+career, he finally found his vocation in letters. In 1725 he was
+appointed professor of Helvetian history in Zürich, a chair which
+he held for half a century, and in 1735 became a member of the
+&ldquo;Grosser Rat.&rdquo; He published (1721-1723), in conjunction with
+J.J. Breitinger (1701-1774) and several others, <i>Die Discourse der
+Mahlern</i>, a weekly journal after the model of the Spectator.
+Through his prose translation of Milton&rsquo;s Paradise Lost (1732)
+and his successful endeavours to make a knowledge of English
+literature accessible to Germany, he aroused the hostile criticism
+of Gottsched (<i>q.v</i>.) and his school, a struggle which ended in
+the complete discomfiture of the latter. His most important
+writings are the treatises <i>Von dem Wunderbaren in der Poesie</i>
+(1740) and <i>Kritische Betrachtungen über die poetischen Gemälde
+der Dichter</i> (1741), in which he pleaded for the freedom of the
+imagination from the restriction imposed upon it by French
+pseudo-classicism. Bodmer&rsquo;s epics <i>Die Sündfluth</i> (1751) and
+<i>Noah</i> (1751) are weak imitations of Klopstock&rsquo;s <i>Messias</i>, and
+his plays are entirely deficient in dramatic qualities. He did
+valuable service to German literature by his editions of the
+Minnesingers and part of the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>. He died at Zürich
+on the 2nd of January 1783.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T.W. Danzel, <i>Gottsched und seine Zeit</i> (Leipzig, 1848); J.
+Crüger, <i>J.C. Gottsched, Bodmer und Breitinger</i> (Stuttgart, 1884);
+F. Braitmaier, <i>Geschichte der poetischen Theorie und Kritik von den
+Diskursen der Maler bis auf Lessing</i> (Leipzig, 1888); <i>Denkschrift zu
+Bodmers 200. Geburtstag</i> (Zürich, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODMIN,<a name="ar253" id="ar253"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the Bodmin
+parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, the county town,
+30½ m. W.N.W. of Plymouth, on branches of the Great Western
+and London &amp; South-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 5353. It
+lies between two hills in a short valley opening westward upon
+that of the Camel, at the southern extremity of the high open
+Bodmin Moor. The large church of St Petrock, mainly Perpendicular,
+has earlier portions, and a late Norman font.
+East of it there is a ruined Decorated chapel of St Thomas of
+Canterbury, with a crypt. A tower of Tudor date, in the cemetery,
+marks the site of a chapel of the gild of the Holy Rood.
+Part of the buildings of a Franciscan friary, founded <i>c.</i> 1240, are
+incorporated in the market-house, and the gateway remains
+in an altered form. At Bodmin are a prison, with civil and
+naval departments, the county gaol and asylum, the headquarters
+of the constabulary, and those of the duke of Cornwall&rsquo;s
+Light Infantry. Cattle, sheep and horse fairs are held, and
+there is a considerable agricultural trade. The borough is under
+a mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 2797
+acres.</p>
+
+<p>Traces of Roman occupation have been found in the western
+part of the parish, belonging to the first century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Possibly
+tin-mining was carried on here at that period. The grant of a
+charter by King Edred to the prior and canons of Bodmin
+(Bomine, Bodman, Bodmyn) in respect of lands in Devonshire
+appears in an <i>inspeximus</i> of 1252. To its ecclesiastical associations
+it owed its importance at the time of the Domesday survey,
+when St Petrock held the manor of Bodmin, wherein were sixty-eight
+houses and one market. To successive priors, as mesne
+lords, it also owed its earliest municipal privileges. King John&rsquo;s
+charter to the prior and convent, dated the 17th of July 1199,
+contained a clause (subsequently cancelled by Richard II.) by
+which burgesses were exempt from being impleaded, touching
+any tenements in their demesne, except before the king and
+his chief justice. Richard of Cornwall, king of the Romans,
+confirmed to the burgesses their gild merchant, Edward I. the
+pesage of tin, and Edward II. a market for tin and wool. Queen
+Elizabeth in 1563 constituted the town a free borough and the
+burgesses a body corporate, granting at the same time two fairs
+and a Saturday market. There are still held also three other
+fairs whose origin is uncertain. An amended charter granted
+in 1594 remained in force until 1789, when the corporation
+became extinct owing to the diminution of the burgesses. By
+virtue of a new charter of incorporation granted in 1798 and
+remodelled by the act of 1835, the corporation now consists of
+a mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. The first
+members for Bodmin were summoned in 1295. Retaining both
+its members in 1832, losing one in 1868 and the other in 1885,
+it has now become merged in the south-eastern division of the
+county. From 1715 to 1837 the assizes were generally held
+alternately at Launceston and Bodmin; since 1837 they have
+been held at Bodmin only. A court of probate has also been
+held at Bodmin since 1773. A festival known as &ldquo;Bodmin
+Riding&rdquo; was formerly celebrated here on the Sunday and
+Monday following St Thomas&rsquo;s day (July 7). It is thought by
+some to have been instituted in 1177 to celebrate the recovery
+of the bones of St Petrock.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Cornwall</i>; John Maclean, <i>Parochial
+and Family History of the Deanery of Trigg Minor, Cornwall</i> (3 vols.,
+1873-1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODÖ,<a name="ar254" id="ar254"></a></span> a seaport on the north-western coast of Norway, in
+Nordland <i>amt</i> (county), lat. 67° 17&prime; N. Pop. (1900) 4827. The
+rock-bound harbour admits large vessels, and there is a brisk
+trade in fish and eider-down. The neighbouring country has
+many scenic attractions. Sixty miles inland (E.) rises the great
+massif of Sulitelma on the Swedish frontier, with its copper
+mines, broad snow-fields and glaciers. The fjords of the district
+include the imposing Beierenfjord, the Saltenfjord, and the
+Skjerstadfjord, at the narrow mouths of which, between islands,
+a remarkable cataract (Saltström) is formed at the turn of the
+tide. On this fjord is Skjerstad, a large scattered village.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODONI, GIAMBATTISTA<a name="ar255" id="ar255"></a></span> (1740-1813), Italian printer, was
+born in 1740 at Saluzzo in Piedmont, where his father owned
+a printing establishment. While yet a boy he began to engrave
+on wood. He at length went to Rome, and there became a
+compositor for the press of the Propaganda. He made himself
+acquainted with the Oriental languages, and thus was enabled
+to render essential service to the Propaganda press, by restoring
+and accurately distributing the types of several Oriental alphabets
+which had fallen into disorder. The infante Don Ferdinand,
+afterwards duke of Parma, having established, about 1760, a
+printing-house on the model of those in Paris, Madrid and Turin,
+Bodoni was placed at the head of this establishment, which he
+soon rendered the first of the kind in Europe. The beauty of his
+typography, &amp;c., leaves nothing further to be desired; but the
+intrinsic value of his editions is seldom equal to their outward
+splendour. His Homer, however, is a truly magnificent work;
+and, indeed, his Greek letters are faultless imitations of the best
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id="page112"></a>112</span>
+Greek manuscript. His editions of the Greek, Latin, Italian
+and French classics are all highly prized for their typographical
+elegance, and some of them are not less remarkable for their
+accuracy. Bodoni died at Padua in 1813. In 1818 a magnificent
+work appeared in two volumes quarto, entitled <i>Manuale
+Tipografico</i>, containing specimens of the vast collection of types
+which had belonged to him.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See De Lama, <i>Vita del Cavaliere Giambattista Bodoni</i> (1816).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BODY-SNATCHING,<a name="ar256" id="ar256"></a></span> the secret disinterring of dead bodies
+in churchyards in order to sell them for the purpose of dissection.
+Those who practised body-snatching were frequently called
+resurrectionists or resurrection-men. Previous to the passing
+of the Anatomy Act 1832 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span>: <i>History</i>), no licence
+was required in Great Britain for opening an anatomical school,
+and there was no provision for supplying subjects to students
+for anatomical purposes. Therefore, though body-snatching
+was a misdemeanour at common law, punishable with fine and
+imprisonment, it was a sufficiently lucrative business to run the
+risk of detection. Body-snatching became so prevalent that
+it was not unusual for the relatives and friends of a deceased
+person to watch the grave for some time after burial, lest it
+should be violated. Iron coffins, too, were frequently used for
+burial, or the graves were protected by a framework of iron
+bars called <i>mortsafes</i>, well-preserved examples of which may
+still be seen in Greyfriars&rsquo; churchyard, Edinburgh.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a detailed history of body-snatching, see <i>The Diary of a
+Resurrectionist</i>, edited by J.B. Bailey (London, 1896), which also
+contains a full bibliography and the regulations in force in foreign
+countries for the supply of bodies for anatomical purposes.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOECE<a name="ar257" id="ar257"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Boyce</span>), <span class="bold">HECTOR</span> (c. 1465-c. 1536), Scottish
+historian, was born at Dundee about the year 1465, being
+descended of a family which for several generations had possessed
+the barony of Panbride in Forfarshire. He received his
+early education at Dundee, and completed his course of study
+in the university of Paris, where he took the degree of B.D.
+He was appointed regent, or professor, of philosophy in the
+college of Montaigu; and there he was a contemporary of
+Erasmus, who in two epistles has spoken of him in the highest
+terms. When William Elphinstone, bishop of Aberdeen, was
+laying his plans for the foundation of the university of Aberdeen
+(King&rsquo;s College) he made Boece his chief adviser; and the latter
+was persuaded, after receipt of the papal bull erecting the
+university (1494), to be the first principal. He was in Aberdeen
+about 1500 when lectures began in the new buildings, and he
+appears to have been well received by the canons of the
+cathedral, several of whom he has commemorated as men of
+learning. It was a part of his duty as principal to read lectures
+on divinity.</p>
+
+<p>The emoluments of his office were poor, but he also enjoyed
+the income of a canonry at Aberdeen and of the vicarage of
+Tullynessle. Under the date of 14th July 1527, we find a
+&ldquo;grant to Maister Hector&rdquo; of an annual pension of £50, to be
+paid by the sheriff of Aberdeen out of the king&rsquo;s casualties;
+and on the 26th of July 1529 was issued a &ldquo;precept for a lettre
+to Mr Hector Boys, professor of theology, of a pension of £50
+Scots yearly, until the king promote him to a benefice of 100
+marks Scots of yearly value; the said pension to be paid him
+by the custumars of Aberdeen.&rdquo; In 1533 and 1534, one-half
+of his pension was, however, paid by the king&rsquo;s treasurer, and
+the other half by the comptroller; and as no payment subsequent
+to that of Whitsuntide 1534 has been traced in the
+treasurer&rsquo;s accounts, he is supposed to have obtained the benefice
+soon after that period. This benefice was the rectorship of Tyrie.</p>
+
+<p>In 1528, soon after the publication of his history, Boece
+received the degree of D.D. at Aberdeen; and on this occasion
+the magistrates voted him a present of a tun of wine when the
+new wines should arrive, or, according to his option, the sum
+of £20 to purchase bonnets. He appears to have survived till
+the year 1536; for on the 22nd of November in that year, the
+king presented John Garden to the rectory of Tyrie, vacant by
+the death of &ldquo;Mr Hector Boiss.&rdquo; He died at Aberdeen, and
+was buried before the high altar at King&rsquo;s College, beside the
+tomb of his patron Bishop Elphinstone.</p>
+
+<p>His earliest publication, <i>Episcoporum Murthlacensium et
+Aberdonensium per Hectorem Boetium Vitae</i>, was printed at the
+press of Jodocus Badius (Paris, 1522). The notices of the early
+prelates are of little value, but the portion of the book in which
+he speaks of Bishop Elphinstone is of enduring merit. Here we
+likewise find an account of the foundation and constitution of
+the college, together with some notices of its earliest members.
+His fame rests chiefly on his <i>History of Scotland</i>, published in
+1527 under the title <i>Scotorum Historiae a prima gentis origine
+cum aliarum et rerum et gentium illustratione non vulgari</i>. This
+edition contains seventeen books. Another edition, containing
+the eighteenth book and a fragment of the nineteenth, was
+published by Ferrerius, who has added an appendix of thirty-five
+pages (Paris, 1574).</p>
+
+<p>The composition of the history displays much ability; but
+Boece&rsquo;s imagination was, however, stronger than his judgment:
+of the extent of the historian&rsquo;s credulity, his narrative exhibits
+many unequivocal proofs; and of deliberate invention or distortion
+of facts not a few, though the latter are less flagrant
+and intentional than early 19th-century criticism has assumed.
+He professed to have obtained from the monastery of Icolmkill,
+through the good offices of the earl of Argyll, and his brother,
+John Campbell of Lundy, the treasurer, certain original historians
+of Scotland, and among the rest Veremundus, of whose
+writings not a single vestige is now to be found. In his dedication
+to the king he is pleased to state that Veremundus, a Spaniard
+by birth, was archdeacon of St Andrews, and that he wrote in
+Latin a history of Scotland from the origin of the nation to the
+reign of Malcolm III., to whom he inscribed his work. His
+propensity to the marvellous was at an early period exposed
+in the following verses by Leland:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Hectoris historici tot quot mendacia scripsit</p>
+<p class="i1">Si vis ut numerem, lector amice, tibi,</p>
+<p class="i05">Me jubeas etiam fluctus numerare marinos</p>
+<p class="i1">Et liquidi Stellas connumerare poli.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Boece&rsquo;s <i>History of Scotland</i> was translated into Scottish prose by
+John Bellenden, and into verse by William Stewart. <i>The Lives of
+the Bishops</i> was reprinted for the Bannatyne Club, Edin., 1825, in a
+limited edition of sixty copies. A commonplace verse-rendering of
+the <i>Life of Bishop Elphinstone</i>, which was written by Alexander
+Gardyne in 1619, remains in MS. There is no modern edition of the
+history, though the versions of Bellenden and Stewart have been
+edited.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOEHM, SIR JOSEPH EDGAR,<a name="ar258" id="ar258"></a></span> Bart. (1834-1890), British
+sculptor, was born of Hungarian parentage on the 4th of July
+1834 at Vienna, where his father was director of the imperial
+mint. After studying the plastic art in Italy and at Paris, he
+worked for a few years as a medallist in his native city. After
+a further period of study in England, he was so successful as an
+exhibitor at the Exhibition of 1862 that he determined to abandon
+the execution of coins and medals, and to give his mind
+to portrait busts and statuettes, chiefly equestrian. The colossal
+statue of Queen Victoria, executed in marble (1869) for Windsor
+Castle, and the monument of the duke of Kent in St George&rsquo;s
+chapel, were his earliest great works, and so entirely to the taste
+of his royal patrons that he rose rapidly in favour with the court.
+He was made A.R.A. in 1878, and produced soon afterwards
+the statue of Carlyle on the Thames embankment at Chelsea.
+In 1881 he was appointed sculptor in ordinary to the queen,
+and in the ensuing year became full Academician. On the death
+of Dean Stanley, Boehm was commissioned to execute his
+sarcophagus in Westminster Abbey, and his achievement, a
+recumbent statue, has been pronounced to be one of the best
+portraits in modern sculpture. Less successful was his monument
+to General Gordon in St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral. He executed
+the equestrian statue of the duke of Wellington at Hyde Park
+Corner, and designed the coinage for the Jubilee of Queen Victoria
+in 1887. Among his ideal subjects should be noted the &ldquo;Herdsman
+and Bull.&rdquo; He died suddenly in his studio at South
+Kensington on the 12th of December 1890.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOEHM VON BAWERK, EUGEN<a name="ar259" id="ar259"></a></span> (1851-&emsp;&emsp;), Austrian
+economist and statesman, was born at Brünn on the 12th of
+February 1851. Entering the Austrian department of finance
+in 1872, he held various posts until 1880, when he became
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page113" id="page113"></a>113</span>
+qualified as a teacher of political economy in the university of
+Vienna. The following year, however, he transferred his services
+to the university of Innsbruck, where he became professor in
+1884. In 1889 he became councillor in the ministry of finance,
+and represented the government in the Lower House on all
+questions of taxation. In 1895 and again in 1897-1898 he was
+minister of finance. In 1899 he was made a member of the
+Upper House, and in 1900 again became minister of finance.
+One of the leaders of the Austrian school of economists, he has
+made notable criticisms on the theory of value in relation to
+cost as laid down by the &ldquo;classical school.&rdquo; His more important
+works are <i>Kapital und Kapitalzins</i> (Innsbruck, 1884-1889), in
+two parts, translated by W. Smart, viz. <i>Capital and Interest</i>
+(part i., 1890), and <i>The Positive Theory of Capital</i> (part ii., 1891);
+<i>Karl Marx and the Close of his System</i> (trans. A.M. Macdonald,
+1898); <i>Recent Literature on Interest</i> (trans. W.A. Scott and
+S. Feilbogen, 1903).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOEHME<a name="ar260" id="ar260"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Behmen</span>), <span class="bold">JAKOB</span> (1575-1624), German mystical
+writer, whose surname (of which Fechner gives eight German
+varieties) appears in English literature as Beem, Behmont, &amp;c.,
+and notably Behmen, was born at Altseidenberg, in Upper
+Lusatia, a straggling hamlet among the hills, some 10 m. S.E. of
+Görlitz. His father was a well-to-do peasant, and his first
+employment was that of herd boy on the Landskrone, a hill in
+the neighbourhood of Görlitz; the only education he received
+was at the town-school of Seidenberg, a mile from his home.
+Seidenberg, to this day, is filled with shoemakers, and to a shoemaker
+Jakob was apprenticed in his fourteenth year (1589),
+being judged not robust enough for husbandry. Ten years later
+(1599) we find him settled at Görlitz as master-shoemaker, and
+married to Katharina, daughter of Hans Kuntzschmann, a
+thriving butcher in the town. After industriously pursuing his
+vocation for ten years, he bought (1610) the substantial house,
+which still preserves his name, close by the bridge, in the Neiss-Vorstadt.
+Two or three years later he gave up business, and did
+not resume it as a shoemaker; but for some years before his
+death he made and sold woollen gloves, regularly visiting Prague
+fair for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Boehme&rsquo;s authorship began in his 37th year (1612) with a
+treatise, <i>Aurora, oder die Morgenröte im Aufgang</i>, which though
+unfinished was surreptitiously copied, and eagerly circulated
+in MS. by Karl von Ender. This raised him at once out of his
+homely sphere, and made him the centre of a local circle of liberal
+thinkers, considerably above him in station and culture. The
+charge of heresy was, however, soon directed against him by
+Gregorius Richter, then pastor primarius of Görlitz. Feeling ran
+so high after Richter&rsquo;s pulpit denunciations, that, in July 1613,
+the municipal council, fearing a disturbance of the peace, made
+a show of examining Boehme, took possession of his fragmentary
+quarto, and dismissed the writer with an admonition to meddle
+no more with such matters. For five years he obeyed this
+injunction. But in 1618 began a second period of authorship;
+he poured forth, but did not publish, treatise after treatise,
+expository and polemical, in the next and the two following years.
+In 1622 he composed nothing but a few short pieces on true
+repentance, resignation, &amp;c., which, however, devotionally
+speaking, are the most precious of all his writings. They were
+the only pieces offered to the public in his lifetime and with his
+permission, a fact which is evidence of the essentially religious
+and practical character of his mind. Their publication at Görlitz,
+on New Year&rsquo;s day 1624, under the title of <i>Der Weg zu Christo</i>,
+was the signal for renewed clerical hostility. Boehme had by
+this time entered on the third and most prolific though the
+shortest period (1623-1624) of his speculation. His labours at
+the desk were interrupted in May 1624 by a summons to Dresden,
+where his famous &ldquo;colloquy&rdquo; with the Upper Consistorial court
+was made the occasion of a flattering but transient ovation on
+the part of a new circle of admirers. Richter died in August
+1624, and Boehme did not long survive his pertinacious foe.
+Seized with a fever when away from home, he was with difficulty
+conveyed to Görlitz. His wife was at Dresden on business;
+and during the first week of his malady he was nursed by a
+literary friend. He died, after receiving the rites of the church,
+grudgingly administered by the authorities, on Sunday, the
+17th of November.</p>
+
+<p>Boehme always professed that a direct inward opening or
+illumination was the only source of his speculative power. He
+pretended to no other revelation. Ecstatic raptures we should
+not expect, for he was essentially a Protestant mystic. No &ldquo;thus
+saith the Lord&rdquo; was claimed as his warrant, after the manner
+of Antoinette Bourignon, or Ludowick Muggleton; no spirits or
+angels held converse with him as with Swedenborg. It is needless
+to dwell, in the way either of acceptance or rejection, on the very
+few occasions in which his outward life seemed to him to come
+into contact with the invisible world. The apparition of the pail
+of gold to the herd boy on the Landskrone, the visit of the
+mysterious stranger to the young apprentice, the fascination of
+the luminous sheen, reflected from a common pewter dish, which
+first, in 1600, gave an intuitive turn to his meditations, the
+heavenly music which filled his ears as he lay dying&mdash;none of
+these matters is connected organically with the secret of his
+special power. The mysteries of which he discoursed were not
+reported to him: he &ldquo;beheld&rdquo; them. He saw the root of all
+mysteries, the <i>Ungrund</i> or <i>Urgrund</i>, whence issue all contrasts
+and discordant principles, hardness and softness, severity and
+mildness, sweet and bitter, love and sorrow, heaven and hell.
+These he &ldquo;saw&rdquo; in their origin; these he attempted to describe
+in their issue, and to reconcile in their eternal result. He saw
+into the being of God; whence the birth or going forth of the
+divine manifestation. Nature lay unveiled to him, he was at
+home in the heart of things. &ldquo;His own book, which he himself
+was,&rdquo; the microcosm of man, with his threefold life, was patent
+to his vision. Such was his own account of his qualification.
+If he failed it was in expression; he confessed himself a poor
+mouthpiece, though he saw with a sure spiritual eye.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be supposed that the form in which Boehme&rsquo;s
+pneumatic realism worked itself out in detail was shaped entirely
+from within. In his writings we trace the influence of Theophr.
+Bombast von Hohenheim, known as Paracelsus (1493-1541), of
+Kaspar Schwenkfeld (1490-1561), the first Protestant mystic,
+and of Valentin Weigel (1533-1588). From the school of
+Paracelsus came much of his puzzling phraseology,&mdash;his <i>Turba</i>
+and <i>Tinctur</i> and so forth,&mdash;a phraseology embarrassing to himself
+as well as to his readers. His friends plied him with foreign
+terms, which he was delighted to receive, interpreting them by an
+instinct, and using them often in a corrupted form and always
+in a sense of his own. Thus the word <i>Idea</i> called up before him
+the image of &ldquo;a very fair, heavenly, and chaste virgin.&rdquo; The
+title <i>Aurora</i>, by which his earliest treatise is best known, was
+furnished by Dr Balthasar Walther. These, however, were false
+helps, which only serve to obscure a difficult study, like the
+<i>Flagrat</i> and <i>Lubet</i>, with which his English translator veiled
+Boehme&rsquo;s own honest <i>Schreck</i> and <i>Lust</i>. There is danger lest his
+crude science and his crude philosophical vocabulary conceal the
+fertility of Boehme&rsquo;s ideas and the transcendent greatness of his
+religious insight. Few will take the pains to follow him through
+the interminable account of his seven <i>Quellgeister</i>, which remind
+us of Gnosticism; or even of his three first properties of eternal
+nature, in which his disciples find Newton&rsquo;s formulae anticipated,
+and which certainly bear a marvellous resemblance to the three
+<span class="grk" title="archai">&#7936;&#961;&#967;&#945;&#943;</span> of Schelling&rsquo;s <i>Theogonische Natur</i>. Boehme is always
+greatest when he breaks away from his fancies and his trammels,
+and allows speech to the voice of his heart. Then he is artless,
+clear and strong; and no man can help listening to him, whether
+he dive deep down with the conviction &ldquo;ohne Gift und Grimm
+kein Leben,&rdquo; or rise with the belief that &ldquo;the being of all beings
+is a wrestling power,&rdquo; or soar with the persuasion that Love &ldquo;in
+its height is as high as God.&rdquo; The mystical poet of Silesia,
+Angelus Silesius, discerned where Boehme&rsquo;s truest power lay
+when he sang&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Im Wasser lebt der Fisch, die Pflanze in der Erden,</p>
+<p class="i05">Der Vogel in der Luft, die Sonn&rsquo; am Firmament,</p>
+<p class="i05">Der Salamander muss im Feu&rsquo;r erhalten werden,</p>
+<p class="i05">Und Gottes Herz ist Jakob Böhme&rsquo;s Element.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page114" id="page114"></a>114</span> </p>
+
+<p>The three periods of Boehme&rsquo;s authorship constitute three
+distinct stages in the development of his philosophy. He
+himself marks a threefold division of his subject-matter:&mdash;1.
+<span class="sc">Philosophia</span>, <i>i.e.</i> the pursuit of the divine <i>Sophia</i>, a study of
+God in himself; this was attempted in the <i>Aurora</i>. 2. <span class="sc">Astrologia</span>,
+<i>i.e.</i>, in the largest sense, cosmology, the manifestation
+of the divine in the structure of the world and of man; hereto
+belong, with others, <i>Die drei Principien göttlichen Wesens; Vom
+dreifachen Leben der Menschen; Von der Menschwerdung Christi;,
+Von der Geburt und Bezeichnung alter Wesen</i> (known as <i>Signatura
+Rerum</i>). 3. <span class="sc">Theologia</span>, <i>i.e.</i>, in Scougall&rsquo;s phrase, &ldquo;the life of
+God in the soul of man.&rdquo; Of the speculative writings under this
+head the most important are <i>Von der Gnadenwahl; Mysterium
+Magnum</i> (a spiritual commentary on Genesis); <i>Von Christi
+Testamenten</i> (the Sacraments).</p>
+
+<p>Although Boehme&rsquo;s philosophy is essentially theological, and
+his theology essentially philosophical, one would hardly describe
+him as a philosophical theologian; and, indeed, his position is
+not one in which either the philosopher or the theologian finds
+it easy to make himself completely at home. The philosopher
+finds no trace in Boehme of a conception of God which rests its
+own validity on an accord with the highest canons of reason or
+of morals; it is in the actual not in the ideal that Boehme seeks
+God, whom he discovers as the spring of natural powers and
+forces, rather than as the goal of advancing thought. The
+theologian is staggered by a language which breaks the fixed
+association of theological phrases, and strangely reversing the
+usual point of view, characteristically pictures God as underneath
+rather than above. Nature rises out of Him; we sink into Him.
+The <i>Ungrund</i> of the unmanifested Godhead is boldly represented
+in the English translations of Boehme by the word <i>Abyss</i>, in a
+sense altogether unexplained by its Biblical use. In the <i>Theologia
+Germanica</i> this tendency to regard God as the <i>substantia</i>, the
+underlying ground of all things, is accepted as a foundation for
+piety; the same view, when offered in the colder logic of Spinoza,
+is sometimes set aside as atheistical. The procession of spiritual
+forces and natural phenomena out of the <i>Ungrund</i> is described
+by Boehme in terms of a threefold manifestation, commended
+no doubt by the constitution of the Christian Trinity, but
+exhibited in a form derived from the school of Paracelsus. From
+Weigel he learned a purely idealistic explanation of the universe,
+according to which it is not the resultant of material forces, but
+the expression of spiritual principles. These two explanations
+were fused in his mind till they issued forth as equivalent forms
+of one and the same thought. Further, Schwenkfeld supplied
+him with the germs of a transcendental exegesis, whereby the
+Christian Scriptures and the dogmata of Lutheran orthodoxy
+were opened up in harmony with his new-found views. Thus
+equipped, Boehme&rsquo;s own genius did the rest. A primary effort
+of Boehme&rsquo;s philosophy is to show how material powers are
+substantially one with moral forces. This is the object with
+which he draws out the dogmatic scheme which dictates the
+arrangement of his seven <i>Quellgeister</i>. Translating Boehme&rsquo;s
+thought out of the uncouth dialect of material symbols (as to
+which one doubts sometimes whether he means them as concrete
+instances, or as pictorial illustrations, or as a mere <i>memoria
+technica</i>), we find that Boehme conceives of the correlation of two
+triads of forces. Each triad consists of a thesis, an antithesis
+and a synthesis; and the two are connected by an important
+link. In the hidden life of the Godhead, which is at once <i>Nichts</i>
+and <i>Alles</i>, exists the original triad, viz. Attraction, Diffusion,
+and their resultant, the Agony of the unmanifested Godhead.
+The transition is made; by an act of will the divine Spirit comes
+to Light; and immediately the manifested life appears in the
+triad of Love, Expression, and their resultant, Visible Variety.
+As the action of contraries and their resultant are explained the
+relations of soul, body and spirit; of good, evil and free will;
+of the spheres of the angels, of Lucifer, and of this world. It is
+a more difficult problem to account on this philosophy for the
+introduction of evil. Boehme does not resort to dualism, nor
+has he the smallest sympathy with a pantheistic repudiation of
+the fact of sin. That the difficulty presses him is clear from the
+progressive changes in his attempted solution of the problem.
+In the <i>Aurora</i> nothing save good proceeds from the <i>Ungrund</i>,
+though there is good that abides and good that fall;&mdash;Christ and
+Lucifer. In the second stage of his writing the antithesis is
+directly generated as such; good and its contrary are coincidently
+given from the one creative source, as factors of life and
+movement; while in the third period evil is a direct outcome of
+the primary principle of divine manifestation&mdash;it is the wrath
+side of God. Corresponding to this change we trace a significant
+variation in the moral end contemplated by Boehme as the
+object of this world&rsquo;s life and history. In the first stage the
+world is created in remedy of a decline; in the second, for the
+adjustment of a balance of forces; in the third, to exhibit the
+eternal victory of good over evil, of love over wrath.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editions of Boehme&rsquo;s works were published by H. Betke (Amsterdam,
+1675); by J.G. Gichtel (Amsterdam, 1682-1683, 10 vols.);
+by K.W. Schiebler (Leipzig, 1831-1847, 7 vols.). Translations of
+sundry treatises have been made into Latin (by J.A. Werdenhagen,
+1632), Dutch (complete, by W. v. Bayerland, 1634-1641), and
+French (by Jean Macle, <i>c</i>. 1640, and L.C. de Saint-Martin, 1800-1809).
+Between 1644 and 1662 all Boehme&rsquo;s works were translated
+by John Ellistone (d. 1652) and John Sparrow, assisted by Durand
+Hotham and Humphrey Blunden, who paid for the undertaking.
+At that time regular societies of <i>Behmenists</i>, embracing not only
+the cultivated but the vulgar, existed in England and in Holland.
+They merged into the Quaker movement, holding already in common
+with Friends that salvation is nothing short of the very presence
+and life of Christ in the believer, and only kept apart by an objective
+doctrine of the sacraments which exposed them to the polemic of
+Quakers (<i>e.g.</i> J. Anderdon). Muggleton led an anthropomorphic
+reaction against them, and between the two currents they were
+swept away. The Philadelphian Society at the beginning of the
+18th century consisted of cultured mystics, Jane Lead, Pordage,
+Francis Lee, Bromley, &amp;c., who fed upon Boehme. William Law
+(1686-1761) somewhat later recurred to the same spring, with the
+result, however, in those dry times of bringing his own good sense
+into question rather than of reviving the credit of his author. After
+Law&rsquo;s death the old English translation was in great part re-edited
+(4 vols., 1762-1784) as a tribute to his memory, by George Ward
+and Thomas Langcake, with plates from the designs of D.A. Freher
+(Brit. Mus. Add. MSS. 5767-5794). This forms what is commonly
+called Law&rsquo;s translation; to complete it a 5th vol. (12mo, Dublin,
+1820) is needed.</p>
+
+<p>See also J. Hambetger, <i>Die Lehre des deutschen Philosophen J.
+Boehmes</i> (1844); Alb. Peip, <i>J. Boehme der deutsche Philosoph</i> (1860);
+von Harless, <i>J. Boehme und die Alchimisten</i> (1870, 2nd ed. 1882).
+For Boehme&rsquo;s life see the <i>Memoirs</i> by Abraham von Frankenberg
+(d. 1652) and others, trans, by F. Okely (1870); La Motte Fouqué,
+<i>J. Boehm, ein biographischer Denkstein</i> (1831); H.A. Fechner, <i>J.
+Boehme, sein Leben und seine Schriften</i> (1857); H.L. Martensen,
+<i>J. Boehme, Theosophiske Studier</i> (Copenhagen, 1881; English trans.
+1885); J. Claassen, <i>J. Boehme, sein Leben und seine theosophische
+Werke</i> (Güterslöh, 1885); P. Deussen, <i>J. Boehme, über sein Leben
+und seine Philosophie</i> (Kiel, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOEOTIA,<a name="ar261" id="ar261"></a></span> a district of central Greece, stretching from Phocis
+and Locris in the W. and N. to Attica and Megaris in the S.
+between the strait of Euboea and the Corinthian Gulf. This
+area, amounting in all to 1100 sq. m., naturally falls into two
+main divisions. In the north the basin of the Cephissus and
+Lake Copaïs lies between parallel mountain-walls continuing
+eastward the line of Parnassus in the extensive ridge of Helicon,
+the &ldquo;Mountain of the Muses&rdquo; (5470 ft.) and the east Locrian
+range in Mts. Ptoüm, Messapium and other smaller peaks.
+These ranges, which mostly lie close to the seaboard, form by
+their projecting spurs a narrow defile on the Phocian frontier,
+near the famous battlefield of Chaeroneia, and shut in Copaïs
+closely on the south between Coronea and Haliartus. The
+north-east barrier was pierced by underground passages (<i>katavothra</i>)
+which carried off the overflow from Copaïs. The southern
+portion of the land forms a plateau which slopes to Mt. Cithaeron,
+the frontier range between Boeotia and Attica. Within this territory
+the low ridge of Teumessus separates the plain of Ismenus
+and Dirce, commanded by the citadel of Thebes, from the
+upland plain of the Asopus, the only Boeotian river that finds
+the eastern sea. Though the Boeotian climate suffered from the
+exhalations of Copaïs, which produced a heavy atmosphere with
+foggy winters and sultry summers, its rich soil was suited alike
+for crops, plantations and pasture; the Copaïs plain, though
+able to turn into marsh when the choking of the <i>katavothra</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id="page115"></a>115</span>
+caused the lake to encroach, being among the most fertile
+in Greece. The central position of Boeotia between two seas,
+the strategic strength of its frontiers and the ease of communication
+within its extensive area were calculated to enhance its
+political importance. On the other hand the lack of good
+harbours hindered its maritime development; and the Boeotian
+nation, although it produced great men like Pindar, Epaminondas,
+Pelopidas and Plutarch, was proverbially as dull as
+its native air. But credit should be given to the people for
+their splendid military qualities: both their cavalry and heavy
+infantry achieved a glorious record.</p>
+
+<p>In the mythical days Boeotia played a prominent part. Of
+the two great centres of legends, Thebes with its Cadmean
+population figures as a military stronghold, and Orchomenus,
+the home of the Minyae, as an enterprising commercial city.
+The latter&rsquo;s prosperity is still attested by its archaeological
+remains (notably the &ldquo;Treasury of Minyas&rdquo;) and the traces of
+artificial conduits by which its engineers supplemented the
+natural outlets. The &ldquo;Boeotian&rdquo; population seems to have
+entered the land from the north at a date probably anterior
+to the Dorian invasion. With the exception of the Minyae,
+the original peoples were soon absorbed by these immigrants,
+and the Boeotians henceforth appear as a homogeneous nation.
+In historical times the leading city of Boeotia was Thebes,
+whose central position and military strength made it a suitable
+capital. It was the constant ambition of the Thebans to absorb
+the other townships into a single state, just as Athens had
+annexed the Attic communities. But the outlying cities successfully
+resisted this policy, and only allowed the formation of a
+loose federation which in early times seems to have possessed
+a merely religious character. While the Boeotians, unlike the
+Arcadians, generally acted as a united whole against foreign
+enemies, the constant struggle between the forces of centralization
+and disruption perhaps went further than any other
+cause to check their development into a really powerful nation.
+Boeotia hardly figures in history before the late 6th century.
+Previous to this its people is chiefly known as the producer of
+a type of geometric pottery similar to the Dipylon ware of
+Athens. About 519 the resistance of Plataea to the federating
+policy of Thebes led to the interference of Athens on behalf of
+the former; on this occasion, and again in 507, the Athenians
+defeated the Boeotian levy. During the Persian invasion of
+480, while some of the cities fought whole-heartedly in the ranks
+of the patriots, Thebes assisted the invaders. For a time the
+presidency of the Boeotian League was taken away from Thebes,
+but in 457 the Spartans reinstated that city as a bulwark against
+Athenian aggression. Athens retaliated by a sudden advance
+upon Boeotia, and after the victory of Oenophyta brought under
+its power the whole country excepting the capital. For ten
+years the land remained under Athenian control, which was
+exercised through the newly installed democracies; but in 447
+the oligarchic majority raised an insurrection, and after a victory
+at Coronea regained their freedom and restored the old constitutions.
+In the Peloponnesian War the Boeotians, embittered
+by the early conflicts round Plataea, fought zealously
+against Athens. Though slightly estranged from Sparta after
+the peace of Nicias, they never abated their enmity against their
+neighbours. They rendered good service at Syracuse and
+Arginusae; but their greatest achievement was the decisive
+victory at Delium over the flower of the Athenian army (424),
+in which both their heavy infantry and their cavalry displayed
+unusual efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>About this time the Boeotian League comprised eleven groups
+of sovereign cities and associated townships, each of which
+elected one Boeotarch or minister of war and foreign affairs,
+contributed sixty delegates to the federal council at Thebes,
+and supplied a contingent of about a thousand foot and a
+hundred horse to the federal army. A safeguard against undue
+encroachment on the part of the central government was provided
+in the councils of the individual cities, to which all important
+questions of policy had to be submitted for ratification.
+These local councils, to which the propertied classes alone were
+eligible, were subdivided into four sections, resembling the
+<i>prytaneis</i> of the Athenian council, which took it in turns to take
+previous cognizance of all new measures.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Boeotia took a prominent part in the war of the Corinthian
+League against Sparta, especially at Haliartus and Coronea
+(395-394). This change of policy seems due mainly to the
+national resentment against foreign interference. Yet disaffection
+against Thebes was now growing rife, and Sparta
+fostered this feeling by stipulating for the complete independence
+of all the cities in the peace of Antalcidas (387). In 374
+Pelopidas restored the Theban dominion. Boeotian contingents
+fought in all the campaigns of Epaminondas, and in the later
+wars against Phocis (356-346); while in the dealings with
+Philip of Macedon the federal cities appear merely as the tools
+of Thebes. The federal constitution was also brought into
+accord with the democratic governments now prevalent throughout
+the land. The sovereign power was vested in the popular
+assembly, which elected the Boeotarchs (between seven and
+twelve in number), and sanctioned all laws. After the battle
+of Chaeroneia, in which the Boeotian heavy infantry once again
+distinguished itself, the land never rose again to prosperity.
+The destruction of Thebes by Alexander (335) seems to have
+paralysed the political energy of the Boeotians, though it led
+to an improvement in the federal constitution, by which each
+city received an equal vote. Henceforth they never pursued
+an independent policy, but followed the lead of protecting
+powers. Though the old military training and organization
+continued, the people proved unable to defend the frontiers,
+and the land became more than ever the &ldquo;dancing-ground of
+Ares.&rdquo; Though enrolled for a short time in the Aetolian League
+(about 245 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) Boeotia was generally loyal to Macedonia, and
+supported its later kings against Rome. In return for the
+excesses of the democracies Rome dissolved the league, which,
+however, was allowed to revive under Augustus, and merged
+with the other central Greek federations in the Achaean synod.
+The death-blow to the country&rsquo;s prosperity was given by the
+devastations during the first Mithradatic War.</p>
+
+<p>Save for a short period of prosperity under the Frankish
+rulers of Athens (1205-1310), who repaired the <i>katavothra</i> and
+fostered agriculture, Boeotia long continued in a state of decay,
+aggravated by occasional barbarian incursions. The first step
+towards the country&rsquo;s recovery was not until 1895, when the
+outlets of Copaïs were again put into working order. Since then
+the northern plain has been largely reclaimed for agriculture,
+and the natural riches of the whole land are likely to develop
+under the influence of the railway to Athens. Boeotia is at
+present a Nomos with Livadia (the old Turkish capital) for its
+centre; the other surviving townships are quite unimportant.
+The population (65,816 in 1907) is largely Albanian.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Thuc. iv. 76-101; Xenophon, <i>Hellenica</i>, iii.-vii.;
+Strabo, pp. 400-412; Pausanias ix.; Theopompus (or Cratippus)
+in the <i>Oxyrhynchus Papyri</i>, vol. v. (London, 1908), No. 842, col. 12;
+W.M. Leake, <i>Travels in Northern Greece</i>, chs. xi.-xix. (London, 1835);
+H.F. Tozer, <i>Geography of Greece</i> (London, 1873), pp. 233-238;
+W. Rhys Roberts, <i>The Ancient Boeotians</i> (Cambridge, 1895); E.A.
+Freeman. <i>Federal Government</i> (ed. 1893, London), ch. iv. § 2; B.V.
+Head, <i>Historia Numorum</i>, pp. 291 sqq. (Oxford, 1887); W. Larfeld,
+<i>Sylloge Inscriptionum Boeoticarum</i> (Berlin, 1883). (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thebes</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Thucydides (v. 38), in speaking of the &ldquo;four councils of the
+Boeotians,&rdquo; is referring to the plenary bodies in the various states.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOER,<a name="ar262" id="ar262"></a></span> the Dutch form of the Eng. &ldquo;boor,&rdquo; in its original
+signification of husbandman (Ger. <i>Bauer</i>), a name given to the
+Dutch farmers of South Africa, and especially to the Dutch
+population of the Transvaal and Orange River States. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Africa</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOERHAAVE, HERMANN<a name="ar263" id="ar263"></a></span> (1668-1738), Dutch physician
+and man of science, was born at Voorhout near Leiden on the
+31st of December 1668. Entering the university of Leiden he
+took his degree in philosophy in 1689, with a dissertation <i>De
+distinctione mentis a corpore</i>, in which he attacked the doctrines
+of Epicurus, Hobbes and Spinoza. He then turned to the study
+of medicine, in which he graduated in 1693 at Harderwyck in
+Guelderland. In 1701 he was appointed lecturer on the institutes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page116" id="page116"></a>116</span>
+of medicine at Leiden; in his inaugural discourse, <i>De commendando
+Hippocratis studio</i>, he recommended to his pupils that
+great physician as their model. In 1709 he became professor of
+botany and medicine, and in that capacity he did good service,
+not only to his own university, but also to botanical science, by
+his improvements and additions to the botanic garden of Leiden,
+and by the publication of numerous works descriptive of new
+species of plants. In 1714, when he was appointed rector of the
+university, he succeeded Govert Bidloo (1649-1713) in the chair
+of practical medicine, and in this capacity he had the merit of
+introducing the modern system of clinical instruction. Four
+years later he was appointed also to the chair of chemistry. In
+1728 he was elected into the French Academy of Sciences, and
+two years later into the Royal Society of London. In 1729
+declining health obliged him to resign the chairs of chemistry
+and botany; and he died, after a lingering and painful illness,
+on the 23rd of September 1738 at Leiden. His genius so raised
+the fame of the university of Leiden, especially as a school of
+medicine, that it became a resort of strangers from every part of
+Europe. All the princes of Europe sent him disciples, who found
+in this skilful professor not only an indefatigable teacher, but an
+affectionate guardian. When Peter the Great went to Holland
+in 1715, to instruct himself in maritime affairs, he also took
+lessons from Boerhaave. His reputation was not confined to
+Europe; a Chinese mandarin wrote him a letter directed &ldquo;To
+the illustrious Boerhaave, physician in Europe,&rdquo; and it reached
+him in due course.</p>
+
+<p>His principal works are&mdash;<i>Institutiones medicae</i> (Leiden, 1708);
+<i>Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis morbis</i> (Leiden, 1709), on
+which his pupil and assistant, Gerard van Swieten (1700-1772)
+published a commentary in 5 vols.; and <i>Elementa chemiae</i> (Paris,
+1724).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOETHUS,<a name="ar264" id="ar264"></a></span> a sculptor of the Hellenistic age, a native of
+Carthage (or possibly Chalcedon). His date cannot be accurately
+fixed, but was probably the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was noted for
+his representations of children, in dealing with whom earlier
+Greek art had not been very successful; and especially for a
+group representing a boy struggling with a goose, of which several
+copies survive in museums.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOETIUS<a name="ar265" id="ar265"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Boethius</span>), <span class="bold">ANICIUS MANLIUS SEVERINUS</span>
+(<i>c</i>. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 480-524), Roman philosopher and statesman, described
+by Gibbon as &ldquo;the last of the Romans whom Cato or Tully could
+have acknowledged for their countryman.&rdquo; The historians of
+the day give us but imperfect records or make unsatisfactory
+allusions. Later chroniclers indulged in the fictitious and the
+marvellous, and it is almost exclusively from his own books that
+trustworthy information can be obtained. There is considerable
+diversity among authorities as to his name. One editor of his
+<i>De Consolatione</i>, Bertius, thinks that he bore the praenomen of
+Flavius, but there is no authority for this supposition. His
+father was Flavius Manlius Boetius, and it is probable that the
+Flavius Boetius, the praetorian prefect who was put to death in
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 455 by order of Valentinian III., was his grandfather, but
+these facts do not prove that he also had the praenomen of
+Flavius. Many of the earlier editions inserted the name of
+Torquatus, but it is not found in any of the best manuscripts.
+The last name is commonly written Boethius, from the idea that
+it is connected with the Greek <span class="grk" title="Boaethos">&#946;&#959;&#951;&#952;&#959;&#962;</span>; but the best manuscripts
+agree in reading Boetius.</p>
+
+<p>His boyhood was spent in Rome during the reign of Odoacer.
+We know nothing of his early years. A passage in a treatise
+falsely ascribed to him (<i>De Disciplina Scholarium</i>) and a misinterpretation
+of a passage in Cassiodorus led early scholars to
+suppose that he spent some eighteen years in Athens pursuing
+his studies, but there is no foundation for this opinion. His
+father, consul in 487, seems to have died soon after; for Boetius
+states that, when he was bereaved of his parent, men of the
+highest rank took him under their charge (<i>De Con</i>. lib. ii. c. 3),
+especially the senator Q. Aur. Memmius Symmachus, whose
+daughter Rusticiana he married. By her he had two sons,
+Anicius Manlius Severinus Boetius and Q. Aurelius Memmius
+Symmachus. He became a favourite with Theodoric, the
+Ostrogoth, who ruled in Rome from 500, and was one of his
+intimate friends. Boetius was consul in 510, and his sons, while
+still young, held the same honour together (522). Boetius
+regarded it as the height of his good fortune when he witnessed
+his two sons, consuls at the same time, convoyed from their home
+to the senate-house amid the enthusiasm of the masses. On that
+day, he tells us, while his sons occupied the curule chairs in the
+senate-house, he himself had the honour of pronouncing a
+panegyric on the monarch. But his good fortune did not last,
+and he attributes the calamities that came upon him to the
+ill-will which his bold maintenance of justice had caused, and to
+his opposition to every oppressive measure. Of this he mentions
+particular cases. A famine had begun to rage. The prefect of
+the praetorium was determined to satisfy the soldiers, regardless
+altogether of the feelings of the provincials. He accordingly
+issued an edict for a <i>coemptio</i>, that is, an order compelling the
+provincials to sell their corn to the government, whether they
+would or not. This edict would have utterly ruined Campania.
+Boetius interfered. The case was brought before the king, and
+Boetius succeeded in averting the <i>coemptio</i> from the Campanians.
+And he gives as a crowning instance that he exposed himself to
+the hatred of the informer Cyprianus by preventing the punishment
+of Albinus, a man of consular rank. He mentions in
+another place that when at Verona the king was anxious to
+transfer the accusation of treason brought against Albinus to
+the whole senate, he defended the senate at great risk. In
+consequence of the ill-will that Boetius had thus roused, he was
+accused of treason towards the end of the reign of Theodoric.
+The charges were that he had conspired against the king, that
+he was anxious to maintain the integrity of the senate, and to
+restore Rome to liberty, and that for this purpose he had written
+to the emperor Justin. Justin had, no doubt, special reasons
+for wishing to see an end to the reign of Theodoric. Justin was
+orthodox, Theodoric was an Arian. The orthodox subjects of
+Theodoric were suspicious of their ruler; and many would gladly
+have joined in a plot to displace him. The knowledge of this fact
+may have rendered Theodoric suspicious. But Boetius denied
+the accusation in unequivocal terms. He did indeed wish the
+integrity of the senate. He would fain have desired liberty, but
+all hope of it was gone. The letters addressed by him to Justin
+were forgeries, and he had not been guilty of any conspiracy.
+Notwithstanding his innocence he was condemned and sent to
+Ticinum (Pavia) where he was thrown into prison. It was during
+his confinement in this prison that he wrote his famous work <i>De
+Consolatione Philosophiae</i>. His goods were confiscated, and after
+an imprisonment of considerable duration he was put to death in
+524. Procopius relates that Theodoric soon repented of his cruel
+deed, and that his death, which took place soon after, was
+hastened by remorse for the crime he had committed against his
+great counsellor.</p>
+
+<p>Two or three centuries after the death of Boetius writers began
+to view his death as a martyrdom. Several Christian books were
+ascribed to him, and there was one especially on the Trinity (see
+below) which was regarded as proof that he had taken an active
+part against the heresy of Theodoric. It was therefore for his
+orthodoxy that Boetius was put to death. And these writers
+delight to paint with minuteness the horrible tortures to which
+he was exposed and the marvellous actions which the saint
+performed at his death. He was locally regarded as a saint, but
+he was not canonized. The brick tower in Pavia in which he
+was confined was, and still is, an object of reverence to the
+country people. Finally, in the year 996, Otho III. ordered the
+bones of Boetius to be taken out of the place in which they had
+lain hid, and to be placed in the church of S. Pietro in Ciel d&rsquo;Oro
+within a splendid tomb, for which Gerbert, afterwards Pope
+Silvester II., wrote an inscription. Thence they were subsequently
+removed to a tomb beneath the high altar of the cathedral. It
+should be mentioned also that some have given him a decidedly
+Christian wife, of the name of Elpis, who wrote hymns, two of
+which are still extant (Daniel, <i>Thes. Hymn.</i> i. p. 156). This is a
+pure supposition inconsistent with chronology, and based only
+on a misinterpretation of a passage in the <i>De Consolatione</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117"></a>117</span> </p>
+
+<p>The contemporaries of Boetius regarded him as a man of
+profound learning. Priscian the grammarian speaks of him as
+having attained the summit of honesty and of all sciences.
+Cassiodorus, <i>magister officiorum</i> under Theodoric and the intimate
+acquaintance of the philosopher, employs language equally
+strong, and Ennodius, the bishop of Pavia, knows no bounds
+for his admiration. Theodoric had a profound respect for his
+scientific abilities. He employed him in setting right the coinage.
+When he visited Rome with Gunibald, king of the Burgundians,
+he took him to Boetius, who showed them, amongst other
+mechanical contrivances, a sun-dial and a water-clock. The
+foreign monarch was astonished, and, at the request of Theodoric,
+Boetius had to prepare others of a similar nature, which were
+sent as presents to Gunibald.</p>
+
+<p>The fame of Boetius increased after his death, and his influence
+during the middle ages was exceedingly powerful. His circumstances
+peculiarly favoured this influence. He appeared at a
+time when contempt for intellectual pursuits had begun to
+pervade society. In his early years he was seized with a passionate
+enthusiasm for Greek literature, and this continued
+through life. Even amidst the cares of the consulship he found
+time for commenting on the <i>Categories</i> of Aristotle. The idea
+laid hold of him of reviving the spirit of his countrymen by
+imbuing them with the thoughts of the great Greek writers.
+He formed the resolution to translate all the works of Aristotle
+and all the dialogues of Plato, and to reconcile the philosophy
+of Plato with that of Aristotle. He did not succeed in all that
+he designed; but he did a great part of his work. He translated
+into Latin Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Analytica Priora et Posteriora</i>, the <i>Topica</i>,
+and <i>Elenchi Sophistici</i>; and he wrote commentaries on Aristotle&rsquo;s
+<i>Categories</i>, on his book <span class="grk" title="peri ermaeneias">&#960;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7953;&#961;&#956;&#951;&#957;&#949;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>, also a commentary on
+the <i>Isagoge</i> of Porphyrius. These works formed to a large extent
+the source from which the middle ages derived their knowledge
+of Aristotle. (See Stahr, <i>Aristoteles bei den Römern</i>, pp. 196-234.)
+Boetius wrote also a commentary on the <i>Topica</i> of Cicero; and
+he was also the author of independent works on logic:&mdash;<i>Introductio
+ad Categoricos Syllogismos</i>, in one book; <i>De Syllogismis
+Categoricis</i>, in two books; <i>De Syllogismis Hypotheticis</i>, in two
+books; <i>De Divisione</i>, in one book; <i>De Definitione</i>, in one book;
+<i>De Differentiis Topicis</i>, in four books.</p>
+
+<p>We see from a statement of Cassiodorus that he furnished
+manuals for the quadrivium of the schools of the middle ages
+(the &ldquo;quattuor matheseos disciplinae,&rdquo; as Boetius calls them) on
+arithmetic, music, geometry and astronomy. The statement
+of Cassiodorus that he translated Nicomachus is rhetorical.
+Boetius himself tells us in his preface addressed to his father-in-law
+Symmachus that he had taken liberties with the text of
+Nicomachus, that he had abridged the work when necessary,
+and that he had introduced formulae and diagrams of his own
+where he thought them useful for bringing out the meaning.
+His work on music also is not a translation from Pythagoras,
+who left no writing behind him. But Boetius belonged to the
+school of musical writers who based their science on the method
+of Pythagoras. They thought that it was not sufficient to trust
+to the ear alone, to determine the principles of music, as did
+practical musicians like Aristoxenus, but that along with the
+ear, physical experiments should be employed. The work of
+Boetius is in five books and is a very complete exposition of the
+subject. It long remained a text-book of music in the universities
+of Oxford and Cambridge. It is still very valuable as a
+help in ascertaining the principles of ancient music, and gives
+us the opinions of some of the best ancient writers on the art.
+The manuscripts of the geometry of Boetius differ widely from
+each other. One editor, Godofredus Friedlein, thinks that there
+are only two manuscripts which can at all lay claim to contain
+the work of Boetius. He published the <i>Ars Geometriae</i>, in two
+books, as given in these manuscripts; but critics are generally
+inclined to doubt the genuineness even of these. Professor Rand,
+Georgius Ernst and A.P. McKinlay regard the <i>Ars</i> as certainly
+inauthentic, while they accept the <i>Interpretatio Euclidis</i> (see
+works quoted in bibliography).</p>
+
+<p>By far the most important and most famous of the works
+of Boetius is his book <i>De Consolatione Philosophiae</i>. Gibbon
+justly describes it as &ldquo;a golden volume, not unworthy of the
+leisure of Plato or Tully, but which claims incomparable merit
+from the barbarism of the times and the situation of the author.&rdquo;
+The high reputation it had in medieval times is attested by the
+numerous translations, commentaries and imitations of it which
+then appeared. Among others Asser, the instructor of Alfred
+the Great, and Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, commented
+on it. Alfred translated it into Anglo-Saxon. Versions of it
+appeared in German, French, Italian, Spanish and Greek before
+the end of the 15th century. Chaucer translated it into English
+prose before the year 1382; and this translation was published
+by Caxton at Westminster, 1480. Lydgate followed in the wake
+of Chaucer. It is said that, after the invention of printing,
+amongst others Queen Elizabeth translated it, and that the work
+was well known to Shakespeare. It was the basis of the earliest
+specimen of Provençal literature.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>This famous work consists of five books. Its form is peculiar,
+and is an imitation of a similar work by Marcianus Capella, <i>De
+Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii</i>. It is alternately in prose and verse.
+The verse shows great facility of metrical composition, but a considerable
+portion of it is transferred from the tragedies of Seneca.
+The first book opens with a few verses, in which Boetius describes
+how his sorrows had brought him to a premature old age. As he is
+thus lamenting, a woman appears to him of dignified mien, whom
+he recognizes as his guardian, Philosophy. She, resolving to apply
+the remedy for his grief, questions him for that purpose. She finds
+that he believes that God rules the world, but does not know what he
+himself is; and this absence of self-knowledge is the cause of his
+weakness. In the second book Philosophy presents to Boetius
+Fortune, who is made to state to him the blessings he has enjoyed,
+and after that proceeds to discuss with him the kind of blessings that
+fortune can bestow, which are shown to be unsatisfactory and uncertain.
+In the third book Philosophy promises to lead him to true
+happiness, which is to be found in God alone, for since God is the
+highest good, and the highest good is true happiness, God is true
+happiness. Nor can real evil exist, for since God is all-powerful,
+and since he does not wish evil, evil must be non-existent. In the
+fourth book Boetius raises the question, Why, if the governor of the
+universe is good, do evils exist, and why is virtue often punished and
+vice rewarded? Philosophy proceeds to show that in fact vice is
+never unpunished nor virtue unrewarded. From this Philosophy
+passes into a discussion in regard to the nature of providence and
+fate, and shows that every fortune is good. The fifth and last
+book takes up the question of man&rsquo;s free will and God&rsquo;s foreknowledge,
+and, by an exposition of the nature of God, attempts to show
+that these doctrines are not subversive of each other; and the conclusion
+is drawn that God remains a foreknowing spectator of all
+events, and the ever-present eternity of his vision agrees with the
+future quality of our actions, dispensing rewards to the good and
+punishments to the wicked.</p>
+
+<p>Several theological works have been ascribed to Boetius, as has
+been already mentioned. The <i>Consolatio</i> affords conclusive proof
+that the author was not a practical believer in Christianity. The
+book contains expressions such as <i>daemones</i>, <i>angelica virtus</i>, and
+<i>purgatoria dementia</i>, which have been thought to be derived from
+the Christian faith; but they are used in a heathen sense, and are
+explained sufficiently by the circumstance that Boetius was on
+intimate terms with Christians. The writer nowhere finds consolation
+in any Christian belief, and Christ is never named in the work.
+It is not impossible, however, that Boetius may have been brought
+up a Christian, and that in his early years he may have written
+some Christian books. Peiper thinks that the first three treatises
+are the productions of the early years of Boetius. The first, <i>De
+Sancta Trinitate</i>, is addressed to Symmachus (Domino Patri Symmacho),
+and the result of the short discussion, which is of an abstract
+nature, and deals partly with the ten categories, is that unity is
+predicated absolutely, or, in regard to the substance of the Deity,
+trinity is predicated relatively. The second treatise is addressed to
+John the deacon (&ldquo;Ad Joannem Diaconum&rdquo;), and its subject is
+&ldquo;Utrum Pater et Filius et Spiritus Sanctus de divinitate substantialiter
+praedicentur.&rdquo; This treatise is shorter than the first,
+occupying only two or three pages, and the conclusion of the argument
+is the same. The third treatise bears the title, <i>Quomodo
+substantiae in eo quod sint bonae sint cum non sint substantialia bona</i>.
+It contains nothing distinctly Christian, and it contains nothing of
+great value; therefore its authorship is a matter of little consequence.
+Peiper thinks that, as the best MSS. uniformly assign these treatises
+to Boetius, they are to be regarded as his; that it is probable that
+Symmachus and John (who afterwards became Pope) were the men
+of highest distinction who took charge of him when he lost his father;
+and that these treatises are the first-fruits of his studies, which he
+dedicates to his guardians and benefactors. He thinks that the
+variations in the inscriptions of the fifth treatise which is not found
+in the best manuscript, are so great that the name of Boetius could
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page118" id="page118"></a>118</span>
+not have originally been in the title. The fourth book is also not
+found in the best manuscript, and two manuscripts have no inscription.
+He infers, from these facts, that there is no sure evidence for
+the authorship of the fourth and fifth treatises. The fifth treatise is
+<i>Contra Eutychen et Nestorium</i>. Both Eutyches and Nestorius are
+spoken of as living. A council is mentioned, in which a letter was
+read, expounding the opinion of the Eutychians for the first time.
+The novelty of the opinion is also alluded to. All these circumstances
+point to the council of Chalcedon (451). The treatise was therefore
+written before the birth of Boetius, if it be not a forgery; but there
+is no reason to suppose that the treatise was not a genuine production
+of the time to which it professes to belong. The fourth treatise,
+<i>De Fide Catholica</i>, does not contain any distinct chronological data;
+but the tone and opinions of the treatise produce the impression
+that it probably belonged to the same period as the treatise against
+Eutyches and Nestorius. Several inscriptions ascribe both these
+treatises to Boetius. It will be seen from this statement that Peiper
+bases his conclusions on grounds far too narrow; and on the whole
+it is perhaps more probable that Boetius wrote none of the four
+Christian treatises, particularly as they are not ascribed to him by
+any of his contemporaries. Three of them express in the strongest
+language the orthodox faith of the church in opposition to the
+Arian heresy, and these three put in unmistakable language the
+procession of the Holy Spirit from both Father and Son. The
+fourth argues for the orthodox belief of the two natures and one
+person of Christ. When the desire arose that it should be believed
+that Boetius perished from his opposition to the heresy of Theodoric,
+it was natural to ascribe to him works which were in harmony with
+this supposed fact. The works may really have been written by
+one Boetius, a bishop of Africa, as Jourdain supposes, or by some
+Saint Severinus, as Nitzsch conjectures, and the similarity of name
+may have aided the transference of them to the heathen or neutral
+Boetius.</p>
+
+<p>Important and, if genuine, decisive evidence upon this point is
+afforded by a passage in the <i>Anecdoton Holderi</i>, a fragment contained
+in a 10th-century MS. (ed. H. Usener, Leipzig, 1877). The fragment
+gives an extract from a previously unknown letter of Cassiodorus,
+the important words being &ldquo;Scripsit (<i>i.e.</i> Boetius) librum de sancta
+trinitate, et capita quaedam dogmatica, et librum contra Nestorium.&rdquo;
+Nitzsch, however, held that this was a copyist&rsquo;s gloss, harmonizing
+with the received Boetius legend, which had been transferred to
+the text, and did not consider that it outweighed the opposing
+internal evidence from <i>De Cons. Phil.</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Editions</span>.&mdash;The first collected edition of the works of Boetius was
+published at Venice in 1492 (Basel, 1570); the last in J.P. Migne&rsquo;s
+<i>Patrologia</i>, lxiii., lxiv. (Paris, 1847). Of the numerous editions of
+the <i>De Consolatione</i> the best are those of Theodorus Obbarius (Jena,
+1843) and R. Peiper (Leipzig, 1871). The first contains prolegomena
+on the life and writings of Boetius, on his religion and philosophy,
+and on the manuscripts and editions, a critical apparatus, and notes.
+The text of the second was based on the fullest collation of MSS.
+up to that time, though a considerable number of MSS. still remained
+to be collated. In addition to an account of the MSS. used, it gives
+the Book of Lupus, &ldquo;De Metris Boetii,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Vita Boetii&rdquo; contained
+in some MSS., &ldquo;Elogia Boetii,&rdquo; and a short list of the commentators,
+translators and imitators of the <i>Consolatio</i>. It contains also an
+account of the metres used by Boetius in the <i>Consolatio</i>, and a list
+of the passages which he has borrowed from the tragedies of Seneca.
+The work also includes the five treatises, four of them Christian,
+of which mention has been made above. King Alfred&rsquo;s Anglo-Saxon
+version of the <i>De Consolatione</i>, with literal English translation,
+notes and glossary, was published by S. Fox (1835) and again by
+W.J. Sedgefield (1900); that of G. Colville (Colvile, Coldewel,
+1556) was republished by E.B. Bax (1897); translation (mixed
+prose and verse) by H.R. James (1897). Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Englishings&rdquo; was reprinted in 1899; on the style, see A. Engelbrecht
+in <i>Sitzungsber. der Wiener Akad. der Wissenschaften</i> (1902),
+pp. 15-36. The <i>De Institutione Arithmetica, De Institutione Musica</i>,
+and the doubtful <i>Geometria</i> (for which see G. Ernst, <i>De Geometricis
+illis quae sub Boethii nomine nobis tradita sunt quaestiones</i>, 1903;
+A.P. McKinlay in <i>Harvard Classical Studies</i>, 1907; M. Cantor,
+<i>Geschichte der Mathematik</i>, i., Leipzig, 1894; G. Friedlein, <i>Gerbert,
+die Geometric des Boethius, und die indischen Ziffern</i>, Erlangen, 1861,
+are edited by G. Friedlein (Leipzig, 1867); German translation of the
+<i>De Musica</i>, with explanatory notes, by O. Paul (Leipzig, 1872),
+and on the sources W. Miekley, <i>De Boethii libri de musica primi
+fontibus</i> (Jena, 1899). Commentary on Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>De Interpretatione</i>
+<span class="grk" title="peri hermaeneias">&#960;&#949;&#961;&#953; &#7953;&#961;&#956;&#951;&#957;&#949;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>), ed. C. Meiser (Leipzig, 1877), and on Porphyry&rsquo;s
+<i>Isagoge</i>, ed. S. Brandt (Vienna, 1906).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;On Boetius generally, see J.G. Sutterer, <i>Der
+letzte Romer</i> (Eichstadt, 1852); H. Usener, <i>Anecdoton Holderi</i>
+(Leipzig, 1877); H.F. Stewart, <i>Boethius: an Essay</i> (Edinburgh,
+1891); T. Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i>, iii. bk. iv. ch. xii. (1896);
+A. Ebert, <i>Allgemeine Geschichte der Litt. des Mittelalters</i>, i. (1889);
+Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i> (Eng. trans., 1900), §478:
+on the date and order of his works, S. Brandt in <i>Philologus</i>, lxii.
+pp. 141-154, 234-279, and A.P. McKinlay, as above, with refs.:
+on his &ldquo;Songs,&rdquo; H. Hüttinger, <i>Studia in Boetii carmina collata</i>
+(Regensburg, 1900): on his style, G. Bednarz, <i>De universo orationis
+colore Boethii</i> (Breslau, 1883): on his theological attitude and works,
+F.A.B. Nitzsch, <i>Das System des Boethius und die ihm zugeschriebenen
+theologischen Schriften</i> (Berlin, 1860), and art. in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s
+<i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1897); C. Jourdain, <i>De l&rsquo;Origine des traditions sur
+le christianisme de Boèce</i> (1861); Gaston Boissier, &ldquo;Le Christianisme
+de Boèce,&rdquo; in <i>Journal des Savants</i> (1889), pp. 449-462; A. Hildebrand,
+<i>Boethius und seine Stellung zum Christentume</i> (Regensburg,
+1885); G. Schepps, &ldquo;Zu Pseudo-Boethius de fide catholica,&rdquo; in
+<i>Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Theologie</i>, xxxviii. (1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOG<a name="ar266" id="ar266"></a></span> (from Ir. and Gael, <i>bogach, bog</i>, soft), a tract of soft,
+spongy, water-logged ground, composed of vegetation, chiefly
+mosses, in various stages of decomposition. This vegetable
+matter when partially decomposed forms the substance known
+as &ldquo;peat&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). When the accumulation of water is rapidly
+increased by excessive rainfall, there is a danger of a &ldquo;bog-slide,&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;bog-burst,&rdquo; which may obliterate the neighbouring cultivated
+land with a deposit of the contents of the bog. Destructive
+bog-slides have occurred in Ireland, such as that of the Knocknageeha
+Bog, Rathmore, Kerry, in 1896, at Castlerea, Roscommon,
+1901, and at Kilmore, Galway, 1909.</p>
+
+<p>There is a French game of cards called &ldquo;bog,&rdquo; said to be of
+Italian origin, played with a piquet pack on a table with six
+divisions, one of which is known by the name of the game and
+forms the pool. It was fashionable during the Second Empire.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOGATZKY, KARL HEINRICH VON<a name="ar267" id="ar267"></a></span> (1690-1774), German
+hymn-writer, was born at Jankowe in Lower Silesia on the 7th
+of September 1690. At first a page at the ducal court of Saxe-Weissenfels,
+he next studied law and theology at Jena and
+Halle; but ill-health preventing his preferment he settled at
+Glancha in Silesia, where he founded an orphanage. After
+living for a time at Köstritz, and from 1740 to 1745 at the court
+of Christian Ernst, duke of Saxe-Coburg, at Saalfeld, he made
+his home at the Waisenhaus (orphanage) at Halle, where he
+engaged in spiritual work and in composing hymns and sacred
+songs, until his death on the 15th of June 1774. Bogatzky&rsquo;s
+chief works are <i>Güldenes Schatzkästlein der Kinder Gottes</i> (1718),
+which has reached more than sixty editions; and <i>Übung der
+Gottseligkeit in allerlei geistlichen Liedern</i> (1750).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bogatzky&rsquo;s autobiography&mdash;<i>Lebenslauf von ihm selbst geschrieben</i>
+(Halle, 1801; new ed., Berlin, 1872); and Ledderhose,
+<i>Das Leben Bogatzky&rsquo;s</i> (Heidelberg, 1846); also Kelly, <i>C.H. von
+Bogatzky&rsquo;s Life and Work</i> (London, 1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOGHAZ KEUI,<a name="ar268" id="ar268"></a></span> a small village in Asia Minor, north-west of
+Yuzgat in the Angora vilayet, remarkable for the ruins and
+rock-sculptures in its vicinity. The ruins are those of a ruling
+city of the oriental type which flourished in the pre-Greek
+period; and they are generally identified with Pteria (<i>q.v.</i>),
+a place taken by Croesus after he had crossed the Halys
+(Herodotus i. 76).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOGIE,<a name="ar269" id="ar269"></a></span> a northern English dialect word of unknown origin,
+applied to a kind of low truck or &ldquo;trolly.&rdquo; In railway engineering
+it is applied to an under-truck, most frequently with four
+wheels, which is often provided at one end of a locomotive
+or both ends of a carriage. It is pivoted or swivelled on the
+main frames, so that it can turn relatively to the body of the
+vehicle or engine, and thus it enables the wheels readily to follow
+the curves of the line. It has no connexion with the series of
+words, such as &ldquo;bogey&rdquo; or &ldquo;bogy,&rdquo; &ldquo;bogle,&rdquo; &ldquo;boggle,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;bogart&rdquo; (in Shakespeare &ldquo;bug,&rdquo; &ldquo;bugs and goblins&rdquo;),
+which are probably connected with the Welsh <i>bwg</i>, a spectre;
+hence the verb to &ldquo;boggle,&rdquo; properly applied to a horse which
+shies at supposed spectres, and so meaning to hesitate, bungle.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOGNOR,<a name="ar270" id="ar270"></a></span> a seaside resort in the Chichester parliamentary
+division of Sussex, England, 66 m. S.S.W. from London by the
+London, Brighton &amp; South Coast railway. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 6180. Besides the parish church there is a
+Roman Catholic priory and church. The town possesses a pier
+and promenade, a theatre, assembly rooms, and numerous
+convalescent homes, including an establishment belonging to
+the Merchant Taylors&rsquo; Company. The church of the mother
+parish of South Bersted is Norman and Early English, and
+retains a fresco of the 16th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOGÓ,<a name="ar271" id="ar271"></a></span> a town of the province of Cebú, island of Cebú, Philippine
+Islands, on Bogó Bay at the mouth of the Bulac river, in
+the north-east part of the island. Pop. (1903) 14,915. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page119" id="page119"></a>119</span>
+climate is hot but healthy. The surrounding country is fertile,
+producing sugar, Indian corn, and maguay in abundance; rice,
+cacao and fruits are also produced. Hats, baskets, cloths and
+rope are woven and are exported to a limited extent; small
+quantities of copra are also exported. The fisheries are of
+considerable local importance. The language is Cebú-Visayan.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOGODUKHOV,<a name="ar272" id="ar272"></a></span> a town of Russia, in the government of
+Kharkov, 45 m. by rail N.W. of the city of that name, in 49° 58&prime;
+N. lat. and 36° 9&prime; E. long., was formerly fortified. Pop. (1860)
+10,522; (1897) 11,928. There seems to have been a settlement
+on this site as early as 1571. In 1709, at the time of the Russo-Swedish
+War, Bogodukhov was taken by Menshikov and the emperor
+Alexius. It contains a cathedral, built in 1793. Boots, caps
+and furred gowns are manufactured, and gardening and tanning
+are carried on. The trade is principally in grain, cattle and fish.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOGOMILS,<a name="ar273" id="ar273"></a></span> the name of an ancient religious community
+which had its origin in Bulgaria. It is difficult to ascertain
+whether the name was taken from the reputed founder of that
+sect, a certain pope Bogumil or Bogomil, or whether he assumed
+that name after it had been given to the whole sect. The word
+is a direct translation into Slavonic of <i>Massaliani</i>, the Syrian
+name of the sect corresponding to the Greek Euchites. The
+Bogomils are identified with the Massaliani in Slavonic documents
+of the 13th century. They are also known as <i>Pavlikeni</i>,
+<i>i.e.</i> Paulicians. It is a complicated task to determine the true
+character and the tenets of any ancient sect, considering that
+almost all the information that has reached us has come from
+the opponents. The heretical literature has to a great extent
+either perished or been completely changed; but much has also
+survived in a modified written form or through oral tradition.
+Concerning the Bogomils something can be gathered from the
+information collected by Euthymius Zygadenus in the 12th
+century, and from the polemic <i>Against the Heretics</i> written in
+Slavonic by St Kozma during the 10th century. The old Slavonic
+lists of forbidden books of the 15th and 16th centuries also give
+us a clue to the discovery of this heretical literature and of the
+means the Bogomils employed to carry on their propaganda.
+Much may also be learnt from the doctrines of the numerous
+heretical sects which arose in Russia after the 11th century.</p>
+
+<p>The Bogomils were without doubt the connecting link between
+the so-called heretical sects of the East and those of the West.
+They were, moreover, the most active agents in disseminating
+such teachings in Russia and among all the nations of Europe.
+They may have found in some places a soil already prepared by
+more ancient tenets which had been preserved in spite of the
+persecution of the official Church, and handed down from the
+period of primitive Christianity. In the 12th and 13th centuries
+the Bogomils were already known in the West as &ldquo;Bulgari.&rdquo;
+In 1207 the <i>Bulgarornm heresis</i> is mentioned. In 1223 the
+Albigenses are declared to be the local <i>Bougres</i>, and at the same
+period mention is made of the &ldquo;Pope of the Albigenses who resided
+within the confines of Bulgaria.&rdquo; The Cathars and Patarenes,
+the Waldenses, the Anabaptists, and in Russia the Strigolniki,
+Molokani and Dukhobortsi, have all at different times been either
+identified with the Bogomils or closely connected with them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Doctrine</i>.&mdash;From the imperfect and conflicting data which are
+alone available one positive result can be gathered, viz. that
+the Bogomils were both Adoptionists and Manichaeans. They had
+accepted the teaching of Paul of Samosata, though at a later
+period the name of Paul was believed to be that of the Apostle;
+and they were not quite free from the Dualistic principle of
+the Gnostics, at a later period too much identified with the
+teaching of Mani. They rejected the pneumatic Christianity
+of the orthodox churches and did not accept the docetic teaching
+of some of the other sects. Taking as our starting-point the
+teaching of the heretical sects in Russia, notably those of the
+14th century, which are a direct continuation of the doctrines
+held by the Bogomils, we find that they denied the divine birth
+of Christ, the personal coexistence of the Son with the Father
+and Holy Ghost, and the validity of sacraments and ceremonies.
+The miracles performed by Jesus were interpreted in a spiritual
+sense, not as real material occurrences; the Church was the interior
+spiritual church in which all held equal share. Baptism
+was only to be practised on grown men and women. The
+Bogomils repudiated infant baptism, and considered the baptismal
+rite to be of a spiritual character neither by water nor by
+oil but by self-abnegation, prayers and chanting of hymns. Carp
+Strigolnik, who in the 14th century preached this doctrine in
+Novgorod, explained that St Paul had taught that simple-minded
+men should instruct one another; therefore they elected
+their &ldquo;teachers&rdquo; from among themselves to be their spiritual
+guides, and had no special priests. Prayers were to be said in
+private houses, not in separate buildings such as churches.
+Ordination was conferred by the congregation and not by any
+specially appointed minister. The congregation were the
+&ldquo;elect,&rdquo; and each member could obtain the perfection of Christ
+and become a Christ or &ldquo;Chlist.&rdquo; Marriage was not a sacrament.
+The Bogomils refused to fast on Mondays and Fridays.
+They rejected monachism. They declared Christ to be the Son
+of God only through grace like other prophets, and that the
+bread and wine of the eucharist were not transformed into
+flesh and blood; that the last judgment would be executed
+by God and not by Jesus; that the images and the cross were
+idols and the worship of saints and relics idolatry.</p>
+
+<p>These Paulician doctrines have survived in the great Russian
+sects, and can be traced back to the teachings and practice of the
+Bogomils. But in addition to these doctrines of an adoptionist
+origin, they held the Manichaean dualistic conception of the
+origin of the world. This has been partly preserved in some of
+their literary remains, and has taken deep root in the beliefs and
+traditions of the Bulgarians and other nations with whom they
+had come into close contact. The chief literature of all the
+heretical sects throughout the ages has been that of apocryphal
+Biblical narratives, and the popes Jeremiah or Bogumil are
+directly mentioned as authors of such forbidden books &ldquo;which
+no orthodox dare read.&rdquo; Though these writings are mostly the
+same in origin as are known from the older lists of apocryphal
+books, they underwent in this case a certain modification at the
+hands of their Bogomil editors, so as to be used for the propagation
+of their own specific doctrines. In its most simple and
+attractive form&mdash;one at the same time invested with the authority
+of the reputed holy author&mdash;their account of the creation of the
+world and of man; the origin of sin and redemption, the history
+of the Cross, and the disputes between body and soul, right and
+wrong, heaven and hell, were embodied either in &ldquo;Historiated
+Bibles&rdquo; (Paleya<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a>) or in special dialogues held between Christ
+and his disciples, or between renowned Fathers of the Church
+who expounded these views in a simple manner adapted to the
+understanding of the people (Lucidaria). The Bogomils taught
+that God had two sons, the elder Satanail and the younger
+Michael. The elder son rebelled against the father and became
+the evil spirit. After his fall he created the lower heavens and
+the earth and tried in vain to create man; in the end he had to
+appeal to God for the Spirit. After creation Adam was allowed
+to till the ground on condition that he sold himself and his
+posterity to the owner of the earth. Then Michael was sent in
+the form of a man; he became identified with Jesus, and was
+&ldquo;elected&rdquo; by God after the baptism in the Jordan. When the
+Holy Ghost (Michael) appeared in the shape of the dove, Jesus
+received power to break the covenant in the form of a clay
+tablet (<i>hierographon</i>) held by Satanail from Adam. He had now
+become the angel Michael in a human form; as such he vanquished
+Satanail, and deprived him of the termination <i>-il</i> = God,
+in which his power resided. Satanail was thus transformed into
+Satan. Through his machinations the crucifixion took place,
+and Satan was the originator of the whole Orthodox community
+with its churches, vestments, ceremonies, sacraments and fasts,
+with its monks and priests. This world being the work of Satan,
+the perfect must eschew any and every excess of its pleasure.
+But the Bogomils did not go as far as to recommend asceticism.
+They held the &ldquo;Lord&rsquo;s Prayer&rdquo; in high respect as the most
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" id="page120"></a>120</span>
+potent weapon against Satan, and had a number of conjurations
+against &ldquo;evil spirits.&rdquo; Each community had its own twelve
+&ldquo;apostles,&rdquo; and women could be raised to the rank of &ldquo;elect.&rdquo;
+The Bogomils wore garments like mendicant friars and were
+known as keen missionaries, travelling far and wide to propagate
+their doctrines. Healing the sick and conjuring the evil spirit,
+they traversed different countries and spread their apocryphal
+literature along with some of the books of the Old Testament,
+deeply influencing the religious spirit of the nations, and preparing
+them for the Reformation. They sowed the seeds of a rich
+religious popular literature in the East as well as in the West.
+The Historiated Bible, the Letter from Heaven, the Wanderings
+through Heaven and Hell, the numerous Adam and Cross
+legends, the religious poems of the &ldquo;Kalëki perehozhie&rdquo; and
+other similar productions owe their dissemination to a large
+extent to the activity of the Bogomils of Bulgaria, and their
+successors in other lands.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The Bogomil propaganda follows the mountain
+chains of central Europe, starting from the Balkans and continuing
+along the Carpathian Mountains, the Alps and the
+Pyrenees, with ramifications north and south (Germany, England
+and Spain). In the middle of the 8th century the emperor Constantine
+Copronymus settled a number of Armenian Paulicians
+in Thracia. These were noted heretics and were persecuted by
+the Greek Church with fire and sword. The empress Theodora
+killed, drowned or hanged no fewer than 100,000. In the 10th
+century the emperor John Zimisces, himself of Armenian origin,
+transplanted no less than 200,000 Armenian Paulicians to Europe
+and settled them in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis, which
+henceforth became the centre of a far-reaching propaganda.
+Settled along the Balkans as a kind of bulwark against the
+invading Bulgars, the Armenians on the contrary soon fraternized
+with the newcomers, whom they converted to their own
+views; even a prince of the Bulgarians adopted their teaching.
+According to Slavonic documents the founder of this sect was a
+certain priest Bogumil, who &ldquo;imbibed the Manichaean teaching
+and flourished at the time of the Bulgarian emperor Peter&rdquo;
+(927-968). According to another source the founder was called
+Jeremiah (or there was another priest associated with him by the
+name of Jeremiah). The Slavonic sources are unanimous on the
+point that his teaching was Manichaean. A Synodikon from the
+year 1210 adds the names of his pupils or &ldquo;apostles,&rdquo; Mihail,
+Todur, Dobri, Stefan, Vasilie and Peter, all thoroughly Slavonic
+names. Zealous missionaries carried their doctrines far and wide.
+In 1004, scarcely 15 years after the introduction of Christianity
+into Russia, we hear of a priest Adrian teaching the same
+doctrines as the Bogomils. He was imprisoned by Leontie,
+bishop of Kiev. In 1125 the Church in the south of Russia had
+to combat another heresiarch named Dmitri. The Church in
+Bulgaria also tried to extirpate Bogomilism. The popes in
+Rome whilst leading the Crusade against the Albigenses did not
+forget their counterpart in the Balkans and recommended the
+annihilation of the heretics.</p>
+
+<p>The Bogomils spread westwards, and settled first in Servia;
+but at the end of the 12th century Stephen Nemanya, king of
+Servia, persecuted them and expelled them from the country.
+Large numbers took refuge in Bosnia, where they were known
+under the name of Patarenes (<i>q.v.</i>) or Patareni. From Bosnia
+their influence extended into Italy (Piedmont). The Hungarians
+undertook many crusades against the heretics in Bosnia, but
+towards the close of the 15th century the conquest of that country
+by the Turks put an end to their persecution. It is alleged that
+a large number of the Bosnian Paterenes, and especially the
+nobles, embraced Islam (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></span>: <i>History</i>).
+Few or no remnants of Bogomilism have survived in Bosnia.
+The Ritual in Slavonic written by the Bosnian Radoslavov,
+and published in vol. xv. of the <i>Starine</i> of the South Slavonic
+Academy at Agram, shows great resemblance to the Cathar
+ritual published by Cunitz, 1853. See F. Racki, &ldquo;Bogomili i
+Paternai&rdquo; in <i>Rad</i>, vols. vii., viii. and x. (Agram, 1870);
+Döllinger, <i>Beiträge zur Ketzergeschichte d. Mittelalters</i>, 2 vols.
+(Munich, 1890).</p>
+
+<p>Under Turkish rule the Bogomils lived unmolested as <i>Pavlikeni</i>
+in their ancient stronghold near Philippopolis, and farther
+northward. In 1650 the Roman Catholic Church gathered them
+into its fold. No less than fourteen villages near Nicopolis
+embraced Catholicism, and a colony of <i>Pavlikeni</i> in the village
+of Cioplea near Bucharest followed the example of their brethren
+across the Danube.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Euthymius Zygadenus, <i>Narratio de Bogomilis</i>,
+ed. Gieseler (Göttingen, 1842); J.C. Wolf, <i>Historia Bogomilorum</i>
+(Wittenberg, 1712); &ldquo;Slovo svyatago Kozmyi na eretiki,&rdquo; in
+Kukuljevi&#263; Sakcinski, <i>Arkiv zapovyestnicu jugoslavensku</i>, vol. iv.
+pp. 69-97 (Agram, 1859); C.J. Jire&#269;ek, <i>Geschichte d. Bulgaren</i>, pp.
+155, 174-175 (Prague, 1876); Korolev, &ldquo;Dogmatichesko-to uchenie
+na Bogomil-tie,&rdquo; in <i>Periodichesko spisanie</i>, vols. vii.-viii. pp. 75-106
+(Braila, 1873); A. Lombard, <i>Pauliciens, Bulgares et Bons-hommes</i>
+(Geneva, 1879); Episcopul Melchisedek, <i>Lipovenismul</i>, pp. 265 sqq.
+(Bucharest, 1871); B.P. Hasdeu, <i>Cuvente den b&#259;tr&#259;ni</i>, vol. ii. pp. 247
+sqq. (Bucharest, 1879); F.C. Conybeare, <i>The Key of Truth</i>, pp. 73
+sqq. and specially pp. 138 sqq. (Oxford, 1898); M. Gaster, <i>Greeko-Slavonic
+Literature</i>, pp. 17 sqq. (London, 1887); O. Dähnhardt,
+<i>Natursagen</i>, vol. i. pp. 38 sqq. (Leipzig and Berlin, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. G.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> These betray their Gnostic (Marcianite) spirit by the
+anti-Jewish tone of the oldest MSS. extant, though this prejudice tends
+to decrease in later MSS.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOGORODSK,<a name="ar274" id="ar274"></a></span> a town of central Russia, in the government of
+Moscow, and 38 m. by rail E.N.E. of the city of Moscow, on the
+Klyazma. It has woollen, cotton and silk mills, chemical
+factories and dye-works, and is famous for its gold brocade.
+Pop. (1897) 11,210.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOGOS<a name="ar275" id="ar275"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Bilens</span>), a pastoral race of mixed Hamitic descent,
+occupying the highlands immediately north of Abyssinia, now
+part of the Italian colony of Eritrea. They were formerly a
+self-governing community, though subject to Abyssinia. The
+community is divided into two classes, the <i>Shumaglieh</i> or
+&ldquo;elders&rdquo; and <i>Tigré</i> or &ldquo;clients.&rdquo; The latter are serfs of the
+former, who, however, cannot sell them. The Tigré goes with the
+land, and his master must protect him. In blood-money he is
+worth another Tigré or ninety-three cows, while an elder&rsquo;s life is
+valued at one hundred and fifty-eight cattle or one of his own
+caste. The eldest son of a Shumaglieh inherits his father&rsquo;s
+two-edged sword, white cows, lands and slaves, but the house
+goes to the youngest son. Female chastity is much valued, but
+women have no rights, inherit nothing, and are classed with the
+hyaena, the most despised animal throughout Abyssinia. The
+Bogo husband never sees the face or pronounces the name of his
+mother-in-law, while it is a crime for a wife to utter her husband&rsquo;s
+or father-in-law&rsquo;s name.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOGOTÁ,<a name="ar276" id="ar276"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Santa Fé de Bogotá</span>, the capital of the republic
+of Colombia, and of the interior department of Cundinamarca, in
+4° 6&prime; N. lat. and 78° 30&prime; W. long. Pop. about 125,000. The city
+is on the eastern margin of a large elevated plateau 8563 ft. above
+sea-level. The plateau may be described as a great bench or shelf
+on the western slope of the oriental Cordilleras, about 70 m. long
+and 30 m. wide, with a low rim on its western margin and backed
+by a high ridge on the east. The plain forming the plateau is
+well watered with numerous small lakes and streams. These
+several small streams, one of which, the San Francisco, passes
+through the city, unite near the south-western extremity of the
+plateau and form the Rio Funza, or Bogotá, which finally plunges
+over the edge at Tequendama in a beautiful, perpendicular fall of
+about 475 ft. The city is built upon a sloping plain at the base of
+two high mountains La Gaudalupe and Monserrate, upon whose
+crests stand two imposing churches. From a broad avenue on
+the upper side downward to the west slope the streets, through
+which run streams of cool, fresh water from the mountains above.
+The north and south streets cross these at right angles, and the
+blocks thus formed are like great terraces. A number of handsomely-laid-out
+plazas, or squares, ornamented with gardens
+and statuary, have been preserved; on these face the principal
+public buildings and churches. In Plaza Bolivar is a statue of
+Bolivar by Pietro Tenerani (1789-1869), a pupil of Canova,
+and in Plaza Santandér is one of General Francisco de Paula
+Santandér (1792-1840). Facing on Plaza de la Constitución
+are the capitol and cathedral. The streets are narrow and
+straight, but as a rule they are clean and well paved.
+Owing to the prevalence of earthquakes, private houses are
+usually of one storey only, and are built of sun-dried bricks,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>121</span>
+white-washed. But few of the public buildings are imposing in
+appearance, though good taste in style and decoration are often
+shown.</p>
+
+<p>The city occupies an area of about 2½ × 1½ m. It has street
+cars, electric light and telephones. Short lines of railway connect
+it with Facatativa (24 m.) on the road to Honda, and
+with Zipaquira, where extensive salt mines are worked. A line
+of railway was also under construction in 1906 to Jirardot, at the
+head of navigation on the upper Magdalena. Bogotá is an
+archiepiscopal see, founded in 1561, and is one of the strongholds
+of medieval clericalism in South America. It has a cathedral,
+rebuilt in 1814, and some 30 other churches, together with many
+old conventual buildings now used for secular purposes, their
+religious communities having been dissolved by Mosquera and
+their revenues devoted in great measure to education. The
+capitol, which is occupied by the executive and legislative
+departments, is an elegant and spacious building, erected since
+1875. The interest which Bogotá has always taken in education,
+and because of which she has been called the &ldquo;Athens of South
+America,&rdquo; is shown in the number and character of her institutions
+of learning&mdash;a university, three endowed colleges, a school
+of chemistry and mineralogy, a national academy, a military
+school, a public library with some 50,000 volumes, a national
+observatory, a natural history museum and a botanic garden.
+The city also possesses a well-equipped mint, little used in recent
+years. The plain surrounding the city is very fertile, and pastures
+cattle and produces cereals, vegetables and fruit in abundance.
+It was the centre of Chibcha civilization before the Spanish
+conquest and sustained a large population. The climate is mild
+and temperate, the average annual temperature being about 58°
+and the rainfall about 43½ in. The geographical location of the
+city is unfavourable to any great development in commerce and
+manufactures beyond local needs.</p>
+
+<p>Bogotá was founded in 1538 by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada
+and was named Santa Fé de Bogotá after his birthplace Santa Fé,
+and after the southern capital of the Chibchas, Bacatá (or Funza).
+It was made the capital of the viceroyalty of Nueva Granada,
+and soon became one of the centres of Spanish colonial power
+and civilization on the South American continent. In 1811 its
+citizens revolted against Spanish rule and set up a government
+of their own, but in 1816 the city was occupied by Pablo Morillo
+(1777-1838), the Spanish general, who subjected it to a ruthless
+military government until 1819, when Bolivar&rsquo;s victory at
+Boyacá compelled its evacuation. On the creation of the
+republic of Colombia, Bogotá became its capital, and when
+that republic was dissolved into its three constituent parts
+it remained the capital of Nueva Granada. It has been the
+scene of many important events in the chequered history of
+Colombia.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. J. L.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOGRA,<a name="ar277" id="ar277"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bagura</span>, a town and district of British India, in
+the Rajshahi division of eastern Bengal and Assam. The town
+is situated on the right bank of the river Karatoya. Pop. (1901)
+7094. The <span class="sc">District of Bogra</span>, which was first formed in 1821,
+lies west of the main channel of the Brahmaputra. It contains
+an area of 1359 sq. m. In 1901 the population (on a reduced area)
+was 854,533, showing an increase of 11% in the decade. The
+district stretches out in a level plain, intersected by numerous
+streams and dotted with patches of jungle. The Karatoya river
+flows from north to south, dividing it into two portions, possessing
+very distinct characteristics. The eastern tract consists of rich
+alluvial soil, well watered, and subject to fertilizing inundations,
+yielding heavy crops of coarse rice, oil-seeds and jute. The
+western portion of the district is high-lying and produces the
+finer qualities of rice. The principal rivers are formed by the
+different channels of the Brahmaputra, which river here bears
+the local names of the Konai, the Daokoba and the Jamuna,
+the last forming a portion of the eastern boundary of the district.
+Its bed is studded with alluvial islands. The Brahmaputra and
+its channels, together with three minor streams, the Bangali,
+Karatoya and Atrai, afford admirable facilities for commerce,
+and render every part of the district accessible to native cargo
+boats of large burden. The rivers swarm with fish. The former
+production of indigo is extinct, and the industry of silk-spinning
+is decaying. There is no town with as many as 10,000 inhabitants,
+trade being conducted at riverside marts. Nor are there any
+metalled roads. Several lines of railway (the Eastern Bengal,
+&amp;c.), however, serve the district.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOGUE, DAVID<a name="ar278" id="ar278"></a></span> (1750-1825), British nonconformist divine,
+was born in the parish of Coldingham, Berwickshire. After a
+course of study in Edinburgh, he was licensed to preach by the
+Church of Scotland, but made his way to London (1721), where
+he taught in schools at Edmonton, Hampstead and Camberwell.
+He then settled as minister of the Congregational church at
+Gosport in Hampshire (1777), and to his pastoral duties added
+the charge of an institution for preparing men for the ministry.
+It was the age of the new-born missionary enterprise, and Bogue&rsquo;s
+academy was in a very large measure the seed from which the
+London Missionary Society took its growth. Bogue himself
+would have gone to India in 1796 but for the opposition of the
+East India Company. He also had much to do with founding
+the British and Foreign Bible Society and the Religious Tract
+Society, and in conjunction with James Bennet, minister at
+Romsey, wrote a well-known <i>History of Dissenters</i> (3 vols., 1809).
+Another of his writings was an <i>Essay on the Divine Authority of
+the New Testament</i>. He died at Brighton on the 25th of October
+1825.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOGUS<a name="ar279" id="ar279"></a></span> (of uncertain origin, possibly connected with the
+Fr. <i>bagasse</i>, sugar-cane refuse), a slang word, originally used in
+America of the apparatus employed in counterfeiting coins, and
+now generally of any sham or spurious transaction.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOHEA<a name="ar280" id="ar280"></a></span> (a word derived from the Wu-i hills in the Fuhkien
+province of China, <i>b</i> being substituted for <i>W</i> or <i>V</i>), a kind of
+black tea (<i>q.v.</i>), or, in the 18th and early 19th centuries, tea
+generally, as in Pope&rsquo;s line, &ldquo;So past her time &rsquo;twixt reading
+and bohea.&rdquo; Later the name &ldquo;bohea&rdquo; has been applied to an
+inferior quality of tea grown late in the season.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 4, Slice 1, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 1
+       "Bisharin" to "Bohea"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2010 [EBook #33550]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE BLEACHING: "Coal gas mixed with air is sent under pressure
+      through pipe a into the burners b, b, where the mixture burns with
+      an intense heat." 'into' amended from 'ino'.
+
+    ARTICLE BLUEBEARD: "BLUEBEARD, the monster of Charles Perrault's
+      tale of Barbe Bleue, who murdered his wives and hid their bodies in
+      a locked room. Perrault's tale was first printed in his Histoires
+      et contes du temps passe (1697)." 'temps' amended from 'tems'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME IV, SLICE I
+
+             Bisharin to Bohea
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  BISHARIN                          BLENDE
+  BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY          BLENHEIM
+  BISHOP, ISABELLA                  BLENNERHASSETT, HARMAN
+  BISHOP                            BLERA
+  BISHOP AUCKLAND                   BLESSINGTON, MARGUERITE
+  BISHOP'S CASTLE                   BLIDA
+  BISHOP STORTFORD                  BLIGH, WILLIAM
+  BISKRA                            BLIND, MATHILDE
+  BISLEY                            BLIND HOOKEY
+  BISMARCK, OTTO LEOPOLD VON        BLINDING
+  BISMARCK (North Dakota, U.S.A.)   BLINDMAN'S-BUFF
+  BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO              BLINDNESS
+  BISMILLAH                         BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON
+  BISMUTH                           BLISTER
+  BISMUTHITE                        BLIZZARD
+  BISMYA                            BLOCK, MARK ELIEZER
+  BISON                             BLOCK, MAURICE
+  BISQUE                            BLOCK
+  BISSELL, GEORGE EDWIN             BLOCKADE
+  BISSEXT                           BLOCKHOUSE
+  BISTRE                            BLOEMAERT, ABRAHAM
+  BIT                               BLOEMEN, JAN FRANS VAN
+  BITHUR                            BLOEMFONTEIN
+  BITHYNIA                          BLOET, ROBERT
+  BITLIS                            BLOIS, LOUIS DE
+  BITONTO                           BLOIS
+  BITSCH                            BLOIS (Countship of)
+  BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS     BLOMEFIELD, FRANCIS
+  BITTERFELD                        BLOMFIELD, SIR ARTHUR WILLIAM
+  BITTERLING                        BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES
+  BITTERN (bird)                    BLOMFIELD, EDWARD VALENTINE
+  BITTERN (liquor)                  BLONDEL, DAVID
+  BITTERS                           BLONDEL, JACQUES FRANCOIS
+  BITUMEN                           BLONDIN
+  BITURIGES                         BLOOD
+  BITZIUS, ALBRECHT                 BLOOD-LETTING
+  BIVOUAC                           BLOOD-MONEY
+  BIWA                              BLOODSTONE
+  BIXIO, NINO                       BLOOM
+  BIZERTA                           BLOOMER, AMELIA JENKS
+  BIZET GEORGES                     BLOOMFIELD, MAURICE
+  BJORNEBORG                        BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT
+  BJORNSON, BJORNSTJERNE            BLOOMFIELD
+  BLACHFORD, FREDERIC ROGERS        BLOOMINGTON (Illinois, U.S.A.)
+  BLACK, ADAM                       BLOOMINGTON (Indiana, U.S.A.)
+  BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN          BLOOMSBURG
+  BLACK, JOSEPH                     BLOUNT, CHARLES
+  BLACK, WILLIAM                    BLOUNT, EDWARD
+  BLACK APE                         BLOUNT, THOMAS
+  BLACKBALL                         BLOUNT, SIR THOMAS POPE
+  BLACKBERRY                        BLOUNT, WILLIAM
+  BLACKBIRD                         BLOUSE
+  BLACK BUCK                        BLOW, JOHN
+  BLACKBURN, COLIN BLACKBURN        BLOW-GUN
+  BLACKBURN, JONATHAN               BLOWITZ, HENRI GEORGES ADOLPHE DE
+  BLACKBURN                         BLOWPIPE
+  BLACKBURNE, FRANCIS               BLUCHER, GEBHARD LEBERECHT VON
+  BLACKCOCK                         BLUE
+  BLACK COUNTRY, THE                BLUEBEARD
+  BLACK DROP                        BLUE-BOOK
+  BLACKFOOT                         BLUESTOCKING
+  BLACK FOREST                      BLUFF
+  BLACK HAWK                        BLUM, ROBERT FREDERICK
+  BLACKHEATH                        BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH
+  BLACK HILLS                       BLUMENTHAL, LEONHARD
+  BLACKIE, JOHN STUART              BLUNDERBUSS
+  BLACK ISLE                        BLUNT, JOHN HENRY
+  BLACKLOCK, THOMAS                 BLUNT, JOHN JAMES
+  BLACKMAIL                         BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN
+  BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD            BLUNTSCHLI, JOHANN KASPAR
+  BLACKMORE, RICHARD DODDRIDGE      BLYTH
+  BLACK MOUNTAIN                    B'NAI B'RITH, INDEPENDENT ORDER OF
+  BLACKPOOL                         BOA
+  BLACK ROD                         BOABDIL
+  BLACK SEA (body of water)         BOADICEA
+  BLACK SEA (district of Russia)    BOAR
+  BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM           BOARD
+  BLACK VEIL                        BOARDING-HOUSE
+  BLACKWATER                        BOARDING-OUT SYSTEM
+  BLACKWATER FEVER                  BOARDMAN, GEORGE DANA
+  BLACKWELL, THOMAS                 BOASE, HENRY SAMUEL
+  BLACKWOOD, WILLIAM                BOAT
+  BLADDER                           BOATSWAIN
+  BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES     BOBBILI
+  BLADDER-WORT                      BOBBIO
+  BLADES, WILLIAM                   BOBER
+  BLAENAVON                         BOBRUISK
+  BLAGOVYESHCHENSK                  BOCAGE, MANUEL MARIA BARBOSA DE
+  BLAIKIE, WILLIAM GARDEN           BOCAGE
+  BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE           BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI
+  BLAINVILLE, HENRI DUCROTAY DE     BOCCALINI, TRAJANO
+  BLAIR, FRANCIS PRESTON            BOCCHERINI, LUIGI
+  BLAIR, HUGH                       BOCCHUS
+  BLAIR, JAMES                      BOCHART, SAMUEL
+  BLAIR, ROBERT                     BOCHOLT
+  BLAIR ATHOLL                      BOCHUM
+  BLAIRGOWRIE                       BOCKH, PHILIPP AUGUST
+  BLAKE, EDWARD                     BOCKLIN, ARNOLD
+  BLAKE, ROBERT                     BOCLAND
+  BLAKE, WILLIAM                    BOCSKAY, STEPHEN
+  BLAKELOCK, RALPH ALBERT           BODE, JOHANN ELERT
+  BLAKENEY, WILLIAM BLAKENEY        BODEL, JEHAN
+  BLAKESLEY, JOSEPH WILLIAMS        BODENBACH
+  BLAMIRE, SUSANNA                  BODENSTEDT, FRIEDRICH MARTIN VON
+  BLANC, LOUIS                      BODHI VAMSA
+  BLANC, MONT                       BODICHON, BARBARA LEIGH SMITH
+  BLANCHARD, SAMUEL LAMAN           BODIN, JEAN
+  BLANCHE, JACQUES EMILE            BODKIN
+  BLANCHE OF CASTILE                BODLE
+  BLANCH FEE                        BODLEY, GEORGE FREDERICK
+  BLANDFORD                         BODLEY, SIR THOMAS
+  BLANDRATA, GIORGIO                BODMER, JOHANN JAKOB
+  BLANE, SIR GILBERT                BODMIN
+  BLANFORD, WILLIAM THOMAS          BODO
+  BLANK                             BODONI, GIAMBATTISTA
+  BLANKENBERGHE                     BODY-SNATCHING
+  BLANKENBURG                       BOECE, HECTOR
+  BLANKETEERS                       BOEHM, SIR JOSEPH EDGAR
+  BLANK VERSE                       BOEHM VON BAWERK, EUGEN
+  BLANQUI, JEROME ADOLPHE           BOEHME, JAKOB
+  BLANQUI, LOUIS AUGUSTE            BOEOTIA
+  BLANTYRE (town of Central Africa) BOER
+  BLANTYRE (parish of Scotland)     BOERHAAVE, HERMANN
+  BLARNEY                           BOETHUS
+  BLASHFIELD, EDWIN HOWLAND         BOETIUS, ANICIUS MANLIUS SEVERINUS
+  BLASIUS, SAINT                    BOG
+  BLASPHEMY                         BOGATZKY, KARL HEINRICH VON
+  BLASS, FRIEDRICH                  BOGHAZ KEUI
+  BLASTING                          BOGIE
+  BLAUBEUREN                        BOGNOR
+  BLAVATSKY, HELENA PETROVNA        BOGO
+  BLAYDES, FREDERICK HENRY MARVELL  BOGODUKHOV
+  BLAYDON                           BOGOMILS
+  BLAYE-ET-STE LUCE                 BOGORODSK
+  BLAZE                             BOGOS
+  BLAZON                            BOGOTA
+  BLEACHING                         BOGRA
+  BLEAK                             BOGUE, DAVID
+  BLEEK, FRIEDRICH                  BOGUS
+  BLEEK, WILHELM HEINRICH IMMANUEL  BOHEA
+
+
+
+
+BISHARIN (the anc. _Ichthyophagi_), a nomad tribe of African "Arabs," of
+Hamitic origin, dwelling in the eastern part of the Nubian desert. In
+the middle ages they were known as Beja (q.v.), and they are the most
+characteristic of the Nubian "Arabs." With the Ababda and Hadendoa they
+represent the Blemmyes of classical writers. Linguistically and
+geographically the Bisharin form a connecting link between the Hamitic
+populations and the Egyptians. Nominally they are Mahommedans. They,
+however, preserve some non-Islamic religious practices, and exhibit
+traces of animal-worship in their rule of never killing the serpent or
+the partridge, which are regarded as sacred.
+
+
+
+
+BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855), English musical composer, was born
+in London on the 18th of November 1786. He received his artistic
+training from Francisco Bianchi, and in 1804 wrote the music to a piece
+called _Angelina_, which was performed at Margate. His next composition
+was the music to the ballet of _Tamerlan et Bajazet_, produced in 1806
+at the King's theatre. This proved successful, and was followed within
+two years by several others, of which _Caractacus_, a pantomimic ballet,
+written for Drury Lane, may be named. In 1809 his first opera, _The
+Circassian's Bride_, was produced at Drury Lane; but unfortunately the
+theatre was burned down after one performance, and the score of the work
+perished in the flames. His next work of importance, the opera of _The
+Maniac_, written for the Lyceum in 1810, established his reputation, and
+probably secured for him an appointment for three years as composer for
+Covent Garden theatre. The numerous works--operas, burlettas, cantatas,
+incidental music to Shakespeare's plays, &c.--which he composed while in
+this position, are in great part forgotten. The most successful
+were--_The Virgin of the Sun_ (1812), _The Miller and his Men_ (1813),
+_Guy Mannering_ and _The Slave_ (1816), _Maid Marian_ and _Clari_,
+introducing the well-known air of "Home, Sweet Home" (1822). In 1825
+Bishop was induced by Elliston to transfer his services from Covent
+Garden to the rival house in Drury Lane, for which he wrote with unusual
+care the opera of _Aladdin_, intended to compete with Weber's _Oberon_,
+commissioned by the other house. The result was a failure, and with
+_Aladdin_ Bishop's career as an operatic composer may be said to close.
+On the formation of the Philharmonic Society (1813) Bishop was appointed
+one of the directors, and he took his turn as conductor of its concerts
+during the period when that office was held by different musicians in
+rotation. In 1830 he was appointed musical director at Vauxhall; and it
+was in the course of this engagement that he wrote the popular song "My
+Pretty Jane." His sacred cantata, _The Seventh Day_, was written for the
+Philharmonic Society and performed in 1833. In 1839 he was made bachelor
+in music at Oxford. In 1841 he was appointed to the Reid chair of music
+in the university of Edinburgh, but he resigned the office in 1843. He
+was knighted in 1842, being the first musician who ever received that
+honour. In 1848 he succeeded Dr Crotch in the chair of music at Oxford.
+The music for the ode on the occasion of the installation of Lord Derby
+as chancellor of the university (1853) proved to be his last work. He
+died on the 30th of April 1855 in impoverished circumstances, though few
+composers ever made more by their labours. Bishop was twice married: to
+Miss Lyon and Miss Anne Riviere. Both he and his wives were singers. His
+name lives in connexion with his numerous glees, songs and smaller
+compositions. His melodies are clear, flowing, appropriate and often
+charming; and his harmony is always pure, simple and sweet.
+
+
+
+
+BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904), English traveller and author, daughter of
+the Rev. Edward Bird, rector of Tattenhall, Cheshire, was born in
+Yorkshire on the 15th of October 1832. Isabella Bird began to travel
+when she was twenty-two. Her first book, _The Englishwoman in America_
+(1856), consisted of her correspondence during a visit to Canada
+undertaken for her health. She visited the Rocky Mountains, the South
+Pacific, Australia and New Zealand, producing some brightly written
+books of travel. But her reputation was made by the records of her
+extensive travels in Asia: _Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_ (2 vols., 1880),
+_Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan_ (2 vols., 1891), _Among the Tibetans_
+(1894), _Korea and her Neighbours_ (2 vols., 1898), _The Yangtze Valley
+and Beyond_ (1899), _Chinese Pictures_ (1900). She married in 1881 Dr
+John Bishop, an Edinburgh physician, and was left a widow in 1886. In
+1892 she became the first lady fellow of the Royal Geographical Society,
+and in 1901 she rode a thousand miles in Morocco and the Atlas
+Mountains. She died in Edinburgh on the 7th of October 1904.
+
+  See Anna M. Stoddart, _The Life of Isabella Bird_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+BISHOP (A.S. _bisceop_, from Lat. _episcopus_, Gr. [Greek: episkopos],
+"overlooker" or "overseer"), in certain branches of the Christian
+Church, an ecclesiastic consecrated or set apart to perform certain
+spiritual functions, and to exercise oversight over the lower clergy
+(priests or presbyters, deacons, &c.). In the Catholic Church bishops
+take rank at the head of the sacerdotal hierarchy, and have certain
+spiritual powers peculiar to their office, but opinion has long been
+divided as to whether they constitute a separate order or form merely a
+higher degree of the order of priests (_ordo sacerdotium_).
+
+
+  Roman Catholic.
+
+In the Roman Catholic Church the bishop belongs to the highest order of
+the hierarchy, and in this respect is the peer even of the pope, who
+addresses him as "venerable brother." By the decree of the council of
+Trent he must be thirty years of age, of legitimate birth, and of
+approved learning and virtue. The method of his selection varies in
+different countries. In France, under the Concordat, the sovereign--and
+under the republic the president--had the right of nomination. The same
+is true of Austria (except four sees), Bavaria, Spain and Portugal. In
+some countries the bishop is elected by the cathedral chapter (as in
+Wurttemberg), or by the bishops of the provinces (as in Ireland). In
+others, as in Great Britain, the United States of America and Belgium,
+the pope selects one out of a list submitted by the chapter. In all
+cases the nomination or election is subject to confirmation by the Holy
+See. Before this is granted the candidate is submitted to a double
+examination as to his fitness, first by a papal delegate at his place of
+residence (_processus informativus in partibus electi_), and afterwards
+by the Roman Congregation of Cardinals assigned for this purpose
+(_processus electionis definitivus in curia_). In the event of both
+processes proving satisfactory, the bishop-elect is confirmed,
+preconized, and so far promoted that he is allowed to exercise the
+rights of jurisdiction in his see. He cannot, however, exercise the
+functions proper to the episcopal _order_ (_potestas ordinis_) until his
+consecration, which ordinarily takes place within three months of his
+confirmation. The bishop is consecrated, after taking the oath of
+fidelity to the Holy See, and subscribing the profession of faith, by a
+bishop appointed by the pope for the purpose, assisted by at least two
+other bishops or prelates, the main features of the act being the laying
+on of hands, the anointing with oil, and the delivery of the pastoral
+staff and other symbols of the office. After consecration the new bishop
+is solemnly enthroned and blesses the assembled congregation.
+
+The _potestas ordinis_ of the bishop is not peculiar to the Roman
+Church, and, in general, is claimed by all bishops, whether Oriental or
+Anglican, belonging to churches which have retained the Catholic
+tradition in this respect. Besides the full functions of the
+presbyterate, or priesthood, bishops have the sole right (1) to confer
+holy orders, (2) to administer confirmation, (3) to prepare the holy
+oil, or chrism, (4) to consecrate sacred places or utensils (churches,
+churchyards, altars, &c.), (5) to give the benediction to abbots and
+abbesses, (6) to anoint kings. In the matter of their rights of
+jurisdiction, however, Roman Catholic bishops differ from others in
+their peculiar responsibility to the Holy See. Some of their powers of
+legislation and administration they possess _motu proprio_ in virtue of
+their position as diocesan bishops, others they enjoy under special
+faculties granted by the Holy See; but all bishops are bound, by an oath
+taken at the time of their consecration, to go to Rome at fixed
+intervals (_visitare sacra limina apostolorum_) to report in person, and
+in writing, on the state of their dioceses.
+
+The Roman bishop ranks immediately after the cardinals; he is styled
+_reverendissimus_, _sanctissimus_ or _beatissimus_. In English the style
+is "Right Reverend"; the bishop being addressed as "my lord bishop."
+
+The insignia (_pontificalia_ or pontificals) of the Roman Catholic
+bishop are (1) a ring with a jewel, symbolizing fidelity to the church,
+(2) the pastoral staff, (3) the pectoral cross, (4) the vestments,
+consisting of the caligae, stockings and sandals, the tunicle, and
+purple gloves, (5) the mitre, symbol of the royal priesthood, (6) the
+throne (cathedra), surmounted by a baldachin or canopy, on the gospel
+side of the choir in the cathedral church.
+
+
+  Anglican.
+
+The spiritual function and character of the Anglican bishops, allowing
+for the doctrinal changes effected at the Reformation, are similar to
+those of the Roman. They alone can administer the rite of confirmation,
+ordain priests and deacons, and exercise a certain dispensing power. In
+the established Church of England the appointment of bishops is vested
+effectively in the crown, though the old form of election by the
+cathedral chapter is retained. They must be learned presbyters at least
+thirty years of age, born in lawful wedlock, and of good life and
+behaviour. The mode of appointment is regulated by 25 Henry VIII. c. 20,
+re-enacted in 1 Elizabeth c. 1 (Act of Supremacy 1558). On a vacancy
+occurring, the dean and chapter notify the king thereof in chancery, and
+pray leave to make election. A licence under the Great Seal to proceed
+to the election of a bishop, known as the _conge d'eslire_, together
+with a letter missive containing the name of the king's nominee, is
+thereupon sent to the dean and chapter, who are bound under the
+penalties of _Praemunire_ to proceed within twelve days to the election
+of the person named in it. In the event of their refusing obedience or
+neglecting to elect, the bishop may be appointed by letters patent under
+the Great Seal without the form of election. Upon the election being
+reported to the crown, a mandate issues from the crown to the archbishop
+and metropolitan, requesting him and commanding him to confirm the
+election, and to invest and consecrate the bishop-elect. Thereupon the
+archbishop issues a commission to his vicar-general to examine formally
+the process of the election of the bishop, and to supply by his
+authority all defects in matters of form, and to administer to the
+bishop-elect the oaths of allegiance, of supremacy and of canonical
+obedience (see CONFIRMATION OF BISHOPS). In the disestablished and
+daughter Churches the election is by the synod of the Church, as in
+Ireland, or by a diocesan convention, as in the United States of
+America.
+
+In the Church of England the _potestas ordinis_ is conferred by
+consecration. This is usually carried out by an archbishop, who is
+assisted by two or more bishops. The essential "form" of the
+consecration is in the simultaneous "laying on of hands" by the
+consecrating prelates. After this the new bishop, who has so far been
+vested only in a rochet, retires and puts on the rest of the episcopal
+habit, viz. the chimere. After consecration the bishop is competent to
+exercise all the spiritual functions of his office; but a bishopric in
+the Established Church, being a barony, is under the guardianship of the
+crown during a vacancy, and has to be conferred afresh on each new
+holder. A bishop, then, cannot enter into the enjoyment of the
+temporalities of his see, including his rights of presentation to
+benefices, before doing homage to the king. This is done in the ancient
+feudal form, surviving elsewhere only in the conferring of the M.A.
+degree at Cambridge. The bishop kneels before the king, places his hands
+between his, and recites an oath of temporal allegiance; he then kisses
+hands.
+
+Besides the functions exercised in virtue of their order, bishops are
+also empowered by law to exercise a certain jurisdiction over all
+consecrated places and over all ordained persons. This jurisdiction they
+exercise for the most part through their consistorial courts, or through
+commissioners appointed under the Church Discipline Act of 1840. By the
+Clergy Discipline Act of 1892 it was decreed that the trial of clerks
+accused of unfitness to exercise the cure of souls should be before the
+consistory court with five assessors. Under the Public Worship
+Regulation Act of 1874, which gave to churchwardens and aggrieved
+parishioners the right to institute proceedings against the clergy for
+breaches of the law in the conduct of divine service, a discretionary
+right was reserved to the bishop to stay proceedings.
+
+The bishops also exercise a certain jurisdiction over marriages,
+inasmuch as they have by the canons of the Church of England a power of
+dispensing with the proclamation of banns before marriage. These
+dispensations are termed marriage licences, and their legal validity is
+recognised by the Marriage Act of 1823. The bishops had formerly
+jurisdiction over all questions touching the validity of marriages and
+the status of married persons, but this jurisdiction has been
+transferred from the consistorial courts of the bishops to a court of
+the crown by the Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857. They have in a similar
+manner been relieved of their jurisdiction in testamentary matters, and
+in matters of defamation and of brawling in churches; and the only
+jurisdiction which they continue to exercise over the general laity is
+with regard to their use of the churches and churchyards. The
+churchwardens, who are representative officers of the parishes, are also
+executive officers of the bishops in all matters touching the decency
+and order of the churches and of the churchyards, and they are
+responsible to the bishops for the due discharge of their duties; but
+the abolition of church rates has relieved the churchwardens of the most
+onerous part of their duties, which was connected with the stewardship
+of the church funds of their parishes.
+
+The bishops are still authorized by law to dedicate and set apart
+buildings for the solemnization of divine service, and grounds for the
+performance of burials, according to the rites and ceremonies of the
+Church of England; and such buildings and grounds, after they have been
+duly consecrated according to law, cannot be diverted to any secular
+purpose except under the authority of an act of parliament.
+
+The bishops of England have also jurisdiction to examine clerks who may
+be presented to benefices within their respective dioceses, and they are
+bound in each case by the 95th canon of 1604 to inquire and inform
+themselves of the sufficiency of each clerk within twenty-eight days,
+after which time, if they have not rejected him as insufficiently
+qualified, they are bound to institute him, or to license him, as the
+case may be, to the benefice, and thereupon to send their mandate to the
+archdeacon to induct him into the temporalities of the benefice. Where
+the bishop himself is patron of a benefice within his own diocese he is
+empowered to collate a clerk to it,--in other words, to confer it on the
+clerk without the latter being presented to him. Where the clerk himself
+is patron of the living, the bishop may institute him on his own
+petition. (See BENEFICE.)
+
+As spiritual peers, bishops of the Church of England have (subject to
+the limitations stated below) seats in the House of Lords, though
+whether as barons or in their spiritual character has been a matter of
+dispute. The latter, however, would seem to be the case, since a bishop
+was entitled to his writ of summons after confirmation and before doing
+homage for his barony. Doubts having been raised whether a bishop of the
+Church of England, being a lord of parliament, could resign his seat in
+the Upper House, although several precedents to that effect are on
+record, a statute of the realm, which was confined to the case of the
+bishops of London and Durham, was passed in 1856, declaring that on the
+resignation of their sees being accepted by their respective
+metropolitans, those bishops should cease to sit as lords of parliament,
+and their sees should be filled up in the manner provided by law in the
+case of the avoidance of a bishopric. In 1869 the Bishops' Resignation
+Act was passed. It provided that, on any bishop desiring to retire on
+account of age or incapacity, the sovereign should be empowered to
+declare the see void by an order in council, the retiring bishop of
+archbishop to be secured the use of the episcopal residence for life and
+a pension of one-third of the revenues of the see, or L2000, whichever
+sum should prove the larger. Other sections defined the proceedings for
+proving, in case of need, the incapacity of a bishop, provided for the
+appointment of coadjutors and defined their status (Phillimore i. 82).
+
+In view of the necessity for increasing the episcopate in the 19th
+century and the objection to the consequent increase of the spiritual
+peers in the Upper House, it was finally enacted by the Bishoprics Act
+of 1878 that only the archbishops and the bishops of London, Winchester
+and Durham should be always entitled to writs summoning them to the
+House of Lords. The rest of the twenty-five seats are filled up, as a
+vacancy occurs, according to seniority of consecration.
+
+Bishops of the Church of England rank in order of precedency immediately
+above barons. They may marry, but their wives as such enjoy no title or
+precedence. Bishops are addressed as "Right Reverend" and have legally
+the style of "Lord," which, as in the case of Roman Catholic bishops in
+England, is extended to all, whether suffragans or holders of colonial
+bishoprics, by courtesy.
+
+The insignia of the Anglican bishop are the rochet and the chimere, and
+the episcopal throne on the gospel side of the chancel of the cathedral
+church. The use of the mitre, pastoral staff and pectoral cross, which
+had fallen into complete disuse by the end of the 18th century, has been
+now very commonly, though not universally, revived; and, in some cases,
+the interpretation put upon the "Ornaments rubric" by the modern High
+Church school has led to a more complete revival of the pre-Reformation
+vestments.
+
+
+  Orthodox Eastern.
+
+In the Orthodox Church of the East and the various communions springing
+from it, the _potestas ordinis_ of the bishop is the same as in the
+Western Church. Among his qualifications the most peculiar is that he
+must be unmarried, which, since the secular priests are compelled to
+marry, entails his belonging to the "black clergy" or monks. The
+insignia of an oriental bishop, with considerable variation in form, are
+essentially the same as those of the Catholic West.
+
+
+  Subordinate bishops.
+
+Besides bishops presiding over definite sees, there have been from time
+immemorial in the Christian Church bishops holding their jurisdiction in
+subordination to the bishop of the diocese. (1) The oldest of these were
+the _chorepiscopi_ ([Greek: taes choras episkopoi]), i.e. country
+bishops, who were delegated by the bishops of the cities in the early
+church to exercise jurisdiction in the remote towns and villages as
+these were converted from paganism. Their functions varied in different
+times and places, and by some it has been held that they were originally
+only presbyters. In any case, this class of bishops, which had been
+greatly curtailed in the East in A.D. 343 by the council of Laodicea,
+was practically extinct everywhere by the 10th century. It survived
+longest in Ireland, where in 1152 a synod, presided over by the papal
+legate, decreed that, after the death of the existing holders of the
+office, no more should be consecrated. Their place was taken by
+arch-presbyters and rural deans. (2) The _Episcopi regionarii_, or
+_gentium_, were simply missionary bishops without definite sees. Such
+were, at the outset, Boniface, the apostle of Germany, and Willibrord,
+the apostle of the Frisians. (3) Bishops _in partibus infidelium_ were
+originally those who had been expelled from their sees by the pagans,
+and, while retaining their titles, were appointed to assist diocesan
+bishops in their work. In later times the custom arose of consecrating
+bishops for this purpose, or merely as an honorary distinction, with a
+title derived from some place once included within, but now beyond the
+bounds of Christendom. (4) _Coadjutor bishops_ are such as are appointed
+to assist the bishop of the diocese when incapacitated by infirmity or
+by other causes from fulfilling his functions alone. Coadjutors in the
+early church were appointed with a view to their succeeding to the see;
+but this, though common in practice, is no longer the rule. In the
+Church of England the appointment and rights of coadjutor bishops were
+regulated by the Bishops' Resignation Act of 1869. Under this act the
+coadjutor bishop has the right of succession to the see, or in the case
+of the archiepiscopal sees and those of London, Winchester and Durham,
+to the see vacated by the bishop, translated from another diocese to
+fill the vacancy. (5) _Suffragan bishops_ (_episcopi sufraganei_ or
+_auxiliares_) are those appointed to assist diocesan bishops in their
+pontifical functions when hindered by infirmity, public affairs or other
+causes. In the Roman Church the appointment of the suffragan rests with
+the pope, on the petition of the bishop, who must prove that such is the
+custom of the see, name a suitable priest and guarantee his maintenance.
+The suffragan is given a title _in partibus_, but never that of
+archbishop, and the same title is never given to two suffragans in
+succession. In the Church of England the status of suffragan bishops was
+regulated by the Act 26 Henry VIII. c. 14. Under this statute, which,
+after long remaining inoperative, was amended and again put into force
+by the Suffragans' Nomination Act of 1888, every archbishop and bishop,
+being disposed to have a suffragan to assist him, may name two honest
+and discreet spiritual persons for the crown to give to one of them the
+title, name, style and dignity of a bishop of any one of twenty-six sees
+enumerated in the statute, as the crown may think convenient. The crown,
+having made choice of one of such persons, is empowered to present him
+by letters patent under the great seal to the metropolitan, requiring
+him to consecrate him to the same name, title, style and dignity of a
+bishop; and the person so consecrated is thereupon entitled to exercise,
+under a commission from the bishop who has nominated him, such authority
+and jurisdiction, within the diocese of such bishop, as shall be given
+to him by the commission, and no other.
+
+
+  Lutheran churches.
+
+The title of bishop survived the Reformation in certain of the Lutheran
+churches of the continent, in Denmark, Norway, Finland, Sweden and
+Transylvania; it was temporarily restored in Prussia in 1701, for the
+coronation of King Frederick I., again between 1816 and 1840 by
+Frederick William III., and in Nassau in 1818. In these latter cases,
+however, the title bishop is equivalent to that of "superintendent," the
+form most generally employed. The Lutheran bishops, as a rule, do not
+possess or claim unbroken "apostolic succession"; those of Finland and
+Sweden are, however, an exception. The Lutheran bishops of Transylvania
+sit, with the Roman and Orthodox bishops, in the Hungarian Upper House.
+In some cases the secularization of episcopal principalities at the
+Reformation led to the survival of the title of bishop as a purely
+secular distinction. Thus the see of Osnabruck (Osnaburgh) was occupied,
+from the peace of Westphalia to 1802, alternately by a Catholic and a
+Protestant prince. From 1762 to 1802 it was held by Frederick, duke of
+York, the last prince-bishop. Similarly, the bishopric of Schwerin
+survived as a Protestant prince-bishopric until 1648, when it was
+finally secularized and annexed to Mecklenburg, and the see of Lubeck
+was held by Protestant "bishops" from 1530 till its annexation to
+Oldenburg in 1803.[1]
+
+In other Protestant communities, e.g. the Moravians, the Methodist
+Episcopal Church and the Mormons, the office and title of bishop have
+survived, or been created. Their functions and status will be found
+described in the accounts of the several churches.
+
+  See Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_, s. "Bischof" and "Weihen";
+  Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, vol. ii.; Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_,
+  s. "Bischof" (the author rather arbitrarily classes Anglican with
+  Lutheran bishops as not bishops in any proper sense at all);
+  Phillimore's _Ecclesiastical Law_; the articles ORDER, HOLY;
+  VESTMENTS; ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION; EPISCOPACY.     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The title prince-bishop, attached in Austria to the sees of
+    Laibach, Seckau, Gurk, Brixen, Trent and Lavant, and in Prussia to
+    that of Breslau, no longer implies any secular jurisdiction, but is
+    merely a title of honour recognized by the state, owing either to the
+    importance of the sees or for reasons purely historical.
+
+
+
+
+BISHOP AUCKLAND, a market town in the Bishop Auckland parliamentary
+division of Durham, England, 11 m. S.S.W. of the city of Durham, the
+junction of several branches of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban
+district (1901) 11,969. It is beautifully situated on an eminence near
+the confluence of the Wear and the Gaunless. The parish church is 1 m.
+distant, at Auckland St Andrews, a fine cruciform structure, formerly
+collegiate, in style mainly Early English, but with earlier portions.
+The palace of the bishops of Durham, which stands at the north-east end
+of the town, is a spacious and splendid, though irregular pile The site
+of the palace was first chosen by Bishop Anthony Beck, in the time of
+Edward I. The present building covers about 5 acres, and is surrounded
+by a park of 800 acres. On the Wear 1-1/2 m. above Bishop Auckland there
+is a small and very ancient church at Escomb, massively built and
+tapering from the bottom upward. It is believed to date from the 7th
+century, and some of the stones are evidently from a Roman building, one
+bearing an inscription. These, no doubt, came from Binchester, a short
+distance up stream, where remains of a Roman fort (_Vinovia_) are
+traceable. It guarded the great Roman north road from York to Hadrian's
+wall. The industrial population of Bishop Auckland is principally
+employed in the neighbouring collieries and iron works.
+
+
+
+
+BISHOP'S CASTLE, a market town and municipal borough in the southern
+parliamentary division of Shropshire, England; the terminus of the
+Bishop's Castle light railway from Craven Arms. Pop. (1901) 1378. It is
+pleasantly situated in a hilly district to the east of Clun Forest,
+climbing the flank and occupying the summit of an eminence. Of the
+castle of the bishops of Hereford, which gave the town its name, there
+are only the slightest fragments remaining. The town has some
+agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12
+councillors. Area, 1867 acres.
+
+  Bishop's Castle was included in the manor of Lydbury, which belonged
+  to the church of Hereford before the Conquest. The castle, at first
+  called Lydbury Castle, was built by one of the bishops of Hereford
+  between 1085 and 1154, to protect his manor from the Welsh, and the
+  town which sprang up round the castle walls acquired the name of
+  Bishop's Castle in the 13th century. In 1292 the bishop claimed to
+  have a market every Friday, a fair on the eve, day and morrow of the
+  Decollation of St John, and assize of bread and ale in Bishop's
+  Castle, which his predecessors had held from time immemorial. Ten
+  years later he received a grant from Richard II. of a market every
+  Wednesday and a fair on the 2nd of November and two days following.
+  Although the town was evidently a borough by the 13th century, since
+  the burgesses are mentioned as early as 1292, it has no charter
+  earlier than the incorporation charter granted by Queen Elizabeth in
+  1572. This was confirmed by James I. in 1617 and by James II. in 1688.
+  In 1584 Bishop's Castle returned two members to parliament, and was
+  represented until 1832, when it was disfranchised.
+
+
+
+
+BISHOP STORTFORD, a market town in the Hertford parliamentary division
+of Hertfordshire, England; 30-1/2 m. N.N.E. from London by the Cambridge
+line of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7143.
+It lies on the river Stort, close to the county boundary with Essex, and
+has water-communication with London through the Lea and Stort
+Navigation. The church of St Michael, standing high above the valley, is
+a fine embattled Perpendicular building with western tower and spire.
+The high school, formerly the grammar school, was founded in the time of
+Elizabeth. Here were educated Sir Henry Chauncy, an early historian of
+Hertfordshire (d. 1719), and Cecil Rhodes, who was born at Bishop
+Stortford in 1853. There are a Nonconformist grammar school, a diocesan
+training college for mistresses, and other educational establishments.
+The industries include brewing and malting, coach-building, lime-burning
+and founding, and there are important horse and cattle markets.
+
+  Before the Conquest the manor of Bishop Stortford is said to have
+  belonged to Eddeva the Fair, wife of Harold, who sold it to the bishop
+  of London, from whom it was taken by William the Conqueror. William
+  restored it after a few years, and with it gave the bishop a small
+  castle called Waytemore, of which there are scanty remains. The
+  dungeon of this castle, called "Bishop's Hole" or "Bishop's Prison,"
+  was used as an ecclesiastical prison until the 16th century. The town
+  now possesses no early incorporation charters, and although both
+  Chauncy and Salmon in their histories of Hertfordshire state that it
+  was created a borough by charter of King John in 1206, the charter
+  cannot now be found. The first mention of Bishop Stortford as a
+  borough occurs in 1311, in which year the burgesses returned two
+  members to parliament. The town was represented from that date until
+  1332, and again in 1335-1336, but the privilege was then allowed to
+  lapse and has never been revived.
+
+
+
+
+BISKRA, a town of Algeria, in the arrondissement of Batna, department of
+Constantine, 150 m. S.W. of the city of Constantine and connected with
+it and with Philippeville by rail. It lies in the Sahara 360 ft. above
+the sea, on the right bank of the Wad Biskra, a river which, often
+nearly dry for many months in the year, becomes a mighty torrent after
+one or two days' rain in winter. The name Biskra applies to a union of
+five or six villages of the usual Saharan type, scattered through an
+oasis 3 m. in length by less than 1 m. broad, and separated by huge
+gardens full of palm and olive trees. The houses are built of hardened
+mud, with doors and roof of palm wood. The foreign settlement is on the
+north of the oasis; it consists of a broad main street, the rue Berthe
+(from which a few side streets branch at right angles), lined with
+European houses, the whole in the style of a typical French winter
+resort, a beautiful public garden, with the church in the centre, an
+arcade, a pretentious _mairie_ in pseudo-Moorish style with entrance
+guarded by terra-cotta lions, some good shops, a number of excellent
+hotels and cafes, a casino, clubs, and, near by, a street of dancing and
+singing girls of the tribe of Walad-Nail. East of the public garden is
+Fort St Germain, named after an officer killed in the insurrection of
+the Zaatcha in 1849; it is capable of resisting any attack of the Arabs,
+and extensive enough to shelter the whole of the civil population, who
+took refuge therein during the rebellion of 1871. It contains barracks,
+hospital and government offices. To the south-east lies the Villa Landon
+with magnificent gardens filled with tropical plants. The population
+(1906) of the chief settlement was 4218, of the whole oasis 10,413.
+
+From November to April the climate of Biskra is delightful. Nowhere in
+Algeria can be found more genial temperature or clearer skies, and while
+in summer the thermometer often registers 110 deg. F. in the shade, and
+90 deg. at night, the pure dryness of the air in this practically
+rainless region makes the heat endurable. The only drawback to the
+climat is the prevalence of high cold winds in winter. These winds cause
+temperatures as low as 36 deg., but the mean reading, on an average of
+ten years, is 73 deg.
+
+In the oasis are some 200,000 fruit trees, of which about 150,000 are
+date-palms, the rest being olives, pomegranates and apricots. In the
+centre of the oasis is the old kasbah or citadel.
+
+In 1844 the duc d'Aumale occupied this fort, and here, on the night of
+the 12th of May of that year, the 68 men who formed the French garrison
+were, with one exception, massacred by Arabs. In the fort are a few
+fragments of Roman work--all that remains of the Roman post Ad Piscinam.
+
+Biskra is the capital of the Ziban (plural of Zab), a race of mixed
+Berber and Arab origin, whose villages extend from the southern slopes
+of the Aures to the Shat Melrir. These villages, built in oases dotted
+over the desert, nestle in groves of date-palms and fruit trees and
+waving fields of barley. The most interesting village is that of Sidi
+Okba, 12 m. south-east of Biskra. It is built of houses of one story
+made of sun-dried bricks. The mosque is square, with a flat roof
+supported on clay columns, and crowned by a minaret. In the north-west
+corner of the mosque is the tomb of Sidi Okba, the leader of the Arabs
+who in the 1st century of the Hegira conquered Africa for Islam from
+Egypt to Tangier. Sidi Okba was killed by the Berbers near this place in
+A.D. 682. On his tomb is the inscription in Cufic characters, "This is
+the tomb of Okba, son of Nafi. May God have mercy upon him." No older
+Arabic inscription is known to exist in Africa.
+
+
+
+
+BISLEY, a village of Surrey, England, 3-1/2 m. N.W. of Woking. The
+ranges of the National Rifle Association were transferred from Wimbledon
+here in 1890. (See RIFLE.)
+
+
+
+
+BISMARCK, OTTO EDUARD LEOPOLD VON, PRINCE, duke of Lauenburg
+(1815-1898), German statesman, was born on the 1st of April 1815, at the
+manor-house of Schonhausen, his father's seat in the mark of
+Brandenburg. The family has, since the 14th century, belonged to the
+landed gentry, and many members had held high office in the kingdom of
+Prussia. His father (d. 1845), of whom he always spoke with much
+affection, was a quiet, unassuming man, who retired from the army in
+early life with the rank of captain of cavalry (_Rittmeister_). His
+mother, a daughter of Mencken, cabinet secretary to the king, was a
+woman of strong character and ability, who had been brought up at Berlin
+under the "Aufklarung." Her ambition was centred in her sons, but
+Bismarck in his recollections of his childhood missed the influences of
+maternal tenderness. There were several children of the marriage, which
+took place in 1806, but all died in childhood except Bernhard
+(1810-1893), Otto, and one sister, Malvina (b. 1827), who married in
+1845 Oscar von Arnim. Young Bismarck was educated in Berlin, first at a
+private school, then at the gymnasium of the Graue Kloster (Grey
+Friars). At the age of seventeen he went to the university of Gottingen,
+where he spent a little over a year; he joined the corps of the
+Hannoverana and took a leading part in the social life of the students.
+He completed his studies at Berlin, and in 1835 passed the examinations
+which admitted him to the public service. He was intended for the
+diplomatic service, but spent some months at Aix-la-Chapelle in
+administrative work, and then was transferred to Potsdam and the
+judicial side. He soon retired from the public service; he conceived a
+great distaste for it, and had shown himself defective in discipline and
+regularity. In 1839, after his mother's death, he undertook, with his
+brother, the management of the family estates in Pomerania; at this time
+most of the estate attached to Schonhausen had to be sold. In 1844,
+after the marriage of his sister, he went to live with his father at
+Schonhausen. He and his brother took an active part in local affairs,
+and in 1846 he was appointed _Deichhauptmann_, an office in which he was
+responsible for the care of the dykes by which the country, in the
+neighbourhood of the Elbe, was preserved from inundation. During these
+years he travelled in England, France and Switzerland. The influence of
+his mother, and his own wide reading and critical character, made him at
+one time inclined to hold liberal opinions on government and religion,
+but he was strongly affected by the religious revival of the early years
+of the reign of Frederick William IV.; his opinions underwent a great
+change, and under the influence of the neighbouring country gentlemen he
+acquired those strong principles in favour of monarchical government as
+the expression of the Christian state, of which he was to become the
+most celebrated exponent. His religious convictions were strengthened by
+his marriage to Johanna von Puttkamer, which took place in 1847.
+
+
+  Parliamentary career.
+
+In the same year he entered public life, being chosen as substitute for
+the representative of the lower nobility of his district in the
+estates-general, which were in that year summoned to Berlin. He took his
+seat with extreme right, and distinguished himself by the vigour and
+originality with which he defended the rights of the king and the
+Christian monarchy against the Liberals. When the revolution broke out
+in the following year he offered to bring the peasants of Schonhausen to
+Berlin in order to defend the king against the revolutionary party, and
+in the last meeting of the estates voted in a minority of two against
+the address thanking the king for granting a constitution. He did not
+sit in any of the assemblies summoned during the revolutionary year, but
+took a very active part in the formation of a union of the Conservative
+party, and was one of the founders of the _Kreuzzeitung_, which has
+since then been the organ of the Monarchical party in Prussia. In the
+new parliament which was elected at the beginning of 1849, he sat for
+Brandenburg, and was one of the most frequent and most incisive speakers
+of what was called the Junker party. He took a prominent part in the
+discussions on the new Prussian constitution, always defending the power
+of the king. His speeches of this period show great debating skill,
+combined with strong originality and imagination. His constant theme
+was, that the party disputes were a struggle for power between the
+forces of revolution, which derived their strength from the fighters on
+the barricades, and the Christian monarchy, and that between these
+opposed principles no compromise was possible. He took also a
+considerable part in the debates on the foreign policy of the Prussian
+government; he defended the government for not accepting the Frankfort
+constitution, and opposed the policy of Radowitz, on the ground that the
+Prussian king would be subjected to the control of a non-Prussian
+parliament. The only thing, he said, that had come out of the
+revolutionary year unharmed, and had saved Prussia from dissolution and
+Germany from anarchy, was the Prussian army and the Prussian civil
+service; and in the debates on foreign policy he opposed the numerous
+plans for bringing about the union of Germany, by subjecting the crown
+and Prussia to a common German parliament. He had a seat in the
+parliament of Erfurt, but only went there in order to oppose the
+constitution which the parliament had framed. He foresaw that the policy
+of the government would lead it into a position when it would have to
+fight against Austria on behalf of a constitution by which Prussia
+itself would be dissolved, and he was, therefore, one of the few
+prominent politicians who defended the complete change of front which
+followed the surrender of Olmutz.
+
+
+  Diplomatic career.
+
+It was probably his speeches on German policy which induced the king to
+appoint him Prussian representative at the restored diet of Frankfort in
+1851. The appointment was a bold one, as he was entirely without
+diplomatic experience, but he justified the confidence placed in him.
+During the eight years he spent at Frankfort he acquired an unrivalled
+knowledge of German politics. He was often used for important missions,
+as in 1852, when he was sent to Vienna. He was entrusted with the
+negotiations by which the duke of Augustenburg was persuaded to assent
+to the arrangements by which he resigned his claims to Schleswig and
+Holstein. The period he spent at Frankfort, however, was of most
+importance because of the change it brought about in his own political
+opinions. When he went to Frankfort he was still under the influence of
+the extreme Prussian Conservatives, men like the Gerlachs, who regarded
+the maintenance of the principle of the Christian monarchy against the
+revolution as the chief duty of the Prussian government. He was prepared
+on this ground for a close alliance with Austria. He found, however, a
+deliberate intention on the part of Austria to humble Prussia, and to
+degrade her from the position of an equal power, and also great jealousy
+of Prussia among the smaller German princes, many of whom owed their
+thrones to the Prussian soldiers, who, as in Saxony and Baden, had
+crushed the insurgents. He therefore came to the conclusion that if
+Prussia was to regain the position she had lost she must be prepared for
+the opposition of Austria, and must strengthen herself by alliances with
+other powers. The solidarity of Conservative interests appeared to him
+now a dangerous fiction. At the time of the Crimean War he advocated
+alliance with Russia, and it was to a great extent owing to his advice
+that Prussia did not join the western powers. Afterwards he urged a good
+understanding with Napoleon, but his advice was met by the insuperable
+objection of King Frederick William IV. to any alliance with a ruler of
+revolutionary origin.
+
+The change of ministry which followed the establishment of a regency in
+1857 made it desirable to appoint a new envoy at Frankfort, and in 1858
+Bismarck was appointed ambassador at St Petersburg, where he remained
+for four years. During this period he acquired some knowledge of
+Russian, and gained the warm regard of the tsar, as well as of the
+dowager-empress, herself a Prussian princess. During the first two years
+he had little influence on the Prussian government; the Liberal
+ministers distrusted his known opinions on parliamentary government, and
+the monarchical feeling of the prince regent was offended by Bismarck's
+avowed readiness for alliance with the Italians and his disregard of the
+rights of other princes. The failure of the ministry, and the
+estrangement between King William and the Liberal party, opened to him
+the way to power. Roon, who was appointed minister of war in 1861, was
+an old friend of his, and through him Bismarck was thenceforward kept
+closely informed of the condition of affairs in Berlin. On several
+occasions the prospect of entering the ministry was open to him, but
+nothing came of it, apparently because he required a free hand in
+foreign affairs, and this the king was not prepared to give him. When an
+acute crisis arose out of the refusal of parliament, in 1862, to vote
+the money required for the reorganization of the army, which the king
+and Roon had carried through, he was summoned to Berlin; but the king
+was still unable to make up his mind to appoint him, although he felt
+that Bismarck was the only man who had the courage and capacity for
+conducting the struggle with parliament. He was, therefore, in June,
+made ambassador at Paris as a temporary expedient. There he had the
+opportunity for renewing the good understanding with Napoleon which had
+been begun in 1857. He also paid a short visit to England, but it does
+not appear that this had any political results. In September the
+parliament, by a large majority, threw out the budget, and the king,
+having nowhere else to turn for help, at Roon's advice summoned Bismarck
+to Berlin and appointed him minister president and foreign minister.
+
+
+  Ministry.
+
+Bismarck's duty as minister was to carry on the government against the
+wishes of the lower house, so as to enable the king to complete and
+maintain the reorganized army. The opposition of the House was supported
+by the country and by a large party at court, including the queen and
+crown prince. The indignation which his appointment caused was intense;
+he was known only by the reputation which in his early years he had won
+as a violent ultra-Conservative, and the apprehensions were increased by
+his first speech, in which he said that the German question could not be
+settled by speeches and parliamentary decrees, but only by blood and
+iron. His early fall was predicted, and it was feared that he might
+bring down the monarchy with him. Standing almost alone he succeeded in
+the task he had undertaken. For four years he ruled without a budget,
+taking advantage of an omission in the constitution which did not
+specify what was to happen in case the crown and the two Houses could
+not agree on a budget. The conflict of the ministers and the House
+assumed at times the form of bitter personality hostility; in 1863 the
+ministers refused any longer to attend the sittings, and Bismarck
+challenged Virchow, one of his strongest opponents, to a duel, which,
+however, did not take place. In 1852 he had fought a duel with pistols
+against Georg von Vindre, a political opponent. In June 1863, as soon as
+parliament had risen, Bismarck published ordinances controlling the
+liberty of the press, which, though in accordance with the letter,
+seemed opposed to the intentions of the constitution, and it was on this
+occasion that the crown prince, hitherto a silent opponent, publicly
+dissociated himself from the policy of his father's ministers. Bismarck
+depended for his position solely on the confidence of the king, and the
+necessity for defending himself against the attempts to destroy this
+confidence added greatly to the suspiciousness of his nature. He was,
+however, really indispensable, for his resignation must be followed by a
+Liberal ministry, parliamentary control over the army, and probably the
+abdication of the king. Not only, therefore, was he secure in the
+continuance of the king's support, but he had also the complete control
+of foreign affairs. Thus he could afford to ignore the criticism of the
+House, and the king was obliged to acquiesce in the policy of a minister
+to whom he owed so much.
+
+
+  Foreign policy.
+
+He soon gave to the policy of the monarchy a resolution which had long
+been wanting. When the emperor of Austria summoned a meeting of the
+German princes at Frankfort to discuss a reform of the confederation,
+Bismarck insisted that the king of Prussia must not attend. He remained
+away, and his absence in itself made the congress unavailing. There can
+be no doubt that from the time he entered on office Bismarck was
+determined to bring to an issue the long struggle for supremacy in
+Germany between the house of Habsburg and the house of Hohenzollern.
+Before he was able to complete his preparations for this, two unforeseen
+occurrences completely altered the European situation, and caused the
+conflict to be postponed for three years. The first was the outbreak of
+rebellion in Poland. Bismarck, an inheritor of the older Prussian
+traditions, and recollecting how much of the greatness of Prussia had
+been gained at the expense of the Poles, offered his help to the tsar.
+By this he placed himself in opposition to the universal feeling of
+western Europe; no act of his life added so much to the repulsion with
+which at this time he was regarded as an enemy of liberty and right. He
+won, however, the gratitude of the tsar and the support of Russia, which
+in the next years was to be of vital service to him. Even more serious
+were the difficulties arising in Denmark. On the death of King Frederick
+VII. in 1863, Prince Frederick of Augustenburg came forward as claimant
+to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which had hitherto been joined
+to the crown of Denmark. He was strongly supported by the whole German
+nation and by many of its princes. Bismarck, however, once more was
+obliged to oppose the current of national feeling, which imperiously
+demanded that the German duchies should be rescued from a foreign yoke.
+Prussia was bound by the treaty of London of 1852, which guaranteed the
+integrity of the Danish monarchy; to have disregarded this would have
+been to bring about a coalition against Germany similar to that of 1851.
+Moreover, he held that it would be of no advantage to Prussia to create
+a new German state; if Denmark were to lose the duchies, he desired that
+Prussia should acquire them, and to recognize the Augustenburg claims
+would make this impossible. His resistance to the national desire made
+him appear a traitor to his country. To check the agitation he turned
+for help to Austria; and an alliance of the two powers, so lately at
+variance, was formed. He then falsified all the predictions of the
+opposition by going to war with Denmark, not, as they had required, in
+support of Augustenburg, but on the ground that the king of Denmark had
+violated his promise not to oppress his German subjects. Austria
+continued to act with Prussia, and, after the defeat of the Danes, at
+the peace of Vienna the sovereignty of the duchies was surrendered to
+the two allies--the first step towards annexation by Prussia. There is
+no part of Bismarck's diplomatic work which deserves such careful study
+as these events. Watched as he was by countless enemies at home and
+abroad, a single false step would have brought ruin and disgrace on
+himself; the growing national excitement would have burst through all
+restraint, and again, as fifteen years before, Germany divided and
+unorganized would have had to capitulate to the orders of foreign powers
+(see SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION).
+
+
+  War with Austria.
+
+The peace of Vienna left him once more free to return to his older
+policy. For the next eighteen months he was occupied in preparing for
+war with Austria. For this war the was alone responsible; he undertook
+it deliberately as the only means of securing Prussian ascendancy in
+Germany. The actual cause of dispute was the disposition of the
+conquered duchies, for Austria now wished to put Augustenburg in as
+duke, a plan to which Bismarck would not assent. In 1865 a provisional
+arrangement was made by the treaty of Gastein, for Bismarck was not yet
+ready. He would not risk a war unless he was certain of success, and for
+this he required the alliance of Italy and French support; both he
+secured during the next year. In October 1865 he visited Napoleon at
+Biarritz and Paris. No formal treaty was made, but Napoleon promised to
+regard favourably an extension of Prussian power in Germany; while
+Bismarck led the emperor to believe that Prussia would help him in
+extending the frontier of France. A treaty of alliance with Italy was
+arranged in the spring of 1866; and Bismarck then with much difficulty
+overcame the reluctance of the king to embark in a war with his old
+ally. The results of the war entirely justified his calculations.
+Prussia, though opposed by all the German states except a few
+principalities in the north, completely defeated all her enemies, and at
+the end of a few weeks the whole of Germany lay at her feet.
+
+
+  Settlement of 1866.
+
+The war of 1866 is more than that of 1870 the crisis of modern German
+history. It finally settled the controversy which had begun more than a
+hundred years before, and left Prussia the dominant power in Germany. It
+determined that the unity of Germany should be brought about not by
+revolutionary means as in 1848, not as in 1849 had been attempted by
+voluntary agreement of the princes, not by Austria, but by the sword of
+Prussia. This was the great work of Bismarck's life; he had completed
+the programme foreshadowed in his early speeches, and finished the work
+of Frederick the Great. It is also the turning-point in Bismarck's own
+life. Having secured the dominance of the crown in Prussia and of
+Prussia in Germany, he could afford to make a reconciliation with the
+parties which had been his chief opponents, and turn to them for help in
+building up a new Germany. The settlement of 1866 was peculiarly his
+work. We must notice, first, how in arranging the terms of peace he
+opposed the king and the military party who wished to advance on Vienna
+and annex part of Austrian Silesia; with greater foresight he looked to
+renewing the old friendship with Austria, and insisted (even with the
+threat of resignation) that no territory should be demanded. The
+southern states he treated with equal moderation, and thereby was able
+to arrange an offensive and defensive alliance with them. On the other
+hand, in order to secure the complete control of North Germany, which
+was his immediate object, he required that the whole of Hanover,
+Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Nassau and the city of Frankfort, as well as the
+Elbe duchies, should be absorbed in Prussia. He then formed a separate
+confederation of the North German states, but did not attempt to unite
+the whole of Germany, partly because of the internal difficulties which
+this would have produced, partly because it would have brought about a
+war with France. In the new confederation he became sole responsible
+minister, with the title _Bundes-Kanzler_; this position he held till
+1890, in addition to his former post of premier minister. In 1871 the
+title was altered to _Reichs-Kanzler_.
+
+The reconciliation with the Prussian parliament he effected by bringing
+in a bill of indemnity for the money which had been spent without leave
+of parliament. The Radicals still continued their opposition, but he
+thereby made possible the formation of a large party of moderate
+Liberals, who thenceforward supported him in his new Nationalist policy.
+He aslo, in the constitution for the new confederation, introduced a
+parliament (_Bundestag_) elected by universal suffrage. This was the
+chief demand of the revolutionists in 1848; it was one to which in his
+early life he had been strongly opposed. His experience at Frankfort had
+diminished his dislike of popular representation, and it was probably to
+the advice of Lassalle that his adoption of universal suffrage was due.
+He first publicly proposed it just before the war; by carrying it out,
+notwithstanding the apprehensions of many Liberal politicians, he placed
+the new constitution on a firmer base than would otherwise have been
+possible.
+
+Up to 1866 he had always appeared to be an opponent of the National
+party in Germany, now he became their leader. His next task was to
+complete the work which was half-finished, and it was this which brought
+about the second of the great wars which he undertook.
+
+
+  Bismarck and France.
+
+The relations with Napoleon III. form one of the most interesting but
+obscurest episodes in Bismarck's career. We have seen that he did not
+share the common prejudice against co-operation with France. He found
+Napoleon willing to aid Prussia as he had aided Piedmont, and was ready
+to accept his assistance. There was this difference, that he asked only
+for neutrality, not armed assistance, and it is improbable that he ever
+intended to alienate any German territory; he showed himself, however,
+on more than one occasion, ready to discuss plans for extending French
+territory, on the side of Belgium and Switzerland. Napoleon, who had not
+anticipated the rapid success of Prussia, after the battle of Koniggratz
+at the request of Austria came forward as mediator, and there were a few
+days during which it was probable that Prussia would have to meet a
+French attempt to dictate terms of peace. Bismarck in this crisis by
+deferring to the emperor in appearance avoided the danger, but he knew
+that he had been deceived, and the cordial understanding was never
+renewed. Immediately after an armistice had been arranged, Benedetti, at
+the orders of the French government, demanded as recompense a large
+tract of German territory on the left bank of the Rhine. This Bismarck
+peremptorily refused, declaring that he would rather have war. Benedetti
+then made another proposal, submitting a draft treaty by which France
+was to support Prussia in adding the South German states to the new
+confederation, and Germany was to support France in the annexation of
+Luxemburg and Belgium. Bismarck discussed, but did not conclude the
+treaty; he kept, however, a copy of the draft in Benedetti's
+handwriting, and published it in _The Times_ in the summer of 1870 so as
+to injure the credit of Napoleon in England. The failure of the scheme
+made a contest with France inevitable, at least unless the Germans were
+willing to forgo the purpose of completing the work of German unity, and
+during the next four years the two nations were each preparing for the
+struggle, and each watching to take the other at a disadvantage.
+
+
+  The Ems telegram.
+
+It is necessary, then, to keep in mind the general situation in
+considering Bismarck's conduct in the months immediately preceding the
+war of 1870. In 1867 there was a dispute regarding the right to garrison
+Luxemburg. Bismarck then produced the secret treaties with the southern
+states, an act which was, as it were, a challenge to France by the whole
+of Germany. During the next three years the Ultramontane party hoped to
+bring about an anti-Prussian revolution, and Napoleon was working for an
+alliance with Austria, where Beust, an old opponent of Bismarck's, was
+chancellor. Bismarck was doubtless well informed as to the progress of
+the negotiations, for he had established intimate relations with the
+Hungarians. The pressure at home for completing the work of German unity
+was so strong that he could with difficulty resist it, and in 1870 he
+was much embarrassed by a request from Baden to be admitted to the
+confederation, which he had to refuse. It is therefore not surprising
+that he eagerly welcomed the opportunity of gaining the goodwill of
+Spain, and supported by all the means in his power the offer made by
+Marshal Prim that Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern should be chosen king
+of that country. It was only by his urgent and repeated representations
+that the prince was persuaded against his will to accept. The
+negotiations were carried out with the greatest secrecy, but as soon as
+the acceptance was made known the French government intervened and
+declared that the project was inadmissable. Bismarck was away at Varzin,
+but on his instructions the Prussian foreign office in answer to
+inquiries denied all knowledge or responsibility. This was necessary,
+because it would have caused a bad impression in Germany had he gone to
+war with France in support of the prince's candidature. The king, by
+receiving Benedetti at Ems, departed from the policy of reserve Bismarck
+himself adopted, and Bismarck (who had now gone to Berlin) found himself
+in a position of such difficulty that he contemplated resignation. The
+French however, by changing and extending their demands enabled him to
+find a cause of war of such nature that the whole of Germany would be
+united against French agression. France asked for a letter of apology,
+and Benedetti personally requested from the king a promise that he would
+never allow the candidature to be resumed. Bismarck published the
+telegram in which this information and the refusal of the king were
+conveyed, but by omitting part of the telegram made it appear that the
+request and refusal had both been conveyed in a more abrupt form than
+had really been the case.[1] But even apart from this, the publication
+of the French demand, which could not be complied with, must have
+brought about a war.
+
+In the campaign of 1870-71 Bismarck accompanied the headquarters of the
+army, as he had done in 1866. He was present at the battle of Gravelotte
+and at the surrender of Sedan, and it was on the morning of the 2nd of
+September that he had his famous meeting with Napoleon after the
+surrender of the emperor. He accompanied the king to Paris, and spent
+many months at Versailles. Here he was occupied chiefly with the
+arrangments for admitting the southern states to the confederation, and
+the establishment of the empire. He also underwent much anxiety lest the
+efforts of Thiers to bring about an interference by the neutral powers
+might be successful. He had to carry on the negotiations with the French
+preliminary to the surrender of Paris, and to enforce upon them the
+German terms of peace.
+
+
+  After 1870.
+
+For Bismarck's political career after 1870 we must refer to the article
+GERMANY, for he was thenceforward entirely absorbed in the affairs of
+his country. The foreign policy he controlled absolutely. As chancellor
+he was responsible for the whole internal policy of the empire, and his
+influence is to be seen in every department of state, especially,
+however, in the great change of policy after 1878. During the earlier
+period the estrangement from the Conservatives, which had begun in 1866,
+became very marked, and brought about a violent quarrel with many of his
+old friends, which culminated in the celebrated Arnim trial. He incurred
+much criticism during the struggle with the Roman Catholic Church, and
+in 1873 he was shot at and slightly wounded by a youth called Rullmann,
+who professed to be an adherent of the Clerical party. Once before, in
+1866, just before the outbreak of war, his life had been attempted by a
+young man called Cohen, a native of Wurttemberg, who wished to save
+Germany from a fratricidal war. In 1872 he retired from the presidency
+of the Prussian ministry, but returned after a few months. On several
+occasions he offered to retire, but the emperor always refused his
+consent, on the last time with the word "Never." In 1877 he took a long
+leave of absence for ten months. His health at this time was very bad.
+In 1878 he presided over the congress of Berlin. The following years
+were chiefly occupied, besides foreign affairs, which were always his
+first care, with important commercial reforms, and he held at this time
+also the office of Prussian minister of trade in addition to his other
+posts. During this period his relations with the Reichstag were often
+very unsatisfactory, and at no time did he resort so freely to
+prosecutions in the law-courts in order to injure his opponents, so that
+the expression _Bismarck-Beleidigung_ was invented. He was engaged at
+this time in a great struggle with the Social-Democrats, whom he tried
+to crush by exceptional penal laws. The death of the emperor William in
+1888 made a serious difference in his position. He had been bound to him
+by a long term of loyal service, which had been rewarded with equal
+loyalty. For his relations to the emperors Frederick and William II.,
+and for the events connected with his dismissal from office in March
+1890, we must refer to the articles under those names.
+
+After his retirement he resided at Friedrichsruh, near Hamburg, a house
+on his Leuenburg estates. His criticisms of the government, given
+sometimes in conversation, sometimes in the columns of the _Hamburger
+Nachrichten_, caused an open breach between him and the emperor; and the
+new chancellor, Count Caprivi, in a circular despatch which was
+afterwards published, warned all German envoys that no real importance
+must be attached to what he said. When he visited Vienna for his son's
+wedding the German ambassador, Prince Reuss, was forbidden to take any
+notice of him. A reconciliation was effected in 1893. In 1895 his
+eightieth birthday was celebrated with great enthusiasm: the Reichstag
+alone, owing to the opposition of the Clericals and the Socialists,
+refused to vote an address. In 1891 he had been elected a member of the
+Reichstag, but he never took his seat. He died at Friedrichsruh on the
+31st of July 1898.
+
+Bismarck was made a count in 1865; in 1871 he received the rank of Furst
+(prince). On his retirement the emperor created him duke of Lauenburg,
+but he never used the title, which was not inherited by his son. In 1866
+he received L60,000 as his share of the donation voted by the Reichstag
+for the victorious generals. With this he purchased the estate of Varzin
+in Pomerania, which henceforth he used as a country residence in
+preference to Schonhausen. In 1871 the emperor presented him with a
+large part of the domains of the duchy of Lauenburg. On his seventieth
+birthday a large sum of money (L270,000) was raised by public
+subscription, of which half was devoted to repurchasing the estate of
+Schonhausen for him, and the rest was used by him to establish a fund
+for the assistance of schoolmasters. As a young man he was an officer in
+the Landwehr and militia, and in addition to his civil honours he was
+eventually raised to the rank of general. Among the numerous orders he
+received we may mention that he was the first Protestant on whom the
+pope bestowed the order of Christ; this was done after the cessation of
+the Kulturkampf and the reference of the dispute with Spain concerning
+the Caroline Islands to the arbitration of the pope.
+
+Bismarck's wife died in 1894. He left one daughter and two sons. Herbert
+(1840-1904), the elder, was wounded at Mars-le-Tour, afterwards entered
+the foreign office, and acted as private secretary to his father
+(1871-1881). In 1882 he became councillor to the embassy at London, in
+1884 was transferred to St Petersburg, and in 1885 became
+under-secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1884 he had been
+elected to the Reichstag, but had to resign his seat when, in 1886, he
+was made secretary of state for foreign affairs and Prussian minister.
+He conducted many of the negotiations with Great Britain on colonial
+affairs. He retired in 1890 at the same time as his father, and in 1893
+was again elected to the Reichstag. He married Countess Margarete Hoyos
+in 1892, and died on the 18th of September 1904. He left two daughters
+and three sons, of whom the eldest, Otto Christian Archibald (b. 1897),
+succeeded to the princely title. The second son, Wilhelm, who was
+president of the province of Prussia, died in 1901. By his wife, Sybilla
+von Arnim-Krochlendorff, he left three daughters and a son, Count
+Nikolaus (b. 1896).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The literature on Bismarck's life is very extensive, and
+  it is only possible to enumerate a few of the most important books.
+  The first place belongs to his own works. These include his own
+  memoirs, published after his death, under the title _Gedanken und
+  Erinnerungen_; there is an English translation, _Bismarck: his
+  Reflections and Reminiscences_ (London, 1898). They are incomplete,
+  but contain very valuable discussions on particular points. The
+  speeches are of the greatest importance both for his character and for
+  political history; of the numerous editions that by Horst Kehl, in 12
+  vols. (Stuttgart, 1892-1894), is the best; there is a cheap edition in
+  Reclam's _Universalbibliothek._ Bismarck was an admirable
+  letter-writer, and numbers of his private letters have been published;
+  a collected edition has been brought out by Horst Kohl. His letters to
+  his wife were published by Prince Herbert Bismarck (Stuttgart, 1900).
+  A translation of a small selection of the private letters was
+  published in 1876 by F. Maxse. Of great value for the years 1851-1858
+  is the corrspondence with General L. v. Gerlach, which has been edited
+  by Horst Kohl (3rd ed., Berlin, 1893). A selection of the political
+  letters was also published under the title _Politische Briefe aus den
+  Jahren 1849-1899_ (2nd ed., Berlin, 1890). Of far greater importance
+  are the collections of despatches and state papers edited by Herr v.
+  Poschinger. These include four volumes entitled _Preussen im
+  Bundestag, 1851-1859_ (4 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1885), which contain his
+  despatches during the time he was at Frankfort. Next in importance are
+  two works, _Bismarck als Volkswirth_ and _Aktenstucke zur
+  Wirthschaftspolitik des Fursten Bismarck_, which are part of the
+  collection of state papers, _Akenstucke zur Geschichte der
+  Wirthschaftspolitik in Preussen._ They contain full information on
+  Bismarck's commercial policy, including a number of important state
+  papers. A useful general collection is that by Ludwig Hahn, _Bismarck,
+  sein politisches Leben_, &c. (5 vols., Berlin, 1878-1891), which
+  includes a selection from letters, speeches and newspaper articles.
+  These collections have only been possible owing to the extreme
+  generosity which Bismarck showed in permitting the publication of
+  documents; he always professed to have no secrets. A full account of
+  the diplomatic history from 1863 to 1866 is given by Sybel in _Die
+  Begrundung des deutschen Reichs_ (Munich, 1889-1894), written with the
+  help of the Prussian archives. The last two volumes, covering
+  1866-1870, are of less value, as he was not able to use the archives
+  for this period. Poschinger has also edited a series of works in which
+  anecdotes, minutes of interviews and conversations are recorded; they
+  are, however, of very unequal value. They are _Bismarck und die
+  Parlamentarier, Furst Bismarck und der Bundesrath, Die Ansprache des
+  Fursten Bismarck, Neue Tischgesprache_, and _Bismarck und die
+  Diplomaten_. Selections from these have been published in English by
+  Charles Lowe, _The Tabletalk of Prince Bismarck_, and by Sidney
+  Whitman, _Conversations with Bismarck_. By far the fullest guide to
+  Bismarck's life is Horst Kohl's _Furst Bismarck, Regesten zu einer
+  wissenschaftlichen Biographie_ (Leipzig, 1891-1892), which contains a
+  record of Bismarck's actions on each day, with references to and
+  extracts from his letters and speeches. For the works of Moritz Busch,
+  which contain graphic pictures of his daily life, see the article
+  BUSCH. Further materials were published periodically in the
+  _Bismarck-Jahrbuch_, edited by Horst Kohl (Berlin, 1894-1896;
+  Stuttgart, 1897-1899). Herr v. Poschinger also brought out a _Bismarck
+  Portfeuille_. Of German biographies may be mentioned Hans Blum,
+  _Bismarck und seine Zeit_ (6 vols., Munich, 1894-1895), with a volume
+  of appendices, &c. (1898); Heyck, _Bismarck_ (Bielefeld, 1898);
+  Kreutzer, _Otto von Bismarck_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1900);
+  Klein-Hattingen, _Bismarck und seine Welt, 1815-1871_, Bd. i. (Berlin,
+  1902); Lenz, _Geschichte Bismarcks_ (Leipzig, 1902); Penzler, _Furst
+  Bismarck nach seiner Entlassung_ (7 vols., ib. 1897-1898); Liman, one
+  volume under the same title (ib. 1901). There are English biographies
+  by Charles Lowe, _Bismarck, a Political Biography_ (revised edition in
+  1 vol., 1895), by James Headlam (1899), and by F. Stearns
+  (Philadelphia, 1900). A useful bibliography of all works on Bismarck
+  up to 1895 is Paul Schulze and Otto Koller's _Bismarck-Literatur_
+  (Leipzig, 1896).     (J. W. He.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] It was not till many years later that our knowledge of these
+    events (which is still incomplete) was established; in 1894 the
+    publication of the memoirs of the king of Rumania showed, what had
+    hitherto been denied, that Bismarck had taken a leading part in
+    urging the election of the prince of Hohenzollern. It was in 1892
+    that the language used by Bismarck himself made it necessary for the
+    German government to publish the original form of the Ems telegram.
+
+
+
+
+BISMARCK, the capital of North Dakota, U.S.A., and the county-seat of
+Burleigh county, on the E. bank of the Missouri river, in the S. central
+part of the state. Pop. (1890) 2186, (1900) 3319, of whom 746 were
+foreign-born, (1905) 4913, (1910) 5443. It is on the main line of the
+Northern Pacific, and on the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie
+railways; and steamboats run from here to Mannhaven, Mercer county, and
+Fort Yates, Morton county. The city is about 1650 ft. above sea-level.
+It contains the state capitol, the state penitentiary, a U.S. land
+office, a U.S. surveyor-general's office, a U.S. Indian school and a
+U.S. weather station; about a mile S. of the city is Fort Lincoln, a
+United States army post. Bismarck is the headquarters for navigation of
+the upper Missouri river, is situated in a good agricultural region, and
+has a large wholesale trade, shipping grain, hides, furs, wool and coal.
+It was founded in 1873, and was chartered as a city in 1876; from 1883
+to 1889 it was the capital of Dakota Territory, on the division of which
+it became the capital of North Dakota.
+
+
+
+
+BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO, the collective name of a large number of islands
+lying N. and N.E. of New Guinea, between 1 deg. and 7 deg. S., and 146
+deg. and 153 deg. E., belonging to Germany. The largest island is New
+Pomerania, and the archipelago also includes New Mecklenburg, New
+Hanover, with small attendant islands, the Admiralty Islands and a chain
+of islands off the coast of New Guinea, the whole system lying in the
+form of a great amphitheatre of oval shape. The archipelago was named in
+honour of the first chancellor of the German empire, after a German
+protectorate had been declared in 1884. (See ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, NEW
+MECKLENBURG, NEW POMERANIA, NEW GUINEA.)
+
+
+
+
+BISMILLAH, an Arabic exclamation, meaning "in the name of God."
+
+
+
+
+BISMUTH, a metallic chemical element; symbol Bi, atomic weight 208.5 (O
+= 16). It was probably unknown to the Greeks and Romans, but during the
+middle ages it became quite familiar, notwithstanding its frequent
+confusion with other metals. In 1450 Basil Valentine referred to it by
+the name "wismut," and characterized it as a metal; some years later
+Paracelsus termed it "wissmat," and, in allusion to its brittle nature,
+affirmed it to be a "bastard" or "half-metal"; Georgius Agricola used
+the form "wissmuth," latinized to "bisemutum," and also the term
+"plumbum cineareum." Its elementary nature was imperfectly understood;
+and the impure specimens obtained by the early chemists explain, in some
+measure, its confusion with tin, lead, antimony, zinc and other metals;
+in 1595 Andreas Libavius confused it with antimony, and in 1675 Nicolas
+Lemery with zinc. These obscurities began to be finally cleared up with
+the researches of Johann Heinrich Pott (1692-1777), a pupil of Stahl,
+published in his _Exercitationes chemicae de Wismutho_ (1769), and of N.
+Geoffroy, son of Claude Joseph Geoffroy, whose contribution to our
+knowledge of this metal appeared in the _Memoires de l'academie
+francaise_ for 1753. Torbern Olof Bergman reinvestigated its properties
+and determined its reactions; his account, which was published in his
+_Opuscula_, contains the first fairly accurate description of the metal.
+
+_Ores and Minerals._--The principal source of bismuth is the native
+metal, which is occasionally met with as a mineral, usually in
+reticulated and arborescent shapes or as foliated and granular masses
+with a crystalline fracture. Although bismuth is readily obtained in
+fine crystals by artificial means, yet natural crystals are rare and
+usually indistinct; they belong to the rhombohedral system and a
+cube-like rhombohedron with interfacial angles of 92 deg. 20' is the
+predominating form. There is a perfect cleavage perpendicular to the
+trigonal axis of the crystals; the fact that only two (opposite) corners
+of the cube-like crystals can be truncated by cleavage at once
+distinguishes them from true cubes. When not tarnished, the mineral has
+a silver-white colour with a tinge of red, and the lustre is metallic.
+Hardness 2-2-1/2; specific gravity 9.70-9.83. The slight variations in
+specific gravity are due to the presence of small amounts of arsenic,
+sulphur or tellurium, or to enclosed impurities.
+
+Bismuth occurs in metalliferous veins traversing gneiss or clay-slate,
+and is usually associated with ores of silver and cobalt. Well-known
+localities are Schneeberg in Saxony and Joachimsthal in Bohemia; at the
+former it has been found as arborescent groups penetrating brown jasper,
+which material has occasionally been cut and polished for small
+ornaments. The mineral has been found in some Cornish mines and is
+fairly abundant in Bolivia (near Sorata, and at Tasna in Potosi). It is
+the chief commercial source of bismuth.
+
+The oxide, bismuth ochre, Bi2O3, and the sulphide, bismuth glance or
+bismuthite, are also of commercial importance. The former is found,
+generally mixed with iron, copper and arsenic oxides, in Bohemia,
+Siberia, Cornwall, France (Meymac) and other localities; it also occurs
+admixed with bismuth carbonate and hydrate. The hydrated carbonate,
+bismutite, is of less importance; it occurs in Cornwall, Bolivia,
+Arizona and elsewhere.
+
+Of the rarer bismuth minerals we may notice the following:--the complex
+sulphides, copper bismuth glance or wittichenite, BiCu3S3, silver
+bismuth glance, bismuth cobalt pyrites, bismuth nickel pyrites or
+saynite, needle ore (patrinite or aikinite), BiCuPbS3, emplectite,
+CuBiS2, and kobellite, BiAsPb3S6; the sulphotelluride tetradymite; the
+selenide guanajuatite, Bi2Se3, the basic tellurate montanite,
+Bi2(OH)4TeOe; the silicates eulytite and agricolite, Bi4(SiO2)3; and the
+urnayl arsenate walpurgite, Bi(UO2),(OH)24(A3O4)4.
+
+  _Metallurgy._--Bismuth is extracted from its ores by dry, wet, or
+  electro-matallurgical methods, the choice depending upon the
+  composition of the ore and economic conditions. The dry process is
+  more frequently practised, for the easy reducibility of the oxide and
+  sulphide, together with the low melting-point of the metal, renders it
+  possible to effect a ready separation of the metal from the gangue and
+  impurities. The extraction from ores in which the bismuth is present
+  in the metallic condition may be accomplished by a simple liquation,
+  or melting, in which the temperature is just sufficient to melt the
+  bismuth, or by a complete fusion of the ore. The first process never
+  extracts all the bisbuth, as much as one-third being retained in the
+  matte or speiss; the second is more satisfactory, since the extraction
+  is more complete, and also allows the addition of reducing agents to
+  decompose any admixed bismuth oxide or sulphide. In the liquidation
+  process the ore is heated in inclined cylindrical retorts, and the
+  molten metal is tapped at the lower end; the residues being removed
+  from the upper end. The fusion process is preferably carried out in
+  crucible furnaces; shaft furnaces are unsatisfactory on account of the
+  disintegrating action of the molten bismuth on the furnace linings.
+
+  Sulphuretted ores are smelted, either with or without a preliminary
+  calcination, with metallic iron; calcined ores may be smelted with
+  carbon (coal). The reactions are strictly analogous to those which
+  occur in the smelting of galena (see LEAD), the carbon reducing any
+  oxide, either present originally in the ore or produced in the
+  calcination and the iron combining with the sulphur of the bismuthite.
+  A certain amount of bismuth sulphate is always formed during the
+  calcination; this is subsequently reduced to the sulphide and
+  ultimately to the metal in the fusion. Calcination in reverberatory
+  furnaces and a subsequent smelting in the same type of furnace with
+  the addition of about 3% of coal, lime, soda and fluorspar, has been
+  adopted for treating the Bolivian ores, which generally contain the
+  sulphides of bismuth, copper, iron, antimony, lead and a little
+  silver. The lowest layer of the molten mass is principally metallic
+  bismuth, the succeeding layers are a bismuth copper matte, which is
+  subsequently worked up, and a slag. Ores containing the oxide and
+  carbonate are treated either by smelting with carbon or by a wet
+  process.
+
+  In the wet process the ores, in which the bismuth is present as oxide
+  or carbonate, are dissolved out with hydrochloric acid, or, if the
+  bismuth is to be extracted from a matte or alloy, the solvent employed
+  is _aqua regia_ or strong sulphuric acid. The solution of metallic
+  chlorides or sulphates so obtained is precipitated by iron, the
+  metallic bismuth filtered, washed with water, pressed in canvas bags,
+  and finally fused in graphite crucibles, the surface being protected
+  by a layer of charcoal. Another process consists in adding water to
+  the solution and so precipitating the bismuth as oxychloride, which is
+  then converted into the metal.
+
+  The crude metal obtained by the preceding processes is generally
+  contaminated by arsenic, sulphur, iron, nickel, cobalt and antimony,
+  and sometimes with silver or gold. A dry method of purification
+  consists in a liquation on a hearth of peculiar construction, which
+  occasions the separation of the unreduced bismuth sulphide and the
+  bulk of the other impurities. A better process is to remelt the metal
+  in crucibles with the addition of certain refining agents. The details
+  of this process vary very considerably, being conditioned by the
+  composition of the impure metal and the practice of particular works.
+  The wet refining process is more tedious and expensive, and is only
+  exceptionally employed, as in the case of preparing the pure metal or
+  its salts for pharmaceutical or chemical purposes. The basic nitrate
+  is the salt generally prepared, and, in general outline, the process
+  consists in dissolving the metal in nitric acid, adding water to the
+  solution, boiling the precipitated basic nitrate with an alkali to
+  remove the arsenic and lead, dissolving the residue in nitric acid,
+  and reprecipitating as basic nitrate with water. J.F.W. Hampe prepared
+  chemically pure bismuth by fusing the metal with sodium carbonate and
+  sulphur, dissolving the bismuth sulphide so formed in nitric acid,
+  precipitating the bismuth as the basic nitrate, re-dissolving this
+  salt in nitric acid, and then precipitating with ammonia. The bismuth
+  hydroxide so obtained is finally reduced by hydrogen.
+
+  _Properties._--Bismuth is a very brittle metal with a white
+  crystalline fracture and a characteristic reddish-white colour. It
+  crystallizes in rhombohedra belonging to the hexagonal system, having
+  interfacial angles of 87 deg. 40'. According to G.W.A. Kahlbaum, Roth
+  and Siedler (_Ziet. Anorg. Chem. 29_, p. 294), its specific gravity is
+  9.78143; Roberts and Wrightson give the specific gravity of solid
+  bismuth as 9.82, and of molten bismuth as 10.035. It therefore expands
+  on solidification; and as it retains this property in a number of
+  alloys, the metal receives extensive application in forming
+  type-metals. Its melting-point is variously given as 268.3 deg. (F.
+  Rudberg and A.D. von Riemsdijk) and 270.5 deg. (C.C. Person);
+  commercial bismuth melts at 260 deg. (Ledebur), and electrolytic
+  bismuth at 264 deg. (Classen). It vaporizes in a vacuum at 292 deg.,
+  and its boiling-point, under atmospheric pressure, is between 1090
+  deg. and 1450 deg. (T. Carnelley and W.C. Williams). Regnault
+  determined its specific heat between 0 deg. and 100 deg. to be 0.0308;
+  Kahlbaum, Roth and Siedler (_loc. cit._) give the value 0.03055. Its
+  thermal conductivity is the lowest of all metals, being 18 as compared
+  with silver as 1000; its coefficient of expansion between 0 deg. and
+  100 deg. is 0.001341. Its electrical conductivity is approximately
+  1.2, silver at 0 deg. being taken as 100; it is the most diamagnetic
+  substance known, and its thermoelectric properties render it
+  especially valuable for the construction of thermopiles.
+
+  The metal oxidizes very slowly in dry air at ordinary temperatures,
+  but somewhat more rapidly in moist air or when heated. In the last
+  case it becomes coated with a greyish-black layer of an oxide (dioxide
+  (?)), at a red heat the layer consists of the trioxide (Bi2O3); and is
+  yellow or green in the case of pure bismuth, and violet or blue if
+  impure; at a bright red heat it burns with a bluish flame to the
+  trioxide. Bismuth combines directly with the halogens, and the
+  elements of the sulphur group. It readily dissolves in nitric acid,
+  _aqua regia_ and hot sulphuric acid, but tardily in hot hydrochloric
+  acid. It is precipitated as the metal from solutions of its salts by
+  the metals of the alkalis and alkaline earths, zinc, iron, copper, &c.
+  In its chemical affinities it resembles arsenic and antimony; an
+  important distinction is that it forms no hydrogen compound analogous
+  to arsine and stibine.
+
+  _Alloys_.--Bismuth readily forms alloys with other metals. Treated
+  with sodammonium it yields a bluish-black mass, BiNa3, which takes
+  fire in the air and decomposes water. A brittle potassium alloy of
+  silver-white colour and lamellar fracture is obtained by calcining 20
+  parts of bismuth with 16 of cream of tartar at a strong red heat. When
+  present in other metals, even in very small quantity, bismuth renders
+  them brittle and impairs their electrical conductivity. With mercury
+  it forms amalgams. Bismuth is a component of many ternary alloys
+  characterized by their low fusibility and expansion in solidification;
+  many of them are used in the arts (see FUSIBLE METAL).
+
+  _Compounds_.--Bismuth forms four oxides, of which the trioxide, Bi2O3,
+  is the most important. This compound occurs in nature as bismuth
+  ochre, and may be prepared artificially by oxidizing the metal at a
+  red heat, or by heating the carbonate, nitrate or hydrate. Thus
+  obtained it is a yellow powder, soluble in the mineral acids to form
+  soluble salts, which are readily precipitated as basic salts when the
+  solution is diluted. It melts to a reddish-brown liquid, which
+  solidifies to a yellow crystalline mass on cooling. The Hydrate,
+  Bi(OH)3, is obtained as a white powder by adding potash to a solution
+  of a bismuth salt. Bismuth dioxide, BiO or Bi2O2, is said to be formed
+  by the limited oxidation of the metal, and as a brown precipitate by
+  adding mixed solutions of bismuth and stannous chlorides to a solution
+  of caustic potash. Bismuth tetroxide, Bi2O4, sometimes termed bismuth
+  bismuthate, is obtained by melting bismuth trioxide with potash, or by
+  igniting bismuth trioxide with potash and potassium chlorate. It is
+  also formed by oxidizing bismuth trioxide suspended in caustic potash
+  with chlorine, the pentoxide being formed simultaneously; oxidation
+  and potassium ferricyanide simply gives the tetroxide (Hauser and
+  Vanino, _Zeit. Anorg. Chem_., 1904, 39, p. 381). The hydrate,
+  Bi2O4.2H2O, is also known. Bismuth pentoxide, Bi2C5, is obtained by
+  heating bismuthic acid, HBiO3, to 130 deg.C.; this acid (in the form
+  of its salts) being the product of the continued oxidation of an
+  alkaline solution of bismuth trioxide.
+
+  Bismuth forms two chlorides: BiCl2 and BiCl3. The dichloride, BiCl2,
+  is obtained as a brown crystalline powder by fusing the metal with the
+  trichloride, or in a current of chlorine, or by heating the metal with
+  calomel to 250 deg. Water decomposes it to metallic bismuth and the
+  oxychloride, BiOCl. Bismuth trichloride, BiCl3, was obtained by Robert
+  Boyle by heating the metal with corrosive sublimate. It is the final
+  product of burning bismuth in an excess of chlorine. It is a white
+  substance, melting at 225 deg.-230 deg. and boiling at 435 deg.-441
+  deg. With excess of water, it gives a white precipitate of the
+  oxychloride, BiOCl. Bismuth trichloride forms double compounds with
+  hydrochloric acid, the chlorides of the alkaline metals, ammonia,
+  nitric oxide and nitrosyl chloride. _Bismuth trifluoride_, BiF3, a
+  white powder, _bismuth tribromide_, BiBr3, golden yellow crystals,
+  _bismuth iodide_, BiI3, greyish-black crystals, are also known. These
+  compounds closely resemble the trichloride in their methods of
+  preparation and their properties, forming oxyhaloids with water, and
+  double compounds with ammonia, &c.
+
+  _Carbonates_.--The basic carbonate, 2(BiO)2CO3.H2O, obtained as a
+  white precipitate when an alkaline carbonate is added to a solution of
+  bismuth nitrate, is employed in medicine. Another basic carbonate,
+  3(BiO)2CO3.2Bi(OH)3.3H2O, constitutes the mineral bismutite.
+
+  _Nitrates_.--The normal nitrate, Bi(NO3)3.5H2O, is obtained in large
+  transparent asymmetric prisms by evaporating a solution of the metal
+  in nitric acid. The action of water on this solution produces a
+  crystalline precipitate of basic nitrate, probably Bi(OH)2NO3, though
+  it varies with the amount of water employed. This precipitate
+  constitutes the "magistery of bismuth" or "subnitrate of bismuth" of
+  pharmacy, and under the name of pearl white, _blanc d'Espagne_ or
+  _blanc de fard_ has long been used as a cosmetic.
+
+  _Sulphides_.--Bismuth combines directly with sulphur to form a,
+  disulphide, Bi2S2, and a trisulphide, Bi2S3, the latter compound being
+  formed when the sulphur is in excess. A hydrated disulphide,
+  Bi2S2.2H2O, is obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a
+  solution of bismuth nitrate and stannous chloride. Bismuth disulphide
+  is a grey metallic substance, which is decomposed by hydrochloric acid
+  with the separation of metallic bismuth and the formation of bismuth
+  trichloride. Bismuth trisulphide, Bi2S3, constitutes the mineral
+  bismuthite, and may be prepared by direct union of its constituents,
+  or as a brown precipitate by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a
+  solution of a bismuth salt. It is easily soluble in nitric acid. When
+  heated to 200 deg. it assumes the crystalline form of bismuthite.
+  Bismuth forms several oxysulphides: Bi4O3S constitutes the mineral
+  karelinite found at the Zavodinski mine in the Altai; Bi6O3S4 and
+  Bi2O3S have been prepared artificially. Bismuth also forms the
+  sulphohaloids, BiSCl, BiSBr, BiSI, analogous to the oyxhaloids.
+
+  Bismuth sulphate, Bi2(SO4)3, is obtained as a white powder by
+  dissolving the metal or sulphide in concentrated sulphuric acid. Water
+  decomposes it, giving a basic salt, Bi2(SO4)(OH)4, which on heating
+  gives (BiO)2SO4. Other basic salts are known.
+
+  Bismuth forms compounds similar to the trisulphide with the elements
+  selenium and tellurium. The tritelluride constitutes the mineral
+  tetradymite, Bi2Te3.
+
+  _Analysis_.--Traces of bismuth may be detected by treating the
+  solution with excess of tartaric acid, potash and stannous chloride, a
+  precipitate or dark coloration of bismuth oxide being formed even when
+  only one part of bismuth is present in 20,000 of water. The blackish
+  brown sulphide precipitated from bismuth salts by sulphuretted
+  hydrogen is insoluble in ammonium sulphide, but is readily dissolved
+  by nitric acid. The metal can be reduced by magnesium, zinc, cadmium,
+  iron, tin, copper and substances like hypophosphorous acid from acid
+  solutions or from alkaline ones by formaldehyde. In quantitative
+  estimations it is generally weighed as oxide, after precipitation as
+  sulphide or carbonate, or in the metallic form, reduced as above.
+
+  _Pharmacology_.--The salts of bismuth are feebly antiseptic. Taken
+  internally the subnitrate, coming into contact with water, tends to
+  decompose, gradually liberating nitric acid, one of the most powerful
+  antiseptics. The physical properties of the powder also give it a mild
+  astringent action. There are no remote actions.
+
+  _Therapeutics_.--The subnitrate of bismuth is invaluable in certain
+  cases of dyspepsia, and still more notably so in diarrhoea. It owes
+  its value to the decomposition described above, by means of which a
+  powerful antiseptic action is safely and continuously exerted. There
+  is hardly a safer drug. It may be given in drachm doses with impunity.
+  It colours the faeces black owing to the formation of sulphide.
+
+
+
+
+BISMUTHITE, a somewhat rare mineral, consisting of bismuth trisulphide,
+Bi2S3. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and is isomorphous
+with stibnite (Sb2S3), which it closely resembles in appearance. It
+forms loose interlacing aggregates of acicular crystals without terminal
+faces (only in a single instance has a terminated crystal been
+observed), or as masses with a foliated or fibrous structure. An
+important character is the perfect cleavage in one direction parallel to
+the length of the needles. The colour is lead-grey inclining to
+tin-white and often with a yellowish or iridescent tarnish. The hardness
+is 2; specific gravity 6.4-6.5. Bismuthite occurs at several localities
+in Cornwall and Bolivia, often in association with native bismuth and
+tin-ores. Other localities are known; for instance, Brandy Gill in
+Caldbeck Fells, Cumberland, where with molybdenite and apatite it is
+embedded in white quartz. The mineral was known to A. Cronstedt in 1758,
+and was named bismuthine by F.S. Beudant in 1832. This name, which is
+also used in the forms bismuthite and bismuthinite, is rather
+unfortunate, since it is readily confused with bismite (bismuth oxide)
+and bismutite (basic bismuth carbonate), especially as the latter has
+also been used in the form bismuthite. The name bismuth-glance or
+bismutholamprite for the species under consideration is free from this
+objection.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BISMYA, a group of ruin mounds, about 1 m. long and 1/2 m. wide,
+consisting of a number of low ridges, nowhere exceeding 40 ft. in
+height, lying in the Jezireh, somewhat nearer to the Tigris than the
+Euphrates, about a day's journey to the south-east of Nippur, a little
+below 32 deg. N. and about 45 deg. 40' E. Excavations conducted here for
+six months, from Christmas of 1903 to June 1904, for the university of
+Chicago, by Dr Edgar J. Banks, proved that these mounds covered the site
+of the ancient city of Adab (Ud-Nun), hitherto known only from a brief
+mention of its name in the introduction to the Khammurabi code (c. 2250
+B.C.). The city was divided into two parts by a canal, on an island in
+which stood the temple, E-mach, with a _ziggurat_, or stage tower. It
+was evidently once a city of considerable importance, but deserted at a
+very early period, since the ruins found close to the surface of the
+mounds belong to Dungi and Ur Gur, kings of Ur in the earlier part of
+the third millennium B.C. Immediately below these, as at Nippur, were
+found the remains of Naram-Sin and Sar-gon, c. 3000 B.C. Below these
+there were still 35 ft. of stratified remains, constituting
+seven-eighths of the total depth of the ruins. Besides the remains of
+buildings, walls, graves, &c., Dr Banks discovered a large number of
+inscribed clay tablets of a very early period, bronze and stone tablets,
+bronze implements and the like. But the two most notable discoveries
+were a complete statue in white marble, apparently the most ancient yet
+found in Babylonia (now in the museum in Constantinople), bearing the
+inscription--"E-mach, King Da-udu, King of Ud-Nun"; and a temple refuse
+heap, consisting of great quantities of fragments of vases in marble,
+alabaster, onyx, porphyry and granite, some of which were inscribed, and
+others engraved and inlaid with ivory and precious stones.
+     (J. P. Pe.)
+
+
+
+
+BISON, the name of the one existing species of European wild ox, _Bos
+(Bison) bonasus_, known in Russian as _zubr_. Together with the nearly
+allied New World animal known in Europe as the (North) American bison,
+but in its own country as "buffalo," and scientifically as _Bos (Bison)
+bison_, the bison represents a group of the ox tribe distinguished from
+other species by the greater breadth and convexity of the forehead,
+superior length of limb, and the longer spinal processes of the dorsal
+vertebrae, which, with the powerful muscles attached for the support of
+the massive head, form a protuberance or hump on the shoulders. The
+bisons have also fourteen pairs of ribs, while the common ox has only
+thirteen. The forehead and neck of both species are covered with long,
+shaggy hair of a dark brown colour; and in winter the whole of the neck,
+shoulders and hump are similarly clothed, so as to form a curly, felted
+mane. This mane in the European species disappears in summer; but in the
+American bison it is to a considerable extent persistent.
+
+The bison is now the largest European quadruped, measuring about 10 ft.
+long, exclusive of the tail, and standing nearly 6 ft. high. Formerly it
+was abundant throughout Europe, as is proved by the fossil remains of
+this or a closely allied form found on the continent and in England,
+associated with those of the extinct mammoth and rhinoceros. Caesar
+mentions the bison as abounding, along with the extinct aurochs or wild
+ox, in the forests of Germany and Belgium, where it appears to have been
+occasionally captured and afterwards exhibited alive in the Roman
+amphitheatres. At that period, and long after, it seems to have been
+common throughout central Europe, as we learn from the evidence of
+Herberstein in the 16th century. Nowadays bison are found in a truly
+wild condition only in the forests of the Caucasus, where they are
+specially protected by the Russian government. There is, however, a
+herd, somewhat in the condition of park-animals, in the forest of
+Byelovitsa, in Lithuania, where it is protected by the tsar, but
+nevertheless is gradually dying out. In 1862 the Lithuanian bisons
+numbered over 1200, but by 1872 they had diminished to 528, and in 1892
+there were only 491. The prince of Pless has a small herd at Promnitz,
+his Silesian estate, founded by the gift of a bull and three cows by
+Alexander II. in 1855, his herd being the source of the menagerie
+supply.
+
+Bison feed on a coarse aromatic grass, and browse on the leaves, shoots,
+bark and twigs of trees.
+
+The American bison is distinguished from its European cousin by the
+following among other features: The hind-quarters are weaker and fall
+away more suddenly, while the withers are proportionately higher.
+Especially characteristic is the great mass of brown or blackish brown
+hair clothing the head, neck and forepart of the body. The shape of the
+skull and horns is also different; the horns themselves being shorter,
+thicker, blunter and more sharply curved, while the forehead of the
+skull is more convex and the sockets of the eyes are more distinctly
+tubular. This species formerly ranged over a third of North America in
+countless numbers, but is now practically extinct. The great herd was
+separated into a northern and southern division by the completion of
+the Union Pacific railway, and the annual rate of destruction from 1870
+to 1875 has been estimated at 2,500,000 head. In 1880 the completion of
+the Northern Pacific railway led to an attack upon the northern herd.
+The last of the Dakota bisons were destroyed by Indians in 1883, leaving
+then less than 1000 wild individuals in the United State.
+
+A count which was concluded at the end of February 1903, put the number
+of captive bisons at 1119, of which 969 were in parks and zoological
+gardens in the United States, 41 in Canada and 109 in Europe. At the
+same time it was estimated that there were 34 wild bison in the United
+States and 600 in Canada.
+
+In England small herds are kept by the duke of Bedford at Woburn Abbey,
+Bedfordshire, and by Mr C.J. Leyland at Haggerston Castle,
+Northumberland.
+
+Two races of the American bison have been distinguished--the typical
+prairie form, and the woodland race, _B. bison athabascae_; but the two
+are very similar.     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+BISQUE (a French word of unknown origin, formerly spelt in English
+"bisk"), a term for odds given in the games of tennis, lawn tennis,
+croquet and golf; in the two former a bisque is one point to be taken at
+any time during a "set" at the choice of the receiver of the odds, while
+in croquet and golf it is one extra stroke to be taken similarly during
+a game. The name is given, in cookery, to a thick soup, made
+particularly of crayfish or lobsters.
+
+
+
+
+BISSELL, GEORGE EDWIN (1839-   ), American sculptor, son of a quarryman
+and marble-cutter, was born at New Preston, Connecticut, on the 16th of
+February 1839. During the Civil War he served as a private in the 23rd
+Connecticut volunteers in the Department of the Gulf (1862-1863), and on
+being mustered out became acting assistant paymaster in the South
+Atlantic squadron. At the close of the war he joined his father in
+business. He studied the art of sculpture abroad in 1875-1876, and lived
+much in Paris during the years 1883-1896, with occasional visits to
+America. Among his more important works are the soldiers' and sailors'
+monument, and a statue of Colonel Chatfield, at Waterbury, Connecticut;
+and statues of General Gates at Saratoga, New York, of Chancellor John
+Watts in Trinity churchyard, New York City; of Colonel Abraham de
+Peyster in Bowling Green, New York City; of Abraham Lincoln at
+Edinburgh; of Burns and "Highland Mary," in Ayr, Scotland; of Chancellor
+James Kent, in the Congressional library, Washington; and of President
+Arthur in Madison Square, New York City.
+
+
+
+
+BISSEXT, or BISSEXTUS (Lat. _bis_, twice; _sextus_, sixth), the day
+intercalated by the Julian calendar in the February of every fourth year
+to make up the six hours by which the solar year was computed to exceed
+the year of 365 days. The day was inserted after the 24th of February,
+i.e. the 6th day before the calends (1st) of March; there was
+consequently, besides the _sextus_, or sixth before the calends, the
+_bis-sextus_ or "second sixth," our 25th of February. In modern usage,
+with the exception of ecclesiastical calendars, the intercalary day is
+added for convenience at the end of the month, and years in which
+February has 29 days are called "bissextile," or leap-years.
+
+
+
+
+BISTRE, the French name of a brown paint made from the soot of wood, now
+largely superseded by Indian ink.
+
+
+
+
+BIT (from the verb "to bite," either in the sense of a piece bitten off,
+or an act of biting, or a thing that bites or is bitten), generally, a
+piece of anything; the word is, however, used in various special senses,
+all derivable from its origin, either literally or metaphorically. The
+most common of these are (1) its use as the name of various tools, e.g.
+centre-bit; (2) a horse's "bit," or the metal mouth-piece of the bridle;
+(3) in money, a small sum of money of varying value (e.g.
+threepenny-bit), especially in the West Indies and southern United
+States.
+
+
+
+
+BITHUR, a town in the Cawnpore district of the United Provinces of
+India, 12 m. N.W. of Cawnpore city. Pop. (1901) 7173. It is chiefly
+notable for its connexion with the mutiny of 1857. The last of the
+peshwas, Baji Rao, was banished to Bithur, and his adopted son, the Nana
+Sahib, made the town his head-quarters. It was captured by Havelock on
+the 19th of July 1857, when the Nana's palaces were destroyed.
+
+
+
+
+BITHYNIA ([Greek: Bituvia]), an ancient district in the N.W. of Asia
+Minor, adjoining the Propontis, the Thracian Bosporus and the Euxine.
+According to Strabo it was bounded on the E. by the river Sangarius; but
+the more commonly received division extended it to the Parthenius, which
+separated it from Paphlagonia, thus comprising the district inhabited by
+the Mariandyni. On the W. and S.W. it was separated from Mysia by the
+river Rhyndacus; and on the S. it adjoined Phrygia Epictetus and
+Galatia. It is in great part occupied by mountains and forests, but has
+valleys and districts near the sea-coast of great fertility. The most
+important mountain range is the (so-called) "Mysian" Olympus (7600 ft.),
+which towers above Brusa and is clearly visible as far away as
+Constantinople (70 m.). Its summits are covered with snow for a great
+part of the year. East of this the range now called Ala-Dagh extends far
+above 100 m. from the Sangarius to Paphlagonia. Both of these ranges
+belong to that border of mountains which bounds the great tableland of
+Asia Minor. The country between them and the coast, covered with forests
+and traversed by few lines of route, is still imperfectly known. But the
+broad tract which projects towards the west as far as the shores of the
+Bosporus, though hilly and covered with forests--the Turkish Aghatch
+Denizi, or "The Ocean of Trees"--is not traversed by any mountain chain.
+The west coast is indented by two deep inlets, (1) the northernmost, the
+Gulf of Ismid (anc. Gulf of Astacus), penetrating between 40 and 50 m.
+into the interior as far as Ismid (anc. Nicomedia), separated by an
+isthmus of only about 25 m. from the Black Sea; (2) the Gulf of Mudania
+or Gemlik (Gulf of Cius), about 25 m. long. At its extremity is situated
+the small town of Gemlik (anc. Cius) at the mouth of a valley,
+communicating with the lake of Isnik, on which was situated Nicaea.
+
+The principal rivers are the Sangarius (mod. Sakaria), which traverses
+the province from south to north; the Rhyndacus, which separated it from
+Mysia; and the Billaeus (Filiyas), which rises in the Ala-Dagh, about 50
+m. from the sea, and after flowing by Boli (anc. Claudiopolis) falls
+into the Euxine, close to the ruins of the ancient Tium, about 40 m.
+north-east of Heraclea, having a course of more than 100 m. The
+Parthenius (mod. Bartan), the boundary of the province towards the east,
+is a much less considerable stream.
+
+The natural resources of Bithynia are still imperfectly developed. Its
+vast forests would furnish an almost inexhaustible supply of timber, if
+rendered accessible by roads. Coal also is known to exist near Eregli
+(Heraclea). The valleys towards the Black Sea abound in fruit trees of
+all kinds, while the valley of the Sangarius and the plains near Brusa
+and Isnik (Nicaea) are fertile and well cultivated. Extensive
+plantations of mulberry trees supply the silk for which Brusa has long
+been celebrated, and which is manufactured there on a large scale.
+
+According to ancient authors (Herodotus, Xenophon, Strabo, &c.), the
+Bithynians were an immigrant Thracian tribe. The existence of a tribe
+called Thyni in Thrace is well attested, and the two cognate tribes of
+the Thyni and Bithyni appear to have settled simultaneously in the
+adjoining parts of Asia, where they expelled or subdued the Mysians,
+Caucones, and other petty tribes, the Mariandyni alone maintaining
+themselves in the north-east. Herodotus mentions the Thyni and Bithyni
+as existing side by side; but ultimately the latter must have become the
+more important, as they gave their name to the country. They were
+incorporated by Croesus with the Lydian monarchy, with which they fell
+under the dominion of Persia (546 B.C.), and were included in the
+satrapy of Phrygia, which comprised all the countries up to the
+Hellespont and Bosporus. But even before the conquest by Alexander the
+Bithynians appear to have asserted their independence, and successfully
+maintained it under two native princes, Bas and Zipoetes, the last of
+whom transmitted his power to his son Nicomedes I., the first to assume
+the title of king. This monarch founded Nicomedia, which soon rose to
+great prosperity, and during his long reign (278-250 B.C.), as well as
+those of his successors, Prusias I., Prusias II. and Nicomedes II.
+(149-91 B.C.), the kingdom of Bithynia held a considerable place among
+the minor monarchies of Asia. But the last king, Nicomedes III., was
+unable to maintain himself against Mithradates of Pontus, and, after
+being restored to his throne by the Roman senate, he bequeathed his
+kingdom by will to the Romans (74 B.C.). Bithynia now became a Roman
+province. Its limits were frequently varied, and it was commonly united
+for administrative purposes with the province of Pontus. This was the
+state of things in the time of Trajan, when the younger Pliny was
+appointed governor of the combined provinces (103-105 A.D.), a
+circumstance to which we are indebted for valuable information
+concerning the Roman provincial administration. Under the Byzantine
+empire Bithynia was again divided into two provinces, separated by the
+Sangarias, to the west of which the name of Bithynia was restricted.
+
+The most important cities were Nicomedia and Nicaea, which disputed with
+one another the rank of capital. Both of these were founded after
+Alexander the Great; but at a much earlier period the Greeks had
+established on the coast the colonies of Cius (afterwards Prusias, mod.
+Gemlik); Chalcedon, at the entrance of the Bosporus, nearly opposite
+Constantinople; and Heraclea Pontica, on the Euxine, about 120 m. east
+of the Bosporus. All these rose to be flourishing places of trade, as
+also Prusa at the foot of M. Olympus (see BRUSA). The only other places
+of importance at the present day are Ismid (Nicomedia) and Scutari.
+
+  See C. Texier, _Asie Mineure_ (Paris, 1839); G. Perrot, _Calatie et
+  Bithynie_ (Paris, 1862); W. von Diest in _Petermanns Mittheilungen_,
+  Ergansungshelt, 116 (Gotha, 1895).     (E. H. B.; F. W. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+BITLIS, or BETLIS (Arm. _Paghesh_), the chief town of a vilayet of the
+same name in Asiatic Turkey, situated at an altitude of 4700 ft. in the
+deep, narrow valley of the Bitlis Chai, a tributary of the Tigris. The
+main part of the town and the bazaars are crowded alongside the stream,
+while suburbs with scattered houses among orchards and gardens extend up
+two tributary streams. The houses are massive and well built of a soft
+volcanic tufa, and with their courtyards and gardens climbing up the
+hillsides afford a striking picture. At the junction of two streams in
+the centre of the town is a fine old castle, partly ruined, which,
+according to local tradition, occupies the site of a fortress built by
+Alexander the Great. It is apparently an Arab building, as Arabic
+inscriptions appear on the walls, but as the town stands on the
+principal highway between the Van plateau and the Mesopotamian plain it
+must always have been of strategic importance. The bazaars are crowded,
+covered across with branches in summer, and typical of a Kurdish town.
+The population numbers 35,000, of whom about 12,000 are Armenians and
+the remainder are Kurds or of Kurdish descent.
+
+Kurdish beys and sheids have much influence in the town and wild
+mountain districts adjoining, while the Sasun mountains, the scene of
+successive Armenian revolutions of late years, are not far off to the
+west. The town was ruled by a semi-independent Kurdish bey as late as
+1836. There are some fine old mosques and _medresses_ (colleges), and
+the Armenians have a large monastery and churches. There are British,
+French and Russian consuls in the town, and a branch of the American
+Mission with schools is established also. The climate is healthy and the
+thermometer rarely falls below 0 deg. Fahr., but there is a heavy
+snowfall and the narrow streets are blocked for some five months in the
+year.
+
+A good road runs southward down the pass, passing after a few miles some
+large chalybeate and sulphur springs. Roads also lead north to Mush and
+Erzerum and along the lake to Van. Postal communication is through
+Erzerum with Trebizond. Tobacco of an inferior quality is largely grown,
+and the chief industry is the weaving of a coarse red cloth. Manna and
+gum tragacanth are also collected. Fruit is also plentiful, and there
+are many vineyards close by.
+
+The Bitlis vilayet comprises a very varied section of Asiatic Turkey, as
+it includes the Mush plain and the plateau country west of Lake Van, as
+well as a large extent of wild mountain districts inhabited by turbulent
+Kurds and Armenians on either side of the central town of Bitlis, also
+some of the lower country about Sairt along the left bank of the main
+stream of the Tigris. The mountains have been little explored, but are
+believed to be rich in minerals, iron, lead, copper, traces of gold and
+many mineral springs are known to exist.     (F. R. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BITONTO (anc. _Butunti_), a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in
+the province of Bari, 10 m. west by steam tramway from Bari. Pop. (1901)
+30,617. It was a place of no importance in classical times. Its medieval
+walls are still preserved. Its cathedral is one of the finest examples
+of the Romanesque architecture of Apulia, and has escaped damage from
+later restorations. The palazzo Sylos-Labini has a fine Renaissance
+court of 1502.
+
+
+
+
+BITSCH (Fr. _Bitche_), a town of Germany, in Alsace-Lorraine, on the
+Horn, at the foot of the northern slope of the Vosges between Hagenau
+and Saargemund. Pop. (1905) 4000. There are a Roman Catholic and a
+Protestant church, a classical school and an academy of forestry. The
+industries include shoe-making and watch-making, and there is some trade
+in grain and timber. The town of Bitsch, which was formed out of the
+villages of Rohr and Kaltenhausen in the 17th century, derives its name
+from the old stronghold (mentioned in 1172 as Bytis Castrum) standing on
+a rock some 250 ft. above the town. This had long given its name to the
+countship of Bitsch, which was originally in the possession of the dukes
+of Lorraine. In 1297 it passed by marriage to Eberhard I. of
+Zweibrucken, whose line became extinct in 1569, when the countship
+reverted to Lorraine. It passed with that duchy to France in 1766. After
+that date the town rapidly increased in population. The citadel, which
+had been constructed by Vauban on the site of the old castle after the
+capture of Bitsch by the French in 1624, had been destroyed when it was
+restored to Lorraine in 1698. This was restored and strengthened in 1740
+into a fortress that proved impregnable in all succeeding wars. The
+attack upon it by the Prussians in 1793 was repulsed; in 1815 they had
+to be content with blockading it; and in 1870, though it was closely
+invested by the Germans after the battle of Worth, it held out until the
+end of the war. A large part of the fortification is excavated in the
+red sandstone rock, and rendered bomb-proof; a supply of water is
+secured to the garrison by a deep well in the interior.
+
+
+
+
+BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867-   ), American sculptor, was born in
+Vienna on the 6th of December 1867. After studying art there, in 1889 he
+removed to the United States, where he became naturalized. In America he
+gained great popularity as a sculptor, and in 1906-1907 was president of
+the National Sculpture Society, New York. Among his principal works are:
+the Astor memorial gates, Trinity church, New York; "Elements Controlled
+and Uncontrolled," on the Administration Building at the Chicago
+Exposition; a large relief, "Triumph of Civilization," in the
+waiting-room of the Broad Street station of the Pennsylvania railway in
+Philadelphia; decorations for the Dewey Naval Arch in New York City; the
+"Standard Bearers," at the Pan-American Exposition grounds; a sitting
+statue and a bust of Dr Pepper, provost of the University of
+Pennsylvania; and the Villard and Hubbard memorials in the New York
+chamber of commerce.
+
+
+
+
+BITTERFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, 26 m.
+N. from Leipzig by rail, on the river Mulde, and an important junction
+of railways from Leipzig and Halle to Berlin. Pop. (1900) 11,839. It
+manufactures drain-pipes, paper-roofing and machinery, and has
+saw-mills. Several coal-mines are in the vicinity. The town was built by
+a colony of Flemish immigrants in 1153. It was captured by the landgrave
+of Meissen in 1476, and belonged thenceforth to Saxony, until it was
+ceded to Prussia in 1815. Owing to its pleasant situation and
+accessibility, it has become a favourite residence of business men of
+Leipzig and Halle.
+
+
+
+
+BITTERLING (_Rhodeus amarus_), a little carp-like fish of central
+Europe, belonging to the Cyprinid family. In it we have a remarkable
+instance of symbiosis. The genital papilla of the female acquires a
+great development during the breeding season and becomes produced into a
+tube nearly as long as the fish itself; this acts as an ovipositor by
+means of which the comparatively few and large eggs (3 millimetres in
+diameter) are introduced through the gaping valves between the branchiae
+of pond mussels (_Unio_ and _Anodonta_), where, after being inseminated,
+they undergo their development, the fry leaving their host about a month
+later. The mollusc reciprocates by throwing off its embryos on the
+parent fish, in the skin of which they remain encysted for some time,
+the period of reproduction of the fish and the mussel coinciding.
+
+
+
+
+BITTERN, a genus of wading birds, belonging to the family _Ardeidae_,
+comprising several species closely allied to the herons, from which they
+differ chiefly in their shorter neck, the back of which is covered with
+down, and the front with long feathers, which can be raised at pleasure.
+They are solitary birds, frequenting countries possessing extensive
+swamps and marshy grounds, remaining at rest by day, concealed among the
+reeds and bushes of their haunts, and seeking their food, which consists
+of fish, reptiles, insects and small quadrupeds, in the twilight. The
+common bittern (_Botaurus stellaris_) is nearly as large as the heron,
+and is widely distributed over the eastern hemisphere. Formerly it was
+common in Britain, but extensive drainage and persecution have greatly
+dimished its numbers and it is now only an uncertain visitor. Not a
+winter passes without its appearing in some numbers, when its uncommon
+aspect, its large size, and beautifully pencilled plumage cause it to be
+regarded as a great prize by the lucky gun-bearer to whom it falls a
+victim. Its value as a delicacy for the table, once so highly esteemed,
+has long vanished. The old fable of this bird inserting its beak into a
+reed or plunging it into the ground, and so causing the booming sound
+with which its name will always be associated, is also exploded, and
+nowadays indeed so few people in Britain have ever heard its loud and
+awful voice, which seems to be uttered only in the breeding-season, and
+is therefore unknown in a country where it no longer breeds, that
+incredulity as to its booming at all has in some quarters succeeded the
+old belief in this as in other reputed peculiarities of the species. The
+bittern in the days of falconry was strictly preserved, and afforded
+excellent sport. It sits crouching on the ground during the day, with
+its bill pointing in the air, a position from which it is not easily
+roused, and even when it takes wing, its flight is neither swift nor
+long sustained. When wounded it requires to be approached with caution,
+as it will then attack either man or dog with its long sharp bill and
+its acute claws. It builds a rude nest among the reeds and flags, out of
+materials which surround it, and the female lays four or five eggs of a
+brownish olive. During the breeding season it utters a booming noise,
+from which it probably derives its generic name, _Botaurus_, and which
+has made it in many places an object of superstitious dread. Its plumage
+for the most part is of a pale buff colour, rayed and speckled with
+black and reddish brown. The American bittern (_Botaurus lentiginosus_)
+is somewhat smaller than the European species, and is found throughout
+the central and southern portions of North America. It also occurs in
+Britain as an occasional straggler. It is distinguishable by its uniform
+greyish-brown primaries, which want the tawny bars that characterize _B.
+stellaris_. Both species are good eating.
+
+[Illustration: Bittern.]
+
+
+
+
+BITTERN (from "bitter"), the mother liquor obtained from sea-water or
+brines after the separation of the sodium chloride (common salt) by
+crystallization. It contains various magnesium salts (sulphate,
+chloride, bromide and iodide) and is employed commercially for the
+manufacture of Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate) and bromine. The same
+term is applied to a mixture of quassia, iron sulphate, _cocculus
+indicus_, liquorice, &c., used in adulterating beer.
+
+
+
+
+BITTERS, the name given to aromatized (generally alcoholic) beverages
+containing a bitter substance or substances, used as tonics, appetizers
+or digestives. The bitterness is imparted by such substances as bitter
+orange rind, gentian, rhubarb, quassia, cascarilla, angostura, quinine
+and cinchona. Juniper, cinnamon, carraway, camomile, cloves and other
+flavouring agents are also employed in conjunction with the bitter
+principles, alcohol and sugar. Some bitters are prepared by simple
+maceration and subsequent filtration (see LIQUEURS), others by the more
+complicated distillation process. Those prepared by the latter process
+are the finer commercial articles. Bitters are usually sold under the
+name of the substance which has been used to give them the predominant
+flavour, such as orange, angostura or peach bitters, &c. The alcoholic
+strength of bitters varies, but is generally in the neighbourhood of 40%
+of alcohol. Some bitters, although possessing tonic properties, may be
+regarded as beverages pure and simple, notwithstanding the fact that
+they are seldom consumed in an undiluted state; others again, are
+obviously medicinal preparations and should be treated as such.
+
+
+
+
+BITUMEN, the name applied by the Romans to the various descriptions of
+natural hydrocarbons, the word _petroleum_ not being used in classical
+Latin. In its widest sense it embraces the whole range of these
+substances, including _natural gas_, the more or less liquid
+descriptions of _petroleum_, and the solid forms of _asphalt, albertite,
+gilsonite_ or _uintahite, elaterite, ozokerite_ and _hatchettite_. To
+distinguish bitumen intermediate in consistency between asphalt and the
+more liquid kinds of crude petroleum, the term _maltha_ (Latin) is
+frequently employed. The bitumens of chief commercial importance may be
+grouped under the three headings of (1) _natural gas_, (2) _petroleum_,
+and (3) _asphalt_, and will be found fully described under these titles.
+In the scriptures there are numerous references to bitumen, among which
+the following may be quoted:--In Genesis ix. 3, we are told that in the
+building of the tower of Babel "slime had they for mortar," and in
+Genesis xiv. 10, that the vale of Siddim "was full of slime-pits," the
+word _slime_ in the latter quotation from our version appearing as
+_bitumen_ in the Vulgate. Herodotus alludes to the use of the bitumen
+brought down by the Is, a tributary of the Euphrates, as mortar in
+building the walls of Babylon. Diodorus, Curtius, Josephus, Bochart and
+others make similar mention of this use of bitumen, and Vitruvius tells
+us that it was employed in admixture with clay.
+
+In its various forms, bitumen is one of the most widely distributed of
+substances. It occurs, though sometimes only in small quantity, in
+almost every part of the globe, and throughout the whole range of
+geological strata, from the Laurentian rocks to the most recent members
+of the Quaternary period. Although the gaseous and liquid forms of
+bitumen may be regarded as having been formed in the strata in which
+they are found or as having been received into such strata shortly after
+formation, the semi-solid and solid varieties may be considered to have
+been produced by the oxidation and evaporation of liquid petroleum
+escaping from underlying or better preserved deposits into other strata,
+or into fissures where atmospheric action and loss of the more volatile
+constituents can take place. It should, however, be stated that there is
+some difference of opinion as to the precise manner of production of
+some of the solid forms of bitumen, and especially of ozokerite.
+     (B. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BITURIGES, a Celtic people, according to Livy (v. 34) the most powerful
+in Gaul in the time of Tarquinius Priscus. At some period unknown they
+split up into two branches--Bituriges Cubi and Bituriges Vivisci. The
+name is supposed to mean either "rulers of the world" or "perpetual
+kings."
+
+The Bituriges Cubi, called simply Bituriges by Caesar, in whose time
+they acknowledged the supremacy of the Aedui, inhabited the modern
+diocese of Bourges, including the departments of Cher and Indre, and
+partly that of Allier. Their chief towns were Avaricum (Bourges),
+Argentomagus (Argenton-sur-Creuse), Neriomagus (Neris-les-Bains),
+Noviodunum (perhaps Villate). At the time of the rebellion of
+Vercingetoix (52 B.C.), Avaricum, after a desperate resistance, was
+taken by assault, and the inhabitants put to the sword. In the following
+year, the Bituriges submitted to Caesar, and under Augustus they were
+incorporated (in 28 B.C.) in Aquitania. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ iv. 109)
+speaks of them as _liberi_, which points to their enjoying a certain
+amount of independence under Roman government. The district contained a
+number of iron works, and Caesar says they were skilled in driving
+galleries and mining operations.
+
+The Biturgies Vivisci occupied the strip of land between the sea and the
+left bank of the Garonne, comprising the greater part of the modern
+department of Gironde. Their capital was Burdigala (Bordeaux), even then
+a place of considerable importance and a wine-growing centre. Like the
+Cubi, they also are called _liberi_ by Pliny.
+
+  See A. Desjardins, _Geographie historique de la Gaule romaine_, ii.
+  (1876-1893); A. Longnon, _Geographie de la Gaule on VI^e siecle_
+  (1878); A. Hohler, _Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz_; T.R. Holmes,
+  _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_ (1899).
+
+
+
+
+BITZIUS, ALBRECHT (1797-1854), Swiss novelist, best known by his pet
+name of "Jeremias Gotthelf," was born on the 4th of October 1797 at
+Morat, where his father was pastor. In 1804 the home was moved to
+Utzenstorf, a village in the Bernese Emmenthal. Here young Bitzius grew
+up, receiving his early education and consorting with the boys of the
+village, as well as helping his father to cultivate his glebe. In 1812
+he went to complete his education at Bern, and in 1820 was received as a
+pastor. In 1821 he visited the university of Gottingen, but returned
+home in 1822 to act as his father's assistant. On his father's death
+(1824) he went in the same capacity to Herzogenbuchsee, and later to
+Bern (1829). Early in 1831 he went as assistant to the aged pastor of
+the village of Lutzelfluh, in the Upper Emmenthal (between Langnau and
+Burgdorf), being soon elected his successor (1832) and marrying one of
+his granddaughters (1833). He spent the rest of his life there, dying on
+the 22nd of October 1854, and leaving three children (the son was a
+pastor, the two daughters married pastors). His first work, the
+_Bauernspiegel_, appeared in 1837. It purported to be the life of
+Jeremias Gotthelf, narrated by himself, and this name was later adopted
+by the author as his pen name. It is a living picture of Bernese (or,
+strictly speaking, Emmenthal) village life, true to nature, and not
+attempting to gloss over its defects and failings. It is written (like
+the rest of his works) in the Bernese dialect of the Emmenthal, though
+it must be remembered that Bitzius was not (like Auerbach) a peasant by
+birth, but belonged to the educated classes, so that he reproduces what
+he had seen and learnt, and not what he had himself personally
+experienced. The book was a great success, as it was a picture of real
+life, and not of fancifully beribboned 18th-century villagers. Among his
+later tales are the _Leiden und Freuden eines Schulmeisters_
+(1838-1839), _Uli der Knecht_ (1841), with its continuation, _Uli der
+Pachter_ (1849), _Anne Babi Jowager_ (1843-1844), _Kathi die
+Grossmutter_ (1847), _Die Kaserei in der Vehfreude_ (1850), and the
+_Erlebnisse eines Schuldenbauers_ (1854). He published also several
+volumes of shorter tales. One slight drawback to some of his writings is
+the echo of local political controversies, for Bitzius was a Whig and
+strongly opposed to the Radical party in the canton, which carried the
+day in 1846.
+
+  Lives by C. Manuel, in the Berlin edition of Bitzius's works (Berlin,
+  1861), and by J. Ammann in vol. i. (Bern, 1884) of the _Sammlung
+  Bernischer Biographien_. His works were issued in 24 vols. at Berlin,
+  1856-1861, while 10 vols., giving the original text of each story,
+  were issued at Bern, 1898-1900 (edition not to be completed).
+       (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BIVOUAC (a French word generally said to have been introduced during the
+Thirty Years' War, perhaps derived from _Beiwacht_, extra guard),
+originally, a night-watch by a whole army under arms to prevent
+surprise. In modern military parlance the word is used to mean a
+temporary encampment in the open field without tents, as opposed to
+"billets" or "cantonment" on the one hand and "camp" on the other. The
+use of bivouacs permits an army to remain closely concentrated for all
+emergencies, and avoids the necessity for numerous wagons carrying
+tents. Constant bivouacs, however, are trying to the health of men and
+horses, and this method of quartering is never employed except when the
+military situation demands concentration and readiness. Thus the
+outposts would often have to bivouac while the main body of the army lay
+in billets.
+
+
+
+
+BIWA, a lake in the province of Omi, Japan. It measures 36 m. in length
+by 12 m. in extreme breadth, has an area of 180 sq. m., is about 330 ft.
+above sea-level, and has an extreme depth of some 300 ft. There are a
+few small islands in the lake, the principal being Chikubu-shima at the
+northern end.
+
+Tradition alleges that Lake Biwa and the mountain of Fuji were produced
+simultaneously by an earthquake in 286 B.C. On the west of the lake the
+mountains Hiei-zan and Hira-yama slope down almost to its margin, and on
+the east a wide plain extends towards the boundaries of the province of
+Mino. It is drained by a river flowing out of its southern end, and
+taking its course into the sea at Osaka. This river bears in succession
+the names of Seta-gawa, Uji-gawa and Yodo-gawa. The lake abounds with
+fish, and the beauty of its scenery is remarkable. Small steamboats ply
+constantly to the points of chief interest, and around its shores are to
+be viewed the _Omi-no-hakkei_, or "eight landscapes of Omi"; namely, the
+lake silvering under an autumn moon as one looks down from Ishi-yama;
+the snow at eve on Hira-yama; the glow of sunset at Seta; the groves and
+classic temple of Mii-dera as the evening bell sounds; boats sailing
+home from Yabase; cloudless peaks at Awazu; rain at nightfall over
+Karasaki; and wild geese sweeping down to Katata. The lake is connected
+with Kyoto by a canal constructed in 1890, and is thus brought into
+water communication with Osaka.
+
+
+
+
+BIXIO, NINO (1821-1873), Italian soldier, was born on the 2nd of October
+1821. While still a boy he was compelled by his parents to embrace a
+maritime career. After numerous adventures he returned to Italy in 1846,
+joined the Giovine Italia, and, on 4th November 1847, made himself
+conspicuous at Genoa by seizing the bridle of Charles Albert's horse and
+crying, "Pass the Ticino, Sire, and we are all with you." He fought
+through the campaign of 1848, became captain under Garibaldi at Rome in
+1849, taking prisoners an entire French battalion, and gaining the gold
+medal for military valour. In 1859 he commanded a Garibaldian battalion,
+and gained the military cross of Savoy. Joining the Marsala expedition
+in 1860, he turned the day in favour of Garibaldi at Calatafimi, was
+wounded at Palermo, but recovered in time to besiege Reggio in Calabria
+(21st of August 1860), and, though again wounded, took part in the
+battle of Volturno, where his leg was broken. Elected deputy in 1861, he
+endeavoured to reconcile Cavour and Garibaldi. In 1866, at the head of
+the seventh division, he covered the Italian retreat from Custozza,
+ignoring the Austrian summons to surrender. Created senator in February
+1870, he was in the following September given command of a division
+during the movement against Rome, took Civita Vecchia, and participated
+in the general attack upon Rome (20th September 1870). He died of
+cholera at Achin Bay in Sumatra _en route_ for Batavia, whither he had
+gone in command of a commercial expedition (16th December 1873).
+
+
+
+
+BIZERTA (properly pronounced Ben Zert; Fr. _Bizerte_), a seaport of
+Tunisia, in 37 deg. 17' N., 9 deg. 50' E. Pop. about 12,000. Next to
+Toulon, Bizerta is the most important naval port of France in the
+Mediterranean. It occupies a commanding strategical position in the
+narrowest part of the sea, being 714 m. E. of Gibraltar, 1168 m. W.N.W.
+of Port Said, 240 m. N.W. of Malta, and 420 m. S. by E. of Toulon. It is
+60 m. by rail N.N.W. of Tunis. The town is built on the shores of the
+Mediterranean at the point where the Lake of Bizerta enters the sea
+through a natural channel, the mouth of which has been canalized. The
+modern town lies almost entirely on the north side of the canal. A
+little farther north are the ancient citadel, the walled "Arab" town and
+the old harbour (disused). The present outer harbour covers about 300
+acres and is formed by two converging jetties and a breakwater. The
+north jetty is 4000 ft. long, the east jetty 3300 ft., and the
+breakwater--which protects the port from the prevalent north-east
+winds--2300 ft. long. The entrance to the canal is in the centre of the
+outer harbour. The canal is 2600 ft. long and 787 ft. wide on the
+surface. Its banks are lined with quays, and ships drawing 26 ft. of
+water can moor alongside. At the end of the canal is a large commercial
+harbour, beyond which the channel opens into the lake--in reality an arm
+of the sea--roughly circular in form and covering about 50 sq. m.,
+two-thirds of its waters having a depth of 30 to 40 ft. The lake, which
+merchant vessels are not allowed to enter, contains the naval port and
+arsenal. There is a torpedo and submarine boat station on the north side
+of the channel at the entrance to the lake, but the principal naval
+works are at Sidi Abdallah at the south-west corner of the lake and 10
+m. from the open sea. Here is an enclosed basin covering 123 acres with
+ample quayage, dry docks and everything necessary to the accommodation,
+repair, revictualling and coaling of a numerous fleet. Barracks,
+hospitals and waterworks have been built, the military town, called
+Ferryville, being self-contained.
+
+Fortifications have been built for the protection of the port. They
+comprise (a) the older works surrounding the town; (b) a group of coast
+batteries on the high ground of Cape Bizerta or Guardia, 4 m.
+north-north-west of the town; these are grouped round a powerful fort
+called Jebel Kebir, and have a command of 300 to 800 ft. above
+sea-level; (c) another group of batteries on the narrow ground between
+the sea and the lake to the east of the town; the highest of these is
+the Jebel Tuila battery 265 ft. above sea-level.
+
+The LAKE OF BIZERTA, called Tinja by the Arabs, abounds in excellent
+fish, especially mullets, the dried roe of which, called _botargo_, is
+largely exported, and the fishing industry employs a large proportion of
+the inhabitants. The western shore of the lake is low, and in many
+places is covered with olive trees to the water's edge. The
+south-eastern shores are hilly and wooded, and behind them rises a range
+of picturesque hills. A narrow and shallow channel leads from the
+western side of the lake into another sheet of water, the Lake of
+Ishkul, so called from Jebel Ishkul, a hill on its southern bank 1740
+ft. high. The Lake of Ishkul is nearly as large as the first lake, but
+is very shallow. Its waters are generally sweet.
+
+Bizerta occupies the site of the ancient Tyrian colony, Hippo Zarytus or
+Diarrhytus, the harbour of which, by means of a spacious pier,
+protecting it from the north-east wind, was rendered one of the safest
+and finest on this coast. The town became a Roman colony, and was
+conquered by the Arabs in the 7th century. The place thereafter was
+subject either to the rulers of Tunis or of Constantine, but the
+citizens were noted for their frequent revolts. They threw in their lot
+(c. 1530) with the pirate Khair-ed-Din, and subsequently received a
+Turkish garrison. Bizerta was captured by the Spaniards in 1535, but not
+long afterwards came under the Tunisian government. Centuries of neglect
+followed, and the ancient port was almost choked up, though the value of
+the fisheries saved the town from utter decay. Its strategical
+importance was one of the causes which led to the occupation of Tunisia
+by the French in 1881. In 1890 a concession for a new canal and harbour
+was granted to a company, and five years later the new port was formally
+opened. Since then the canal has been widened and deepened, and the
+naval port at Sidi Abdallah created.
+
+
+
+
+BIZET [ALEXANDRE CESAR LEOPOLD] GEORGES (1838-1875), French musical
+composer, was born at Bougival, near Paris, on the 25th of October 1838,
+the son of a singing-master. He displayed musical ability at an early
+age, and was sent to the Paris Conservatoire, where he studied under
+Halevy and speedily distinguished himself, carrying off prizes for organ
+and fugue, and finally in 1857, after an ineffectual attempt in the
+previous year, the Grand Prix de Rome for a cantata called _Cloris et
+Clotilde_. A success of a different kind also befell him at this time.
+Offenbach, then manager of the Theatre des Bouffes-Parisiens, had
+organized a competition for an operetta, in which young Bizet was
+awarded the first prize in conjunction with Charles Lecocq, each of them
+writing an operetta called _Docteur Miracle_. After the three years
+spent in Rome, an obligation imposed by the French government on the
+winners of the first prize at the Conservatoire, Bizet returned to
+Paris, where he achieved a reputation as a pianist and accompanist. On
+the 23rd of September 1863 his first opera, _Les Pecheurs de perles_,
+was brought out at the Theatre Lyrique, but owing possibly to the
+somewhat uninteresting nature of the story, the opera did not enjoy a
+very long run. The qualities displayed by the composer, however, were
+amply recognized, although the music was stated, by some critics, to
+exhibit traces of Wagnerian influence. Wagnerism at that period was a
+sort of spectre that haunted the imagination of many leading members of
+the musical press. It sufficed for a work to be at all out of the common
+for the epithet "Wagnerian" to be applied to it. The term, it may be
+said, was intended to be condemnatory, and it was applied with little
+understanding as to its real meaning. The score of the _Pecheurs de
+perles_ contains several charming numbers; its dreamy melodies are well
+adapted to fit a story laid in Eastern climes, and the music reveals a
+decided dramatic temperament. Some of its dances are now usually
+introduced into the fourth act of _Carmen_.
+
+On the 3rd of June 1865 Bizet married a daughter of his old master,
+Halevy. His second opera, _La Jolie Fitte de Perth_, produced at the
+Theatre Lyrique on 26th December 1867, was scarcely a step in advance.
+The libretto was founded on Sir Walter Scott's novel, but the opera
+lacks unity of style, and its pages are marred by concessions to the
+vocalist. One number has survived, the characteristic Bohemian dance
+which has been interpolated into the fourth act of _Carmen_. In his
+third opera Bizet returned to an oriental subject. _Djamileh_, a one-act
+opera given at the Opera Comique on the 22nd of May 1872, is certainly
+one of his most individual efforts. Again were accusations of Wagnerism
+hurled at the composer's head, and _Djamileh_ did not achieve the
+success it undoubtedly deserved. The composer was more fortunate with
+the incidental music he wrote to Alphonse Daudet's drama,
+_L'Arlesienne_, produced in October 1872. Different numbers from this,
+arranged in the form of suites, have often been heard in the
+concert-room. Rarely have poetry and imagination been so well allied as
+in these exquisite pages, which seem to reflect the sunny skies of
+Provence.
+
+Bizet's masterpiece, _Carmen_, was brought out at the Opera Comique on
+the 3rd of March 1875. It was based on a version by Meilhac and Halevy
+of a study by Prosper Merimee--in which the dramatic element was
+obscured by much descriptive writing. The detection of the drama
+underlying this psychological narrative was in itself a brilliant
+discovery, and in reconstructing the story in dramatic form the authors
+produced one of the most famous libretti in the whole range of opera.
+Still more striking than the libretto was the music composed by Bizet,
+in which the peculiar use of the flute and of the lowest notes of the
+harp deserves particular attention.
+
+On the 3rd of June, three months after the production of _Carmen_ in
+Paris, the genial composer expired after a few hours' illness from a
+heart affection. Before dying he had the satisfaction of knowing that
+_Carmen_ had been accepted for production at Vienna. After the Austrian
+capital came Brussels, Berlin and, in 1878, London, when _Carmen_ was
+brought out at Her Majesty's theatre with immense success. The influence
+exercised by Bizet on dramatic music has been very great, and may be
+discerned in the realistic works of the young Italian school, as well as
+in those of his own countrymen.
+
+
+
+
+BJORNEBORG (Finnish, _Pori_), a district town of Finland, province of
+Abo-Bjorneborg, on the E. coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, at the mouth of
+the Kumo. Lat. 51 deg. 8' N., long. 46 deg. 0' E. Pop. (1904) 16,053,
+mostly Swedes. Large vessels cannot enter its roadstead, and stop at
+Rafso. The town has shipbuilding wharves, machine works, and several
+tanneries and brick-works, and has a total trade of over 16,000,000
+marks, the chief export being timber.
+
+
+
+
+BJORNSON, BJORNSTJERNE (1832-1910), Norwegian poet, novelist and
+dramatist, was born on the 8th of December 1832 at the farmstead of
+Bjorngen, in Kvikne, in Osterdal, Norway. In 1837 his father, who had been
+pastor of Kvikne, was transferred to the parish of Noesset, in Romsdal; in
+this romantic district the childhood of Bjornson was spent. After some
+teaching at the neighbouring town of Molde, he was sent at the age of
+seventeen to a well-known school in Christiania to study for the
+university; his instinct for poetry was already awakened, and indeed he
+had written verses from his eleventh year. He matriculated at the
+university of Christiania in 1852, and soon began to work as a journalist,
+especially as a dramatic critic. In 1857 appeared _Synnove Solbakken_, the
+first of Bjornson's peasant-novels; in 1858 this was followed by _Arne_,
+in 1860 by _A Happy Boy_, and in 1868 by _The Fisher Maiden_. These are
+the most important specimens of his _bonde-fortaellinger_ or
+peasant-tales--a section of his literary work which has made a profound
+impression in his own country, and has made him popular throughout the
+world. Two of the tales, _Arne_ and _Synnove Solbakken_, offer perhaps
+finer examples of the pure peasant-story than are to be found elsewhere in
+literature.
+
+Bjornson was anxious "to create a new saga in the light of the peasant,"
+as he put it, and he thought this should be done, not merely in prose
+fiction, but in national dramas or _folke-stykker_. The earliest of
+these was a one-act piece the scene of which is laid in the 12th
+century, _Between the Battles_, was written in 1855, but not produced
+until 1857. He was especially influenced at this time by the study of
+Baggesen and Ochlenschlager, during a visit to Copenhagen 1856-1857.
+_Between the Battles_ was followed by _Lame Hulda_ in 1858, and _King
+Sverre_ in 1861. All these efforts, however, were far excelled by the
+splendid trilogy of _Sigurd the Bastard_, which Bjornson issued in 1862.
+This raised him to the front rank among the younger poets of Europe. His
+_Sigurd the Crusader_ should be added to the category of these heroic
+plays, although it was not printed until 1872.
+
+At the close of 1857 Bjornson had been appointed director of the theatre
+at Bergen, a post which he held, with much journalistic work, for two
+years, when he returned to the capital. From 1860 to 1863 he travelled
+widely throughout Europe. Early in 1865 he undertook the management of
+the Christiania theatre, and brought out his popular comedy of _The
+Newly Married_ and his romantic tragedy of _Mary Stuart in Scotland_.
+Although Bjornson has introduced into his novels and plays songs of
+extraordinary beauty, he was never a very copious writer of verse; in
+1870 he published his _Poems and Songs_ and the epic cycle called
+_Arnljot Gelline_; the latter volume contains the magnificent ode called
+"Bergliot," Bjornson's finest contribution to lyrical poetry. Between
+1864 and 1874, in the very prime of life, Bjornson displayed a
+slackening of the intellectual forces very remarkable in a man of his
+energy; he was indeed during these years mainly occupied with politics,
+and with his business as a theatrical manager. This was the period of
+Bjornson's most fiery propaganda as a radical agitator. In 1871 he began
+to supplement his journalistic work in this direction by delivering
+lectures over the length and breadth of the northern countries. He
+possessed to a surprising degree the arts of the orator, combined with a
+magnificent physical prestige. From 1873 to 1876 Bjornson was absent
+from Norway, and in the peace of voluntary exile he recovered his
+imaginative powers. His new departure as a dramatic author began with _A
+Bankruptcy_ and _The Editor_ in 1874, social dramas of an extremely
+modern and realistic cast.
+
+The poet now settled on his estate of Aulestad in Gausdal. In 1877 he
+published another novel, _Magnhild_--an imperfect production, in which
+his ideas on social questions were seen to be in a state of
+fermentation, and gave expression to his republican sentiments in the
+polemical play called _The King_, to a later edition of which he
+prefixed an essay on "Intellectual Freedom," in further explanation of
+his position. _Captain Mansana_, an episode of the war of Italian
+independence, belongs to 1878. Extremely anxious to obtain a full
+success on the stage, Bjornson concentrated his powers on a drama of
+social life, _Leonardo_ (1879), which raised a violent controversy. A
+satirical play, _The New System_, was produced a few weeks later.
+Although these plays of Bjornson's second period were greatly discussed,
+none of them (except _A Bankruptcy_) pleased on the boards. When once
+more he produced a social drama, _A Gauntlet_, in 1883, he was unable to
+persuade any manager to stage it, except in a modified form, though this
+play gives the full measure of his power as a dramatist. In the autumn
+of the same year, Bjornson published a mystical or symbolic drama
+_Beyond our Powers_, dealing with the abnormal features of religious
+excitement with extraordinary force; this was not acted until 1899, when
+it achieved a great success.
+
+Meanwhile, Bjornson's political attitude had brought upon him a charge
+of high treason, and he took refuge for a time in Germany, returning to
+Norway in 1882. Convinced that the theatre was practically closed to
+him, he turned back to the novel, and published in 1884, _Flags are
+Flying in Town and Port_, embodying his theories on heredity and
+education. In 1889 he printed another long and still more remarkable
+novel, _In God's Way_, which is chiefly concerned with the same
+problems. The same year saw the publication of a comedy, _Geography and
+Love_, which continues to be played with success. A number of short
+stories, of a more or less didactic character, dealing with startling
+points of emotional experience, were collected in 1894; among them those
+which produced the greatest sensation were _Dust, Mother's Hands_, and
+_Absalom's Hair_. Later plays were a political tragedy called _Paul
+Lange and Tora Parsberg_ (1898), a second part of _Beyond our Powers_
+(1895), _Laboremus_ (1901), _At Storhove_ (1902), and _Daglannet_
+(1904). In 1899, at the opening of the National theatre, Bjornson
+received an ovation, and his saga-drama of _Sigurd the Crusader_ was
+performed.
+
+A subject which interested him greatly, and on which he occupied his
+indefatigable pen, was the question of the _bonde-maal_, the adopting of
+a national language for Norway distinct from the _dansk-norsk_
+(Dano-Norwegian), in which her literature has hitherto been written.
+Bjornson's strong and sometimes rather narrow patriotism did not blind
+him to the fatal folly of such a proposal, and his lectures and
+pamphlets against the _maal-straev_ in its extreme form did more than
+anything else to save the language in this dangerous moment. Bjornson
+was one of the original members of the Nobel committee, and was
+re-elected in 1900. In 1903 he was awarded the Nobel prize for
+literature. Bjornson had done as much as any other man to rouse
+Norwegian national feeling, but in 1903, on the verge of the rupture
+between Norway and Sweden, he preached conciliation and moderation to
+the Norwegians. He was an eloquent advocate of Pan-Germanism, and,
+writing to the _Figaro_ in 1905, he outlined a Pan-Germanic alliance of
+northern Europe and North America. He died on the 26th of April 1910.
+
+  See Bjornson's _Samlede Vaerker_ (Copenhagen, 1900-1902, 11 vols.);
+  _The Novels of Bjornstjerne Bjornson_ (1894, &c.), edited by Edmund
+  Gosse; G. Brandes, _Critical Studies_ (1899); E. Tissot, _Le drame
+  norvegien_ (1893); C.D. af Wirsen, _Kritiker_ (1901); Chr. Collin,
+  _Bjornstjerne Bjornson_ (2 vols., German ed., 1903), the most complete
+  biography and criticism at present available; and B. Halvorsen, _Norsk
+  Forfatter Lexikon_ (1885).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+BLACHFORD, FREDERIC ROGERS, BARON (1811-1889), British civil servant,
+eldest son of Sir Frederick Leman Rogers, 7th Bart. (whom he succeeded
+in the baronetcy in 1851), was born in London on the 31st of January
+1811. He was educated at Eton and Oriel college, Oxford, where he had a
+brilliant career, winning the Craven University scholarship, and taking
+a double first-class in classics and mathematics. He became a fellow of
+Oriel (1833), and won the Vinerian scholarship (1834), and fellowship
+(1840). He was called to the bar in 1837, but never practised. At school
+and at Oxford he was a contemporary of W.E. Gladstone, and at Oxford he
+began a lifelong friendship with J.H. Newman and R.W. Church; his
+classical and literary tastes, and his combination of liberalism in
+politics with High Church views in religion, together with his good
+social position and interesting character, made him an admired member of
+their circles. For two or three years (1841-1844) he wrote for _The
+Times_, and he helped to found _The Guardian_ in 1846; he also did a
+good deal to assist the Tractarian movement. But he eventually settled
+down to the life of a government official. He began in 1844 as registrar
+of joint-stock companies, and in 1846 became commissioner of lands and
+emigration. Between 1857 and 1859 he was engaged in government missions
+abroad, connected with colonial questions, and in 1860 he was appointed
+permanent under-secretary of state for the colonies. Sir Frederic Rogers
+was the guiding spirit of the colonial office under six successive
+secretaries of state, and on his retirement in 1871 was raised to the
+peerage as Baron Blachford of Wisdome, a title taken from his place in
+Devonshire. He died on the 21st of November 1889.
+
+  A volume of his letters, edited by G.E. Marindin (1896), contains an
+  interesting Life, partly autobiographical.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874), Scottish publisher, founder of the firm of A. &
+C. Black, the son of a builder, was born in Edinburgh on the 20th of
+February 1784. After serving his apprenticeship to the bookselling trade
+in Edinburgh and London, he began business for himself in Edinburgh in
+1808. By 1826 he was recognized as one of the principal booksellers in
+the city; and a few years later he was joined in business by his nephew
+Charles. The two most important events connected with the history of the
+firm were the publication of the 7th, 8th and 9th editions of the
+_Encyclopaedia Brittannica_, and the purchase of the stock and copyright
+of the Waverley Novels. The copyright of the _Encyclopaedia_ passed into
+the hands of Adam Black and a few friends in 1827. In 1851 the firm
+bought the copyright of the Waverley Novels for L27,000; and in 1861
+they became the proprietors of De Quincey's works. Adam Black was twice
+lord provost of Edinburgh, and represented the city in parliament from
+1856 to 1865. He retired from business in 1865, and died on the 24th of
+January 1874. He was succeeded by his sons, who removed their business
+in 1895 to London. There is a bronze statue of Adam Black in East
+Princes Street Gardens, Edinburgh.
+
+  See _Memoirs of Adam Black_, edited by Alexander Nicholson (2nd ed.,
+  Edinburgh, 1885).
+
+
+
+
+BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810-1883), American lawyer and statesman, was
+born in Stony Creek township, Somerset county, Pennsylvania, on the 10th
+of January 1810. He was largely self-educated, and before he was of age
+was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar. He gradually became one of the
+leading American lawyers, and in 1851-1857 was a member of the supreme
+court of Pennsylvania (chief-justice 1851-1854). In 1857 he entered
+President Buchanan's cabinet as attorney-general of the United States.
+In this capacity he successfully contested the validity of the
+"California land claims"--claims to about 19,000 sq. m. of land,
+fraudulently alleged to have been granted to land-grabbers and others by
+the Mexican government prior to the close of the Mexican War. From the
+17th of December 1860 to the 4th of March 1861 he was secretary of
+state. Perhaps the most influential of President Buchanan's official
+advisers, he denied the constitutionality of secession, and urged that
+Fort Sumter be properly reinforced and defended. "For ... the vigorous
+assertion at last in word and in deed that the United States is a
+nation," says James Ford Rhodes, "for pointing out the way in which the
+authority of the Federal government might be exercised without
+infringing on the rights of the states, the gratitude of the American
+people is due to Jeremiah S. Black." He became reporter to the Supreme
+Court of the United States in 1861, but after publishing the reports for
+the years 1861 and 1862 he resigned, and devoted himself almost
+exclusively to his private practice, appearing in such important cases
+before the Supreme Court as the one known as _Ex-Parte Milligan_, in
+which he ably defended the right of trial by jury, the McCardle case and
+the _United States_ v. _Blyew et al_. After the Civil War he vigorously
+opposed the Congressional plan of reconstructing the late Confederate
+states, and himself drafted the message of President Johnson, vetoing
+the Reconstruction Act of the 2nd of March 1867. Black was also for a
+short time counsel for President Andrew Johnson, in his trial on the
+article of impeachment, before the United States Senate, and for William
+W. Belknap (1829-1890), secretary of war from 1869 to 1876, who in 1876
+was impeached on a charge of corruption; and with others he represented
+Samuel J. Tilden during the contest for the presidency between Tilden
+and Hayes (see ELECTORAL COMMISSION). He died at Brockie, Pennsylvania,
+on the 19th of August 1883.
+
+  See _Essays and Speeches of Jeremiah S. Black, with a Biographical
+  Sketch_ (New York, 1885), by his son, C.F. Black.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK, JOSEPH (1728-1799), Scottish chemist and physicist, was born in
+1728 at Bordeaux, where his father--a native of Belfast but of Scottish
+descent--was engaged in the wine trade. At the age of twelve he was sent
+to a grammar school in Belfast, whence he removed in 1746 to study
+medicine in Glasgow. There he had William Cullen for his instructor in
+chemistry, and the relation between the two soon became that of
+professor and assistant rather than of master and pupil. The action of
+lithontriptic medicines, especially lime-water, was one of the questions
+of the day, and through his investigations of this subject Black was led
+to the chemical discoveries associated with his name. The causticity of
+alkaline bodies was explained at that time as depending on the presence
+in them of the principle of fire, "phlogiston"; quicklime, for instance,
+was chalk which had taken up phlogiston, and when mild alkalis such as
+sodium or potassium carbonate were causticized by its aid, the
+phlogiston was supposed to pass from it to them. Black showed that on
+the contrary causticization meant the loss of something, as proved by
+loss of weight; and this something he found to be an "air," which,
+because it was fixed in the substance before it was causticized, he
+spoke of as "fixed air." Taking _magnesia alba_, which he distinguished
+from limestone with which it had previously been confused, he showed
+that on being heated it lost weight owing to the escape of this fixed
+air (named carbonic acid by Lavoisier in 1781), and that the weight was
+regained when the calcined product was made to reabsorb the fixed air
+with which it had parted. These investigations, by which Black not only
+gave a great impetus to the chemistry of gases by clearly indicating the
+existence of a gas distinct from common air, but also anticipated
+Lavoisier and modern chemistry by his appeal to the balance, were
+described in the thesis _De humore acido a cibis orto, et magnesia
+alba_, which he presented for his doctor's degree in 1754; and a fuller
+account of them was read before the Medical Society of Edinburgh in June
+1753, and published in the following year as _Experiments upon magnesia,
+quicklime and some other alkaline substances_.
+
+It is curious that Black left to others the detailed study of this
+"fixed air" he had discovered. Probably the explanation is pressure of
+other work. In 1756 he succeeded Cullen as lecturer in chemistry at
+Glasgow, and was also appointed professor of anatomy, though that post
+he was glad to exchange for the chair of medicine. The preparation of
+lectures thus took up much of his time, and he was also gaining an
+extensive practice as a physician. Moreover, his attention was engaged
+on studies which ultimately led to his doctrine of latent heat. He
+noticed that when ice melts it takes up a quantity of heat without
+undergoing any change of temperature, and he argued that this heat,
+which as was usual in his time he looked upon as a subtle fluid, must
+have combined with the particles of ice and thus become latent in its
+substance. This hypothesis he verified quantitatively by experiments,
+performed at the end of 1761. In 1764, with the aid of his assistant,
+William Irvine (1743-1787), he further measured the latent heat of
+steam, though not very accurately. This doctrine of latent heat he
+taught in his lectures from 1761 onwards, and in April 1762 he described
+his work to a literary society in Glasgow. But he never published any
+detailed account of it, so that others, such as J.A. Deluc, were able to
+claim the credit of his results. In the course of his inquiries he also
+noticed that different bodies in equal masses require different amounts
+of heat to raise them to the same temperature, and so founded the
+doctrine of specific heats; he also showed that equal additions or
+abstractions of heat produced equal variations of bulk in the liquid of
+his thermometers. In 1766 he succeeded Cullen in the chair of chemistry
+in Edinburgh, where he devoted practically all his time to the
+preparation of his lectures. Never very robust, his health gradually
+became weaker and ultimately he was reduced to the condition of a
+valetudinarian. In 1795 he received the aid of a coadjutor in his
+professorship, and two years later he lectured for the last time. He
+died in Edinburgh on the 6th of December 1799 (not on the 26th of
+November as stated in Robison's life).
+
+As a scientific investigator, Black was conspicuous for the carefulness
+of his work and his caution in drawing conclusions. Holding that
+chemistry had not attained the rank of a science--his lectures dealt
+with the "effects of heat and mixture"--he had an almost morbid horror
+of hasty generalization or of anything that had the pretensions of a
+fully fledged system. This mental attitude, combined with a certain lack
+of initiative and the weakness of his health, probably prevented him
+from doing full justice to his splendid powers of experimental research.
+Apart from the work already mentioned he published only two papers
+during his life-time--"The supposed effect of boiling on water, in
+disposing it to freeze more readily" (_Phil. Trans._, 1775), and "An
+analysis of the waters of the hot springs in Iceland" (_Trans. Roy. Soc.
+Ed._, 1794).
+
+  After his death his lectures were written out from his own notes,
+  supplemented by those of some of his pupils, and published with a
+  biographical preface by his friend and colleague, Professor John
+  Robison (1739-1805), in 1803 as _Lectures on the Elements of
+  Chemistry, delivered in the University of Edinburgh_.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898), British novelist, was born at Glasgow on the
+9th of November 1841. His early ambition was to be a painter, but he
+made no way, and soon had recourse to journalism for a living. He was at
+first employed in newspaper offices in Glasgow, but obtained a post on
+the _Morning Star_ in London, and at once proved himself a descriptive
+writer of exceptional vivacity. During the war between Prussia and
+Austria in 1866 he represented the _Morning Star_ at the front, and was
+taken prisoner. This paper shortly afterwards failed, and Black joined
+the editorial staff of the _Daily News_. He also edited the _Examiner_,
+at a time when that periodical was already moribund. After his first
+success in fiction, he gave up journalism, and devoted himself entirely
+to the production of novels. For nearly thirty years he was successful
+in retaining the popular favour. He died at Brighton on the 10th of
+December 1898, without having experienced any of that reaction of the
+public taste which so often follows upon conspicuous successes in
+fiction. Black's first novel, _James Merle_, published in 1864, was a
+complete failure; his second, _Love or Marraige_ (1868), attracted but
+very slight attention. _In Silk Attire_ (1869) and _Kilmeny_ (1870)
+marked a great advance on his first work, but in 1871 _A Daughter of
+Heth_ suddenly raised him to the height of popularity, and he followed
+up this success by a string of favourites. Among the best of his books
+are _The Strange Adventures of a Phaeton_ (1872); _A Princess of Thule_
+(1874); _Madcap Violet_ (1876); _Macleod of Dare_ (1878); _White Wings_
+(1880); _Sunrise_ (1880); _Shandon Bells_ (1883); _Judith Shakespeare_
+(1884); _White Heather_ (1885); _Donald Ross of Heimra_ (1891);
+_Highland Cousins_ (1894); and _Wild Eelin_ (1898). Black was a
+thoroughgoing sportsman, particularly fond of fishing and yachting, and
+his best stories are those which are laid amid the breezy mountains of
+his native land, or upon the deck of a yacht at sea off its wild coast.
+His descriptions of such scenery are simple and picturesque. He was a
+word-painter rather than a student of human nature. His women are
+stronger than his men, and among them are many wayward and lovable
+creatures; but subtlety of intuition plays no part in his
+characterization. Black also contributed a life of Oliver Goldsmith to
+the _English Men of Letters_ series.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK APE, a sooty, black, short-tailed, and long-faced representative
+of the macaques, inhabiting the island of Celebes, and generally
+regarded as forming a genus by itself, under the name of _Cynopithecus
+niger_, but sometimes relegated to the rank of a subgenus of _Macacus_.
+The nostrils open obliquely at some distance from the end of the snout,
+and the head carries a crest of long hair. There are several local
+races, one of which was long regarded as a separate species under the
+name of the Moor macaque, _Macacus maurus_. (See PRIMATES.)
+
+
+
+
+BLACKBALL, a token used for voting by ballot against the election of a
+candidate for membership of a club or other association. Formerly white
+and black balls about the size of pigeons' eggs were used respectively
+to represent votes for and against a candidate for such election; and
+although this method is now generally obsolete, the term "blackball"
+survives both as noun and verb. The rules of most clubs provide that a
+stated proportion of "blackballs" shall exclude candidates proposed for
+election, and the candidates so excluded are said to have been
+"blackballed"; but the ballot (q.v.) is now usually conducted by a
+method in which the favourable and adverse votes are not distinguished
+by different coloured balls at all. Either voting papers are employed,
+or balls--of which the colour has no significance--are cast into
+different compartments of a ballot-box according as they are favourable
+or adverse to the candidate.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKBERRY, or BRAMBLE, known botanically as _Rubus fruticosus_ (natural
+order Rosaceac), a native of the north temperate region of the Old
+World, and abundant in the British Isles as a copse and hedge-plant. It
+is characterized by its prickly stem, leaves with usually three or five
+ovate, coarsely toothed stalked leaflets, many of which persist through
+the winter, white or pink flowers in terminal clusters, and black or
+red-purple fruits, each consisting of numerous succulent drupels crowded
+on a dry conical receptacle. It is a most variable plant, exhibiting
+many more or less distinct forms which are regarded by different
+authorities as sub-species or species. In America several forms of the
+native blackberry, _Rubus nigrobaccus_ (formerly known as _R.
+villosus_), are widely cultivated; it is described as one of the most
+important and profitable of bush-fruits.
+
+  For details see F.W. Card in L.H. Bailey's _Cyclopedia of American
+  Horticulture_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+BLACKBIRD (_Turdus merula_), the name commonly given to a well-known
+British bird of the _Turdidae_ family, for which the ancient name was
+ousel (q.v.), Anglo-Saxon _osle_, equivalent of the German _Amsel_, a
+form of the word found in several old English books. The plumage of the
+male is of a uniform black colour, that of the female various shades of
+brown, while the bill of the male, especially during the breeding
+season, is of a bright gamboge yellow. The blackbird is of a shy and
+restless disposition, courting concealment, and rarely seen in flocks,
+or otherwise than singly or in pairs, and taking flight when startled
+with a sharp shrill cry. It builds its nest in March, or early in April,
+in thick bushes or in ivy-clad trees, and usually rears at least two
+broods each season. The nest is a neat structure of coarse grass and
+moss, mixed with earth, and plastered internally with mud, and here the
+female lays from four to six eggs of a blue colour speckled with brown.
+The blackbird feeds chiefly on fruits, worms, the larvae of insects and
+snails, extracting the last from their shells by dexterously chipping
+them on stones; and though it is generally regarded as an enemy of the
+garden, it is probable that the amount of damage by it to the fruit is
+largely compensated for by its undoubted services as a vermin-killer.
+The notes of the blackbird are rich and full, but monotonous as compared
+with those of the song-thrush. Like many other singing birds it is, in
+the wild state, a mocking-bird, having been heard to imitate the song
+of the nightingale, the crowing of a cock, and even the cackling of a
+hen. In confinement it can be taught to whistle a variety of tunes, and
+even to imitate the human voice.
+
+The blackbird is found in every country of Europe, even
+breeding--although rarely--beyond the arctic circle, and in eastern Asia
+as well as in North Africa and the Atlantic islands. In most parts of
+its range it is migratory, and in Britain every autumn its numbers
+receive considerable accession from passing visitors. Allied species
+inhabit most parts of the world, excepting Africa south of the Sahara,
+New Zealand and Australia proper, and North America. In some of these
+the legs as well as the bill are yellow or orange; and in a few both
+sexes are glossy black. The ring-ousel, _Turdus torquatus_, has a dark
+bill and conspicuous white gorget, whence its name. It is rarer and more
+local than the common blackbird, and occurs in England only as a
+temporary spring and autumn visitor.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK BUCK (_Antilope cervicapra_), the Indian Antelope, the sole
+species of its genus. This antelope, widely distributed in India, with
+the exception of Ceylon and the region east of the Bay of Bengal, stands
+about 32 in. high at the shoulder; the general hue is brown deepening
+with age to black; chest, belly and inner sides of limbs pure white, as
+are the muzzle and chin, and an area round the eyes. The horns are long,
+ringed, and form spirals with from three to five turns. The doe is
+smaller in size, yellowish-fawn above, and this hue obtains also in
+young males. These antelopes frequent grassy districts and are usually
+found in herds. Coursing black-buck with the cheeta (q.v.) is a
+favourite Indian sport.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKBURN, COLIN BLACKBURN, BARON (1813-1896), British judge, was born
+in Selkirkshire in 1813, and educated at Eton and at Trinity College,
+Cambridge, taking high mathematical honours in 1835. He was called to
+the bar in 1838, and went the northern circuit. His progress was at
+first slow, and he employed himself in reporting and editing, with T.F.
+Ellis, eight volumes of the highly-esteemed Ellis and Blackburn reports.
+His deficiency in all the more brilliant qualities of the advocate
+almost confined his practice to commercial cases, in which he obtained
+considerable employment in his circuit; but he continued to belong to
+the outside bar, and was so little known to the legal world that his
+promotion to a puisne judgeship in the court of queen's bench in 1859
+was at first ascribed to Lord Campbell's partiality for his countrymen,
+but Lord Lyndhurst, Lord Wensleydale and Lord Cranworth came forward to
+defend the appointment. Blackburn himself is said to have thought that a
+county court judgeship was about to be offered him, which he had
+resolved to decline. He soon proved himself one of the soundest lawyers
+on the bench, and when he was promoted to the court of appeal in 1876
+was considered the highest authority on common law. In 1876 he was made
+a lord of appeal and a life peer. Both in this capacity and as judge of
+the queen's bench he delivered many judgments of the highest importance,
+and no decisions have been received with greater respect. In 1886 he was
+appointed a member of the commission charged to prepare a digest of the
+criminal law, but retired on account of indisposition in the following
+year. He died at his country residence, Doonholm in Ayrshire, on the 8th
+of January 1896. He was the author of a valuable work on the _Law of
+Sales_.
+
+  See _The Times_, 10th of January 1896; E. Manson, _Builders of our
+  Law_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+BLACKBURN, JONATHAN (c. 1700-c. 1765), American portrait painter, was
+born in Connecticut. He seems to have been the son of a painter, and to
+have had a studio in Boston in 1750-1765; among his patrons were many
+important early American families, including the Apthorps, Amorys,
+Bulfinches, Lowells, Ewings, Saltonstalls, Winthrops, Winslows and
+Otises of Boston. Some of his portraits are in the possession of the
+public library of Lexington, Massachusetts, and of the Massachusetts
+Historical Society, but most of them are privately owned and are
+scattered over the country, the majority being in Boston. John Singleton
+Copley was his pupil, and it is said that he finally left his studio in
+Boston, through jealousy of Copley's superior success. He was a good
+portrait painter, and some of his pictures were long attributed to
+Copley.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKBURN, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Lancashire,
+England, 210 m. N.W. by N. from London, and 24-1/2 N.N.W. from
+Manchester, served by the Lancashire & Yorkshire and the London & North
+Western railways, with several lines from all parts of the county. Pop.
+(1891) 120,064; (1901) 127,626. It lies in the valley of a stream called
+in early times the Blackeburn, but now known as the Brook. The hills in
+the vicinity rise to some 900 ft., and among English manufacturing towns
+Blackburn ranks high in beauty of situation. Besides numerous churches
+and chapels the public buildings comprise a large town hall (1856),
+market house, exchange, county court, municipal offices, chamber of
+commerce, free library, and, outside the town, an infirmary. There are
+an Elizabethan grammar school, in modern buildings (1884) and an
+excellent technical school. The Corporation Park and Queen's Park are
+well laid out, and contain ornamental waters. There is an efficient
+tramway service, connecting the town with Darwen, 5 m. south. The cotton
+industry employs thousands of operatives, the iron trade is also very
+considerable, and many are engaged in the making of machines; but a
+former woollen manufacture is almost extinct. Blackburn's speciality in
+the cotton industry is weaving. Coal, lime and building stone are
+abundant in the neighbourhood. Blackburn received a charter of
+incorporation in 1851, and is governed by a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42
+councillors. The county borough was created in 1888. The parliamentary
+borough, which returns two members, is coextensive with the municipal,
+and lies between the Accrington and Darwen divisions of the county.
+Area, 7432 acres.
+
+Blackburn is of considerable antiquity; indeed, the 6th century is
+allocated to the original foundation of a church on the site of the
+present parish church. Of another church on this site Cranmer was rector
+after the Reformation. Blackburn was for some time the chief town of a
+district called Blackburnshire, and as early as the reign of Elizabeth
+ranked as a flourishing market town. About the middle of the 17th
+century it became famous for its "checks," which were afterwards
+superseded by a similar linen-and-cotton fabric known as "Blackburn
+greys." In the 18th century the ability of certain natives of the town
+greatly fostered its cotton industry; thus James Hargreaves here
+probably invented his spinning jenny about 1764, though the operatives,
+fearing a reduction of labour, would have none of it, and forced him to
+quit the town for Nottingham. He was in the employment of Robert Peel,
+grandfather of the prime minister of that name, who here instituted the
+factory system, and as the director of a large business carefully
+fostered the improvement of methods.
+
+  See W.A. Abram, _History of Blackburn_ (Blackburn, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+BLACKBURNE, FRANCIS (1782-1867), lord chancellor of Ireland, was born at
+Great Footstown, Co. Meath, Ireland, on the 11th of November 1782.
+Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, he was called to the English bar in
+1805, and practised with great success on the home circuit. Called to
+the Irish bar in 1822, he vigorously administered the Insurrection Act
+in Limerick for two years, effectually restoring order in the district.
+In 1826 he became a serjeant-at-law, and in 1830, and again, in 1841,
+was attorney-general for Ireland. In 1842 he became master of the rolls
+in Ireland, in 1846 chief-justice of the queen's bench, and in 1852 (and
+again in 1866) lord chancellor of Ireland. In 1856 he was made a lord
+justice of appeal in Ireland. He is remembered as having prosecuted
+O'Connell and presided at the trial of Smith O'Brien. He died on the
+17th of September 1867.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKCOCK (_Tetrao tetrix_), the English name given to a bird of the
+family _Tetraonidae_ or grouse, the female of which is known as the grey
+hen and the young as poults. In size and plumage the two sexes offer a
+striking contrast, the male weighing about 4 lb., its plumage for the
+most part of a rich glossy black shot with blue and purple, the lateral
+tail feathers curved outwards so as to form, when raised, a fan-like
+crescent, and the eyebrows destitute of feathers and of a bright
+vermilion red. The female, on the other hand, weighs only 2 lb., its
+plumage is of a russet brown colour irregularly barred with black, and
+its tail feathers are but slightly forked. The males are polygamous, and
+during autumn and winter associate together, feeding in flocks apart
+from the females; but with the approach of spring they separate, each
+selecting a locality for itself, from which it drives off all intruders,
+and where morning and evening it seeks to attract the other sex by a
+display of its beautiful plumage, which at this season attains its
+greatest perfection, and by a peculiar cry, which Selby describes as "a
+crowing note, and another similar to the noise made by the whetting of a
+scythe." The nest, composed of a few stalks of grass, is built on the
+ground, usually beneath the shadow of a low bush or a tuft of tall
+grass, and here the female lays from six to ten eggs of a dirty-yellow
+colour speckled with dark brown. The blackcock then rejoins his male
+associates, and the female is left to perform the labours of hatching
+and rearing her young brood. The plumage of both sexes is at first like
+that of the female, but after moulting the young males gradually assume
+the more brilliant plumage of their sex. There are also many cases on
+record, and specimens may be seen in the principal museums, of old
+female birds assuming, to a greater or less extent, the plumage of the
+male. The blackcock is very generally distributed over the highland
+districts of northern and central Europe, and in some parts of Asia. It
+is found on the principal heaths in the south of England, but is
+specially abundant in the Highlands of Scotland.
+
+[Illustration: Blackcock. ]
+
+
+
+
+BLACK COUNTRY, THE, a name commonly applied to a district lying
+principally in S. Staffordshire, but extending into Worcestershire and
+Warwickshire, England. This is one of the chief manufacturing centres in
+the United Kingdom, and the name arises from the effect of numerous
+collieries and furnaces, which darken the face of the district, the
+buildings and the atmosphere. Coal, ironstone and clay are mined in
+close proximity, and every sort of iron and steel goods is produced. The
+district extends 15 m. N.W. from Birmingham, and includes Smethwick,
+West Bromwich, Dudley, Oldbury, Sedgley, Tipton, Bilston, Wednesbury,
+Wolverhampton and Walsall as its most important centres. The ceaseless
+activity of the Black Country is most readily realized when it is
+traversed, or viewed from such an elevation as Dudley Castle Hill, at
+night, when the glare of furnaces appears in every direction. The
+district is served by numerous branches of the Great Western, London &
+North Western, and Midland railways, and is intersected by canals, which
+carry a heavy traffic, and in some places are made to surmount physical
+obstacles with remarkable engineering skill, as in the case of the
+Castle Hill tunnels at Dudley. Among the numerous branches of industry
+there are several characteristic of certain individual centres. Thus,
+locks are a specialty at Wolverhampton and Willenhall, and keys at
+Wednesfield; horses' bits, harness-fittings and saddlery at Walsall and
+Bloxwich, anchors and cables at Tipton, glass at Smethwick, and nails
+and chains at Cradley.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK DROP, in astronomy, an apparent distortion of the planet Mercury
+or Venus at the time of internal contact with the limb of the sun at the
+beginning or end of a transit. It has been in the past a source of much
+perplexity to observers of transits, but is now understood to be a
+result of irradiation, produced by the atmosphere or by the aberration
+of the telescope.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKFOOT (_Siksika_), a tribe and confederacy of North American Indians
+of Algonquian stock. The name is explained as an allusion to their
+leggings being observed by the whites to have become blackened by
+marching over the freshly burned prairie. Their range was around the
+headwaters of the Missouri, from the Yellowstone northward to the North
+Saskatchewan and westward to the Rockies. The confederacy consisted of
+three tribes, the Blackfoot or Siksika proper, the Kaina and the Piegan.
+During the early years of the 19th century the Blackfoots were one of
+the strongest Indian confederacies of the north-west, numbering some
+40,000. At the beginning of the 20th century there were about 5000, some
+in Montana and some in Canada.
+
+  See Jean L'Heureux, _Customs and Religious Ideas of Blackfoot Indians
+  in J.A.I._, vol. xv. (1886); G.B. Grinnell, _Blackfoot Lodge Tales_
+  (1892); G. Catlin, _North American Indians_ (1876); _Handbook of
+  American Indians_ (Washington, 1907), under "Siksika."
+
+
+
+
+BLACK FOREST (Ger. _Schwarzwald_; the _Silva Marciana_ and _Abnoba_ of
+the Romans), a mountainous district of south-west Germany, having an
+area of 1844 sq. m., of which about two-thirds lie in the grand duchy of
+Baden and the remaining third in the kingdom of Wurttemberg. Bounded on
+the south and west by the valley of the Rhine, to which its declivities
+abruptly descend, and running parallel to, and forming the counterpart
+of the Vosges beyond, it slopes more gently down to the valley of the
+Neckar in the north and to that of the Nagold (a tributary of the
+Neckar) on the north-east. Its total length is 100 m., and its breadth
+varies from 36 m. in the south to 21 in the centre and 13 in the north.
+The deep valley of the Kinzig divides it laterally into halves, of which
+the southern, with an average elevation of 3000 ft., is the wilder and
+contains the loftiest peaks, which again mostly lie towards the western
+side. Among them are the Feldberg (4898 ft.), the Herzogenhorn (4600),
+the Blossling (4260) and the Blauen (3820). The northern half has an
+average height of 2000 ft. On the east side are several lakes, and here
+the majority of the streams take their rise. The configuration of the
+hills is mainly conical and the geological formation consists of gneiss,
+granite (in the south) and red sandstone. The district is poor in
+minerals; the yield of silver and copper has almost ceased, but there
+are workable coal seams near Offenburg, where the Kinzig debouches on
+the plain. The climate in the higher districts is raw and the produce is
+mostly confined to hardy cereals, such as oats. But the valleys,
+especially those on the western side, are warm and healthy, enclose good
+pasture land and furnish fruits and wine in rich profusion. They are
+clothed up to a height of about 2000 ft. with luxuriant woods of oak and
+beech, and above these again and up to an elevation of 4000 ft.,
+surrounding the hills with a dense dark belt, are the forests of fir
+which have given the name to the district. The summits of the highest
+peaks are bare, but even on them snow seldom lies throughout the summer.
+
+The Black Forest produces excellent timber, which is partly sawn in the
+valleys and partly exported down the Rhine in logs. Among other
+industries are the manufactures of watches, clocks, toys and musical
+instruments. There are numerous mineral springs, and among the watering
+places Baden-Baden and Wildbad are famous. The towns of Freiburg,
+Rastatt, Offenburg and Lahr, which lie under the western declivities,
+are the chief centres for the productions of the interior.
+
+The Black Forest is a favourite tourist resort and is opened up by
+numerous railways. In addition to the main lines in the valleys of the
+Rhine and Neckar, which are connected with the towns lying on its
+fringe, the district is intersected by the Schwarzwaldbahn from
+Offenburg to Singen, from which various small local lines ramify.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK HAWK [Ma'katawimesheka'ka, "Black Sparrow Hawk"], (1767-1838),
+American Indian warrior of the Sauk and Fox tribes, was born at the Sauk
+village on Rock river, near the Mississippi, in 1767. He was a member of
+the Thunder gens of the Sauk tribe, and, though neither an hereditary
+nor an elected chief, was for some time the recognized war leader of the
+Sauk and Foxes. From his youth he was intensely bloodthirsty and hostile
+to the Americans. Immediately after the acquisition of "Louisiana," the
+Federal government took steps for the removal of the Sauk and Foxes, who
+had always been a disturbing element among the north-western Indians, to
+the west bank of the Mississippi river. As early as 1804, by a treaty
+signed at St Louis on the 3rd of November, they agreed to the removal in
+return for an annuity of $1000. British influences were still strong in
+the upper Mississippi valley and undoubtedly led Black Hawk and the
+chiefs of the Sauk and Fox confederacy to repudiate this agreement of
+1804, and subsequently to enter into the conspiracy of Tecumseh and take
+part with the British in the war of 1812. The treaties of 1815 at
+Portage des Sioux (with the Foxes) and of 1816 at St Louis (with the
+Sauk) substantially renewed that of 1804. That of 1816 was signed by
+Black Hawk himself, who declared, however, when in 1823 Chief Keokuk and
+a majority of the two nations crossed the river, that the consent of the
+chiefs had been obtained by fraud. In 1830 a final treaty was signed at
+Prairie du Chien, by which all title to the lands of the Sauk and Foxes
+east of the Mississippi was ceded to the government, and provision was
+made for the immediate opening of the tract to settlers. Black Hawk,
+leading the party in opposition to Keokuk, at once refused to accede to
+this cession and threatened to retaliate if his lands were invaded. This
+precipitated what is known as the Black Hawk War. Settlers began pouring
+into the new region in the early spring of 1831, and Black Hawk in June
+attacked several villages near the Illinois-Wisconsin line. After
+massacring several isolated families, he was driven off by a force of
+Illinois militia. He renewed his attack in the following year (1832),
+but after several minor engagements, in most of which he was successful,
+he was defeated (21st of July) at Wisconsin Heights on the Wisconsin
+river, opposite Prairie du Sac, by Michigan volunteers under Colonels
+Henry Dodge and James D. Henry, and fleeing westward was again
+decisively defeated on the Mississippi at the mouth of the Bad Axe river
+(on the 1st and 2nd of August) by General Henry Atkinson. His band was
+completely dispersed, and he himself was captured by a party of
+Winnebagoes. At Fort Armstrong, Rock Island, on the 21st of September, a
+treaty was signed, by which a large tract of the Sauk and Fox territory
+was ceded to the United States; and the United States granted to them a
+reservation of 400 sq. m., the payment of $20,000 a year for thirty
+years, and the settlement of certain traders' claims against the tribe.
+With several warriors Black Hawk was sent to Fortress Monroe, Virginia,
+where he was confined for a few weeks; afterwards he was taken by the
+government through the principal Eastern cities. On his release he
+settled in 1837 on the Sauk and Fox reservation on the Des Moines river,
+in Iowa, where he died on the 3rd of October 1838.
+
+  See Frank E. Stevens, _The Black Hawk War_ (Chicago, 1903); R.G.
+  Thwaites, "The Story of the Black Hawk War" in vol. xii. of the
+  _Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin_; J.B.
+  Patterson, _Life of Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak or Black Hawk_ (Boston,
+  1834), purporting to be Black Hawk's story as told by himself; and
+  Benjamin Drake, _Life of Black Hawk_ (Cincinnati, 1846).
+
+
+
+
+BLACKHEATH, an open common in the south-east of London, England, mainly
+in the metropolitan borough of Lewisham. This high-lying tract was
+crossed by the Roman Watling Street from Kent, on a line approximating
+to that of the modern Shooter's Hill; and was a rallying ground of Wat
+Tyler (1381), of Jack Cade (1450), and of Audley, leader of the Cornish
+rebels, defeated and captured here by the troops of Henry VII. in 1497.
+It also witnessed the acclamations of the citizens of London on the
+return of Henry V. from the victory of Agincourt, the formal meeting
+between Henry VIII. and Anne of Cleves, and that between the army of
+the restoration and Charles II. The introduction into England of the
+game of golf is traditionally placed here in 1608, and attributed to
+King James I. and his Scottish followers. The common, the area of which
+is 267 acres, is still used for this and other pastimes. For the
+residential district to which Blackheath gives name, see LEWISHAM.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK HILLS, an isolated group of mountains, covering an area of about
+6000 sq. m. in the adjoining corners of South Dakota and Wyoming, U.S.A.
+They rise on an average some 2000 ft. above their base, the highest
+peak, Harney, having an altitude above the sea of 7216 ft. They are
+drained and in large part enclosed by the North (or Belle Fourche) and
+South forks of the Cheyenne river (at whose junction a fur-trading post
+was established about 1830); and are surrounded by semi-arid, alkaline
+plains lying 3000 to 3500 ft. above the sea. The mass has an elliptical
+shape, its long axis, which extends nearly N.N.W.-S.S.E., being about
+120 m. and its shorter axis about 40 m. long. The hills are formed by a
+short, broad, anticlinal fold, which is flat or nearly so on its summit.
+From this fold the stratified beds have in large part been removed, the
+more recent having been almost entirely eroded from the elevated mass.
+The edges of these are now found encircling the mountains and forming a
+series of fairly continuous rims of hog-backs. The carboniferous and
+older stratified beds still cover the west half of the hills, while from
+the east half they have been removed, exposing the granite. Scientific
+exploration began in 1849, and systematic geological investigation about
+1875. Rich gold placers had already been discovered, and in 1875 the
+Sioux Indians within whose territory the hills had until then been
+included, were removed, and the lands were open to white settlers.
+Subsequently low-grade quartz mines were found and developed, and have
+furnished a notable part of the gold supply of the country (about
+$100,000,000 from 1875 to 1901). The output is to-day relatively small
+in comparison with that of many other fields, but there are one or two
+permanent gold mines of great value working low-grade ore. The silver
+product from 1879 to 1901 was about $4,154,000. Deposits of copper, tin,
+iron and tungsten have been discovered, and a variety of other mineral
+products (graphite, mica, spodumene, coal, petroleum, &c.). In sharp
+contrast to the surrounding plains the climate is subhumid, especially
+in the higher Harney region. There is an abundance of fertile soil and
+magnificent grazing land. A third of the total area is covered with
+forests of pine and other trees, which have for the most part been made
+a forest-reserve by the national government. Jagged crags, sudden
+abysses, magnificent canyons, forests with open parks, undulating hills,
+mountain prairies, freaks of weathering and erosion, and the enclosing
+lines of the successive hog-backs afford scenery of remarkable variety
+and wild beauty. There are several interesting limestone caverns, and
+Sylvan Lake, in the high mountain district, is an important resort.
+
+  See the publications of the United States Geological Survey
+  (especially Professional Paper No. 26, _Economic Resources of the
+  Northern Black Hills_, 1904), and of the South Dakota School of Mines
+  (Bulletin No. 4, containing a history and bibliography of Black Hills
+  investigations); also R.L. Dodge, _The Black Hills: A Minute
+  Description_ ... (New York, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+BLACKIE, JOHN STUART (1809-1895), Scottish scholar and man of letters,
+was born in Glasgow on the 28th of July 1809. He was educated at the New
+Academy and afterwards at the Marischal College, in Aberdeen, where his
+father was manager of the Commerical Bank. After attending classes at
+Edinburgh University (1825-1826), Blackie spent three years at Aberdeen
+as a student of theology. In 1829 he went to Germany, and after studying
+at Gottingen and Berlin (where he came under the influence of Heeren,
+Ottfried Muller, Schleiermacher, Neander and Bockh) he accompanied
+Bunsen to Italy and Rome. The years spent abroad extinguished his former
+wish to enter the Church, and at his father's desire he gave himself up
+to the study of law. He had already, in 1824, been placed in a lawyer's
+office, but only remained there six months. By the time he was admitted
+a member of the Faculty of Advocates (1834) he had acquired a strong
+love of the classics and a taste for letters in general. A translation
+of _Faust_, which he published in 1834, met with considerable success.
+After a year or two of desultory literary work he was (May 1839)
+appointed to the newly-instituted chair of Humanity (Latin) in the
+Marischal College.
+
+Difficulties arose in the way of his installation, owing to the action
+of the Presbytery on his refusing to sign unreservedly the Confession of
+Faith; but these were eventually overcome, and he took up his duties as
+professor in November 1841. In the following year he married. From the
+first his professorial lectures were conspicuous for the unconventional
+enthusiasm with which he endeavoured to revivify the study of the
+classics; and his growing reputation, added to the attention excited by
+a translation of Aeschylus which he published in 1850, led to his
+appointment in 1852 to the professorship of Greek at Edinburgh
+University, in succession to George Dunbar, a post which he continued to
+hold for thirty years. He was somewhat erratic in his methods, but his
+lectures were a triumph of influential personality. A journey to Greece
+in 1853 prompted his essay _On the Living Language of the Greeks_, a
+favourite theme of his, especially in his later years; he adopted for
+himself a modern Greek pronunciation, and before his death he endowed a
+travelling scholarship to enable students to learn Greek at Athens.
+Scottish nationality was another source of enthusiasm with him; and in
+this connexion he displayed real sympathy with Highland home life and
+the grievances of the crofters. The foundation of the Celtic chair at
+Edinburgh University was mainly due to his efforts. In spite of the many
+calls upon his time he produced a considerable amount of literary work,
+usually on classical or Scottish subjects, including some poems and
+songs of no mean order. He died in Edinburgh on the 2nd of March 1895.
+Blackie was a Radical and Scottish nationalist in politics, but of a
+fearlessly independent type; he was one of the "characters" of the
+Edinburgh of the day, and was a well-known figure as he went about in
+his plaid, worn shepherd-wise, wearing a broad-brimmed hat, and carrying
+a big stick. His published works include (besides several volumes of
+verse) _Homer and the Iliad_ (1866), maintaining the unity of the poems;
+_Four Phases of Morals: Socrates, Aristotle, Christianity,
+Utilitarianism_ (1871); _Essay on Self-Culture_ (1874); _Horae
+Hellenicae_ (1874); _The Language and Literature of the Scottish
+Highlands_ (1876); _The Natural History of Atheism_ (1877); _The Wise
+Men of Greece_ (1877); _Lay Sermons_ (1881); _Altavona_ (1882); _The
+Wisdom of Goethe_ (1883); _The Scottish Highlanders and the Land Laws_
+(1885); _Life of Burns_ (1888); _Scottish Song_ (1889); _Essays on
+Subjects of Moral and Social Interest_ (1890); _Christianity and the
+Ideal of Humanity_ (1893). Amongst his political writings may be
+mentioned a pamphlet _On Democracy_ (1867), _On Forms of Government_
+(1867), and _Political Tracts_ (1868).
+
+  See Anna M. Stoddart, _John Stuart Blackie_ (1895); A. Stodart-Walker,
+  _Selected Poems of J.S. Blackie_, with an appreciation (1896); Howard
+  Angus Kennedy, _Professor Blackie_ (1895).
+
+
+
+
+BLACK ISLE, THE, a district in the east of the county of Ross and
+Cromarty, Scotland, bounded N. by Cromarty Firth, E. by Moray Firth, S.
+by Inner Moray Firth (or Firth of Inverness) and Beauly Firth, and W. by
+the river Conon and the parish of Urray. It is a diamond-shaped
+peninsula jutting out from the mainland in a north-easterly direction,
+the longer axis, from Muir of Ord station to the South Sutor at the
+entrance to Cromarty Firth, measuring 20 m., and the shorter, from
+Ferryton Point to Craigton-Point, due north and south, 12 m., and it has
+a coastline of 52 m. Originally called Ardmeanach (Gaelic _ard_, height;
+_manaich_, monk, "the monk's height," from an old religious house on the
+finely-wooded ridge of Mulbuie), it derived its customary name from the
+fact that, since snow does not lie in winter, the promontory looks black
+while the surrounding country is white. Within its limits are comprised
+the parishes of Urquhart and Logie Wester, Killearnan, Knockbain (Gaelic
+_cnoc_, hill; _ban_, white), Avoch (pron. Auch), Rosemarkie, Resolis
+(Gaelic _rudha_ or _ros soluis_, "cape of the light") or Kirkmichael and
+Cromarty. The Black Isle branch of the Highland railway runs from Muir
+of Ord to Fortrose; steamers connect Cromarty with Invergordon and
+Inverness, and Fortrose with Inverness; and there are ferries, on the
+southern coast, at North Kessock (for Inverness) and Chanonry (for Fort
+George), and, on the northern coast, at Alcaig (for Dingwall),
+Newhallpoint (for Invergordon), and Cromarty (for Nigg). The principal
+towns are Cromarty and Fortrose. Rosehaugh, near Avoch, belonged to Sir
+George Mackenzie, founder of the Advocates' library in Edinburgh, who
+earned the sobriquet of "Bloody" from his persecution of the
+Covenanters. Redcastle, on the shore, near Killearnan church, dates from
+1179 and is said to have been the earliest inhabited house in the north
+of Scotland. On the forfeiture of the earldom of Ross it became a royal
+castle (being visited by Queen Mary), and afterwards passed for a period
+into the hands of the Mackenzies of Gairloch. The chief industries are
+agriculture--high farming flourishes owing to the great fertility of the
+peninsula--sandstone-quarrying and fisheries (mainly from Avoch). The
+whole district, though lacking water, is picturesque and was once
+forested. The Mulbuie ridge, the highest point of which is 838 ft. above
+the sea, occupies the centre and is the only elevated ground.
+Antiquarian remains are somewhat numerous, such as forts and cairns in
+Cromarty parish, and stone circles in Urquhart and Logie Wester and
+Knockbain parishes, the latter also containing a hut circle and rock
+fortress.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKLOCK, THOMAS (1721-1791), Scottish poet, the son of a bricklayer,
+was born at Annan, in Dumfriesshire, in 1721. When not quite six months
+old he lost his sight by smallpox, and his career is largely interesting
+as that of one who achieved what he did in spite of blindness. Shortly
+after his father's death in 1740, some of Blacklock's poems began to be
+handed about among his acquaintances and friends, who arranged for his
+education at the grammar-school, and subsequently at the university of
+Edinburgh, where he was a student of divinity. His first volume of Poems
+was published in 1746. In 1754 he became deputy librarian for the
+Faculty of Advocates, by the kindness of Hume. He was eventually
+estranged from Hume, and defended James Beattie's attack on that
+philosopher. Blacklock was among the first friends of Burns in
+Edinburgh, being one of the earliest to recognize his genius. He was in
+1762 ordained minister of the church of Kirkcudbright, a position which
+he soon resigned; in 1767 the degree of doctor in divinity was conferred
+on him by Marischal College, Aberdeen. He died on the 7th of July 1791.
+
+  An edition of his poems in 1793 contains a life by Henry Mackenzie.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKMAIL, a term, in English law, used in three special meanings, at
+different times. The usual derivation of the second half of the word is
+from Norman Fr. _maille (medalia_; cf. "medal"), small copper coin; the
+_New English Dictionary_ derives from "mail" (q.v.), meaning rent or
+tribute. (1) The primary meaning of "blackmail" was rent paid in labour,
+grain or baser metal (i.e. money other than sterling money), called
+_reditus nigri_, in contradistinction to rent paid in silver or white
+money (_mailles blanches_). (2) In the northern counties of England
+(Northumberland, Westmorland and the bishopric of Durham) it signified a
+tribute in money, corn, cattle or other consideration exacted from
+farmers and small owners by freebooters in return for immunity from
+robbers or moss-troopers. By a statute of 1601 it was made a felony
+without benefit of clergy to receive or pay such tribute, but the
+practice lingered until the union of England and Scotland in 1707. (3)
+The word now signifies extortion of money or property by threats of
+libel, presecution, exposure, &c. See such headings as COERCION,
+CONSPIRACY, EXTORTION, and authorities quoted under CRIMINAL LAW.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD (c. 1650-1729), English physician and writer, was
+born at Corsham, in Wiltshire, about 1650. He was educated at
+Westminster school and St Edmund Hall, Oxford. He was for some time a
+schoolmaster, but finally, after graduating in medicine at Padua, he
+settled in practice as a physician in London. He supported the
+principles of the Revolution, and was accordingly knighted in 1697. He
+held the office of physician in ordinary both to William III. and Anne,
+and died on the 9th of October 1729. Blackmore had a passion for
+writing epics. _Prince Arthur, an Heroick Poem in X Books_ appeared in
+1695, and was followed by six other long poems before 1723. Of these
+_Creation_ ... (1712), a philosophic poem intended to refute the atheism
+of Vanini, Hobbes and Spinoza, and to unfold the intellectual philosophy
+of Locke, was the most favourably received. Dr Johnson anticipated that
+this poem would transmit the author to posterity "among the first
+favourites of the English muse," while John Dennis went so far as to
+describe it as "a philosophical poem, which has equalled that of
+Lucretius in the beauty of its versification, and infinitely surpassed
+it in the solidity and strength of its reasoning." These opinions have
+not been justified, for the poem, like everything else that Blackmore
+wrote, is dull and tedious. His _Creation_ appears in Johnson's and
+Anderson's collections of the British poets. He left also works on
+medicine and on theological subjects.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKMORE, RICHARD DODDRIDGE (1825-1900), English novelist, was born on
+the 7th of June 1825 at Longworth, Berkshire, of which village his
+father was curate in charge. He was educated at Blundell's school,
+Tiverton, and Exeter College, Oxford, where he obtained a scholarship.
+In 1847 he took a second class in classics. Two years later he entered
+as a student at the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in 1852.
+His first publication was a volume of _Poems by Melanter_ (1854), which
+showed no particular promise, nor did the succeeding volume, _Epullia_
+(1855), suggest that Blackmore had the makings of a poet. He was
+nevertheless enthusiastic in his pursuit of literature; and when, a few
+years later, the complete breakdown of his health rendered it clear that
+he must remove from London, he determined to combine a literary life in
+the country with a business career as a market-gardener. He acquired
+land at Teddington, and set earnestly to work, the literary fruits of
+his new surroundings being a translation of the _Georgics_, published in
+1862. In 1864 he published his first novel, _Clara Vaughan_, the merits
+of which were promptly recognized. _Cradock Nowell_ (1866) followed, but
+it was in 1869 that he suddenly sprang into fame with _Lorna Doone_.
+This fine story was a pioneer in the romantic revival; and appearing at
+a jaded hour, it was presently recognized as a work of singular charm,
+vigour and imagination. Its success could scarcely be repeated, and
+though Blackmore wrote many other capital stories, of which the best
+known are _The Maid of Sker_ (1872), _Christowell_ (1880), _Perlycross_
+(1894), _Tales from the Telling House_ (1896) and _Dariel_ (1897), he
+will always be remembered almost exclusively as the author of _Lorna
+Doone_. He continued his quiet country life to the last, and died at
+Teddington on the 20th of January 1900, in his seventy-fifth year.
+_Lorna Doone_ has the true out-of-door atmosphere, is shot through and
+through with adventurous spirit, and in its dramatic moments shows both
+vigour and intensity. The heroine, though she is invested with qualities
+of faery which are scarcely human, is an idyllic and haunting figure;
+and John Ridd, the bluff hero, is, both in purpose and achievement, a
+veritable giant of romance. The story is a classic of the West country,
+and the many pilgrimages that are made annually to the Doone Valley (the
+actual characteristics of which differ materially from the descriptions
+given in the novel) are entirely inspired by the buoyant imagination of
+Richard Blackmore. A memorial window and tablet to his memory were
+erected in Exeter cathedral in 1904.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK MOUNTAIN, a mountain range and district on the Hazara border of
+the North-West Frontier Province of India. It is inhabited by Yusafzai
+Pathans. The Black Mountain itself has a total length of 25 to 30 m.,
+and an average height of 8000 ft. above the sea. It rises from the Indus
+basin near the village of Kiara, up to its watershed by Bruddur; thence
+it runs north-west by north to the point on the crest known as
+Chittabut. From Chittabut the range runs due north, finally descending
+by two large spurs to the Indus again. The tribes which inhabit the
+western face of the Black Mountain are the Hassanzais (2300 fighting
+men), the Akazais (1165 fighting men) and the Chagarzais (4890 fighting
+men), all sub-sections of the Yusafzai Pathans. It was in this district
+that the Hindostani Fanatics had their stronghold, and they were
+responsible for much of the unrest on this part of the border.
+
+The Black Mountain is chiefly notable for four British expeditions:--
+
+1. Under Lieut.-Colonel F. Mackeson, in 1852-53, against the Hassanzais.
+The occasion was the murder of two British customs officers. A force of
+3800 British troops traversed their country, destroying their villages
+and grain, &c.
+
+2. Under Major-General A.T. Wilde, in 1868. The occasion was an attack
+on a British police post at Oghi in the Agror Valley by all three
+tribes. A force of 12,500 British troops entered the country and the
+tribes made submission.
+
+3. The First Hazara Expedition in 1888. The cause was the constant raids
+made by the tribes on villages in British territory, culminating in an
+attack on a small British detachment, in which two English officers were
+killed. A force of 12,500 British troops traversed the country of the
+tribes, and severely punished them. Punishment was also inflicted on the
+Hindostani Fanatics of Palosi.
+
+4. The Second Hazara Expedition of 1891. The Black Mountain tribes fired
+on a force within British limits. A force of 7300 British troops
+traversed the country. The tribesmen made their submission and entered
+into an agreement with government to preserve the peace of the border.
+
+The Black Mountain tribes took no part in the general frontier rising of
+1897, and after the disappearance of the Hindostani Fanatics they sank
+into comparative unimportance.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKPOOL, a municipal and county borough and seaside resort in the
+Blackpool parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 46 m. N. of
+Liverpool, served by the Lancashire & Yorkshire, and London & North
+Western railways. Pop. (1891) 23,846; (1901) 47,346. The town, which is
+quite modern, contains many churches and chapels of all denominations, a
+town hall, public libraries, the Victoria hospital, three piers,
+theatres, ball-rooms, and other places of public amusement, including a
+lofty tower, resembling the Eiffel Tower of Paris. The municipality
+maintains an electric tram service. There are handsome promenades along
+the sea front, which command fine views. Extensive works upon these,
+affording a sea front unsurpassed by that of any English watering-place,
+were completed in 1905. The beach is sandy and the bathing good. The
+borough was created in 1876 (county borough, 1904), and is governed by a
+mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, exclusive of foreshore,
+3496 acres; including foreshore, 4244 acres.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK ROD (more fully, "Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod "), an official
+of the House of Lords, instituted in 1350. His appointment is by royal
+letters patent, and his title is due to his staff of office, an ebony
+stick surmounted with a gold lion. He is a personal attendant of the
+sovereign in the Upper House, and is also usher of the order of the
+Garter, being doorkeeper at the meetings of the knights' chapter. He is
+responsible for the maintenance of order in the House of Lords, and on
+him falls the duty of arresting any peer guilty of breach of privilege
+or other offence of which the House takes cognizance. But the duty which
+brings him most into prominence is that of summoning the Commons and
+their speaker to the Upper House to hear a speech from the throne or the
+royal assent given to bills. If the sovereign is present in parliament,
+Black Rod _commands_ the attendance of the gentlemen of the Commons, but
+when lords commissioners represent the king, he only _desires_ such
+attendance. Black Rod is on such occasions the central figure of a
+curious ceremony of much historic significance. As soon as the
+attendants of the House of Commons are aware of his approach, they close
+the doors in his face. Black Rod then strikes three times with his
+staff, and on being asked "Who is there?" replies "Black Rod." Being
+then admitted he advances to the bar of the House, makes three
+obeisances and says, "Mr Speaker, the king commands this honourable
+House to attend his majesty immediately in the House of Lords." This
+formality originated in the famous attempt of Charles I. to arrest the
+five members, Hampden, Pym, Holies, Hesilrige and Strode, in 1642.
+Indignant at this breach of privilege, the House of Commons has ever
+since maintained its right of freedom of speech and uninterrupted debate
+by the closing of the doors on the king's representative.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK SEA (or EUXINE; anc. _Pontus Euxinus_),[1] a body of water lying
+almost entirely between the latitudes 41 deg. and 45 deg. N., but
+extending to about 47 deg. N. near Odessa. It is bounded N. by the
+southern coast of Russia; W. by Rumania, Turkey and Bulgaria; S. and E.
+by Asia Minor. The northern boundary is broken at Kertch by a strait
+entering into the Sea of Azov, and at the junction of the western and
+southern boundary is the Bosporus, which unites the Black Sea with the
+Mediterranean through the Sea of Marmora and the Dardanelles. The
+100-fathom line is about 10 to 20 m. from the shore except in the
+north-west corner between Varna and Sevastopol, where it extends 140 m.
+seawards. The greatest depth is 1030 fathoms (1227 Russian fathoms) near
+the centre, there being only one basin. The steepest incline outside 100
+fathoms is to the south-east of the Crimea and at Amastra; the incline
+to the greater depths is also steep off the Caucasus and between
+Trebizond and Batum. The conditions that prevail in the Black Sea are
+very different from those of the Mediterranean or any other sea. The
+existence of sulphuretted hydrogen in great quantities below 100
+fathoms, the extensive chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate, the
+stagnant nature of its deep waters, and the absence of deep-sea life are
+conditions which make it impossible to discuss it along with the
+physical and biological conditions of the Mediterranean proper.
+
+The depths of the Black Sea are lifeless, higher organic life not being
+known to exist below 100 fathoms. Fossiliferous remains of _Dreissena_,
+_Cardium_ and other molluscs have, however, been dredged up, which help
+to show that conditions formerly existed in the Black Sea similar to
+those that exist at the present day in the Caspian Sea. According to N.
+Andrusov, when the union of the Black Sea with the Mediterranean through
+the Bosporus took place, salt water rushed into it along the bottom of
+the Bosporus and killed the fauna of the less saline waters. This gave
+rise to a production of sulphuretted hydrogen which is found in the
+deposits, as well as in the deeper waters.
+
+Observations in temperature and salinity have only been taken during
+summer. During summer the surface salinity of the Black Sea is from 1.70
+to 2.00% down to 50 fathoms, whereas in the greater depths it attains a
+salinity of 2.25%. The temperature is rather remarkable, there being an
+intermediate cold layer between 25 and 50 fathoms. This is due to the
+sinking of the cold surface water (which in winter reaches
+freezing-point) on to the top of the denser more saline water of the
+greater depths. There is thus a minimum circulation in the greater
+depths causing there uniformity of temperature, an absence of the
+circulation of oxygen by other means than diffusion, and a protection of
+the sulphuretted hydrogen from the oxidation which takes place in
+homologous situations in the open ocean. The temperature down to 25
+fathoms is from 78.3 deg. to 46.2 deg. F., and in the cold layer,
+between 25 and 50 fathoms, is from 46.2 deg. to 43.5 deg. F., rising
+again in greater depths to 48.2 deg. F.
+
+The _Sea of Marmora_ may be looked upon as an arm of the Aegean Sea and
+thus part of the Mediterranean proper. Its salinity is comparable to
+that of the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, which is greater than
+that of the Black Sea, viz. 4%. Similar currents exist in the Bosporus
+to those of the Strait of Gibraltar. Water of less salinity flows
+outwards from the Black Sea as an upper current, and water of greater
+salinity from the Sea of Marmora flows into the Black Sea as an
+under-current. This under-current flows towards Cape Tarhangut, where it
+divides into a left and right branch. The left branch is appreciably
+noticed near Odessa and the north-west corner; the right branch sweeps
+past the Crimea, strikes the Caucasian shore (where it comes to the
+surface running across, but not into, the south-east corner of the Black
+Sea), and finally disperses flowing westwards along the northern coast
+of Asia Minor between Cape Jason and Sinope. This current causes a
+warmer climate where it strikes. So marked is this current that it has
+to be taken into account in the navigation of the Black Sea.
+
+The _Sea of Azov_ is exceedingly shallow, being only about 6 fathoms in
+its deepest part, and it is largely influenced by the river Don. Its
+water is considerably fresher than the Black Sea, varying from 1.55 to
+0.68%. It freezes more readily and is not affected by the Mediterranean
+current.
+
+  See N. Andrusov, "Physical Exploration of the Black Sea," in
+  _Geographical Journal_, vol. i. p. 49.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The early Greek navigators gave it the epithet of _axenus_, i.e.
+    unfriendly to strangers, but as Greek colonies sprang up on the
+    shores this was changed to _euxinus_, friendly to strangers.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK SEA (Russ. _Chernomorskaya_), a military district of the province of
+Kuban, formerly an independent province of Transcaucasia, Russia; it
+includes the narrow strip of land along the N.E. coast of the Black Sea
+from Novorossiysk to the vicinity of Pitsunda, between the sea and the
+crest of the main range of the Caucasus. Area, 2836 sq. m. Pop. (1897)
+54,228; (1906, estimate) 71,900. It is penetrated by numerous spurs of
+this range, which strike the sea abruptly at right angles to the coast,
+and in many cases plunge down into it sheer. Owing to its southern
+exposure, its sheltered position, and a copious rainfall, vegetation, in
+part of a sub-tropical character, grows in great profusion. In
+consequence, however, of the mountainous character of the region, it is
+divided into a large number of more or less isolated districts, and there
+is little intercourse with the country north of the Caucasus, the passes
+over the range being few and difficult (see CAUCASUS). But since the
+Russians became masters of this region, its former inhabitants (Circassian
+tribes) have emigrated in thousands, so that the country is now only
+thinly inhabited. It is divided into three districts--Novorossiysk, with
+the town (pop. in 1897, 16,208) of the same name, which acts as the
+capital of the Black Sea district; Velyaminovsk; and Sochi. Novorossiysk
+is connected by rail, at the west end of the Caucasus, with the
+Rostov-Vladikavkaz line, and a mountain road leads from Velyaminovsk (or
+Tuapse) to Maikop in the province of Kuban.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM (1723-1780), English jurist, was born in London,
+on the 10th of July 1723. His parents having died when he was young, his
+early education, under the care of his uncle, Dr Thomas Bigg, was
+obtained at the Charterhouse, from which, at the age of fifteen, he was
+sent to Pembroke College, Oxford. He was entered in the Middle Temple in
+1741. In 1744 he was elected a fellow of All Souls' College. From this
+period he divided his time between the university and the Temple, where
+he took chambers in order to attend the law courts. In 1746 he was
+called to the bar. Though but little known or distinguished as a
+pleader, he was actively employed, during his occasional residences at
+the university, in taking part in the internal management of his
+college. In May 1749, as a small reward for his services, and to give
+him further opportunities of advancing the interests of the college,
+Blackstone was appointed steward of its manors. In the same year, on the
+resignation of his uncle, Seymour Richmond, he was elected recorder of
+the borough of Wallingford in Berkshire. In 1750 he became doctor of
+civil law. In 1753 he decided to retire from London work to his
+fellowship and an academical life, still continuing the practice of his
+profession as a provincial counsel.
+
+His lectures on the laws of England appear to have been an early and
+favourite idea; for in the Michaelmas term immediately after he
+abandoned London, he entered on the duty of reading them at Oxford; and
+we are told by the author of his _Life_, that even at their
+commencement, the high expectations formed from the acknowledged
+abilities of the lecturer attracted to these lectures a very crowded
+class of young men of the first families, characters and hopes. Bentham,
+however, declares that he was a "formal, precise and affected
+lecturer--just what you would expect from the character of his
+writings--cold, reserved and wary, exhibiting a frigid pride." It was
+not till the year 1758 that the lectures in the form they now bear were
+read in the university. Blackstone, having been unanimously elected to
+the newly-founded Vinerian professorship, on the 25th of October read
+his first introductory lecture, afterwards prefixed to the first volume
+of his celebrated _Commentaries_. It is doubtful whether the
+_Commentaries_ were originally intended for the press; but many
+imperfect and incorrect copies having got into circulation, and a
+pirated edition of them being either published or preparing for
+publication in Ireland, the author thought proper to print a correct
+edition himself, and in November 1765 published the first volume, under
+the title of _Commentaries on the Laws of England_. The remaining parts
+of the work were given to the world in the course of the four succeeding
+years. It may be remarked that before this period the reputation which
+his lectures had deservedly acquired for him had induced him to resume
+practice in London; and, contrary to the general order of the
+profession, he who had quitted the bar for an academic life was sent
+back from the college to the bar with a considerable increase of
+business. He was likewise elected to parliament, first for Hindon, and
+afterwards for Westbury in Wilts; but in neither of these departments
+did he equal the expectations which his writings had raised. The part he
+took in the Middlesex election drew upon him many attacks as well as a
+severe animadversion from the caustic pen of "Junius." This circumstance
+probably strengthened the aversion he professed to parliamentary
+attendance, "where," he said, "amidst the rage of contending parties, a
+man of moderation must expect to meet with no quarter from any side." In
+1770 he declined the place of solicitor-general; but shortly afterwards,
+on the promotion of Sir Joseph Yates to a seat in the court of common
+pleas, he accepted a seat on the bench, and on the death of Sir Joseph
+succeeded him there also. He died on the 14th of February 1780.
+
+The design of the _Commentaries_ is exhibited in his first Vinerian
+lecture printed in the introduction to them. The author there dwells on
+the importance of noblemen, gentlemen and educated persons generally
+being well acquainted with the laws of the country; and his treatise,
+accordingly, is as far as possible a popular exposition of the laws of
+England. Falling into the common error of identifying the various
+meanings of the word law, he advances from the law of nature (being
+either the revealed or the inferred will of God) to municipal law, which
+he defines to be a rule of civil conduct prescribed by the supreme power
+in a state commanding what is right and prohibiting what is wrong. On
+this definition he founds the division observed in the _Commentaries_.
+The objects of law are rights and wrongs. Rights are either rights of
+persons or rights of things. Wrongs are either public or private. These
+four headings form respectively the subjects of the four books of the
+_Commentaries_.
+
+Blackstone was by no means what would now be called a scientific jurist.
+He has only the vaguest possible grasp of the elementary conceptions of
+law. He evidently regards the law of gravitation, the law of nature, and
+the law of England, as different examples of the same principle--as
+rules of action or conduct imposed by a superior power on its subjects.
+He propounds in terms the doctrine that municipal or positive laws
+derive their validity from their conformity to the so-called law of
+nature or law of God. "No human laws," he says, "are of any validity if
+contrary to this." His distinction between rights of persons and rights
+of things, implying, as it would appear, that things as well as persons
+have rights, is attributable to a misunderstanding of the technical
+terms of the Roman law. In distinguishing between private and public
+wrongs (civil injuries and crimes) he fails to seize the true principle
+of the division. Austin, who accused him of following slavishly the
+method of Hale's _Analysis of the Law_, declares that he "blindly adopts
+the mistakes of his rude and compendious model; missing invariably, with
+a nice and surprising infelicity, the pregnant but obscure suggestions
+which it proffered to his attention, and which would have guided a
+discerning and inventive writer to an arrangement comparatively just."
+By the want of precise and closely-defined terms, and his tendency to
+substitute loose literary phrases, he falls occasionally into
+irreconcilable contradictions. Even in discussing a subject of such
+immense importance as equity, he hardly takes pains to discriminate
+between the legal and popular senses of the word, and, from the small
+place which equity jurisprudence occupies in his arrangement, he would
+scarcely seem to have realized its true position in the law of England.
+Subject, however, to these strictures the completeness of the treatise,
+its serviceable if not scientific order, and the power of lucid
+exposition possessed by the author demand emphatic recognition.
+Blackstone's defects as a jurist are more conspicuous in his treatment
+of the underlying principles and fundamental divisions of the law than
+in his account of its substantive principles.
+
+Blackstone by no means confines himself to the work of a legal
+commentator. It is his business, especially when he touches on the
+framework of society, to find a basis in history and reason for all the
+most characteristic English institutions. There is not much either of
+philosophy or fairness in this part of his work. Whether through the
+natural conservatism of a lawyer, or through his own timidity and
+subserviency as a man and a politician, he is always found to be a
+specious defender of the existing order of things. Bentham accuses him
+of being the enemy of all reform, and the unscrupulous champion of every
+form of professional chicanery. Austin says that he truckled to the
+sinister interests and mischievous prejudices of power, and that he
+flattered the overweening conceit of the English in their own
+institutions. He displays much ingenuity in giving a plausible form to
+common prejudices and fallacies; but it is by no means clear that he was
+not imposed upon himself. More undeniable than the political fairness of
+the treatise is its merits as a work of literature. It is written in a
+most graceful and attractive style, and although no opportunity of
+embellishment has been lost, the language is always simple and clear.
+Whether it is owing to its literary graces, or to its success in
+flattering the prejudices of the public to which it was addressed, the
+influence of the book in England has been extraordinary. Not lawyers
+only, and lawyers perhaps even less than others, accepted it as an
+authoritative revelation of the law. It performed for educated society
+in England much the same service as was rendered to the people of Rome
+by the publication of their previously unknown laws. It is more correct
+to regard it as a handbook of the law for laymen than as a legal
+treatise; and as the first and only book of the kind in England it has
+been received with somewhat indiscriminating reverence. It is certain
+that a vast amount of the constitutional sentiment of the country has
+been inspired by its pages. To this day Blackstone's criticism of the
+English constitution would probably express the most profound political
+convictions of the majority of the English people. Long after it has
+ceased to be of much practical value as an authority in the courts, it
+remains the arbiter of all public discussions on the law or the
+constitution. On such occasions the _Commentaries_ are apt to be
+construed as strictly as if they were a code. It is curious to observe
+how much importance is attached to the _ipsissima verba_ of a writer who
+aimed more at presenting a picture intelligible to laymen than at
+recording the principles of the law with technical accuracy of detail.
+
+  See also the article ENGLISH LAW.
+
+
+
+
+BLACK VEIL, in the Roman Catholic Church, the symbol of the most
+complete renunciation of the world and adoption of a nun's life. On the
+appointed day the nun goes through all the ritual of the marriage
+ceremony, after a solemn mass at which all the inmates of the convent
+assist. She is dressed in bridal white with wreath and veil, and
+receives a wedding-ring, as spouse of the Church. Afterwards she
+presides at a wedding-breakfast, at which a bride-cake is cut. She thus
+bids adieu to all her friends, and having previously taken the white
+veil, the betrothal, she now assumes the black, and for ever forswears
+the world and its pleasures. Her hair is cut short, and her bridal robes
+are exchanged for the sombre religious habit. Her wedding-ring, however,
+she continues to wear, and it is buried with her.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKWATER, the name of a number of rivers and streams in England,
+Scotland and Ireland. The Blackwater in Essex, which rises near Saffron
+Walden, has a course of about 40 m. to the North Sea. The most important
+river of the name is in southern Ireland, rising in the hills on the
+borders of the counties Cork and Kerry, and flowing nearly due east for
+the greater part of its course, as far as Cappoquin, where it turns
+abruptly southward, and discharges through an estuary into Youghal Bay.
+The length of its valley (excluding the lesser windings of the river)
+is about 90 m., and the drainage area about 1300 sq. m. It is navigable
+only for a few miles above the mouth, but its salmon fisheries are both
+attractive to sportsmen and of considerable commercial value. The
+scenery of its banks is at many points very beautiful.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKWATER FEVER, a disease occurring in tropical countries and
+elsewhere, which is often classed with malaria (q.v.). It is
+characterized by irregular febrile paroxysms, accompanied by rigors,
+bilious vomiting, jaundice and haemoglobinuria (Sambon). It has a wide
+geographical distribution, including tropical Africa, parts of Asia, the
+West Indies, the southern United States, and--in Europe--Greece, Sicily
+and Sardinia; but its range is not coextensive with malaria. Malarial
+parasites have occasionally been found in the blood. Some authorities
+believe it to be caused by the excessive use of quinine, taken to combat
+malaria. This theory has had the support of Koch, but it is not
+generally accepted. If it were correct, one would expect blackwater
+fever to be regularly prevalent in malarial countries and to be more or
+less coextensive with the use of quinine, which is not at all the case.
+It often resembles yellow fever, but the characteristic black vomit of
+yellow fever rarely occurs in blackwater fever, while the black urine
+from which the latter derives its name is equally rare in the former.
+According to the modern school of tropical parasitology, blackwater
+fever is neither a form of malaria nor produced by quinine, but a
+specific disease due to a protozoal parasite akin to that which causes
+the redwater fever of cattle.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKWELL, THOMAS (1701-1757), Scottish classical scholar, was born at
+Aberdeen on the 4th of August 1701. He took the degree of M.A. at the
+Marischal College in 1718. He was appointed professor of Greek in 1723,
+and was principal of the institution from 1748 until his death on the
+8th of March 1757. In 1735 his first work, _An Inquiry into the Life and
+Writings of Homer_, was published anonymously. It was reprinted in 1736,
+and followed (in 1747) by _Proofs of the Enquiry into Homer's Life and
+Writings_, a translation of the copious notes in foreign languages which
+had previously appeared. This work, intended to explain the causes of
+the superiority of Homer to all the poets who preceded or followed him,
+shows considerable research, and contains many curious and interesting
+details; but its want of method made Bentley say that, when he had gone
+through half of it, he had forgotten the beginning, and, when he had
+finished the reading of it, he had forgotten the whole. Blackwell's next
+work (also published anonymously in 1748) was _Letters Concerning
+Mythology_. In 1752 he took the degree of doctor of laws, and in the
+following year published the first volume of _Memoirs of the Court of
+Augustus_; the second volume appeared in 1755, the third in 1764
+(prepared for the press, after Blackwell's death, by John Mills). This
+work shows considerable originality and erudition, but is even more
+unmethodical than his earlier writings and full of unnecessary
+digressions. Blackwell has been called the restorer of Greek literature
+in the north of Scotland; but his good qualities were somewhat spoiled
+by pomposity and affectation, which exposed him to ridicule.
+
+
+
+
+BLACKWOOD, WILLIAM (1776-1834), Scottish publisher, founder of the firm
+of William Blackwood & Sons, was born of humble parents at Edinburgh on
+the 20th of November 1776. At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to
+a firm of booksellers in Edinburgh, and he followed his calling also in
+Glasgow and London for several years. Returning to Edinburgh in 1804, he
+opened a shop in South Bridge Street for the sale of old, rare and
+curious books. He undertook the Scottish agency for John Murray and
+other London publishers, and gradually drifted into publishing on his
+own account, removing in 1816 to Princes Street. On the 1st of April
+1817 was issued the first number of the _Edinburgh Monthly Magazine_,
+which on its seventh number, bore the name of _Blackwood's_ as the
+leading part of the title. "Maga," as this magazine soon came to be
+called, was the organ of the Scottish Tory party, and round it gathered
+a host of able writers. William Blackwood died on the 16th of September
+1834, and was succeeded by his two sons, Alexander and Robert, who
+added a London branch to the firm. In 1845 Alexander Blackwood died, and
+shortly afterwards Robert.
+
+A younger brother, John Blackwood (1818-1879), succeeded to the
+business; four years later he was joined by Major William Blackwood, who
+continued in the firm until his death in 1861. In 1862 the major's elder
+son, William Blackwood (b. 1836), was taken into partnership. John
+Blackwood was a man of strong personality and great business
+discernment; it was in the pages of his magazine that George Eliot's
+first stories, _Scenes of Clerical Life_, appeared. He also inaugurated
+the "Ancient Classics for English readers" series. On his death Mr
+William Blackwood was left in sole control of the business. With him
+were associated his nephews, George William and J.H. Blackwood, sons of
+Major George Blackwood, who was killed at Maiwand in 1880.
+
+  See _Annals of a Publishing House; William Blackwood and his Sons_ ...
+  (1897-1898), the first two volumes of which were written by Mrs
+  Oliphant; the third, dealing with John Blackwood, by his daughter, Mrs
+  Gerald Porter.
+
+
+
+
+BLADDER (from A.S. _blaeddre_, connected with _blawan_, to blow, cf.
+Ger. _blase_), the membranous sac in animals which receives the urine
+secreted from the kidneys. The word is also used for any similar sac,
+such as the gall-bladder, the swim-bladder in fishes, or the small
+vesicle in various seaweeds.
+
+
+
+
+BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES. The urinary bladder in man (for the
+anatomy see URINARY SYSTEM), being the temporary reservoir of the renal
+secretion, and, as such, containing the urine for longer or shorter
+periods, is liable to various important affections. These are dealt with
+in the first part of this article. The diseases of the prostate are so
+intimately allied that they are best considered, as in the subsequent
+section, as part of the same subject.
+
+
+_Diseases of the Bladder._
+
+  Cystitis.
+
+_Cystitis_, or inflammation of the bladder, which may be acute or
+chronic, is due to the invasion of the mucous lining by micro-organisms,
+which gain access either from the urethra, the kidneys or the
+blood-stream. It is easy to see how the diplococci of gonorrhoea may
+infect the bladder-membrane by direct extension of the inflammation, and
+how the bacilli which are swarming in the neighbouring bowel may find
+access to the urethra or bladder when the intervening tissues have been
+rendered penetrable by a wound or by inflammation. Sometimes, however,
+especially in the female, the germs from the large intestine enter the
+bladder by way of the vulva and the urethra.
+
+Any condition leading to disturbance of the function of the bladder,
+such as enlargement of the prostate, stricture of the urethra, stone, or
+injury, may cause cystitis by preparing the way for bacillary invasion.
+The bacilli of tuberculosis and of typhoid fever may set up cystitis by
+coming down into the bladder from the kidneys with the urine, or they
+reach it by the blood-stream, or invade it by the urethra. Another way
+of cystitis being set up is by the introduction of the germs of
+suppuration by a catheter or bougie sweeping them in from the urethra;
+or the instrument itself may be unsterilized and dirty and so may
+introduce them. It used formerly to be thought that wet or cold was
+enough to cause inflammation of the bladder, but the probability is that
+this acts only by lowering the resistance of the lining membrane of the
+bladder, and preparing it for the invasion of the germs which were
+merely waiting for an opportunity. In the same way, gout or injury may
+lead to the lurking bacilli being enabled to effect their attack. But in
+every case disease-germs are the cause of the trouble, and they may be
+found in the urine. The first effect of inflammation is to render the
+bladder irritable, so that as soon as a few drops of urine have
+collected, the individual has intense or uncontrollable desire to
+micturate. The effort may be very painful and may be accompanied by
+bleeding from the overloaded blood-vessels of the inflamed membrane. In
+addition to blood, pus is likely to be found in the urine, which by this
+time is alkaline and ammoniacal, and teeming with micro-organisms. As
+regards _treatment_, the patient should be at once sent to bed in a warm
+room, and should sit several times a day in a very hot hip-bath. When
+he has got back to bed, a fomentation under oil-silk, or some other
+waterproof material, should be placed over the lower part of the
+abdomen. The diet should be milk (diluted with hot or cold water),
+barley-water, and bread and butter; no alcoholic drink should be
+allowed. If the urine is acid, bicarbonate of soda may be given, or
+citrate of soda; if alkaline, urotropine--a derivative of formic
+aldehyde--may prove a useful urinary disinfectant. If the straining and
+distress are great, a suppository of 1/4 or 1/2 a grain of morphia may
+be introduced into the rectum every two or three hours. The bowels must
+be kept freely open. If the urine is foul, the bladder should be
+frequently washed out by a soft catheter and two or three feet of
+india-rubber tubing with a funnel at the other end, weak and abundant
+hot lotions of Sanitas or Condy's fluid being used.
+
+_Chronic cystitis_ is the condition left when the acute symptoms have
+passed away, but it is liable at any moment to resume the acute
+condition. If the cystitis is very intractable, refusing to yield to hot
+irrigations, and to washings with nitrate of silver lotion, it may be
+advisable to open the bladder from the front, and to explore, treat,
+drain and rest it.
+
+In _tuberculous cystitis_ there is added to the symptoms the discovery
+of the bacilli of tuberculosis in the urine, and cystoscopic examination
+may reveal the presence of tubercles of the mucous membrane or even of
+ulceration. The patient is probably losing weight, and he may present
+foci of tuberculosis at the back of the testicle, the lung or kidney, or
+in a joint or bone, or in a lymphatic gland. _Treatment_ is rebellious
+and unpromising. Washings and lotions give but temporary relief, and if
+the bladder is opened for rest, and for a more direct treatment, the
+germs of suppuration may enter, and, working in conjunction with the
+bacilli, may cause great havoc. Koch's tuberculin treatment should
+certainly be given a trial. This consists of the injection into the body
+of an emulsion of dead tubercle bacilli which have been sterilized by
+heat. As a result of this injection the blood sets to work to form an
+"opsonin"--a protective material which so modifies the disease-germs as
+to render them attractive to the white corpuscles of the patient's blood
+(phagocytes), which then seize upon and destroy them. Sir A.E. Wright
+has devised a delicate method of examination of the blood (the
+calculation of the opsonic index) which tells when the tuberculin
+injections should be resorted to and when withheld (see BLOOD).
+
+
+  Stone.
+
+_Calculi and Gravel._--Uric acid is deposited from the urine either as
+small crystals resembling cayenne pepper, or else, in combination with
+soda and ammonia, as an amorphous "brick-dust" deposit, which, on
+cooling, leaves a red stain on the bottom of the vessel, soluble in hot
+water. These substances are derived from the disintegration of
+nitrogenized food taken in excess of demand, and from the breaking down
+of the human tissues. They occur therefore in fevers, in wasting
+diseases, and in the normal subject after excessive muscular exercises,
+especially if these exercises have been accompanied with so much
+perspiration that the excess of water from the blood has escaped by the
+skin rather than by the kidneys. The abundance of this deposit is in
+accordance with the amount of heat developed and work done in the body,
+and corresponds with the dust and ashes raked out of the fire-box of the
+locomotive after a long run. But supposing that the uric acid debris
+continues to be excessive, the risk of the formation of renal or vesical
+calculi becomes considerable, and it may be advisable to place the
+patient on a restricted nitrogenized diet, to induce him to drink large
+quantities of water, and to keep his bowels so loose with watery
+laxatives, such as Epsom salts or sulphate of soda, that the waste
+products of his body are made to escape by the bowels rather than by the
+kidneys. In addition to the salts just mentioned, an occasional dose of
+blue pill will prove helpful. A course of treatment at Contrexeville or
+Carlsbad may be taken with advantage.
+
+Alkaline urine is unable to hold the phosphates of ammonia and magnesia
+in solution, so they are deposited in abundance either in the kidney or
+bladder. If the voided urine is allowed to stand in a tall glass they
+sink to the bottom with pus and mucus in a cloudy deposit. To remedy
+this condition it is necessary to treat the cystitis with which the
+bacterial decomposition of the urine is associated. It may be that a
+calculus of acid urine, such as one of uric acid or oxalate of lime, has
+been resting in the bladder and keeping up incessant irritation, and
+that the micro-organisms of decomposition or suppuration have found
+their way to the mucous lining of the bladder from either the bowel, the
+urethra or the blood-stream; undergoing cultivation there they break up
+the urea into carbonate of ammonia and so render the urine alkaline.
+This alkaline urine deposits its phosphates, which light upon the
+calculus and encrust it with a mortary shell, which may go on increasing
+in size until it may even fill the bladder. Sometimes the nucleus of a
+calculus is a chip of bone or a blood-clot, or some foreign substance
+which has been introduced into the bladder. Sooner or later the urine
+becomes alkaline and the calculus is encrusted with lime salts.
+
+When urine contains a larger amount of chemical constituents than it can
+conveniently hold in solution, a certain quantity crystallizes out, and
+may be deposited in the kidney or in the bladder. If the crystals run
+together in the kidney the resulting concretion may either remain in
+that organ or may find its way into the bladder, where it may remain to
+form the nucleus of a larger vesical calculus, or, especially in the
+case of females, it may, while still small, escape from the bladder
+during micturition.
+
+In children, in whom there is a rapid disintegration of nitrogenized
+tissues, a uric acid calculus in escaping from the bladder may block the
+urethra and give rise to sudden retention of urine. On introducing a
+metal "sound," the surgeon may strike the stone, and if it happens to be
+near the bladder he may push it back and subsequently remove it by
+crushing. But if it has made its way some distance along the urethra, so
+that he can feel it from the outside, he should remove it by a clean
+incision.
+
+A stone in the bladder worries the nerves of the mucous membrane, and,
+giving them the impression that the bladder contains much water, causes
+the desire and need for micturition to be constant. The irritation
+causes an excessive secretion of mucus, just as a piece of grit under
+the eyelid causes a constant running from the eye. So the urine, if
+allowed to stand, gives a copious deposit. During micturition the
+contracting bladder bruises its congested blood-vessels against the
+stone, so that towards the end of micturition blood appears in the
+urine. Lastly, cystitis occurs, and the urine contains fetid pus. A
+stone in the bladder gives rise to pain at the end of the penis, and it
+is apt suddenly to stop the flow of urine during micturition.
+
+The association of any of these symptoms leads the surgeon to suspect
+the presence of a stone in the bladder, and he confirms his suspicions
+by introducing a slender steel rod, a "sound," by which he strikes and
+feels the stone. Further confirmation may be obtained by the help of the
+X-rays, or, in the adult, by using a cystoscope. In a child the stone
+may often be felt by a finger in the rectum, the front of the bladder
+being pressed by a hand on the lower part of the abdomen. The
+_cystoscope_ is a straight, hollow metal tube about the size of a long
+cedar pencil, which the surgeon introduces into the adult bladder, which
+has already been filled with warm boracic lotion. Down the tube run two
+fine wires which control a minute electric lamp at the bladder end of
+the instrument. At that end also is a small glass window which prevents
+the fluid escaping by the tube, and also a prism; at the other end of
+the tube is an eye-piece. By the use of this slender speculum the
+practised surgeon can recognize the presence of tubercle or tuberculous
+ulceration of the bladder, stone, or other foreign material, and
+innocent or malignant growths. He can also watch the urine entering the
+bladder by the openings of the ureters, and determine from which kidney
+blood or pus is coming.
+
+The _treatment_ of stone in the bladder is governed by various
+conditions. Speaking generally, the surgeon prefers to introduce a
+lithotrite and crush the stone into small fragments, and then to flush
+out the fragments by using a full-sized, hollow metal catheter and an
+india-rubber wash-bottle. Even in children this operation may generally
+be adopted with success, the stone being crushed to atoms and the
+fragments being washed out to the last small chip. But if the stone is
+a very hard one (as are some of the oxalate of lime calculi), or if it
+is very large, or if the bladder or the prostate gland is in a state of
+advanced disease, or if the urethra is not roomy enough to admit
+instruments of adequate calibre, the crushing operation (_lithotrity_)
+must be deemed unsuitable, and the stone must be removed by a cutting
+operation (_lithotomy_).
+
+_Lithotomy_.--Cutting for stone has been long practised; but up to the
+beginning of the 19th century it was performed only by a few men, who,
+bolder than their contemporaries, had specially worked at that operation
+and had attained celebrity as skilful lithotomists. Patients went long
+distances to be operated on by them, and certain of the older surgeons,
+as William Cheselden, performed a large number of operations with most
+excellent results. The operation was by an incision from the perineum,
+and is ordinarily spoken of as _lateral_ lithotomy. It was splendidly
+designed, and gave good results, especially in children. But it is now a
+thing of the past, having almost entirely given place to the _high_ or
+_supra-pubic_ operation. In the high operation the patient, being duly
+prepared, is placed upon his back and the bladder is washed out with hot
+boracic lotion, and when the lotion returns quite clean a final
+injection is made until the bladder is felt rising above the pubes. Then
+the india-rubber tube is removed from the silver catheter by which the
+injection has been made, and the end of the catheter is plugged by a
+spigot. An incision is then made in the middle line of the abdomen over
+the bladder region. The incision must be kept as low as possible, so
+that the bladder may be reached below the peritoneum, which, higher up,
+gives it an external, serous coat. As the bladder is approached, a good
+many veins are seen to be in the way, some of which have to be wounded.
+The bladder-wall is recognized by its coarse network of pale muscular
+fibres, through which, on each side of the middle line, a strong suture
+is passed, so that when the bladder is opened and the lotion comes
+rushing out, the opening which has been made into the bladder may not
+sink into the depths of the pelvis. A finger introduced into the bladder
+makes out the exact size and position of the stone, or stones, and the
+removal is effected by special forceps. Bleeding having ceased, the
+bladder-wound is partly or entirely closed by sutures and allowed to
+fall into the pelvis, the catheter having been removed. It is advisable
+to leave a drainage tube in the abdominal wound for a while, so that if
+urine leaks from the bladder-wound it may find a ready escape to the
+dressings.
+
+_Litholapaxy_.--Lithotrity consists of two parts--the crushing of the
+stone, and the removal of the detritus. The two stages are now carried
+out at one "sitting," without an interval being allowed between them, as
+was formerly the practice, and the term "litholapaxy" designates this
+method. The patient having been anaesthetized, 10 oz. of hot boracic
+lotion are injected, and the crushing instrument, the lithotrite, is
+then passed into the bladder. The lithotrite has two blades, a "male"
+and a "female," the latter fenestrated, the former solid with its
+surface notched. When the stone is fixed between the blades the screw is
+used, and great pressure is applied evenly, gradually and continuously
+to the stone. The lithotrite is made of very tough steel, so that hard
+stones may be crushed without danger of the instrument breaking or
+bending. Care must be taken not to catch the bladder-wall with the
+lithotrite. This danger is avoided by raising the point of the
+lithotrite immediately after grasping the stone and before crushing. The
+stone breaks into two or more pieces, and these fragments must be
+crushed, one by one, until they are powdered fine enough to escape by
+the large evacuating catheter. If the stone be large and hard, half an
+hour or longer may be required to crush it sufficiently fine. When the
+surgeon fails to catch any more large pieces, the presumption is that
+the stone has been thoroughly broken up. The lithotrite is then
+withdrawn and the detritus is washed out by an "aspirator," which
+consists of a stiff elastic ball which is connected with a trap, into
+which fragments of stone fall so as not to pass out on the instrument
+being used at later periods in the operation. A large catheter, with the
+eye very near the end of the short curve, is passed into the bladder;
+the aspirator, full of boracic lotion, is attached to the catheter, and
+a few ounces of the fluid are expressed from the aspirator into the
+bladder by squeezing the rubber ball. When the pressure is taken off the
+ball, it dilates and draws the fluid out of the bladder, and with it
+some of the detritus, which falls into the trap. This is repeated until
+all the fragments have been removed. After the operation the patient
+sometimes suffers from discomfort. His urine should be drawn off by a
+soft catheter at regular intervals for a few days. If the pain be
+severe, it can generally be relieved by fomentations. The patient must
+be kept in bed after the operation, and in cases where the stone has
+been large and the bladder irritable, the surgeon should insist on his
+remaining there for at least a week; in those cases which go on
+favourably the patients are soon able to perform their ordinary duties.
+Fatal terminations, however, do now and again occur from suppression of
+urine, the result of the old-standing kidney disease which so often
+complicates these cases.
+
+To Brigade-Surgeon Lieutenant-Colonel Dennis Francis Keegan, of the
+Indian Medical Service, is due the fact that the operation of crushing
+and promptly removing all fragments of a vesical calculus is as well
+suited for boys as for men. In entire opposition to long-standing
+European prejudices, Keegan's operation is now firmly and permanently
+established. The old operation (Cheselden's) of cutting a stone out
+through the bottom of a boy's bladder is now seldom resorted to, and if
+a stone in a boy is found too large or too hard to lend itself to the
+crushing operation, it is removed by a vertical incision through the
+lower part of the anterior wall of the abdomen, as described above. For
+a successful performance of the crushing operation in a boy a small
+lithotrite has, of course, to be used, and it must be of the very best
+English make. The operation has to be done with the utmost gentleness
+and thoroughness, not a particle of the crushed stone being left in the
+bladder, since otherwise the piece left becomes the nucleus of a fresh
+stone and the trouble recurs.
+
+The treatment of vesical calculi by other means than operative surgery
+is of little value. Attempts have been made to dissolve them by internal
+remedies, or by the injection of chemical agents into the bladder; but,
+although such methods have for a time been apparently successful, they
+have invariably been found worthless for removing calculi once actually
+formed. Nevertheless, much can be done towards _preventing_ the
+formation of calculi in those who have a tendency to their formation, by
+attention to diet, by taking proper exercise, and by the internal
+administration of drugs.
+
+  _Rupture of the bladder_ may be caused by a kick or blow over the
+  upper part of the abdomen, or by a wheel passing over it; or it may be
+  a complication of fracture of the pelvis. If the rupture is in that
+  part of the bladder which is uncovered by the peritoneum, the
+  extravasated urine may be cut down upon and let out with good prospect
+  of success; but if the rupture is in the upper or hinder part of the
+  bladder the urine is let loose into the general peritoneal cavity and
+  sets up peritonitis, which is more than likely to prove fatal. If the
+  surgeon knows that the bladder is ruptured he should operate at once
+  in order to provide escape for the urine, and also to sew up the rent.
+  If the possibility of the bladder being ruptured be even suspected,
+  the surgeon should pass a catheter. Perhaps he draws off an ounce or
+  two of blood-stained urine. This makes him doubly suspicious, so he
+  injects into the bladder five, eight or ten ounces of warm boracic
+  lotion, and, leaving it there for a few minutes, he measures the
+  amount which he is able afterwards to withdraw; if he finds that a
+  certain amount is lost he is assured that a leakage has taken place
+  and he at once proceeds to operate. If only the diagnosis is made
+  promptly, and the operation is at once undertaken, the outlook is not
+  unfavourable. A generation or so back nearly all the cases of rupture
+  of bladder ended fatally.
+
+  _Villous disease_ of the bladder is innocent; that is to say, it does
+  not spread to the neighbouring structures or implicate the lymphatic
+  glands. The villi are slender, branched, filamentous processes which,
+  springing from the floor of the bladder, float in the urine like
+  seaweed. They are freely supplied with blood-vessels, so that when a
+  piece of a villus is broken off there is likely to be blood in the
+  urine. Indeed, painless haemorrhage is one of the characteristic
+  features of the disease, and when fragments of the "seaweed" are found
+  in the urine the diagnosis is clear. If the bladder is opened from the
+  front, as already described, the villi may be nipped off by special
+  forceps and the disease permanently cured.
+
+  _Malignant disease_ of the bladder is almost always the warty form of
+  cancer known as epithelioma. It springs as a sessile growth from the
+  mucous membrane of the floor near the opening of one of the ureters,
+  and, worrying the sensory nerves, causes irritability of the bladder
+  and incontinence of urine. In due course septic germs reach the
+  bladder, either from the urethra, the bowel, the kidneys or the
+  blood-stream, and cystitis sets in. When ulceration has taken place,
+  blood occurs in the urine, and the patient--generally beyond middle
+  age--suffers dull or lancinating pains. Eventually the rectum may also
+  be involved and the distress becomes extreme. The presence of the
+  growth may be determined by sounding the bladder, by the cystoscope,
+  and by the finger in the rectum. If the growth invades the outlet,
+  retention of urine may occur, and the surgeon may be compelled to open
+  the bladder from the front of the abdomen. In cases where operation is
+  out of the question, washing the bladder with hot boracic lotion may
+  give great relief. The treatment of cancer of the bladder by operation
+  is, as a rule, unsatisfactory, because of the close proximity of the
+  growth to the ureters and to the rectum. If, however, the disease were
+  recognized early and had not invaded the neighbouring structures, and
+  if it were upon the upper or the anterior part of the bladder, its
+  removal might be hopefully undertaken.
+
+  _Hypertrophy and Dilatation._--When there is long-continued
+  obstruction to the flow of urine, as in stricture of the urethra, or
+  enlargement of the prostate, the bladder-wall becomes much thickened,
+  the muscular fibres increasing both in size and number; the condition
+  is known as "hypertrophy." Hypertrophy may be accompanied by
+  dilatation of the bladder, a condition which the bladder may assume
+  when the voiding of its contents is interfered with for a length of
+  time.
+
+  _Paralysis_ of the bladder is a want of contractile power in the
+  muscular fibres of the bladder-wall. It may result from injuries
+  whereby the spinal cord is lacerated or pressed upon, so that the
+  micturition centre, which is situated in the lumbar region, is thrown
+  out of working order. The result may be either retention or
+  incontinence of urine; sometimes there is at first retention, which
+  later is followed by incontinence. Paralysis is also met with in
+  certain nervous diseases, as in locomotor ataxia, and in various
+  cerebral lesions, as in apoplexy.
+
+  _Atony_ of the bladder is a paresis or partial paralysis. It is due to
+  a want of tone in the muscular fibres, and is frequently the result of
+  over-distension of the bladder, such as may occur in cases of
+  enlargement of the prostate. The patient is unable to empty the
+  bladder, and the condition of atony gets increasingly worse.
+
+  In both paralysis and atony the indication is carefully to prevent
+  over-distension by the urine being retained too long, and at the same
+  time to treat by appropriate means the cause which has produced or is
+  keeping up the condition.
+
+  _Incontinence of urine_ may occur in the adult or in the child, but is
+  due to widely different causes in the two cases. In the child it may
+  be simply a bad habit, the child not having been properly trained; but
+  more frequently there is a want of control in the micturition-centre,
+  so that the child passes its water unwittingly, especially during the
+  night. In adults it is not so much a condition of incontinence in the
+  sense of water being passed against the will, but is a suggestion that
+  the bladder is already full, the water which passes being the overflow
+  from a too full reservoir. It is usually caused by an obstruction
+  external to the bladder, e.g. enlarged prostate or stricture of the
+  urethra; a calculus may produce the condition. In the child an attempt
+  must be made to improve the tone of the micturition-centre by the use
+  of belladonna or strychnine internally, and of a blister or faradism
+  externally over the lumbar region, and every effort should be made to
+  train the child to pass water at stated times and regular intervals.
+  In the adult the cause which produces the over-distension must be
+  removed if possible; but, as a rule, the patient has to be provided
+  with a catheter, which he can pass before the bladder has filled to
+  overflowing. A soft flexible catheter should be given in preference to
+  a rigid or semi-rigid one. The best form is the red-rubber catheter,
+  and he should be taught the need of keeping it absolutely clean. In
+  the case of children incontinence of urine means irritability; in
+  adults it means overflow.
+
+  The condition termed by Sir James Paget _stammering micturition_ is
+  analogous to speech stammering, and occurs in those who are nervous
+  and easily put out. It would seem to be due to the sphincter of the
+  bladder not relaxing synchronously with the contraction of the
+  detrusor, and is sometimes caused by external irritation, such as
+  preputial adhesions. Occasionally not a drop of urine can be passed,
+  or a little passes and then a sudden stoppage occurs; the more the
+  patient strains the worse he becomes, until at last there is complete
+  retention of urine. The trouble can sometimes be cured by the removal
+  of irritating causes, and in these cases, as well as in those in which
+  no such cause can be discovered, care should be taken to avoid those
+  difficulties which have given rise to the patient's worst failures. If
+  at any time he should fail to perform the act of micturition, he ought
+  not to strain, but should quietly wait for a little before making any
+  further effort. Regularity in the times of making water is also of
+  much importance.
+
+  _Retention of urine_ may occur in paralysis of the bladder, or in
+  conditions where the patient is suffering from an illness which blunts
+  the nervous sensibility, such as apoplexy, concussion of the brain,
+  or typhoid fever. It is, however, more commonly due to obstruction
+  anterior to the bladder, as in stricture of the urethra or enlargement
+  of the prostate. The distended bladder can be felt as a rounded
+  swelling above the pubes, and perhaps reaching to the level of the
+  navel. Percussion over it gives a dull note. When the bladder is
+  distended, it is necessary to evacuate it as soon as possible. If
+  there is no obstruction to the flow of urine, the retention being due
+  to atony or paralysis, a soft catheter is passed and the water drawn
+  off. But when there is an obstruction which cannot be overcome,
+  aspiration has to be resorted to, the needle of the aspirator being
+  pushed through the abdominal wall into the bladder. The point of
+  puncture in the abdominal wall is in the middle line a few inches
+  above the symphysis pubis. The bladder may be emptied in this way very
+  many times in the same person with only good result.
+
+
+_Diseases of Prostate Gland._
+
+The prostate gland may become acutely inflamed as the result of the
+backward extension of gonorrhoeal inflammation of the urethra; it may
+also be attacked by the germs of ordinary suppuration as well as by the
+bacilli of tuberculosis. A sudden enlargement of a large gland lying
+against the outlets of the bladder and the bowel renders micturition
+difficult, painful or impossible, and interferes with defaecation.
+Pressure of the seat of the chair upon the perineum also causes
+distress, so the man sits sideways and on the edge of the seat. If
+abscess forms, it should be incised from the perineum; if allowed to run
+its course it may burst into the bladder, the urethra or the rectum, and
+set up serious complication. The treatment of prostatitis (inflammation
+of the prostate) consists in rest in bed, sitz-baths and fomentations.
+If retention of urine takes place a soft catheter must be passed. In the
+early stage of an acute attack a dozen leeches upon the perineum may do
+good. The bowels must be kept freely open, and from time to time, as the
+pain demands, a morphia suppository may be introduced into the bowel.
+
+  _Chronic prostatitis_ is a legacy from a recent or long-past attack of
+  gonorrhoea. The enlargement gives rise to a feeling of weight and
+  fulness in the perineum, irritability of the bladder, and a gleety
+  urethral discharge. Manual examination reveals the presence of a
+  large, hard mass in front of the bladder, and in the mass there can
+  often be felt softish or tender areas which seem to threaten abscess.
+  On urine being passed into a glass, a cloudiness is seen, and material
+  like pieces of vermicelli or broken threads may be noticed. These are
+  the castings from the long tubular glands, and are characteristic of
+  chronic inflammation of the prostate. The occasional passage of a
+  large metal bougie, the use of weak lotions of nitrate of silver, the
+  administration of quinine and iron, and the application of blisters to
+  the perineum, may be tried as circumstances direct. The patient should
+  lead a quiet life, free from sexual excitement. Horse-exercise,
+  cycle-riding, rough games and alcohol should be avoided.
+
+_Enlargement of the prostate_ exists in a considerable proportion of men
+of about sixty years of age and onward. It consists of an uncontrolled
+growth of the normal muscular and glandular tissue of the prostate,
+interfering with, or absolutely stopping, the outflow of the urine.
+Gently pushing the bladder upwards and backwards, it increases the
+length of the urethra, so that in order to draw off retained urine the
+catheter must be longer than ordinary, but inasmuch as there is no
+actual narrowing of the passage it may be of full calibre. The beak
+should be well turned up so that it may ride in front of, and surmount,
+the median enlargement. Because of the thick, ring-like mass of new
+tissue around the outlet of the bladder, there is difficulty in
+micturition, and because the muscular bladder wall is now unable to
+contract upon all its contents a certain amount of urine is retained. As
+the enlarged prostate bulges up in the floor of the bladder, a pouch or
+hollow forms behind it, from which the muscular wall is unable to
+dislodge the stagnant urine. This keeps up constant irritation, and if
+by chance the germs of decomposition find their way thither, cystitis
+sets in and the patient's condition becomes serious, not only because of
+the risk to which his tired and irritated kidneys are submitted, but
+because of the possibility of a phosphatic stone being formed in the
+bladder. The seriousness of enlargement of the prostate does not depend
+upon the size of the growth so much as upon the inability of the patient
+to empty his bladder completely.
+
+  The surgeon forms his estimate of the size of the prostate by rectal
+  examination. But sometimes a patient has retention of urine from
+  enlarged prostate, when by this method of manual examination the
+  amount of increase appears quite unimportant. The explanation is that
+  the enlargement is chiefly confined to a small piece of the gland
+  which protrudes like a tongue into the water-way. Robert McGill of
+  Leeds was the first surgeon to remove by a supra-pubic operation this
+  tongue-like process of new prostatic growth. Attempts had sometimes
+  been made to get rid of it by instrumentation through the urethra, but
+  they had not met with much success.
+
+  When the surgeon has made out the existence of an enlargement of the
+  prostate, the next thing is to find to what extent this interferes
+  with the bladder being emptied. To do this, he asks the patient to
+  pass as much water as he is able, and then with due precautions
+  introduces a soft catheter and measures the amount of urine which he
+  thus draws off--half an ounce, an ounce, two ounces, however much it
+  may be. It is this "residual urine" which causes the annoyance and the
+  danger of enlarged prostate, and unless arrangements can be made for
+  its regular withdrawal serious trouble is almost certain to ensue. The
+  passing of a large catheter may have the effect of so opening up the
+  water-way that, at any rate for a time, the irritability of the
+  bladder may cease, in which case the patient may be instructed in the
+  art of passing a catheter for himself. Or the surgeon may find that in
+  addition to the regular passing of a large catheter an occasional
+  washing-out of the bladder with hot boracic lotion is all that is
+  needed in the way of active treatment. At the same time, however, the
+  patient is placed upon a plain and wholesome diet with little or no
+  alcohol, and he is instructed to lead in every respect a regular and
+  quiet life. To many men with enlarged prostate the passing of an
+  instrument night and morning is no great hardship, while to others the
+  idea of leading what is called a "catheter life" appears intolerable,
+  or, having for a time been patiently carried out, is found not only
+  severely trying but greatly disappointing.
+
+  In some people the very first passing of a catheter sets up a local
+  and constitutional disturbance, the bladder being rendered irritable
+  and intolerant, the temperature going up, and shiverings and
+  perspirations manifesting themselves. This condition was formerly
+  called "catheter fever," and was looked upon as something mysterious
+  and peculiar. It is now generally understood to be the result of
+  septic inoculation of the interior of the bladder.
+
+  Lastly, in other persons the passing of the catheter is attended with
+  so much difficulty, distress or bleeding, that something more helpful
+  and effectual is urgently called for.
+
+_Operative Treatment._--It has long been known that large tumours of the
+uterus sometimes dwindle if the ovaries are removed by operation, and
+Professor William White of Philadelphia thought that prostatic growths
+might be similarly influenced by the removal of the testicles. Beyond
+question considerable improvement has followed this operation in cases
+of enlargement of the prostate, especially where the enlargement seemed
+to be general, soft and vascular. A similar though perhaps a slower
+effect is produced when the duct of the testis, the vas deferens, is
+divided on each side of the body. If there is no great urgency about the
+case this treatment may well be tried, the bladder being all the while
+duly emptied by catheter and washed by irrigation. But if the case is
+urgent, there being difficulty or bleeding with the passing of the
+catheter, the bladder being excessively irritable and the urine foul, a
+more radical measure is needed. The best operation is that upon the
+lines laid down by Robert McGill, who opened the bladder through the
+anterior abdominal wall and removed that part of the prostate gland
+which was blocking the water-way. McGill's operation was improved upon
+by Eugene Fuller of New York, who, in 1895, published a full account of
+his procedure.[1] Having opened the bladder from the front (as in
+supra-pubic lithotomy), he introduced his left index finger into the
+rectum and thrust the prostate gland towards the right index finger,
+which was then in the bladder. With the nail of that finger, or with the
+end of a pair of scissors, he made a rent in the mucous membrane of the
+bladder and the capsule of the gland, and then shelled out the mass of
+new tissue which had caused the prostatic enlargement. This operation is
+called "prostatectomy," which means the removal of the prostate gland.
+The prostate gland, however, is not removed, but only a muscular and
+glandular mass (adenoma), which, growing within the prostatic capsule,
+encircles the urethra and squeezes the original gland tissue out of
+existence. Following on the lines of McGill and Fuller, P.J. Freyer has
+done excellent work in England towards placing this operation upon a
+sound basis.
+
+Subsequently to the operation the bladder enjoys complete and needful
+rest, and the kidneys, which previously were in a condition of perpetual
+disturbance, improve in working power. The wound in the bladder and in
+the abdominal wall gradually closes; the function of the bladder
+returns, and the patient is soon able to go back to his usual occupation
+in greatly improved health and vigour. The operation is, necessarily, a
+serious one, and the age of the patient, the condition of his bladder,
+of his kidneys, and of his blood-vessels, require to be taken into
+consideration; still, the operation gives an excellent account of itself
+in statistics, and if a practical surgeon advises a patient to accept
+its risks his counsel may well be followed.
+
+  _Malignant disease of the prostate_ is distinguished from senile
+  glandular enlargement by the rapidity of its growth, by the freeness
+  of the bleeding which is associated with the introduction of a
+  catheter, and by the marked wasting which the individual undergoes.
+  Unfortunately, by the time that the cancerous nature of the disease is
+  definitely recognized, the prospect of relief being afforded by
+  operation is small.     (E. O.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Diseases of the Genito-urinary System_, by Eugene Fuller, M.D.
+    (London and New York, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+BLADDER-WORT, the name given to a submerged water plant, _Utricularia
+vulgaris_, with finely divided leaves upon which are borne small
+bladders provided with trap-door entrances which open only inwards.
+Small crustaceans and other aquatic animals push their way into the
+bladders and are unable to escape. The products of the decay of the
+organisms thus captured are absorbed into the plant by star-shaped hairs
+which line the interior of the bladder. In this way the plant is
+supplied with nitrogenous food from the animal kingdom. Bladder-wort
+bears small, yellow, two-lipped flowers on a stem which rises above the
+surface of the water. It is found in pools and ditches in the British
+Isles, and is widely distributed in the north temperate zone. The genus
+contains about two hundred species in tropical and temperate regions.
+
+[Illustration: A, Bladder of _Utricularia neglecta_ (after Darwin),
+enlarged. B, stellate hairs from interior of bladder of _U. vulgaris_.]
+
+
+
+
+BLADES, WILLIAM (1824-1890), English printer and bibliographer, was born
+at Clapham, London, on the 5th of December 1824. In 1840 he was
+apprenticed to his father's printing business in London, being
+subsequently taken into partnership. The firm was afterwards known as
+Blades, East & Blades. His interest in printing led him to make a study
+of the volumes produced by Caxton's press, and of the early history of
+printing in England. His _Life and Typography of William Caxton,
+England's First Printer_, was published in 1861-1863, and the
+conclusions which he set forth were arrived at by a careful examination
+of types in the early books, each class of type being traced from its
+first use to the time when, spoilt by wear, it passed out of Caxton's
+hands. Some 450 volumes from the Caxton Press were thus carefully
+compared and classified in chronological order. In 1877 Blades took an
+active part in organizing the Caxton celebration, and strongly supported
+the foundation of the Library Association. He was a keen collector of
+old books, prints and medals. His publications relate chiefly to the
+early history of printing, the _Enemies of Books_, his most popular
+work, being produced in 1881. He died at Sutton in Surrey on the 27th of
+April 1890.
+
+
+
+
+BLAENAVON, or BLAENAFON, an urban district in the northern parliamentary
+division of Monmouthshire, England, 15 m. N. by W. of Newport, on the
+Great Western, London & North Western and Rhymney railways. Pop. (1901)
+10,869. It lies in the uppermost part of the Afon Lwyd valley, at an
+elevation exceeding 1000 ft., in a wild and mountainous district, on the
+eastern edge of the great coal and iron mining region of Glamorganshire
+and Monmouthshire. There are very extensive iron and steel works, with
+blast furnaces and rolling mills in the district, which employ the large
+industrial population.
+
+
+
+
+BLAGOVYESHCHENSK, a town of East Siberia, chief town of the Amur
+government, on the left bank of the Amur, near its confluence with the
+Zeya in 50 deg. 15' N. lat. and 127 deg. 38' E. long., 610 m. by river
+above Khabarovsk. Founded in 1856, the town had, in 1900, 37,368
+inhabitants, and is the seat of the bishop of Amur and Kamchatka. There
+are steam flour-mills and ironworks. It is a centre for tea exported to
+Russia, cattle brought from Transbaikalia and Mongolia for the Amur, and
+for grain.
+
+
+
+
+BLAIKIE, WILLIAM GARDEN (1820-1899), Scottish divine, was born on the
+5th of February 1820, at Aberdeen, where his father had been the first
+provost of the reformed corporation. After studying at the Marischal
+College, where Alexander Bain and David Masson were among his
+contemporaries, he went in 1839 to Edinburgh to complete his theological
+course under Thomas Chalmers. In 1842 he was presented to the living of
+Drumblade by Lord Kintore, with whose family he was connected. The
+Disruption controversy reached its climax immediately afterwards, and
+Blaikie, whose sympathies were entirely with Chalmers, was one of the
+474 ministers who signed the deed of demission and gave up their
+livings. He was Free Church minister at Pilrig, between Edinburgh and
+Leith, from 1844 to 1868. Keenly interested in questions of social
+reform, his first publication was a pamphlet, which was afterwards
+enlarged into a book called _Better Days for Working People_. It
+received public commendation from Lord Brougham, and 60,000 copies were
+sold. He formed an association for providing better homes for working
+people, and the Pilrig Model Buildings were erected. He also undertook
+the editorship of the _Free Church Magazine_, and then that of the
+_North British Review_, which he carried on until 1863. In 1864 he was
+asked to undertake the Scottish editorship of the _Sunday Magazine_, and
+for this magazine much of his most characteristic literary work was
+done, especially in the editorial notes, then a new feature in magazine
+literature.
+
+In 1868 Blaikie was called to the chair of apologetics and pastoral
+theology at New College, Edinburgh. In dealing with the latter subject
+he was seen at his very best. He had wide experience, a comprehensive
+grasp of facts, abundant sympathy, an extensive knowledge of men, and a
+great capacity for teaching. In 1870 he was one of two representatives
+chosen from the Free Church of Scotland to attend the united general
+assembly of the Presbyterian churches of the United States. He prolonged
+his visit to make a thorough acquaintance with American Presbyterianism,
+and this, followed by a similar tour in Europe, fitted him to become the
+real founder of the Presbyterian Alliance. Much of his strength in the
+later years of life was given to this work. In 1892 he was elected to
+the chairmanship of the general assembly, the last of the moderators who
+had entered the church before the disruption. In 1897 he resigned his
+professorship, and died on the 11th of June 1899.
+
+Blaikie was an ardent philanthropist, and an active and intelligent
+temperance reformer, in days when this was far from easy. He raised
+L14,000 for the relief of the Waldensian churches. Although he took an
+active part in the affairs of his denomination, he was not a mere
+ecclesiastic. He had a keen eye for the evidences of spiritual growth or
+decline, and emphasized the need of maintaining a high level of
+spiritual life. He welcomed Moody to Scotland, and the evangelist made
+his headquarters with him during his first visit. His best books are
+_The Work of the Ministry--A Manual of Homiletic and Pastoral Theology_
+(1873); _The Books of Samuel_ in the _Expositors' Bible Series_ (2
+vols.); _The Personal Life of David Livingstone_ (1880); _After Fifty
+Years_ (1893), an account of the Disruption Movement in the form of
+letters of a grandfather; _Thomas Chalmers_ (1896).     (D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE (1830-1893), American statesman, was born in
+West Brownsville, Pennsylvania, on the 31st of January 1830, of sturdy
+Scottish-Irish stock on the side of his father. He was the
+great-grandson of Colonel Ephraim Blaine (1741-1804), who during the
+War of Independence served in the American army, from 1778 to 1782 as
+commissary-general of the Northern Department. With many early evidences
+of literary capacity and political aptitude, J.G. Blaine graduated at
+Washington College in Washington, Pennsylvania, in 1847, and
+subsequently taught successively in the Military Institute, Georgetown,
+Kentucky, and in the Institution for the Blind at Philadelphia. During
+this period, also, he studied law. Settling in Augusta, Maine, in 1854,
+he became editor of the _Kennebec Journal_, and subsequently of the
+_Portland Advertiser_. But his editorial work was soon abandoned for a
+more active public career. He was elected to the lower house of the
+state legislature in 1858, and served four years, the last two as
+speaker. He also became chairman of the Republican state committee in
+1859, and for more than twenty years personally directed every campaign
+of his party.
+
+In 1862 he was elected to Congress, serving in the House thirteen years
+(December 1863 to December 1876), followed by a little over four years
+in the Senate. He was chosen speaker of the House in 1869 and served
+three terms. The House was the fit arena for his political and
+parliamentary ability. He was a ready and powerful debater, full of
+resource, and dexterous in controversy. The tempestuous politics of the
+war and reconstruction period suited his aggressive nature and
+constructive talent. The measures for the rehabilitation of the states
+that had seceded from the Union occupied the chief attention of Congress
+for several years, and Blaine bore a leading part in framing and
+discussing them. The primary question related to the basis of
+representation upon which they should be restored to their full rank in
+the political system. A powerful section contended that the basis should
+be the body of legal voters, on the ground that the South could not then
+secure an increment of political power on account of the emancipated
+blacks unless these blacks were admitted to political rights. Blaine, on
+the other hand, contended that representation should be based on
+population instead of voters, as being fairer to the North, where the
+ratio of voters varied widely, and he insisted that it should be
+safeguarded by security for impartial suffrage. This view prevailed, and
+the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution was substantially Blaine's
+proposition. In the same spirit he opposed a scheme of military
+governments for the southern states, unless associated with a plan by
+which, upon the acceptance of prescribed conditions, they could release
+themselves from military rule and resume civil government. He was the
+first in Congress to oppose the claim, which gained momentary and
+widespread favour in 1867, that the public debt, pledged in coin, should
+be paid in greenbacks. The protection of naturalized citizens who, on
+return to their native land, were subject to prosecution on charges of
+disloyalty, enlisted his active interest and support, and the agitation,
+in which he was conspicuous, led to the treaty of 1870 between the
+United States and Great Britain, which placed adopted and native
+citizens on the same footing.
+
+As the presidential election of 1876 approached, Blaine was clearly the
+popular favourite of his party. His chance for securing the nomination,
+however, was materially lessened by persistent charges which were
+brought against him by the Democrats that as a member of Congress he had
+been guilty of corruption in his relations with the Little Rock & Fort
+Smith and the Northern Pacific railways.[1] By the majority of
+Republicans, at least, he was considered to have cleared himself
+completely, and in the Republican national convention he missed by only
+twenty-eight votes the nomination for president, being finally beaten by
+a combination of the supporters of all the other candidates. Thereupon
+he entered the Senate, where his activity was unabated. Currency
+legislation was especially prominent. Blaine, who had previously opposed
+greenback inflation now resisted depreciated silver coinage. He was the
+earnest champion of the advancement of American shipping, and advocated
+liberal subsidies, insisting that the policy of protection should be
+applied on sea as well as on land. The Republican national convention
+of 1880, divided between the two nearly equal forces of Blaine and
+General U.S. Grant--John Sherman of Ohio also having a considerable
+following--struggled through thirty-six ballots, when the friends of
+Blaine, combining with those of Sherman, succeeded in nominating General
+James A. Garfield. In the new administration Blaine became secretary of
+state, but, owing to the assassination of President Garfield and the
+reorganization of the cabinet by President Chester A. Arthur, he held
+the office only until December 1881. His brief service was distinguished
+by several notable steps. In order to promote the friendly understanding
+and co-operation of the nations on the American continents he projected
+a Pan-American congress, which, after being arranged for, was frustrated
+by his retirement. He also sought to secure a modification of the
+Clayton-Bulwer treaty, and in an extended correspondence with the
+British government strongly asserted the policy of an exclusive American
+control of any isthmian canal which might be built to connect the
+Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
+
+With undiminished hold on the imagination and devotion of his followers
+he was nominated for president in 1884. After a heated canvass, in which
+he made a series of brilliant speeches, he was beaten by a narrow margin
+in New York. By many, including Blaine himself, the defeat was
+attributed to the effect of a phrase, "Rum, Romanism and Rebellion,"
+used by a clergyman, Rev. Samuel D. Burchard (1812-1891), on the 29th of
+October 1884, in Blaine's presence, to characterize what, in his
+opinion, the Democratic party stood for. The phrase was not Blaine's,
+but his opponents made use of it to misrepresent his attitude toward the
+Roman Catholics, large numbers of whom are supposed, in consequence, to
+have withdrawn their support. Refusing to be a presidential candidate in
+1888, he became secretary of state under President Harrison, and resumed
+his work which had been interrupted nearly eight years before. The
+Pan-American congress, then projected, now met in Washington, and
+Blaine, as its master spirit, presided over and guided its deliberation
+through its session of five months. Its most important conclusions were
+for reciprocity in trade, a continental railway and compulsory
+arbitration in international complications. Shaping the tariff
+legislation for this policy, Blaine negotiated a large number of
+reciprocity treaties which augmented the commerce of his country. He
+upheld American rights in Samoa, pursued a vigorous diplomacy with Italy
+over the lynching of eleven Italians, all except three of them American
+naturalized citizens, in New Orleans on the 14th of May 1891, held a
+firm attitude during the strained relations between the United States
+and Chile (growing largely out of the killing and wounding of American
+sailors of the U.S. ship "Baltimore" by Chileans in Valparaiso on the
+16th of October 1891), and carried on with Great Britain a resolute
+controversy over the seal fisheries of Bering Sea,--a difference
+afterwards settled by arbitration. He resigned on the 4th of June 1892,
+on the eve of the meeting of the Republican national convention, wherein
+his name was ineffectually used, and he died at Washington, D.C., on the
+27th of January 1803.
+
+During his later years of leisure he wrote _Twenty Years of Congress_
+(1884-1886), a brilliant historical work in two volumes. Of singularly
+alert faculties, with a remarkable knowledge of the men and history of
+his country, and an extraordinary memory, his masterful talent for
+politics and state-craft, together with his captivating manner and
+engaging personality, gave him, for nearly two decades, an unrivalled
+hold upon the fealty and affection of his party.
+
+  See the _Biography of James G. Blaine_ (Norwich, Conn., 1895) by Mary
+  Abigail Dodge ("Gail Hamilton"), and, in the "American Statesmen
+  Series," _James G. Blaine_ (Boston, 1905) by C.E. Stanwood; also Mrs
+  Blaine's _Letters_ (1908).     (C. E. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This attack led to a dramatic scene in the House, in which Blaine
+    fervidly asseverated his denial.
+
+
+
+
+BLAINVILLE, HENRI MARIE DUCROTAY DE (1777-1850), French naturalist, was
+born at Arques, near Dieppe, on the 12th of September 1777. About 1796
+he went to Paris to study painting, but he ultimately devoted himself to
+natural history, and attracted the attention of Baron Cuvier, for whom
+he occasionally lectured at the College de France and at the Athenaeum.
+In 1812 he was aided by Cuvier to obtain the chair of anatomy and
+zoology in the Faculty of Sciences at Paris, but subsequently an
+estrangement grew up between the two men and ended in open enmity. In
+1825 Blainville was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences; and in
+1830 he was appointed to succeed J.B. Lamarck in the chair of natural
+history at the museum. Two years later, on the death of Cuvier, he
+obtained the chair of comparative anatomy, which he continued to occupy
+for the space of eighteen years, proving himself no unworthy successor
+to his great teacher. He died at Paris on the 1st of May 1850. Besides
+many separate memoirs, he was the author of _Prodrome d'une nouvelle
+distribution methodique du regne animal_ (1816); _Osteographic ou
+description iconographique comparee du squelette, &c._ (1839-1864);
+_Faune francaise_ (1821-1830); _Corns de physiologie generale et
+comparee_ (1833); _Manuel de malacologie et de conchyliologie_
+(1825-1827); _Histoire des sciences de l'organisme_ (1845).
+
+
+
+
+BLAIR, FRANCIS PRESTON (1791-1876), American journalist and politician,
+was born at Abingdon, Virginia, on the 12th of April 1791. He removed to
+Kentucky, graduated at Transylvania University in 1811, took to
+journalism, and was a contributor to Amos Kendall's paper, the _Argus_,
+at Frankfort. In 1830, having become an ardent follower of Andrew
+Jackson, he was made editor of the Washington _Globe_, the recognized
+organ of the Jackson party. In this capacity, and as a member of
+Jackson's "Kitchen Cabinet," he long exerted a powerful influence; the
+_Globe_ was the administration organ until 1841, and the chief
+Democratic organ until 1845; Blair ceased to be its editor in 1849. In
+1848 he actively supported Martin Van Buren, the Free Soil candidate,
+for the presidency, and in 1852 he supported Franklin Pierce, but soon
+afterwards helped to organize the new Republican party, and presided at
+its preliminary convention at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in February 1856.
+He was influential in securing the nomination of John C. Fremont at the
+June convention (1856), and of Abraham Lincoln in 1860. After Lincoln's
+re-election in 1864 Blair thought that his former close personal
+relations with the Confederate leaders might aid in bringing about a
+cessation of hostilities, and with Lincoln's consent went unofficially
+to Richmond and induced President Jefferson Davis to appoint
+commissioners to confer with representatives of the United States. This
+resulted in the futile "Hampton Roads Conference" of the 3rd of February
+1865 (see LINCOLN, ABRAHAM). After the Civil War Blair became a
+supporter of President Johnson's reconstruction policy, and eventually
+rejoined the Democratic party. He died at Silver Spring, Maryland, on
+the 18th of October 1876.
+
+His son, MONTGOMERY BLAIR (1813-1883), politician and lawyer, was born
+in Franklin county, Kentucky, on the 10th of May 1813. He graduated at
+West Point in 1835, but, after a year's service in the Seminole War,
+left the army, studied law, and began practice at St Louis, Missouri.
+After serving as United States district attorney (1839-1843), as mayor
+of St Louis (1842-1843), and as judge of the court of common pleas
+(1843-1849), he removed to Maryland (1852), and devoted himself to law
+practice principally in the Federal supreme court. He was United States
+solicitor in the court of claims from 1855 until 1858, and was
+associated with George T. Curtis as counsel for the plaintiff in the
+Dred Scott case in 1857. In 1860 he took an active part in the
+presidential campaign in behalf of Lincoln, in whose cabinet he was
+postmaster-general from 1861 until September 1864, when he resigned as a
+result of the hostility of the Radical Republican faction, who
+stipulated that Blair's retirement should follow the withdrawal of
+Fremont's name as a candidate for the presidential nomination in that
+year. Under his administration such reforms and improvements as the
+establishment of free city delivery, the adoption of a money order
+system, and the use of railway mail cars were instituted --the last
+having been suggested by George B. Armstrong (d. 1871), of Chicago, who
+from 1869 until his death was general superintendent of the United
+States railway mail service. Differing from the Republican party on the
+reconstruction policy, Blair gave his adherence to the Democratic party
+after the Civil War. He died at Silver Spring, Maryland, on the 27th of
+July 1883.
+
+Another son, FRANCIS PRESTON BLAIR, jun. (1821-1875), soldier and
+political leader, was born at Lexington, Kentucky, on the 19th of
+February 1821. After graduating at Princeton in 1841 he practised law in
+St Louis, and later served in the Mexican War. He was ardently opposed
+to the extension of slavery and supported Martin Van Buren, the Free
+Soil candidate for the presidency in 1848. He served from 1852 to 1856
+in the Missouri legislature as a Free Soil Democrat, in 1856 joined the
+Republican party, and in 1857-1860 and 1861-1862 was a member of
+Congress, where he proved an able debater. Immediately after South
+Carolina's secession, Blair, believing that the southern leaders were
+planning to carry Missouri into the movement, began active efforts to
+prevent it and personally organized and equipped a secret body of 1000
+men to be ready for the emergency. When hostilities became inevitable,
+acting in conjunction with Captain (later General) Nathaniel Lyon, he
+suddenly transferred the arms in the Federal arsenal at St Louis to
+Alton, Illinois, and a few days later (May 10, 1861) surrounded and
+captured a force of state guards which had been stationed at Camp
+Jackson in the suburbs of St Louis with the intention of seizing the
+arsenal. This action gave the Federal cause a decisive initial advantage
+in Missouri. Blair was promoted brigadier-general of volunteers in
+August 1862 and a major-general in November 1862. In Congress as
+chairman of the important military affairs committee his services were
+of the greatest value. He commanded a division in the Vicksburg campaign
+and in the fighting about Chattanooga, and was one of Sherman's corps
+commanders in the final campaigns in Georgia and the Carolinas. In 1866
+like his father and brother he opposed the Congressional reconstruction
+policy, and on that issue left the Republican party. In 1868 he was the
+Democratic candidate for vice-president on the ticket with Horatio
+Seymour. In 1871-1873 he was a United States senator from Missouri. He
+died in St Louis, on the 8th of July 1875.
+
+
+
+
+BLAIR, HUGH (1718-1800), Scottish Presbyterian divine, was born on the
+7th of April 1718, at Edinburgh, where his father was a merchant.
+Entering the university in 1730 he graduated M.A. in 1739; his thesis,
+_De Fundamentis et Obligations Legis Naturae_, contains an outline of
+the moral principles afterwards unfolded in his sermons. He was licensed
+to preach in 1741, and a few months later the earl of Leven, hearing of
+his eloquence, presented him to the parish of Collessie in Fife. In 1743
+he was elected to the second charge of the Canongate church, Edinburgh,
+where he ministered until removed to Lady Yester's, one of the city
+churches, in 1754. In 1757 the university of St Andrews conferred on him
+the degree of D.D., and in the following year he was promoted to the
+High Church, Edinburgh, the most important charge in Scotland. In 1759
+he began, under the patronage of Lord Kames, to deliver a course of
+lectures on composition, the success of which led to the foundation of a
+chair of rhetoric and _belles lettres_ in the Edinburgh University. To
+this chair he was appointed in 1762, with a salary of L70 a year. Having
+long taken interest in the Celtic poetry of the Highlands, he published
+in 1763 a laudatory _Dissertation_ on Macpherson's _Ossian_, the
+authenticity of which he maintained. In 1777 the first volume of his
+_Sermons_ appeared. It was succeeded by four other volumes, all of which
+met with the greatest success. Samuel Johnson praised them warmly, and
+they were translated into almost every language of Europe. In 1780
+George III. conferred upon Blair a pension of L200 a year. In 1783 he
+retired from his professorship and published his _Lectures on Rhetoric_,
+which have been frequently reprinted. He died on the 27th of December
+1800. Blair belonged to the "moderate" or latitudinarian party, and his
+_Sermons_ have been criticized as wanting in doctrinal definiteness. His
+works display little originality, but are written in a flowing and
+elaborate style. He is remembered chiefly by the place he fills in the
+literature of his time. _Blair's Sermons_ is a typical religious book of
+the period that preceded the Anglican revival.
+
+  See J. Hall, _Account of Life and Writings of Hugh Blair_ (1807).
+
+
+
+
+BLAIR, JAMES (1656-1743), American divine and educationalist, was born
+in Scotland, probably at Edinburgh, in 1656. He graduated M.A. at
+Edinburgh University in 1673, was beneficed in the Episcopal Church in
+Scotland, and for a time was rector of Cranston Parish in the diocese of
+Edinburgh. In 1682 he left Scotland for England, and three years later
+was sent by the bishop of London, Henry Compton, as a missionary to
+Virginia. He soon gained great influence over the colonists both in
+ecclesiastical and in civil affairs, and, according to Prof. Moses Coit
+Tyler, "probably no other man in the colonial time did so much for the
+intellectual life of Virginia." He was the minister of Henrico parish
+from 1685 until 1694, of the Jamestown church from 1694 until 1710, and
+of Bruton church at Williamsburg from 1710 until his death. From 1689
+until his death he was the commissary of the bishop of London for
+Virginia, the highest ecclesiastical position in the colony, his duties
+consisting "in visiting the parishes, correcting the lives of the
+clergy, and keeping them orderly." In 1693, by the appointment of King
+William III., he became a member of the council of Virginia, of which he
+was for many years the president. Largely because of charges brought
+against them by Blair, Governor Sir Edmund Andros, Lieutenant-governor
+Francis Nicholson, and Lieutenant-governor Alexander Spotswood were
+removed in 1698, 1705 and 1722 respectively. Blair's greatest service to
+the colony was rendered as the founder, and the president from 1693
+until his death, of the College of William and Mary, for which he
+himself secured a charter in England. "Thus, James Blair may be called,"
+says Tyler, "the creator of the healthiest and most extensive
+intellectual influence that was felt in the Southern group of colonies
+before the Revolution." He died on the 18th of April 1743, and was
+buried at Jamestown, Va. He published a collection of 117 discourses
+under the title _Our Saviour's Divine Sermon on the Mount_ (4 vols.,
+1722; second edition, 1732), and, in collaboration with Henry Hartwell
+and Edward Chilton, a work entitled _The Present State of Virginia and
+the College_ (1727; written in 1693), probably the best account of the
+Virginia of that time.
+
+  See Daniel E. Motley's _Life of Commissary James Blair_ (Baltimore,
+  1901; series xix. No. 10, of the Johns Hopkins University Studies in
+  Historical and Political Science), and, for a short sketch and an
+  estimate, M.C. Tyler's _A History of American Literature, 1607-1765_
+  (New York, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+BLAIR, ROBERT (1699-1746), Scottish poet, eldest son of the Rev. Robert
+Blair, one of the king's chaplains, was born at Edinburgh in 1699. He
+was educated at Edinburgh University and in Holland, and in 1731 was
+appointed to the living of Athelstaneford in East Lothian. He married in
+1738 Isabella, daughter of Professor William Law. The possession of a
+small fortune gave him leisure for his favourite pursuits, gardening and
+the study of English poets. He died at Athelstaneford on the 4th of
+February 1746. His only considerable work, _The Grave_ (1743), is a poem
+written in blank verse of great vigour and freshness, and is much less
+conventional than its gloomy subject might lead one to expect. Its
+religious subject no doubt contributed to its great popularity,
+especially in Scotland; but the vogue it attained was justified by its
+picturesque imagery and occasional felicity of expression. It inspired
+William Blake to undertake a series of twelve illustrative designs,
+which were engraved by Louis Schiavonetti, and published in 1808.
+
+  See the biographical introduction prefixed to his _Poetical Works_, by
+  Dr Robert Anderson, in his _Poets of Great Britain_, vol. viii.
+  (1794.)
+
+
+
+
+BLAIR ATHOLL (Gaelic _blair_, "a plain"), a village and parish of
+Perthshire, Scotland, 35-1/4 m. N.W. of Perth by the Highland railway.
+Pop. (1901) 367; of parish, 1722. It is situated at the confluence of
+the Tilt and the Garry. The oldest part of Blair Castle, a seat of the
+duke of Atholl, dates from 1269; as restored and enlarged in 1869-1872
+from the plans of David Bryce, R.S.A., it is a magnificent example of
+the Scottish baronial style. It was occupied by the marquess of Montrose
+prior to the battle of Tippermuir in 1644, stormed by the Cromwellians
+in 1653, and garrisoned on behalf of James II. in 1689. The Young
+Pretender stayed in it in 1743, and the duke of Cumberland in 1746. The
+body of Viscount Dundee, conveyed hither from the battlefield of
+Killiecrankie, was buried in the church of Old Blair, in which a
+monument was erected to his memory in 1889 by the 7th duke of Atholl.
+The grounds surrounding the castle are among the most beautiful in the
+Highlands. A golf course has been laid down south-east of the village,
+between the railway and the Garry, and every September a great display
+of Highland games is held. Ben-y-gloe (3671 ft. high), the scene of the
+hunt given in 1529 by the earl of Atholl in honour of James V. and the
+queen dowager, may be climbed by way of Fender Burn, a left-hand
+tributary of the Tilt. The falls of Fender, near the old bridge of Tilt,
+are eclipsed by the falls of Bruar, 4 m. west of Blair Atholl, formed by
+the Bruar, which, rising in Ben Dearg (3304 ft.), flows into the Garry
+after an impetuous course of 10 m.
+
+
+
+
+BLAIRGOWRIE, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, situated on the
+Ericht. Pop. (1901) 3378. It is the terminus of a branch line of the
+Caledonian railway from Coupar Angus, from which it is 4-3/4 m. distant,
+and is 16 m. N. by E. of Perth by road. The town is entirely modern, and
+owes its progress to the water-power supplied by the Ericht for linen
+and jute factories. There are also sawmills, breweries and a large
+factory for bee appliances. Strawberries, raspberries and other fruits
+are largely grown in the neighbourhood. A park was presented to the town
+in 1892. On the left bank of the Ericht, opposite Blairgowrie, with
+which it is connected by a four-arched bridge, stands the town and
+police burgh of Rattray (pop. 2019), where there are flax and jute
+mills. Donald Cargill the Covenanter, who was executed at Edinburgh, was
+a native of the parish. Four miles west of Blairgowrie, on the coach
+road to Dunkeld, lies Loch Clunie, of some interest historically. On a
+crannog in the lake are the ruins of a small castle which belonged to
+James ("the Admirable") Crichton, and the large mound near the loch was
+the site of the castle in which Edward I. lodged on one of his Scottish
+expeditions.
+
+
+
+
+BLAKE, EDWARD (1833-   ), Irish-Canadian statesman, eldest son of
+William Hume Blake of Cashel Grove, Co. Galway, who settled in Canada in
+1832, and there became a distinguished lawyer and chancellor of Ontario,
+was born on the 13th of October 1833 at Adelaide in Middlesex county,
+Ontario. Educated at Upper Canada College and the university of Toronto,
+Blake was called to the bar in 1856 and quickly obtained a good
+practice, becoming Q.C. in 1864. In 1867 he was elected member for West
+Durham in the Dominion parliament, and for South Bruce in the provincial
+legislature, in which he became leader of the Liberal opposition two
+years later. On the defeat of John Sandfield Macdonald's government in
+1871 Blake became prime minister of Ontario, but resigned this office
+the same year in consequence of the abolition of dual representation. He
+declined the leadership of the Liberal party in the Dominion parliament,
+but, having taken an active part in bringing about the overthrow of Sir
+John Macdonald's ministry in 1873, joined the Liberal cabinet of
+Alexander Mackenzie, though without portfolio or salary. Impaired health
+soon compelled him to resign, and to take the voyage to Europe; on his
+return in 1875 he rejoined the cabinet as minister of justice, in which
+office it fell to him to take the chief part in framing the constitution
+of the supreme court of Canada. Continued ill-health compelled him in
+1877 again to seek rest in Europe, having first exchanged the portfolio
+of justice for the less exacting office of president of the council.
+During his absence the Liberal government was driven from power by the
+elections of 1878; and Blake himself, having failed to secure
+re-election, was for a short time without a seat in parliament. From
+1880 to 1887 he was leader of the opposition, being succeeded on his
+resignation of the position in the latter year by Mr (afterwards Sir)
+Wilfrid Laurier. In 1892 he became a member of the British House of
+Commons as an Irish Nationalist, being elected for South Longford. But
+he did not fulfil the expectations which had been formed on the strength
+of his colonial reputation; he took no very prominent part in debate,
+and gave little evidence of his undoubted oratorical gifts. In 1907 he
+retired from public life. In 1858 he had married Margaret, daughter of
+Benjamin Cronyn, first bishop of Huron.
+
+  See John Charles Dent, _The Last Forty Years: Canada Since the Union
+  of 1841_ (2 vols., Toronto, 1881); J.S. Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier
+  and the Liberal Party_ (2 vols., London, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+BLAKE, ROBERT (1509-1657), English parliamentarian and admiral, was born
+at Bridgwater in Somersetshire. The day of his birth is not known, but
+he was baptized on the 27th of September 1599. Blake was the eldest son
+of a well-to-do merchant, and received his early education at the
+grammar school of Bridgwater. In 1615 he was sent to Oxford, entering at
+first St Alban's Hall, but removing afterwards to Wadham College, then
+recently founded. He remained at the university till 1625, but failed to
+obtain any college preferment. Nothing is known of his life with
+certainty for the next fifteen years. An anonymous Dutch writer, in the
+_Hollandische Mercurius_ (1652), represents him as saying that he had
+lived in Schiedam "for five or six years" in his youth. He doubtless
+engaged in trade, and apparently with success. When, after eleven years
+of kingship without parliaments, a parliament was summoned to meet in
+April 1640, Blake was elected to represent his native borough. This
+parliament, named "the Short," was dissolved in three weeks, and the
+career of Blake as a politician was suspended. Two years later the
+inevitable conflict began. Blake declared for the Parliament, and served
+under Sir John Horner. In 1643 he was entrusted with the command of one
+of the forts of Bristol. This he stoutly held during the siege of the
+town by Prince Rupert, and earned the approval of parliament by refusing
+to surrender his post till duly informed of the capitulation. In 1644 he
+gained high distinction by the resolute defence of Lyme in Dorsetshire.
+The siege was raised on the 23rd of May, and on the 8th of July Blake
+took Taunton by surprise, and notwithstanding its imperfect defences and
+inadequate supplies, held the town for the Parliament against two sieges
+by the Royalists until July 1645, when it was relieved by Fairfax. In
+1645 he re-entered parliament as member for Taunton, when the Royalist
+Colonel Windham was expelled.
+
+He adhered to the Parliamentary party after the king's death, and within
+a month (February 1649) was appointed, with Colonels Dean and Popham, to
+the command of the fleet, under the title of General of the Sea. In
+April he was sent in pursuit of Prince Rupert, who with the Royalist
+fleet had entered the harbour of Kinsale in Ireland. There he blockaded
+the prince for six months; and when the latter, in want of provisions,
+and hopeless of relief, succeeded in making his escape with the fleet
+and in reaching the Tagus, Blake followed him thither, and again
+blockaded him for some months. The king of Portugal refusing permission
+for Blake to attack his enemy, the latter made reprisals by falling on
+the Portuguese fleet, richly laden, returning from Brazil. He captured
+seventeen ships and burnt three, bringing his prizes home without
+molestation. After revictualling his fleet, he sailed again, captured a
+French man-of-war, and then pursued Prince Rupert, who had been asked to
+go away by the Portuguese and had entered the Mediterranean. In November
+1650 Blake destroyed the bulk of the Royalist squadron near Cartagena.
+The thanks of parliament were voted to Blake, and he received a grant of
+L1000. He was continued in his office of admiral and general of the sea;
+and in May following he took, in conjunction with Ayscue, the Scilly
+Islands. For this service the thanks of parliament were again awarded
+him, and he was soon after made a member of the council of state.
+
+In 1652 war broke out with the Dutch, who had made great preparations
+for the conflict. In March the command of the fleet was given to Blake
+for nine months; and in the middle of May the Dutch fleet of forty-five
+ships, led by their great admiral Tromp, appeared in the Downs. Blake,
+who had only twenty ships, sailed to meet them, and the battle took
+place off Dover on the 19th of May. The Dutch were defeated in an
+engagement of four or five hours, lost two ships, and withdrew under
+cover of darkness. Attempts at accommodation were made by the states,
+but they failed. Early in July war was formally declared, and in the
+same month Blake captured a large part of the Dutch fishery-fleet and
+the twelve men-of-war that formed their convoy. On the 28th of September
+Blake and Penn again encountered the Dutch fleet, now commanded by De
+Ruyter and De Witt, off the Kentish Knock, defeated it, and chased it
+for two days. The Dutch took refuge in Goree. A third battle was fought
+near the end of November. By this time the ships under Blake's command
+had been reduced in number to forty, and nearly the half of these were
+useless for want of seamen. Tromp, who had been reinstated in command,
+appeared in the Downs, with a fleet of eighty ships besides ten
+fireships. Blake, nevertheless, risked a battle off Dungeness, but was
+defeated, and withdrew into the Thames. The English fleet having been
+refitted, put to sea again in February 1653; and on the 18th Blake, at
+the head of eighty ships, encountered Tromp in the Channel. The Dutch
+force, according to Clarendon, numbered 100 ships of war, but according
+to the official reports of the Dutch, only seventy. The battle was
+severe, and continued through three days, the Dutch, however,
+retreating, and taking refuge in the shallow waters off the French
+coast. In this action Blake was severely wounded. The three English
+admirals put to sea again in May; and on the 3rd and 4th of June another
+battle was fought near the North Foreland. On the first day Dean and
+Monk were repulsed by Tromp; but on the second day the scales were
+turned by the arrival of Blake, and the Dutch retreated to the Texel.
+
+Ill-health now compelled Blake to retire from the service for a time,
+and he did not appear again on the seas for about eighteen months;
+meanwhile he sat as a member of the Little Parliament (Barebones's). In
+November 1654 he was selected by Cromwell to conduct a fleet to the
+Mediterranean to exact compensation from the duke of Tuscany, the
+knights of Malta, and the piratical states of North Africa, for wrongs
+done to English merchants. This mission he executed with his accustomed
+spirit and with complete success. Tunis alone dared to resist his
+demands, and Tunis paid the penalty of the destruction of its two
+fortresses by English guns. In the winter of 1655-1656, war being
+declared against Spain, Blake was sent to cruise off Cadiz and the
+neighbouring coasts, to intercept the Spanish shipping. One of his
+captains captured a part of the Plate fleet in September 1656. In April
+1657 Blake, then in very ill health, suffering from dropsy and scurvy,
+and anxious to have assistance in his arduous duties, heard that the
+Plate fleet lay at anchor in the bay of Santa Cruz, in the island of
+Teneriffe. The position was a very strong one, defended by a castle and
+several forts with guns. Under the shelter of these lay a fleet of
+sixteen ships drawn up in crescent order. Captain Stayner was ordered to
+enter the bay and fall on the fleet. This he did. Blake followed him.
+Broadsides were poured into the castle and the forts at the same time;
+and soon nothing was left but ruined walls and charred fragments of
+burnt ships. The wind was blowing hard into the bay; but suddenly, and
+fortunately for the heroic Blake, it shifted, and carried him safely out
+to sea. "The whole action," says Clarendon, "was so incredible that all
+men who knew the place wondered that any sober man, with what courage
+soever endowed, would ever have undertaken it; and they could hardly
+persuade themselves to believe what they had done; while the Spaniards
+comforted themselves with the belief that they were devils and not men
+who had destroyed them in such a manner." The English lost one ship and
+200 men killed and wounded. The thanks of parliament were voted to
+officers and men; and a very costly jewel (diamond ring) was presented
+to Blake, "as a testimony," says Cromwell in his letter of 10th June,
+"of our own and the parliament's good acceptance of your carriage in
+this action." "This was the last action of the brave Blake."
+
+After again cruising for a time off Cadiz, his health failing more and
+more, he was compelled to make homewards before the summer was over. He
+died at sea, but within sight of Plymouth, on the 17th of August 1657.
+His body was brought to London and embalmed, and after lying in state at
+Greenwich House was interred with great pomp and solemnity in
+Westminster Abbey. In 1661 Charles II. ordered the exhumation of
+Blake's body, with those of the mother and daughter of Cromwell and
+several others. They were cast out of the abbey, and were reburied in
+the churchyard of St Margaret's. "But that regard," says Johnson, "which
+was denied his body has been paid to his better remains, his name and
+his memory. Nor has any writer dared to deny him the praise of
+intrepidity, honesty, contempt of wealth, and love of his country."
+Clarendon bears the following testimony to his excellence as a
+commander:--"He was the first man that declined the old track, and made
+it apparent that the science might be attained in less time than was
+imagined. He was the first man that brought ships to contemn castles on
+the shore, which had ever been thought very formidable, but were
+discovered by him to make a noise only, and to fright those who could be
+rarely hurt by them."
+
+  A life of Blake is included in the work entitled _Lives, English and
+  Foreign_. Dr Johnson wrote a short life of him, and in 1852 appeared
+  Hepworth Dixon's fuller narrative, _Robert Blake, Admiral and General
+  at Sea_. Much new matter for the biography of Blake will be found in
+  the _Letters and Papers Relating to the First Dutch War_, edited by
+  S.R. Gardiner for the Navy Records Society (1898-1899.)
+
+
+
+
+BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827), English poet and painter, was born in
+London, on the 28th of November 1757. His father, James Blake, kept a
+hosier's shop in Broad Street, Golden Square; and from the scanty
+education which the young artist received, it may be judged that the
+circumstances of the family were not very prosperous. For the facts of
+William Blake's early life the world is indebted to a little book,
+called _A Father's Memoirs on a Child_, written by Dr Malkin in 1806.
+Here we learn that young Blake quickly developed a taste for design,
+which his father appears to have had sufficient intelligence to
+recognize and assist by every means in his power. At the age of ten the
+boy was sent to a drawing school kept by Henry Pars in the Strand, and
+at the same time he was already cultivating his own taste by constant
+attendance at the different art sale rooms, where he was known as the
+"little connoisseur." Here he began to collect prints after
+Michelangelo, and Raphael, Durer and Heemskerk, while at the school in
+the Strand he had the opportunity of drawing from the antique. After
+four years of this preliminary instruction Blake entered upon another
+branch of art study. In 1777 he was apprenticed to James Basire, an
+engraver of repute, and with him he remained seven years. His
+apprenticeship had an important bearing on Blake's artistic education,
+and marks the department of art in which he was made technically
+proficient. In 1778, at the end of his apprenticeship, he proceeded to
+the school of the Royal Academy, where he continued his early study from
+the antique, and had for the first time an opportunity of drawing from
+the living model.
+
+This is in brief all that is known of Blake's artistic education. That
+he ever, at the academy or elsewhere, systematically studied painting we
+do not know; but that he had already begun the practice of water colour
+for himself is ascertained. So far, however, the course of his training
+in art schools, and under Basire, was calculated to render him
+proficient only as a draughtsman and an engraver. He had learned how to
+draw, and he had mastered besides the practical difficulties of
+engraving, and with these qualifications he entered upon his career. In
+1780 he exhibited a picture in the Royal Academy Exhibition, conjectured
+to have been executed in water colours, and he continued to contribute
+to the annual exhibitions up to the year 1808. In 1782 he married
+Catherine Boucher, the daughter of a market-gardener at Battersea, with
+whom he lived always on affectionate terms, and the young couple after
+their marriage established themselves in Green Street, Leicester Fields.
+Blake had already become acquainted with some of the rising artists of
+his time, amongst them Stothard, Flaxman and Fuseli, and he now began to
+see something of literary society. At the house of the Rev. Henry
+Mathew, in Rathbone Place, he used to recite and sometimes to sing poems
+of his own composition, and it was through the influence of this
+gentleman, combined with that of Flaxman, that Blake's first volume of
+poetry was printed and published in 1783. From this time forward the
+artist came before the world in a double capacity. By education as well
+as native talent, he was pledged to the life of a painter, and these
+_Poetical Sketches_, though they are often no more than the utterances
+of a boy, are no less decisive in marking Blake as a future poet.
+
+For a while the two gifts are exhibited in association. To the close of
+his life Blake continued to print and publish, after a manner of his
+own, the inventions of his verse illustrated by original designs, but
+there is a certain period in his career when the union of the two gifts
+is peculiarly close, and when their service to one another is
+unquestionable. In 1784 Blake, moving from Green Street, set up in
+company with a fellow-pupil, Parker, as print-seller and engraver next
+to his father's house in Broad Street, Golden Square, but in 1787 this
+partnership was severed, and he established an independent business in
+Poland Street. It was from this house, and in 1787, that the _Songs of
+Innocence_ were published, a work that must always be remarkable for
+beauty both of verse and of design, as well as for the singular method
+by which the two were combined and expressed by the artist. Blake became
+in fact his own printer and publisher. He engraved upon copper, by a
+process devised by himself, both the text of his poems and the
+surrounding decorative design, and to the pages printed from the copper
+plates an appropriate colouring was afterwards added by hand. The poetic
+genius already discernible in the first volume of _Poetical Sketches_ is
+here more decisively expressed, and some of the songs in this volume
+deserve to take rank with the best things of their kind in our
+literature. In an age of enfeebled poetic style, when Wordsworth, with
+more weighty apparatus, had as yet scarcely begun his reform of English
+versification, Blake, unaided by any contemporary influence, produced a
+work of fresh and living beauty; and if the _Songs of Innocence_
+established Blake's claim to the title of poet, the setting in which
+they were given to the world proved that he was also something more. For
+the full development of his artistic powers we have to wait till a later
+date, but here at least he exhibits a just and original understanding of
+the sources of decorative beauty. Each page of these poems is a study of
+design, full of invention, and often wrought with the utmost delicacy of
+workmanship. The artist retained to the end this feeling for decorative
+effect; but as time went on, he considerably enlarged the imaginative
+scope of his work, and decoration then became the condition rather than
+the aim of his labour.
+
+Notwithstanding the distinct and precious qualities of this volume, it
+attracted but slight attention, a fact perhaps not very wonderful, when
+the system of publication is taken into account. Blake, however,
+proceeded with other work of the same kind. The same year he published
+_The Book of Thel_, more decidedly mystic in its poetry, but scarcely
+less beautiful as a piece of illumination; _The Marriage of Heaven and
+Hell_ followed in 1790; and in 1793 there are added _The Gates of
+Paradise_, _The Vision of the Daughters of Albion_, and some other
+"Prophetic Books." It becomes abundantly clear on reaching this point in
+his career that Blake's utterances cannot be judged by ordinary rules.
+The _Songs of Experience_, put forth in 1794 as a companion to the
+earlier _Songs of Innocence_, are for the most part intelligible and
+coherent, but in these intervening works of prophecy, as they were
+called by the author, we get the first public expression of that phase
+of his character and of his genius upon which a charge of insanity has
+been founded. The question whether Blake was or was not mad seems likely
+to remain in dispute, but there can be no doubt whatever that he was at
+different periods of his life under the influence of illusions for which
+there are no outward facts to account, and that much of what he wrote is
+so far wanting in the quality of sanity as to be without a logical
+coherence. On the other hand, it is equally clear that no madness
+imputed to Blake could equal that which would be involved in the
+rejection of his work on this ground. The greatness of Blake's mind is
+even better established than its frailty, and in considering the work
+that he has left we must remember that it is by the sublimity of his
+genius, and not by any mental defect, that he is most clearly
+distinguished from his fellows. With the publication of the _Songs of
+Experience_ Blake's poetic career, so far at least as ordinary readers
+are concerned, may be said to close. A writer of prophecy he continued
+for many years, but the works by which he is best known in poetry are
+those earlier and simpler efforts, supplemented by a few pieces taken
+from various sources, some of which were of later production. But
+although Blake the poet ceases in a general sense at this date, Blake
+the artist is only just entering upon his career. In the _Songs of
+Innocence_ and _Experience_, and even in some of the earlier _Books of
+Prophecy_, the two gifts worked together in perfect balance and harmony;
+but at this point the supremacy of the artistic faculty asserts itself,
+and for the remainder of his life Blake was pre-eminently a designer and
+engraver. The labour of poetical composition continues, but the product
+passes beyond the range of general comprehension; while, with apparent
+inconsistency, the work of the artist gains steadily in strength and
+coherence, and never to the last loses its hold upon the understanding.
+It may almost be said without exaggeration that his earliest poetic
+work, _The Songs of Innocence_, and nearly his latest effort in design,
+the illustrations to _The Book of Job_, take rank among the sanest and
+most admirable products of his genius. Nor is the fact, astonishing
+enough at first sight, quite beyond a possible explanation. As Blake
+advanced in his poetic career, he was gradually hindered and finally
+overpowered by a tendency that was most serviceable to him in design.
+His inclination to substitute a symbol for a conception, to make an
+image do duty for an idea, became an insuperable obstacle to literary
+success. He endeavoured constantly to treat the intellectual material of
+verse as if it could be moulded into sensuous form, with the inevitable
+result that as the ideas to be expressed advanced in complexity and
+depth of meaning, his poetic gifts became gradually more inadequate to
+the task of interpretation. The earlier poems dealing with simpler
+themes, and put forward at a time when the bent of the artist's mind was
+not strictly determined, do not suffer from this difficulty; the
+symbolism then only enriches an idea of no intellectual intricacy; but
+when Blake began to concern himself with profounder problems the want of
+a more logical understanding of language made itself strikingly
+apparent. If his ways of thought and modes of workmanship had not been
+developed with an intensity almost morbid, he would probably have been
+able to distinguish and keep separate the double functions of art and
+literature. As it is, however, he remains as an extreme illustration of
+the ascendancy of the artistic faculty. For this tendency to translate
+ideas into image, and to find for every thought, however simple or
+sublime, a precise and sensuous form, is of the essence of pure artistic
+invention. If this be accepted as the dominant bent of Blake's genius,
+it is not so wonderful that his work in art should have strengthened in
+proportion as his poetic powers waned; but whether the explanation
+satisfies all the requirements of the case or not, the fact remains, and
+cannot be overlooked by any student of Blake's career.
+
+In 1796 Blake was actively employed in the work of illustration.
+Edwards, a bookseller of New Bond Street, projected a new edition of
+Young's _Night Thoughts_, and Blake was chosen to illustrate the work.
+It was to have been issued in parts, but for some reason not very clear
+the enterprise failed, and only a first part, including forty-three
+designs, was given to the world. These designs were engraved by Blake
+himself, and they are interesting not only for their own merit but for
+the peculiar system by which the illustration has been associated with
+the text. It was afterwards discovered that the artist had executed
+original designs in water-colour for the whole series, and these
+drawings, 537 in number, form one of the most interesting records of
+Blake's genius. Gilchrist, the painter's biographer, in commenting upon
+the engraved plates, regrets the absence of colour, "the use of which
+Blake so well understood, to relieve his simple design and give it
+significance," and an examination of the original water-colour drawings
+fully supports the justice of his criticism. Soon after the publication
+of this work Blake was introduced by Flaxman to the poet Hayley, and in
+the year 1801 he accepted the suggestion of the latter, that he should
+take up his residence at Felpham in Sussex. The mild and amiable poet
+had planned to write a life of Cowper, and for the illustration of this
+and other works he sought Blake's help and companionship. The residence
+at Felpham continued for three years, partly pleasant and partly irksome
+to Blake, but apparently not very profitable to the progress of his art.
+One of the annoyances of his stay was a malicious prosecution for
+treason set on foot by a common soldier whom Blake had summarily ejected
+from his garden; but a more serious drawback was the increasing
+irritation which the painter seems to have experienced from association
+with Hayley. In 1804 Blake returned to London, to take up his residence
+in South Moulton Street, and as the fruit of his residence in Felpham,
+he published, in the manner already described, the prophetic books
+called the _Jerusalem_, _The Emanation of the Giant Albion_, and
+_Milton_. The first of these is a very notable performance in regard to
+artistic invention. Many of the designs stand out from the text in
+complete independence, and are now and then of the very finest quality.
+
+In the years 1804-1805 Blake executed a series of designs in
+illustration of Robert Blair's _The Grave_, of much beauty and grandeur,
+though showing stronger traces of imitation of Italian art than any
+earlier production. These designs were purchased from the artist by an
+adventurous and unscrupulous publisher, Cromek, for the paltry sum of
+L21, and afterwards published in a series of engravings by Schiavonetti.
+Despite the ill treatment Blake received in the matter, and the other
+evils, including a quarrel with his friend Stothard as to priority of
+invention of a design illustrating the Canterbury Pilgrims, which his
+association with Cromek involved, the book gained for him a larger
+amount of popularity than he at any other time secured. Stothard's
+picture of the Canterbury Pilgrims was exhibited in 1807, and in 1809
+Blake, in emulation of his rival's success, having himself painted in
+water-colour a picture of the same subject, opened an exhibition, and
+drew up a _Descriptive Catalogue_, curious and interesting, and
+containing a very valuable criticism of Chaucer.
+
+The remainder of the artist's life is not outwardly eventful. In 1813 he
+formed, through the introduction of George Cumberland of Bristol, a
+valuable friendship with John Linnell and other rising water-colour
+painters. Amongst the group Blake seems to have found special sympathy
+in the society of John Varley, who, himself addicted to astrology,
+encouraged Blake to cultivate his gift of inspired vision; and it is
+probably to this influence that we are indebted for several curious
+drawings made from visions, especially the celebrated "ghost of a flea"
+and the very humorous portrait of the builder of the Pyramids. In 1821
+Blake removed to Fountain Court, in the Strand, where he died on the
+12th of August 1827. The chief work of these last years was the splendid
+series of engraved designs in illustration of the book of Job. Here we
+find the highest imaginative qualities of Blake's art united to the
+technical means of expression which he best understood. Both the
+invention and the engraving are in all ways remarkable, and the series
+may fairly be cited in support of a very high estimate of his genius.
+None of his works is without the trace of that peculiar artistic
+instinct and power which seizes the pictorial element of ideas, simple
+or sublime, and translates them into the appropriate language of sense;
+but here the double faculty finds the happiest exercise. The grandeur of
+the theme is duly reflected in the simple and sublime images of the
+artist's design, and in the presence of these plates we are made to feel
+the power of the artist over the expressional resources of human form,
+as well as his sympathy with the imaginative significance of his
+subject.
+
+  A life of Blake, with selections from his works, by Alexander
+  Gilchrist, was published in 1863 (new edition by W.G. Robertson,
+  1906); in 1868 A.C. Swinburne published a critical essay on his
+  genius, remarkable for a full examination of the Prophetic Books, and
+  in 1874 William Michael Rossetti published a memoir prefixed to an
+  edition of the poems. In 1893 appeared _The Works of William Blake_,
+  edited by E.J. Ellis and W.B. Yeats. But for a long time all the
+  editors paid too little attention to a correct following of Blake's
+  own MSS. The text of the poems was finally edited with exemplary care
+  and thoroughness by John Sampson in his edition of the _Poetical
+  Works_ (1905), which has rescued Blake from the "improvements" of
+  previous editors. See also _The Letters of_ ~~ _William Blake,
+  together with a Life by Frederick Tatham_; edited by A.G.B. Russell
+  (1906); and Basil de Selincourt, _William Blake_ (1909).
+       (J. C. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BLAKELOCK, RALPH ALBERT (1847-   ), American painter, was born in New
+York, on the 15th of October, 1847. He graduated at the College of the
+City of New York in 1867. In art he was self-taught and markedly
+original. Until ill-health necessitated the abandonment of his
+profession, he was a most prolific worker, his subjects including
+pictures of North American Indian life, and landscapes--notably such
+canvases as "The Indian Fisherman"; "Ta-wo-koka: or Circle Dance";
+"Silvery Moonlight"; "A Waterfall by Moonlight"; "Solitude"; and
+"Moonlight on Long Island Sound."
+
+
+
+
+BLAKENEY, WILLIAM BLAKENEY, BARON (1672-1761), British soldier, was born
+at Mount Blakeney in Limerick in 1672. Destined by his father for
+politics, he soon showed a decided preference for a military career, and
+at the age of eighteen headed the tenants in defending the Blakeney
+estate against the Rapparees. As a volunteer he went to the war in
+Flanders, and at the siege of Venlo in 1702 won his commission. He
+served as a subaltern throughout Marlborough's campaigns, and is said to
+have been the first to drill troops by signal of drum or colour. For
+many years after the peace of Utrecht he served unnoticed, and was
+sixty-five years of age before he became a colonel. This neglect, which
+was said to be due to the hostility of Lord Verney, ceased when the duke
+of Richmond was appointed colonel of Blakeney's regiment, and
+thenceforward his advance was rapid. Brigadier-general in the Cartagena
+expedition of 1741, and major-general a little later, he distinguished
+himself by his gallant and successful defence of Stirling Castle against
+the Highlanders in 1745. Two years later George II. made him
+lieutenant-general and lieutenant-governor of Minorca. The governor of
+that island never set foot in it, and Blakeney was left in command for
+ten years.
+
+In 1756 the Seven Years' War was preluded by a swift descent of the
+French on Minorca. Fifteen thousand troops under marshal the duc de
+Richelieu, escorted by a strong squadron under the marquis de la
+Gallisonniere, landed on the island on the 18th of April, and at once
+began the siege of Fort St Philip, where Blakeney commanded at most some
+5000 soldiers and workmen. The defence, in spite of crumbling walls and
+rotted gun platforms, had already lasted a month when a British fleet
+under vice-admiral the Hon. John Byng appeared. La Gallisonniere and
+Byng fought, on the 20th of May, an indecisive battle, after which the
+relieving squadron sailed away and Blakeney was left to his fate. A
+second expedition subsequently appeared off Minorca, but it was then too
+late, for after a heroic resistance of seventy-one days the old general
+had been compelled to surrender the fort to Richelieu (April 18-June 28,
+1756). Only the ruined fortifications were the prize of the victors.
+Blakeney and his little garrison were transported to Gibraltar with
+absolute liberty to serve again. Byng was tried and executed; Blakeney,
+on his return to England, found himself the hero of the nation. Rewards
+came freely to the veteran. He was made colonel of the Enniskillen
+regiment of infantry, knight of the Bath, and Baron Blakeney of Mount
+Blakeney in the Irish peerage. A little later Van Most's statue of him
+was erected in Dublin, and his popularity continued unabated for the
+short remainder of his life. He died on the 20th of September 1761, and
+was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+
+  See _Memoirs of General William Blakeney_ (1757).
+
+
+
+
+BLAKESLEY, JOSEPH WILLIAMS (1808-1885), English divine, was born in
+London on the 6th of March 1808, and was educated at St Paul's school,
+London, and at Corpus Christi and Trinity Colleges, Cambridge. In 1831
+he was elected a fellow, and in 1839 a tutor of Trinity. In 1833 he took
+holy orders, and from 1845 to 1872 held the college living of Ware,
+Hertfordshire. Over the signature "Hertfordshire Incumbent" he
+contributed a large number of letters to _The Times_ on the leading
+social and political subjects of the day, and he also wrote many reviews
+of books for that paper. In 1863 he was made a canon of Canterbury, and
+in 1872 dean of Lincoln. Dean Blakesley was the author of the first
+English _Life of Aristotle_ (1839), an edition of Herodotus (1852-1854)
+in the _Bibliotheca Classica_, and _Four Months in Algeria_ (1859). He
+died on the 18th of April 1885.
+
+
+
+
+BLAMIRE, SUSANNA (1747-1794), English poet, daughter of a Cumberland
+yeoman, was born at Cardew Hall, near Dalston, in January 1747. Her
+mother died while she was a child, and she was brought up by her aunt, a
+Mrs Simpson of Thackwood, who sent her niece to the village school at
+Raughton Head. Susanna Blamire's earliest poem is "Written in a
+Churchyard, on seeing a number of cattle grazing," in imitation of Gray.
+She lived an uneventful life among the farmers of the neighbourhood, and
+her gaiety and good-humour made her a favourite in rustic society. In
+1767 her elder sister Sarah married Colonel Graham of Gartmore. "An
+Epistle to her friends at Gartmore" gives a playful description of the
+monotonous simplicity of her life. To her Perthshire visits her songs in
+the Scottish vernacular are no doubt partly due. Her chief friend was
+Catharine Gilpin of Scaleby Castle. The two ladies spent the winters
+together in Carlisle, and wrote poems in common. Susanna Blamire died in
+Carlisle on the 5th of April 1794. The poems which were not collected
+during her lifetime, were first published in 1842 by Henry Lonsdale as
+_The Poetical Works of Miss Susanna Blamire, "the Muse of Cumberland,"_
+with a memoir by Mr Patrick Maxwell. Some of her songs rank among the
+very best of north-country lyrics. "And ye shall walk in silk attire"
+and "What ails this heart o' mine," are well known, and were included in
+Johnson's _Scots' Musical Museum_.
+
+
+
+
+BLANC, (JEAN JOSEPH CHARLES) LOUIS (1811-1882), French politician and
+historian, was born on the 29th of October 1811 at Madrid, where his
+father held the post of inspector-general of finance under Joseph
+Bonaparte. Failing to receive aid from Pozzo di Borgo, his mother's
+uncle, Louis Blanc studied law in Paris, living in poverty, and became a
+contributor to various journals. In the _Revue du progres_, which he
+founded, he published in 1839 his study on _L'Organisation du travail_.
+The principles laid down in this famous essay form the key to Louis
+Blanc's whole political career. He attributes all the evils that afflict
+society to the pressure of competition, whereby the weaker are driven to
+the wall. He demanded the equalization of wages, and the merging of
+personal interests in the common good--"_a chacun selon ses besoins, de
+chacun selon ses facultes_." This was to be effected by the
+establishment of "social workshops," a sort of combined co-operative
+society and trade-union, where the workmen in each trade were to unite
+their efforts for their common benefit. In 1841 he published his
+_Histoire de dix ans 1830-1840_, an attack upon the monarchy of July. It
+ran through four editions in four years.
+
+In 1847 he published the two first volumes of his _Histoire de la
+Revolution Francaise_. Its publication was interrupted by the revolution
+of 1848, when Louis Blanc became a member of the provisional government.
+It was on his motion that, on the 25th of February, the government
+undertook "to guarantee the existence of the workmen by work"; and
+though his demand for the establishment of a ministry of labour was
+refused--as beyond the competence of a provisional government--he was
+appointed to preside over the government labour commission (_Commission
+du Gouvernement pour les travailleurs_) established at the Luxembourg to
+inquire into and report on the labour question. On the 10th of May he
+renewed, in the National Assembly, his proposal for a ministry of
+labour, but the temper of the majority was hostile to socialism, and the
+proposal was again rejected. His responsibility for the disastrous
+experiment of the national workshops he himself denied in his _Appel aux
+honnetes gens_ (Paris, 1849), written in London after his flight; but by
+the insurgent mob of the 15th of May and by the victorious Moderates
+alike he was regarded as responsible. Between the _sansculottes_, who
+tried to force him to place himself at their head, and the national
+guards, who maltreated him, he was nearly done to death. Rescued with
+difficulty, he escaped with a false passport to Belgium, and thence to
+London; in his absence he was condemned by the special tribunal
+established at Bourges, _in contumaciam_, to deportation. Against trial
+and sentence he alike protested, developing his protest in a series of
+articles in the _Nouveau Monde_, a review published in Paris under his
+direction. These he afterwards collected and published as _Pages de
+l'histoire de la revolution de 1848_ (Brussels, 1850).
+
+During his stay in England he made use of the unique collection of
+materials for the revolutionary period preserved at the British Museum
+to complete his _Histoire de la Revolution Francaise_ 12 vols.
+(1847-1862). In 1858 he published a reply to Lord Normanby's _A Year of
+Revolution in Paris_ (1858), which he developed later into his _Histoire
+de la revolution de 1848_ (2 vols., 1870-1880). As far back as 1839
+Louis Blanc had vehemently opposed the idea of a Napoleonic restoration,
+predicting that it would be "despotism without glory," "the Empire
+without the Emperor." He therefore remained in exile till the fall of
+the Second Empire in September 1870, after which he returned to Paris
+and served as a private in the national guard. On the 8th of February
+1871 he was elected a member of the National Assembly, in which he
+maintained that the republic was "the necessary form of national
+sovereignty," and voted for the continuation of the war; yet, though a
+member of the extreme Left, he was too clear-minded to sympathize with
+the Commune, and exerted his influence in vain on the side of
+moderation. In 1878 he advocated the abolition of the presidency and the
+senate. In January 1879 he introduced into the chamber a proposal for
+the amnesty of the Communists, which was carried. This was his last
+important act. His declining years were darkened by ill-health and by
+the death, in 1876, of his wife (Christina Groh), an Englishwoman whom
+he had married in 1865. He died at Cannes on the 6th of December 1882,
+and on the 12th of December received a state funeral in the cemetery of
+Pere-Lachaise.
+
+Louis Blanc possessed a picturesque and vivid style, and considerable
+power of research; but the fervour with which he expressed his
+convictions, while placing him in the first rank of orators, tended to
+turn his historical writings into political pamphlets. His political and
+social ideas have had a great influence on the development of socialism
+in France. His _Discours politiques_ (1847-1881) was published in 1882.
+His most important works, besides those already mentioned, are _Lettres
+sur l'Angleterre_ (1866-1867), _Dix annees de l'histoire de
+l'Angleterre_ (1879-1881), and _Questions d'aujourd'hui et de demain_
+(1873-1884).
+
+  See L. Fiaux, _Louis Blanc_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+BLANC, MONT, the culminating point (15,782 ft.) of the mountain range of
+the same name, which forms part of the Pennine Alps, and is divided
+unequally between France, Italy and Switzerland. The actual highest
+summit is wholly French and is the loftiest peak in the Alps, and in
+Europe also, if certain peaks in the Caucasus be excluded. At Geneva the
+mountain was in former days named the Montagne Maudite, but the present
+name seems to have been always used locally. On the north is the valley
+of Chamonix, and on the east the head of the valley of Aosta. Among the
+great glaciers which stream from the peak the most noteworthy are those
+of Bossons and Taconnaz (northern slope) and of Brenva and Miage
+(southern slope). The first ascent was made in 1786 by two Chamonix men,
+Jacques Balmat and Dr Michel Paccard, and the second in 1787 by Balmat
+with two local men. Later in 1787 H.B. de Saussure made the third
+ascent, memorable in many respects, and was followed a week later by
+Colonel Beaufoy, the first Englishman to gain the top. These ascents
+were all made from Chamonix, which is still the usual starting point,
+though routes have been forced up the peak from nearly every side, those
+on the Italian side being much steeper than that from Chamonix. The
+ascent from Chamonix is now frequently made in summer (rarely in winter
+also), but, owing to the great height of the mountain, the view is
+unsatisfactory, though very extensive (Lyons is visible). There is an
+inn at the Grands Mulets (9909 ft.). In 1890 M. Vallot built an
+observatory and shelter hut (14,312 ft.) on the Bosses du Dromadaire
+(north-west ridge of the mountain), and in 1893 T.J.C. Janssen
+constructed an observatory just below the very summit.
+
+  See C. Durier, _Le Mont Blanc_ (4th ed., Paris, 1897); C.E. Mathews,
+  _The Annals of Mont Blanc_ (London, 1898); P. Gussfeldt, _Der
+  Montblanc_, (Berlin, 1894, also a French translation, Geneva, 1899);
+  L. Kurz, _Climbers' Guide to the Chain of Mont Blanc_, section vi.
+  (London, 1892); L. Kurz and X. Imfeld, _Carte de la chaine du Mont
+  Blanc_ (1896, new edition 1905).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BLANCHARD, SAMUEL LAMAN (1804-1845), British author and journalist, the
+son of a painter and glazier, was born at Great Yarmouth on the 15th of
+May 1804. He was educated at St Olave's school, Southwark, and then
+became clerk to a proctor in Doctors' Commons. At an early age he
+developed literary tastes, contributing dramatic sketches to a paper
+called _Drama_. For a short time he was a member of a travelling
+dramatic company, but subsequently became a proof-reader in London, and
+wrote for the _Monthly Magazine_. In 1827 he was made secretary of the
+Zoological Society, a post which he held for three years. In 1828 he
+published _Lyric Offerings_, dedicated to Charles Lamb. He had a very
+varied journalistic experience, editing in succession the _Monthly
+Magazine_, the _True Sun_, the _Constitutional_, the _Court Journal_,
+the _Courier_, and _George Cruikshank's Omnibus_; and from 1841 till his
+death he was connected with the _Examiner_. In 1846 Bulwer-Lytton
+collected a number of his prose-essays under the title _Sketches of
+Life_, to which a memoir of the author was prefixed. His verse was
+collected in 1876 by Blanchard Jerrold. Over-work broke down his
+strength, and, unnerved by the death of his wife, he died by his own
+hand on the 15th of February 1845.
+
+His eldest son, SIDNEY LAMAN BLANCHARD, who was the author of _Yesterday
+and To-day in India_, died in 1883.
+
+
+
+
+BLANCHE, JACQUES EMILE (1861-   ), French painter, was born in Paris. He
+enjoyed an excellent cosmopolitan education, and was brought up at Passy
+in a house once belonging to the princesse de Lamballe, which still
+retained the atmosphere of 18th-century elegance and refinement and
+influenced his taste and work. Although he received some instruction in
+painting from Gervex, he may be regarded as self-taught. He acquired a
+great reputation as a portrait painter; his art is derived from French
+and English sources, refined, sometimes super-elegant, but full of
+character. Among his chief works are his portraits of his father, of
+Pierre Louys, the Thaulow family, Aubrey Beardsley and Yvette Guilbert.
+
+
+
+
+BLANCHE OF CASTILE (1188-1252), wife of Louis VIII. of France, third
+daughter of Alphonso VIII., king of Castile, and of Eleanor of England,
+daughter of Henry II., was born at Valencia. In consequence of a treaty
+between Philip Augustus and John of England, she was betrothed to the
+former's son, Louis, and was brought to France, in the spring of 1200,
+by John's mother Eleanor. On the 22nd of May 1200 the treaty was finally
+signed, John ceding with his niece the fiefs of Issoudun and Gracay,
+together with those that Andre de Chavigny, lord of Chateauroux, held in
+Berry, of the English crown. The marriage was celebrated the next day,
+at Portmort on the right bank of the Seine, in John's domains, as those
+of Philip lay under an interdict.
+
+Blanche first displayed her great qualities in 1216, when Louis, who on
+the death of John claimed the English crown in her right, invaded
+England, only to find a united nation against him. Philip Augustus
+refused to help his son, and Blanche was his sole support. The queen
+established herself at Calais and organized two fleets, one of which was
+commanded by Eustace the Monk, and an army under Robert of Courtenay;
+but all her resolution and energy were in vain. Although it would seem
+that her masterful temper exercised a sensible influence upon her
+husband's gentler character, her role during his reign (1223-1226) is
+not well known. Upon his death he left Blanche regent and guardian of
+his children. Of her twelve or thirteen children, six had died, and
+Louis, the heir--afterwards the sainted Louis IX.,--was but twelve years
+old. The situation was critical, for the hard-won domains of the house
+of Capet seemed likely to fall to pieces during a minority. Blanche had
+to bear the whole burden of affairs alone, to break up a league of the
+barons (1226), and to repel the attack of the king of England (1230).
+But her energy and firmness overcame all dangers. There was an end to
+the calumnies circulated against her, based on the poetical homage
+rendered her by Theobald IV., count of Champagne, and the prolonged
+stay in Paris of the papal legate, Romano Bonaventura, cardinal of Sant'
+Angelo. The nobles were awed by her warlike preparations or won over by
+adroit diplomacy, and their league was broken up. St Louis owed his
+realm to his mother, but he himself always remained somewhat under the
+spell of her imperious personality. After he came of age (1236) her
+influence upon him may still be traced. In 1248 she again became regent,
+during Louis IX.'s absence on the crusade, a project which she had
+strongly opposed. In the disasters which followed she maintained peace,
+while draining the land of men and money to aid her son in the East. At
+last her strength failed her. She fell ill at Melun in November 1252,
+and was taken to Paris, but lived only a few days. She was buried at
+Maubuisson.
+
+  Besides the works of Joinville and William of Nangis, see Elie Berger,
+  "Histoire de Blanche de Castille, reine de France," in _Bibliotheque
+  des ecoles francaises d'Athenes et de Rome_, vol. lxx. (Paris, 1895);
+  Le Nain de Tillemont, "Vie de Saint Louis," ed. by J. de Gaulle for
+  the _Societe de l'histoire de France_ (6 vols., 1847-1851); and Paulin
+  Paris, "Nouvelles recherches sur les moeurs de la reine Blanche et de
+  Thibaud," in _Cabinet historique_ (1858).
+
+
+
+
+BLANCH FEE, or BLANCH HOLDING (from Fr. _blanc_, white), an ancient
+tenure in Scottish land law, the duty payable being in silver or white
+money in contradistinction to gold. The phrase was afterwards applied to
+any holding of which the quit-rent was merely nominal, such as a penny,
+a peppercorn, &c.
+
+
+
+
+BLANDFORD, or BLANDFORD FORUM, a market town, and municipal borough in
+the northern parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, on the
+Stour, 19 m. N.W. of Bournemouth by the Somerset & Dorset railway. Pop.
+(1901) 3649. The town is ancient, but was almost wholly destroyed by
+fire in the 18th century. The church of St Peter and St Paul, a
+classical building, was built in 1732. There are a grammar-school
+(founded in 1521 at Milton Abbas, transferred to Blandford in 1775), a
+Blue Coat school (1729), and other educational charities. Remnants of a
+mansion of the 14th century, Damory Court, are seen in a farmhouse, and
+an adjoining Perpendicular chapel is used as a barn. There are numerous
+early earthworks on the chalk hills in the neighbourhood. The fine
+modern mansion of Bryanston, in the park adjoining the town, is the seat
+of Lord Portman. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and
+12 councillors. Area, 145 acres.
+
+
+
+
+BLANDRATA, or BIANDRATA, GIORGIO (c. 1515-1588), Italian physician and
+polemic, who came of the De Blandrate family, powerful from the early
+part of the 13th century, was born at Saluzzo, the youngest son of
+Bernardino Blandrata. He graduated in arts and medicine at Montpellier
+in 1533, and specialized in the functional and nervous disorders of
+women. In 1544 he made his first acquaintance with Transylvania; in 1553
+he was with Alciati in the Grisons; in 1557 he spent a year at Geneva,
+in constant intercourse with Calvin, who distrusted him. He attended the
+English wife (Jane Stafford) of Count Celso Massimiliano Martinengo,
+preacher of the Italian church at Geneva, and fostered anti-trinitarian
+opinions in that church. In 1558 he found it expedient to remove to
+Poland, where he became a leader of the heretical party at the synods of
+Pinczow (1558) and Ksionzh (1560 and 1562). His point was the
+suppression of extremes of opinion, on the basis of a confession
+literally drawn from Scripture. He obtained the position of court
+physician to the queen dowager, the Milanese Bona Sforza. She had been
+instrumental in the burning (1539) of Catharine Weygel, at the age of
+eighty, for anti-trinitarian opinions; but the writings of Ochino had
+altered her views, which were now anti-Catholic. In 1563 Blandrata
+transferred his services to the Transylvanian court, where the daughters
+of his patroness were married to ruling princes. He revisited Poland
+(1576) in the train of Stephen Bathory, whose tolerance permitted the
+propagation of heresies; and when (1579) Christopher Bathory introduced
+the Jesuits into Transylvania, Blandrata found means of conciliating
+them. Throughout his career he was accompanied by his two brothers,
+Ludovico and Alphonso, the former being canon of Saluzzo. In
+Transylvania, Blandrata co-operated with Francis David (d. 1579), the
+anti-trinitarian bishop, but in 1578 two circumstances broke the
+connexion. Blandrata was charged with "Italian vice"; David renounced
+the worship of Christ. To influence David, Blandrata sent for Faustus
+Socinus from Basel. Socinus was David's guest, but the discussion
+between them led to no result. At the instance of Blandrata, David was
+tried and condemned to prison at Deva (in which he died) on the charge
+of innovation. Having amassed a fortune, Blandrata returned to the
+communion of Rome. His end is obscure. According to the Jesuit, Jacob
+Wujek, he was strangled by a nephew (Giorgio, son of Alphonso) in May
+1588. He published a few polemical writings, some in conjunction with
+David.
+
+  See Malacarne, _Commentario delle Opere e delle Vicende di G.
+  Blandrata_ (Padova, 1814); Wallace, _Anti-trinitarian Biography_, vol.
+  ii. (1850).     (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+BLANE, SIR GILBERT (1740-1834), Scottish physician, was born at
+Blanefield, Ayrshire, on the 29th of August 1749. He was educated at
+Edinburgh university, and shortly after his removal to London became
+private physician to Lord Rodney, whom he accompanied to the West Indies
+in 1779. He did much to improve the health of the fleet by attention to
+the diet of the sailors and by enforcing due sanitary precautions, and
+it was largely through him that in 1795 the use of lime-juice was made
+obligatory throughout the navy as a preventive of scurvy. Enjoying a
+number of court and hospital appointments he built up a good practice
+for himself in London, and the government constantly consulted him on
+questions of public hygiene. He was made a baronet in 1812 in reward for
+the services he rendered in connexion with the return of the Walcheren
+expedition. He died in London on the 26th of June 1834. Among his works
+were _Observations on the Diseases of Seamen_ (1795) and _Elements of
+Medical Logic_ (1819).
+
+
+
+
+BLANFORD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1832-1905), English geologist and naturalist,
+was born in London on the 7th of October 1832. He was educated in
+private schools in Brighton and Paris, and with a view to the adoption
+of a mercantile career spent two years in a business house at Civita
+Vecchia. On returning to England in 1851 he was induced to enter the
+newly established Royal School of Mines, which his younger brother Henry
+F. Blanford (1834-1893), afterwards head of the Indian Meteorological
+Department, had already joined; he then spent a year in the mining
+school at Freiburg, and towards the close of 1854 both he and his
+brother obtained posts on the Geological Survey of India. In that
+service he remained for twenty-seven years, retiring in 1882. He was
+engaged in various parts of India, in the Raniganj coalfield, in Bombay,
+and in the coalfield near Talchir, where boulders considered to have
+been ice-borne were found in the Talchir strata--a remarkable discovery
+confirmed by subsequent observations of other geologists in equivalent
+strata elsewhere. His attention was given not only to geology but to
+zoology, and especially to the land-mollusca and to the vertebrates. In
+1866 he was attached to the Abyssinian expedition, accompanying the army
+to Magdala and back; and in 1871-1872 he was appointed a member of the
+Persian Boundary Commission. The best use was made of the exceptional
+opportunities of studying the natural history of those countries. For
+his many contributions to geological science Dr Blanford was in 1883
+awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London; and for
+his labours on the zoology and geology of British India he received in
+1901 a royal medal from the Royal Society. He had been elected F.R.S. in
+1874, and was chosen president of the Geological Society in 1888. He was
+created C.I.E. in 1904. He died in London on the 23rd of June 1905. His
+principal publications were: _Observations on the Geology and Zoology of
+Abyssinia_ (1870), and _Manual of the Geology of India_, with H.B.
+Medlicott (1879).
+
+  Biography, with bibliography and portrait, in _Geological Magazine_,
+  January 1905.
+
+
+
+
+BLANK (from the Fr. _blanc_, white), a word used in various senses based
+on that of "left white," i.e. requiring something to be filled in; thus
+a "blank cheque" is one which requires the amount to be inserted, an
+insurance policy in blank, where the name of the beneficiary is lacking,
+"blank verse" (_q.v_.) verse without rhyme, "blank cartridge" that
+contains only powder and no ball or shot. The word is also used, as a
+substantive, for a ticket in a lottery or sweepstake which does not
+carry a number or the name of a horse running or for an unstamped metal
+disc in coining.
+
+
+
+
+BLANKENBERGHE, a seaside watering-place on the North Sea in the province
+of West Flanders, Belgium, 12 m. N.E. of Ostend, and about 9 m. N.W. of
+Bruges, with which it is connected by railway. It is more bracing than
+Ostend, and has a fine parade over a mile in length. During the season,
+which extends from June to September, it receives a large number of
+visitors, probably over 60,000 altogether, from Germany as well as from
+Belgium. There is a small fishing port as well as a considerable
+fishing-fleet. Two miles north of this place along the dunes is
+Zeebrugge, the point at which the new ship-canal from Bruges enters the
+North Sea. Fixed population (1904) 5925.
+
+
+
+
+BLANKENBURG. (1) A town and health resort of Germany, in the duchy of
+Brunswick, at the N. foot of the Harz Mountains, 12 m. by rail S.W. from
+Halberstadt. Pop. (1901) 10,173. It has been in large part rebuilt since
+a fire in 1836, and possesses a castle, with various collections, a
+museum of antiquities, an old town hall and churches. There are
+pine-needle baths and a hospital for nervous diseases. Gardening is a
+speciality. In the vicinity is a cliff or ridge of rock called
+Teufelsmauer (Devil's wall), from which fine views are obtained across
+the plain and into the deep gorges of the Harz Mountains.
+
+(2) Another BLANKENBURG, also a health-resort, is situated in
+Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Thuringia, at the confluence of the rivers Rinne
+and Schwarza, and at the entrance of the Schwarzatal. Its environs are
+charming, and to the north of it, on an eminence, rise the fine ruins of
+the castle of Greifenstein, built by the German king Henry I., and from
+1275 to 1583 the seat of a cadet branch of the counts of Schwarzburg.
+
+
+
+
+BLANKETEERS, the nickname given to some 5000 operatives who on the 10th
+of March 1817 met in St Peter's Field, near Manchester, to march to
+London, each carrying blankets or rugs. Their object was to see the
+prince regent and lay their grievances before him. The Habeas Corpus Act
+was suspended, and the leaders were seized and imprisoned. The bulk of
+the demonstration yielded at once. The few stragglers who persisted in
+the march were intercepted by troops, and treated with considerable
+severity. Eventually the spokesmen had an interview with the ministers,
+and some reforms were the result.
+
+
+
+
+BLANK VERSE, the unrhymed measure of iambic decasyllable in five beats
+which is usually adopted in English epic and dramatic poetry. The
+epithet is due to the absence of the rhyme which the ear expects at the
+end of successive lines. The decasyllabic line occurs for the first time
+in a Provencal poem of the 10th century, but in the earliest instances
+preserved it is already constructed with such regularity as to suggest
+that it was no new invention. It was certainly being used almost
+simultaneously in the north of France. Chaucer employed it in his
+_Compleynte to Pitie_ about 1370. In all the literatures of western
+Europe it became generally used, but always with rhyme. In the beginning
+of the 16th century, however, certain Italian poets made the experiment
+of writing decasyllabics without rhyme. The tragedy of _Sophonisba_
+(1515) of G.G. Trissino (1478-1550) was the earliest work completed in
+this form; it was followed in 1525 by the didactic poem _Le Api_ (The
+Bees), of Giovanni Rucellai (1475-1525), who announced his intention of
+writing _"Con verso Etrusco dalle rime sciolto,"_ in consequence of
+which expression this kind of metre was called _versi sciolti_ or blank
+verse. In a very short time this form was largely adopted in Italian
+dramatic poetry, and the comedies of Ariosto, the _Aminta_ of Tasso and
+the _Pastor Fido_ of Guarini are composed in it. The iambic blank verse
+of Italy was, however, mainly hendecasyllabic, not decasyllabic, and
+under French influences the habit of rhyme soon returned.
+
+Before the close of Trissino's life, however, his invention had been
+introduced into another literature, where it was destined to enjoy a
+longer and more glorious existence. Towards the close of the reign of
+Henry VIII., Henry Howard, earl of Surrey, translated two books of the
+_Aeneid_ into English rhymeless verse, "drawing" them "into a strange
+metre." Surrey's blank verse is stiff and timid, permitting itself no
+divergence from the exact iambic movement:--
+
+  "Who can express the slaughter of that night,
+   Or tell the number of the corpses slain,
+   Or can in tears bewail them worthily?
+   The ancient famous city falleth down,
+   That many years did hold such seignory."
+
+Surrey soon found an imitator in Nicholas Grimoald, and in 1562 blank
+verse was first applied to English dramatic poetry in the _Gorboduc_ of
+Sackville and Norton. In 1576, in the _Steel Glass_ of Gascoigne, it was
+first used for satire, and by the year 1585 it had come into almost
+universal use for theatrical purposes. In Lyly's _The Woman in the Moon_
+and Peek's _Arraignment of Paris_ (both of 1584) we find blank verse
+struggling with rhymed verse and successfully holding its own. The
+earliest play written entirely in blank verse is supposed to be _The
+Misfortunes of Arthur_ (1587) of Thomas Hughes. Marlowe now immediately
+followed, with the magnificent movement of his _Tamburlaine_ (1589),
+which was mocked by satirical critics as "the swelling bombast of
+bragging blank verse" (Nash) and "the spacious volubility of a drumming
+decasyllable" (Greene), but which introduced a great new music into
+English poetry, in such "mighty lines" as
+
+  "Still climbing after knowledge infinite,
+   And always moving as the restless spheres,"
+
+or:--
+
+  "See where Christ's blood streams in the firmament!"
+
+Except, however, when he is stirred by a particularly vivid emotion, the
+blank verse of Marlowe continues to be monotonous and uniform. It still
+depends too exclusively on a counting of syllables. But Shakespeare,
+after having returned to rhyme in his earliest dramas, particularly in
+_The Two Gentlemen of Verona_, adopted blank verse conclusively about
+the time that the career of Marlowe was closing, and he carried it to
+the greatest perfection in variety, suppleness and fulness. He released
+it from the excessive bondage that it had hitherto endured; as Robert
+Bridges has said, "Shakespeare, whose early verse may be described as
+syllabic, gradually came to write a verse dependent on stress." In
+comparison with that of his predecessors and successors, the blank verse
+of Shakespeare is essentially regular, and his prosody marks the
+admirable mean between the stiffness of his dramatic forerunners and the
+laxity of those who followed him. Most of Shakespeare's lines conform to
+the normal type of the decasyllable, and the rest are accounted for by
+familiar and rational rules of variation. The ease and fluidity of his
+prosody were abused by his successors, particularly by Beaumont and
+Fletcher, who employed the soft feminine ending to excess; in Massinger
+dramatic blank verse came too near to prose, and in Heywood and Shirley
+it was relaxed to the point of losing all nervous vigour.
+
+The later dramatists gradually abandoned that rigorous difference which
+should always be preserved between the cadence of verse and prose, and
+the example of Ford, who endeavoured to revive the old severity of blank
+verse, was not followed. But just as the form was sinking into dramatic
+desuetude, it took new life in the direction of epic, and found its
+noblest proficient in the person of John Milton. The most intricate and
+therefore the most interesting blank verse which has been written is
+that of Milton in the great poems of his later life. He reduced the
+elisions, which had been frequent in the Elizabethan poets, to law; he
+admitted an extraordinary variety in the number of stresses; he
+deliberately inverted the rhythm in order to produce particular effects;
+and he multiplied at will the caesurae or breaks in a line. Such verses
+as
+
+  "Arraying with reflected purple and gold--
+   Shoots invisible virtue even to the deep--
+   Universal reproach, far worse to bear--
+   Me, me only, just object of his ire"--
+
+are not mistaken in rhythm, nor to be scanned by forcing them to obey
+the conventional stress. They are instances, and _Paradise Lost_ is
+full of such, of Milton's exquisite art in ringing changes upon the
+metrical type of ten syllables, five stresses and a rising rhythm, so as
+to make the whole texture of the verse respond to his poetical thought.
+Writing many years later in _Paradise Regained_ and in _Samson
+Agonistes_, Milton retained his system of blank verse in its general
+characteristics, but he treated it with increased dryness and with a
+certain harshness of effect. It is certainly in his biblical drama that
+blank verse has been pushed to its most artificial and technical
+perfection, and it is there that Milton's theories are to be studied
+best; yet it must be confessed that learning excludes beauty in some of
+the very audacious irregularities which he here permits himself in
+_Samson Agonistes_. Such lines as
+
+  "Made arms ridiculous, useless the forgery--
+   My griefs not only pain me as a lingering disease--
+   Drunk with idolatry, drunk with wine--
+   Justly, yet despair not of his final pardon"--
+
+are constructed with perfect comprehension of metrical law, yet they
+differ so much from the normal structure of blank verse that they need
+to be explained, and to imitate them would be perilous. A persistent
+weakness in the third foot has ever been the snare of English blank
+verse, and it is this element of monotony and dulness which Milton is
+ceaselessly endeavouring to obviate by his wonderful inversions,
+elisions and breaks.
+
+After the Restoration, and after a brief period of experiment with
+rhymed plays, the dramatists returned to the use of blank verse, and in
+the hands of Otway, Lee and Dryden, it recovered much of its
+magnificence. In the 18th century, Thomson and others made use of a very
+regular and somewhat monotonous form of blank verse for descriptive and
+didactic poems, of which the _Night Thoughts_ of Young is, from a
+metrical point of view, the most interesting. With these poets the form
+is little open to licence, while inversions and breaks are avoided as
+much as possible. Since the 18th century, blank verse has been subjected
+to constant revision in the hands of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Shelley,
+Keats, Tennyson, the Brownings and Swinburne, but no radical changes, of
+a nature unknown to Shakespeare and Milton, have been introduced into
+it.
+
+  See J.A. Symonds, _Blank Verse_ (1895); Walter Thomas, _Le Decasyllabe
+  romain et sa fortune en Europe_ (1904); Robert Bridges _Milton's
+  Prosody_ (1894); Ed. Guest, _A History of English Rhythms_ (1882); J.
+  Mothere, _Les Theories du vers hereoique anglais_ (1886); J. Schipper,
+  _Englische Metrik_ (1881-1888).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+BLANQUI, JEROME ADOLPHE (1798-1854), French economist, was born at Nice
+on the 21st of November 1798. Beginning life as a schoolmaster in Paris,
+he was attracted to the study of economics by the lectures of J.B. Say,
+whose pupil and assistant he became. Upon the recommendation of Say he
+was in 1825 appointed professor of industrial economy and of history at
+the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. In 1833 he succeeded Say as
+professor of political economy at the same institution, and in 1838 was
+elected a member of the Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. In
+1838 appeared his most important work, _Histoire de l'economie politique
+en Europe, depuis les anciens jusqu'a nos jours_. He was indefatigable
+in research, and for the purposes of his economic inquiries travelled
+over almost the whole of Europe and visited Algeria and the East. He
+contributed much to our knowledge of the conditions of the
+working-classes, especially in France. Other works of Blanqui were _De
+la situation economique et morale de l'Espagne en 1846; Resume de
+l'histoire du commerce et de l'industrie_ (1826); _Precis elementaire
+d'economie politique_ (1826); _Les Classes ouvrieres en France_ (1848).
+
+
+
+
+BLANQUI, LOUIS AUGUSTE (1805-1881), French publicist, was born on the
+8th of February 1805 at Puget-Theniers, where his father, Jean Dominique
+Blanqui, was at that time sub-prefect. He studied both law and medicine,
+but found his real vocation in politics, and at once constituted himself
+a champion of the most advanced opinions. He took an active part in the
+revolution of July 1830, and continuing to maintain the doctrine of
+republicanism during the reign of Louis Philippe, was condemned to
+repeated terms of imprisonment. Implicated in the armed outbreak of the
+Societe des Saisons, of which he was a leading spirit, he was in the
+following year, 1840, condemned to death, a sentence that was afterwards
+commuted to imprisonment for life. He was released by the revolution of
+1848, only to resume his attacks on existing institutions. The
+revolution, he declared, was a mere change of name. The violence of the
+_Societe republicaine centrale_, which was founded by Blanqui to demand
+a modification of the government, brought him into conflict with the
+more moderate Republicans, and in 1849 he was condemned to ten years'
+imprisonment. In 1865, while serving a further term of imprisonment
+under the Empire, he contrived to escape, and henceforth continued his
+propaganda against the government from abroad, until the general amnesty
+of 1869 enabled him to return to France. Blanqui's leaning towards
+violent measures was illustrated in 1870 by two unsuccessful armed
+demonstrations: one on the 12th of January at the funeral of Victor
+Noir, the journalist shot by Pierre Bonaparte; the other on the 14th of
+August, when he led an attempt to seize some guns at a barrack. Upon the
+fall of the Empire, through the revolution of the 4th of September,
+Blanqui established the club and journal _La patrie en danger_. He was
+one of the band that for a moment seized the reins of power on the 31st
+of October, and for his share in that outbreak he was again condemned to
+death on the 17th of March of the following year. A few days afterwards
+the insurrection which established the Commune broke out, and Blanqui
+was elected a member of the insurgent government, but his detention in
+prison prevented him from taking an active part. Nevertheless he was in
+1872 condemned along with the other members of the Commune to
+transportation; but on account of his broken health this sentence was
+commuted to one of imprisonment. In 1879 he was elected a deputy for
+Bordeaux; although the election was pronounced invalid, Blanqui was set
+at liberty, and at once resumed his work of agitation. At the end of
+1880, after a speech at a revolutionary meeting in Paris, he was struck
+down by apoplexy, and expired on the 1st of January 1881. Blanqui's
+uncompromising communism, and his determination to enforce it by
+violence, necessarily brought him into conflict with every French
+government, and half his life was spent in prison. Besides his
+innumerable contributions to journalism, he published an astronomical
+work entitled _L'Eternite par les astres_ (1872), and after his death
+his writings on economic and social questions were collected under the
+title of _Critique sociale_ (1885).
+
+  A biography by G. Geffroy, _L'Enferme_ (1897), is highly coloured and
+  decidedly partisan.
+
+
+
+
+BLANTYRE, the chief town of the Nyasaland protectorate, British Central
+Africa. It is situated about 3000 ft. above the sea in the Shire
+Highlands 300 m. by river and rail N.N.W. of the Chinde mouth of the
+Zambezi. Pop. about 6000 natives and 100 whites. It is the headquarters
+of the principal trading firms and missionary societies in the
+protectorate. It is also a station on the African trans-continental
+telegraph line. The chief building is the Church of Scotland church, a
+fine red brick building, a mixture of Norman and Byzantine styles, with
+lofty turrets and white domes. It stands in a large open space and is
+approached by an avenue of cypresses and eucalyptus. The church was
+built entirely by native labour. Blantyre was founded in 1876 by
+Scottish missionaries, and is named after the birthplace of David
+Livingstone.
+
+
+
+
+BLANTYRE (Gaelic, "the warm retreat"), a parish of Lanarkshire,
+Scotland. Pop. (1901) 14,145. The parish lies a few miles south-east of
+Glasgow, and contains High Blantyre (pop. 2521), Blantyre Works (or Low
+Blantyre), Stonefield and several villages. The whole district is rich
+in coal, the mining of which is extensively carried on. Blantyre Works
+(pop. 1683) was the birthplace of David Livingstone (1813-1873) and his
+brother Charles (1821-1873), who as lads were both employed as piecers
+in a local cotton-mill. The scanty remains of Blantyre Priory, founded
+towards the close of the 13th century, stand on the left bank of the
+Clyde, almost opposite the beautiful ruins of Bothwell Castle. High
+Blantyre and Blantyre Works are connected with Glasgow by the Caledonian
+railway. Stonefield (pop. 7288), the most populous place in the parish,
+entirely occupied with mining, lies between High Blantyre and Blantyre
+Works, Calderwood Castle on Rotten Calder Water, near High Blantyre, is
+situated amid picturesque scenery.
+
+
+
+
+BLARNEY, a small town of Co. Cork, Ireland, in the mid parliamentary
+division, 5 m. N.W. of the city of Cork on the Cork & Muskerry light
+railway. Pop. (1901) 928. There is a large manufacture of tweed. The
+name "blarney" has passed into the language to denote a peculiar kind of
+persuasive eloquence, alleged to be characteristic of the natives of
+Ireland. The "Blarney Stone," the kissing of which is said to confer
+this faculty, is pointed out within the castle. The origin of this
+belief is not known. The castle, built c. 1446 by Cormac McCarthy, was
+of immense strength, and parts of its walls are as much as 18 ft. thick.
+To its founder is traced by some the origin of the term "blarney," since
+he delayed by persuasion and promises the surrender of the castle to the
+lord president. Richard Millikin's song, "The Groves of Blarney" (c.
+1798), contributed to the fame of the castle, which is also bound up
+with the civil history of the county and the War of the Great Rebellion.
+
+
+
+
+BLASHFIELD, EDWIN HOWLAND (1848-   ), American artist, was born on the
+15th of December 1848 in New York City. He was a pupil of Bonnat in
+Paris, and became (1888) a member of the National Academy of Design in
+New York. For some years a genre painter, he later turned to decorative
+work, marked by rare delicacy and beauty of colouring. He painted mural
+decorations for a dome in the manufacturers' building at the Chicago
+Exposition of 1893; for the dome of the Congressional library,
+Washington; for the capitol at St Paul, Minnesota; for the Baltimore
+court-house; in New York City for the Appellate court house, the grand
+ball-room of the Waldorf-Astoria hotel, the Lawyers' club, and the
+residences of W.K. Vanderbilt and Collis P. Huntington; and in
+Philadelphia for the residence of George W. Drexel. With his wife he
+wrote _Italian Cities_ (1900) and edited Vasari's _Lives of the
+Painters_ (1896), and was well known as a lecturer and writer on art. He
+became president of the Society of Mural Painters, and of the Society of
+American Artists.
+
+
+
+
+BLASIUS (or BLAISE), SAINT, bishop of Sebaste or Sivas in Asia Minor,
+martyred under Diocletian on the 3rd of February 316. The Roman Catholic
+Church holds his festival on the 3rd of February, the Orthodox Eastern
+Church on the 11th. His flesh is said to have been torn with
+woolcombers' irons before he was beheaded, and this seems to be the only
+reason why he has always been regarded as the patron saint of
+woolcombers. In pre-Reformation England St Blaise was a very popular
+saint, and the council of Oxford in 1222 forbade all work on his
+festival. Owing to a miracle which he is alleged to have worked on a
+child suffering from a throat affection, who was brought to him on his
+way to execution, St Blaise's aid has always been held potent in throat
+and lung diseases. The woolcombers of England still celebrate St
+Blaise's day with a procession and general festivities. He forms one of
+a group of fourteen (i.e. twice seven) saints, who for their help in
+time of need have been associated as objects of particularly devoted
+worship in Roman Catholic Germany since the middle of the 15th century.
+
+  See William Hone, _Every Day Book_, i. 210.
+
+
+
+
+BLASPHEMY (through the Fr. from Gr. [Greek: blasphaemia], profane
+language, slander, probably derived from root of [Greek: blaptein], to
+injure, and [Greek: phaemae], speech), literally, defamation or evil
+speaking, but more peculiarly restricted to an indignity offered to the
+Deity by words or writing. By the Mosaic law death by stoning was the
+punishment for blasphemy (Lev. xxiv. 16). The 77th Novel of Justinian
+assigned death as the penalty, as did also the Capitularies. The common
+law of England treats blasphemy as an indictable offence. All
+blasphemies against God, as denying His being, or providence, all
+contumelious reproaches of Jesus Christ, all profane scoffing at the
+Holy Scriptures, or exposing any part thereof to contempt or ridicule,
+are punishable by the temporal courts with fine, imprisonment and also
+infamous corporal punishment. An act of Edward VI. (1547; repealed 1553
+and revived 1558) enacts that persons reviling the sacrament of the
+Lord's Supper, by contemptuous words or otherwise, shall suffer
+imprisonment. Persons denying the Trinity were deprived of the benefit
+of the Act of Toleration by an act of 1688. An act of 1697-1698,
+commonly called the Blasphemy Act, enacts that if any person, educated
+in or having made profession of the Christian religion, should by
+writing, preaching, teaching or advised speaking, deny any one of the
+Persons of the Holy Trinity to be God, or should assert or maintain that
+there are more gods than one, or should deny the Christian religion to
+be true, or the Holy Scriptures to be of divine authority, he should,
+upon the first offence, be rendered incapable of holding any office or
+place of trust, and for the second incapable of bringing any action, of
+being guardian or executor, or of taking a legacy or deed of gift, and
+should suffer three years' imprisonment without bail. It has been held
+that a person offending under the statute is also indictable at common
+law (_Rex_ v. _Carlisle_, 1819, where Mr Justice Best remarks, "In the
+age of toleration, when that statute passed, neither churchmen nor
+sectarians wished to protect in their infidelity those who disbelieved
+the Holy Scriptures"). An act of 1812-1813 excepts from these enactments
+"persons denying as therein mentioned respecting the Holy Trinity," but
+otherwise the common and the statute law on the subject remain as
+stated. In the case of _Rex_ v. _Woolston_ (1728) the court declared
+that they would not suffer it to be debated whether to write against
+Christianity in _general_ was not an offence punishable in the temporal
+courts at common law, but they did not intend to include disputes
+between learned men on _particular_ controverted points.
+
+The law against blasphemy has practically ceased to be put in active
+operation. In 1841 Edward Moxon was found guilty of the publication of a
+blasphemous libel (Shelley's _Queen Mab_), the prosecution having been
+instituted by Henry Hetherington, who had previously been condemned to
+four months' imprisonment for a similar offence, and wished to test the
+law under which he was punished. In the case of _Cowan_ v. _Milbourn_
+(1867) the defendant had broken his contract to let a lecture-room to
+the plaintiff, on discovering that the intended lectures were to
+maintain that "the character of Christ is defective, and his teaching
+misleading, and that the Bible is no more inspired than any other book,"
+and the court of exchequer held that the publication of such doctrine
+was blasphemy, and the contract therefore illegal. On that occasion the
+court reaffirmed the dictum of Chief Justice Hale, that Christianity is
+part of the laws of England. The commissioners on criminal law (sixth
+report) remark that "although the law forbids _all_ denial of the being
+and providence of God or the Christian religion, it is only when
+irreligion assumes the form of an insult to God and man that the
+interference of the criminal law has taken place." In England the last
+prominent prosecution for blasphemy was the case of _R._ v. _Ramsey &
+Foote_, 1883, 48 L.T. 739, when the editor, publisher and printer of the
+_Freethinker_ were sentenced to imprisonment; but police court
+proceedings were taken as late as 1908 against an obscure Hyde Park
+orator who had become a public nuisance.
+
+Profane cursing and swearing is made punishable by the Profane Oaths Act
+1745, which directs the offender to be brought before a justice of the
+peace, and fined five shillings, two shillings or one shilling,
+according as he is a gentleman, below the rank of gentleman, or a common
+labourer, soldier, &c.
+
+By the law of Scotland, as it originally stood, the punishment of
+blasphemy was death, but by an act of 1825, amended in 1837, blasphemy
+was made punishable by fine or imprisonment or both.
+
+In France, blasphemy (which included, also, speaking against the Holy
+Virgin and the saints, denying one's faith, or speaking with impiety of
+holy things) was from very early times punished with great severity. The
+punishment was death in various forms, burning alive, mutilation,
+torture or corporal punishment. In the United States the common law of
+England was largely followed, and in most of the states, also, statutes
+were enacted against the offence, but, as in England, the law is
+practically never put in force. In Germany, the punishment for
+blasphemy is imprisonment varying from one day to three years, according
+to the gravity of the offence. To constitute the offence, the blasphemy
+must be uttered in public, be offensive in character, and have wounded
+the religious susceptibilities of some other person. In Austria, whoever
+commits blasphemy by speech or writing is liable to imprisonment for any
+term from six months up to ten years, according to the seriousness of
+the offence.
+
+
+
+
+BLASS, FRIEDRICH (1843-1907), German classical scholar, was born on the
+22nd of January 1843 at Osnabruck. After studying at Gottingen and Bonn
+from 1860 to 1863, he lectured at several gymnasia and at the university
+of Konigsberg. In 1876 he was appointed extraordinary professor of
+classical philology at Kiel, and ordinary professor in 1881. In 1892 he
+accepted a professorship at Halle, where he died on the 5th of March
+1907. He frequently visited England, and was intimately acquainted with
+leading British scholars. He received an honorary degree from Dublin
+University in 1892, and his readiness to place the results of his
+labours at the disposal of others, together with the courtesy and
+kindliness of his disposition, won the respect of all who knew him.
+Blass is chiefly known for his works in connexion with the study of
+Greek oratory: _Die griechische Beredsamkeit von Alexander bis auf
+Augustus_ (1865); _Die attische Beredsamkeit_ (1868-1880; 2nd ed.,
+1887-1898), his greatest work; editions for the Teubner series of
+Andocides (1880), Antiphon (1881), Hypereides (1881, 1894), Demosthenes
+(Dindorf's ed., 1885), Isocrates (1886), Dinarchus (1888), Demosthenes
+(Rehdantz' ed., 1893), Aeschines (1896), Lycurgus, _Leocrates_ (1902);
+_Die Rhythmen der attischen Kunstprosa_ (1901); _Die Rhythmen der
+asianischen und romischen Kunstprosa_ (1905). Among his other works are
+editions of Eudoxus of Cnidus (1887), the [Greek: Athaenaion politeia]
+(4th ed., 1903), a work of great importance, and Bacchylides (3rd. ed.,
+1904); _Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Griechisch_ (1902; Eng. trans,
+by H. St John Thackeray, 1905); _Hermeneutik und Kritik and
+Palaographie, Buchwesen, und Handschriftenkunde_ (vol. i. of Muller's
+_Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, 1891); _Uber die
+Aussprache des Griechischen_ (1888; Eng. trans, by W.J. Purton, 1890);
+_Die Interpolationen in der Odyssee_ (1904); contributions to Collitz's
+_Sammlung der griechischen Dialektinschriften_; editions of the texts of
+certain portions of the New Testament (Gospels and _Acts_). His last
+work was an edition of the _Choephori_ (1906).
+
+  See notices in the _Academy_, March 16, 1907 (J.P. Mahaffy);
+  _Classical Review_, May 1907 (J.E. Sandys), which contains also a
+  review of _Die Rhythmen der asianischen und romischen Kunstprosa_.
+
+
+
+
+BLASTING, the process of rending or breaking apart a solid body, such as
+rock, by exploding within it or in contact with it some explosive
+substance. The explosion is accompanied by the sudden development of gas
+at a high temperature and under a tension sufficiently great to overcome
+the resistance of the enclosing body, which is thus shattered and
+disintegrated. Before the introduction of explosives, rock was
+laboriously excavated by hammer and chisel, or by the ancient process of
+"fire-setting," i.e. building a fire against the rock, which, on
+cooling, splits and flakes off. To hasten disintegration, water was
+often applied to the heated rock, the loosened portion being afterwards
+removed by pick or hammer and wedge. In modern times blasting has become
+a necessity for the excavation of rock and other hard material, as in
+open surface cuts, quarrying, tunnelling, shaft-sinking and mining
+operations in general.
+
+For blasting, a hole is generally drilled to receive the charge of
+explosive. The depth and diameter of the hole and the quantity of
+explosive used are all variable, depending on the character of the rock
+and of the explosive, the shape of the mass to be blasted, the presence
+or absence of cracks or fissures, and the position of the hole with
+respect to the free surface of the rock. The shock of a blast produces
+impulsive waves acting radially in all directions, the force being
+greatest at the centre of explosion and varying inversely as the square
+of the distance from the charge. This is evidenced by the observed
+facts. Immediately surrounding the explosive, the rock is often finely
+splintered and crushed. Beyond this is a zone in which it is completely
+broken and displaced or projected, leaving an enveloping mass of more
+or less ragged fractured rock only partially loosened. Lastly, the
+diminishing waves produce vibrations which are transmitted to
+considerable distances. Theoretically, if a charge of explosive be fired
+in a solid material of perfectly homogeneous texture and at a proper
+distance from the free surface, a conical mass will be blown out to the
+full depth of the drill hole, leaving a funnel-shaped cavity. No rock,
+however, is of uniform mineralogical and physical character, so that in
+practice there is only a rough approximation to the conical crater, even
+under the most favourable conditions. Generally, the shape of the mass
+blasted out is extremely irregular, because of the variable texture of
+the rock and the presence of cracks, fissures and cleavage planes. The
+ultimate or resultant useful effect of the explosion of a confined
+charge is in the direction where the least resistance is presented. In
+the actual work of rock excavation it is only by trial, or by deductions
+based on experience, that the behaviour of a given rock can be
+determined and the quantity of explosive required properly proportioned.
+
+Blasting, as usually carried on, comprises several operations: (1)
+drilling holes in the rock to be blasted; (2) placing in the hole the
+charge of explosive, with its fuze; (3) tamping the charge, i.e.
+compacting it and filling the remainder of the hole with some suitable
+material for preventing the charge from blowing out without breaking the
+ground; (4) igniting or detonating the charge; (5) clearing away the
+broken material. The holes for blasting are made either by hand, with
+hammer and drill or jumper, or by machine drill, the latter being driven
+by steam, compressed air, or electricity, or, in rare cases, by
+hydraulic power. Drill holes ordinarily vary in diameter from 1 to 3
+in., and in depth from a few inches up to 15 or 20 ft. or more. The
+deeper holes are made only in surface excavation of rock, the shallower,
+to a maximum depth of say 12 ft., being suitable for tunnelling and
+mining operations.
+
+  _Hand Drilling_.--The work is either "single-hand" or "double-hand."
+  In single-hand drilling, the miner wields the hammer with one hand,
+  and with the other holds the drill or "bit," rotating it slightly
+  after every blow in order to keep the hole round and prevent the drill
+  from sticking fast; in double-hand work, one man strikes, while the
+  other holds and rotates the drill. For large and deep holes, two
+  hammermen are sometimes employed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Sledge-hammer.]
+
+  A miner's drill is a steel bar, occasionally round but generally of
+  octagonal cross-section, one end of which is forged out to a cutting
+  edge (fig. 1). The edge of the drill is made either straight, like
+  that of a chisel, or with a convex curve, the latter shape being best
+  for very hard rock. For hard rock the cutting edge should be rather
+  thicker and blunter, and therefore stronger, than for soft rock.
+  Drills are made of high-grade steel, as they must be tempered
+  accurately and uniformly. The diameter of drill steel for hand work is
+  usually from 3/4 to 1 in., and the length of cutting edge, or gauge,
+  of the drill is always greater than the diameter of the shank, in the
+  proportion of from 7.4 to 4.3. Holes over 10 or 12 in. deep generally
+  require the use of a set of drills of different lengths and depending
+  in number on the depth required. The shortest drill, for starting the
+  hole, has the widest cutting edge, the edges of the others being
+  successively narrower and graduated to follow each other properly, as
+  drill after drill is dulled in deepening the hole. Thus the hole
+  decreases in diameter as it is made deeper. The miner's hammer (fig.
+  2) ranges in weight from 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 lb. for single-hand drilling,
+  up to 8 or 10 lb. for double-hand. If the hole is directed downward, a
+  little water is poured into it at intervals, to keep the cutting edge
+  of the drill cool and make a thin mud of the cuttings. From time to
+  time the hole is cleaned out by the "scraper" or "spoon," a long
+  slender iron bar, forged in the shape of a hollow semi-cylinder, with
+  one end flattened and turned over at right angles. If the hole is
+  directed steeply upward and the rock is dry, the cuttings will run out
+  continuously during the drilling; otherwise the scraper is necessary,
+  or a small pipe with a plunger like a syringe is used for washing out
+  the cuttings. The "jumper" is a long steel bar, with cutting edges on
+  one or both ends, which is alternately raised and dropped in the hole
+  by one or two men. In rock work the jumper is rarely used except for
+  holes directed steeply downward, though for coal or soft shale or
+  slate it may be employed for drilling holes horizontally or upward.
+  Other tools used in connexion with rock-drilling are the pick and gad.
+
+  Holes drilled by hand usually vary in depth from say 18 to 36 in.,
+  according to the nature of the rock and purpose of the work, though
+  deeper holes are often made. For soft rock, single-hand drilling is
+  from 20 to 30% cheaper than double-hand, but this difference does not
+  hold good for the harder rocks. For these double-hand drilling is
+  preferable, and may even be essential, to secure a reasonable speed of
+  work.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 3.--Ingersoll-Sergeant Mining Drill.]
+
+  _Machine Drills._--The introduction of machine drills in the latter
+  part of the 19th century exerted an important influence on the work of
+  rock excavation in general, and specially on the art of mining. By
+  their use many great tunnels and other works involving rock excavation
+  under adverse conditions have been rapidly and successfully carried
+  out. Before the invention of machine drills such work progressed
+  slowly and with difficulty. Nearly all machine drills are of the
+  reciprocating or percussive type, in which the drill bit is firmly
+  clamped to the piston rod and delivers a rapid succession of strong
+  blows on the bottom of the hole. The ordinary compressed air drill
+  (which may, for surface work, be operated also by steam) may be taken
+  as an illustration. The piston works in a cylinder, provided with a
+  valve motion somewhat similar to that of a steam-engine, together with
+  an automatic device for producing the necessary rotation of the piston
+  and drill bit. While at work the machine is mounted on a heavy tripod
+  (fig. 3); or, if underground, sometimes on an iron column or bar,
+  firmly wedged in position between the roof and floor, or side walls,
+  of the tunnel or mine working. As the hole is deepened, the entire
+  drill head is gradually fed forward on its support by a screw feed, a
+  succession of longer and longer drill bits being used as required.
+
+  Among the numerous types and makes of percussion drill may be named
+  the following:--Adelaide, Climax, Darlington, Dubois-Francois,
+  Ferroux, Froelich, Hirnant, Ingersoll, Jeffrey, Leyner, McKiernan,
+  Rand, Schram, Sergeant, Sullivan and Wood.
+
+  [Illustration: Figs. 4 and 5.--Darlington's Rock Drill.]
+
+  One of the simplest of the machine drills is the Darlington (figs. 4
+  and 5): a is the cylinder; b, piston rod; c, bit; d, d, air inlets,
+  either being used according to the position of the drill while at
+  work; h, piston; j, rifle-bar for rotating piston and bit; k, ratchet
+  attached to j; l, brass nut, screwed into h, and in which j works; f,
+  chuck for holding drill-bit; n, air port communicating between ends of
+  cylinder, front and back of piston; o, exhaust port. This machine has
+  no valve. From its construction, the compressed air (or steam) is
+  always acting on the annular shoulder round the forward end of the
+  piston. The piston is thereby forced back on the in-stroke until the
+  port n is uncovered. This admits the compressed air to the rear end of
+  the cylinder, and as the area of this end of the piston is much
+  greater than that of the shoulder on the other end, the piston is
+  driven forward and strikes its blow. When it has advanced far enough
+  to cover the exhaust port o, the air behind the piston is exhausted,
+  and, under the constant inward pressure noted above, the stroke is
+  reversed. The rotation of piston and bit is caused by the rifle-bar j.
+  On the outward stroke, j, with its ratchet k, is free to turn under a
+  couple of pawls and springs, and consequently the piston delivers its
+  blow without rotation. On the inward stroke the ratchet is held fast
+  by the pawls, and the piston and bit are forced to rotate through a
+  small part of a revolution. The cylinder is fed forward with respect
+  to the shell r, by rotating the handle p, which works a long screw-bar
+  engaging with a nut on the under side of the cylinder. The shell r is
+  bolted to the clamp s, which in turn is mounted on the hollow column
+  or bar g, or on a tripod, according to the character of the work. By
+  means of the adjustable clamp s, the machine can be set for drilling a
+  hole in any desired direction. The drill makes from 400 to 800 strokes
+  per minute.
+
+  The "New Ingersoll" drill, which may be taken as an example of the
+  numerous machines in which valves are used, is shown in section in
+  fig. 6. The steam or compressed air is distributed through the ports
+  alternately to the ends of the cylinder, by the reciprocations of a
+  spool-valve working in a chest mounted on the cylinder. The movements
+  of this valve are caused by the strokes of the main piston, which, by
+  means of the wide annular groove around the middle of the piston,
+  alternately open and close the spool-valve exhaust ports. Fig. 3 shows
+  the Ingersoll "Light Mining drill," as mounted on a tripod, and in
+  position for drilling a hole vertically downward. In the Leyner drill
+  the drill-bit is not connected to the piston, but is struck a quick
+  succession of blows by the latter. An important feature of this
+  machine is the provision for directing a stream of water into the hole
+  for clearing out the cuttings. For this purpose the shank of the
+  drill-bit is perforated longitudinally, the water being supplied under
+  pressure from a small tank, to which compressed air is led.
+
+  A rock drill of entirely different design, the Brandt, has been
+  successfully used in Europe for driving railway tunnels. It is
+  operated by hydraulic power, the pressure water being supplied by a
+  pump. The hollow drill-bit, which has a serrated cutting edge, is
+  forced under heavy pressure against the bottom of the hole, and is
+  rotated slowly--at six to eight revolutions per minute--by a pair of
+  small hydraulic cylinders, thus grinding and crushing the rock instead
+  of chipping it. The bottom of the hole is kept clean and the drill-bit
+  cooled by a stream of water passing down through its hollow shank. On
+  account of its size and weight, this machine is not suitable for mine
+  work.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--New Ingersoll Drill.]
+
+  Most of the machine drills are made in a number of sizes, from 2 in.
+  up to 5 in. diameter of cylinder, the larger sizes being capable of
+  drilling holes 5 in. diameter and 30 ft. deep. They range in weight
+  from say 95 to 690 lb. for the drill head (unmounted), the tripods
+  weighing from 40 to 260 lb., exclusive of the weights placed for
+  stability on the tripod legs (fig. 3). The sizes in most common use
+  for mining are from 2-1/2 in. to 3-1/8 in. diameter of cylinder. In
+  rock of average hardness the best drills make from 4 to 7.5 linear ft.
+  of hole per hour. For use in narrow veins, or other confined workings
+  underground, several extremely small and light compressed air drills
+  have been introduced, as, for example, the Franke and Wonder, the
+  first of which weighs complete only 16 lb., and the second 18 lb.
+  These drills are held in the hands of the miner in the required
+  position, and strike a rapid succession of light blows. A large number
+  of mechanical drills operated by hand power have been invented. Some
+  imitate hand-drilling in the mode of delivering the blow; in others
+  the drill-bit is caused to reciprocate by means of combinations of
+  crank and spring. None of these machines is entirely satisfactory, and
+  but few are in use.
+
+  Among percussion rock-drills operated by electricity are the Bladray,
+  Box, Durkee, Marvin and Siemens-Halske. The Marvin drill works with a
+  solenoid; most of the others have crank and spring movements for
+  producing the reciprocations of the piston. Power is furnished by a
+  small electric motor, either mounted on the machine itself, as with
+  the Box drill, or more often standing on the ground and transmitting
+  its power through a flexible shaft. Although rather frequently used,
+  electric percussion drills cannot yet be considered entirely
+  successful, at least for mine service, in competition with compressed
+  air machines. Another type of electric drill, however, has been
+  successfully used in collieries, viz. rotary auger drills, mounted on
+  light columns and driven through gearing by diminutive motors. These
+  are intended for boring in coal, slate or other similar soft material.
+  Hand augers resembling a carpenter's brace and bit are also often used
+  in collieries.
+
+  Whatever may be the method of drilling, after the hole has been
+  completed to the depth required, it is finally cleaned out by a
+  scraper or swab; or, when compressed air drills are used, by a jet of
+  air directed into the hole by a short piece of pipe connected through
+  a flexible hose with the compressed air supply pipe. The hole is then
+  ready for the charge.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+  _Location and Arrangement of Holes._--For hand drilling in mining the
+  position of the holes is determined largely by the character and shape
+  of the face of rock to be blasted. The miner observes the joints and
+  cracks of the rock, placing the holes to take advantage of them and so
+  obtain the best result from the blast. In driving a tunnel or drift,
+  as in figs. 7 and 8, the rock joints can be made of material
+  assistance by beginning with hole No. 1 and following in succession by
+  Nos. 2, 3 and 4. Frequently the ore, or vein matter, is separated from
+  the wall-rock by a thin, soft layer of clay (D, D, fig. 8). This would
+  act almost as a free face, and the first holes of the round would be
+  directed at an angle towards it, for blasting out a wedge; after which
+  the positions of the other holes would be chosen.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+  When machine drills are employed, less attention is given to natural
+  cracks or joints, chiefly because when the drill is once set up
+  several holes at different angles can be drilled in succession by
+  merely swinging the cylinder of the machine into a new position with
+  respect to its mounting. According to one method, the holes are placed
+  with some degree of symmetry, in roughly concentric rings, as shown by
+  figs. 9 and 10. The centre holes are blasted first, and are followed
+  by the others in one or more volleys as indicated by the dotted lines.
+  Another method is the "centre cut," in which the holes are drilled in
+  parallel rows on each side of the centre line of the tunnel, drift or
+  shaft. Those in the two rows nearest the middle are directed towards
+  each other, and enclose a prism of rock, which is first blasted put by
+  heavy charges, after which the rows of side holes will break with
+  relatively light charges.
+
+  _Explosives._--A great variety of explosives are in use for blasting
+  purposes. Up to 1864, gunpowder was the only available explosive, but
+  in that year Alfred Nobel first applied nitroglycerin for blasting,
+  and in 1867 invented dynamite. This name was originally applied to his
+  mixture of nitroglycerin with kieselguhr, but now includes also other
+  mechanical mixtures or chemical compounds which develop a high
+  explosive force as compared with gunpowder. Besides these there are
+  the so-called flameless or safety explosives, used in collieries where
+  inflammable gases are given off from the coal.
+
+  Gunpowder, or black powder, is seldom used for rock-blasting, except
+  in quarrying building-stone, where slow explosives of relatively low
+  power are desirable to avoid shattering the stone, and in such
+  collieries as do not require the use of safety explosives. Gunpowder
+  is exploded by deflagration, by means of a fuze, and exerts a
+  comparatively slow and rending force. The high explosives, on the
+  other hand, are exploded by detonation, through the agency of a fuze
+  and fulminating cap, exerting a quick, shattering, rather than a
+  rending force. Dynamites and flameless explosives are made in a
+  variety of strengths, and are packed in waterproofed cartridges of
+  different sizes. The grades of dynamite most commonly employed contain
+  from 35 to 60% of nitroglycerin; the stronger are used for tough rock
+  or deep holes, or for holes unfavourably placed in narrow mine
+  workings, as sometimes in shaft-sinking or tunnelling. When of good
+  quality high explosives are safer to handle than gunpowder, as they
+  cannot be ignited by sparks and are not so easily exploded. The
+  ordinary dynamites used in mining are about four times as powerful as
+  gunpowder.
+
+  Nitroglycerin in its liquid form is now rarely used for blasting,
+  partly because its full strength is not often necessary but chiefly
+  because of the difficulty and danger of transporting, handling and
+  charging it. If employed at all, it is charged in thin tinned plate
+  cases or rubber-cloth cartridges.
+
+  _Blasting with Black Powder._--The powder is coarse-grained, usually
+  from 1/8 to 3/16 in. in size, and is charged in paper cartridges, 8 to
+  10 in. long and of a proper diameter to fit loosely in the drill hole.
+  A piece of fuze, long enough to reach a little beyond the mouth of the
+  hole, is inserted in the cartridge and tied fast. For wet holes
+  paraffined paper is used, the miner waterproofing the joints with
+  grease. When more than one cartridge is required for the blast, that
+  which has the fuze attached is usually charged last. The cartridges
+  are carefully rammed down by a wooden tamping bar and the remainder of
+  the hole filled with tamping. This consists of finely broken rock, dry
+  clay or other comminuted material, carefully compacted by the tamping
+  bar on top of the charge. The fuze is a cord, having in the centre a
+  core of gunpowder, enclosed in several layers of linen or hemp
+  waterproofed covering. It is ignited by the miner's candle or lamp, or
+  by a candle end so placed at the mouth of the hole that the flame must
+  burn its way through the fuze covering. As the fuze burns slowly, at
+  the rate of 2 or 3 ft. per minute, the miner uses a sufficient length
+  to allow him to reach a place of safety.
+
+  For blasting in coal, "squibs" instead of fuzes are often used. A
+  squib is simply a tiny paper rocket, about 1/8 in. diameter by 3 in.
+  long, containing fine gunpowder and having a sulphur slow-match at one
+  end. It is fired into the charge through a channel in the tamping.
+  This channel may be formed by a piece of 1/4 in. gas pipe, tamped in
+  the hole and reaching the charge; or a "needle," a long taper iron
+  rod, is laid longitudinally in the hole, with its point entering the
+  charge, and after the tamping is finished, by carefully withdrawing
+  the needle a little channel is left, through which the squib is fired.
+  In this connexion it may be noted that for breaking ground in gassy
+  collieries several substitutes for explosives have been used to a
+  limited extent, e.g. plugs of dry wood driven tightly into a row of
+  drill holes, and which on being wetted swell and split the coal;
+  quicklime cartridges, which expand powerfully on the application of
+  water; simple wedges, driven by hammer into the drill holes; multiple
+  wedges, inserted in the holes and operated by hydraulic pressure from
+  a small hand force-pump.
+
+  _Blasting with High Explosives._--High explosives are fired either by
+  ordinary fuze and detonating cap or by electric fuze. Detonating caps
+  of ordinary strength contain 10 to 15 grains of fulminating mixture.
+  The cap is crimped tight on the end of the fuze, embedded in the
+  cartridge, and on being exploded by fire from the fuze detonates the
+  charge. The number of cartridges charged depends on the depth of hole,
+  the length of the line of least resistance, and the toughness and
+  other characteristics of the rock. Each cartridge should be solidly
+  tamped, and, to avoid waste spaces in the hole, which would reduce the
+  effect of the blast, it is customary to split the paper covering
+  lengthwise with a knife. This allows the dynamite to spread under the
+  pressure of the tamping bar. The cap is often placed in the cartridge
+  preceding the last one charged, but it is better to insert it last, in
+  a piece of cartridge called a "primer." Though the dynamites are not
+  exploded by sparks, they should nevertheless always be handled
+  carefully. It is not so essential to fill the hole completely and so
+  thoroughly to compact the tamping, as in charging black powder,
+  because of the greater rapidity and shattering force of the explosion
+  of dynamite; tamping, however, should never be omitted, as it
+  increases the efficiency of the blast. In exploding dynamite, strong
+  caps, containing say 15 grains of fulminating powder, produce the best
+  results. Weaker caps are not economical, as they do not produce
+  complete detonation of the dynamite. This is specially true if the
+  weather be cold. Dynamite then becomes less sensitive, and the
+  cartridges should be gently warmed before charging, to a temperature
+  of not more than 80 deg. F. Poisonous fumes are often produced by the
+  explosion of the nitroglycerin compounds. These are probably largely
+  due to incomplete detonation, by which part of the nitroglycerin is
+  vaporized or merely burned. This is most likely to occur when the
+  dynamite is chilled, or of poor quality, or when the cap is too weak.
+  There is generally but little inconvenience from the fumes, except in
+  confined underground workings, where ventilation is imperfect.
+
+  Like nitroglycerin, the common dynamites freeze at a temperature of
+  from 42 deg. to 46 deg. F. They are then comparatively safe, and so
+  far as possible should be transported in the frozen state. At very low
+  temperatures dynamite again becomes somewhat sensitive to shock. When
+  it is frozen at ordinary temperatures even the strongest detonating
+  caps fail to develop the full force. In thawing dynamite, care must be
+  exercised. The fact that a small quantity will often burn quietly has
+  led to the dangerously mistaken notion that mere heating will not
+  cause explosion. It is chiefly a question of temperature. If the
+  quantity ignited by flame be large enough to heat the entire mass to
+  the detonating point (say 360 deg. F.) before all is consumed, an
+  explosion will result. Furthermore, dynamite, when even moderately
+  heated, becomes extremely sensitive to shocks. There are several
+  accepted modes of thawing dynamite: (1) In a water bath, the
+  cartridges being placed in a vessel surrounded on the sides and bottom
+  by warm water contained in a larger enclosing vessel. The warm water
+  may be renewed from time to time, or the water bath placed over a
+  candle or small lamp, _not_ on a stove. (2) In two vessels, similar to
+  the above, with the space between them occupied by air, provided the
+  heat applied can be definitely limited, as by using a candle. (3) When
+  large quantities of dynamite are used a supply may be kept on shelves
+  in a wooden room or chamber, warmed by a stove, or by a coil of pipe
+  heated by exhaust steam from an engine. Live steam should not be used,
+  as the heat might become excessive. Thawing should always take place
+  slowly, never before an open fire or by direct contact with a stove or
+  steam pipes and care must be taken that the heat does not rise high
+  enough to cause sweating or exudation of liquid nitroglycerin from the
+  cartridges, which would be a source of danger.
+
+  For the storage of explosives at mines, &c., proper magazines must be
+  provided, situated in a safe place, not too near other buildings, and
+  preferably of light though fireproof construction. Masonry magazines,
+  though safer from some points of view, may be the cause of greater
+  damage in event of an explosion, because the brick or stones act as
+  projectiles. Isolated and abandoned mine workings, if dry, are
+  sometimes used as magazines.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 11. Electrical Fuze.]
+
+  Firing blasts by electricity has a wide application for both surface
+  and underground work. An electrical fuze (fig. 11) consists of a pair
+  of fine, insulated copper wires, several feet long and about 1/40 of
+  an inch in diameter, with their bare ends inserted in a detonating
+  cap. For firing, the fuze wires are joined to long leading wires,
+  connected with some source of electric current. By joining the fuze
+  wires in series or in groups, any number of holes may be fired
+  simultaneously, according to the current available. A round of holes
+  fired in this way, as for driving tunnels, sinking shafts, or in large
+  surface excavations, produces better results, both in economy of
+  explosive and effect of the blast, than when the holes are fired
+  singly or in succession. Also, the miners are enabled to prepare for
+  the blast with more care and deliberation, and then to reach a place
+  of safety before the current is transmitted. Another advantage is that
+  there is no danger of a hole "hanging fire," which sometimes causes
+  accidents in using ordinary fuzes.
+
+  Hanging fire may be due to a cut, broken or damaged powder fuze, which
+  may smoulder for some time before communicating fire to the charge.
+  "Miss-fires," which also are of not infrequent occurrence with both
+  ordinary and electric fuzes, are cases where explosion from any cause
+  fails to take place. After waiting a sufficient length of time before
+  approaching the charged hole, the miner carefully removes the tamping
+  down to within a few inches of the explosives and inserts and fires
+  another cartridge, the concussion usually detonating the entire
+  charge. Sometimes another hole is drilled near the one which has
+  missed. No attempt to remove the old charge should ever be made.
+
+  High tension electricity, generated by a frictional machine, provided
+  with a condenser, was formerly much used for blasting. The bare ends
+  of the fuze wires in the detonating cap are placed say 1/8 in. apart,
+  leaving a gap across which a spark is discharged, passing through a
+  priming charge of some sensitive composition. The priming is not only
+  combustible but also a conductor of electricity, such as an intimate
+  mixture of potassium chlorate with copper sulphide and phosphide. By
+  the combustion of the priming the fulminate mixture in the cap is
+  detonated. As these fuzes are more apt to deteriorate when exposed to
+  dampness than fuzes for low-tension current, and the generating
+  machine is rather clumsy and fragile, low-tension current is more
+  generally employed. It may be generated by a small, portable dynamo,
+  operated by hand, or may be derived from a battery or from any
+  convenient electric circuit. The ends of the fuze wires in the
+  detonating cap are connected by a fine platinum filament (fig. 11),
+  embedded in a guncotton priming on top of the fulminating mixture, and
+  explosion results from the heat generated by the resistance opposed to
+  the passage of the current through the filament. Blasting machines are
+  made in several sizes, the smaller ones being capable of firing
+  simultaneously from ten to twenty holes. The fuzes must obviously be
+  of uniform electrical resistance, to ensure that all the connected
+  charges will explode simultaneously. The premature explosion of any
+  one of the fuzes would break the circuit.
+
+  In the actual operations of blasting, definite rules for the
+  proportioning of the charges are rarely observed, and although the
+  blasts made by a skilful miner seldom fail to do their work, it is a
+  common fault that too much, rather than too little, explosive is used.
+  The high explosives are specially liable to be wasted, probably
+  through lack of appreciation of their power as compared with that of
+  black powder. Among the indications of excessive charges are the
+  production of much finely broken rock or of crushed and splintered
+  rock around the bottom of the hole, and excessive displacement or
+  projection of the rock broken by the blast. In beginning any new piece
+  of work, such waste may be avoided or reduced by making trial shots
+  with different charges and depths of hole, and noting the results;
+  also by letting contracts under which the workmen pay for the
+  explosive. In surface rock excavation the location and determination
+  of the depth of the holes and the quantity of explosive used, are
+  occasionally put in charge of one or more skilled men, who direct the
+  work and are responsible for the results obtained.
+
+  Blasting in surface excavations and quarries is sometimes done on an
+  immense scale--called "mammoth blasting." Shafts are sunk, or tunnels
+  driven, in the mass of rock to be blasted, and, connected with them, a
+  number of chambers are excavated to receive the charges of explosive.
+  The preparation for such blasts may occupy months, and many tons of
+  gunpowder or dynamite are at times exploded simultaneously, breaking
+  or dislodging thousands, or even hundreds of thousands, of tons of
+  rock. This method is adopted for getting stone cheaply, as for
+  building macadamized roads, dams and breakwaters, obtaining limestone
+  for blast furnace flux, and occasionally in excavating large railway
+  cuttings. It is also applied in submarine blasting for the removal of
+  reefs obstructing navigation, and sometimes for loosening extensive
+  banks of partly cemented gold-bearing gravel, preparatory to washing
+  by hydraulic mining.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For further information on drilling and blasting
+  see:--Callon, _Lectures on Mining_ (1876), vol. i. chs. v. and vi.;
+  Foster, _Text-book of Ore and Stone Mining_, (1900), ch. iv.; Hughes,
+  _Text-book of Coal Mining_ (1901), ch. iii.; H.S. Drinker,
+  _Tunnelling, Explosive Compounds and Rock Drills_ (1878); M.C.
+  Ihlseng, _Manual of Mining_ (1905), pp. 596-696; Kohler, _Der
+  Bergbaukunde_ (1897), pp. 104-208; Daw, _The Blasting of Rock_ (1898);
+  Prelini, _Earth and Rock Excavation_ (1905), chs. v., vi. and vii.;
+  Gillette, _The Excavation of Rock_ (1904); Guttmann, _Blasting_
+  (1892); Spon's _Dictionary of Engineering_, art. "Boring and
+  Blasting"; Eissler, _Modern High Explosives_ (1893), pts. ii. and
+  iii.; Walke, _Lectures on Explosives_ (1897), chs. xix.-xxii. Also:
+  _Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng._ (London), vol. lxxxv. p. 264; _Trans. Inst.
+  Min. Eng._ (England), vols. xiv., xv. and xvi. (arts, by W. Maurice),
+  vol. xxvi. pp. 322, 348, vol. xxiv. p. 526 and vol. xxv. p. 108;
+  _Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng._, vol. xxvii. p. 530; _Trans. Amer. Inst.
+  Min. Eng._, vol. xviii. p. 370, vol. xxix p. 405 and vol. xxxiv. p.
+  871; _South Wales Inst. Eng._ (1888); _Jour. Ass. Eng. Socs._, vol.
+  vii. p. 58; _Jour. Chem. Met. and Mining Soc. of South Africa_, August
+  1905; _School of Mines Quarterly_, N.Y., vol. ix. p. 308; _Colliery
+  Guardian_, April 15, 1898, and February 6, 1903; _Mines and Minerals_,
+  February 1905, p. 348, January 1906, p. 259, and April 1906, p. 393;
+  _Eng. and Mining Jour._, April 19, 1902, p. 552; _The Engineer_,
+  February 24, 1905; _Elec. Rev._, June 9, 1899; _Eng. News_, vol.
+  xxxii. p. 249, and August 3, 1905; _Gluckauf_, September 28, 1901, and
+  July 5, 1902; _Osterr. Zeitschr. f. Berg- u. Huttenwesen_, May 18, 25,
+  1901, April 18, 1903 and November, 18, 1905; _Annales des mines_, vol.
+  xviii. pp. 217-248.     (R. P.*)
+
+
+
+
+BLAUBEUREN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, 12 m. W.
+of Ulm, with which it is connected by railway. Pop. (1900) 3114. It is
+romantically situated in a wild and deep valley of the Swabian Alps at
+an altitude of 1600 ft. and is partly surrounded by ancient walls. Of
+the three churches (two Evangelical and one Roman Catholic) the most
+remarkable is the abbey church (_Klosterkirche_), a late Gothic building
+dating from 1465-1496, the choir of which contains beautiful 15th
+century carved choir-stalls and a fine high altar with a triptych
+(1496). The choir only is used for service (Protestant), the nave being
+used as a gymnasium. The town church (_Stadtkirche_) also has a fine
+altar with triptych. The Benedictine abbey, founded in 1095, was used
+after the Reformation as a school, and is now an Evangelical theological
+seminary. There are two hospitals in the town.
+
+
+
+
+BLAVATSKY, HELENA PETROVNA (1831-1891), Russian theosophist, was born at
+Ekaterinoslav, on the 31st of July (O.S.) 1831, the daughter of Colonel
+Peter Hahn, a member of a Mecklenburg family, settled in Russia. She
+married in her seventeenth year a man very much her senior, Nicephore
+Blavatsky, a Russian official in Caucasia, from whom she was separated
+after a few months; in later days, when seeking to invest herself with a
+halo of virginity, she described the marriage as a nominal one. During
+the next twenty years Mme Blavatsky appears to have travelled widely in
+Canada, Texas, Mexico and India, with two attempts on Tibet. In one of
+these she seems to have crossed the frontier alone in disguise, been
+lost in the desert, and, after many adventures, been conducted back by a
+party of horsemen. The years from 1848 to 1858 were alluded to
+subsequently as "the veiled period" of her life, and she spoke vaguely
+of a seven years' sojourn in "Little and Great Tibet," or preferably of
+a "Himalayan retreat." In 1858 she revisited Russia, where she created a
+sensation as a spiritualistic medium. About 1870 she acquired
+prominence among the spiritualists of the United States, where she
+lived for six years, becoming a naturalized citizen. Her leisure was
+occupied with the study of occult and kabbalistic literature, to which
+she soon added that of the sacred writings of India, through the medium
+of translations. In 1875 she conceived the plan of combining the
+spiritualistic "control" with the Buddhistic legends about Tibetan
+sages. Henceforth she determined to exclude all control save that of two
+Tibetan adepts or "mahatmas." The mahatmas exhibited their "astral
+bodies" to her, "precipitated" messages which reached her from the
+confines of Tibet in an instant of time, supplied her with sound
+doctrine, and incited her to perform tricks for the conversion of
+sceptics. At New York, on the 17th of November 1875, with the aid of
+Colonel Henry S. Olcott, she founded the "Theosophical Society" with the
+object of (1) forming a universal brotherhood of man, (2) studying and
+making known the ancient religions, philosophies and sciences, (3)
+investigating the laws of nature and developing the divine powers latent
+in man. The Brahmanic and Buddhistic literature supplied the society
+with its terminology, and its doctrines were a curious amalgam of
+Egyptian, kabbalistic, occultist, Indian and modern spiritualistic ideas
+and formulas. Mme Blavatsky's principal books were _Isis Unveiled_ (New
+York, 1877), _The Secret Doctrine, the Synthesis of Science, Religion
+and Philosophy_ (1888), _The Key to Theosophy_ (1891). The two first of
+these are a mosaic of unacknowledged quotations from such books as
+K.R.H. Mackenzie's _Royal Masonic Encyclopaedia_, C.W. King's
+_Gnostics_, Zeller's _Plato_, the works on magic by Dunlop, E. Salverte,
+Joseph Ennemoser, and Des Mousseaux, and the mystical writings of
+Eliphas Levi (L.A. Constant). _A Glossary of Theosophical Terms_
+(1890-1892) was compiled for the benefit of her disciples. But the
+appearance of Home's _Lights and Shadows of Spiritualism_ (1877) had a
+prejudicial effect upon the propaganda, and Heliona P. Blavatsky (as she
+began to style herself) retired to India. Thence she contributed some
+clever papers, "From the Caves and Jungles of Hindostan" (published
+separately in English, London, 1892) to the _Russky Vyestnik_. Defeated
+in her object of obtaining employment in the Russian secret service, she
+resumed her efforts to gain converts to theosophy. For this purpose the
+exhibition of "physical phenomena" was found necessary. Her jugglery was
+cleverly conceived, but on three occasions was exposed in the most
+conclusive manner. Nevertheless, her cleverness, volubility, energy and
+will-power enabled her to maintain her ground, and when she died on the
+8th of May 1891 (White Lotus Day), at the theosophical headquarters in
+the Avenue Road, London, she was the acknowledged head of a community
+numbering not far short of 100,000, with journalistic organs in London,
+Paris, New York and Madras.
+
+  Much information respecting her will be found in V.S. Solovyov's
+  _Modern Priestess of Isis_, translated by Walter Leaf (1895), in
+  Arthur Lillie's _Madame Blavatsky and Her Theosophy_ (1895), and in
+  the report made to the Society for Psychical Research by the Cambridge
+  graduate despatched to investigate her doings in India. See also the
+  article THEOSOPHY.
+
+
+
+
+BLAYDES, FREDERICK HENRY MARVELL (1818-1908), English classical scholar,
+was born at Hampton Court Green, on the 29th of September 1818, being a
+collateral descendant of Andrew Marvell, the satirist and friend of
+Milton. He was educated at St Peter's school, York, and Christ Church,
+Oxford. He was Hertford scholar in 1838, took a second class in literae
+humaniores in 1840, and was subsequently elected to a studentship at
+Christ Church. In 1842 he took orders, and from 1843 to 1886 was vicar
+of Harringworth in Northamptonshire. During a long life he devoted
+himself almost entirely to the study of the Greek dramatists. His
+editions and philological papers are remarkable for bold conjectural
+emendations of corrupt (and other) passages. His distinction was
+recognized by his being made an honorary LL.D. of Dublin, Ph.D. of the
+university of Buda Pest and a fellow of the royal society of letters at
+Athens. He died at Southsea on the 7th of September 1908.
+
+  His works include:--Aristophanes: _Comedies and Fragments_, with
+  critical notes and commentary (1880-1893); _Clouds, Knights, Frogs,
+  Wasps_ (1873-1878); _Opera Omnia_, with critical notes (1886);
+  Sophocles; _Oedipus Coloneus, Oedipus Tyrannus_ and _Antigone_ (in
+  the Bibliotheca Classica, 1859); _Philoctetes_ (1870), _Trachiniae_
+  (1871), _Electra_ (1873), _Ajax_ (1875), _Antigone_ (1005); Aeschylus:
+  _Agamemnon_ (1898), _Choephori_ (1899), _Eumenides_ (1900),
+  _Adversaria Critica in Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta_ (1890); _in
+  Tragicorum Graec. Frag._ (1894), _in Aeschylum_ (1895), _in Varios
+  Poetas Graecos et Latinos_ (1898), _in Aristophanem_ (1899), _in
+  Sophoclem_ (1899), _in Euripidem_ (1901), _in Herodotum_ (1901);
+  _Analecta Comica Graeca_ (1905); _Analecta Tragica Graeca_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+BLAYDON, an urban district in the Chester-le-Street parliamentary
+division of Durham, England, on the Tyne, 4 m. W. of Newcastle by a
+branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1881) 10,687; (1901) 19,617.
+The chief industries are coal-mining, iron-founding, pipe, fire-brick,
+chemical manure and bottle manufactures. In the vicinity is the
+beautiful old mansion of Stella, and below it Stellaheugh, to which the
+victorious Scottish army crossed from Newburn on the Northumberland bank
+in 1640, after which they occupied Newcastle.
+
+
+
+
+BLAYE-ET-STE LUCE, a town of south-western France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Gironde, on the right bank of the
+Gironde (here over 2 m. wide), 35 m. N. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906)
+of the town, 3423; of the commune, 4890. The town has a citadel built by
+Vauban on a rock beside the river, and embracing in its enceinte ruins
+of an old Gothic chateau. The latter contains the tomb of Caribert, king
+of Toulouse, and son of Clotaire II. Blaye is also defended by the Fort
+Pate on an island in the river and the Fort Medoc on its left bank, both
+of the 17th century. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has
+tribunals of first instance and of commerce and a communal college. It
+has a small river-port, and carries on trade in wine, brandy, grain,
+fruit and timber. The industries include the building of small vessels,
+distilling, flour-milling, and the manufacture of oil and candles. Fine
+red wine is produced in the district.
+
+In ancient times Blaye (_Blavia_) was a port of the Santones. Tradition
+states that the hero Roland was buried in its basilica, which was on the
+site of the citadel. It was early an important stronghold which played
+an important part in the wars against the English and the Religious
+Wars. The duchess of Berry was imprisoned in its fortress in 1832-1833.
+
+
+
+
+BLAZE (A.-S. _blaese_, a torch), a fire or bright flame; more nearly
+akin to the Ger. _blass_, pale or shining white, is the use of the word
+for the white mark on the face of a horse or cow, and the American use
+for a mark made on a tree by cutting off a piece of the bark. The word
+"to blaze," in the sense of to noise abroad, comes from the A.-S.
+_blaesan_, to blow, cf. the Ger. _blasen_; in sense, if not in origin,
+it is confused with "blazon" in heraldry.
+
+
+
+
+BLAZON, a heraldic shield, a coat of arms properly "described" according
+to the rules of heraldry, hence a proper heraldic description of such a
+coat. The O. Fr. _blason_ seems originally to have meant simply a shield
+as a means of defence and not a shield-shaped surface for the display of
+armorial bearings, but this is difficult to reconcile with the generally
+accepted derivation from the Ger. _blasen_, to blow, proclaim, English
+"blaze," to noise abroad, to declare. In the 16th century the heraldic
+term, and "blaze" and "blazon" in the sense of proclaim, had much
+influence on each other.
+
+
+
+
+BLEACHING, the process of whitening or depriving objects of colour, an
+operation incessantly in activity in nature by the influence of light,
+air and moisture. The art of bleaching, of which we have here to treat,
+consists in inducing the rapid operation of whitening agencies, and as
+an industry it is mostly directed to cotton, linen, silk, wool and other
+textile fibres, but it is also applied to the whitening of paper-pulp,
+bees'-wax and some oils and other substances. The term bleaching is
+derived from the A.-S. _blaecan_, to bleach, or to fade, from which also
+comes the cognate German word _bleichen_, to whiten or render pale.
+Bleachers, down to the end of the 18th century, were known in England as
+"whitsters," a name obviously derived from the nature of their calling.
+
+The operation of bleaching must from its very nature be of the same
+antiquity as the work of washing textures of linen, cotton or other
+vegetable fibres. Clothing repeatedly washed, and exposed in the open
+air to dry, gradually assumes a whiter and whiter hue, and our ancestors
+cannot have failed to notice and take advantage of this fact. Scarcely
+anything is known with certainty of the art of bleaching as practised by
+the nations of antiquity. Egypt in early ages was the great centre of
+textile manufactures, and her white and coloured linens were in high
+repute among contemporary nations. As a uniformly well-bleached basis is
+necessary for the production of a satisfactory dye on cloth, it may be
+assumed that the Egyptians were fairly proficient in bleaching, and that
+still more so were the Phoenicians with their brilliant and famous
+purple dyes. We learn, from Pliny, that different plants, and likewise
+the ashes of plants, which no doubt contained alkali, were employed as
+detergents. He mentions particularly the _Struthium_ as much used for
+bleaching in Greece, a plant which has been identified by some with
+_Gypsophila Struthium_. But as it does not appear from John Sibthorp's
+_Flora Graeca_, edited by Sir James Smith, that this species is a native
+of Greece, Dr Sibthorp's conjecture that the _Struthium_ of the ancients
+was the _Saponaria officinalis_, a plant common in Greece, is certainly
+more probable.
+
+In modern times, down to the middle of the 18th century, the Dutch
+possessed almost a monopoly of the bleaching trade although we find
+mention of bleach-works at Southwark near London as early as the middle
+of the 17th century. It was customary to send all the brown linen, then
+largely manufactured in Scotland, to Holland to be bleached. It was sent
+away in the month of March, and not returned till the end of October,
+being thus out of the hands of the merchant more than half a year.
+
+The Dutch mode of bleaching, which was mostly conducted in the
+neighbourhood of Haarlem, was to steep the linen first in a waste lye,
+and then for about a week in a potash lye poured over it boiling hot.
+The cloth being taken out of this lye and washed, was next put into
+wooden vessels containing buttermilk, in which it lay under a pressure
+for five or six days. After this it was spread upon the grass, and kept
+wet for several months, exposed to the sunshine of summer.
+
+In 1728 James Adair from Belfast proposed to the Scottish Board of
+Manufactures to establish a bleachfield in Galloway; this proposal the
+board approved of, and in the same year resolved to devote L2000 as
+premiums for the establishment of bleachfields throughout the country.
+In 1732 a method of bleaching with kelp, introduced by R. Holden, also
+from Ireland, was submitted to the board; and with their assistance
+Holden established a bleachfield for prosecuting his process at
+Pitkerro, near Dundee.
+
+The bleaching process, as at that time performed, was very tedious,
+occupying a complete summer. It consisted in steeping the cloth in
+alkaline lyes for several days, washing it clean, and spreading it upon
+the grass for some weeks. The steeping in alkaline lyes, called
+_bucking_, and the bleaching on the grass, called _crofting_, were
+repeated alternately for five or six times. The cloth was then steeped
+for some days in sour milk, washed clean and crofted. These processes
+were repeated, diminishing every time the strength of the alkaline lye,
+till the linen had acquired the requisite whiteness.
+
+For the first improvement in this tedious process, which was faithfully
+copied from the Dutch bleachfields, manufacturers were indebted to Dr
+Francis Home of Edinburgh, to whom the Board of Trustees paid L100 for
+his experiments in bleaching. He proposed to substitute water acidulated
+with sulphuric acid for the sour milk previously employed, a suggestion
+made in consequence of the new mode of preparing sulphuric acid,
+contrived some time before by Dr John Roebuck, which reduced the price
+of that acid to less than one-third of what it had formerly been. When
+this change was first adopted by the bleachers, there was the same
+outcry against its corrosive effects as arose when chlorine was
+substituted for crofting. A great advantage was found to result from the
+use of sulphuric acid, which was that a souring with sulphuric acid
+required at the longest only twenty-four hours, and often not more than
+twelve; whereas, when sour milk was employed, six weeks, or even two
+months, were requisite, according to the state of the weather. In
+consequence of this improvement, the process of bleaching was shortened
+from eight months to four, which enabled the merchant to dispose of his
+goods so much the sooner, and consequently to trade with less capital.
+
+No further modification of consequence was introduced in the art till
+the year 1787, when a most important change was initiated by the use of
+chlorine (q.v.), an element which had been discovered by C.W. Scheele in
+Sweden about thirteen years before. The discovery that this gas
+possesses the property of destroying vegetable colours, led Berthollet
+to suspect that it might be introduced with advantage into the art of
+bleaching, and that it would enable practical bleachers greatly to
+shorten their processes. In a paper on chlorine or oxygenated muriatic
+acid, read before the Academy of Sciences at Paris in April 1785, and
+published in the _Journal de Physique_ for May of the same year (vol.
+xxvi. p. 325), he mentions that he had tried the effect of the gas in
+bleaching cloth, and found that it answered perfectly. This idea is
+still further developed in a paper on the same substance, published in
+the _Journal de Physique_ for 1786. In 1786 he exhibited the experiment
+to James Watt, who, immediately upon his return to England, commenced a
+practical examination of the subject, and was accordingly the person who
+first introduced the new method of bleaching into Great Britain. We find
+from Watt's own testimony that chlorine was practically employed in the
+bleachfield of his father-in-law, Mr Macgregor, in the neighbourhood of
+Glasgow, in March 1787. Shortly thereafter the method was introduced at
+Aberdeen by Messrs Gordon, Barron & Co., on information received from De
+Saussure through Professor Patrick Copland of Aberdeen. Thomas Henry of
+Manchester was the first to bleach with chlorine in the Lancashire
+district, and to his independent investigations several of the early
+improvements in the application of the material were due.
+
+In these early experiments, the bleacher had to make his own chlorine
+and the goods were bleached either by exposing them in chambers to the
+action of the gas or by steeping them in its aqueous solution. If we
+consider the inconveniences which must have arisen in working with such
+a pungent substance as free chlorine, with its detrimental effect on the
+health of the work-people, it will be readily understood that the
+process did not at first meet with any great amount of success. The
+first important improvement was the introduction in 1792 of _eau de
+Javel_, which was prepared at the Javel works near Paris by absorbing
+chlorine in a solution of potash (1 part) in water (8 parts) until
+effervescence began. The greatest impetus to the bleaching industry was,
+however, given by the introduction in 1799 of chloride of lime, or
+bleaching-powder, by Charles Tennant of Glasgow, whereby the bleacher
+was supplied with a reagent in solid form which contained up to
+one-third of its weight of available chlorine. Latterly frequent
+attempts have been made to replace bleaching-powder by hypochlorite of
+soda, which is prepared by the bleacher as required, by the electrolytic
+decomposition of a solution of common salt in specially constructed
+cells, but up to the present this mode of procedure has met with only a
+limited success (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE).
+
+
+_Bleaching of Cotton._
+
+Cotton is bleached in the raw state, as yarn and in the piece. In the
+raw state, and as yarn, the only impurities present are those which are
+naturally contained in the fibres and which include cotton wax, fatty
+acids, pectic substances, colouring matters, albuminoids and mineral
+matter, amounting in all to some 5% of the weight of the material. Both
+in the raw state and in the manufactured condition cotton also contains
+small black particles which adhere firmly to the material and are
+technically known as "motes." These consist of fragments of the cotton
+seed husk, which cannot be completely removed by mechanical means. The
+bleaching of cotton pieces is more complicated, since the bleacher is
+called upon to remove the sizing materials with which the manufacturer
+strengthens the warp before weaving (see below).
+
+In principle, the bleaching of cotton is a comparatively simple process
+in which three main operations are involved, viz. (1) boiling with an
+alkali; (2) bleaching the organic colouring matters by means of a
+hypochlorite or some other oxidizing agent; (3) souring, i.e. treating
+with weak hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. For loose cotton and yarn
+these three operations are sufficient, but for piece goods a larger
+number of operations is usually necessary in order to obtain a
+satisfactory result.
+
+  _Loose Cotton._--The bleaching of loose or raw cotton previous to
+  spinning is only carried out to a very limited extent, and consists
+  essentially in first steeping the material in a warm solution of soda
+  for some hours, after which it is washed and treated with a solution
+  of bleaching powder or sodium hypochlorite. It is then again washed,
+  soured with weak sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, and ultimately washed
+  free from acid. Careful treatment is necessary in order to avoid any
+  undue matting of the fibres, while any drastic treatment, such as
+  heating with caustic soda and soap, as used for other cotton
+  materials, cannot be employed, since the natural wax would thereby be
+  removed, and this would detract from the spinning qualities of the
+  fibre. In case the cotton is not intended to be spun, but is to serve
+  for cotton wool or for the manufacture of gun cotton, more drastic
+  treatment can be employed, and is, in fact, desirable. Thus, cotton
+  waste is first extracted with petroleum spirit or some other suitable
+  solvent, in order to remove any mineral oil or grease which may be
+  present. It is then boiled with dilute caustic soda and resin soap,
+  washed, bleached white with bleaching-powder, washed, soured and
+  finally washed free from acid. In these operations, a certain amount
+  of matting is unavoidable, and it is consequently necessary to open
+  out the material after drying, in scutchers.
+
+  _Cotton Yarn._--Cotton yarn is bleached in the form of cops, hanks or
+  warps. In principle the processes employed are the same in each case,
+  but the machinery necessarily differs. Most yarn is bleached in the
+  hank, and it will suffice to give an account of this process only. The
+  sequence of operations is the same as in the bleaching of cotton
+  waste, and these can be conducted for small lots in an ordinary
+  rectangular wooden vat as used in dyeing, in which the yarn is
+  suspended in the liquor from poles which rest with their ends on the
+  two longer sides of the vat. For bleaching yarn in bulk, however, this
+  mode of procedure would involve so much manual labour that the process
+  would become too expensive. It is, therefore, mainly with the object
+  of economy that machinery has been introduced, by means of which large
+  quantities can be dealt with at a time.
+
+  The first operation, viz. that of boiling in alkali, is carried out in
+  a "kier," a large, egg-ended, upright cylindrical vessel, constructed
+  of boiler-plate and capable of treating from one to three tons of yarn
+  at a time. In construction, the kiers used for yarn bleaching are
+  similar in construction to those used for pieces (see below). The yarn
+  to be bleached is evenly packed in the kier, and is then boiled by
+  means of steam with the alkaline lye (3-4% of soda ash or 2% caustic
+  soda on the weight of the cotton being usually employed) for periods
+  varying from six to twelve hours. It is essential that a thorough
+  circulation of the liquor should be maintained during the boiling, and
+  this is effected either by means of a steam injector, or in other
+  ways. As a rule low pressure kiers (working up to 10 lb. pressure) are
+  employed for yarn bleaching, though some bleachers prefer to use high
+  pressure kiers for the purpose.
+
+  When the boiling has continued for the requisite time (6-8 hours), the
+  steam is shut off, and the kier liquor blown off, when the yarn is
+  washed in the kier by filling the latter with water and then running
+  off, this operation being repeated two or three times. The hanks are
+  now transferred to a stone cistern provided with a false bottom, from
+  beneath which a pipe connects the cistern with a well situated below
+  the floor line. The well contains a solution of bleaching-powder,
+  usually of 2 deg. Tw. strength, and this is drawn up by means of a
+  centrifugal brass pump and showered over the top of the goods through
+  a perforated wooden tray, passing then by gravitation through the
+  goods back into the well. The circulation is maintained for one and a
+  half to two hours, when the yarn will be found to be white. The
+  bleaching-powder solution is now allowed to drain off, and water is
+  circulated through the cistern to wash out what bleaching powder
+  remains in the goods. The souring is next carried out either in the
+  same or in a separate cistern by circulating hydrochloric or sulphuric
+  acid of 2 deg. Tw. for about half an hour. This is also allowed to
+  drain, and the yarn is thoroughly washed to remove all acid, when it
+  is taken out and wrung or hydroextracted. At this stage the yarn may
+  be dyed in light or bright shades without further treatment, but if it
+  is to be sold as white yarn, it is blued. The blueing may either be
+  effected by dyeing or tinting with a colouring matter like Victoria
+  blue 4R or acid violet, or by treatment in wash stocks with a
+  suspension of ultramarine in weak soap until the colour is uniformly
+  distributed throughout the material. The yarn is now straightened out
+  and dried.
+
+  The bleaching of cotton yarn is a very straightforward process, and it
+  is very seldom that either complications or faults arise, providing
+  that reasonable care and supervision are exercised.
+
+  The _raison d'etre_ of the various operations is comparatively simple.
+  The effect of boiling with alkali is to remove the pectic acid, the
+  fatty acids, part of the cotton wax and the bulk of the colouring
+  matter, while the albuminoids are destroyed and the motes swelled up.
+  If soap be used along with the alkali, the whole of the wax is removed
+  by emulsification. In the operation of bleaching proper, the calcium
+  hypochlorite of the chloride of lime through coming into contact with
+  the carbonic acid of the atmosphere suffers decomposition according to
+  the equation, Ca(OCl)2 + CO2 + H2O -> CaCO3 + 2HOCl, and the
+  hypochlorous acid thus liberated destroys the colouring matter still
+  remaining from the first operation, by oxidation. At the same time the
+  motes which were swelled up by the alkali are broken up into small
+  fragments and are thus removed. In the operation of souring, the lime
+  which has been deposited on the fibres during the treatment with
+  bleaching powder is dissolved, while at the same time any other
+  metallic oxides (iron, copper, &c.) are removed.
+
+  _Cotton Pieces._--By far the largest bulk of cotton is bleached in the
+  piece, as it can be more conveniently and more economically dealt with
+  in this form than in any other. Though similar in principle to yarn
+  bleaching, the process of piece bleaching is somewhat more complex
+  because the pieces contain in addition to the natural impurities of
+  the cotton a considerable amount of foreign matter in the form of size
+  which has been incorporated with the warp before weaving, with the
+  object of strengthening it. This size consists essentially of starch
+  (farina), with additions of tallow, zinc chloride, and occasionally
+  other substances such as paraffin wax, magnesium chloride, soap, &c.,
+  all of which must be removed if a perfect bleach is to result.
+  Besides, mineral oil stains from the machinery of the weaving-shed are
+  of common occurrence in piece goods.
+
+  Cotton pieces are bleached either for whites, for prints or for dyed
+  goods. The processes employed for these different classes vary but
+  slightly and only in detail. The most drastic bleach is that required
+  for goods which are subsequently to be printed. For dyed goods, the
+  main object is not so much to obtain a perfect white as to remove any
+  impurities which might interfere with the dyeing, while avoiding the
+  formation of any oxycellulose. In bleaching for whites ("market
+  bleaching") it is essential that the white should be as perfect as
+  possible, and such goods are consequently invariably blued after
+  bleaching.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Section of a Dash-wheel.]
+
+  For small lots (1-20 pieces) the bleaching can be conducted on very
+  simple machinery. Thus many small piece dyers conduct the whole of
+  their bleaching on the jigger, a simple form of dyeing machine on
+  which most cotton piece goods are dyed (see DYEING). For muslins,
+  laces and other very light fabrics, which will not stand rough
+  handling, the operations are conducted mainly by hand, washing being
+  effected in the dash-wheel (fig. 1), which consists of a cylindrical
+  box, revolving on its axis. It has four divisions, as shown by the
+  dotted lines, and an opening into each division. A number of pieces
+  are put into each, abundance of water is admitted behind, and the
+  knocking of the pieces as they alternately dash from one side of the
+  division to the other during the revolution of the wheel effects the
+  washing. The process lasts from four to six minutes.
+
+  For velveteens, corduroys, heavy drills, pocketings and other fabrics
+  in which creasing has to be avoided as much as possible, the so-called
+  "open bleach" is resorted to, which differs from the ordinary process
+  chiefly in that the goods are treated throughout at full width.
+
+  The great bulk of cotton pieces is bleached in rope form, i.e.
+  stitched together end to end and laterally collapsed, so that they
+  will pass through a ring of 4 to 5 in. in diameter.
+
+  The first operation which the goods undergo on arriving in the
+  grey-room of the bleachworks is that of stamping with tar or some
+  other indelible material in order that they may be identified after
+  passing through the whole process. They are then stitched together end
+  to end by means of special sewing machines, the stitch being of such a
+  nature (chain stitch) that the thread can be ripped out at one pull at
+  the end of the operations.
+
+  _Singeing._--In the condition in which the pieces leave the loom and
+  come into the hands of the bleacher, the surface of the fabric is seen
+  to be covered with a _nap_ of projecting fibres which gives it a downy
+  appearance. For some classes of goods this is not a disadvantage, but
+  in the majority of cases, especially for prints where a clean surface
+  is essential, the nap is removed before bleaching. This is usually
+  effected by running the pieces at full width over a couple of arched
+  copper plates heated to a full red heat by direct fire. An arrangement
+  of the kind is shown in fig. 2, in which the singe-plates, a and b,
+  are mounted over the flues of a coal fire. The plate b is most highly
+  heated, a being at the end of the flue farthest removed from the
+  fire. The cloth enters over a rail A, and in passing over the plate a
+  is thoroughly dried and prepared for the singeing it receives when it
+  comes to the highly-heated plate b. A block d, carrying two rails in
+  the space between the plates, can be raised or lowered so as to
+  increase or lessen the pressure of the cloth against the plates, or,
+  if necessary, to lift it quite free of contact with them.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of Singe-stove.]
+
+  The pieces on leaving the singeing machine are passed either through a
+  water trough or through a steam box with the object of extinguishing
+  sparks, and are then plaited down. The speed at which the pieces
+  travel over the singe plates is necessarily considerable and varies
+  with different classes of material.[1]
+
+  In lieu of plates, a cast-iron cylinder is sometimes employed ("roller
+  singeing"), the heating being effected by causing the flame of the
+  fire to be drawn through the roller, which is carried on two small
+  rollers at each end and revolves slowly in the reverse direction to
+  that followed by the piece, thus exposing continuously a freshly
+  heated surface and avoiding uneven cooling.
+
+  For figured pieces which have an uneven surface, it is obvious that
+  plate or roller singeing would only affect the portions which project
+  most, leaving the rest untouched. For such goods, "gas singeing" is
+  employed, which consists in running the pieces over a non-luminous gas
+  flame, the breadth of which slightly exceeds that of the piece, or in
+  drawing the flame right through the piece.[2] The construction of an
+  ordinary gas singeing apparatus is seen in section in fig. 3. Coal gas
+  mixed with air is sent under pressure through pipe a into the burners
+  b, b, where the mixture burns with an intense heat. The cloth travels
+  in the direction of the arrows, and in passing over the small nap
+  rollers c comes into contact with the flame four times in succession
+  before leaving the machine.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Gas Singeing Apparatus.]
+
+  Gas singeing is also used for plain goods, and being cleaner and under
+  better control has largely replaced plate singeing.
+
+  At this stage the goods which have been browned on the surface by
+  singeing are ready for the bleaching operations. A great many
+  innovations have been introduced in recent years in the bleaching of
+  calico, but although it is generally admitted that in point of view of
+  time and economy many of these processes offer considerable
+  advantages, the old process, in which a lime boil precedes the other
+  operations, is still the one which is most largely employed by
+  bleachers in England. In this, the sequence of operations is the
+  following--
+
+  _Grey Washing._--This operation (which is sometimes omitted) simply
+  consists in running the pieces through an ordinary washing machine (as
+  shown in fig. 5) through water in order to wet them out. On leaving
+  the machine they are piled in a heap and left over night, when
+  fermentation sets in, which results in the starch being to a large
+  extent hydrolysed and rendered soluble in water.
+
+  _Lime Boil._--In this operation, which is also known as _bowking_
+  (Ger. _beuchen_), the pieces are first run through milk of lime
+  contained in an ordinary washing machine and of such a strength that
+  they take up about 4% of their weight of lime (CaO). They are then run
+  over winches and guided through smooth porcelain rings ("pot-eyes")
+  into the kier, where they are evenly packed by boys who enter the
+  vessel through the manhole at the top. It is of the greatest
+  importance that the goods should be evenly packed, for, if channels or
+  loosely-packed places are left, the liquor circulating through the
+  kier, when boiling is subsequently in progress, will follow the line
+  of least resistance, and the result is an uneven treatment. Of the
+  numerous forms of kier in use, the injector kier is the one most
+  generally adopted. This consists of an egg-ended cylindrical vessel
+  constructed of stout boiler plate and shown in sectional elevation in
+  fig. 4. The kier is from 10 to 12 ft. in height and from 6 to 7 ft. in
+  diameter, and stands on three iron legs riveted to the sides, but not
+  shown in the figure. The bottom exit pipe E is covered with a
+  shield-shaped false bottom of boiler plate, or (and this is more
+  usual) the whole bottom of the kier is covered with large rounded
+  stones from the river bed, the object in either case being simply to
+  provide space for the accumulation of liquor and to prevent the pipe E
+  being blocked. The cloth is evenly packed up to within about 3 to 4
+  ft. of the manholes M, when lime water is run in through the liquor
+  pipe until the level of the liquid reaches within about 2 ft. of the
+  top of the goods. The manholes are now closed, and steam is turned on
+  at the injector J by opening the valve v. The effect of this is to
+  suck the liquor through E, and to force it up through pipe P into the
+  top of the kier, where it dashes against the umbrella-shaped shield U
+  and is distributed over the pieces, through which it percolates, until
+  on arriving at E it is again carried to the top of the kier, a
+  continuous circulation being thus effected. As the circulation
+  proceeds, the steam condensing in the liquor rapidly heats the latter
+  to the boil, and as soon as, in the opinion of the foreman, all air
+  has been expelled, the blow-through tap is closed and the boiling is
+  continued for periods varying from six to twelve hours under 20-60 lb.
+  pressure. Steam is now turned off, and by opening the valve V the
+  liquor, which is of a dark-brown colour, is forced out by the pressure
+  of the steam it contains.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 4.--High Pressure Blow-through Kier.]
+
+  The pieces are now run through a continuous washing machine, which is
+  provided with a plentiful supply of water. The machine, which is shown
+  in fig. 5, consists essentially of a wooden vat, over which there is a
+  pair of heavy wooden (sycamore) bowls or squeezers. The pieces enter
+  the machine at each end, as indicated by the arrows, and pass rapidly
+  through the bowls down to the bottom of the vat over a loose roller,
+  thence between the first pair of guide pegs through the bowls again,
+  and travel thus in a spiral direction until they arrive at the middle
+  of the machine, when they leave at the side opposite to that on which
+  they entered. The same type of machine is used for liming, chemicking,
+  and souring.
+
+  The next operation is the "grey sour," in which the goods are run
+  through a washing machine containing hydrochloric acid of 2 deg. Tw.
+  strength, with the object of dissolving out the lime which the goods
+  retain in considerable quantity after the lime boil. The goods are
+  then well washed, and are now boiled again in the ash bowking kier,
+  which is similar in construction to the lime kier, with soda ash (3%)
+  and a solution of rosin (1-1/2%) in caustic soda (1-1/4%) for eight to
+  ten hours. For white bleaching the rosin soap is omitted, soda ash
+  alone being employed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 5.--Roller Washing Machine.]
+
+  The pieces are now washed free from alkali and the bleaching proper or
+  "chemicking" follows. This operation may be effected in various ways,
+  but the most efficient is to run the goods in a washing machine
+  through bleaching powder solution at 1/2 deg.-1 deg. Tw., and allow
+  them to lie loosely piled over night, or in some cases for a longer
+  period. They are now washed, run through dilute sulphuric or
+  hydrochloric acid at 2 deg. Tw. ("white sour") and washed again.
+  Should the white not appear satisfactory at this stage (and this is
+  usually the case with very heavy or dense materials), they are boiled
+  again in soda ash, chemicked with bleaching powder at 1/8 deg. Tw. or
+  even weaker, soured and washed. It is of the utmost importance that
+  the final washing should be as thorough as possible, in order to
+  completely remove the acid, for if only small quantities of the latter
+  are left in the goods, they are liable to become tender in the
+  subsequent drying, through formation of hydrocellulose.
+
+  The modern processes of bleaching cotton pieces differ from the one
+  described above, chiefly in that the lime boil is entirely dispensed
+  with, its place being taken by a treatment in the kier with caustic
+  soda (or a mixture of caustic soda and soda ash) and resin soap. The
+  best known and probably the most widely practised of these processes
+  is one which was worked out by the late M. Horace Koechlin in
+  conjunction with Sir William Mather, and this differs from the old
+  process not only in the sequence of the operations but also in the
+  construction of the kier. This consists of a horizontal egg-ended
+  cylinder, and is shown in transverse and longitudinal sections in
+  figs. 6 and 7. One of the ends E constitutes a door which can be
+  raised or lowered by means of the power-driven chain C. The goods to
+  be bleached are packed in wagons W outside the kier, and when filled
+  these are pushed home into the kier, so that the pipes p fit with
+  their flanges on to the fixed pipes at the bottom of the kier. The
+  heating is effected by means of steam pipes at the lowest extremity of
+  the kier, while the circulation of the liquor is brought about by
+  means of the centrifugal pump P, which draws the liquor through the
+  pipes p from beneath the false bottoms of the wagons and showers it
+  over distributors D on to the goods. By this mode of working a
+  considerable economy is effected in point of time, as the kier can be
+  worked almost continuously; for as soon as one lot of goods has been
+  boiled, the wagons are run out and two freshly-packed wagons take
+  their place. The following is the sequence of operations:--The goods
+  are first steeped over night in dilute sulphuric acid, after which
+  they are washed and run through old kier liquor from a previous
+  operation. They are then packed evenly in the wagons which are pushed
+  into the kier, and, the door having been closed, they are boiled for
+  about eight hours at 7-15 lb. pressure with a liquor containing soda
+  ash, caustic soda, resin soap and a small quantity of sulphite of
+  soda. The rest of the operations (chemicking, souring and washing) are
+  the same as in the old process.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Mather Kier, cross section.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--The Mather Kier, longitudinal section.]
+
+  A somewhat different principle is involved in the Thies-Herzig
+  process. In this the kier is vertical, and the circulation of the
+  liquor is effected by means of a centrifugal or other form of pump,
+  while the heating of the liquor is brought about outside the kier in a
+  separate vessel between the pump and the kier by means of indirect
+  steam. The sequence of operations is similar to that adopted in the
+  Mather-Koechlin process, differing chiefly from the latter in the
+  first operation, which consists in running the goods, after singeing,
+  through very dilute boiling sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, containing
+  in either case a small proportion of hydrofluoric acid, and then
+  running them through a steam box, the whole operation lasting from
+  twenty to sixty seconds.
+
+  Bleached by any of the above processes, the cloth is next passed over
+  a mechanical contrivance known as a "scutcher," which opens it out
+  from the rope form to its full breadth, and is then dried on a
+  continuous drying machine. Fig. 8 shows the appearance and
+  construction of an improved form of the horizontal drying machine,
+  which is in more common use for piece goods than the vertical form.
+  The machine consists essentially of a series of copper or tinned iron
+  cylinders, which are geared together so as to run at a uniform speed.
+  Steam at 10-15 lb. pressure is admitted through the journalled
+  bearings at one side of the machine, and the condensed water is forced
+  out continuously through the bearings at the other side. The pieces
+  pass in the direction of the arrow (fig. 9) over a scrimp rail or
+  expanding roller round the first cylinder, then in a zigzag direction
+  over all succeeding cylinders, and ultimately leave the machine dry,
+  being mechanically plaited down at the other end.
+
+  If the bleaching process has been properly conducted, the pieces
+  should not only show a uniform pure white colour, but their strength
+  should remain unimpaired. Careful experiments conducted by the late
+  Mr. Charles O'Neill showed in fact that carefully bleached cotton may
+  actually be stronger than in the unbleached condition, and this result
+  has since been corroborated by others. Excessive blueing, which is
+  frequently resorted to in order to cover the defects of imperfect
+  bleaching, can readily be detected by washing a sample of the material
+  in water, or, better still, in water containing a little ammonia, and
+  then comparing with the original. The formation of oxycellulose during
+  the bleaching process may either take place in boiling under pressure
+  with lime or caustic soda in consequence of the presence of air in the
+  kier, or through excessive action of bleaching powder, which may
+  either result from the latter not being properly dissolved or being
+  used too strong. Its detection may be effected by dyeing a sample of
+  the bleached cotton in a cold, very dilute solution of methylene blue
+  for about ten minutes, when any portions of the fabric in which the
+  cellulose has been converted into oxycellulose will assume a darker
+  colour than the rest. The depth of the colour is at the same time an
+  indication of the extent to which such conversion has taken place.
+  Most bleached cotton contains some oxycellulose, but as long as the
+  formation has not proceeded far enough to cause tendering, its
+  presence is of no importance in white goods. If, on the other hand,
+  the cotton has to be subsequently dyed with direct cotton colours (see
+  DYEING), the presence of oxycellulose may result in uneven dyeing.
+  Tendering of the pieces, due to insufficient washing after the final
+  souring operation, is a common defect in bleached goods. As a rule the
+  free acid can be detected by extracting the tendered material with
+  distilled water and adding to the extract a drop of methyl orange
+  solution, when the latter will turn pink if free acid be present.
+  Other defects which may occur in bleached goods are iron stains,
+  mineral oil stains, and defects due to the addition of paraffin wax in
+  the size.
+
+
+_Bleaching of Linen._
+
+The bleaching of linen is a much more complicated and tedious process
+than the bleaching of cotton. This is due in part to the fact that in
+linen the impurities amount to 20% or more of the weight of the fibre,
+whereas in cotton they do not usually exceed 5%. Furthermore these
+impurities, which include colouring matter, intracellular substances and
+a peculiar wax known as "flax wax," are more difficult to attack than
+those which are present in cotton, and the difficulty is still further
+enhanced in the case of piece goods owing to their dense or impervious
+character.
+
+Till towards the end of the 18th century the bleaching of linen both in
+the north of Ireland and in Scotland was accomplished by bowking in
+cows' dung and souring with sour milk, the pieces being exposed to light
+on the grass between these operations for prolonged periods.
+Subsequently potash and later on soda was substituted for the cows'
+dung, while sour milk was replaced by sulphuric acid. This "natural
+bleach" is still in use in Holland, a higher price being paid for linen
+bleached in this way than for the same material bleached with the aid of
+bleaching powder. In the year 1744 Dr. James Ferguson of Belfast
+received a premium of L300 from the Irish Linen Board for the
+application of lime in the bleaching of linen. Notwithstanding this
+reward, the use of lime in the bleaching of linen was for a long time
+afterwards forbidden in Ireland under statutory penalties, and so late
+as 1815 Mr Barklie, a respectable linen bleacher of Linen Vale, near
+Keady, was "prosecuted for using lime in the whitening of linens in his
+bleachyard."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Mather & Platt's Horizontal Drying Machine.]
+
+The methods at present employed for the bleaching of linen are, except
+in one or two unimportant particulars, the same as were used in the
+middle of the 19th century. In principle they resemble those used in
+cotton bleaching, but require to be frequently repeated, while an
+additional operation, which is a relic of the old-fashioned process,
+viz. that of "grassing" or "crofting," is still essential for the
+production of the finest whites. Considerably more care has to be
+exercised in linen bleaching than is the case with cotton, and the
+process consequently necessitates a greater amount of manual labour. The
+practical result of this is that whereas cotton pieces can be bleached
+and finished in less than a week, linen pieces require at least six
+weeks. Many attempts have naturally been made to shorten and cheapen the
+process, but without success. The use of stronger reagents and more
+drastic treatment, which would at first suggest itself, incurs the risk
+of injury to the fibre, not so much in respect to actual tendering as to
+the destruction of its characteristic gloss, while if too drastic a
+treatment is employed at the beginning the colouring matter is liable to
+become set in the fibre, and it is then almost impossible to remove it.
+Among the many modern improvements which have been suggested, mention
+may be made of the use of hypochlorite of soda in place of bleaching
+powder, the use of oil in the first treatment in alkali (Cross &
+Parkes), while de Keukelaere suggests the use of sodium sulphide for
+this purpose. With the object of dispensing with the operation of
+grassing, which besides necessitating much manual labour is subject to
+the influences of the atmospheric conditions, Siemens & Halske of Berlin
+have suggested exposure of the goods in a chamber to the action of
+electrolytically prepared ozone. Jardin seeks to achieve the same object
+by steeping the linen in dilute nitric acid.
+
+Since the qualities of linen which are submitted to the bleacher vary
+considerably, and the mode of treatment has to be varied accordingly, it
+is not possible to give more than a bare outline of linen bleaching.
+
+  Linen is bleached in the yarn and in the piece. Whenever one of the
+  operations is repeated, the strength of the reagent is successively
+  diminished. In yarn-bleaching the sequence of the operations is about
+  as follows:--(1) Boil in kier with soda ash. (2) Reel in bleaching
+  powder. This operation, which is peculiar to linen bleaching, consists
+  in suspending the hanks from a square roller into bleaching powder
+  solution contained in a shallow stone trough. The roller revolves
+  slowly, so that the hanks, while passing continuously through the
+  bleaching powder, are for the greater part of the time being exposed
+  to the air. (3) Sour in sulphuric acid. (4) Scald in soda ash. (The
+  term "scalding" means boiling in a kier.) (5) Reel in bleaching
+  powder. (6) Sour in sulphuric acid. (7) Scald in soda ash. (8) Dip,
+  i.e. steep in bleaching powder. (9) Sour in sulphuric acid. (10) Scald
+  in soda ash. (11) Dip in bleaching powder. (12) Sour in sulphuric
+  acid. For a full white, two more operations are usually required, viz.
+  (13) scald in soda ash, and (14) dip in bleaching powder. Washing
+  intervenes between all these operations.
+
+  Pieces are not stamped as in the case of cotton, but thread-marked by
+  hand with cotton dyed Turkey red. They are then sewn together end to
+  end, and subjected to the following operations:--
+
+  Boil with lime in kier.
+
+  The pieces are now separated and made up into bundles (except in the
+  case of very light linens, which may pass through the whole of the
+  operations in rope form) and soured with sulphuric acid.
+
+  First lye boil with soda ash and caustic soda.
+
+  Second lye boil. For some classes of goods no less than six lye boils
+  may be required.
+
+  Grass between lye boils (according to their number).
+
+  Rub with rubbing boards. This is also a speciality in linen bleaching,
+  and consists of a mechanical treatment with soft soap, the object of
+  which is to remove black stains in the yarn.
+
+  Bleach with hypochlorite of soda.
+
+  Scald. The two latter treatments are repeated three to five times,
+  each series constituting a "turn." Grassing intervenes between each
+  turn, and in some instances the pieces are rubbed before the last soda
+  boil.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Diagram showing the Horizontal Drying Machine
+  threaded with Cloth.]
+
+  The pieces are next steeped in large vessels (kiers) in weak
+  hypochlorite of soda, and then in weak sulphuric acid, these
+  treatments being repeated several times.
+
+  Ultimately the goods are mill-washed, blued with smalt and dried.
+
+
+_Bleaching of other Vegetable Textile Fabrics._
+
+_Hemp_ may be bleached by a process similar to that used for linen, but
+this is seldom done owing to the expense entailed. _China grass_ is
+bleached like cotton. _Jute_ contains in its raw state a considerable
+amount of colouring matter and intracellular substance. Since the
+individual fibres are very short, the complete removal of the latter
+would be attended by a disintegration of the material. Although it is
+possible to bleach jute white, this is seldom if ever carried out on a
+large scale owing to the great expense involved. A half-bleach on jute
+is obtained by steeping the goods alternately in bleaching powder (or
+hypochlorite of soda) and sulphuric acid, washing intervening. For a
+cream these treatments are repeated.
+
+
+_Bleaching of Straw._
+
+In the Luton district, straw is bleached principally in the form of
+plait, in which form it is imported. The bleaching is effected by
+steeping the straw for periods varying from twelve hours to several days
+in fairly strong alkaline peroxide of hydrogen. The number of baths
+depends upon the quality of straw and the degree of whiteness required.
+Good whites are thus obtained, and no further process would be necessary
+if the hats had not subsequently to be "blocked" or pressed at a high
+temperature which brings about a deterioration of the colour. After
+bleaching with peroxide and drying, the straw consequently undergoes a
+further process of sulphuring, i.e. exposure to gaseous sulphurous acid.
+Panama hats are bleached after making up, but in this case only peroxide
+of hydrogen is used and a very lengthy treatment entailing sometimes
+fourteen days' steeping is required.
+
+
+_Bleaching of Wool._
+
+In the condition in which it is delivered to the manufacturers wool is
+generally a very impure article, even if it has been washed on the
+sheep's back before shearing. The impurities which it contains consist
+in the main of the natural grease (in reality a kind of wax) exuded from
+the skin of the sheep and technically known as the "yolk," the dried-up
+perspiration from the body of the sheep; technically called "suint," and
+dust, dirt, burrs, &c., which mechanically adhere to the sticky surfaces
+of the fibres. In this condition wool is quite unfit for any
+manufacturing purposes and must be cleansed before any mechanical
+operations can be commenced. Formerly the washing was effected in stale
+urine, which owed its detergent properties mainly to the presence of
+ammonium carbonate. The stale urine or _lant_ was diluted with four to
+five times its bulk of water, and in this liquor, heated to 40 deg.-50
+deg. C., the washing was effected.
+
+At the present day this method has been entirely abandoned, the washing
+or "scouring" being effected with soap, assisted by ammonia, potash,
+soda or silicate of soda. The finest qualities of wool are washed with
+soft soap and potash, while for inferior qualities, cheaper detergents
+are employed. The operation is in principle perfectly simple, the wool
+being submerged in the warm soap solution, where it is moved about with
+forks and then taken out and allowed to drain. A second treatment in
+weaker soap serves to complete the process. In dealing with large
+quantities, wool-washing machines are employed, which consist
+essentially of long cast-iron troughs which contain the soap solution.
+The wool to be washed is fed in at one end of the machine and is slowly
+propelled to the other end by means of a system of mechanically-driven
+forks or rakes. As it passes from the machine, it is squeezed through a
+pair of rollers. Three such machines are usually required for efficient
+washing, the first containing the strongest and the third the weakest
+soap.
+
+The washing of wool is in the main a mechanical process, in which the
+water dissolves out the suint while the soap emulsifies the yolk and
+thus removes it from the fibre. The attendant earthy impurities pass
+mechanically into the surrounding liquid and are swilled away.
+
+In some works the wool is washed first with water alone, the aqueous
+extract thus obtained being evaporated to dryness and the residue
+calcined. A very good quality of potash is thus obtained as a
+by-product. In many works in Yorkshire and elsewhere, the dirty soap
+liquors obtained in wool-washing are not allowed to run to waste, but
+are run into tanks and there treated with sulphuric acid. The effect of
+this treatment is to decompose the soap, and the fatty acids along with
+the wool-grease rise as a magma to the surface. The purified product is
+known in the trade as "Yorkshire grease."
+
+Attempts have been made from time to time to extract the natural grease
+from wool by means of organic solvents, such as carbon bisulphide,
+carbon tetrachloride, petroleum spirit, &c., but have not met with much
+success.
+
+Worsted yarn spun on the English system, as well as woollen yarn and
+fabrics made from them, contain oil which has been incorporated with the
+wool to facilitate the spinning. This oil must be got rid of previous to
+bleaching, and this is effected by scouring in warm soap with or without
+the assistance of alkalis.
+
+  The actual bleaching of wool may be effected in two ways, viz. by
+  treating the material either with sulphurous acid or with hydrogen
+  peroxide. Sulphurous acid may either be applied in the gaseous form or
+  in solution as bisulphite of soda. In working by the first method,
+  which is technically known as "stoving," the scoured yarn is wetted in
+  very weak soap containing a small amount of blue colouring matter,
+  wrung or hydro-extracted and then suspended in a chamber or stove.
+  Sulphur contained in a vessel on the floor of the chamber is now
+  lighted, and the door having been closed, is allowed to burn itself
+  out. The goods are left thus exposed to the sulphur dioxide overnight,
+  when they are taken out and washed in water. For piece goods a
+  somewhat different arrangement is employed, the pieces passing through
+  a slit into a chamber supplied with sulphur dioxide, then slowly up
+  and down over a large number of rollers and ultimately emerging again
+  at the same slit. Wool may also be bleached by steeping in a fairly
+  strong solution of bisulphite of soda and then washing well in water.
+  Wool bleached with sulphurous acid or bisulphite is readily affected
+  by alkalis, the natural yellow colour returning on washing with soap
+  or soda. A more permanent bleach is obtained by steeping the wool in
+  hydrogen peroxide (of 12 volumes strength), let down with about three
+  times its bulk of water and rendered slightly alkaline with ammonia or
+  silicate of soda. Black or brown wools cannot be bleached white, but
+  when treated with peroxide they assume a golden colour, a change which
+  is frequently desired in human hair.
+
+
+_Bleaching of Silk._
+
+In raw silk, the fibre proper is uniformly coated with a proteid
+substance known as _silk-gum, silk-glue_ or _sericine_ which amounts to
+19-25% of the weight of the material, and it is only after the removal
+of this coating that the characteristic properties of the fibre become
+apparent. This is effected by the process of "discharging" or
+"boiling-off," which consists in suspending the hanks of raw silk over
+poles or sticks in a vat containing a strong hot soap solution (30% of
+soap on the weight of the silk). The liquor is kept just below boiling
+point for two or three hours, the hanks being turned from time to time.
+During the process, the sericine at first swells up considerably, the
+fibres becoming slippery, but as the operation proceeds it passes into
+solution. It is important that only soft water should be used for
+boiling-off since calcareous impurities are liable to mar the lustre of
+the silk.
+
+The silk is now rinsed in weak soda solution and wrung. In this
+condition it is suitable for being dyed, but if it is to be bleached,
+the hanks are tied up loosely with smooth tape, put into coarse linen
+bags to prevent the silk becoming entangled, and boiled again in soap
+solution which is half as strong as that used in the first operation.
+The hanks are now taken out, rinsed in a weak soda solution, washed in
+water and wrung.
+
+The actual bleaching of silk is usually effected by stoving as in the
+case of wool, with this difference, that the operation is repeated
+several times and blueing or tinting with other colours is effected
+after bleaching. Silk may also be bleached with peroxide of hydrogen,
+but this method is only used for certain qualities of spun silk and for
+tussore.
+
+  _Ornamental feathers_ are best bleached by steeping in peroxide of
+  hydrogen, rendered slightly alkaline by the addition of ammonia. The
+  same treatment is applied to the bleaching of _ivory_. If peroxide of
+  hydrogen could be prepared at a moderate cost, it would doubtless find
+  a much more extensive application in bleaching, since it combines
+  efficiency with safety, and gives good results with both vegetable and
+  animal substances.     (E. K.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Besides being used for cotton goods, plate singeing is also
+    employed for certain classes of worsted goods (alpacas, bunting,
+    &c.), and for most union goods (cotton warp and worsted weft).
+
+  [2] A machine working on this principle has been constructed by F.
+    Binder, and the makers of the machine (Messrs Mather & Platt, Ltd.)
+    claim that it does better service than the machines constructed on
+    the older principle.
+
+
+
+
+BLEAK, or BLICK (_Alburnus lucidus_), a small fish of the Cyprinid
+family, allied to the bream and the minnow, but with a more elongate
+body, resembling a sardine. It is found in European streams, and is
+caught by anglers, being also a favourite in aquariums. The well-known
+and important industry of "Essence Orientale" and artificial pearls,
+carried on in France and Germany with the crystalline silvery colouring
+matter of the bleak, was introduced from China about the middle of the
+17th century.
+
+
+
+
+BLEEK, FRIEDRICH (1793-1859), German Biblical scholar, was born on the
+4th of July 1793, at Ahrensbok, in Holstein, a village near Lubeck. His
+father sent him in his sixteenth year to the gymnasium at Lubeck, where
+he became so much interested in ancient languages that he abandoned his
+idea of a legal career and resolved to devote himself to the study of
+theology. After spending some time at the university of Kiel, he went to
+Berlin, where, from 1814 to 1817, he studied under De Wette, Neander and
+Schleiermacher. So highly were his merits appreciated by his
+professors--Schleiermacher was accustomed to say that he possessed a
+special _charisma_ for the science of "Introduction"--that in 1818 after
+he had passed the examinations for entering the ministry he was recalled
+to Berlin as _Repetent_ or tutorial fellow in theology, a temporary post
+which the theological faculty had obtained for him. Besides discharging
+his duties in the theological seminary, he published two dissertations
+in Schleiermacher's and G.C.F. Lucke's _Journal_(1819-1820,1822), one on
+the origin and composition of the Sibylline Oracles "Uber die Entstehung
+und Zusammensetzung der Sibyllinischen Orakel," and another on the
+authorship and design of the Book of Daniel, "Uber Verfasser und Zweck
+des Buches Daniel." These articles attracted much attention, and were
+distinguished by those qualities of solid learning, thorough
+investigation and candour of judgment which characterized all his
+writings. Bleek's merits as a rising scholar were recognized by the
+minister of public instruction, who continued his stipend as _Repetent_
+for a third year, and promised further advancement in due time. But the
+attitude of the political authority underwent a change. De Wette was
+dismissed from his professorship in 1819, and Bleek, a favourite pupil,
+incurred the suspicion of the government as an extreme democrat. Not
+only was his stipend as _Repetent_ discontinued, but his nomination to
+the office of professor extraordinarius, which had already been signed
+by the minister Karl Altenstein, was withheld. At length it was found
+that Bleek had been confounded with a certain Baueleven Blech, and in
+1823 he received the appointment.
+
+During the six years that Bleek remained at Berlin, he twice declined a
+call to the office of professor ordinarius of theology, once to
+Greifswald and once to Konigsberg. In 1829, however, he was induced to
+accept Lucke's chair in the recently-founded university of Bonn, and
+entered upon his duties there in the summer of the same year. For thirty
+years he laboured with ever-increasing success, due not to any
+attractions of manner or to the enunciation of novel or bizarre
+opinions, but to the soundness of his investigations, the impartiality
+of his judgments, and the clearness of his method. In 1843 he was raised
+to the office of consistorial councillor, and was selected by the
+university to hold the office of rector, a distinction which has not
+since been conferred upon any theologian of the Reformed Church. He died
+suddenly of apoplexy on the 27th of February 1859.
+
+Bleek's works belong entirely to the departments of Biblical criticism
+and exegesis. His views on questions of Old Testament criticism were
+"advanced" in his own day; for on all the disputed points concerning the
+unity and authorship of the books of the Old Covenant he was opposed to
+received opinion. But with respect to the New Testament his position was
+conservative. An opponent of the Tubingen school, his defence of the
+genuineness and authenticity of the gospel of St. John is among the
+ablest that have been written; and although on some minor points his
+views did not altogether coincide with those of the traditional school,
+his critical labours on the New Testament must nevertheless be regarded
+as among the most important contributions to the maintenance of orthodox
+opinions. His greatest work, his commentary on the epistle to the
+Hebrews (_Brief an die Hebraer erlautert durch Einleitung, Ubersetzung,
+und fortlaufenden Commentar_, in three parts, 1828, 1836 and 1840) won
+the highest praise from men like De Wette and Fr. Delitzsch. This work
+was abridged by Bleek for his college lectures, and was published in
+that condensed form in 1868. In 1846 he published his contributions to
+the criticism of the gospels (_Beitrage zur Evangelien Kritik_, pt. i.),
+which contained his defence of St John's gospel, and arose out of a
+review of J.H.A. Ebrard's _Wissenschaftliche Kritik der Evangelischen
+Geschichte_ (1842).
+
+  After his death were published:--(1) His _Introduction to the Old
+  Testament_ (_Einleitung in das Alte Testament_), (3rd ed., 1869); Eng.
+  trans. by G.H. Venables (from 2nd ed., 1869); in 1878 a new edition
+  (the 4th) appeared under the editorship of J. Wellhausen, who made
+  extensive alterations and additions; (2) his _Introduction to the New
+  Testament_ (3rd ed., W. Mangold, 1875), Eng. trans. (from 2nd German
+  ed.) by William Urwick (1869, 1870); (3) his _Exposition of the First
+  Three Gospels_ (_Synoptische Erklarung der drei ersten Evangelien_),
+  by H. Holtzmann (1862); (4) his _Lectures on the Apocalypse_
+  (_Vorlesungen uber die Apokalypse_), (Eng. trans. 1875). Besides these
+  there has also appeared a small volume containing _Lectures on
+  Colossians, Philemon and Ephesians_ (Berlin, 1865). Bleek also
+  contributed many articles to the _Studien und Kritiken_. For further
+  information as to Bleek's life and writings, see Kamphausen's article
+  in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_; Frederic Lichtenberger's
+  _Histoire des idees religieuses en Allemagne_, vol. iii.; Diestel's
+  _Geschichte des Allen Testamentes_ (1869); and T.K. Cheyne's _Founders
+  of Old Testament Criticism_ (1893).
+
+
+
+
+BLEEK, WILHELM HEINRICH IMMANUEL (1827-1875), German philologist, son of
+Friedrich Bleek, was born in 1827 at Berlin. He studied first at Bonn
+and afterwards at Berlin, where his attention was directed towards the
+philological peculiarities of the South African languages. In his
+doctor's dissertation (Bonn, 1851), _De nominum generibus linguarum
+Africae Australis_, he endeavoured to show that the Hottentot language
+was of North African descent. In 1854 his health prevented him
+accompanying Dr W.B. Baikie in the expedition to the Niger; but in the
+following year he accompanied Bishop Colenso to Natal, and was enabled
+to prosecute his researches into the language and customs of the
+Kaffirs. Towards the close of 1856 he settled at Cape Town, and in 1857
+was appointed interpreter by Sir George Grey. In 1859 he was compelled
+by ill health to visit Europe, and on his return in the following year
+he was made librarian of the valuable collection of books presented to
+the colony by Sir George Grey. In 1869 he visited England, where the
+value of his services was recognized by a pension from the civil list.
+He died at Cape Town on the 17th of August 1875. His works, which are of
+considerable importance for African and Australian philology, consist of
+the _Vocabulary of the Mozambique Language_ (London, 1856); _Handbook of
+African, Australian and Polynesian Philology_ (Cape Town and London, 3
+vols., 1858-1863); _Comparative Grammar of, the South African Languages_
+(vol. i., London, 1869); _Reynard the Fox in South Africa, or Hottentot
+Fables and Tales_ (London, 1864); _Origin of Language_ (London, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+BLENDE, or SPHALERITE, a naturally occurring zinc sulphide, ZnS, and an
+important ore of zinc. The name blende was used by G. Agricola in 1546,
+and is from the German _blenden_, to blind, or deceive, because the
+mineral resembles lead ore in appearance but contains no lead, and was
+consequently often rejected as worthless. Sphalerite, introduced by E.F.
+Glocker in 1847, has the same meaning ([Greek: sphaleros], deceptive),
+and so have the miners' terms "mock ore," "false lead," and "blackjack."
+The term "blende" was at one time used in a generic sense, and as such
+enters into the construction of several old names of German origin; the
+species under consideration is therefore sometimes distinguished as
+zinc-blende.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. ]
+
+Crystals of blende belong to that subclass of the cubic system in which
+there are six planes of symmetry parallel to the faces of the rhombic
+dodecahedron and none parallel to the cubic faces; in other words, the
+crystals are cubic with inclined hemihedrism, and have no centre of
+symmetry. The fundamental form is the tetrahedron. Fig. 1 shows a
+combination of two tetrahedra, in which the four faces of one
+tetrahedron are larger than the four faces of the other: further, the
+two sets of faces differ in surface characters, those of one set being
+dull and striated, whilst those of the other set are bright and smooth.
+A common form, shown in fig. 2, is a combination of the rhombic
+dodecahedron with a three-faced tetrahedron y (311); the six faces
+meeting in each triad axis are often rounded together into low conical
+forms. The crystals are frequently twinned, the twin-axis coinciding
+with a triad axis; a rhombic dodecahedron so twinned (fig. 3) has no
+re-entrant angles. An important character of blende is the perfect
+dodecahedral cleavage, there being six directions of cleavage parallel
+to the faces of the rhombic dodecahedron, and angles between which are
+60 deg.
+
+When chemically pure, which is rarely the case, blende is colourless and
+transparent; usually, however, the mineral is yellow, brown or black,
+and often opaque, the depth of colour and degree of transparency
+depending on the amount of iron present. The streak, or colour of the
+powder, is brownish or light yellow, rarely white. The lustre is
+resinous to adamantine, and the index of refraction high (2.369 for
+sodium light). The substance is usually optically isotropic, though
+sometimes it exhibits anomalous double refraction; fibrous zinc sulphide
+which is doubly refracting is to be referred to the hexagonal species
+wurtzite. The specific gravity is 4.0, and the hardness 4. Crystals
+exhibit pyroelectrical characters, since they possess four uniterminal
+triad axes of symmetry.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+Crystals of blende are of very common occurrence, but owing to twinning
+and distortion and curvature of the faces, they are often rather complex
+and difficult to decipher. For this reason the mineral is not always
+readily recognized by inspection, though the perfect dodecahedral
+cleavage, the adamantine lustre, and the brown streak are characters
+which may be relied upon. The mineral is also frequently found massive,
+with a coarse or fine granular structure and a crystalline fracture;
+sometimes it occurs as a soft, white, amorphous deposit resembling
+artificially precipitated zinc sulphide. A compact variety of a pale
+liver-brown colour and forming concentric layers with a reniform surface
+is known in Germany as _Schalenblende_ or _Leberblende_.
+
+A few varieties of blende are distinguished by special names, these
+varieties depending on differences in colour and chemical composition. A
+pure white blende from Franklin in New Jersey is known as cleiophane;
+snow-white crystals are also found at Nordmark in Vermland, Sweden.
+Black blende containing ferrous sulphide, in amounts up to 15 or 20%
+isomorphously replacing zinc sulphide, is known as marmatite (from
+Marmato near Guayabal in Colombia, South America) and christophite (from
+St Christophe mine at Breitenbrunn near Eibenstock in Saxony).
+Transparent blende of a red or reddish-brown colour, such as that found
+near Holywell in Flintshire, is known as "ruby-blende" or "ruby-zinc."
+Pribramite is the name given to a cadmiferous blende from Pribram in
+Bohemia. Other varieties contain small amounts of mercury, tin,
+manganese or thallium. The elements gallium and indium were discovered
+in blende.
+
+Blende occurs in metalliferous veins, often in association with galena,
+also with chalcopyrite, barytes, fluorspar, &c. In ore-deposits
+containing both lead and zinc, such as those filling cavities in the
+limestones of the north of England and of Missouri, the galena is
+usually found in the upper part of the deposit, the blende not being
+reached until the deeper parts are worked. Blende is also found
+sporadically in sedimentary rocks; for example, in nodules of
+clay-ironstone in the Coal Measures, in the cement-doggers of the Lias,
+and in the casts of fossil shells. It has occasionally been found on the
+old timbers of mines. In these cases the zinc sulphide has probably
+arisen from the reduction of sulphate by organic matter.
+
+Localities for fine crystallized specimens are numerous. Mention may be
+made of the brilliant black crystals from Alston Moor in Cumberland, St
+Agnes in Cornwall and Derbyshire. Yellow crystals are found at
+Kapnik-Banya, near Nagy-Banya in Hungary. Transparent yellow cleavage
+masses of large size occur in limestone in the zinc mines at Picos de
+Europa in the province of Santander, Spain. Beautiful isolated
+tetrahedra of transparent yellow blende are found in the snow-white
+crystalline dolomite of the Binnenthal in the Valais, Switzerland.
+     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BLENHEIM (Ger. _Blindheim_), a village of Bavaria, Germany, in the
+district of Swabia, on the left bank of the Danube, 30 m. N.E. from Ulm
+by rail, a few miles below Hochstadt. Pop. 700. It was the scene of the
+defeat of the French and Bavarians under Marshals Tallard and Marsin, on
+the 13th of August 1704, by the English and the Austrians under the duke
+of Marlborough and Prince Eugene. In consideration of his military
+services and especially his decisive victory, a princely mansion was
+erected by parliament for the duke of Marlborough near Woodstock in
+Oxfordshire, England, and was named Blenheim Palace after this place.
+
+The battle of Blenheim is also called Hochstadt, but the title accepted
+in England has the advantage that it distinguishes this battle from that
+won on the same ground a year previously, by the elector of Bavaria over
+the imperial general Styrum (9-20 September 1703), and from the fighting
+between the Austrians under Krag and the French under Moreau in June
+1800 (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS). The ground between the hills and
+the marshy valley of the Danube forms a defile through which the main
+road from Donauworth led to Ulm; parallel streams divide the narrow
+plain into strips. On one of these streams, the Nebel, the French and
+Bavarians (somewhat superior in numbers) took up their position facing
+eastward, their right flank resting on the Danube, their left in the
+under-features of the hilly ground, and their front covered by the
+Nebel, on which were the villages of Oberglau, Unterglau and Blenheim.
+The imperialist army of Eugene and the allies under Marlborough (52,000
+strong) encamped 5 m. to the eastward along another stream, their flanks
+similarly protected. On the 2nd-13th of August 1704 Eugene and
+Marlborough set their forces in motion towards the hostile camps;
+several streams had to be crossed on the march, and it was seven o'clock
+(five hours after moving off) when the British of Marlborough's left
+wing, next the Danube, deployed opposite Blenheim, which Tallard
+thereupon garrisoned with a large force of his best infantry, aided by a
+battery of 24-pounder guns. The French and Bavarians were taken somewhat
+by surprise, and were arrayed in two separate armies, each with its
+cavalry on the wings and its foot in the centre. Thus the centre of the
+combined forces consisted of the cavalry of Marsin's right and of
+Tallard's left.
+
+Here was the only good ground for mounted troops, and Marlborough
+followed Tallard's example when forming up to attack, but it resulted
+from the dispositions of the French marshal that this weak point of
+junction of his two armies was exactly that at which decisive action was
+to be expected. Tallard therefore had a few horse on his right between
+the Danube and Blenheim, a mass of infantry in his centre at Blenheim
+itself, and a long line of cavalry supported by a few battalions forming
+his left wing in the plain, and connecting with the right of Marsin's
+army. This army was similarly drawn up. The cavalry right wing was in
+the open, the French infantry near Oberglau, which was strongly held,
+the Bavarian infantry next on the left, and finally the Bavarian cavalry
+with a force of foot on the extreme left in the hills. The elector of
+Bavaria commanded his own troops in person. Marlborough and Eugene on
+their part were to attack respectively Tallard and Marsin. The right
+wing under Eugene had to make a difficult march over broken ground
+before it could form up for battle, and Marlborough waited, with his
+army in order of battle between Unterglau and Blenheim, until his
+colleague should be ready. At 12.30 the battle opened. Lord Cutts, with
+a detachment of Marlborough's left wing, attacked Blenheim with the
+utmost fury. A third of the leading brigade (British) was killed and
+wounded in the vain attempt to break through the strong defences of the
+village, and some French squadrons charged upon it as it retired; a
+colour was captured in the _melee_, but a Hessian brigade in second line
+drove back the cavalry and retook the colour. After the repulse of these
+squadrons, in which some British cavalry from the centre took part,
+Cutts again moved forward. The second attack, though pressed even more
+fiercely, fared no better than the first, and the losses were heavier
+than before. The duke then ordered Cutts to observe the enemy in
+Blenheim, and concentrated all his attention on the centre. Here,
+between Unterglau and Blenheim, preparations were being made, under
+cover of artillery, for the crossing of the Nebel, and farther up-stream
+a corps was sent to attack Oberglau. This attack failed completely, and
+it was not until Marlborough himself, with fresh battalions, drove the
+French back into Oberglau that the allies were free to cross the Nebel.
+
+In the meanwhile the first line of Marlborough's infantry had crossed
+lower down, and the first line of cavalry, following them across, had
+been somewhat severely handled by Tallard's cavalry. The squadrons under
+the Prussian general Bothmar, however, made a dashing charge, and
+achieved considerable temporary success. Eugene was now closely engaged
+with the elector of Bavaria, and both sides were losing heavily. But
+Eugene carried out his holding attack successfully. Marsin dared not
+reinforce Tallard to any extent, and the duke was preparing for the
+grand attack. His whole force, except the detachment of Cutts, was now
+across the Nebel, and he had formed it in several lines with the cavalry
+in front. Marlborough himself led the cavalry; the French squadrons
+received the attack at the halt, and were soon broken. Marsin's right
+swung back towards its own army. Those squadrons of Tallard's left which
+retained their order fell back towards the Danube, and a great gap was
+opened in the centre of the defence, through which the victorious
+squadrons poured. Wheeling to their left the pursuers drove hundreds of
+fugitives into the Danube, and Eugene was now pressing the army of
+Marsin towards Marlborough, who re-formed and faced northward to cut off
+its retreat. Tallard was already a prisoner, but in the dusk and
+confusion Marsin slipped through between the duke and Eugene. General
+Churchill, Marlborough's brother, had meanwhile surrounded the French
+garrison of Blenheim; and after one or two attempts to break out,
+twenty-four battalions of infantry and four regiments of dragoons, many
+of them the finest of the French army, surrendered.
+
+The losses of the allies are stated at 4500 killed and 7500 wounded
+(British 670 killed and 1500 wounded). Of the French and Bavarians
+11,000 men, 100 guns and 200 colours and standards were taken; besides
+the killed and wounded, the numbers of which vere large but
+uncertain--many were drowned in the Danube. Marsin's army, though it
+lost heavily, was drawn off in good order; Tallard's was almost
+annihilated.
+
+
+
+
+BLENNERHASSETT, HARMAN (1765-1831), Irish-American lawyer, son of an
+Irish country gentleman of English stock settled in Co. Kerry, was born
+on the 8th of October 1765. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin,
+and in 1790 was called to the Irish bar. After living for several years
+on the continent, he married in 1796 his niece, Margaret Agnew, daughter
+of Robert Agnew, the lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Man. Ostracised
+by their families for this step the couple decided to settle in America,
+where Blennerhassett in 1798 bought an island in the Ohio river about 2
+m. below Parkersburg, West Virginia. Here in 1805 he received a visit
+from Aaron Burr (q.v.), in whose conspiracy he became interested,
+furnishing liberal funds for its support, and offering the use of his
+island as a rendezvous for the gathering of arms and supplies and the
+training of volunteers. When the conspiracy collapsed, the mansion and
+island were occupied and plundered by the Virginia militia.
+Blennerhassett fled, was twice arrested and remained a prisoner until
+after Burr's release. The island was then abandoned, and Blennerhassett
+was in turn a cotton planter in Mississippi, and a lawyer (1819-1822) in
+Montreal, Canada. After returning to Ireland, he died in the island of
+Guernsey on the 2nd of February 1831. His wife, who had considerable
+literary talent and who published _The Deserted Isle_ (1822) and _The
+Widow of the Rock and Other Poems_ (1824), returned to the United States
+in 1840, and died soon afterward in New York City while attempting to
+obtain through Congress payment for property destroyed on the island.
+
+  See William H. Safford, _Life of Harman Blennerhassett_ (Cincinnati,
+  1853); W.H. Safford (editor), _The Blennerhassett Papers_ (Cincinnati,
+  1864); and "The True Story of Harman Blennerhassett," by Therese
+  Blennerhassett-Adams, in the _Century Magazine_ for July 1901, vol.
+  lxii.
+
+
+
+
+BLERA (mod. _Bieda_), an ancient Etruscan town on the Via Clodia, about
+32 m. N.N.W. of Rome. It was of little importance, and is only mentioned
+by geographers and in inscriptions. It is situated on a long, narrow
+tongue of rock at the junction of two deep glens. Some remains of the
+town walls still exist, and also two ancient bridges, both belonging to
+the Via Clodia, and many tombs hewn in the rock--small chambers
+imitating the architectural forms of houses, with beams and rafters
+represented in relief. See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of
+Etruria_, i. 207. There was another Blera in Apulia, on the road from
+Venusia to Tarentum.
+
+
+
+
+BLESSINGTON, MARGUERITE, COUNTESS OF (1789-1849), Irish novelist and
+miscellaneous writer, daughter of Edmund Power, a small landowner, was
+born near Clonmel, Co. Tipperary, Ireland, on the 1st of September 1789.
+Her childhood was made unhappy by her father's character and
+poverty,--and her early womanhood wretched by her compulsory marriage at
+the age of fifteen to a Captain Maurice St Leger Farmer, whose drunken
+habits brought him at last as a debtor to the king's bench prison,
+where, in October 1817, he died. His wife had left him some time before,
+and in February 1818 she married Charles John Gardiner, earl of
+Blessington. Of rare beauty, charm and wit, she was no less
+distinguished for her generosity and for the extravagant tastes which
+she shared with her husband, which resulted in encumbering his estates
+with a load of debt. In the autumn of 1822 they went abroad, spent four
+months of the next year at Genoa in close intimacy with Byron, and
+remained on the continent till Lord Blessington's death in May 1829.
+Some time before this they had been joined by Count D'Orsay, who in 1827
+married Lady Harriet Gardiner, Lord Blessington's only daughter by a
+former wife. D'Orsay, who had soon separated from his wife, now
+accompanied Lady Blessington to England and lived with her till her
+death. Their home, first at Seamore Place, and afterwards Gore House,
+Kensington, became a centre of attraction for whatever was distinguished
+in literature, learning, art, science and fashion. After her husband's
+death she supplemented her diminished income by contributing to various
+periodicals as well as by writing novels. She was for some years editor
+of _The Book of Beauty_ and _The Keepsake_, popular annuals of the day.
+In 1834 she published her _Conversations with Lord Byron_. Her _Idler in
+Italy_ (1839-1840), and _Idler in France_ (1841) were popular for their
+personal gossip and anecdote, descriptions of nature and sentiment.
+Early in 1849, Count D'Orsay left Gore House to escape his creditors;
+the furniture and decorations were sold, and Lady Blessington joined the
+count in Paris, where she died on the 4th of June 1849.
+
+  Her _Literary Life and Correspondence_ (3 vols.), edited by R.R.
+  Madden, appeared in 1855. Her portrait was painted in 1808 by Sir
+  Thomas Lawrence.
+
+
+
+
+BLIDA, a town of Algeria, in the department of Algiers, 32 m. by railway
+S.W. from Algiers, on the line to Oran. Pop. (1906) 16,866. It lies
+surrounded with orchards and gardens, 630 ft. above the sea, at the base
+of the Little Atlas, on the southern edge of the fertile plain of the
+Metija, and the right bank of the Wad-el-Kebir affluent of the Chiffa.
+The abundant water of this stream provides power for large corn mills
+and several factories, and also supplies the town, with its numerous
+fountains and irrigated gardens. Blida is surrounded by a wall of
+considerable extent, pierced by six gates, and is further defended by
+Fort Mimieh, crowning a steep hill on the left bank of the river. The
+present town, French in character, has well-built modern streets with
+many arcades, and numbers among its buildings several mosques and
+churches, extensive barracks and a large military hospital. The
+principal square, the place d'Armes, is surrounded by arcaded houses and
+shaded by trees. The centre of a fertile district, and a post on one of
+the main routes in the country, Blida has a flourishing trade, chiefly
+in oranges and flour. The orange groves contain over 50,000 trees, and
+in April the air for miles round is laden with the scent of the orange
+blossoms. In the public gardens is a group of magnificent olive trees.
+The products of the neighbouring cork trees and cedar groves are a
+source of revenue to the town. In the vicinity are the villages of
+Joinville and Montpensier, which owe their origin to military camps
+established by Marshal Valee in 1838; and on the road to Medea are the
+tombs of the marabout Mahommed-el-Kebir, who died in 1580, and his two
+sons.
+
+Blida, _i.e. boleida_, diminutive of the Arab word _belad_, city,
+occupies the site of a military station in the time of the Romans, but
+the present town appears to date from the 16th century. A mosque was
+built by order of Khair-ed-din Barbarossa, and under the Turks the town
+was of some importance. In 1825 it was nearly destroyed by an
+earthquake, but was speedily rebuilt on a site about a mile distant from
+the ruins. It was not till 1838 that it was finally held by the French,
+though they had been in possession for a short time eight years before.
+In April 1906 it was chosen as the place of detention of Behanzin, the
+ex-king of Dahomey, who died in December of that year.
+
+Blida is the chief town of a commune of the same name, having (1906) a
+population of 33,332.
+
+
+
+
+BLIGH, WILLIAM (1754-1817), English admiral, was born of a good Cornish
+family in 1754. He accompanied Captain Cook in his second expedition
+(1772-1774) as sailing-master of the "Resolution." During the voyage,
+the bread-fruit, already known to Dampier, was found by them at
+Otaheite; and after seeing service under Lord Howe and elsewhere,
+"Bread-fruit Bligh," as he was nicknamed, was despatched at the end of
+1787 to the Pacific in command of H.M.S. "Bounty," for the purpose of
+introducing it into the West Indies from the South Sea Islands. Bligh
+sailed from Otaheite, after remaining there about six months; but, when
+near the Friendly Islands, a mutiny (April 28, 1789) broke out on board
+the "Bounty," headed by Fletcher Christian, the master's mate, and
+Bligh, with eighteen others, was set adrift in the launch. The mutineers
+themselves settled on Pitcairn Island (q.v.), but some of them were
+afterwards captured, brought to England and in three cases executed.
+This mutiny, which forms the subject of Byron's Island, did not arise so
+much from tyranny on the part of Bligh as from attachments contracted
+between the seamen and the women of Otaheite. After suffering severely
+from hunger, thirst and storms, Bligh and his companions landed at Timor
+in the East Indies, having performed a voyage of about 4000 m. in an
+open boat. Bligh returned to England in 1790, and he was soon afterwards
+appointed to the "Providence," in which he effected the purpose of his
+former appointment by introducing the bread-fruit tree into the West
+India Islands. He showed great courage at the mutiny of the Nore in
+1797, and in the same year took part in the battle of Camperdown, where
+Admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch under De Winter. In 1801 he commanded
+the "Glatton" (54) at the battle of Copenhagen, and received the
+personal commendations of Nelson. In 1805 he was appointed "captain
+general and governor of New South Wales." As he made himself intensely
+unpopular by the harsh exercise of authority, he was deposed in January
+1808 by a mutiny headed by Major George Johnston of the 102nd foot, and
+was imprisoned by the mutineers till 1810. He returned to England in
+1811, was promoted to rear-admiral in that year, and to vice-admiral in
+1814. Major Johnston was tried by court martial at Chelsea in 1811, and
+was dismissed the service. Bligh, who was an active, persevering and
+courageous officer, died in London in 1817.
+
+
+
+
+BLIND, MATHILDE (1841-1896), English author, was born at Mannheim on the
+21st of March 1841. Her father was a banker named Cohen, but she took
+the name of Blind after her step-father, the political writer, Karl
+Blind (1826-1907), one of the exiled leaders of the Baden insurrection
+in 1848-1849, and an ardent supporter of the various 19th-century
+movements for the freedom and autonomy of struggling nationalities. The
+family was compelled to take refuge in England, where Mathilde devoted
+herself to literature and to the higher education of women. She produced
+also three long poems, "The Prophecy of St Oran" (1881), "The Heather on
+Fire" (1886), an indignant protest against the evictions in the
+Highlands, and "The Ascent of Man" (1888), which was to be the epic of
+the theory of evolution. She wrote biographies of George Eliot (1883)
+and Madame Roland (1886), and translated D.F. Strauss's _The Old Faith
+and the New_ (1873-1874) and the _Memoirs of Marie Bashkirtseff_ (1890).
+She died on the 26th of November 1896, bequeathing her property to
+Newnham College, Cambridge.
+
+  A complete edition of her poems was edited by Mr Arthur Symons in
+  1900, with a biographical introduction by Dr Richard Garnett.
+
+
+
+
+BLIND HOOKEY, a game of chance, played with a full pack of cards. The
+deal, which is an advantage, is decided as at whist, the cards being
+shuffled and cut as at whist. The dealer gives a parcel of cards to each
+player including himself. Each player puts the amount of his stake on
+his cards, which he must not look at. The dealer has to take all bets.
+He then turns up his parcel, exposing the bottom card. Each player in
+turn does the same, winning or losing according as his cards are higher
+or lower than the dealer's. Ties pay the dealer. The cards rank as at
+whist. The suits are of no importance, the cards taking precedence
+according to their face-value.
+
+
+
+
+BLINDING, a form of punishment anciently common in many lands, being
+inflicted on thieves, adulterers, perjurers and other criminals. The
+inhabitants of Apollonia (Illyria) are said to have inflicted this
+penalty on their "watch" when found asleep at their posts. It was
+resorted to by the Roman emperors in their persecutions of the
+Christians. The method of destroying the sight varied. Sometimes a
+mixture of lime and vinegar, or barely scalding vinegar alone, was
+poured into the eyes. Sometimes a rope was twisted round the victim's
+head till the eyes started out of their sockets. In the middle ages the
+punishment seems to have been changed from total blindness to a
+permanent injury to the eyes, amounting, however, almost to blindness,
+produced by holding a red-hot iron dish or basin before the face. Under
+the forest laws of the Norman kings of England blinding was a common
+penalty. Shakespeare makes King John order his nephew Arthur's eyes to
+be burnt out.
+
+
+
+
+BLINDMAN'S-BUFF (from an O. Fr. word, _buffe_, a blow, especially a blow
+on the cheek), a game in which one player is blindfolded and made to
+catch and identify one of the others, who in sport push him about and
+"buffet" him.
+
+
+
+
+BLINDNESS, the condition of being blind (a common Teutonic word), i.e.
+devoid of sight (see also VISION; and EYE: _Diseases_). The data
+furnished in various countries by the census of 1901 showed generally a
+decrease in blindness, due to the progress in medical science, use of
+antiseptics, better sanitation, control of infectious diseases, and
+better protection in shops and factories. Blindness is much more common
+in hot countries than in temperate and cold regions, but Finland and
+Iceland are exceptions to the general rule.[1] In hot countries the eyes
+are affected by the glaring sunlight, the dust and the dryness of the
+air. From statistics in Italy, France and Belgium, localities on the
+coast seem to have more blind persons than those at a distance from the
+sea.
+
+The following table gives the number of blind persons as reported in the
+census of each country. Unless otherwise stated, it refers to the
+statistics of 1900.
+
+  +----------------------------------+--------+----------------+
+  |                                  | Total  |    Number      |
+  |             Country.             | Number.|  per Million   |
+  |                                  |        | of Population. |
+  +----------------------------------+--------+----------------+
+  | Austria                          | 14,582 |      540       |
+  | Belgium                          |   3448 |      487       |
+  | Canada                           |   3279 |      610       |
+  | Denmark                          |   1047 |      427       |
+  | England                          | 25,317 |      778       |
+  | France                           | 27,174 |      698       |
+  | Finland[2]                       |   3229 |     1191       |
+  | Germany                          | 34,334 |      609       |
+  | Hungary                          | 19,377 |     1006       |
+  | Ireland                          |   4263 |      954       |
+  | Italy                            | 38,160 |     1175       |
+  | Holland (1890)                   |   2114 |      414       |
+  | Norway                           |   1879 |      838       |
+  | Portugal                         |   5650 |     1040       |
+  | Sweden                           |   3413 |      664       |
+  | Switzerland (1895)               |   2107 |      722       |
+  | Scotland                         |   3253 |      727       |
+  | Spain (1877)                     | 24,608 |     1006       |
+  | Russia                           |   . .  | about 2000     |
+  | United States (corrected census) | 85,662 |     1125       |
+  +----------------------------------+--------+----------------+
+
+
+CAUSES AND PREVENTION
+
+There are many cases of complete or partial blindness which might have
+been prevented, and a knowledge of the best methods of prevention and
+cure should be spread as widely as possible. Magnus, Bremer, Steffen and
+Rossler are of opinion that 40% of the cases of blindness might have
+been prevented. Hayes gives 33.35% as positively avoidable, 38.75%
+possibly avoidable, and 46.27% as a conservative estimate. Cohn regards
+blindness as certainly preventable in 33%, as probably preventable in
+43%, and as quite unpreventable in only 24%. If we take the lowest of
+these figures, and assume that 400 out of every 1000 blind persons might
+have been saved from such a calamity, we realize the importance of
+preventative measures. For the physiology and pathology of the eye
+generally, see VISION and EYE.
+
+
+  Ophthalmia.
+
+The great majority of these cases are due to infantile purulent
+ophthalmia. This arises from inoculation of the eyes with hurtful
+material at time of birth. If the contagious discharges are allowed to
+remain, violent inflammation is set up which usually ends in the loss of
+sight. It depends on the presence of a microbe, and the effective
+application of a weak solution of nitrate of silver is curative, if made
+in a proper manner at an early period of the case. In Germany, midwives
+are expressly prohibited by law from treating any affection of the eyes
+or eyelids of infants, however slight. On the appearance of the first
+symptoms, they are required to represent to the parents, or others in
+charge, that medical assistance is urgently needed, or, if necessary,
+they are themselves to report to the local authorities and the district
+doctor. Neglect of these regulations entails liability to punishment.
+Eleven of the United States of America have enacted laws requiring that,
+if one or both eyes of an infant should become inflamed, swollen or
+reddened at any time within two weeks of its birth, it shall be the duty
+of the midwife or nurse having charge of such infant to report in
+writing within six hours, to the health officer or some legally
+qualified physician, the fact that such inflammation, swelling or
+redness exists. The penalty for failure to comply is fine or
+imprisonment.
+
+The following weighty words, from a paper prepared by Dr Park Lewis, of
+Buffalo, N.Y., for the American Medical Association, show that laws are
+not sufficient to prevent evil, unless supported by strong public
+sentiment:--
+
+  "When an enlightened, civilized and progressive nation quietly and
+  passively, year after year, permits a multitude of its people
+  unnecessarily to become blind, and more especially when one-quarter
+  of these are infants, the reason for such a startling condition of
+  affairs demands explanation. That such is the fact, practically all
+  reliable ophthalmologists agree.
+
+  "From a summary of carefully tabulated statistics it has been
+  demonstrated that at least four-tenths of all existing blindness might
+  have been avoided had proper preventative or curative measures been
+  employed, while one-quarter of this, or one-tenth of the whole, is due
+  to _ophthalmia neonatorum_, an infectious, preventable and almost
+  absolutely curable disease. Perhaps this statement will take on a new
+  meaning when it is added that there are in the state of New York alone
+  more than 6000, and in the United States more than 50,000 blind
+  people; of these 600 in the one state, and 5000 in the country, would
+  have been saved from lives of darkness and unhappiness, in having lost
+  all the joys that come through sight, and of more or less complete
+  dependence--for no individual can be as self-sufficient without as
+  with eyes--if a simple, safe and easily applied precautionary measure
+  had been taken at the right time and in the right way to prevent this
+  affliction. The following three vital facts are not questioned, but
+  are universally accepted by those qualified to know:--
+
+  "1. The ophthalmia of infancy is an infectious germ disease.
+
+  "2. By the instillation of a silver salt in the eyes of a new-born
+  infant the disease is prevented from developing in all but an
+  exceedingly small number of the cases in which it would otherwise have
+  appeared.
+
+  "3. In practically all those few exceptional cases the disease is
+  absolutely curable, if like treatment is employed at a sufficiently
+  early period.
+
+  "Since these facts are no longer subjects of discussion, but are
+  universally accepted by all educated medical men, the natural inquiry
+  follows: Why, as a common-sense proposition, are not these simple,
+  harmless, preventive measures invariably employed, and why, in
+  consequence of this neglect, does a nation sit quietly and
+  indifferently by, making no attempt to prevent this enormous and
+  needless waste of human eyes?
+
+  "The reasons are three-fold, and lie--first, with the medical
+  profession; second, with the lay public; third, with the state.
+
+  "For the education of its blind children annually New York alone pays
+  _per capita_ at least $350, and a yearly gross sum amounting to much
+  more than $100,000. If, as sometimes happens, the blind citizen is a
+  dependent throughout a long life, the cost of maintenance is not less
+  than $10,000, and the mere cost in money will be multiplied many times
+  in that a productive factor, by reason of blindness, has been removed
+  from the community.
+
+  "If, therefore, as an economic proposition, it were realized how
+  vitally it concerns the state that not one child shall needlessly
+  become blind, thereby increasing the public financial burden, there is
+  no doubt that early and effective measures would be instituted to
+  protect the state from this unnecessary and extravagant expenditure of
+  public funds.
+
+  "Eleven states have passed legislative enactments requiring that the
+  midwife shall report each case to the proper health authority, and
+  affixing a penalty for the failure to do so. As has been intimated,
+  however, it is not by any means always under the ministration of
+  midwives that these cases occur, and, like all laws behind which is
+  not a strong and well-informed public sentiment, this law is rarely
+  enforced. A more effective method must be devised. Every physician
+  having to do with the parturient woman, every obstetrician, every
+  midwife, must be frequently and constantly advised of the dangers and
+  possibilities of this disease, the necessity of prevention, and the
+  value of early and correct treatment. They must then have placed in
+  their hands, ready for instant use, a safe and efficient preparation,
+  issued by the health authorities as a guarantee as to its quality and
+  efficiency.
+
+  "An important step was taken in this direction when a resolution was
+  passed by the House of Delegates at the annual meeting of the New York
+  State Medical Society, requesting the various health officers of the
+  state to include _ophthalmia neonatorum_ among contagious diseases
+  which must be reported to the local boards of health.
+
+  "The second essential, in order that the cause of infantile ophthalmia
+  be abolished, is that a solution of the necessary silver salt be
+  prepared under the authority of somebody capable of inspiring
+  universal confidence, and that it be distributed by the health
+  department of every state gratuitously to every obstetrician,
+  physician or midwife qualified to care for the parturient woman. The
+  nature of the solution, together with the character of the descriptive
+  card which should accompany it, should be determined by a committee,
+  chosen by the president of the American Medical Association, which
+  should have among its members at least one representative
+  ophthalmologist, one obstetrician and one sanitarian. The conclusions
+  of this committee should be reported back to the House of Delegates,
+  so that the preparation and its text should carry with it, on the
+  great authority of this association, the assurance that the solution
+  is entirely safe and necessary, and that its use should invariably be
+  part of the toilet of every new-born child. The solution, probably
+  silver nitrate, could be put up either by the state itself or by some
+  trustworthy pharmacist, at an insignificant cost; its purity and
+  sterility should be vouched for by the board of health of the state.
+  It should be enclosed in specially prepared receptacles, each
+  containing a special quantity, and so arranged that it may be used
+  drop by drop. These, properly enclosed, accompanied by a brief lucid
+  explanation of the danger of the disease, the necessity of this
+  germicide, the method of its employment, and the right subsequent care
+  of the eyes, should be sent to the obstetrician on the receipt of each
+  birth certificate.
+
+  "I have said that responsibility for the indifference that is annually
+  resulting in such frightful disaster lies primarily with the state,
+  the public and the medical profession.
+
+  "The state is already aroused to the necessity of taking effective
+  measures to wipe out this controllable plague. Bills have been
+  introduced in the legislature of Massachusetts and of New York,
+  providing for the appointment of commissions for the blind, one of
+  whose duties will be to study the causes of unnecessary blindness and
+  to suggest preventative measures."
+
+
+  Trachoma.
+
+One of the most common diseases of the eye is trachoma, often called
+"granular lids," because the inner surface of the lid seems to be
+covered with little granulations. The disease sometimes lasts for years
+without causing blindness, though it gives rise to great irritation. It
+is generally attended by a discharge, which is highly contagious,
+producing the same disease if it gets into other eyes. Want of
+cleanliness is one of the most important factors in the propagation of
+trachoma, hence its great prevalence in Oriental countries. Trachoma is
+very prevalent in Egypt, where those suffering from total or partial
+blindness are said to amount to 10% of the population. During Napoleon's
+Egyptian campaign, nearly every soldier, out of an army of 32,000 men,
+was affected. During the following twenty years the disease spread
+through almost all European armies. In the Belgian army, there was one
+trachomatous soldier out of every five, and up to 1834 no less than 4000
+soldiers had lost both eyes and 10,000 one eye. It is a disease which is
+very common in workhouse schools, orphan asylums and similar
+establishments. Unlike ophthalmia of new-born children, it is difficult
+to cure, and a total separation of the diseased from the healthy
+children should be effected.
+
+
+  Sympathetic inflammation.
+
+About one-half of those who are blinded by injuries lose the second eye
+by sympathetic ophthalmia. It is a constant source of danger to those
+who retain an eye blinded by injury. Blindness from this cause can be
+prevented by the removal of the injured eye, but unfortunately the
+proposal often meets with opposition from the patient.
+
+
+  Glaucoma.
+
+Glaucoma is a disease which almost invariably leads to total blindness;
+but in most cases it can be arrested by a simple operation if the case
+is seen sufficiently early.
+
+
+  Short-sight.
+
+Myopia, or "short-sight," makes itself apparent in children between the
+ages of seven and nine. Neglect of a year or two may do serious
+mischief. Short-sight, when not inherited, is produced by looking
+intently and continuously at near objects. Children should be encouraged
+to describe objects at a distance, with which they are unacquainted, and
+parents should choose out-door occupations and amusements for children
+who show a tendency to shortsightedness.
+
+A report was issued in 1906, by the school board of Glasgow, as to an
+investigation by Dr H. Wright Thomas, ophthalmic surgeon, regarding the
+eyesight of school children, which includes the following passage. Dr
+Wright Thomas states that the teachers tested the visual acuteness of
+52,493 children, and found 18,565, or 35%, to be below what is regarded
+as the normal standard. He examined the 18,565 defectives by
+retinoscopy, and found that 11,209, or 21% of the whole, had ocular
+defects. The proportion of these cases was highest in the poor and
+closely-built districts and in old schools, and was lowest in the
+better-class schools and those near the outskirts of the city. Defective
+vision, apart from ocular defect, seems to be due partly to want of
+training of the eyes for distant objects and partly to exhaustion of the
+eyes, which is easily induced when work is carried on in bad light, or
+the nutrition of the children is defective from bad feeding and
+unhealthy surroundings. Regarding training of the eyes for distant
+objects, much might be done in the infant department by the total
+abolition of sewing, which is definitely hurtful to such young eyes, and
+the substitution of competitive games involving the recognition of
+small objects at a distance of 20 ft. or more. An annual testing by the
+teachers, followed by medical inspection of the children found
+defective, would soon cause all existing defects to be corrected, and
+would lead to the detection of those which develop during school life.
+
+
+HISTORY OF INSTITUTIONS
+
+Although there is a record of a hospital established by St Basil at
+Caesarea, Cappadocia, in the 4th century, a refuge by the hermit St
+Lymnee (d. c. 455) at Syr, Syria, in the 5th century, and an institution
+by St Bertrand, bishop of Le Mans, in the 7th century, the first public
+effort to benefit the blind was the founding of a hospital at Paris, in
+1260, by Louis IX., for 300 blind persons. The common legend is that he
+founded it as an asylum for 300 of his soldiers who had become blinded
+in the crusade in Egypt, but the statutes of the founder are preserved,
+and no mention is made of crusaders. This Hospice des Quinze-Vingts,
+increased by subsequent additions to its funds, still assists the adult
+blind of France. The pensioners are divided into two classes--those who
+are inmates of the hospital (300), and those who receive pensions in the
+form of out-door relief. All appointments to inmates or pensions are
+vested in the minister of the Interior, and applicants must be of French
+nationality, totally blind and not less than forty years of age.
+
+From the time of St Louis to the 18th century, there are records of
+isolated cases of blind persons who were educated, and of efforts to
+devise tangible apparatus to assist them.
+
+Girolamo Cardan, the 16th-century Italian physician, conceived the idea
+that the blind could be taught to read and write by means of touch.
+About 1517 Francesco Lucas in Spain, and Rampazetto in Italy, made use
+of large letters cut in wood for instructing the blind. In 1646 a book,
+on the condition of the blind, was written by an Italian, and published
+in Italian and French, under the title of _L'Aveugle afflige et
+console_. In 1670 a book was written on the instruction of the blind by
+Lana Terzi, the Jesuit. In 1676 Jacques Bernoulli, the Swiss savant,
+taught a blind girl to read, but the means of her instruction were not
+made known. In 1749 D. Diderot wrote his _Lettre sur les aveugles a
+l'usage de ceux qui voient_, to show how far the intellectual and moral
+nature of man is modified by blindness. Dr S.G. Howe, who many years
+after translated and printed the "Letter" in embossed type,
+characterizes it as abounding with errors of fact and inference, but
+also with beauties and suggestions. The heterodox speculations contained
+in his "Letter on the Blind" caused Diderot to be imprisoned three
+months in the Bastille. He was released because his services were
+required for the forthcoming _Encyclopaedia_. Rousseau visited Diderot
+in prison, and is reported to have suggested a system of embossed
+printing. J. Locke, G.W. Leibnitz, Molineau and others discussed the
+effect of blindness on the human mind. In Germany, Weissembourg had used
+signs in relief and taught Mlle Paradis.
+
+Prior to the 18th century, blind beggars existed in such numbers that
+they struggled for standing room in positions favourable for asking
+alms. Their very affliction led to their being used as spectacles for
+the amusement of the populace. The degraded state of the masses of the
+blind in France attracted the attention of Valentin Hauy. In 1771, at
+the annual fair of St Ovid, in Paris, an innkeeper had a group of blind
+men attired in a ridiculous manner, decorated with peacock tails, asses'
+ears, and pasteboard spectacles without glasses, in which condition they
+gave a burlesque concert, for the profit of their employer. This sad
+scene was repeated day after day, and greeted with loud laughter by the
+gaping crowds. Among those who gazed at this outrage to humanity was the
+philanthropist Valentin Hauy, who left the disgraceful scene full of
+sorrow. "Yes," he said to himself, "I will substitute truth for this
+mocking parody. I will make the blind to read, and they shall be enabled
+to execute harmonious music." Hauy collected all the information he
+could gain respecting the blind, and began teaching a blind boy who had
+gained his living by begging at a church door. Encouraged by the
+success of his pupil, Hauy collected other blind persons, and in 1785
+founded in Paris the first school for the blind (the Institution
+Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles), and commenced the first printing in
+raised characters. In 1786, before Louis XVI. and his court at
+Versailles, he exhibited the attainments of his pupils in reading,
+writing, arithmetic, geography and music, and in the same year published
+an account of his methods, entitled _Essai sur l'education des
+aveugles_. As the novelty wore off, contributions almost came to an end,
+and the Blind School must have ceased to exist, had it not been taken,
+in 1791, under the protection of the state.
+
+The emperor of Russia, and later the dowager empress, having learned of
+Hauy's work, invited him to visit St Petersburg for the purpose of
+establishing a similar institution in the Russian capital. On his
+journey Hauy was invited by the king of Prussia to Charlottenburg. He
+took part in the deliberations of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, and
+as a result a school was founded there.
+
+Edward Rushton, a blind man, was the projector of the first institution
+for the blind in England--the School for the Indigent Blind, Liverpool.
+In 1790 Rushton suggested to the literary and philosophical society of
+which he was a member, the establishment of a benefit club for the
+indigent blind. The idea was communicated to his friend, J. Christie, a
+blind musician, and the latter thought the scheme should also include
+the instruction of young blind persons. They circulated letters amongst
+individuals who would be likely to give their assistance, and the Rev.
+Henry Dannett warmly advocated the undertaking. It was mainly due to his
+co-operation and zeal that Messrs Rushton and Christie's plan was
+carried out, and the Liverpool asylum was opened in 1791. Thomas
+Blacklock of Edinburgh, a blind poet and scholar, translated Hauy's work
+on the _Education of the Blind_. He interested Mr David Millar, a blind
+gentleman, the Rev. David Johnston and others in the subject, and after
+Blacklock's death the Edinburgh Asylum for the Relief of the Indigent
+and Industrious Blind was established (1793). Institutions were
+established in the United Kingdom in the following order:--
+
+  School for the Indigent Blind, Liverpool             1791
+  Royal Blind Asylum, Edinburgh                        1793
+  Bristol Asylum                                       1793
+  School for the Indigent Blind Southwark (now
+    removed to Leatherhead)                            1799
+  Norwich Asylum and School                            1805
+  Richmond Asylum, Dublin                              1810
+  Aberdeen Asylum                                      1812
+  Molyneux Asylum, Dublin                              1815
+  Glasgow Asylum and School                            1827
+  Belfast School                                       1831
+  Wilberforce School, York                             1833
+  Limerick Asylum                                      1834
+  London Society for Teaching the Blind to Read, St
+    John's Wood, N.                                    1838
+  Royal Victoria School for the Blind,
+    Newcastle-on-Tyne                                  1838
+  West of England Institute for the Blind, Exeter      1838
+  Henshaw's Blind Asylum, Manchester                   1839
+  County and City of Cork Asylum                       1840
+  Catholic Asylum, Liverpool                           1841
+  Brighton Asylum                                      1842
+  Midland Institute for the Blind, Nottingham          1843
+  General Institute for the Blind, Birmingham          1848
+  Macan Asylum, Armagh                                 1854
+  St Joseph's Asylum, Dublin                           1858
+  St Mary's Asylum, Dublin                             1858
+  Institute for the Blind, Devonport                   1860
+  South Devon and Cornwall Institute for the Blind,
+    Plymouth                                           1860
+  School for the Blind, Southsea                       1864
+  Institute for the Blind, Dundee                      1865
+  South Wales Institute for the Blind, Swansea         1865
+  School for the Blind, Leeds                          1866
+  College for the Sons of Gentlemen, Worcester         1866
+  Northern Counties Institute for the Blind, Inverness 1866
+  Royal Normal College and Academy of Music for the
+    Blind, Upper Norwood                               1872
+  School for the Blind, Sheffield                      1879
+  Barclay Home and School for Blind Girls, Brighton    1893
+  Homes for Blind Children, Preston                    1895
+  North Stafford School, Stoke-on-Trent                1897
+
+
+Many of the early institutions were asylums, and to the present day
+schools for the blind are regarded by the public as asylums rather than
+as educational establishments. With nearly all these schools workshops
+were connected. In 1856 Miss Gilbert, the blind daughter of the bishop
+of Chichester, established a workshop in Berners Street, London, and
+since that date workshops have been started in many of the provincial
+towns.
+
+After the beginning of the 19th century, institutions for the blind were
+established in various parts of Europe. The institution at Vienna was
+founded in 1804 by Dr W. Klein, a blind man, and he remained at its head
+for fifty years. That of Berlin was established in 1806, Amsterdam,
+Prague and Dresden in 1808, Copenhagen in 1811. There are more than 150
+on the European continent, most of them receiving aid from the
+government, and being under government supervision.
+
+The first school for the blind in the United States was founded in
+Boston, Mass., chiefly through the efforts of Dr John D. Fisher, a young
+physician who visited the French school. It was incorporated in 1829,
+and in honour of T.H. Perkins (1764-1854) who gave his mansion to the
+institution was named the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts Asylum
+(now School) for the Blind. Aid was granted by the state from the
+beginning. In 1831 Dr Samuel G. Howe (q.v.) was appointed director,
+and held that position for nearly forty-four years; being succeeded by
+his son-in-law Michael Anagnos (d. 1906), who established a kindergarten
+for the blind at Jamaica Plain, in connexion with the Perkins
+Institution. Dr Howe was interested in many charitable and sociological
+movements, but his life-work was on behalf of the blind. One of his most
+notable achievements was the education of Laura Bridgman (q.v.) who
+was deaf, dumb and blind, and this has since led to the education of
+Helen Keller and other blind deaf-mutes. The New York Institution was
+incorporated in 1831, and the Pennsylvania Institution was founded at
+Philadelphia by the Society of Friends in 1833. The Ohio was founded at
+Columbus in 1837, Virginia at Staunton in 1839, Kentucky at Louisville
+in 1842, Tennessee at Nashville in 1844, and now every state in the
+Union makes provision for the education of the blind.
+
+
+STATISTICS
+
+  England and Wales.
+
+In England and Wales the total number of persons returned in 1901 as
+afflicted with blindness was 25,317, being in the proportion of 778 per
+million living, or 1 blind person in every 1285 of the population. The
+following table shows that the proportion of blind persons to population
+has diminished at each successive enumeration since 1851, in which year
+particulars of those afflicted in this manner were ascertained for the
+first time. It will, however, be noted that, although the decrease in
+the proportion of blind in the latest intercensal period was still
+considerable, yet the rate of decrease which had obtained between 1871
+and 1891 was not maintained.--
+
+  +------+-----------+-------------------+-------------------+
+  | Year.| Number of | Blind per Million | Persons Living to |
+  |      |   Blind.  | of the Population | one Blind Person. |
+  +------+-----------+-------------------+-------------------+
+  | 1851 |  18,306   |       1021        |         979       |
+  | 1861 |  19,352   |        964        |        1037       |
+  | 1871 |  21,590   |        951        |        1052       |
+  | 1881 |  22,832   |        879        |        1138       |
+  | 1891 |  23,467   |        809        |        1236       |
+  | 1901 |  25,317   |        778        |        1285       |
+  +------+-----------+-------------------+-------------------+
+
+The following table, which gives the proportions of blind per million
+living at the earlier age-groups, shows that in the decennium 1891-1901,
+as also in recent previous intercensal periods, there was a decrease in
+the proportion of blind children in England and Wales generally; it thus
+lends support to the contention, in the _General Report_ for 1891, that
+the decrease was due either to the lesser prevalence, or to the more
+efficient treatment, of purulent ophthalmia and other infantile maladies
+which may result in blindness.
+
+  +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  |   Age-Period.  | 1851 | 1861 | 1871 | 1881 | 1891 | 1901 |
+  +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  | Under 5 years  | 198  | 196  | 185  | 166  | 155  | 129  |
+  |      5-10      | 297  | 256  | 259  | 288  | 188  | 192  |
+  |     10-15      | 365  | 366  | 359  |  "   | 290  | 323  |
+  |     15-20      | 416  | 415  | 404  | 388  | 370  | 239  |
+  |     20-25      | 481  | 443  | 451  | 422  | 385  | 359  |
+  +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+  | Total under 25 | 339  | 322  | 317  | 298  | 269  | 261  |
+  +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+In 1886 a royal commission on the blind, deaf and dumb was appointed by
+the government, and, after taking much valuable evidence, issued an
+exhaustive and instructive report. Following on the practical
+recommendations submitted by this commission, the Elementary Education
+(Blind and Deaf Children) Act 1893, was passed, under which the
+education of the blind became for the first time compulsory. In terms of
+this statute, the school authorities were made responsible for the
+provision of suitable elementary education for blind children up to
+sixteen years of age, and grants of L3, 3s. for elementary subjects, and
+of L2, 2s. for industrial training, were contributed by the state
+towards the cost of educating children in schools certified as efficient
+within the meaning of the Elementary Education Act 1876. The principal
+aim of the Education Act of 1893 was to supply education in some useful
+profession or trade which will enable the blind to earn their livelihood
+and to become useful citizens; but the weak spot was that no provision
+was made therein for the completion of their education and industrial
+training after the age of sixteen.
+
+In England and Wales, in 1907, there were twenty-four resident schools
+and forty-three workshops for the blind. In many of the large towns, day
+classes for the education of blind children have been established by
+local education authorities. There are forty-six home teaching
+societies, who send teachers to visit the blind in their homes, to teach
+adults who wish to learn to read, to act as colporteurs, to lend and
+exchange useful books, and to act as Scripture readers to those who are
+aged and infirm. All the home teaching societies for the blind and many
+public libraries lend embossed books. The public library at Oxford has
+nearly 400 volumes of classical works for the use of university
+students.
+
+A society was instituted in 1847 by Dr W. Moon for stereotyping and
+embossing the Scriptures and other books in "Moon" type. The type has
+been adapted to over 400 languages and dialects. After Dr Moon's death
+in 1884 the work was carried on by his daughter, Miss Adelaide Moon, and
+the books are much used by the adult blind.
+
+In 1868 Dr T.R. Armitage, being aware of the great improvements which
+had been made in the education of the blind in other countries, founded
+the British and Foreign Blind Association. This association was formed
+for the purpose of promoting the education and employment of the blind,
+by ascertaining what had been done in these respects in various
+countries, by endeavouring to supply deficiencies where these were found
+to exist, and by attempting to bring about greater harmony of action
+between the different existing schools and institutions. It gave a new
+impetus to the education and training of the blind in the United
+Kingdom. At that time their education was in a state of chaos. The
+Bible, or a great part of it, had been printed in five different
+systems. The founders took as an axiom that the relative merits of the
+various methods of education through the sense of touch should be
+decided by those and those only who have to rely on this sense. The
+council, who were all totally or partially blind, spent two years in
+comparing the different systems of embossed print. In 1869 and 1870 Dr
+Armitage corresponded with Dr J.R. Russ in regard to the New York Point.
+No trouble was spared to arrive at a right conclusion. The Braille
+system was finally adopted, and the association at once became a centre
+for supplying frames for writing Braille, printed books, maps, music and
+other educational apparatus for the blind. All books printed by the
+association are printed from stereotyped plates embossed by blind
+copyists. About 3000 separate works, varying in length from 1 to 12
+volumes, have been copied by hand to meet the requirements of public
+libraries and individuals. About 700 ladies, who give their services,
+make the first Braille copy of these books, and they are recopied by
+blind scribes, chiefly women and girls, who are paid for their work.
+
+The National Lending library, London, was founded in 1882. It has over
+5500 volumes in Braille and other types. Books are forwarded to all
+parts of the United Kingdom.
+
+There are fourteen magazines published in embossed type in the United
+Kingdom.
+
+There are thirty-six pension societies--the principal are
+Hetherington's, Day's, the Clothworkers', the Cordwainers', the National
+Blind Relief Society, Royal Blind Pension Society and Indigent Blind
+Visiting Society.
+
+The Gardner Trust administers the income of L300,000 left by Henry
+Gardner in 1879. The income is used for instructing the blind in the
+profession of music, in suitable trades, handicrafts and professions
+other than music, for pensions, and free grants to institutions and
+individuals for special purposes.
+
+
+    Scotland.
+
+  According to the census of 1901, Scotland had 3253 (or 727 per
+  million) blind persons, as against 2797 in 1891, but in a paper read
+  at the conference in Edinburgh, 1906, the superintendent of the
+  Glasgow Mission to the Out-door Blind stated that there were 758
+  employed or being educated in institutions, and 3238 known as
+  "out-door blind," making a total of 3996. There are in Scotland ten
+  missions, so distributed as to cover the whole country, and regular
+  visits are made as far north as the Orkney and Shetland Islands. In
+  carrying on the work, there are twenty-four paid missionaries or
+  teachers and a large number of voluntary helpers. These societies
+  originated in a desire to teach the blind to read in their own homes,
+  and to provide them with the Scriptures and other religious books, but
+  the social, intellectual and temporal needs of the blind also receive
+  a large share of attention. These teachers afford the best means of
+  circulating embossed literature, therefore the library committee of
+  the Glasgow corporation has agreed to purchase books and place them in
+  the mission library instead of in the public library. As the
+  institutions provide for only a small number of the blind, strenuous
+  efforts are made by the committee and teachers of missions to find
+  some employment for the many adults who come under their care.
+
+  In Glasgow, a ladies' auxiliary furnishes work for 150 knitters, and
+  takes the responsibility of disposing of their work. In Scotland there
+  are five schools for the young blind, and in connexion with each is a
+  workshop for adults. In Edinburgh the school is at West Craigmillar,
+  and the workshop in the city, but both are under the same board of
+  directors.
+
+
+    Ireland.
+
+  According to the census of 1901, there were 4253 totally blind persons
+  in Ireland, a proportion of 954 per million, as against 1135 in 1891.
+  Of these, 2430 were over 60 years of age and 11 over 100. These
+  figures do not include the partially blind, who numbered 1217. The
+  fact that so many aged blind persons are to be found in Ireland is
+  doubtless due to an ophthalmic epidemic which occurred during the
+  Irish famine. There are twelve institutions, a home mission and home
+  teaching society; nine of these institutions are asylums, that system
+  having been largely adopted in Ireland. The scarcity of manufacturing
+  industries, except in a few northern counties, entails a lack of work
+  suited to the blind. The Elementary Education Act (Blind and Deaf)
+  does not extend to Ireland.
+
+  The following table gives the number of blind in age-groups in 1901:--
+
+    +---------------+---------+----------------+---------+
+    |  Age-Period.  | Number. |   Age-Period.  | Number. |
+    +---------------+---------+----------------+---------+
+    | Under 5 years |    10   |      50-55     |   392   |
+    |      5-10     |    38   |      55-60     |   314   |
+    |     10-15     |    64   |      60-65     |   617   |
+    |     15-20     |    73   |      65-70     |   382   |
+    |     20-25     |    95   |      70-75     |   540   |
+    |     25-30     |   116   |      75-80     |   306   |
+    |     30-35     |   146   |      80-85     |   372   |
+    |     35-40     |   146   |      85-90     |   118   |
+    |     40-45     |   205   | 95 and upwards |    95   |
+    |     45-50     |   224   |                |         |
+    +---------------+---------+----------------+---------+
+
+
+    British Colonies.
+
+  In the Dominion of Canada, South Africa, the states of the Australian
+  Commonwealth and New Zealand, provision is made by the government for
+  the education of the young blind, and in some cases for training the
+  adults in handicrafts. Embossed literature is carried free of expense,
+  and on the Victorian railways no charge is made for the guide who
+  accompanies a blind person.
+
+  The following were the census returns for 1901:--
+
+    Victoria           1082      Tasmania        173
+    New South Wales     884      New Zealand     274 (1891)
+    South Australia     315      Natal            68
+    Queensland          209      Cape Colony    2802 (1904)
+    West Australia      121      Canada         3279
+
+  In Australia there are institutions for the blind at Melbourne,
+  Sydney, Adelaide, Brighton, Brisbane and Maylands near Perth. In New
+  Zealand the institution is at Auckland.
+
+  In Cape Colony between 1875 and 1891, there was an extraordinary
+  increase in blindness, but between 1891 and 1904 the rate per 10,000
+  has decreased 23.78%. There is an institution at Worcester for
+  deaf-mutes and blind, founded in 1881. It is supported by a government
+  grant, fees and subscription.
+
+  Schools for the blind were established by the Dominion government at
+  Brantford, Ontario (1871), and Halifax, Nova Scotia (1867).
+
+  In Montreal there are two private institutions, the M'Kay Institute
+  for Protestant Deaf-Mutes and Blind, and a school for Roman Catholic
+  children under the charge of the Sisters of Charity.
+
+
+  United States.
+
+In the United States the education of the blind is not regarded as a
+charity, but forms part of the educational system of the country, and is
+carried on at the public expense. According to the _Annual Report_ of
+the Commissioner of Education for 1908, there were 40 state schools,
+with 4340 pupils. The value of apparatus, grounds and buildings was
+$9,201,161. For salaries and other expenditure, the aggregate was
+$1,460,732. The United States government appropriates $10,000 annually
+for printing embossed books, which are distributed among the different
+state schools for the blind. Beside these state schools, there are
+workshops for the blind subsidized by the state government or the
+municipality. Commissions composed of able men have recently been
+appointed in several of the states to take charge of the affairs of the
+blind from infancy to old age. The exhaustive summary of the 12th census
+enables these commissions to communicate with every blind person in
+their respective states.
+
+At the 12th census a change was made in the plan for securing the
+returns, and the work of the enumerators was restricted to a brief
+preliminary return, showing only the name, sex, age, post office
+address, and nature of the existing defects in all persons alleged to be
+blind or deaf. Dr Alexander Graham Bell, of Washington, D.C., was
+appointed expert special agent of the census office for the preparation
+of a report on the deaf and blind. He was empowered to conduct in his
+own name a correspondence relating to this branch of the census inquiry.
+A circular containing eighteen questions was addressed to every blind
+person given in the census, and from the data contained in the replies
+the following tables (I., II., III., IV.) have been compiled.
+
+TABLE I.--_The Blind, by Degree of Blindness and Sex._
+
+  +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+
+  |                            |  The   |   The   |    The    |
+  |            Sex.            | Blind. | Totally | Partially |
+  |                            |        |  Blind. |   Blind.  |
+  +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+
+  | Number--                   |        |         |           |
+  |    Total                   | 64,763 | 35,645  |  29,118   |
+  |      Male                  | 37,054 | 20,144  |  16,190   |
+  |      Female                | 27,709 | 15,501  |  12,208   |
+  +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+
+  | Per cent distribution--    |        |         |           |
+  |    Total                   |  100.0 |  100.0  |   100.0   |
+  |      Male                  |   57.2 |   56.5  |    58.1   |
+  |      Female                |   42.8 |   43.5  |    41.9   |
+  |                            |        |         |           |
+  | Number per 1,000,000       |        |         |           |
+  |   population of same sex-- |        |         |           |
+  |    Both sexes              |    852 |    469  |     383   |
+  |      Male                  |    955 |    519  |     436   |
+  |      Female                |    745 |    417  |     328   |
+  +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+
+
+TABLE II.--_The Blind, by Degree of Blindness, Age-Periods, Colour and
+Nativity._
+
+  +--------------------------+----------+----------------------------+----------+
+  |                          |          |           White.           |          |
+  | Degree of Blindness and  |   All    +--------+---------+---------+ Coloured.|
+  |        Age-Period.       | Classes. | Total. | Native. | Foreign-|          |
+  |                          |          |        |         |  born.  |          |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+
+  | Number--                 |          |        |         |         |          |
+  |   The blind              |  64,763  | 56,535 | 45,479  | 10,694  |   8228   |
+  |     Under 20 years       |   8,308  |  7,252 |  6,937  |    231  |   1056   |
+  |     20 years and over    |  56,165  | 49,067 | 38,388  | 10,420  |   7098   |
+  |     Age unknown          |     290  |    216 |    154  |     43  |     74   |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+
+  |   The totally blind      |  35,645  | 30,359 | 23,636  |  6,511  |   5286   |
+  |     Under 20 years       |   4,123  |  3,543 |  3,377  |    129  |    580   |
+  |     20 years and over    |  31,363  | 26,704 | 20,179  |  6,636  |   4639   |
+  |     Age unknown          |     159  |    112 |     80  |     19  |     27   |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+
+  |   The partially blind    |  29,118  | 26,176 | 21,843  |  4,183  |   2942   |
+  |     Under 20 years       |   4,185  |  3,709 |  3,560  |    102  |    476   |
+  |     20 years and over    |  24,802  | 22,363 | 18,209  |  4,057  |   2439   |
+  |     Age unknown          |     131  |    104 |     74  |     24  |     27   |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+
+  | Number per 1,000,000     |          |        |         |         |          |
+  |  population of same age--|          |        |         |         |          |
+  |   The blind              |     852  |    846 |    804  |  1,047  |    896   |
+  |     Under 20 years       |     247  |    250 |    248  |    215  |    229   |
+  |     20 years and over    |   1,334  |  1,305 |  1,348  |  1,143  |   1574   |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+
+  |   The totally blind      |     469  |    454 |    418  |    637  |    576   |
+  |     Under 20 years       |     123  |    122 |    121  |    120  |    126   |
+  |     20 years and over    |     745  |    710 |    708  |    698  |   1033   |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+
+  |   The partially blind    |     383  |    392 |    386  |    410  |    320   |
+  |     Under 20 years       |     124  |    128 |    127  |     95  |    103   |
+  |     20 years and over    |     589  |    595 |    639  |    445  |    541   |
+  +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+
+
+  The enumerators reported a total of 101,123 persons alleged to be
+  blind as defined in the instructions contained in the schedules, but
+  this number was greatly reduced as a result of the correspondence
+  directly with the individuals, 8842 reporting that the alleged defect
+  did not exist, and 6544 that they were blind only in one eye but were
+  able to see with the other, and hence did not come within the scope of
+  the inquiry. No replies were received in 19,884 cases in which
+  personal schedules were sent, although repeated inquiries were made;
+  consequently these cases were dropped. In 380 cases the personal
+  schedules returned were too incomplete for use, and in 75 cases
+  duplication was discovered. The number of cases remaining for
+  statistical treatment, after making the eliminations and corrections,
+  was 64,763, representing 35,645 totally blind, and 29,118 partially
+  blind. This number, however, can be considered only as the minimum, as
+  an unknown proportion of the blind were not located by the
+  enumerators, and doubtless a considerable proportion of the 19,884
+  persons who failed to return the personal schedules should be included
+  in the total.
+
+  "Blindness, either total or partial, is so largely a defect of the
+  aged, and occurs with so much greater frequency as the age advances
+  and the population diminishes, that in any comparison of the
+  proportion of the blind in the general population of different
+  classes, such as native and foreign-born whites, or white and
+  coloured, the age distribution of the population of each class should
+  be constantly borne in mind. The differences in this respect account
+  for many of the differences in the gross ratios, and it is only when
+  ratios are compared for classes of population of identical ages that
+  their relative liability to blindness can be properly inferred."
+
+  Table II. shows the classification, by degree of blindness, of the
+  blind under twenty years of age, twenty years of age and over, and of
+  unknown age, with respect to colour and nativity, with the number at
+  the specified ages per million of population in the same age-group.
+
+  The relationship or consanguinity of parents of the 64,763 blind was
+  reported in 56,507 cases, in 2527 (or 4.5%) of which the parents were
+  related as cousins.
+
+  In 57,726 cases the inquiry as to the existence of blind relatives was
+  answered; 10,967 (or 19%) of this number reported that they had blind
+  relatives.
+
+  Of the 2527 blind persons whose parents were cousins, 993 (or 39.3%)
+  had blind relatives,--844 having blind brothers, sisters or ancestors,
+  and 149 having blind collateral relatives or descendants.
+
+  Of the 53,980 blind whose parents were not related, 9490 (or 17.6%)
+  had blind relatives, 7395 having blind brothers, sisters or ancestors,
+  and 2095 having blind collateral relatives or descendants.
+
+  It was found that, of the 2527 blind whose parents were cousins, 632
+  (or 25%) were congenitally blind, of whom 350 (or 55.4%) had also
+  blind relatives of the classes specified; while, among the 53,980
+  whose parents were not so related, the number of congenitally blind
+  was 3666 (or but 6.8%), of whom only 1023 (or 27.9%) had blind
+  relatives.
+
+
+    France.
+
+  In 1883 the number of blind in France was estimated at 32,056, the
+  total population of the country being 38,000,000; 2548 of the blind
+  were under, and 29,508 above, 21 years of age; of the former 857 were
+  receiving instruction in 21 schools supported by the state, by the
+  city of Paris, by some of the departments, and by some religious
+  bodies. The four Parisian institutions are the Institution Nationale
+  des Jeunes Aveugles, the Ecole Braille (founded in 1883), the
+  Etablissement des Soeurs Aveugles de St Paul (founded in 1852), and
+  that of the Freres de Saint Jean de Dieu (founded in 1875).
+
+  TABLE III.--_The Blind, by Degree of Blindness and Age-Periods._
+
+    +--------------------------+----------+----------+-----------+
+    |                          |   The    |   The    |    The    |
+    |      Age-Period.         |  Blind.  | Totally  | Partially |
+    |                          |          |  Blind.  |   Blind.  |
+    +--------------------------+----------+----------+-----------+
+    | Number--                 |          |          |           |
+    |   All Ages               |  64,763  |  35,645  |  29,118   |
+    |     Under 10 years       |   2,307  |   1,262  |   1,045   |
+    |        10-19 years       |   6,001  |   2,861  |   3,140   |
+    |        20-29   "         |   4,861  |   2,851  |   2,010   |
+    |        30-39   "         |   5,024  |   3,077  |   1,947   |
+    |        40-49   "         |   6,504  |   3,778  |   2,726   |
+    |        50-59   "         |   8,530  |   4,791  |   3,739   |
+    |        60-69   "         |  10,507  |   5,835  |   4,672   |
+    |        70-79   "         |  11,421  |   6,132  |   5,289   |
+    |        80-89   "         |   7,490  |   3,885  |   3,605   |
+    |        90-99   "         |   1,596  |     851  |     745   |
+    |     100 years and over   |     232  |     163  |      69   |
+    |     Age unknown          |     290  |     159  |     131   |
+    | Number per 1,000,000     |          |          |           |
+    |  population of same age--|          |          |           |
+    |   All ages               |     852  |     469  |     383   |
+    |     Under 10 years       |     128  |      70  |      58   |
+    |        10-19 years       |     384  |     183  |     201   |
+    |        20-29   "         |     351  |     206  |     145   |
+    |        30-39   "         |     478  |     293  |     185   |
+    |        40-49   "         |     845  |     491  |     354   |
+    |        50-59   "         |   1,655  |     930  |     725   |
+    |        60-69   "         |   3,396  |   1,886  |   1,510   |
+    |        70-79   "         |   8,136  |   4,368  |   3,768   |
+    |        80-89   "         |  22,022  |  11,423  |  10,599   |
+    |        90-99   "         |  52,746  |  28,125  |  24,621   |
+    |     100 years and over   |  66,210  |  46,518  |  19,692   |
+    |     Age unknown          |   1,446  |     793  |     653   |
+    +--------------------------+----------+----------+-----------+
+
+
+    Germany.
+
+  The number of the blind in Germany was about 39,000, or 870 per
+  million in 1885. The number of institutions was 28, nearly all being
+  educational, with a total of 2139 pupils. All these institutions,
+  except two which are supported entirely by private munificence, are
+  largely assisted by the state, the communes or the provinces.
+  Seventeen of them derive their entire requirements from the state, so
+  that they are quite independent of private charity, while the
+  remainder are only supplemented from public funds so far as the
+  private contributions fall short of the expenses.
+
+
+    Saxony system.
+
+  The following extracts were made from an official communication from
+  Hofrath Buttner, director of the institution for the blind in Dresden,
+  to the royal commission, concerning the care and supervision
+  (_Fursorge_) of the blind after their discharge from the
+  institution:--
+
+  "When twenty years of age, the blind are usually discharged from the
+  institution. Long experience has taught us that the care and
+  supervision of the blind after their discharge from the institution
+  are quite as important as their education and training in the
+  institution. It would, in our opinion, be unjust to remove them from
+  their sad surroundings, educate and accustom them to higher wants, and
+  then allow them to sink backward into their former miserable way of
+  life. After much deliberation it was decided to remain in connexion
+  with the discharged blind, to visit them in their places of abode, to
+  learn their wants, to study the difficulties which they experienced in
+  supporting themselves independently, and, as far as possible, to
+  remove their grievances. Director Georgi began this work in 1843.
+  Director Reinhard continued it from 1867 to 1879, and the present
+  director has followed the same path. With the knowledge of these
+  difficulties the _Fursorge_ (care) for discharged blind steadily
+  advanced, and has won the confidence of the Saxon people. It was
+  decided that, on the discharge of the blind person, the director
+  should select a trustworthy person, residing in his future place of
+  abode, to give him advice and practical help, to protect him from
+  imposition, and to keep up communication with the director. If this
+  guardian is unable to advise or help, he then writes to the director,
+  who, if necessary, comes to the place, and this is all the easier as
+  he travels free on all railways in Saxony. The result of these visits,
+  as well as all communications from the guardian, the letters from the
+  blind person, and every document relating to him, are entered in a
+  register kept at the institution. These guardians are respectable,
+  benevolent, practical men, capable of procuring custom for their
+  wards. But there was no doubt that, in spite of these arrangements,
+  the discharged blind were unable to support themselves without the
+  assistance of capital, whether in money or outfit. The blind man can
+  do as good work as the man who can see; but as a rule he does not work
+  so quickly, and if the man who is not blind has to use every exertion
+  to support himself and his family, the blind man to do the same
+  requires some special help, without which he will either not be able
+  to compete, or will have to lead a life of great privation.
+
+  "The first difficulty when a blind pupil is starting in life is to
+  provide himself with the necessary tools and material. These the
+  institution supplies to him, and continues through life to afford him
+  moral and material help; and by this means the greater part of the
+  blind are enabled to save money for sickness and old age. Those who
+  cannot return to their relations cannot at once meet all their
+  expenses, and the weak and old need special help. A part of the money
+  for their board and lodging is paid for those who have to be settled
+  in other places on account of the death or untrustworthiness of their
+  relatives.
+
+  "The fund for the discharged blind is administered by the director of
+  the institution. The number of those assisted amounts at present to
+  about 400, who live respectably in all parts of Saxony, are almost
+  self-supporting, and feel themselves free men. For, just as a son does
+  not feel galled by a gift from his father, so they are not ashamed to
+  receive assistance from their second paternal home, the institution."
+
+
+    Holland.
+
+  The number of the blind in Holland, according to the census of the 1st
+  of December 1869, was 1593, or one in every 2247 of the general
+  population. The Protestants and Roman Catholics were about equally
+  balanced. No cognizance was taken of the blind in the census of 1879.
+  There is only one blind institution, that of Amsterdam, with 60
+  pupils, with a preparatory school at Benuchem (with 20 pupils) and an
+  asylum for adults with 52 inmates (unmarried). Besides these, there
+  are workshops at Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Hague, Utrecht and
+  Middelburg.
+
+
+    Denmark.
+
+  According to the census of 1870, there were in Denmark 1249 blind (577
+  males and 672 females), or one blind for every 1428 persons. One
+  institution has been established by government, i.e. the Royal
+  Institution for the Blind, at Copenhagen; 100 children, aged 10 and
+  upwards, are here educated. There is a preparatory school for blind
+  children under 10 years of age, and an asylum for blind females, most
+  of whom are former pupils of the royal school. An association for
+  promoting the self-dependence of the blind assists not only former
+  pupils of the school but every blind man or woman willing and able to
+  work.
+
+  TABLE IV.--_The Blind, by Consanguinity of Parents, Degree of
+  Blindness, and Blind Relatives of Other Classes._
+
+    +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+
+    |                     |        |          |          |No Blind |       |
+    |                     |        |          |Collateral|Relatives|       |
+    |   Consanguinity     |        |  Blind   |Relatives |or Rela- |  Not  |
+    |    of Parents.      | Total. | Brothers,|  or De-  |tives by |Stated.|
+    |                     |        |Sisters or|scendants |Marriage |       |
+    |                     |        |Ancestors.|  alone,  |  alone, |       |
+    |                     |        |          |  Blind.  |  Blind. |       |
+    +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+
+    |All Classes--        |        |          |          |         |       |
+    |  The blind          | 64,763 |   8629   |   2338   | 46,759  | 7037  |
+    |    Totally blind    | 35,645 |   4378   |   1215   | 25,349  | 3703  |
+    |    Partially blind  | 29,118 |   4251   |   1123   | 20,410  | 3334  |
+    +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+
+    |Parents cousins--    |        |          |          |         |       |
+    |  The blind          |  2,527 |    844   |    149   |  1,456  |   78  |
+    |    Totally blind    |  1,291 |    435   |     78   |    739  |   39  |
+    |    Partially blind  |  1,236 |    409   |     71   |    717  |   39  |
+    +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+
+    |Parents not cousins--|        |          |          |         |       |
+    |  The blind          | 53,980 |   7395   |   2095   | 43,368  | 1122  |
+    |    Totally blind    | 29,892 |   3720   |   1090   | 24,541  |  541  |
+    |    Partially blind  | 24,088 |   3675   |   1005   | 18,827  |  581  |
+    +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+
+    |Consanguinity of par-|        |          |          |         |       |
+    |  ents not stated--  |        |          |          |         |       |
+    |  The blind          |  8,256 |    390   |     94   |  1,935  | 5837  |
+    |    Totally blind    |  4,462 |    223   |     47   |  1,069  | 3123  |
+    |    Partially blind  |  3,794 |    167   |     47   |    866  | 2714  |
+    +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+
+
+
+    Sweden.
+
+  The number of blind persons in Sweden, according to the census of
+  December 1880, was 3723, being at the rate of one blind person for
+  every 1226 of the general population. At the beginning of the year
+  1879, the instruction of the blind in Sweden was completely separated
+  from that of the deaf and dumb, on the grounds that it hindered the
+  intellectual development of the blind--a conclusion which experience
+  shows to be tolerably correct. Since July 1888 the Royal Institution
+  of the Blind has obtained a new building at Tomteboda, near Stockholm.
+
+
+    Norway.
+
+  The law of the 8th of July 1881, concerning the instruction of
+  abnormal children, has imposed on the state the duty of establishing a
+  sufficient number of schools for the blind in Norway as well as for
+  the other abnormal children. All the blind of the country, from 9
+  years of age until the age of 21, are compelled to be educated, with a
+  maximum of 8 years of instruction for each pupil.
+
+
+    Finland.
+
+  The census of 1873 showed that in Finland there were 7959 blind in a
+  total population of about 2,000,000 inhabitants, the proportion
+  reaching the very high figure of one for every 251 of the total
+  population. Nevertheless there were only 160 of school age. For these
+  there are two institutions, one at Helsingfors where the instruction
+  is given in the Swedish language, and where there are about 12 pupils,
+  and another at Kuopio, where the instruction is given in the Finnish
+  language, and where the pupils number about 30.
+
+
+    Austria.
+
+  According to information received from the I.R. Central Commission for
+  Statistics, the number of blind in the provinces represented in the
+  Austrian Reichsrath amounted to 15,582 in the year 1884. Of these,
+  2345 were children up to 15 years of age, namely 433 below 5, 779 from
+  5 to 10, and 1113 from 10 to 15 years. The total number of
+  institutions for blind children in Austria amounts to 8. The blind
+  children of school age who are not placed in special institutions are
+  compulsorily taught in the public general free schools, as far as
+  practicable. The number of blind in the whole dominion of the crown of
+  St Stephen was 208,391.
+
+
+    Italy.
+
+  The number of blind persons in Italy was 21,718, according to the
+  census of 1881, and those of school age were estimated to form 25% of
+  the whole, or about 5429 in number. But no special cognizance of the
+  blind is taken in the government census. There are 20 institutions,
+  schools and workshops for the blind.
+
+
+    Russia.
+
+  Statistics with regard to the number and condition of the blind in the
+  Russian empire are of a very limited character, and it is only of late
+  years that any attempt has been made to draw up any accurate returns
+  with regard to them. The total number of the blind throughout the
+  empire is generally reckoned at from 160,000 to 200,000, thus making
+  1600 to 2000 per million inhabitants. In Russia there are 21
+  institutions for the support of the blind.
+
+
+    Egypt
+
+  "In Egypt the blind are very numerous in comparison with other
+  countries, and although no exact statistics are at present obtainable
+  on this point, it is computed that the proportion is at least one
+  totally blind person to every 50 of the population. This is
+  principally the result of acute ophthalmia occurring in infancy, and
+  it is fostered by the superstitious observance which prevents the
+  mothers from washing their children from the time of birth until they
+  are two years old, at which late date only they are weaned. There is
+  also a great deal of infection carelessly and ignorantly conveyed
+  direct from eye to eye, by means of unwashed fingers, and this is
+  accountable for the occurrence of much more eye-disease than any that
+  may be caused by the proverbial flies. The only employment followed by
+  the blind, both Mahommedan and Coptic (or native Christian), and that
+  only to a limited extent, is recitation aloud--the former repeating
+  portions of the Koran at funerals, and the latter chanting the
+  church-ritual in their services; the blind girls and women are without
+  occupation. Practically no education is given to the blind as a class,
+  and anything which they learn has to be acquired orally by frequent
+  repetition. The blind were not always so completely neglected, as the
+  native ecclesiastical authorities (Wakf) gave an annual grant of L2000
+  for the continued maintenance of a school for the blind and the deaf
+  and dumb in Cairo, which taught about 80 day-pupils; the latter years
+  of the school were passed under the ministry of education, and it was
+  ultimately discontinued. Such a condition of affairs appealed to Dr
+  T.R. Armitage, and explains his motive in trying to establish some
+  proper means for affording the blind in Egypt the necessary scholastic
+  instruction and other training. In Egypt, as in other countries, it is
+  occasionally very difficult, and takes some time, to start any
+  enterprise such as this on a satisfactory and practical footing, and
+  it was left for Mrs T.R. Armitage to be the means of successfully
+  carrying out her husband's wishes in this particular. In 1900 Mrs
+  Armitage asked Dr Kenneth Scott to prepare a scheme for the education
+  and welfare of the blind in Egypt, on lines suggested to her. This,
+  through the British and Foreign Blind Association, was submitted to
+  Queen Victoria, who graciously commanded it to be sent, through the
+  foreign office, to the khedive, who in mark of approbation and
+  encouragement generously gave a handsome donation towards its
+  realization. The Institution for the Blind was established at Zeitoun,
+  Cairo, early in the year 1901, through funds provided by Mrs T.R.
+  Armitage. The object of the institution, which is wholly unsectarian
+  in character, is to educate and train the blind mentally and
+  physically and in industrial occupations, and at the same time to
+  improve their moral standard, so that eventually they may become in
+  great measure, or even completely, self-supporting." (Dr Kenneth
+  Scott.)
+
+
+    India.
+
+  India has a large proportion of blind inhabitants, ranging from one in
+  600 in some provinces, to one in 400 in others, with a total of more
+  than half a million. Until recently, little had been done in the way
+  of organized effort to educate them, though many of the missionaries
+  had helped individual cases. At Amritsar a large and well-organized
+  work for the blind has been carried on for many years. This school has
+  now been moved to Rajpur, and helps 70 blind women and children. In
+  1903 a government school and hospital were established at Bombay as a
+  memorial to Queen Victoria. Reading, writing, arithmetic, tailoring,
+  typewriting, carpentering, lathe-work and carpet-weaving are taught.
+  There are small schools at Parantij, Calcutta, Palancottah, Calicut,
+  Coorg, Chota-Nagpur, and at Moulmein in Burma. The memorial to Queen
+  Victoria in Ceylon took the form of work for the blind. J. Knowles,
+  with the help of L. Garthwaite of the Indian Civil Service, devised a
+  scheme of oriental Braille, which has been adopted by the British and
+  Foreign Bible Society for the production of the Scriptures in Eastern
+  languages.
+
+
+    China.
+
+  Blindness is very prevalent in China, and to eye-diseases, neglect and
+  dirt, must be added leprosy and smallpox as causes. Blind beggars may
+  be seen on every highway, clamouring for alms. As in India their
+  pitiful condition attracted the attention of the missionaries. W.H.
+  Murray, a Scottish missionary in Peking, made a simple and ingenious
+  adaptation of the Braille symbols to the complicated system of Chinese
+  printing, in which over 4000 characters are required. It was necessary
+  to represent at least 408 sounds, and each one was given a
+  corresponding Braille number. When a pupil reads the number he knows
+  instantly the sound for which it stands. A school for the blind was
+  established at Peking, and the version of the Scriptures printed at
+  Peking can be read in all the provinces where the Northern Mandarin
+  dialect is spoken (see Miss Gordon Cumming, _The Inventor of the
+  Numeral Type for China_). A Braille code has recently been arranged
+  for Mandarin, based on a system of initials and finals, by Miss
+  Garland of the China Inland Mission. At Foochow there is a large
+  school for boys and girls in connexion with the Church Missionary
+  Society. At Ningpo, Amoy, Canton and Fukien work for the blind is
+  carried on by the missionaries.
+
+
+    Japan.
+
+  The blind in Japan have long been trained in massage, acupuncture and
+  music, and until recently, with few exceptions, none but the blind
+  engaged in these occupations. From three to five years are required to
+  become proficient in massage, but a blind person is then able to
+  support himself. In Yokohama, with a population of half a million,
+  there are 1000 men and women engaged in massage, and all but about 100
+  of these are blind. In 1878 a school for the blind and deaf-mutes was
+  established in Kyoto, and soon after one in Tokyo. Japan has four
+  schools for the blind, and seven combined schools for the blind and
+  deaf-mutes.
+
+
+    Palestine.
+
+  As in other Eastern countries, blindness is very prevalent in
+  Palestine. Ophthalmic hospitals and medical attendance are now
+  available in the larger towns, and the missionary schools have done
+  much to inculcate habits of cleanliness, therefore there is a slight
+  decrease in the number of the blind. The home and school for blind
+  girls in Jerusalem is the outcome of a day school opened in 1896 by an
+  American missionary. There is also a small school at Urfa under the
+  auspices of the American mission in that town.
+
+
+EDUCATION
+
+  Early training.
+
+As more sensations are received through the eye than through any other
+organ, the mind of a blind child is vacant, and the training should
+begin early or the mind will degenerate. Indirectly the loss of sight
+results in inaction. If no one encourages a blind child to move, he will
+sit quietly in a corner, and when he leaves his seat will move timidly
+about. This want of activity produces bad physical effects, and further
+delays mental growth. The blind are often injured, some of them ruined
+for life, through the ignorance and mistaken kindness of their friends
+during early childhood. They should be taught to walk, to go up and down
+stairs, to wash, dress and feed themselves.
+
+They should be carefully taught correct postures and attitudes, and to
+avoid making grimaces. They should be told the requirements of social
+conventions which a seeing child learns through watching his elders.
+They have no consciousness that their habits are disagreeable, and the
+earlier unsightly mannerisms are corrected the better. It is a fallacy
+to suppose that the other senses of the blind are naturally sharper than
+those of the seeing. It is only when the senses of hearing and touch
+have been cultivated that they partially replace sight, and such
+cultivation can begin with very young children.
+
+Blind children have a stronger claim upon the public for education than
+other children, because they start at a disadvantage in life, they carry
+a burden in their infirmity, they come mostly of poor parents, and
+without special instruction and training they are almost certain to
+become a public charge during life.
+
+Public authorities should adopt the most efficient plan for preparing
+blind children to become active, independent men and women, rather than
+consider the cheapest and easiest method of educating them. We cannot
+afford to give the blind an education that is not the best of its kind
+in the trade or profession they will have to follow. There are many
+seeing persons with little education who are useful citizens and
+successful in various industries, but an uneducated blind person is
+helpless, and must become dependent.
+
+The surroundings of the blind do not favour the development of activity,
+self-reliance and independence. Parents and friends find it easier to
+attend to the wants and requirements of their blind children than to
+teach them to be self-helpful in the common acts of everyday life. A
+mistaken kindness leads the friends to guard every movement and prevent
+physical exertion. As a rule, the vitality of the blind is much below
+the average vitality of seeing persons, and any system of education
+which does not recognize and overcome this defect will be a failure. It
+is the lack of energy and determination, not the want of sight, that
+causes so many failures among the blind.
+
+
+  Physical training.
+
+A practical system of education, which has for its object to make the
+blind independent and self-sustaining, must be based upon a
+comprehensive course of physical development. A blind man who has
+received mechanical training, general education, or musical instruction,
+without physical development, is like an engine provided with everything
+necessary except motive power.
+
+Schools for the blind should be provided with well-equipped gymnasia,
+and the physical training should include various kinds of mass and
+apparatus work. Large and suitable playgrounds are also essential.
+Besides a free space where they can run and play, it should have a
+supply of swings, tilts, jumping-boards, stilts, chars-a-bancs,
+skittle-alleys, &c. Any game that allows of sides being taken adds
+greatly to the enjoyment, and is a powerful incentive to play. The
+pupils should be encouraged to enter into various competitions, as
+walking, running, jumping, leap-frog, sack-racing, shot-pitching,
+tug-of-war, &c. Cycling, rowing, swimming and roller-skating are not
+only beneficial but most enjoyable.
+
+
+  Mental training.
+
+The subjects in the school curriculum should be varied according to the
+age and capacity of the pupils, but those which cultivate the powers of
+observation and the perceptive faculties should have a first place.
+Object lessons or nature study should have a large share of attention.
+Few people realize that a blind child knows nothing of the size, shape
+and appearance of common objects that lie beyond the reach of his arm.
+When he has once been shown how to learn their characteristics, he will
+go on acquiring a knowledge of his surroundings unaided by a teacher.
+Again, a careful drill in mental arithmetic, combining accuracy with
+rapidity, is essential. A good command of English should be cultivated
+by frequent exercises in composition, and by committing to memory
+passages of standard prose and poetry. In his secondary course, the
+choice of subjects must depend upon his future career. Above all,
+stimulate a love of good reading.
+
+
+  Early manual training.
+
+From the earliest years manual dexterity should be cultivated by
+kindergarten work, modelling, sewing, knitting and sloyd. Blind children
+who have not had the advantage of this early handwork find much more
+difficulty when they begin a regular course in technical training. Early
+manual training cultivates the perceptive faculties, gives activity to
+the body, and prepares the hands and finger for pianoforte-playing,
+pianoforte-tuning and handicrafts.
+
+
+  Choice of occupation
+
+Besides a good general education, the blind must have careful and
+detailed training in some handicraft, or thorough preparation for some
+profession. The trades and professions open to them are few, and if they
+fail in one of these they cannot turn quickly to some other line of work.
+Those who have charge of their education should avail themselves of the
+knowledge that has been gained in all countries, in order to decide
+wisely in regard to the trade or occupation for which each pupil should
+be prepared. It may be some kind of handicraft, pianoforte-tuning,
+school-teaching, or the profession of music; the talent and ability of
+each child should be carefully considered before finally deciding his
+future occupation. The failure to give the blind a practical education
+often means dependence through life.
+
+
+  Pianoforte-tuning.
+
+Pianoforte-tuning as an employment for the blind originated in Paris.
+About 1830 Claud Montal and a blind fellow-pupil attempted to tune a
+piano. The seeing tuner in charge of the school pianos complained to the
+director, and they were forbidden to touch the works, but the two
+friends procured an old piano and continued their efforts. Finally, the
+director, convinced of their skill, gave them charge of all the school
+pianos, and classes were soon started for the other pupils. When Montal
+left the institution he encountered great prejudice, but his skill in
+tuning became known to the professors of the Conservatoire, and his work
+rapidly increased and success was assured. Montal afterwards established
+a manufactory, and remained at its head for many years. Tuning is an
+excellent employment for the blind, and one in which they have certain
+advantages. The seeing who excel in the business go through a long
+apprenticeship, and one must give the blind even more careful
+preparation. They must work a number of hours daily, under suitable
+tuition, for several years. After a careful examination by an expert
+pianoforte-tuning authority, every duly qualified tuner should be
+furnished with an official certificate of proficiency, and tuners who
+cannot take the required examinations ought not to be allowed to impose
+upon the public.
+
+
+  Musical training.
+
+Music in its various branches, when properly taught, is the best and
+most lucrative employment for the blind. To become successful in the
+profession, it is necessary for the blind to have opportunities of
+instruction, practice, study, and hearing music equal to those afforded
+the seeing, with whom they will have to compete in the open market. If
+the blind musician is to rise above mediocrity, systematic musical
+instruction in childhood is indispensable, and good instruction will
+avail little unless the practice is under constant and judicious
+supervision. The musical instruction, in its several branches of
+harmony, pianoforte, organ and vocal culture, must be addressed to the
+mind, not merely to the ear. This is the only possible method by which
+musical training can be made of practical use to the blind. The blind
+music teacher or organist must have a well-disciplined mind, capable of
+analysing and dealing with music from an intellectual point of view. If
+the mental faculties have not been developed and thoroughly disciplined,
+the blind musician, however well he may play or sing, will be a failure
+as a teacher. The musical instruction must be more thorough, more
+analytical, more comprehensive, than corresponding instruction given to
+seeing persons. In 1871 Dr Armitage published a book on the education
+and employment of the blind, in which he stated that of the blind
+musicians trained in the United Kingdom not more than one-half per cent
+were able to support themselves, whereas of those trained in the Paris
+school 30% supported themselves fully, and 30% partially, by the
+profession of music.
+
+
+  Royal Normal College.
+
+To provide a better education and improve the musical training of the
+blind, the Royal Normal College was established in 1872.[3] Its object
+was to afford the young blind a thorough general and musical education,
+to qualify them to earn a living by various intellectual pursuits,
+especially as organists, pianists, teachers and pianoforte-tuners. From
+the first, the founders of the college maintained that the blind could
+only be made self-sustaining by increasing their intelligence, bodily
+activity and dexterity, by inculcating business habits, by arousing
+their self-respect, and by creating in their minds a belief in the
+possibility of future self-maintenance. A kindergarten department was
+opened in 1881. In July 1896 Queen's Scholarship examinations were held
+at the Royal Normal College, for the first time, for blind students, and
+the institution recognized by the Education Department as a training
+college for blind school-teachers.
+
+
+  Educational needs.
+
+From the first day a pupil enters school until he finishes his course of
+training, care must be taken to implant business habits. Blind children
+are allowed to be idle and helpless at home; they do not learn to
+appreciate the value of time, and in after years this is one of the most
+difficult lessons to inculcate. Having drifted through childhood, they
+are content to drift through life. The important habits of punctuality,
+regularity and precision should be cultivated in all the arrangements
+and requirements. A great effort should be made to lift the blind from
+pauperism. As soon as pupils enter a school, all semblance of pauper
+origin should be removed. They must be inspired with a desire for
+independence and a belief in its possibility. In the public mind
+blindness has been so long and closely associated with dependence and
+pauperism that schools for the blind, even the most progressive, have
+been regarded hitherto as asylums rather than educational
+establishments. A sad mistake in the training of the blind is the lack
+of an earnest effort to improve their social condition. The fact that
+their education has been left to charity has helped to keep them in the
+ranks of dependents.
+
+The question of day-classes versus boarding-schools has been much
+discussed. It is claimed by some that a blind child gains more
+independence if kept at home and educated in a school with the seeing.
+This theory is not verified by practical experience. At home its
+blindness makes the child an exception, and often it takes little or no
+part in the active duties of everyday life. Again, in a class of seeing
+children the blind member is treated as an exception. The memory is
+cultivated at the expense of the other faculties, and the facility with
+which it recites in certain subjects causes it to make a false estimate
+of its attainments. The fundamental principles in different branches are
+imperfectly understood, from the failure to follow the illustrations of
+the teacher. In the playgrounds, a few irrepressibles join in active
+games, but most of the blind children prefer a quiet corner.
+
+For the sake of economy, schools for deaf-mutes and the blind are
+sometimes united. As the requirements of the two classes are entirely
+separate and distinct, the union is undesirable, whether for general
+education or industrial training. The plan was tried in America, but has
+been given up in most of the states. To meet the difficulty of proper
+classification with small numbers, blind boys and girls are taught in
+the same classes. The acquaintances then made lead to intimacy in later
+years and foster intermarriage among the blind. Intermarriage among the
+blind is a calamity, both for them and for their children; some who
+might have been successful business men are to-day begging in the
+streets in consequence of intermarriage.
+
+In every school or class there will be a certain number of young blind
+children who, from neglect, want of food, or other causes, are feeble in
+body and defective in intellect; such children are a great burden in any
+class or school, and require special treatment and instruction.
+Educational authorities should unite and have one or two schools in a
+healthful locality for mentally defective blind children.
+
+More and more, in educational work for the seeing, there is a tendency
+to specialize, and thus enable each student to have the best possible
+instruction in the subjects that bear most directly on his future
+calling. To prepare the blind for self-maintenance, there should be an
+equally careful study of the ability of each child.
+
+A scheme of education which has for its object to make the blind a
+self-sustaining class should include: kindergarten schools for children
+from 5 to 8 years of age; preparatory schools from 8 to 11; intermediate
+schools from 11 to 14. At 14 an intelligent opinion can be formed in
+regard to the future career of the pupils. They will fall naturally into
+the following categories:--(a) A certain number will succeed better in
+handicraft than in any other calling, and should be drafted into a
+suitable mechanical school. (b) A few will have special gifts for
+general business, and should be educated accordingly. (c) A few will
+have the ability and ambition to prepare for the university, and the
+special college should afford them the most thorough preparation for the
+university examinations. (d) Some will have the necessary talent,
+combined with the requisite character and industry, to succeed in the
+musical profession; in addition to a liberal education, these should
+have musical instruction, equal to that given to the seeing, in the best
+schools of music. (e) Some may achieve excellent success as
+pianoforte-tuners, and in a pianoforte-tuning school strict business
+habits should be cultivated, and the same attention to work required as
+is demanded of seeing workmen in well-regulated pianoforte factories.
+
+The United Kingdom stands almost alone in allowing the education of the
+blind to depend upon charity. In the United States, each state
+government not only makes liberal provision for the education and
+training of the blind, but most of them provide grounds, buildings and a
+complete equipment in all departments. Although it costs much more _per
+capita_, from L40 to L60 per annum, the blind are as amply provided with
+the means of education as the seeing. The government of the United
+States appropriates $10,000 per annum for printing embossed books for
+the blind. Most of the European countries and the English colonies
+provide by taxation for the education of the blind.
+
+
+TYPES
+
+The earliest authentic records of tangible letters for the blind
+describe a plan of engraving the letters upon blocks of wood, the
+invention of Francesco Lucas, a Spaniard, who dedicated it to Philip II.
+of Spain in the 16th century. In 1640 Pierre Moreau, a writing-master in
+Paris, cast a movable leaden type for the use of the blind, but being
+without means to carry out his plan, abandoned it. Pins inserted in
+cushions were next tried, and large wooden letters. After these came a
+contrivance of Du Puiseaux, a blind man, who had metal letters cast and
+set them in a small frame with a handle. Whilst these experiments were
+going on in France, attempts had also been made in Germany. R.
+Weissembourg (a resident of Mannheim), who lost his sight when about
+seven years of age, made use of letters cut in cardboard, and afterwards
+pricked maps in the same material. By this method he taught Mlle
+Paradis, the talented blind musician and the friend of Valentin Hauy.
+
+To Hauy belongs the honour of being the first to emboss paper as a means
+of reading for the blind; his books were embossed in large and small
+italics, from movable type set by his pupils. The following is an
+account of the origin of his discovery. Hauy's first pupil was Francois
+Lesueur, a blind boy whom he found begging at the porch door of St
+Germain des Pres. While Lesueur was sorting the papers on his teacher's
+desk, he came across a card strongly indented by the types in the press.
+The blind lad showed his master he could decipher several letters on the
+card. Immediately Hauy traced with the handle of his pen some signs on
+paper. The boy read them, and the result was printing in relief, the
+greatest of Hauy's discoveries. In 1821 Lady Elizabeth Lowther brought
+embossed books and types from Paris, and with the types her son, Sir
+Charles Lowther, Bart., printed for his own use the Gospel of St
+Matthew. The work of Hauy was taken up by Mr Gall of Edinburgh, Mr
+Alston of Glasgow, Dr Howe of Boston, Mr Friedlander of Philadelphia,
+and others. In 1827 James Gall of Edinburgh embossed some elementary
+works, and published the Gospel of St John in 1834. His plan was to use
+the common English letter and replace curves by angles.
+
+In 1832 the Edinburgh Society of Arts offered a gold medal for the best
+method of printing for the blind, and it was awarded to Dr Edmond Fry of
+London, whose alphabet consisted of ordinary capital letters without
+their small strokes. In 1836 the Rev. W. Taylor of York and John Alston
+in Glasgow began to print with Fry's type. Mr Alston's appeal for a
+printing fund met with a hearty response, and a grant of L400 was made
+by the treasury; in 1838 he completed the New Testament, and at the end
+of 1840 the whole Bible was published in embossed print. In 1833
+printing for the blind was commenced in the United States at Boston and
+Philadelphia. Dr S.G. Howe in Boston used small English letters without
+capitals, angles being employed instead of curves, while J.R.
+Friedlander in Philadelphia used only Roman capitals. About 1838 T.M.
+Lucas of Bristol, a shorthand writer, and J.H. Frere of Blackheath, each
+introduced an alphabet of simpler forms, and based their systems on
+stenography. In 1847 Dr Moon of Brighton brought out a system which
+partially retains the outline of the Roman letters. This type is easily
+read by the adult blind, and is still much used by the home teaching
+societies. The preceding methods are all known as line types, but the
+one which is now in general use is a point type.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Moon Alphabet.]
+
+In the early part of the 19th century Captain Charles Barbier, a French
+officer, substituted embossed dots for embossed lines. The slate for
+writing was also invented by him.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.
+
+Apparatus for writing Braille.
+
+Braille Alphabet. The black dots represent the raised points of the sign
+in their position in relation to the group of six.]
+
+Barbier arranged a table of speech sounds, consisting of six lines with
+six sounds in each line. His rectangular cell contained two vertical
+rows of six points each. The number of points in the left-hand row
+indicates in which horizontal line, and that in the right-hand row in
+which vertical line, of the printed table the speech sound is to be
+found.
+
+Louis Braille, a pupil and afterwards a professor of the Institution
+Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles, Paris, studied all the various methods in
+which arbitrary characters were used. Barbier's letter, although it gave
+a large number of combinations, was too long to be covered by the finger
+in reading, and Louis Braille reduced the number of dots. In 1834
+Braille perfected his system. Dr Armitage considered it was the greatest
+advance that had ever been made in the education of the blind.
+
+The Braille alphabet consists of varying combinations of six dots in an
+oblong, of which the vertical side contains three, and the horizontal
+two dots.
+
+  . .
+  . .
+  . .
+
+There are 63 possible combinations of these six dots, and after the
+letters of the alphabet have been supplied, the remaining signs are used
+for punctuation, contractions, &c.
+
+  "For writing, a ruler is used, consisting of a metal bed either
+  grooved or marked by groups of little pits, each group consisting of
+  six; over this bed is fitted a brass guide, punched with oblong holes
+  whose vertical diameter is three-tenths of an inch, while the
+  horizontal diameter is two-tenths. The pits are arranged in two
+  parallel lines, and the guide is hinged on the bed in such a way that
+  when the two are locked together the openings in the guide correspond
+  exactly to the pits in the bed. The brass guide has a double row of
+  openings, which enables the writer to write two lines; when these are
+  written, he shifts his guide downwards until two little pins, which
+  project from the under surface at its ends, drop into corresponding
+  holes of a wooden board; then two more lines are written, and this
+  operation is repeated until the bottom of the page is reached. The
+  paper is introduced between the frame and the metal bed. The
+  instrument for writing is a blunt awl, which carries a little cap of
+  paper before it into the grooves or pits of the bed, thereby producing
+  a series of little pits in the paper on the side next the writer. When
+  taken out and turned over, little prominences are felt, corresponding
+  to the pits on the other side. The reading is performed from left to
+  right, consequently the writing is from right to left; but this
+  reversal presents no practical difficulty as soon as the pupil had
+  caught the idea that in reading and writing alike he has to go
+  _forwards_.
+
+  "The first ten letters, from 'a' to 'j,' are formed in the upper and
+  middle grooves; the next ten, from 'k' to 't,' are formed by adding
+  one lower back dot to each letter of the first series; the third row
+  is formed from the first by adding two lower dots to each letter; the
+  fourth row, similarly, by adding one lower front dot.
+
+  "The first ten letters, when preceded by the prefix for numbers, stand
+  for the nine numbers and the cipher. The same signs, written in the
+  lower and middle grooves, instead of the upper and middle, serve for
+  punctuation. The seven last letters of each series stand for the seven
+  musical notes--the first series representing quavers, the second
+  minims, the third semibreves, the fourth crotchets. Rests,
+  accidentals, and every other sign used in music can be readily and
+  clearly expressed without having recourse to the staff of five lines
+  which forms the basis of ordinary musical notation, and which, though
+  it has been reproduced tor the blind, can only be considered as
+  serving to give them an idea of the method employed by the seeing, and
+  cannot, of course, be written. By means of this dotted system, a blind
+  man is able to keep memoranda or accounts, write his own music, emboss
+  his own books from dictation, and carry on correspondence."
+
+The Braille system for literature and music was brought into general use
+in England by Dr T.R. Armitage. Through his wise, untiring zeal and
+noble generosity, every blind man, woman and child throughout the
+English-speaking world can now obtain not only the best literature, but
+the best music.
+
+In America there are two modifications of the point type, known as New
+York point and American braille. In each of these the most frequently
+recurring letters are represented by the least number of dots.
+
+The original Braille is used by the institutions for the blind in the
+British empire, European countries, Mexico, Brazil and Egypt.
+
+
+APPLIANCES FOR EDUCATIONAL WORK
+
+The apparatus for writing point alphabets has already been described.
+Frank H. Hall, former superintendent of the School for the Blind,
+Jacksonville, Ill., U.S.A., has invented a Braille typewriter and
+stereotype maker; the latter embosses metal plates from which any number
+of copies can be printed. An automatic Braille-writer has been brought
+out in Germany, and William B. Wait (principal of the Institution for
+the Blind in New York City) has invented a machine for writing New York
+point. These machines are expensive, but A. Wayne of Birmingham has
+brought out a cheap and effective Braille-writer. H. Stainsby, secretary
+of the Birmingham institution, and Wayne have invented a machine for
+writing Braille shorthand.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Arithmetic Board, Pin and Characters. A, Shape
+of opening in the board for pin; B and C, pin.]
+
+Many boards have been constructed to enable the blind to work
+arithmetical problems. The one which is most used was invented by the
+Rev. W. Taylor. The board has star-shaped openings in which a square pin
+fits in eight different positions. The pin has on one end a plain ridge
+and on the other a notched ridge; sixteen characters can be formed with
+the two ends. The board is also used for algebra, another set of type
+furnishing the algebraic symbols.
+
+Books are prepared with raised geometrical diagrams; figures can be
+formed with bent wires on cushions, or on paper with a toothed wheel
+attached to one end of a pair of compasses.
+
+Geography is studied by means of relief maps, manufactured in wood or
+paper. The physical maps and globes prepared for seeing children are
+used also for the blind.
+
+Chiefly owing to the unremitting energy and liberality of Dr T.R.
+Armitage, in connexion with the British and Foreign Blind Association,
+all school appliances for the blind have been greatly improved and
+cheapened.
+
+
+EMPLOYMENT
+
+Reference has been made to the fact that music in its various branches
+furnishes the best and most lucrative employment for the blind. But
+those who have not the ability, or are too old to be trained for music
+or some other profession, must depend upon handicrafts for their
+support. The principal ones taught in the various institutions are the
+making of baskets, brushes, mats, sacks, ships' fenders, brooms and
+mattresses, upholstery, wire-work, chair-caning, wood-chopping, &c.
+Females are taught to make fancy baskets and brushes, chair-caning,
+knitting, netting, weaving, sewing--hand and machine--crocheting, &c. It
+is difficult to find employment for blind girls. It is hoped that
+typewriting and massage will prove remunerative.
+
+The blind, whether educated for the church, trained as teachers,
+musicians, pianoforte-tuners, or for any other trade or occupation,
+generally require assistance at the outset. They need help in finding
+suitable employment, recommendations for establishing a connexion,
+pecuniary assistance in providing outfits of books, tools, instruments,
+&c., help in the selection and purchase of the best materials at the
+lowest wholesale rates, in the sale of their manufactured goods in the
+best markets, and if overtaken by reverses, judicious and timely help
+towards a fresh start. Every institution should keep in touch with its
+old pupils. The superintendent who carefully studies the successes and
+failures of his pupils when they go into the world, will more wisely
+direct the work and energies of his present and future students.
+
+Within recent years great improvements have been made in some of the
+progressive workshops for the blind. At the conference in London in 1902
+Mr T. Stoddart gave the following information in regard to the work in
+Glasgow:--"We are building very extensive additions to our workshops,
+which will enable us to accommodate 600 blind people. We mean to employ
+the most up-to-date methods, and are introducing electric power to drive
+the machinery and light the workshops. We have to do with the average
+blind adult recently deprived of sight after he has attained an age of
+from 25 to 40 or even 50 years. In Glasgow we have developed an industry
+eminently suitable for the employment of the blind, namely, the
+manufacture of new and the remaking of old bedding. There are industries
+which are purely local, where certain articles of manufacture largely
+used in one district are useless, or nearly so, in another; but the
+field in which this industry may be promoted is practically without
+limit. It is perhaps the employment _par excellence_ for the blind, and
+among other advantages it has the following to recommend it: employment
+is provided for the blind of both sexes and of all ages; there is no
+accumulation nor deterioration of stock; it yields an excellent profit,
+and its use is universal. We have been pushing this industry for years,
+our annual turnover in this particular department having exceeded L7000,
+and as we find it so suited to the capabilities of all grades of blind
+people, it is our intention to provide facilities for doing a turnover
+of three times that amount. Instead of the thirty sewing-machines which
+we have at present running by power, we hope to employ 100 blind women.
+At cork-fender-making, also an industry of the most suitable kind, we
+are at present employing about thirty workers. It is also our intention
+to greatly develop and extend our mat-making department."
+
+In the United States many blind persons are engaged in agricultural
+pursuits, and some are very successful in commercial pursuits. When a
+man loses his sight in adult life, if he can possibly follow the
+business in which he has previously been engaged, it is the best course
+for him. In the present day, work in manufactories is subdivided to such
+an extent that often some one portion can be done by a blind person; but
+it needs the interest of some enthusiastic believer in the capabilities
+of the blind to persuade the seeing manager that blind people can be
+safely employed in factories.
+
+In England, at the time of the royal commission of 1889, upwards of 8000
+blind persons, above the age of 21, were in receipt of relief from the
+guardians, of whom no less than 3278 were resident in workhouses or
+workhouse infirmaries. The census returns for 1901 indicate that the
+number at that time was equally large. It would certainly be more
+economical to establish workshops where the able-bodied adult blind can
+be trained in some handicraft and employed.
+
+The papers read at the various conferences show that, even under the
+most favourable circumstances, some are not able to earn enough for
+their support; nevertheless, employment improves their condition; there
+is no greater calamity than to live a life of compulsory idleness in
+total darkness. The cry of the blind is not alms but work. One of the
+workshops in western America has adopted the motto, "Independence
+through Industry," and it should be the aim of every civilized country
+to hasten the time when blindness and pauperism shall no longer be
+synonymous terms.
+
+
+BIOGRAPHY
+
+It may be interesting, in conclusion, to mention some of the names of
+prominent blind people in history:--
+
+  Timoleon (c. 410-336 B.C.), a Greek general.
+
+  Aufidius, a Roman senator.
+
+  Bela II. (d. 1141), king of Hungary.
+
+  John, king of Bohemia (1296-1346), killed in the battle of Crecy.
+
+  John Zizca (c. 1376-1424), Bohemian general.
+
+  Basil III. (d. 1462), prince of Moscow.
+
+  Shah Alam (d. 1806), the last of the Great Moguls.
+
+  Diodorus, the instructor of Cicero.
+
+  Didymus of Alexandria (c. 308-395), mathematician, theologian and
+  linguist.
+
+  Nicase of Malines (d. 1492), professor of law in the university of
+  Cologne. The degree of doctor of divinity was conferred on him by the
+  university of Louvain, and the pope granted a dispensation suspending
+  the law of the Church, that he might be ordained as a priest.
+
+  Ludovico Scapinelli (b. 1585), professor at the universities of
+  Bologna, Modena and Pisa.
+
+  James Schegkius (d. 1587), professor of philosophy and medicine at
+  Tubingen.
+
+  Franciscus Salinas, professor of music at the university of Salamanca,
+  in the 16th century.
+
+  Nicholas Bacon (16th century), doctor of laws in the university of
+  Brussels.
+
+  Count de Pagan of Avignon (b. 1604), mathematician of note.
+
+  John Milton (1608-1674), the poet.
+
+  Rev. Richard Lucas (1648-1715), prebendary of Westminster.
+
+  Nicholas Saunderson (q.v.; 1682-1739).
+
+  John Stanley (1713-1786), Mus. Bac. Oxon., was born in London in 1713.
+  At seven he began to study music, and made such rapid progress that he
+  was appointed organist of All-Hallows, Bread Street, at the age of
+  eleven. He graduated as Mus. Bac. at Oxford when sixteen, and was
+  organist of the Temple church at the age of twenty-one. He composed a
+  number of cantatas, and after the death of Handel he superintended the
+  performance of Handel's oratorios at Covent Garden. He received the
+  degree of doctor of music, and was master of the king's band.
+
+  Leonard Euler (1707-1783), the celebrated mathematician and
+  astronomer.
+
+  John Metcalf (b. 1717), road-builder and contractor.
+
+  Sir John Fielding (d. 1780), eminent lawyer and magistrate.
+
+  Thomas Blacklock (q.v.; 1721-1791), Scottish scholar and poet.
+
+  Francois Huber (1750-1831), Swiss naturalist, noted for his
+  observations on bees.
+
+  Edward Rushton (b. 1756). At six years of age he entered the Liverpool
+  free grammar school, and at eleven shipped for his first voyage in a
+  West India merchantman. On a later voyage he was shipwrecked, and owed
+  his life to the self-sacrifice of a negro. Rushton and the black man
+  swam for their lives to a floating cask; the negro reached it first,
+  saw Rushton about to sink, pushed the cask to the failing lad, and
+  struck out for the shore, but never reached it. This incident made
+  Rushton an enthusiastic champion through life of the cause of the
+  negro. During a voyage to Dominica malignant ophthalmia broke out
+  among the slave cargo, and Rushton caught the disease by attending
+  them in the hold when all others refused help. This attack deprived
+  him of sight, and cut short a promising nautical career at the age of
+  nineteen. He struggled bravely against difficulties, and besides
+  entering successfully into various literary engagements, maintained
+  himself and family as a bookseller. A volume of his poems containing a
+  memoir was published in 1824.
+
+  Marie Therese von Paradis (b. 1759), the daughter of an imperial
+  councillor in Vienna. She was a godchild of the empress Marie Therese,
+  and as her parents possessed rank and wealth, no expense was spared in
+  her education. Weissembourg,  a blind man, was her tutor, and she
+  learned to spell with letters cut out of pasteboard, and read words
+  pricked upon cards with pins. She studied the piano with Richter (of
+  Holland) and Kozeluch. She was a highly esteemed pianist, and Mozart
+  wrote a concerto for her; she also attained considerable skill on the
+  organ, in singing and in composition. She made a concert tour of
+  Europe, visiting the principal courts and everywhere achieving great
+  success. She remained four months in England, under the patronage of
+  the queen. On her return to Vienna, through Paris, she met Valentin
+  Hauy. Towards the close of her life she devoted herself to teaching
+  singing and the pianoforte with great success.
+
+  James Holman (q.v.; 1786-1857), traveller.
+
+  William H. Prescott (q.v.; 1796-1859), the American historian.
+
+  Several early 19th-century musicians held situations as organists in
+  London; among them Grenville, Scott, Lockhart, Mather, Stiles and
+  Warne.
+
+  Louis Braille (1809-1852). In 1819 he went to the school for the blind
+  in Paris. He became proficient on the organ, and held a post in one of
+  the Paris churches. While a professor at the Institution Nationale des
+  Jeunes Aveugles, he perfected his system of point writing.
+
+  Alexander Rodenbach, Belgian statesman. When a member of the chamber
+  of deputies, in 1836, he introduced and succeeded in establishing by
+  law the right of blind and deaf-mute children to an education.
+
+  Dr William Moon (1818-1894), the inventor of the type for the blind
+  which bears his name.
+
+  Rev. W.H. Milburn, D.D. (1823-1903), the American chaplain, known in
+  the United States as "The Blind Man Eloquent." He often travelled from
+  thirty to fifty thousand miles a year, speaking and preaching every
+  day. He was three times chaplain of the House of Representatives, and
+  in 1893 was chosen to the chaplaincy of the senate.
+
+  Dr T.R. Armitage (b. 1824). After spending his youth on the continent,
+  he became a medical student, first at King's College, and afterwards
+  at Paris and Vienna. His career promised to be a brilliant one, but at
+  the age of thirty-six failing sight caused him to abandon his
+  profession. For the rest of his life he devoted his time and fortune
+  to the interests of the blind. He reorganized the Indigent Blind
+  Visiting Society, endowed its Samaritan fund, founded the British and
+  Foreign Blind Association, and, in conjunction with the late duke of
+  Westminster and others, founded the Royal Normal College.
+
+  Elizabeth Gilbert (b. 1826), daughter of the bishop of Chichester. She
+  lost her sight at the age of three. She was educated at home, and took
+  her full share of household duties and cares and pleasures. When she
+  was twenty-seven, she began to consider the condition of the poor
+  blind of London. She saw some one must befriend those who had been
+  taught trades, some one who could supply material, give employment or
+  dispose of the articles manufactured. In 1854 her scheme was started,
+  and work was given to six men in their own homes, but the number soon
+  increased. In 1856 a committee was formed, a house converted into a
+  factory, and the Association for Promoting the General Welfare of the
+  Blind was founded.
+
+  Rev. George Matheson, D.D. (b. 1842), preacher and writer of the
+  Church of Scotland. The degree of D.D. was conferred on him by the
+  university of Edinburgh in 1879, and he was appointed Baird Lecturer
+  in 1881, and St Giles' Lecturer in 1882.
+
+  Henry Fawcett (1833-1884), professor of political economy at
+  Cambridge, and postmaster-general.
+
+  W.H. Churchman of Pennsylvania, who was instrumental in establishing
+  the schools for the blind in Tennessee, Indiana and Wisconsin.
+
+  H.L. Hall, founder of the workshops and home for the blind in
+  Philadelphia; by his energetic management he raised the standard of
+  work for the adult blind throughout America.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See also W.H. Levy, _Blindness and the Blind_ (1872);
+  J. Wilson, _Biography of the Blind_ (1838); Dr T.R. Armitage,
+  Education and Employment of the Blind (2nd ed., 1882); R.H. Blair,
+  _Education of the Blind_ (1868); M. Anagnos, _Education of the Blind_
+  (1882); H.J. Wilson, _Institutions, Societies and Classes for the
+  Blind in England and Wales_ (1907); Guillie, _Instruction and
+  Amusements of the Blind_ (1819); Dr W. Moon, _Light for the Blind_
+  (1875); R. Meldrum, _Light on Dark Paths_ (2nd ed., 1891); Dr H. Roth,
+  _Prevention of Blindness_ (1885), and his _Physical Education of the
+  Blind_ (1885); _Report of Royal Commission_ (1889); Gavin Douglas,
+  _Remarkable Blind Persons_ (1829); John Bird, _Social Pathology_
+  (1862); M. de la Sizeranne, _The Blind in Useful Avocations_ (Paris,
+  1881), _True Mission of Smaller Schools_ (Paris, 1884), _The Blind in
+  France_ (Paris, 1885), _Two Years' Study and Work for the Blind_
+  (Paris, 1890), and _The Blind as seen by a Blind Man_ [translated by
+  Dr Park Lewis] (Paris, 1893); Dr Emile Javal, _The Blind Man's World_
+  [translated by Ernest Thomson] (Paris, 1904); Prof. A. Mell,
+  _Encyklopadisches Handbuch des Blindenwesens_ (Vienna, 1899).
+       (F. J. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] There are no late returns for Iceland, but the last available
+    statistics gave 3400 per million. A paper written in 1903 on
+    blindness in Egypt stated that 1 in every 50 of the population was
+    blind.
+
+  [2] Previous returns from Finland have shown a much larger number of
+    blind persons, but these statistics were supplied by the British
+    consul in St Petersburg from the last census.
+
+  [3] Its principal (responsible, with Dr Armitage, the duke of
+    Westminster and others, for its foundation) was Sir F.J. Campbell,
+    LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.S.A., himself a blind man, who, born in Tennessee,
+    U.S.A., in 1832, and educated at the Nashville school, and afterwards
+    in music at Leipzig and Berlin, had from 1858 to 1869 been associated
+    with Dr Howe at the Perkins Institution, Boston. He was knighted in
+    1909.
+
+
+
+
+BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON (1833-   ), American merchant and politician,
+was born at Fall River, Massachusetts, on the 26th of January 1833. He
+was educated in his native city and in New Orleans, where he early
+entered his step-father's counting-house. Returning to Massachusetts in
+1849, he became a clerk and subsequently a junior partner in a prominent
+Boston commercial house. Later he removed to New York City to establish
+a branch of the firm. In 1881 he organized and became president of
+Bliss, Fabyan & Company, one of the largest wholesale dry-goods houses
+in the country. A consistent advocate of the protective tariff, he was
+one of the organizers, and for many years president, of the American
+Protective Tariff League. In politics an active Republican, he was
+chairman of the Republican state committee in 1887 and 1888, and
+contributed much to the success of the Harrison ticket in New York in
+the latter year. He was treasurer of the Republican national committee
+from 1892 to 1904, and was secretary of the interior in President
+McKinley's cabinet from 1897 to 1899.
+
+
+
+
+BLISTER (a word found in many forms in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger.
+_Blase_; it is ultimately connected with the same root as in "blow," cf.
+"bladder"), a small vesicle filled with serous fluid raised on the skin
+by a burn, by rubbing on a hard surface, as on the hand in rowing, or by
+other injury; the term is also used of a similar condition of the skin
+caused artificially, as a counter-irritant in cases of inflammation, by
+the application of mustard, of various kinds of fly (see CANTHARIDES)
+and of other vesicatories. Similar small swellings, filled with fluid or
+air, on plants and on the surface of steel or paint, &c., are also
+called "blisters."
+
+
+
+
+BLIZZARD (origin probably onomatopoeic, cf. "blast," "bluster"), a
+furious wind driving fine particles of choking, blinding snow whirling
+in icy clouds. The conditions to which the name was originally given
+occur with the northerly winds in rear of the cyclones crossing the
+eastern states of America during winter.
+
+
+
+
+BLOCK, MARK ELIEZER (c. 1723-1799), German naturalist, was born at
+Ansbach, of poor Jewish parents, about 1723. After taking his degree as
+doctor at Frankfort-on-Oder he established himself as a physician at
+Berlin. His first scientific work of importance was an essay on
+intestinal worms, which gained a prize from the Academy of Copenhagen,
+but he is best known by his important work on fishes (see ICHTHYOLOGY).
+Bloch was fifty-six when he began to write on ichthyological subjects.
+To begin at his time of life a work in which he intended not only to
+give full descriptions of the species known to him from specimens or
+drawings, but also to illustrate each species in a style truly
+magnificent for his time, was an undertaking the execution of which most
+men would have despaired of. Yet he accomplished not only this task, but
+even more than he at first contemplated. He died at Carlsbad on the 6th
+of August 1799.
+
+
+
+
+BLOCK, MAURICE (1816-1901), French statistician, was born in Berlin of
+Jewish parents on the 18th of February 1816. He studied at Bonn and
+Giessen, but settled in Paris, becoming naturalized there. In 1844 he
+entered the French ministry of agriculture, becoming in 1852 one of the
+heads of the statistical department. He retired in 1862, and thenceforth
+devoted himself entirely to statistical studies, which have gained for
+him a wide reputation. He was elected a member of the Academie des
+Sciences Morales et Politiques in 1880. He died in Paris on the 9th of
+January 1901. His principal works are: _Dictionnaire de l'administration
+francaise_ (1856); _Statistique de la France_ (1860); _Dictionnaire
+general de la politique_ (1862); _L'Europe polilique et sociale_ (1869);
+_Traite theorique et pratique de statistique_ (1878); Les Progres de
+l'economie politique depuis Adam Smith_ (1890); he also edited from 1856
+_L'Annuaire de l'economie politique et de la statistique_, and wrote in
+German _Die Bevolkerung des franzosischen Kaiserreichs_ (1861); Die
+Bevolkerung Spaniens und Portugals_ (1861); and _Die Machtstellung der
+europaischen Staaten_ (1862).
+
+
+
+
+BLOCK (from the Fr. _bloc_, and possibly connected with an Old Ger.
+_Block_, obstruction, cf. "baulk"), a piece of wood. The word is used in
+various senses, e.g. the block upon which people were beheaded, the
+block or mould upon which a hat is shaped, a pulley-block, a
+printing-block, &c. From the sense of a solid mass comes the expression,
+a "block" of houses, i.e. a rectangular space covered with houses and
+bounded by four streets. From the sense of "obstruction" comes a "block"
+in traffic, a block in any proceedings, and the block system of
+signalling on railways.
+
+
+
+
+BLOCKADE (Fr. _blocus_, Ger. _Blokade_), a term used in maritime
+warfare. Originally a blockade by sea was probably nothing more than the
+equivalent in maritime warfare of a blockade or siege on land in which
+the army investing the blockaded or besieged place is in actual physical
+possession of a zone through which it can prevent and forbid ingress and
+egress. An attempt to cross such a zone without the consent of the
+investing army would be an act of hostility against the besiegers. A
+maritime blockade, when it formed part of a siege, would obviously also
+be a close blockade, being part of the military cordon drawn round the
+besieged place. Even from the first, however, differences would begin to
+grow up in the conditions arising out of the operations on land and on
+sea. Thus whereas conveying merchandise across military lines would be a
+deliberate act of hostility against the investing force, a neutral ship
+which had sailed in ignorance of the blockade for the blockaded place
+might in good faith cross the blockade line without committing a hostile
+act against the investing force. With the development of recognition of
+neutral rights the involuntary character of the breach would be taken
+into account, and notice to neutral states and to approaching vessels
+would come into use. With the employment in warfare of larger vessels in
+the place of the more numerous small ones of an earlier age, notice,
+moreover, would tend to take the place of _de facto_ investment, and at
+a time when communication between governments was still slow and
+precarious, such notice would sometimes be given as a possible measure
+of belligerent tactics before the blockade could be actually carried
+out. Out of these circumstances grew up the abuse of "paper blockades."
+
+The climax was reached in the "Continental Blockade" decreed by Napoleon
+in 1806, which continued till it was abolished by international
+agreement in 1812. This blockade forbade all countries under French
+dominion or allied with France to have any communication with Great
+Britain. Great Britain replied in 1807 by a similar measure. The first
+nation to protest against these fictitious blockades was the United
+States. Already in 1800 John Marshall, secretary of state, wrote to the
+American minister in Great Britain pointing out objections which have
+since been universally admitted. In the following interesting passage he
+said:--
+
+  "Ports not effectually blockaded by a force capable of completely
+  investing them have yet been declared in a state of blockade.... If
+  the effectiveness of the blockade be dispensed with, then every port
+  of the belligerent powers may at all times be declared in that state,
+  and the commerce of neutrals be thereby subjected to universal
+  capture. But if this principle be strictly adhered to, the capacity to
+  blockade will be limited by the naval force of the belligerent and, in
+  consequence, the mischief to neutral commerce cannot be very
+  extensive. It is, therefore, of the last importance to neutrals that
+  this principle be maintained unimpaired. I observe that you have
+  pressed this reasoning on the British minister, who replies that an
+  occasional absence of a fleet from a blockaded port ought not to
+  change the state of the place. Whatever force this observation may be
+  entitled to, where that occasional absence has been produced by an
+  accident, as a storm, which for a moment blows off a fleet and forces
+  it from its station, which station it immediately resumes, I am
+  persuaded that where a part of the fleet is applied, though only for a
+  time, to other objects or comes into port, the very principle
+  requiring an effective blockade, which is that the mischief can only
+  be coextensive with the naval force of the belligerent, requires that
+  during such temporary absence the commerce to the neutrals to the
+  place should be free."[1]
+
+  Again in 1803 James Madison wrote to the then American minister in
+  London:--
+
+  "The law of nations requires to constitute a blockade that there
+  should be the presence and position of a force rendering access to the
+  prohibited place manifestly difficult and dangerous."[2]
+
+In 1826 and 1827 Great Britain as well as the United States asserted
+that blockades in order to be binding must be effective. This became
+gradually the recognized view, and when in 1856 the powers represented
+at the congress of Paris inserted in the declaration there adopted that
+"blockades in order to be binding must be effective, that is to say,
+maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access to the coast
+of an enemy," they were merely enunciating a rule which neutral states
+had already become too powerful to allow belligerents to disregard.
+
+Blockade is universally admitted to be a belligerent right to which
+under international law neutrals are obliged to submit. It is now also
+universally admitted that the above-quoted rule of the Declaration of
+Paris forms part of international law, independently of the declaration.
+Being, however, exclusively a belligerent right, it cannot be exercised
+except by a belligerent force. Even a _de facto_ belligerent has the
+right to institute a blockade binding on neutrals if it has the means of
+making it effective, though the force opposed to it may treat the _de
+facto_ belligerent as rebels.
+
+It is also admitted that, being exclusively a belligerent right, it
+cannot be exercised in time of peace, but there has been some
+inconsistency in practice (see PACIFIC BLOCKADE) which will probably
+lead governments, in order to avoid protests of neutral powers against
+belligerent rights being exercised in mere coercive proceedings, to
+exercise all the rights of belligerents and carry on _de facto_ war to
+entitle them to use violence against neutral infringers. This was done
+in the case of the blockade of Venezuela by Great Britain, Germany and
+Italy in 1902-1903.
+
+The points upon which controversy still arises are as to what
+constitutes an "effective" blockade and what a sufficient notice of
+blockade to warrant the penalties of violation, viz. confiscation of the
+ship and of the cargo unless the evidence demonstrates the innocence of
+the cargo owners. A blockade to be effective must be maintained by a
+sufficient force to prevent the entrance of neutral vessels into the
+blockaded port or ports, and it must be duly proclaimed. Subject to
+these principles being complied with, "the question of the legitimacy
+and effectiveness of a blockade is one of fact to be determined in each
+case upon the evidence presented" (Thomas F. Bayard, American secretary
+of state, to Messrs Kamer & Co., 19th of February 1889). The British
+manual of naval prize law sums up the cases in which a blockade, validly
+instituted, ceases to be effectively maintained, as follows:--(1) If the
+blockading force abandons its position, unless the abandonment be merely
+temporary or caused by stress of weather, or (2) if it be driven away by
+the enemy, or (3) if it be negligent in its duties, or (4) if it be
+partial in the execution of its duties towards one ship rather than
+another, or towards the ships of one nation rather than those of
+another. These cases, however, are based on decisions of the British
+admiralty court and cannot be relied on absolutely as a statement of
+international law.
+
+As regards notice the following American instructions vere given to
+blockading officers in June 1898:--
+
+  "Neutral vessels are entitled to notification of a blockade before
+  they can be made prize for its attempted violation. The character of
+  this notification is not material. It may be actual, as by a vessel of
+  the blockading force, or _constructive, as by a proclamation of the
+  government maintaining the blockade, or by common notoriety_. If a
+  neutral vessel can be shown to have had notice of the blockade in any
+  way, she is good prize, and should be sent in for adjudication; but
+  should formal notice not have been given, _the rule of constructive
+  knowledge arising from notoriety_ should be construed in a manner
+  liberal to the neutral.
+
+  "Vessels appearing before a blockaded port, having sailed without
+  notification, are entitled to actual notice by a blockading vessel.
+  They should be boarded by an officer, who should enter in the ship's
+  log the fact of such notice, such entry to include the name of the
+  blockading vessel giving notice, the extent of the blockade, the date
+  and place, verified by his official signature. The vessel is then to
+  be set free; and should she again attempt to enter the same or any
+  other blockaded port as to which she has had notice, she is good
+  prize. Should it appear from a vessel's clearance that she sailed
+  after notice of blockade had been communicated to the country of her
+  port of departure, or _after the fact of blockade had, by a fair
+  presumption, become commonly known_ at that port, she should be sent
+  in as a prize."
+
+The passages in italics are not in accordance with the views held by
+other states, which do not recognize the binding character of a
+diplomatic notification or of constructive notice from notoriety.
+
+The subject was brought up at the second Hague Conference (1907). The
+Italian and Mexican delegations submitted projects, but after a
+declaration by the British delegate in charge of the subject (Sir E.
+Satow) that blockade not having been included in the Russian programme,
+his government had given him no instructions upon it, the subject, at
+his suggestion, was dropped. A _Voeu_, however, was adopted in favour of
+formulating rules on all branches of the laws and customs of naval war,
+and a convention was agreed to for the establishment of an international
+Prize Court (see PRIZE). Under Art. 7 of the latter convention the Court
+was to apply the "rules of international law," and in their absence the
+"general principles of justice and equity." As soon as possible after
+the close of the second Hague Conference the British government took
+steps to call a special conference of the maritime powers, which sat
+from December 4, 1908 to February 26, 1909. Among the subjects dealt
+with was Blockade, the rules relating to which are as follow:--
+
+  Art. 1. A blockade must not extend beyond the ports and coasts
+  belonging to or occupied by the enemy.
+
+  Art. 2. In accordance with the Declaration of Paris of 1856, a
+  blockade, in order to be binding, must be effective--that is to say,
+  it must be maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access
+  to the enemy coastline.
+
+  Art. 3. The question whether a blockade is effective is a question of
+  fact.
+
+  Art. 4. A blockade is not regarded as raised if the blockading force
+  is temporarily withdrawn on account of stress of weather.
+
+  Art. 5. A blockade must be applied impartially to the ships of all
+  nations.
+
+  Art. 6. The commander of a blockading force may give permission to a
+  warship to enter, and subsequently to leave, a blockaded port.
+
+  Art. 7. In circumstances of distress, acknowledged by an officer of
+  the blockading force, a neutral vessel may enter a place under
+  blockade and subsequently leave it, provided that she has neither
+  discharged nor shipped any cargo there.
+
+  Art. 8. A blockade, in order to be binding, must be declared in
+  accordance with Article 9, and notified in accordance with Articles 11
+  and 16.
+
+  Art. 9. A declaration of blockade is made either by the blockading
+  power or by the naval authorities acting in its name. It specifies (1)
+  the date when the blockade begins; (2) the geographical limits of the
+  coastline under blockade; (3) the period within which neutral vessels
+  may come out.
+
+  Art. 10. If the operations of the blockading power, or of the naval
+  authorities acting in its name, do not tally with the particulars,
+  which, in accordance with Article 9 (1) and (2), must be inserted in
+  the declaration of blockade, the declaration is void, and a new
+  declaration is necessary in order to make the blockade operative.
+
+  Art. 11. A declaration of blockade is notified: (1) to neutral powers,
+  by the blockading power by means of a communication addressed to the
+  governments direct, or to their representatives accredited to it; (2)
+  to the local authorities, by the officer commanding the blockading
+  force. The local authorities will, in turn, inform the foreign
+  consular officers at the port or on the coastline under blockade as
+  soon as possible.
+
+  Art. 12. The rules as to declaration and notification of blockade
+  apply to cases where the limits of a blockade are extended, or where a
+  blockade is re-established after having been raised.
+
+  Art. 13. The voluntary raising of a blockade, as also any restriction
+  in the limits of a blockade, must be notified in the manner prescribed
+  by Article 11.
+
+  Art. 14. The liability of a neutral vessel to capture for breach of
+  blockade is contingent on her knowledge, actual or presumptive, of the
+  blockade.
+
+  Art. 15. Failing proof to the contrary, knowledge of the blockade is
+  presumed if the vessel left a neutral port subsequently to the
+  notification of the blockade to the power to which such port belongs,
+  provided that such notification was made in sufficient time.
+
+  Art. 16. If a vessel approaching a blockaded port has no knowledge,
+  actual or presumptive, of the blockade, the notification must be made
+  to the vessel itself by an officer of one of the ships of the
+  blockading force. This notification should be entered in the vessel's
+  logbook, and must state the day and hour, and the geographical
+  position of the vessel at the time. If through the negligence of the
+  officer commanding the blockading force no declaration of blockade has
+  been notified to the local authorities, or if in the declaration, as
+  notified, no period has been mentioned within which neutral vessels
+  may come out, a neutral vessel coming out of the blockaded port must
+  be allowed to pass free.
+
+  Art. 17. Neutral vessels may not be captured for breach of blockade
+  except within the area of operations of the warships detailed to
+  render the blockade effective.
+
+  Art. 18. The blockading forces must not bar access to neutral ports or
+  coasts.
+
+  Art. 19. Whatever may be the ulterior destination of a vessel or of
+  her cargo, she cannot be captured for breach of blockade, if, at the
+  moment, she is on her way to a non-blockaded port.
+
+  Art. 20. A vessel which has broken blockade outwards, or which has
+  attempted to break blockade inwards, is liable to capture so long as
+  she is pursued by a ship of the blockading force. If the pursuit is
+  abandoned, or if the blockade is raised, her capture can no longer be
+  effected.
+
+  Art. 21. A vessel found guilty of breach of blockade is liable to
+  condemnation. The cargo is also condemned, unless it is proved that at
+  the time of the shipment of the goods the shipper neither knew nor
+  could have known of the intention to break the blockade.     (T. Ba.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] John Marshall, secretary of state, to Rufus King, minister to
+    England, 20th of September 1800, Am. State Papers, Class I, For. Rel.
+    II, No. 181, J.B. Moore, _Digest of International Law_, vii. 788.
+
+  [2] James Madison, secretary of state, to Mr Thornton, 27th of
+    October 1803, 14 MS. Dom. Let. 215. Moore, _Digest of International
+    Law_, vii. 789.
+
+
+
+
+BLOCKHOUSE, in fortification, a small roofed work serving as a fortified
+post for a small garrison. The word, common since 1500, is of uncertain
+origin, and was applied to what is now called a _fort d'arret_, a
+detached fort blocking the access to a landing, channel, pass, bridge or
+defile. The modern blockhouse is a building, sometimes of two storeys,
+which is loopholed on all sides, and not infrequently, in the case of
+two-storey blockhouses, provided with a _machicoulis_ gallery.
+Blockhouses are built of wood, brick, stone, corrugated iron or any
+material available. During the South African War (1899-1902) they were
+often sent from England to the front in ready-made sections.
+
+
+
+
+BLOEMAERT, ABRAHAM (1564-1651), Dutch painter and engraver, was born at
+Gorinchem, the son of an architect. He was first a pupil of Gerrit
+Splinter (pupil of Frans Floris) and of Joos de Beer, at Utrecht. He
+then spent three years in Paris, studying under several masters, and on
+his return to his native country received further training from
+Hieronymus Francken. In 1591 he went to Amsterdam, and four years later
+settled finally at Utrecht, where he became dean of the Gild of St Luke.
+He excelled more as a colourist than as a draughtsman, was extremely
+productive, and painted and etched historical and allegorical pictures,
+landscapes, still-life, animal pictures and flower pieces. Among his
+pupils are his four sons, Hendrick, Frederick, Cornelis and Adriaan (all
+of whom achieved considerable reputation as painters or engravers), the
+two Honthorsts and Jacob G. Cuyp.
+
+
+
+
+BLOEMEN, JAN FRANS VAN (1662-1740), Flemish painter, was born at
+Antwerp, and studied and lived in Italy. At Rome he was styled Orizonte,
+on account of his painting of distance in his landscapes, which are
+reminiscent of Gaspard Poussin and much admired. His brothers Pieter
+(1657-1719), styled Standaart (from his military pictures), and Norbert
+(1670-1746), were also well-known painters.
+
+
+
+
+BLOEMFONTEIN, capital of the Orange Free State, in 29 deg. 8' S., 26
+deg. 18' E. It is situated on the open veld, surrounded by a few low
+kopjes, 4518 ft. above the sea, 105 m. by rail E. by S. of Kimberley,
+750 N.E. by E. of Cape Town, 450 N. by E. of Port Elizabeth, and 257
+S.W. of Johannesburg.
+
+Bloemfontein is a very pleasant town, regularly laid out with streets
+running at right angles and a large central market square. Many of the
+houses are surrounded by large wooded gardens. Through the town runs the
+Bloemspruit. After a disastrous flood in 1904 the course of this spring
+was straightened and six stone bridges placed across it. There are
+several fine public buildings, mostly built of red brick and a
+fine-grained white stone quarried in the neighbourhood. The Raadzaal, a
+building in the Renaissance style, faces Market Square. Formerly the
+meeting-place of the Orange Free State Raad, it is now the seat of the
+provincial council. In front of the old Raadzaal (used as law courts) is
+a statue of President Brand. In Douglas Street is an unpretentious
+building used in turn as a church, a raadzaal, a court-house and a
+museum. In it was signed (1854) the convention which recognized the
+independence of the Free State Boers (see ORANGE FREE STATE: _History_).
+Among the churches the most important, architecturally, are the Dutch
+Reformed, a building with two spires, and the Anglican cathedral, which
+has a fine interior. The chief educational establishment is Grey
+University College, built 1906-1908 at a cost of L125,000. It stands in
+grounds of 300 acres, a mile and a half from the town. In the town is
+the original Grey College, founded in 1856 by Sir George Grey, when
+governor of Cape Colony. The post and telegraph office in Market Square
+is one of the finest buildings in the town. The public library is housed
+in a handsome building in Warden Street. Opposite it is the new national
+museum.
+
+Bloemfontein possesses few manufactures, but is the trading centre of
+the province. Having a dry healthy climate, it is a favourite
+residential town and a resort for invalids, being recommended especially
+for pulmonary disease. The mean maximum temperature is 76.7 deg. Fahr.,
+the mean minimum 45.8 deg.; the mean annual rainfall about 24 in. There
+is an excellent water-supply, obtained partly from Bloemspruit, but
+principally from the Modder river at Sanna's Post, 22 m. to the east,
+and from reservoirs at Moches Dam and Magdepoort.
+
+The population in 1904 was 33,883, of whom, including the garrison of
+3487, 15,501 were white, compared with a white population of 2077 in
+1890. The coloured inhabitants are mostly Bechuana and Basuto. Most of
+the whites are of British origin, and English is the common language of
+all, including the Dutch.
+
+The _spruit_ or spring which gives its name to the town was called after
+one of the emigrant farmers, Jan Bloem. The town dates from 1846, in
+which year Major H.D. Warden, then British resident north of the Orange,
+selected the site as the seat of his administration. When in 1854
+independence was conferred on the country the town was chosen by the
+Boers as the seat of government. It became noted for the intelligence of
+its citizens, and for the educational advantages it offered at the time
+when education among the Boers was thought of very lightly. In 1892 the
+railway connecting it with Cape Town and Johannesburg was completed.
+During the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 it was occupied by the British
+under Lord Roberts without resistance (13th of March 1900), fourteen
+days after the surrender of General Cronje at Paardeberg. In Market
+Square on the 28th of the following May the annexation of the Orange
+Free State to the British dominions was proclaimed. In 1907 the first
+session of the first parliament elected under the constitution granting
+the colony self-government was held in Bloemfontein. In 1910 when the
+colony became a province of the Union of South Africa under its old
+designation of Orange Free State, Bloemfontein was chosen as the seat of
+the Supreme Court of South Africa. Its growth as a business centre after
+the close of the war in 1902 was very marked. The rateable value
+increased from L709,000 in 1901 to L2,400,000 in 1905.
+
+
+
+
+BLOET, ROBERT (d. 1123), English bishop, was chancellor to William I.
+and Rufus. From the latter he received the see of Lincoln (1093) in
+succession to Remigius. His private character was indifferent; but he
+administered his see with skill and prudence, built largely, and kept a
+magnificent household, which served as a training-school even for the
+sons of nobles. Bloet was active in assisting Henry I. during the
+rebellion of 1102, and became that monarch's justiciar. Latterly,
+however, he fell out of favour, and, although he had been very rich, was
+impoverished by the fines which the king extorted from him. Perhaps his
+wealth was his chief offence in the king's eyes; for he was in
+attendance on Henry when seized with his last illness. He was the patron
+of the chronicler Henry of Huntingdon, whom he advanced to an
+archdeaconry.
+
+  Henry of Huntingdon and W. Malmesbury (_De Gestis Pontificum_) are
+  original authorities. See E.A. Freeman's _William Rufus_; Sir James
+  Ramsay, _The Foundations of England_, vol. ii.     (H. W. C. D.)
+
+
+
+
+BLOIS, LOUIS DE (1506-1566), Flemish mystical writer, generally known
+under the name of BLOSIUS, was born in October 1506 at the chateau of
+Donstienne, near Liege, of an illustrious family to which several
+crowned heads were allied. He was educated at the court of the
+Netherlands with the future emperor Charles V. of Germany, who remained
+to the last his staunch friend. At the age of fourteen he received the
+Benedictine habit in the monastery of Liessics in Hainaut, of which he
+became abbot in 1530. Charles V. pressed in vain upon him the
+archbishopric of Cambrai, but Blosius studiously exerted himself in the
+reform of his monastery and in the composition of devotional works. He
+died at his monastery on the 7th of January 1566.
+
+Blosius's works, which were written in Latin, have been translated into
+almost every European language, and have appealed not only to Roman
+Catholics, but to many English laymen of note, such as W.E. Gladstone
+and Lord Coleridge. The best editions of his collected works are the
+first edition by J. Frojus (Louvain, 1568), and the Cologne reprints
+(1572, 1587). His best-known works are:--the _Institutio Spiritualis_
+(Eng. trans., _A Book of Spiritual Instruction_, London, 1900);
+_Consolatio Pusillanimium_ (Eng. trans., _Comfort for the
+Faint-Hearted_, London, 1903); _Sacellum Animae Fidelis_ (Eng. trans.,
+_The Sanctuary of the Faithful Soul_, London, 1905); all these three
+works were translated and edited by Father Bertrand Wilberforce, O.P.,
+and have been reprinted several times; and especially _Speculum
+Monachorum_ (French trans. by Felicite de Lamennais, Paris, 1809; Eng.
+trans., Paris, 1676; re-edited by Lord Coleridge, London, 1871, 1872,
+and inserted in "Paternoster" series, 1901).
+
+  See Georges de Blois, _Louis de Blois, un Benedictin au XVI^eme
+  siecle_ (Paris, 1875), Eng. trans. by Lady Lovat (London, 1878, &c.).
+
+
+
+
+BLOIS, a town of central France, capital of the department of
+Loir-et-Cher, 35 m. S.W. of Orleans, on the Orleans railway between that
+city and Tours. Pop. (1906) 18,457. Situated in a thickly-wooded
+district on the right bank of the Loire, it covers the summits and
+slopes of two eminences between which runs the principal thoroughfare of
+the town named after the philosopher Denis Papin. A bridge of the 18th
+century from which it presents the appearance of an amphitheatre, unites
+Blois with the suburb of Vienne on the left bank of the river. The
+streets of the higher and older part of the town are narrow and
+tortuous, and in places so steep that means of ascent is provided by
+flights of steps. The famous chateau of the family of Orleans (see
+ARCHITECTURE: _Renaissance Architecture in France_), a fine example of
+Renaissance architecture, stands on the more westerly of the two hills.
+It consists of three main wings, and a fourth and smaller wing, and is
+built round a courtyard. The most interesting portion is the north-west
+wing, which was erected by Francis I., and contains the room where
+Henry, duke of Guise, was assassinated by order of Henry III. The
+striking feature of the interior facade is the celebrated spiral
+staircase tower, the bays of which, with their beautifully sculptured
+balustrades, project into the courtyard (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate VIII.
+fig. 84). The north-east wing, in which is the entrance to the castle,
+was built by Louis XII. and is called after him; it contains
+picture-galleries and a museum. Opposite is the Gaston wing, erected by
+Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIII., which contains a
+majestic domed staircase. In the north corner of the courtyard is the
+Salle des Etats, which, together with the donjon in the west corner,
+survives from the 13th century. Of the churches of Blois, the cathedral
+of St Louis, a building of the end of the 17th century, but in Gothic
+style, is surpassed in interest by St Nicolas, once the church of the
+abbey of St Laumer, and dating from the 12th and 13th centuries. The
+picturesqueness of the town is enhanced by many old mansions, the chief
+of which is the Renaissance Hotel d'Alluye, and by numerous fountains,
+among which that named after Louis XII. is of very graceful design. The
+prefecture, the law court, the corn-market and the fine stud-buildings
+are among the chief modern buildings.
+
+Blois is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, and a court of assizes. It
+has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a board of
+trade arbitration, a branch of the Bank of France, a communal college
+and training-colleges. The town is a market for the agricultural and
+pastoral regions of Beauce and Sologne, and has a considerable trade in
+grain, the wines of the Loire valley, and in horses and other
+live-stock. It manufactures boots and shoes, biscuits, chocolate,
+upholstering materials, furniture, machinery and earthenware, and has
+vinegar-works, breweries, leather-works and foundries.
+
+Though of ancient origin, Blois is first distinctly mentioned by Gregory
+of Tours in the 6th century, and was not of any importance till the 9th
+century, when it became the seat of a powerful countship (see below). In
+1196 Count Louis granted privileges to the townsmen; the commune, which
+survived throughout the middle ages, probably dated from this time. The
+counts of the Chatillon line resided at Blois more often than their
+predecessors, and the oldest parts of the chateau (13th century) were
+built by them. In 1429 Joan of Arc made Blois her base of operations for
+the relief of Orleans. After his captivity in England, Charles of
+Orleans in 1440 took up his residence in the chateau, where in 1462 his
+son, afterwards Louis XII., was born. In the 16th century Blois was
+often the resort of the French court. Its inhabitants included many
+Calvinists, and it was in 1562 and 1567 the scene of struggles between
+them and the supporters of the Roman church. In 1576 and 1588 Henry
+III., king of France, chose Blois as the meeting-place of the
+states-general, and in the latter year he brought about the murders of
+Henry, duke of Guise, and his brother, Louis, archbishop of Reims and
+cardinal, in the chateau, where their deaths were shortly followed by
+that of the queen-mother, Catherine de' Medici. From 1617 to 1619 Marie
+de' Medici, wife of King Henry IV., exiled from the court, lived at the
+chateau, which was soon afterwards given by Louis XIII. to his brother
+Gaston, duke of Orleans, who lived there till his death in 1660. The
+bishopric dates from the end of the 17th century. In 1814 Blois was for
+a short time the seat of the regency of Marie Louise, wife of Napoleon
+I.
+
+  See L. de la Saussaye, _Blois et ses environs_ (1873); _Histoire du
+  chateau de Blois_ (1873); L. Bergevin et A. Dupre, _Histoire de Blois_
+  (1847).
+
+
+
+
+BLOIS, COUNTSHIP OF. From 865 to about 940 the countship of Blois was
+one of those which were held in fee by the margrave of Neustria, Robert
+the Strong, and by his successors, the abbot Hugh, Odo (or Eudes),
+Robert II. and Hugh the Great. It then passed, about 940 and for nearly
+three centuries, to a new family of counts, whose chiefs, at first
+vassals of the dukes of France, Hugh the Great and Hugh Capet, became in
+987, by the accession of the Capetian dynasty to the throne of France,
+the direct vassals of the crown. These new counts were orjginally very
+powerful. With the countship of Blois they united, from 940 to 1044,
+that of Touraine, and from about 950 to 1218, and afterwards from 1269
+to 1286, the countship of Chartres remained in their possession.
+
+The counts of Blois of the house of the Theobalds (Thibauds) began with
+Theobald I., the Cheat, who became count about 940. He was succeeded by
+his son, Odo (Eudes) I., about 975. Theobald II., eldest son of Odo I.,
+became count in 996, and was succeeded by Odo II., younger son of Odo
+I., about 1005. Odo II. was one of the most warlike barons of his time.
+With the already considerable domains which he held from his ancestors,
+he united the heritage of his kinsman, Stephen I., count of Troyes. In
+1033 he disputed the crown of Burgundy with the emperor, Conrad the
+Salic, and perished in 1037 while fighting in Lorraine. He was succeeded
+in 1037 by his eldest son, Theobald III., who was defeated by the
+Angevins in 1044, and was forced to give up the town of Tours and its
+dependencies to the count of Anjou. In 1089 Stephen Henry, eldest son of
+Theobald III., became count. He took part in the first crusade, fell
+into the hands of the Saracens, and died in captivity; he married Adela,
+daughter of William I., king of England. In 1102 Stephen Henry was
+succeeded by his son, Theobald IV. the Great, who united the countship
+of Troyes with his domains in 1128. In 1135, on the death of his
+maternal uncle, Henry I., king of England, he was called to Normandy by
+the barons of the duchy, but soon renounced his claims on learning that
+his younger brother, Stephen, had just been proclaimed king of England.
+In 1152 Theobald V. the Good, second son of Theobald IV., became count;
+he died in 1191 in Syria, at the siege of Acre. His son Louis succeeded
+in 1191, took part in the fourth crusade, and after the taking of
+Constantinople was rewarded with the duchy of Nicaea. He was killed at
+the battle of Adrianople in 1205, in which year he was succeeded by his
+son, Theobald VI. the Young, who died childless. In 1218 the countship
+passed to Margaret, eldest daughter of Theobald V., and to Walter
+(Gautier) of Avesnes, her third husband.
+
+The Chatillon branch of the counts of Blois began in 1230 with Mary of
+Avesnes, daughter of Margaret of Blois and her husband, Hugh of
+Chatillon, count of St Pol. In 1241 her brother, John of Chatillon,
+became count of Blois, and was succeeded in 1279 by his daughter, Joan
+of Chatillon, who married Peter, count of Alencon, fifth son of Louis
+IX., king of France. In 1286 Joan sold the countship of Chartres to the
+king of France. Hugh of Chatillon, her first-cousin, became count of
+Blois in 1293, and was succeeded by his son, Guy I., in 1307. In 1342
+Louis II., eldest son of Guy I., died at the battle of Crecy, and his
+brother, Charles of Blois, disputed the duchy of Brittany with John of
+Montfort. Louis III., eldest son of Louis II., became count in 1346, and
+was succeeded by John II., second son of Louis II., in 1372. In 1381 Guy
+II., brother of Louis III. and John II., succeeded in 1381, but died
+childless. Overwhelmed with debt, he had sold the countship of Blois to
+Louis I., duke of Orleans, brother of King Charles VI., who took
+possession of it in 1397.
+
+In 1498 the countship of Blois was united with the crown by the
+accession of King Louis XII., grandson and second successor of Louis I.,
+duke of Orleans.
+
+  See Bernier, _Histoire de Blois_ (1682); La Saussaye, _Histoire de la
+  ville de Blois_ (1846).     (A. Lo.)
+
+
+
+
+BLOMEFIELD, FRANCIS (1705-1752), English topographer of the county of
+Norfolk, was born at Fersfield, Norfolk, on the 23rd of July 1705. On
+leaving Cambridge in 1727 he was ordained, becoming in 1729 rector of
+Hargham, Norfolk, and immediately afterwards rector of Fersfield, his
+father's family living. In 1733 he mooted the idea of a history of
+Norfolk, for which he had begun collecting material at the age of
+fifteen, and shortly afterwards, while collecting further information
+for his book, discovered some of the famous _Paston Letters_. By 1736 he
+was ready to put some of the results of his researches into type. At the
+end of 1739 the first volume of the _History of Norfolk_ was completed.
+It was printed at the author's own press, bought specially for the
+purpose. The second volume was ready in 1745. There is little doubt that
+in compiling his book Blomefield had frequent recourse to the existing
+historical collections of Le Neve, Kirkpatrick and Tanner, his own work
+being to a large extent one of expansion and addition. To Le Neve in
+particular a large share of the credit is due. When half-way through his
+third volume, Blomefield, who had come up to London in connexion with a
+special piece of research, caught smallpox, of which he died on the 16th
+of January 1752. The remainder of his work was published posthumously,
+and the whole eleven volumes were republished in London between 1805 and
+1810.
+
+
+
+
+BLOMFIELD, SIR ARTHUR WILLIAM (1829-1899), English architect, son of
+Bishop C.J. Blomfield, was born on the 6th of March 1829, and educated
+at Rugby and Trinity, Cambridge. He was then articled as an architect to
+P.C. Hardwick, and subsequently obtained a large practice on his own
+account. He became president of the Architectural Association in 1861,
+and a fellow (1867) and vice-president (1886) of the Royal Institute of
+British Architects. In 1887 he became architect to the Bank of England,
+and designed the law courts branch in Fleet Street, and he was
+associated with A.E. Street in the building of the law courts. In 1889
+he was knighted. He died on the 30th of October 1899. He was twice
+married, and brought up two sons, Charles J. Blomfield and Arthur Conran
+Blomfield, to his own profession, of which they became distinguished
+representatives. Among the numerous churches which Sir Arthur Blomfield
+designed, his work at St Saviour's, Southwark, is a notable example of
+his use of revived Gothic, and he was highly regarded as a restorer.
+
+
+
+
+BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES (1786-1857), English divine, was born on the
+29th of May 1786 at Bury St Edmunds. He was educated at the local
+grammar school and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he gained the
+Browne medals for Latin and Greek odes, and carried off the Craven
+scholarship. In 1808 he graduated as third wrangler and first medallist,
+and in the following year was elected to a fellowship at Trinity
+College. The first-fruits of his scholarship was an edition of the
+_Prometheus_ of Aeschylus in 1810; this was followed by editions of the
+_Septem contra Thebas, Persae, Choephorae_, and _Agamemnon_, of
+Callimachus, and of the fragments of Sappho, Sophron and Alcaeus.
+Blomfield, however, soon ceased to devote himself entirely to
+scholarship. He had been ordained in 1810, and held in quick succession
+the livings of Chesterford, Quarrington, Dunton, Great and Little
+Chesterford, and Tuddenham. In 1817 he was appointed private chaplain to
+Wm. Howley, bishop of London. In 1819 he was nominated to the rich
+living of St Botolph's, Bishopsgate, and in 1822 he became archdeacon of
+Colchester. Two years later he was raised to the bishopric of Chester
+where he carried through many much-needed reforms. In 1828 he was
+translated to the bishopric of London, which he held for twenty-eight
+years. During this period his energy and zeal did much to extend the
+influence of the church. He was one of the best debaters in the House of
+Lords, took a leading position in the action for church reform which
+culminated in the ecclesiastical commission, and did much for the
+extension of the colonial episcopate; and his genial and kindly nature
+made him an invaluable mediator in the controversies arising out of the
+tractarian movement. His health at last gave way, and in 1856 he was
+permitted to resign his bishopric, retaining Fulham Palace as his
+residence, with a pension of L6000 per annum. He died on the 5th of
+August 1857. His published works, exclusive of those above mentioned,
+consist of charges, sermons, lectures and pamphlets, and of a _Manual of
+Private and Family Prayers_. He was a frequent contributor to the
+quarterly reviews, chiefly on classical subjects.
+
+  See _Memoirs of Charles James Blomfield, D.D., Bishop of London, with
+  Selections from his Correspondence_, edited by his son, Alfred
+  Blomfield (1863); G.E. Biber, _Bishop Blomfield and his Times_ (1857).
+
+
+
+
+BLOMFIELD, EDWARD VALENTINE (1788-1816), English classical scholar,
+brother of Bishop C.J. Blomfield, was born at Bury St Edmunds on the
+14th of February 1788. Going to Caius College, Cambridge, he was
+thirteenth wrangler in 1811, obtained several of the classical prizes of
+the university, and became a fellow and lecturer at Emmanuel College. In
+1813 he travelled in Germany and made the acquaintance of some of the
+great scholars of Germany. On his return, he published in the _Museum
+Criticum_ (No. ii.) an interesting paper on "The Present State of
+Classical Literature in Germany." Blomfield is chiefly known by his
+translation of Matthiae's _Greek Grammar_ (1819), which was prepared for
+the press by his brother. He died on the 9th of October 1816, his early
+death depriving Cambridge of one who seemed destined to take a high
+place amongst her most brilliant classical scholars.
+
+  See "Memoir of Edward Valentine Blomfield," by Bishop Monk, in _Museum
+  Criticum_, No. vii.
+
+
+
+
+BLONDEL, DAVID (1591-1655), French Protestant clergyman, was born at
+Chalons-sur-Marne in 1591, and died on the 6th of April 1655. In 1650 he
+succeeded G.J. Vossius in the professorship of history at Amsterdam. His
+works were very numerous; in some of them he showed a remarkable
+critical faculty, as in his dissertation on Pope Joan (1647, 1657), in
+which he came to the conclusion, now universally accepted, that the
+whole story is a mere myth. Considerable Protestant indignation was
+excited against him on account of this book.
+
+
+
+
+BLONDEL, JACQUES FRANCOIS (1705-1774), French architect, began life as
+an architectural engraver, but developed into an architect of
+considerable distinction, if of no great originality. As architect to
+Louis XV. from 1755 he necessarily did much in the rococo manner,
+although it would seem that he conformed to fashion rather than to
+artistic conviction. He was among the earliest founders of schools of
+architecture in France, and for this he was distinguished by the
+Academy; but he is now best remembered by his voluminous work
+_L'Architecture francaise_, in which he was the continuator of Marot.
+The book is a precious collection of views of famous buildings, many of
+which have disappeared or been remodelled.
+
+
+
+
+BLONDIN (1824-1897), French tight-rope walker and acrobat, was born at
+St Omer, France, on the 28th of February 1824. His real name was Jean
+Francois Gravelet. When five years old he was sent to the Ecole de
+Gymnase at Lyons and, after six months' training as an acrobat, made his
+first public appearance as "The Little Wonder." His superior skill and
+grace as well as the originality of the settings of his acts, made him a
+popular favourite. He especially owed his celebrity and fortune to his
+idea of crossing Niagara Falls on a tight-rope, 1100 ft. long, 160 ft.
+above the water. This he accomplished, first in 1859, a number of times,
+always with different theatric variations: blindfold, in a sack,
+trundling a wheelbarrow, on stilts, carrying a man on his back, sitting
+down midway while he made and ate an omelette. In 1861 Blondin first
+appeared in London, at the Crystal Palace, turning somersaults on stilts
+on a rope stretched across the central transept, 170 ft. from the
+ground. In 1862 he again gave a series of performances at the Crystal
+Palace, and elsewhere in England, and on the continent. After a period
+of retirement he reappeared in 1880, his final performance being given
+at Belfast in 1896. He died at Ealing, London, on the 19th of February
+1897.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOD, the circulating fluid in the veins and arteries of animals. The
+word itself is common to Teutonic languages; the O. Eng. is _blod_, cf.
+Gothic _bloth_, Dutch _bloed_, Ger. _Blut_. It is probably ultimately
+connected with the root which appears in "blow," "bloom," meaning
+flourishing or vigorous. The Gr. word for blood, [Greek: aima], appears
+as a prefix _haemo-_ in many compound words. As that on which the life
+depends, as the supposed seat of the passions and emotions, and as that
+part which a child is believed chiefly to inherit from its parents, the
+word "blood" is used in many figurative and transferred senses; thus "to
+have his blood," "to fire the blood," "cold blood," "blood-royal,"
+"half" or "whole blood," &c. The expression "blue blood" is from the
+Spanish _sangre azul._ The nobles of Castile claimed to be free from all
+admixture with the darker blood of Moors or Jews, a proof being supposed
+to lie in the blue veins that showed in their fairer skins. The common
+English expletive "bloody," used as an adjective or adverb, has been
+given many fanciful origins; it has been supposed to be a contraction of
+"by our Lady," or an adaptation of the oath common during the 17th
+century, "'sblood," a contraction of "God's blood." The exact origin of
+the expression is not quite clear, but it is certainly merely an
+application of the adjective formed from "blood." The _New English
+Dictionary_ suggests that it refers to the use of "blood" for a young
+rowdy of aristocratic birth, which was common at the end of the 17th
+century, and later became synonymous with "dandy," "buck," &c.; "bloody
+drunk" meant therefore "drunk as a blood," "drunk as a lord." The
+expression came into common colloquial use as a mere intensive, and was
+so used till the middle of the 18th century. There can be little doubt
+that the use of the word has been considerably affected by the idea of
+blood as the vital principle, and therefore something strong, vigorous,
+and parallel as an intensive epithet with such expressions as
+"thundering," "awfully" and the like.
+
+
+ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
+
+In all living organisms, except the most minute, only a minimum number
+of cells can come into immediate contact with the general world, whence
+is to be drawn the food supply for the whole organism. Hence those
+cells--and they are by far the most numerous--which do not lie on the
+food-absorbing surface, must gain their nutriment by some indirect
+means. Further, each living cell produces waste products whose
+accumulation would speedily prove injurious to the cell, hence they must
+be constantly removed from its immediate neighbourhood and indeed from
+the organism as a whole. In this instance again, only a few cells can
+lie on a surface whence such materials can be directly discharged to the
+exterior. Hence the main number of the cells of the organism must depend
+upon some mechanism by which the waste products can be carried away from
+them to that group of cells whose duty it is to modify them, or
+discharge them from the body. These two ends are attained by the aid of
+a circulating fluid, a fluid which is constantly flowing past every cell
+of the body. From it the cells extract the food materials they require
+for their sustenance, and into it they discharge the waste materials
+resulting from their activity. This circulating medium is the blood.
+
+Whilst undoubtedly the two functions of this circulating fluid above
+given are the more prominent, there are yet others of great importance.
+For instance, it is known that many tissues as a result of their activity
+produce certain chemical substances which are of essential importance to
+the life of other tissue cells. These substances--_internal secretions_
+as they are termed--are carried to the second tissue by the blood stream.
+Again, many instances are known in which two distant tissues communicate
+with one another by means of chemical messengers, bodies termed
+_hormones_ ([Greek: ormaein], to stir up), which are produced by one
+group of cells, and sent to the other group to excite them to activity.
+Here, also, the path by which such messengers travel is the blood stream.
+A further and most important manner in which the circulating fluid is
+utilized in the life of an animal is seen in the way in which it is
+employed in protecting the body should it be invaded by micro-organisms.
+
+Hence it is clear that the blood is of the most vital importance to the
+healthy life of the body. But the fact that it is present as a
+circulating medium exposes the animal to a great danger, viz. that it
+may be lost should any vessel carrying it become ruptured. This is
+constantly liable to happen, but to minimize as far as possible any such
+loss, the blood is endowed with the peculiar property of _clotting_,
+i.e. of setting to a solid or stiff jelly by means of which the orifices
+of the torn vessels become plugged and the bleeding stayed.
+
+The performance of these essential functions depends upon the
+maintenance of a continuous flow past all tissue cells, and this is
+attained by the circulatory mechanism, consisting of a central pump, the
+heart, and a system of ramifying tubes, the arteries, through which the
+blood is forced from the heart to every tissue (see VASCULAR SYSTEM). A
+second set of tubes, the veins, collects the blood and returns it to the
+heart. In many invertebrates the circulating fluid is actually poured
+into the tissue spaces from the open terminals of the arteries. From
+these spaces it is in turn drained away by the veins. Such a system is
+termed a _haemolymph system_ and the circulating fluid the haemolymph.
+Here the essential point gained is that the fluid is brought into direct
+contact with the tissue cells. In all vertebrates, the ends of the
+arteries are united to the commencements of the veins by a plexus of
+extremely minute tubes, the capillaries, consequently the blood is
+always retained within closed tubes and never comes into contact with
+the tissue cells. It is while passing through the capillaries that the
+blood performs its work; here the blood stream is at its slowest and is
+brought nearest to the tissue cell, only being separated from it by the
+extremely thin wall of the capillary and by an equally thin layer of
+fluid. Through this narrow barrier the interchanges between cell and
+blood take place.
+
+The advantage gained in the vertebrate animal by retaining the blood in
+a closed system of tubes lies in the great diminution of resistance to
+the flow of blood, and the consequent great increase in rate of flow
+past the tissue cells. Hence any food stuffs which can travel quickly
+through the capillary wall to the tissue cell outside can be supplied in
+proportionately greater quantity within a given time, without requiring
+any very great increase in the concentration of that substance in the
+blood. Conversely, any highly diffusible substance may be withdrawn
+from the tissues by the blood at a similarly increased pace. These
+conditions are more peculiarly of importance for the supply of oxygen
+and the removal of carbonic acid-especially for the former, because the
+amount of it which can be carried by the blood is small. But as the rate
+at which a tissue lives, _i.e_. its activity, depends upon the rate of
+its chemical reactions, and as these are fundamentally oxidative, the
+more rapidly oxygen is carried to a tissue the more rapidly it can live,
+and the greater the amount of work it can perform within a given time.
+The rate of supply is of much less importance in the case of the other
+food substances because they are far more soluble in water, so that the
+supply in sufficient quantity can easily be met by a relatively slow
+blood flow. Hence we find that the gradual evolution of the animal
+kingdom goes hand in hand with the gradual development of a greater
+oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and an increase in the rate of its
+flow.
+
+In the groundwork of a tissue are a number of spaces--the _tissue
+spaces_. They are filled with fluid and intercommunicate freely, finally
+connecting with a number of fine tubes, the lymphatics, through which
+excess of fluid or any solid particles present are drained away. The
+contained fluid acts as an intermediary between the blood and the cell;
+from it, the cell takes its various food stuffs, these having in the
+first instance been derived from the blood, and into it the cell
+discharges its waste products. On the course of the lymphatics a number
+of typical structures, the lymphatic glands, are placed, and the lymph
+has to pass through these structures where any deleterious products are
+retained, and the fluid thus purified is drained away by further
+lymphatics and finally returned to the blood. Thus there is a second
+stream of fluid from the tissues, but one vastly slower than that of the
+blood. The flow is too slow for it to act as the vehicle for the removal
+of those waste products (carbonic acid, &c.) which must of necessity be
+removed quickly. These must be removed by the blood. The same is true
+for the main number of other waste products, which, however, being of
+small molecular size are readily absorbed into the blood stream.
+
+But in addition to fluid, the tissue spaces may at times be found to
+contain solid matter in the form of particles, which may represent the
+debris of destroyed cells, or which are, as is quite commonly the case,
+micro-organisms. Apparently such material cannot be removed from a
+tissue by absorption into the blood stream--indeed in the case of living
+organisms such an absorption would in many instances rapidly prove
+fatal, and special provision is made to prevent such an accident. These,
+therefore, are made to travel along the lymphatic channels, and so,
+before gaining access to the blood stream and thus to the body
+generally, have to run the gauntlet of the protective mechanism provided
+by the lymphatic glands, where in the major number of cases they are
+readily destroyed.
+
+Hence we see that first and foremost we have to regard the blood as a
+food-carrier to all the cells of the body; in the second place as the
+vehicle carrying away most if not all the waste products; in a third
+direction, it is acting as a means for transmitting chemical substances
+manufactured in one tissue to distant cells of the body for whose
+nutrition or excitation they may be essential; and in addition to these
+important functions there is yet another whose value it is almost
+impossible to overestimate, for it plays the essential role in rendering
+the animal immune to the attacks of invading organisms. The question of
+immunity is discussed elsewhere, and it is sufficient merely to indicate
+the chief means by which the blood subserves this essential protective
+mechanism. Should living organisms find their way into the surface cells
+or within the tissue spaces, the body fights them in a number of ways,
+(1) It may produce one or more chemical substances capable of
+neutralizing the toxic material produced by the organism. (2) It may
+produce chemical substances which act as poisons to the micro-organism,
+either paralysing it or actually killing it. Or (3) the organism may be
+attacked and taken up into the body of wandering cells, _e.g_. certain
+of the leucocytes, and then digested by them. Such cells are therefore
+called phagocytes ([Greek: Phagein], to eat). Thus, by its power of
+reacting in these ways the body has become capable of withstanding the
+attacks of many different varieties of micro-organisms, of both animal
+and vegetable origin.
+
+_General Properties._--Blood is an opaque, viscid liquid of bright red
+colour possessing a distinct and characteristic odour, especially when
+warm. Its opacity is due to the presence of a very large number of solid
+particles, the blood corpuscles, having a higher refractive index than
+that of the liquid in which they float. The specific gravity in man
+averages about 1.055. The specific gravity of the liquid portion, the
+plasma (Gr. [Greek: plasma], something formed or moulded, [Greek:
+plassein], to mould), is about 1.027, whilst that of the corpuscles
+amounts to 1.088. To litmus it reacts as a weak alkali.
+
+_Blood Plasma._--The plasma is a solution in water of a varied number of
+substances, and as a solvent it confers on the blood its power of acting
+as a carrier of food stuffs and waste products. One important food
+substance, oxygen, is, however, only partly carried in solution, being
+mainly combined with haemoglobin in the red corpuscles. The food stuffs
+carried by the plasma are proteins, carbohydrates, salts and water. The
+main waste products dissolved in it are ammonium carbonate, urea,
+urates, xanthin bases, creatin and small amounts of other nitrogenous
+bodies, carbonic acid as carbonates, other carbon compounds such as
+cholesterin, lecithin and a number of other substances. Thus, if we take
+mammalian blood as a type, the plasma would have the following
+approximate composition:--
+
+  In 1000 grms. plasma--
+    Water                                            901.51
+    Substances not vaporizing at 120 deg. C.--
+      Fibrin                                  8.06
+      Other proteins and organic substances  81.92
+      Inorganic substances--
+        Chlorine                     3.536
+        Sulphuric acid               0.129
+        Phosphoric acid              0.145
+        Potassium                    0.314
+        Sodium                       3.410
+        Calcium                      0.298
+        Magnesium                    0.218
+        Oxygen                       0.455
+                                     -----    8.505
+                                              -----   98.49
+                                                    -------
+                                                    1000.00
+
+_Proteins._--The proteins of the blood plasma belong to the two classes
+of the albumins and the globulins. The globulins present are named
+fibrinogen and serum-globulin; as its name implies, the chief
+physiological property of fibrinogen is that it can give rise to fibrin,
+the solid substance formed when blood clots. It possesses the typical
+properties of a globulin, i.e. it coagulates on heating (in this
+instance at a temperature of 56 deg.C.), and is precipitated by half
+saturating its solution with ammonium sulphate. It differs from other
+globulins in that it is less soluble. It is only present in very small
+quantities, 0.4%. The other globulin, serum-globulin, is not coagulated
+until 75 deg.C. is reached, and we now know that it is in reality a
+mixture of several proteins, but so far these have not been completely
+separated from one another and obtained in a pure form. On dialysing a
+solution of serum-globulin a part is precipitated, and this portion has
+been termed the eu-globulin fraction, the remainder being known, in
+contradistinction, as the pseudo-globulin. Again, on diluting a solution
+and adding a small amount of acetic acid a precipitate is formed which
+in some respects differs from the remainder of the globulin present.
+Whether in these two instances we are dealing with approximately pure
+substances is extremely doubtful. A further important point in connexion
+with the chemistry of the globulins is that dextrose may be found among
+their decomposition products, i.e. that a part of it, or possibly the
+whole, possesses a glucoside character.
+
+Serum-albumin gives all the typical colour and precipitation reactions
+of the albumins. If plasma be weakly acidified with sulphuric acid, then
+treated with crystals of ammonium sulphate until a slight precipitate
+forms, filtered and the filtrate allowed to evaporate very slowly,
+typical crystals of serum-albumin may form. According to many it is a
+uniform and specific substance, but others hold the view that it
+consists of at least three distinct substances, as shown by the fact
+that if a solution be gradually heated coagulation will occur at three
+different temperatures, viz. at 73 deg., 77 deg. and 84 deg. C. On the
+other hand the close agreement between different analyses of even the
+amorphous preparations points to there being but one serum-albumin.
+
+When blood clots two new proteins make their appearance in the fluid
+part of the blood, or serum, as it is now called. The first of these is
+fibrin ferment (for its origin see section on _Clotting_ below). The
+other, fibrinoglobulin, possesses all the typical characteristics of the
+globulins and coagulates at 64 deg. C.
+
+_Carbohydrates._--Three several carbohydrates are described as occurring
+in plasma, viz. glycogen, animal gum and dextrose. If glycogen is
+present in solution in the plasma it is there in very small quantities
+only, and has probably arisen from the destruction of the white blood
+corpuscles, since some leucocytes undoubtedly contain glycogen. A small
+amount of carbohydrate having the formula for starch and yielding a
+reducing sugar on hydrolysis with acid has also been described. The
+constant carbohydrate constituent of plasma, however, is dextrose. This
+is present to the approximate amount of 0.15% in arterial blood. The
+amount may be much greater in the blood of the portal vein during
+carbohydrate absorption, and according to some observers there is less
+in venous than in arterial blood, but the difference is small and falls
+within the error of observation. The statement that when no absorption
+is taking place the blood of the hepatic vein is richer in dextrose than
+that of the portal vein (Bernard) is denied by Pavy.
+
+_Fats._--Plasma or serum is as a rule quite clear, but after a meal rich
+in fats it may become quite milky owing to the presence of neutral fats
+in a very fine state of subdivision. This suspended fat rapidly
+disappears from the blood after fat absorption has ceased. To some
+extent it varies in composition with that of the fat absorbed, but
+usually consists of the glycerides of the common fatty acids--palmitic,
+stearic and oleic. In addition, there is a small amount of fatty acid in
+solution in the plasma. As to the form in which this occurs there is
+some uncertainty. It is possibly present as a soap or even as a neutral
+fat, since a little can be dissolved in plasma, the solvent substance
+being probably protein or cholesterin. Fatty acids also appear to be
+present to some extent combined with cholesterin forming cholesterin
+esters (about 0.06%).
+
+_Other Organic Compounds._--In addition to the substances above
+described, belonging to the three main classes of food stuffs, there are
+still other organic bodies present in plasma in small amounts, which for
+convenience we may classify as non-nitrogenous and nitrogenous. Among
+the former may be mentioned lactic acid, glycerin, a lipochrome, and
+probably many other substances of a similar type whose separation has
+not yet been effected.
+
+The non-protein nitrogenous constituents consist of the following:
+ammonia as carbonate or carbamate (0.2 to 0.6%), urea (0.02 to 0.05%),
+creatine, creatinine, uric acid, xanthine, hypoxanthine and occasionally
+hippuric acid. Three ferments are also described as being present: (1) a
+glycolytic ferment exerting an action upon dextrose; (2) a lipase or
+fat-splitting ferment; and (3) a diastase capable of converting starch
+into sugar.
+
+_Salts._--The saline constituents of plasma comprise chlorides,
+phosphates, carbonates and possibly sulphates, of sodium, potassium,
+calcium and magnesium. The most abundant metal is sodium and the most
+abundant acid is hydrochloric. These two are present in sufficient
+amount to form about 0.65% of sodium chloride. The phosphate is present
+to about 0.02%. Sulphuric acid is always present if the blood has been
+calcined for the purposes of the analysis, and may then be present to
+about 0.013%. This is, however, probably produced during the destruction
+of the protein, since it has been shown that no sulphate can be removed
+from normal plasma by dialysis. The amount of potassium present (0.03%)
+is less than one-tenth of that of the sodium, and the quantities of
+calcium and magnesium are even less.
+
+_Formed Elements._--When viewed under the microscope the main number of
+these are seen to be small yellow bodies of very uniform size, size and
+shape varying, however, in different animals. When observed in bulk they
+have a red colour, their presence in fact giving the typical colour to
+blood. These are the _red blood corpuscles_ or _erythrocytes_ (Gr.
+[Greek: erythros], red). Mingled with them in the blood are a smaller
+number of corpuscles which possess no colour and have therefore been
+called _white blood corpuscles_ or _leucocytes_ (Gr. [Greek: leukos],
+white). Lastly, there are present a large number of small lens-shaped
+structures, less in number than the red corpuscles, and much more
+difficult to distinguish. These are known as _blood platelets_.
+
+_Red Corpuscles._--These are present in very large numbers and, under
+normal conditions, all possess exactly the same appearance. With rare
+exceptions their shape is that of a biconcave disk with bevelled edges,
+the size varying somewhat in different animals, as is seen in the
+following table which gives their diameters:--
+
+  Man       0.0075 mm.
+  Dog       0.0073 mm.
+  Rabbit    0.0069 mm.
+  Cat       0.0065 mm.
+  Goat      0.0041 mm.
+
+The coloured corpuscles of amphibia as well as of nearly all vertebrates
+below mammals are biconvex and elliptical. The following are the
+dimensions of some of the more common:--
+
+  Pigeon      0.0147 mm. long by 0.0065 mm. wide.
+  Frog        0.0223  "     "    0.0157  "    "
+  Newt        0.0293  "     "    0.0195  "    "
+  Proteus     0.0580  "     "    0.0350  "    "
+  Amphiuma    0.0770  "     "    0.0460  "    "
+
+Their number also varies as follows:--
+
+  Man       4,000,000 to  5,000,000 per cub. mm.
+  Goat      9,000,000 to 10,000,000    "     "
+  Sheep    13,000,000 to 14,000,000    "     "
+  Birds     1,000,000 to  4,000,000    "     "
+  Fish        250,000 to  2,000,000    "     "
+  Frog        500,000 per cub. mm.
+  Proteus      36,000     "    "
+
+In mammals they are apparently homogeneous in structure, have no
+nucleus, but possess a thin envelope. Their specific gravity is
+distinctly higher than that of the plasma (1.088), so that if clotting
+has been prevented, blood on standing yields a large deposit which may
+form as much as half the total volume of the blood.
+
+_Chemical Composition._--On destruction the red corpuscles yield two
+chief proteins, haemoglobin and a nucleo-protein, and a number of other
+substances similar to those usually obtained on the break-down of any
+cellular tissue, such for instance as lecithin, cholesterin and
+inorganic salts. The most important protein is the haemoglobin. To it
+the corpuscle owes its distinctive property of acting as an oxygen
+carrier, for it possesses the power of combining chemically with oxygen
+and of yielding up that same oxygen whenever there is a decrease in the
+concentration of the oxygen in the solvent. Thus in a given solution of
+haemoglobin the amount of it which is combined with oxygen depends
+absolutely on the oxygen concentration. The greatest dissociation of
+oxyhaemoglobin occurs as the oxygen tension falls from about 40 to 20
+mm. of mercury. That the oxygen forms a definite compound with the
+haemoglobin is proved by the fact that haemoglobin thoroughly saturated
+with oxygen (oxyhaemoglobin) has a definite absorption spectrum showing
+two bands between the D and E lines, whilst haemoglobin from which the
+oxygen has been completely removed only gives one band between those
+lines. In association with this, oxyhaemoglobin has a typical bright red
+colour, whereas haemoglobin is dark purple. A further striking
+characteristic of haemoglobin is that it contains iron in its molecule.
+The amount present, though small bears a perfectly definite quantitative
+relation to the amount of oxygen with which the haemoglobin is capable
+of combining (two atoms of oxygen to one of iron). One gram of
+haemoglobin crystals can combine with 1.34 cc. of oxygen. On destruction
+with an acid or alkali, haemoglobin yields a pigment portion, haematin,
+and a protein portion, globin, the latter belonging to the group of the
+histones (Gr. [Greek: istos], web, tissue). In this cleavage the iron
+is found in the pigment. By the use of a strong acid, it may be made to
+yield iron-free pigment, the remainder of the molecule being much
+further decomposed.
+
+_Destruction and Formation._--In the performance of their work the
+corpuscles gradually deteriorate. They are then destroyed, chiefly in
+the liver, but whether the whole of this process is effected by the
+liver alone is not decided. It is proved, however, that the destruction
+of the haemoglobin is entirely effected there. It was for a long time
+considered to be one of the functions of the spleen to examine the red
+corpuscles and to destroy or in some way to mark those no longer fitted
+for the performance of their work. It is proved that the destruction of
+the haemoglobin is entirely effected in the liver, since both the main
+cleavage products may be traced to this organ, which discharges the
+pigmentary portion as the bile pigment, but retains the iron-protein
+moiety at any rate for a time. The amount of bile pigment eliminated
+during the day indicates that the destruction must be considerable, and
+since the number of corpuscles does not vary there must be an equivalent
+formation of new ones. This takes place in the red bone-marrow, where
+special cells are provided for their continuous production. In embryonic
+life their formation is effected in another way. Certain mesodermic
+cells, resembling those of the connective tissue, collect masses of
+haemoglobin, and from these elaborate red blood corpuscles which thus
+come to lie in the fluid part of the cell. By a canalization of the
+branches of these cells which unite with branches of other cells the
+precursors of the blood capillaries are formed.
+
+_White Blood Corpuscles._--These constitute the second important group
+of formed elements in the blood, and number about 12,000 to 20,000 per
+cubic mm. They are typical wandering cells carried to all parts of the
+body by the blood stream, but often leave that stream and gain the
+tissue spaces by passing through the capillary wall. They exist in many
+varieties and were first classified according as, under the microscope,
+they presented a granular appearance or appeared clear. The cells were
+also distinguished from one another according as they possessed fine or
+coarse granules. The granules are confined to the protoplasm of the
+cell, and it has been shown that they differ chemically, because their
+staining properties vary. Thus, some granules select an acid stain, and
+the cells containing them are then designated _acidophile_ or
+_eosinophile_;[1] other granules select a basic stain and are called
+_basophile_, while yet others prefer a neutral stain (_neutrophile_).
+
+In human blood the following varieties of leucocytes may be
+distinguished:--
+
+1. _The Polymorphonuclear Cell._--This possesses a nucleus of very
+complicated outline and a fair amount of protoplasm filled with numbers
+of fine granules which stain with eosin. They vary in size but are
+usually about 0.01 mm. in diameter. They are highly amoeboid and
+phagocytic, and form about 70% of the total number of leucocytes.
+
+2. _The Coarsely Granular Eosinophile Cell._--These large cells contain
+a number of well-defined granules which stain deeply with acid dyes. The
+nucleus is crescentic. The cells amount to about 2% of the total number
+of leucocytes, though the proportion varies considerably. They are
+actively amoeboid.
+
+3. _The Lymphocyte._--This is the smallest leucocyte, being only about
+0.0065 mm. in diameter. It has a large spherical nucleus with a small
+rim of clear protoplasm surrounding it. It forms from 15 to 40% of the
+number of leucocytes, and is less markedly amoeboid than the other
+varieties.
+
+4. _The Hyaline_ (Gr. [Greek: hualinos], glassy, crystalline, [Greek:
+ualos], glass) _cell or macrocyte_ (Gr. [Greek: makros], long or
+large).--This is a cell similar to the last with a spherical, oval or
+indented nucleus, but it has much more protoplasm. It constitutes about
+4% of all the leucocytes and is highly amoeboid and phagocytic.
+
+5. _The Basophile Cell_.--This possesses a spherical nucleus and the
+protoplasm contains a small number of granules staining deeply with
+basic dyes. It is rarely found in the blood of adults except in certain
+diseases.
+
+_Functions._--These cells act as scavengers or as destroyers of living
+organisms that may have gained access to the tissue spaces. They play an
+important part in the chemical processes underlying the phenomena of
+immunity, and some at least are of importance in starting the process of
+clotting.
+
+They are constantly suffering destruction in the performance of their
+work. Many, too, are lost to the body by their passage through the
+different mucous surfaces. Their origin is still obscure in many points.
+The lymphocytes are derived from lymphoid tissue, wherever it exists in
+the different parts of the body. The polymorphonuclear and eosinophile
+cells are derived from the bone-marrow, each by division of specific
+mother cells located in that tissue. The macrocyte is believed by many
+to represent a further stage in the development of the lymphocyte. Their
+rate of formation may be influenced by a variety of conditions--for
+instance, they are found to vary in number according to the diet and
+also, to a considerable extent, in disease.
+
+_Platelets._--The platelets or thrombocytes (Gr. [Greek: thrombos],
+clot) are the third class of formed elements occurring in mammalian
+blood. There are still, however, many observers who consider that
+platelets are not present in the normal circulating blood, but only make
+their appearance after it has been shed or otherwise injured. They are
+minute lens-shaped structures, and may amount to as many as 800,000 per
+cubic mm. Under certain conditions, examination has shown that they are
+protoplasmic and amoeboid, and that each one contains a central body of
+different staining properties from the remainder of the structure. This
+has been regarded by some as a nucleus. On being brought into contact
+with a foreign surface they adhere to it firmly, very rapidly passing
+through a number of phases resulting ultimately in the formation of
+granular debris. In shed blood they tend to collect into groups, and
+during clotting, fibrin filaments may be observed to shoot out from
+these clumps.
+
+_Variations in the Blood of different Animals._--If we contrast the
+blood of different animals of the vertebrate class we find striking
+differences both in microscopic appearances and in chemical properties.
+In the first place, the corpuscles vary in amount and in kind. Thus,
+whilst in a mammal the corpuscles form 40 to 50% of the total volume of
+the blood, in the lower vertebrates the volume is much less, e.g. in
+frogs as low as 25% and in fishes even lower. The deficiency is chiefly
+in the red corpuscles, the ratio of white to red increasing as we
+examine the blood from animals lower in the scale. The corpuscles
+themselves are also found to vary, especially the red ones. In the
+mammal they are biconcave disks with bevelled edges, they do not contain
+a nucleus so that they are not cells. In the bird they are larger,
+ellipsoidal in shape and have a large nucleus in the centre of the cell.
+In reptiles and amphibia the red corpuscles are also nucleated, but the
+_stroma_ portion containing the haemoglobin is arranged in a thickened
+annular part encircling the nucleus. When seen from the flat they are
+oval in section. In fishes the corpuscles show very much the same
+structure. A further very significant difference to be observed between
+the bloods of different vertebrates is in the amount of haemoglobin they
+contain; thus in the lower classes, fishes and amphibia, not only is the
+number of red corpuscles small but the amount of haemoglobin each
+corpuscle contains is relatively low. The concentration of the
+haemoglobin in the corpuscles attains its maximum in the mammal and the
+bird. Since the haemoglobin is practically the same from whatever animal
+it is obtained and can only combine with the same amount of oxygen, the
+oxygen-capacity of the blood of any vertebrate is in direct proportion
+to the amount of haemoglobin it contains. Therefore we see that as we
+ascend the scale in the vertebrate series the oxygen-carrying capacity
+of the blood rises. This increase was a natural preliminary condition
+for the progress of evolution. In order that a more active animal might
+be developed the main essential was that the chemical processes of the
+cell should be carried out more rapidly, and as these processes are
+fundamentally oxidative, increased activity entails an increased rate
+of supply of oxygen. This latter has been brought about in the animal
+kingdom in two ways, first by an increase in the concentration of the
+haemoglobin of the blood effected by an increase both in the number of
+corpuscles and in the amount of haemoglobin contained in each, and
+secondly by an increase in the rate at which the blood has been made to
+pass through the tissues. In the lower vertebrates the blood pressure is
+low and the haemoglobin content of the blood is low, consequently both
+rate of blood-flow and oxygen-content are low. In contrast with this, in
+higher vertebrates the blood pressure is high and the haemoglobin
+content of the blood is high, consequently both rate of blood-flow and
+oxygen-content are high. We must associate with this important step in
+evolution the means employed for the more rapid absorption of oxygen and
+for its increased rate of discharge to the tissues, the most important
+features of which are a diminution in the size of the corpuscle and the
+attainment of its peculiar shape, both resulting in the production of a
+relatively enormous corpuscular surface in a unit volume of blood.
+
+Variations are also found in the white corpuscles as well as in the red,
+but these differences are not so striking and lie chiefly in unimportant
+details of structure of individual cells. Enormous variations are to be
+found in different species of mammals, but the cells generally conform
+to the types of secreting cells or phagocytes.
+
+The platelets also differ in the different species. In the frog, for
+instance, many are spindle-shaped and contain a nucleus-like structure.
+Birds' blood is stated to contain no platelets. The variations in number
+of these bodies have not been satisfactorily ascertained on account of
+the difficulties involved in any attempt to preserve them and to render
+them visible under the microscope.
+
+Differences are also found in the chemical composition of the plasma.
+The chief variation is in the amount of protein present, which attains
+its maximum concentration in birds and mammals, while in reptiles,
+amphibia and fishes it is much less. The bloods of the latter two
+classes are much more watery than that of the mammal. Moreover, it has
+been proved that there are specific differences in the chemical nature
+of the various proteins present even between different varieties of
+mammals. Thus the ratio of the globulin fraction to the albumin fraction
+may vary considerably, and again, one or other of the proteins may be
+quite specific for the animal from which it is derived.
+
+_Clotting._--If a sample of blood be withdrawn from an animal, within a
+short time it undergoes a series of changes and becomes converted into a
+stiff jelly. It is said to _clot_. If the process is watched it is seen
+to start first from the surfaces where it is in contact with any foreign
+body; thence it extends through the blood until the whole mass sets
+solid. A short time elapses before this process commences--a time
+dependent upon two chief conditions, viz. the temperature at which the
+blood is kept and the extent of foreign surface with which it is brought
+into contact. Thus in a mammal the blood clots most quickly at a
+temperature a little above body temperature, while if the blood be
+cooled quickly the clotting is considerably delayed and in the case of
+some animals altogether prevented. For example, human blood kept at body
+temperature clots in three minutes, while if allowed to cool to room
+temperature the first sign of clotting may not make its appearance until
+eight minutes after its removal from the body. The process of clotting
+is also considerably accelerated by making the blood flow in a thin
+stream over a wide surface. The full completion of the process occupies
+some time if the blood be kept quiet, but ultimately the whole mass of
+the blood becomes converted into a solid. At this stage the containing
+vessel may be inverted without any drop of fluid escaping. A short time
+after this stage has been reached drops of a yellow fluid appear upon
+the surface and, increasing in size and number, run together to form a
+layer of fluid separated from the clot. This fluid is termed _serum_;
+its appearance is due to the contraction of the clot, which thus
+squeezes out the fluid from between its solid constituents. Contraction
+continues for about twenty-four hours, at the end of which time a large
+quantity (one-third or more of the total volume) of serum may have been
+separated. The clot contracts uniformly, thus preserving throughout the
+same general shape as that of the vessel in which the blood has been
+collected. Finally the clot swims freely in the serum which it has
+expressed.
+
+The cause of the clot formation has been found to be the precipitation
+of a solid from the liquid plasma of the blood. This solid is in the
+form of very minute threads and hence is termed _fibrin_. The threads
+traverse the mass of blood in every possible direction, interlacing and
+thus confining in their meshes all the solid elements of the blood. Soon
+after their deposition they begin to contract, and as the meshwork they
+form is very minute they carry with them all the corpuscles of the
+blood. These with the fibrin form the shrunken clot.
+
+If the rate at which blood clots be retarded either by cooling or by
+some other process the corpuscles may have time to settle, partially or
+completely, in which case distinct layers may form. The lowermost of
+these contains chiefly the red corpuscles, the second layer may be grey
+owing to the high percentage of leucocytes present, while a third,
+marked by opalescence only, may be very rich in platelets. Above these a
+clear layer of fluid may be found. This is _plasma_. The formation of
+these layers depends solely upon the rate of sedimentation of these
+elements, the rate depending partly upon differences in specific
+gravity, and partly upon the tendency the corpuscles have to run into
+clumps. Horse's blood offers one of the best instances of the clumping
+of red corpuscles, and in this animal sedimentation of the red
+corpuscles is most rapid.
+
+If now such a sedimented blood is allowed to clot the process is found
+to start in the middle two layers, i.e. in those containing the white
+corpuscles and platelets. From these layers it spreads through the rest
+of the liquid, being most retarded, however, in the red corpuscle layer,
+and particularly so if the sedimentation has been very complete. Not
+only does the clotting process start from the layers containing the
+leucocytes and platelets, but in them it also proceeds more quickly.
+These observations clearly indicate that the clotting process is
+initiated by some change starting from these elements.
+
+The object of the clotting of the blood is quite clear. It is to
+prevent, as far as possible, any loss of blood when there is an injury
+to an animal's vessels. The shed blood becomes converted into a solid,
+and this, extending into the interior of the ruptured vessel, forms a
+plug and thus arrests the bleeding. It is found that clotting is
+especially accelerated whenever the blood touches a foreign tissue, for
+instance, the outer layers of a torn blood-vessel wall, muscle tissue,
+&c., i.e. in exactly those conditions in which rapid clotting becomes
+of the greatest importance. Yet another very pregnant fact in connexion
+with clotting is that if an animal be bled rapidly and the blood
+collected in successive samples it is found that those collected last
+clot most quickly. Hence the more excessive the haemorrhage in any case,
+the greater becomes the onset of the natural cure for the bleeding, viz.
+clotting.
+
+When we begin to inquire into the nature of clotting we have to
+determine in the first place whence the fibrin is derived. It has long
+been known that two chemical substances at least are requisite for its
+production. Thus certain fluids are known, e.g. some samples of
+hydrocele or pericardial fluid, which will not clot spontaneously, but
+will clot rapidly when a small quantity of serum or of an old blood-clot
+is added to it. The constituent substance which is present in the
+first-named fluids is known as fibrinogen, and that present in the serum
+or the clot is known as fibrin-ferment or _thrombin_.
+
+Fibrinogen is present in living blood dissolved in the plasma; it is
+also present in such fluids as hydrocele or pericardial effusions,
+which, though capable of clotting, do not clot spontaneously. Thrombin,
+on the other hand, does not exist in living blood, but only makes its
+appearance there after blood is shed. It is not yet certain what is the
+nature of the final reaction between fibrinogen and thrombin. The
+possibilities are, that thrombin may act--(1) by acting upon fibrinogen,
+which it in some way converts into fibrin, (2) by uniting with
+fibrinogen to form fibrin, or (3) by yielding part of itself to the
+fibrinogen which thus becomes converted into fibrin. The experimental
+study of the rate of fibrin formation, when different strengths of
+thrombin solutions are allowed to act upon a fibrinogen solution, leads
+us to the probable conclusion that the first of these three
+possibilities is the correct one, and that thrombin therefore exerts a
+true ferment action upon fibrinogen. It is known that in the reaction,
+in addition to the formation of fibrin, yet another protein makes its
+appearance. This is known as fibrinoglobulin, and apparently it arises
+from the fibrinogen, so that the change would be one of cleavage into
+fibrin and fibrinoglobulin. It is very noteworthy that although the
+amount of fibrin formed during the clotting appears very bulky, yet the
+actual weight is extremely small, not more than 0.4 grms. from 100 cc.
+of blood.
+
+Having ascertained that the clotting is due to the action of thrombin
+upon fibrinogen, we now see that the next step to be explained is the
+origin of thrombin. It has been shown that the final step in its
+formation consists in the combination of another substance, termed
+prothrombin, with calcium. Any soluble calcium salt is found to be
+effective in this respect, and conversely the removal of soluble calcium
+(e.g. by sodium oxalate) will prevent the formation of thrombin and
+therefore of clotting.
+
+In the next place it can be proved that prothrombin does not exist as
+such in circulating blood, so that the problem becomes an inquiry as to
+the origin of prothrombin. Experiment has shown that in its turn
+prothrombin arises from yet another precursor, which is named
+thrombogen, and that thrombogen also is not to be found in circulating
+blood but only makes its appearance after the blood is shed. The
+conversion of thrombogen into prothrombin has been proved to be due to
+the action of a second ferment which has been named thrombokinase, and
+this latter is again absent from living blood. Hence the question
+arises, whence are derived thrombogen and thrombokinase? In the study of
+this question it has been found that if the blood of birds be collected
+direct from an artery through a perfectly clean cannula into a clean and
+dust-free glass vessel, it does not clot spontaneously. The plasma
+collected from such blood is found to contain thrombogen but no
+thrombokinase. A somewhat similar plasma may be prepared from a mammal's
+blood by collecting samples of blood from an artery into vessels which
+have been thoroughly coated with paraffin, though in this instance
+thrombogen may be absent as well as thrombokinase. If plasma containing
+thrombogen but no thrombokinase be treated with a saline extract of any
+tissues it will soon clot. The saline extract contains thrombokinase.
+This ferment can therefore be derived from most tissues, including also
+the white blood corpuscles and the platelets. Thrombogen is produced
+from the leucocytes, but it is not yet certain whether it is also formed
+from the platelets. The discovery of the origin of the thrombokinase
+from tissue cells explains a fact that has long been known, namely, that
+if in collecting blood, it is allowed to flow over cut tissues, clotting
+is most markedly accelerated. The fact that birds' blood if very
+carefully collected will not clot spontaneously tends to prove that
+thrombokinase is not derived from the leucocytes, and makes probable its
+origin from the platelets, for it is known that birds' blood apparently
+does not contain platelets, at any rate in the form in which they are
+found in mammalian blood. When examining the general properties of
+platelets, attention was drawn to the remarkably rapid manner in which
+they undergo change on coming into contact with a foreign surface. It is
+apparently the actual contact which initiates these changes, changes
+which are fundamentally chemical in character, resulting in the
+production of thrombokinase and possibly also of thrombogen.
+
+Thus as our knowledge at present stands the following statement gives a
+recapitulated account of the changes which constitute the many phases of
+clotting. When blood escapes from a blood-vessel it comes into contact
+with a foreign surface, either a tissue or the damaged walls of the cut
+vessel. Very speedily this contact results in the discharge of
+thrombogen and thrombokinase, the former from the white blood corpuscles
+and also possibly from the platelets, the latter from the platelets or
+from the tissue with which the blood comes in contact. The interaction
+of these two bodies next results in the formation of prothrombin, which,
+combining with the calcium of any soluble lime salt present, forms
+thrombin or fibrin-ferment. The last step in the change is the action of
+thrombin upon fibrinogen to form fibrin, and the clot is complete.
+
+The intrinsic value to the animal of these changes is quite plain. The
+power of clotting and thus stopping haemorrhage is of essential
+importance, and yet this clotting must not occur within the living
+blood-vessels, or it would speedily result in death. That the tissues
+should be able to accelerate the process is of very obvious value. That
+the inner lining of the blood-vessels does not act as a foreign tissue
+is possibly due to the extreme smoothness of their surface.
+
+Further, an animal must always be exposed to a possible danger in the
+absorption of some thrombin from a mass of clotted blood still retained
+within the body, and we know that if a quantity of active ferment be
+injected into the blood-stream intravascular clotting does result. Under
+all usual conditions this is obviated, the protective mechanism being of
+a twofold character. First, it is found that thrombin becomes converted
+very quickly into an inactive modification. Serum, for instance, very
+quickly loses its power of inducing clotting in fibrinogen solutions.
+Secondly, the body has been found to possess the power of making a
+substance, antithrombin, which can combine with thrombin forming a
+substance which is quite inactive as far as clotting is concerned.
+Finally, there is evidence that normal blood contains a small quantity
+of this substance, antithrombin, and that under certain conditions the
+amount present may be enormously increased.     (T. G. Br.)
+
+
+_Pathology of the Blood._
+
+The changes in the blood in disease are probably as numerous and varied
+as the diseases which attack the body, for the blood is not only the
+medium of respiration, but also of nutrition, of defence against
+organisms and of many other functions, none of which can be affected
+without corresponding alterations occurring in the circulating fluid.
+The immense majority of these changes are, however, so subtle that they
+escape detection by our present methods. But in certain directions,
+notably in regard to the relations with micro-organisms, changes in the
+blood-plasma can be made out, though they are not associated in all
+cases with changes in the formed elements which float in it, nor with
+any obvious microscopical or chemical alterations.
+
+
+  Immunity.
+
+The phenomena of immunity to the attacks of bacteria or their toxins, of
+agglutinative action, of opsonic action, of the precipitin tests, and of
+haemolysis, are all largely dependent on the inherent or acquired
+characters of the blood serum. It is a commonplace that different people
+vary in their susceptibility to the attacks of different organisms, and
+different species of animals also vary greatly. This "natural immunity"
+is due partly to the power possessed by the leucocytes or white blood
+corpuscles of taking into their bodies and digesting or holding in an
+inert state organisms which reach the blood--phagocytosis,--partly to
+certain bodies in the blood serum which have a bactericidal action, or
+whose presence enables the phagocytes to deal more easily with the
+organisms. This natural immunity can be heightened when it exists, or an
+artificial immunity can be produced in various ways. Doses of organisms
+or their toxins can be injected on one or several occasions, and
+provided that the lethal dose be not reached, in most cases an increased
+power of resistance is produced. The organisms may be injected alive in
+a virulent condition, or with their virulence lessened by heat or cold,
+by antiseptics, by cultivation in the presence of oxygen, or by passage
+through other animals, or they may first be killed, or their toxins
+alone injected. The method chosen in each case depends on the organism
+dealt with. The result of this treatment is that in the animal treated
+protective substances appear in the serum, and these substances can be
+transferred to the serum of another animal or of man; in other words the
+active immunity of the experimental animal can be translated into the
+passive immunity of man. According to the nature of the substances
+injected into the former, its serum may be antitoxic, if it has been
+immunized against any particular toxin, or antibacterial, if against an
+organism. Familiar examples of these are, of the former diphtheria
+antitoxin, of the latter anti-plague and anti-typhoid sera. An antitoxin
+exerts its effects by actual combination with the respective toxin, the
+combination being inert. It is probable that the ultimate source of the
+antitoxin is to be found in the living cells of the tissues and that it
+passes from them into the blood. The action of an antibacterial serum
+depends on the presence in it of a substance known as "immune-body,"
+which has a special affinity and power of combining with the bacterium
+used. In order that it may exert this power it requires the presence of
+a substance normally present in the serum known as "complement." The
+development of these "anti-bodies," though it has been studied mainly in
+connexion with bacteria and their toxins, is not confined to their
+action, but can be demonstrated in regard to many other substances, such
+as ferments, tissue cells, red corpuscles, &c. In some animals, for
+example, the blood serum has the power of dissolving the red corpuscles
+of an animal of different species; e.g. the guinea-pig's serum is
+"haemolytic" to the red corpuscles of the ox. This haemolytic power
+(haemolysis) can be increased by repeated injections of red corpuscles
+from the other animal, in this case also, as in the bacterial case, by
+the production and action of immune-body and complement. The antiserum
+produced in the case of the red corpuscles may sometimes, if injected
+into the first animal, whose red corpuscles were used, cause extensive
+destruction of its red corpuscles, with haemoglobinuria, and sometimes a
+fatal result.
+
+Opsonic action depends on the presence of a substance, the "opsonin," in
+the serum of an immunized animal, which makes the organism in question
+more easily taken up by the phagocytes (leucocytes) of the blood. The
+opsonin becomes fixed to the organisms. It is present to a certain
+extent in normal serum, but can be greatly increased by the process of
+immunization; and the "opsonic index," or relation between the number of
+organisms taken up by leucocytes when treated with the serum of a
+healthy person or "control," and with the serum of a person affected
+with any bacterial disease and under treatment by immunization, is
+regarded by some as representing the degree of immunity produced.
+
+Agglutinative action is evidence of the presence in a serum of a
+somewhat similar set of substances, known as "agglutinins." When a
+portion of an antiserum is added to an emulsion of the corresponding
+organism, the organisms, if they are motile, cease to move, and in any
+case become gathered together into clumps. In all probability several
+different bodies are concerned in this process. This reaction, in its
+practical applications at least, may be regarded as a reaction of
+infection rather than of immunization as ordinarily understood, for it
+is found that the blood serum of patients suffering from typhoid, Malta
+fever, cholera, and many other bacterial diseases, agglutinates the
+corresponding organisms. This fact has come to be of great importance in
+diagnosis.
+
+The precipitin test depends on a somewhat analogous reaction. If the
+serum of an animal be injected repeatedly into another animal of
+different species, a "precipitin" appears in the serum of the animal
+treated, which causes a precipitate when added to the serum of the first
+animal. The special importance of this fact is that it can be utilized
+as a method of distinguishing between human blood and that of animals,
+which is often of importance in medical jurisprudence.
+
+In this summary the facts adduced are practically all biological, and
+are due to the extraordinary activity with which the study of
+bacteriology (q.v.) has been pursued in recent years. The chemistry of
+the blood has not hitherto been found to give information of clinical or
+diagnostic importance, and nothing need here be added to what is said
+above on the physiology of the blood. Enough has been said, however, to
+show the extraordinary complexity of the apparently simple blood serum.
+
+The methods at present employed in examining the blood clinically are:
+the enumeration of the red and white corpuscles per cubic millimetre;
+the estimation of the percentage of haemoglobin and of the specific
+gravity of the blood; the microscopic examination of freshly-drawn blood
+and of blood films made upon cover-glasses, fixed and stained. In
+special cases the alkalinity and the rapidity of coagulation may be
+ascertained, or the blood may be examined bacteriologically. We have no
+universally accepted means of estimating, during life, the total amount
+of blood in the body, though the method of J.S. Haldane and J. Lorrain
+Smith, in which the total oxygen capacity of the blood is estimated, and
+its total volume worked out from that datum, has seemed to promise
+important results (_Journ. of Physiol_. vol. xxv. p. 331, 1900). After
+death the amount of blood sometimes seems to be increased, and
+sometimes, as in "pernicious anaemia," it is certainly diminished. But
+the high counts of red corpuscles which are occasionally reported as
+evidence of plethora or increase of the total blood are really only
+indications of concentration of the fluid except in certain rare cases.
+It is necessary, therefore, in examining blood diseases, to confine
+ourselves to the study of the blood-unit, which is always taken as the
+cubic millimetre, without reference to the number of units in the body.
+
+
+  Anaemia.
+
+_Anaemia_ is often used as a generic term for all blood diseases, for in
+almost all of them the haemoglobin is diminished, either as a result of
+diminution in the number of the red corpuscles in which it is contained,
+or because the individual red corpuscles contain a smaller amount of
+haemoglobin than the normal. As haemoglobin is the medium of respiratory
+interchange, its diminution causes obvious symptoms, which are much more
+easily appreciated by the patient than those caused by alterations in
+the plasma or the leucocytes. It is customary to divide anaemias into
+"primary" and "secondary": the primary are those for which no adequate
+cause has as yet been discovered; the secondary, those whose cause is
+known. Among the former are usually included chlorosis, pernicious
+anaemia, and sometimes the leucocythaemias; among the latter, the
+anaemias due to such agencies as malignant disease, malaria, chronic
+metallic poisoning, chronic haemorrhage, tubercle, Bright's disease,
+infective processes, intestinal parasites, &c. As our knowledge
+advances, however, this distinction will probably be given up, for the
+causes of several of the primary anaemias have been discovered. For
+example, the anaemia due to _bothriocephalus_, an intestinal parasite,
+is clinically indistinguishable from the other forms of pernicious
+anaemia with which it used to be included, and leucocythaemia has been
+declared by Lowit, though probably erroneously, to be due to a blood
+parasite closely related to that of malaria. In all these conditions
+there is a considerable similarity in the symptoms produced and in the
+pathological anatomy. The general symptoms are pallor of the skin and
+mucous membranes, weakness and lassitude, shortness of breath,
+palpitation, a tendency to fainting, and usually also gastro-intestinal
+disturbance, headache and neuralgia. The heart is often dilated, and on
+auscultation the systolic murmurs associated with that condition are
+heard. In fatal cases the internal organs are found to be pale, and very
+often their cells contain an excessive amount of fat. In many anaemias
+there is a special tendency to haemorrhage. Most of the above symptoms
+and organic changes are directly due to diminished respiratory
+interchange from the loss of haemoglobin, and to its effect on the
+various organs involved. The diagnosis depends ultimately in all cases
+upon the examination of the blood.
+
+Though the relative proportions of the leucocytes are probably
+continually undergoing change even in health, especially as the result
+of taking food, the number of red corpuscles remains much more constant.
+Through the agency of some unknown mechanism, the supply of fresh red
+corpuscles from the bone-marrow keeps pace with the destruction of
+effete corpuscles, and in health each corpuscle contains a definite and
+constant amount of haemoglobin. The disturbance of this arrangement in
+anaemia may be due to loss or to increased destruction of corpuscles, to
+the supply of a smaller number of new ones, to a diminution of the
+amount of haemoglobin in the individual new corpuscles, or to a
+combination of these causes. It is most easy to illustrate this by
+describing what happens after a haemorrhage. If this is small, the loss
+is replaced by the fully-formed corpuscles held in reserve in the
+marrow, and there is no disturbance. If it is larger, the amount of
+fluid lost is first made up by fluid drawn from the tissues, so that the
+number of corpuscles is apparently diminished by dilution of the blood;
+the erythroblasts, or formative red corpuscles, of the bone-marrow are
+stimulated to proliferation, and new corpuscles are quickly thrown into
+the circulation. These are apt, however, to be small and to contain a
+subnormal amount of haemoglobin, and it is only after some time that
+they are destroyed and their place taken by normal corpuscles. If the
+loss has been very great, nucleated red corpuscles may even be carried
+into the blood-stream. The blood possesses a great power of recovery, if
+time be given it, because the organ (bone-marrow) which forms so many of
+its elements never, in health, works at high pressure. Only a part of
+the marrow, the so-called red marrow, is normally occupied by
+erythroblastic tissue, the rest of the medullary cavity of the bones
+being taken up by fat. If any long-continued demand for red corpuscles
+is made, the fat is absorbed, and its place gradually taken by red
+marrow. This compensatory change is found in all chronic anaemias, no
+matter what their cause may be, except in some rare cases in which the
+marrow does not react.
+
+It is often very difficult, especially in "secondary" anaemias, to say
+which of the above processes is mainly at work. In acute anaemias, such
+as those associated with septicaemia, there is no doubt that blood
+destruction plays the principal part. But if the cause of anaemia is a
+chronic one, a gastric cancer, for instance, though there may possibly
+be an increased amount of destruction of corpuscles in some cases, and
+though there is often loss by haemorrhage, the cancer interferes with
+nutrition, the blood is impoverished and does not nourish the
+erythroblasts in the marrow sufficiently, and the new corpuscles which
+are turned out are few and poor in haemoglobin. In chronic anaemias,
+regeneration always goes on side by side with destruction, and it is
+important to remember that the state of the blood in these conditions
+gives the measure, not of the amount of destruction which is taking
+place so much as of the amount of regeneration of which the organism is
+capable. The evidence of destruction has often to be sought for in other
+organs, or in secretions or excretions.
+
+Of the so-called primary anaemias the most common is _chlorosis_, an
+anaemia which occurs only in the female sex, between the ages of fifteen
+and twenty-five as a rule. Its symptoms are those caused by a diminution
+of haemoglobin, and though it is never directly fatal, and is extremely
+amenable to treatment with iron preparations, its subjects very
+frequently suffer from relapses at varying intervals after the first
+attack. Its causation is probably complex. Bad hygienic conditions,
+over-fatigue, want of proper food, especially of the iron-containing
+proteids of meat, the strain put upon the blood and blood-forming organs
+by the accession of puberty and the occurrence of menstruation, all
+probably play a part in it. It has also been suggested that internal
+secretions may be concerned in stimulating the bone-marrow, and that in
+the female sex in particular the genital organs may act in this way.
+Imperfect assumption of function by these organs at puberty, caused
+perhaps by some of the above-mentioned conditions, might lead to
+sluggishness in the bone-marrow, and to the supply to the blood of the
+poorly-formed corpuscles deficient in haemoglobin which are
+characteristic of the disease. Chlorosis is the type of anaemias from
+imperfect blood-formation. Lorrain Smith has produced evidence to show
+that the total amount of haemoglobin in the body is not diminished in
+this disease, but that the blood-plasma is greatly increased in amount,
+so that the haemoglobin is diluted and the amount in each blood-unit
+greatly lessened.
+
+_Pernicious anaemia_ is a rarer disease than chlorosis, occurs usually
+later in life, and is distributed nearly equally between the two sexes.
+But it is of great importance because of its almost uniformly fatal
+termination, though its downward course is generally broken by
+temporary improvement on one or more occasions. The symptoms are those
+of a progressive anaemia, in which gastro-intestinal disturbance usually
+plays a large part, and nervous symptoms are common, and they become at
+last much more severe than those of any secondary anaemia. The patient
+may die in the first attack, but more usually, when things seem to be at
+their worst, improvement sets in, either spontaneously or as the result
+of treatment, and the patient slowly regains apparent health. This
+remission may be followed by a relapse, that again by a remission, and
+so on, but as a rule the disease is fatal within, at the outside, two or
+three years.
+
+The prime cause of the disease is not known. It seems probable indeed
+that the causal factors are numerous. Severe malarial infection,
+syphilis, pregnancy, chronic gastro-intestinal disease, chronic
+gas-poisoning, are all, in different cases, known to have been causally
+associated with it, and it is probable that a congenital weakness of the
+bone-marrow has often to do with its production, as in many cases a
+family or hereditary history of the disease can be obtained. The
+condition is now regarded as a chronic toxaemia, partly because of the
+clinical symptoms and pathological appearances, partly because analogous
+conditions can be produced experimentally by such poisons as saponin and
+toluylendiamin, and partly because of the facts of _bothriocephalus_
+anaemia. The site of production of the toxin, or toxins, for it is
+possible that several may have the same effect on the blood, is possibly
+not always the same, but must often be the alimentary canal, as
+_bothriocephalus_ anaemia proves. Not all persons affected with this
+intestinal tapeworm contract the disease, but only those in whose
+intestines the worm is dead and decomposing or sometimes only "sick."
+The expulsion of the worm puts an end to the absorption of the toxin and
+the patients recover. No adequate explanation of the formation of the
+toxin in the immense majority of the cases, in which there is no
+tapeworm, has yet been given. It is certain that no organism as yet
+known is concerned.
+
+This toxaemia affects the marrow and through it the blood, the
+gastro-intestinal apparatus and the nervous system, especially the
+spinal cord, in different proportions in different cases. The effect
+upon the marrow is to alter the type of red corpuscle formation, causing
+a reversion to the embryonic condition, in which the nucleated red
+corpuscles are large (megaloblasts), and the corpuscles in the blood
+formed from them are also large, are apparently ill suited to the needs
+of the adult, and easily break down, as the deposits of iron in the
+liver, spleen, kidneys and marrow prove. Whether this reversion is due
+to an exhaustion of the normal process or to an inhibition of it is not
+definitely known. The result is that the circulating red corpuscles are
+enormously diminished; it is usual to find 1,000,000 or less in the
+cubic millimetre instead of the normal 5,000,000. Though the haemoglobin
+is of course absolutely diminished, it is always, in severe cases,
+present in relatively higher percentage than the red corpuscles, because
+the average red corpuscle is larger and contains more haemoglobin than
+the normal. The large nucleated red corpuscles (megaloblasts) with which
+the marrow is crowded, often appear in the blood.
+
+Other anaemias, such as those known as _lymphadenoma_, or Hodgkin's
+disease, _splenic anaemia_, _chloroma_, _leucanaemia_ and the _anaemia
+pseudo-leucaemica_ of children, need not be described here, as they are
+either rare or their occurrence or nature is still too much under
+discussion.
+
+
+  Leucocytosis.
+
+The number and nature of the leucocytes in the blood bears no constant
+or necessary relation to the number or condition of the red corpuscles,
+and their variations depend on entirely different conditions. The number
+in the cubic millimetre is usually about 7000, but may vary in health
+from 5000 to 10,000. A diminution in their number is known as
+_leucopenia_, and is found in starvation, in some infective diseases, as
+for example in typhoid fever, in malaria and Malta fever, and in
+pernicious anaemia. An increase is very much more frequent, and is known
+as _leucocytosis_, though in this term is usually connoted a relative
+increase in the proportion of the polymorphonuclear neutrophile
+leucocytes. Leucocytosis occurs under a great variety of conditions,
+normally to a slight extent during digestion, during pregnancy, and
+after violent exercise, and abnormally after haemorrhage, in the course
+of inflammations and many infective diseases, in malignant disease, in
+such toxic states as uraemia, and after the ingestion of nuclein and
+other substances. It does not occur in some infective diseases, the most
+important of which are typhoid fever, malaria, influenza, measles and
+uncomplicated tuberculosis. In all cases where it is sufficiently severe
+and long continued, the reserve space in the bone-marrow is filled up by
+the active proliferation of the leucocytes normally found there, and is
+used as a nursery for the leucocytes required in the blood. In many
+cases leucocytosis is known to be associated with the defence of the
+organism from injurious influences, and its amount depends on the
+relation between the severity of the attack and the power of resistance.
+There may be an increase in the proportions present in the blood of
+lymphocytes (_lymphocytosis_), and of eosinophile cells
+(_eosinophilia_). This latter change is associated specially with some
+forms of asthma, with certain skin diseases, and with the presence of
+animal parasites in the body, such as ankylostoma and filaria.
+
+
+  Leucaemia.
+
+The disease in which the number of leucocytes in the blood is greatest
+is _leucocythaemia_ or leucaemia. There are two main forms of this
+disease, in both of which there are anaemia, enlargement of the spleen
+and lymphatic glands, or of either of them, leucocytic hypertrophy of
+the bone-marrow, and deposits of leucocytes in the liver, kidney and
+other organs. The difference lies in the kind of leucocytes present in
+excess in the blood, blood-forming organs and deposits in the tissues.
+In the one form these are lymphocytes, which are found in health mainly
+in the marrow, the blood itself, the lymph glands and in the lymphatic
+tissue round the alimentary canal; in the other they are the kinds of
+leucocytes normally found in the bone-marrow-myelocytes, neutrophile,
+basophile and eosinophile, and polymorphonuclear cells, also
+neutrophile, basophile and eosinophile. The clinical course of the two
+forms may differ. The first, known as lymphatic leucaemia or
+_lymphaemia_, may be acute, and prove fatal in a few weeks or even days
+with rapidly advancing anaemia, or may be chronic and last for one or
+two years or longer. The second, known as spleno-myelogenous leucaemia
+or _myelaemia_, is almost always chronic, and may last for several
+years. Recovery does not take place, though remissions may occur. The
+use of the X-rays has been found to influence the course of this disease
+very favourably. The most recent view of the pathology of the disease is
+that it is due to an overgrowth of the bone-marrow leucocytes, analogous
+in some respects to tumour growth and caused by the removal of some
+controlling mechanism rather than by stimulation. The anaemia
+accompanying the disease is due partly to the leucocyte overgrowth,
+which takes up the space in the marrow belonging of right to red
+corpuscle formation and interferes with it. (G. L. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The suffix _-phile_, Greek [Greek: philein], to love, prefer, is
+    in scientific terminology frequently applied to substances that
+    exhibit such preference for particular stains or reagents, the names
+    of which form the first part of the word.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOD-LETTING. There are certain morbid conditions when a patient may
+obtain marked relief from the abstraction of a certain amount of blood,
+from three or four ounces up to twenty or even thirty in extreme cases.
+This may be effected by venesection, or the application of leeches, or
+more rarely by cupping (q.v.). Unfortunately, in years gone by,
+blood-letting was used to such excess, as a cure for almost every known
+disease, that public opinion is now extremely opposed to it. In certain
+pathological conditions, however, it brings relief and saves life when
+no other means would act with sufficient promptness to take its place.
+
+Venesection, in which the blood is usually withdrawn from the
+median-basilic vein of the arm, has the disadvantage that it can only be
+performed by the medical man, and that the patient's friends are
+generally very much opposed to the idea. But the public are not nearly
+so prejudiced against the use of leeches; and as the nurse in charge can
+be instructed to use these if occasion arises, this is the form of
+blood-letting usually practised to-day. From one to twelve leeches are
+applied at the time, the average leech withdrawing some two drachms of
+blood. Should this prove insufficient, as much again can be abstracted
+by the immediate application of hot fomentations to the wounds. They
+should always be applied over some bony prominence, that pressure may be
+effectively used to stop the haemorrhage afterwards. They should never
+be placed over superficial veins, or where there is much loose
+subcutaneous tissue. If, as is often the case, there is any difficulty
+in making them bite, the skin should be pricked at the desired spot with
+the point of a sterilized needle, and the leech will then attach itself
+without further trouble. Also they must be left to fall off of their own
+accord, the nurse never dragging them forcibly off. If cold and pressure
+fail to stop the subsequent haemorrhage, a little powdered alum or other
+styptic may be inserted in the wound. The following are the main
+indications for their use, though in some cases they are better replaced
+by venesection, (1) For stagnation of blood on the right side of the
+heart with constant dyspnoea, cyanosis, &c. In acute lung disease, the
+sudden obstruction to the passage of blood through the lungs throws such
+an increased strain on the right ventricle that it may dilate to the
+verge of paralysis; but by lessening the total volume of blood, the
+heart's work is lightened for a time, and the danger at the moment tided
+over. This is a condition frequently met with in the early stages of
+acute pneumonia, pleurisy and bronchitis, when the obstruction is in the
+lungs, the heart being normal. But the same result is also met with as a
+result of failure of compensation with back pressure in certain forms of
+heart disease (q.v.). (2) To lower arterial tension. In the early stages
+of cerebral haemorrhage (before coma has supervened), when the heart is
+working vigorously and the tension of the pulse is high, a timely
+venesection may lead to arrest of the haemorrhage by lowering the blood
+pressure and so giving the blood in the ruptured vessel an opportunity
+to coagulate. (3) In various convulsive attacks, as in acute uraemia.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOD-MONEY, colloquially, the reward for betraying a criminal to
+justice. More strictly it is used of the money-penalty paid in old days
+by a murderer to the kinsfolk of his victim. These fines completely
+protected the offender from the vengeance of the injured family. The
+system was common among the Scandinavian and Teutonic races previous to
+the introduction of Christianity, and a scale of payments, graduated
+according to the heinousness of the crime, was fixed by laws, which
+further settled who could exact the blood-money, and who were entitled
+to share it. Homicide was not the only crime thus expiable: blood-money
+could be exacted for all crimes of violence. Some acts, such as killing
+any one in a church or while asleep, or within the precincts of the
+royal palace, were "bot-less"; and the death penalty was inflicted. Such
+a criminal was outlawed, and his enemies could kill him wherever they
+found him.
+
+
+
+
+BLOODSTONE, the popular name of the mineral heliotrope, which is a
+variety of dark green chalcedony or plasma, with bright red spots,
+splashes and streaks. The green colour is due to a chloritic mineral;
+the red to haematite. Some coarse kinds are opaque, resembling in this
+respect jasper, and some writers have sought to restrict the name
+"bloodstone" to green jasper, with red markings, thus making heliotrope
+a translucent and bloodstone an opaque stone, but, though convenient,
+such a distinction is not generally recognized. A good deal of
+bloodstone comes from India, where it occurs in the Deccan traps, and is
+cut and polished at Cambay. The stone is used for seals, knife-handles
+and various trivial ornaments. Bloodstone is not very widely
+distributed, but is found in the basaltic rocks of the Isle of Rum in
+the west of Scotland, and in a few other localities. Haematite (Gr.
+[Greek: aima], blood), or native peroxide of iron, is also sometimes
+called "bloodstone."
+
+
+
+
+BLOOM (from A.S. _bloma_, a flower), the blossom of flowering plants, or
+the powdery film on the skin of fresh-picked fruit; hence applied to the
+surface of newly-minted coins or to a cloudy appearance on the varnish
+of painting due to moisture; also, in metallurgy, a term used of the
+rough billets of iron and steel, which have undergone a preliminary
+hammering or rolling, and are ready for further working.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOMER, AMELIA JENKS (1818-1894), American dress-reformer and women's
+rights advocate, was born at Homer, New York, on the 27th of May 1818.
+After her marriage in 1840 she established a periodical called _The
+Lily_, which had some success. In 1849 she took up the idea--previously
+originated by Mrs Elizabeth Smith Miller--of a reform in woman's dress,
+and the wearing of a short skirt, with loose trousers, gathered round
+the ankles. The name of "bloomers" gradually became popularly attached
+to any divided-skirt or knickerbocker dress for women. Until her death
+on the 30th of December 1894 Mrs Bloomer took a prominent part in the
+temperance campaign and in that for woman's suffrage.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOMFIELD, MAURICE (1855-   ), American Sanskrit scholar, was born on
+the 23rd of February 1855, in Bielitz, Austrian Silesia. He went to the
+United States in 1867, and ten years later graduated from Furman
+University, Greenville, South Carolina. He then studied Sanskrit at
+Yale, under W.D. Whitney, and at Johns Hopkins, to which university he
+returned as associate professor in 1881 after a stay of two years in
+Berlin and Leipzig, and soon afterwards was promoted professor of
+Sanskrit and comparative philology. His papers in the _American Journal
+of Philology_ number a few in comparative linguistics, such as those on
+assimilation and adaptation in congeneric classes of words, and many
+valuable "Contributions to the Interpretation of the Vedas," and he is
+best known as a student of the Vedas. He translated, for Max-Muller's
+_Sacred Books of the East_, the Hymns of the Atharva-Veda (1897);
+contributed to the Buhler-Kielhorn _Grundriss der indo-arischen
+Philologie und Altertumskunde_ the section "The Atharva-Veda and the
+Gopatha Brahmana" (1899); was first to edit the Kaucika-Sutra (1890),
+and in 1907 published, in the Harvard Oriental series, _A Vedic
+Concordance_. In 1905 he published _Cerberus, the Dog of Hades_, a study
+in comparative mythology.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT (1766-1823), English poet, was born of humble parents
+at the village of Honington, Suffolk, on the 3rd of December 1766. He
+was apprenticed at the age of eleven to a farmer, but he was too small
+and frail for field labour, and four years later he came to London to
+work for a shoemaker. The poem that made his reputation, _The Farmer's
+Boy_, was written in a garret in Bell Alley. The manuscript, declined by
+several publishers, fell into the hands of Capell Lofft, who arranged
+for its publication with woodcuts by Bewick in 1800. The success of the
+poem was remarkable, over 25,000 copies being sold in the next two
+years. His reputation was increased by the appearance of his _Rural
+Tales_ (1802), _News from the Farm_ (1804), _Wild Flowers_ (1806) and
+_The Banks of the Wye_ (1811). Influential friends attempted to provide
+for Bloomfield, but ill-health and possibly faults of temperament
+prevented the success of these efforts, and the poet died in poverty at
+Shefford, Bedfordshire, on the 19th of August 1823. His _Remains in
+Poetry and Verse_ appeared in 1824.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOMFIELD, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A., about 12 m. W.
+of New York, and directly adjoining the city of Newark on the N. Pop.
+(1900) 9668, of whom 2267 were foreign-born; (1905, state census)
+11,668; (1910), 15,070. Area, 5.42 sq. m. Bloomfield is served by the
+Erie, and the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railways, and by several
+electric lines connecting with Newark, Montclair, Orange, East Orange
+and other neighbouring places. It is a residential suburb of Newark and
+New York, is the seat of a German theological school (Presbyterian,
+1869) and has the Jarvie Memorial library (1902). There is a Central
+Green, and in 1908 land was acquired for another park. Among the town's
+manufactures are silk and woollen goods, paper, electric elevators,
+electric lamps, rubber goods, safety pins, hats, cream separators,
+brushes and novelties. The value of the town's factory products
+increased from $3,370,924 in 1900 to $4,645,483 in 1905, or 37.8%. First
+settled about 1670-1675 by the Dutch and by New Englanders from the
+Newark colony, Bloomfield was long a part of Newark, the principal
+settlement at first being known as Wardsesson. In 1796 it was named
+Bloomfield in honour of General Joseph Bloomfield (1753-1823), who
+served (1775-1778) in the War of American Independence, reaching the
+rank of major, was governor of New Jersey in 1801-1802 and 1803-1812,
+brigadier-general in the United States army during the War of 1812, and
+a Democratic representative in Congress from 1817 to 1821. The township
+of Bloomfield was incorporated in 1812. From it were subsequently set
+off Belleville (1839), Montclair (1868) and Glen Ridge (1895).
+
+
+
+
+BLOOMINGTON, a city and the county-seat of McLean county, Illinois,
+U.S.A., in the central part of the state, about 125 m. S.W. of Chicago.
+Pop. (1890) 20,484; (1900) 23,286, of whom 3611 were foreign-born, there
+being a large German element; (1910 census) 25,768. The city is served
+by the Chicago & Alton, the Illinois Central, the Cleveland, Chicago,
+Cincinnati & St Louis, and the Lake Erie & Western railways, and by
+electric inter-urban lines. Bloomington is the seat of the Illinois
+Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal, co-educational, founded in
+1850), which comprises a college of liberal arts, an academy, a college
+of law, a college of music and a school of oratory, and in 1907 had 1350
+students. In the town of NORMAL (pop. in 1900, 3795), 2 m. north of
+Bloomington, are the Illinois State Normal University (opened at
+Bloomington in 1857 and removed to its present site in 1860), one of the
+first normal schools in the Middle West, and the state soldiers'
+orphans' home (1869). Bloomington has a public library, and Franklin and
+Miller parks; among its principal buildings are the court house, built
+of marble, and the Y.M.C.A. building. Among the manufacturing
+establishments are foundries and machine shops, including the large
+shops of the Chicago & Alton railway, slaughtering and meat-packing
+establishments, flour and grist mills, printing and publishing
+establishments, a caramel factory and lumber factories. The value of the
+city's factory products increased from $3,011,899 in 1900 to $5,777,000
+in 1905, or 91.8%. There are valuable coal mines in and near the city,
+and the city is situated in a fine farming region. Bloomington derives
+its name from Blooming Grove, a small forest which was crossed by the
+trails leading from the Galena lead mines to Southern Illinois, from
+Lake Michigan to St Louis, and from the Eastern to the far Western
+states. The first settlement was made in 1822, but the town was not
+formally founded until 1831, when it became the county-seat of McLean
+county. The first city charter was obtained in 1850, and in 1857 the
+public school system was established. In 1856 Bloomington was the
+meeting place of a state convention called by the Illinois editors who
+were opposed to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill (see DECATUR). This was the
+first convention of the Republican party in Illinois; among the
+delegates were Abraham Lincoln, Richard Yates, John M. Palmer and Owen
+Lovejoy. The city has been the residence of a number of prominent men,
+including David Davis (1815-1886), an associate justice of the United
+States Supreme Court in 1862-1877, a member of the United States Senate
+in 1877-1883, and president _pro tempore_ of the Senate in 1881-1883;
+Governor John M. Hamilton (1847-1905), Governor Joseph W. Fifer (b.
+1840); and Adlai Ewing Stevenson (b. 1835), a Democratic representative
+in Congress in 1875-1877 and 1879-1881, and vice-president of the United
+States in 1893-1897. Bloomington's prosperity increased after 1867, when
+coal was first successfully mined in the vicinity.
+
+  In the _Transactions_ of the Illinois State Historical Society for
+  1905 may be found a paper, "The Bloomington Convention of 1856 and
+  Those Who Participated in it."
+
+
+
+
+BLOOMINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Monroe county, Indiana,
+U.S.A., about 45 m. S. by W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 4018; (1900)
+6460, including 396 negroes; (1910) 8838. It is served by the Chicago,
+Indianapolis & Louisville and the Indianapolis Southern (Illinois
+Central) railways. Bloomington is the seat of the Indiana University
+(co-educational since 1868), established as a state seminary in 1820,
+and as Indiana College in 1828, and chartered as the State university in
+1838; in 1907-1908 it had 80 instructors, 2051 students, and a library
+of 65,000 volumes; its school of law was established in 1842, suspended
+in 1877 and re-established in 1889; its school of medicine was
+established in 1903; but most of the medical course is given in
+Indianapolis; a graduate school was organized in 1904; and a summer
+school (or summer term of eleven weeks) was first held in 1905. Dr
+David Starr Jordan was the first president of the university in
+1885-1891, when it was thoroughly reorganized and its curriculum put on
+the basis of major subjects and departments. The university's biological
+station is on Winona Lake, Kosciusko county. Among the manufactures of
+Bloomington are furniture and wooden ware. There are valuable limestone
+quarries in the vicinity. The city was first settled about 1818.
+
+
+
+
+BLOOMSBURG, a town and the county-seat of Columbia county, Pennsylvania,
+U.S.A., on Fishing Creek, 2 m. from its confluence with the Susquehanna,
+and about 40 m. S.W. of Wilkes-Barre. Pop. (1890) 4635; (1900) 6170 (213
+foreign-born); (1910) 7413. It is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna &
+Western, the Philadelphia & Reading, and the Bloomsburg & Sullivan and
+the Susquehanna, Bloomsburg & Berwick railways (the last two only 30 m.
+and 39 m. long respectively); and is connected with Berwick, Catawissa
+and Danville by electric lines. The town is built on a bluff commanding
+extensive views. Among the manufactures of Bloomsburg are railway cars,
+carriages, silk and woollen goods, furniture, carpets, wire-drawing
+machines and gun carriages. Iron ore was formerly obtained from the
+neighbouring hills. The town is the seat of a state normal school,
+established as such in 1869. Bloomsburg was laid out as a town in 1802,
+became the county-seat in 1846, and was incorporated in 1870.
+
+
+
+
+BLOUNT, CHARLES (1654-1693), English author, was born at Upper Holloway
+on the 27th of April 1654. His father, Sir Henry Blount (1602-1682), was
+the author of a _Voyage to the Levant_, describing his own travels. He
+gave his son a careful education, and is said to have helped him in his
+_Anima Mundi; or An Historical Narration of the Opinions of the Antients
+concerning Man's Soul after his Life, according to unenlightened Nature_
+(1679), which gave great offence by the sceptical views expressed in it.
+It was suppressed by order of the bishop of London, and even burnt by
+some over-zealous official, but a re-issue was permitted. Blount was an
+admirer of Hobbes, and published his "Last Sayings" (1679), a pamphlet
+consisting of extracts from _The Leviathan. Great is Diana of the
+Ephesians, or the Original of Idolatry, together with the Political
+Institution of the Gentiles' Sacrifices_ (1680) attracted severe
+criticism on the ground that in deprecating the evils of priestcraft
+Blount was attacking Christianity itself. His best-known book, _The Two
+First Books of Philostratus concerning the Life of Apollonius
+Tyaneus_ ... (1680), is said to have been prohibited in 1693, chiefly on
+account of the notes, which are stated by Bayle (note, _s.v.
+Apollonius_) to have been taken mainly from a MS. of Lord Herbert of
+Cherbury. Blount contributed materially to the removal of the
+restrictions on the freedom of the press, with two pamphlets (1693) by
+"Philopatris," mainly derived from Milton's _Areopagitica_. He also laid
+a successful trap for the censor, Edmund Bohun. Under the name of
+"Junius Brutus" he wrote a pamphlet entitled "King William and Queen
+Mary Conquerors." The title-page set forth the theory of the justice of
+title by conquest, which Blount knew to be agreeable to Bohun. It was
+duly licensed, but was ordered by the House of Commons to be burnt by
+the common hangman, as being diametrically opposed to the attitude of
+William's government on the subject. These proceedings showed the
+futility of the censorship, and hastened its overthrow.
+
+Blount had fallen in love with his deceased wife's sister, and, in
+despair of overcoming her scruples as to the legality of such a
+marriage, shot himself in the head. He survived for some time, refusing
+help except from his sister-in-law. Alexander Pope asserted (_Epilogue
+to the Satires_, Note, i. 124) that he wounded himself in the arm,
+pretending to kill himself, and that the result was fatal contrary to
+his expectations. He died in August 1693.
+
+  Shortly before his death a collection of his pamphlets and private
+  papers was printed with a preface by Charles Gildon, under the title
+  of the _Oracles of Reason_. His _Miscellaneous Works_ (1695) is a
+  fuller edition by the same editor.
+
+
+
+
+BLOUNT (or BLUNT), EDWARD (b. 1565?), the printer, in conjunction with
+Isaac Jaggard, of _Mr William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories and
+Tragedies. Published according to the true Originall Copies_ (_1623_),
+usually known as the first folio of Shakespeare. It was produced under
+the direction of John Heming (d. 1630) and Henry Condell (d. 1627), both
+of whom had been Shakespeare's colleagues at the Globe theatre, but as
+Blount combined the functions of printer and editor on other occasions,
+it is fair to conjecture that he to some extent edited the first folio.
+The Stationers' _Register_ states that he was the son of Ralph Blount or
+Blunt, merchant tailor of London, and apprenticed himself in 1578 for
+ten years to William Ponsonby, a stationer. He became a freeman of the
+Stationers' Company in 1588. Among the most important of his
+publications are Giovanni Florio's Italian-English dictionary and his
+translation of Montaigne, Marlowe's _Hero and Leander_, and the _Sixe
+Court Comedies_ of John Lyly. He himself translated _Ars Aulica, or the
+Courtier's Arte_ (1607) from the Italian of Lorenzo Ducci, and
+_Christian Policie_ (1632) from the Spanish of Juan de Santa Maria.
+
+
+
+
+BLOUNT, THOMAS (1618-1679), English antiquarian, was the son of one
+Myles Blount, of Orleton in Herefordshire. He was born at Bordesley,
+Worcestershire. Few details of his life are known. It appears that he
+was called to the bar at the Inner Temple, but, being a zealous Roman
+Catholic, his religion interfered considerably with the practice of his
+profession. Retiring to his estate at Orleton, he devoted himself to the
+study of the law as an amateur, and also read widely in other branches
+of knowledge. He died at Orleton on the 26th of December 1679. His
+principal works are _Glossographia; or, a dictionary interpreting the
+hard words of whatsoever language, now used in our refined English
+tongue_ (1656, reprinted in 1707), which went through several editions
+and remains most amusing and instructive reading; _Nomolexicon: a law
+dictionary interpreting such difficult and, obscure words and terms as
+are found either in our common or statute, ancient or modern lawes_
+(1670; third edition, with additions by W. Nelson, 1717); and _Fragmenta
+Antiquitatis: Ancient Tenures of land, and jocular customs of some
+mannors_ (1679; enlarged by J. Beckwith and republished, with additions
+by H.M. Beckwith, in 1815; again revised and enlarged by W.C. Hazlitt,
+1874). Blount's _Boscobel_ (1651), giving an account of Charles II.'s
+preservation after Worcester, with the addition of the king's own
+account dictated to Pepys, has been edited with a bibliography by C.G.
+Thomas (1894).
+
+
+
+
+BLOUNT, SIR THOMAS POPE (1649-1697), English author, eldest son of Sir
+Henry Blount and brother of Charles Blount (q.v.), was born at Upper
+Holloway on the 12th of September 1649. He succeeded to the estate of
+Tittenhanger on his mother's death in 1678, and in the following year
+was created a baronet. He represented the borough of St Albans in the
+two last parliaments of Charles II. and was knight of the shire from the
+revolution till his death. He married Jane, daughter of Sir Henry
+Caesar, by whom he had five sons and nine daughters. He died at
+Tittenhanger on the 30th of June 1697. His _Censura celebrorum authorum
+sive tractatus in quo varia virorum doctorum de clarissimis cujusque
+seculi scriptoribus judicia traduntur_ (1690) was originally compiled
+for Blount's own use, and is a dictionary in chronological order of what
+various eminent writers have said about one another. This necessarily
+involved enormous labour in Blount's time. It was published at Geneva in
+1694 with all the quotations from modern languages translated into
+Latin, and again in 1710. His other works are _A Natural History,
+containing many not common observations extracted out of the best modern
+writers_ (1693), _De re poetica, or remarks upon Poetry, with Characters
+and Censures of the most considerable Poets_ ... (1694), and _Essays on
+Several Occasions_ (1692). It is on this last work that his claims to be
+regarded as an original writer rest. The essays deal with the perversion
+of learning, a comparison between the ancients and the moderns (to the
+advantage of the latter), the education of children, and kindred topics.
+In the third edition (1697) he added an eighth essay, on religion, in
+which he deprecated the multiplication of ceremonies. He displays
+throughout a hatred of pedantry and convention, which makes his book
+still interesting.
+
+  See A. Kippis, _Biographia Britannica_ (1780), vol. ii. For an account
+  of Blount's family see Robert Clutterbuck. _History and Antiquities of
+  the County of Hertford_ (1815), vol. i. pp. 207-212.
+
+
+
+
+BLOUNT, WILLIAM (1749-1800), American politician, was born in Bertie
+county, North Carolina, on the 26th of March 1749. He was a member of
+the Continental Congress in 1783-1784 and again in 1786-1787, of the
+constitutional convention at Philadelphia in 1787, and of the state
+convention which ratified the Federal constitution for North Carolina in
+1789. From 1790 until 1796 he was, by President Washington's
+appointment, governor of the "Territory South of the Ohio River,"
+created out of land ceded to the national government by North Carolina
+in 1789. He was also during this period the superintendent of Indian
+affairs for this part of the country. In 1791 he laid out Knoxville
+(Tennessee) as the seat of government. He presided over the
+constitutional convention of Tennessee in 1796, and, on the state being
+admitted to the Union, became one of its first representatives in the
+United States Senate. In 1797 his connexion became known with a scheme,
+since called "Blount's Conspiracy," which provided for the co-operation
+of the American frontiersmen, assisted by Indians, and an English force,
+in the seizure on behalf of Great Britain of the Floridas and Louisiana,
+then owned by Spain, with which power England was then at war. As this
+scheme, if carried out, involved the corrupting of two officials of the
+United States, an Indian agent and an interpreter, a breach of the
+neutrality of the United States, and the breach of Article V. of the
+treaty of San Lorenzo el Real (signed on the 27th of October 1795)
+between the United States and Spain, by which each power agreed not to
+incite the Indians to attack the other, Blount was impeached by the
+House of Representatives on the 7th of July 1797, and on the following
+day was formally expelled from the Senate for "having been guilty of
+high misdemeanor, entirely inconsistent with his public trust and duty
+as a senator." On the 29th of January 1798 articles of impeachment were
+adopted by the House of Representatives. On the 14th of January 1799,
+however, the Senate, sitting as a court of impeachment, decided that it
+had no jurisdiction, Blount not then being a member of the Senate, and,
+in the Senate's opinion, not having been, even as a member, a civil
+officer of the United States, within the meaning of the constitution.
+The case is significant as being the first case of impeachment brought
+before the United States Senate. "In a legal point of view, all that the
+case decides is that a senator of the United States who has been
+expelled from his seat is not after such expulsion subject to
+impeachment" (Francis Wharton, _State Trials_). In effect, however, it
+also decided that a member of Congress was not in the meaning of the
+constitution a civil officer of the United States and therefore could
+not be impeached. The "conspiracy" was disavowed by the British
+government, which, however, seems to have secretly favoured it. Blount
+was enthusiastically supported by his constituents, and upon his return
+to Tennessee was made a member and the presiding officer of the state
+senate. He died at Knoxville on the 21st of March 1800.
+
+  For a defence of Blount, see General Marcus J. Wright's _Account of
+  the Life and Services of William Blount_ (Washington, D.C., 1884).
+
+
+
+
+BLOUSE, a word (taken from the French) used for any loosely fitting
+bodice belted at the waist. In France it meant originally the loose
+upper garment of linen or cotton, generally blue, worn by French workmen
+to preserve their clothing, and, by transference, the workman himself.
+
+
+
+
+BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708), English musical composer, was born in 1648,
+probably at North Collingham in Nottinghamshire. He became a chorister
+of the chapel royal, and distinguished himself by his proficiency in
+music; he composed several anthems at an unusually early age, including
+_Lord, Thou hast been our refuge; Lord, rebuke me not_; and the
+so-called "club anthem," _I will always give thanks_, the last in
+collaboration with Pelham Humphrey and William Turner, either in honour
+of a victory over the Dutch in 1665, or--more probably--simply to
+commemorate the friendly intercourse of the three choristers. To this
+time also belongs the composition of a two-part setting of Herrick's
+_Goe, perjur'd man_, written at the request of Charles II. to imitate
+Carissimi's _Dite, o cieli_. In 1669 Blow became organist of Westminster
+Abbey. In 1673 he was made a gentleman of the chapel royal, and in the
+September of this year he was married to Elizabeth Braddock, who died in
+childbirth ten years later. Blow, who by the year 1678 was a doctor of
+music, was named in 1685 one of the private musicians of James II.
+Between 1680 and 1687 he wrote the only stage composition by him of
+which any record survives, the _Masque for the Entertainment of the
+King: Venus and Adonis_. In this Mary Davies played the part of Venus,
+and her daughter by Charles II., Lady Mary Tudor, appeared as Cupid. In
+1687 he became master of the choir of St Paul's church; in 1695 he was
+elected organist of St Margaret's, Westminster, and is said to have
+resumed his post as organist of Westminster Abbey, from which in 1680 he
+had retired or been dismissed to make way for Purcell. In 1699 he was
+appointed to the newly created post of composer to the chapel royal.
+Fourteen services and more than a hundred anthems by Blow are extant. In
+addition to his purely ecclesiastical music Blow wrote _Great sir, the
+joy of all our hearts_, an ode for New Year's day 1681-1682; similar
+compositions for 1683, 1686, 1687, 1688, 1689, 1693 (?), 1694 and 1700;
+odes, &c., for the celebration of St Cecilia's day for 1684, 1691, 1695
+and 1700; for the coronation of James II. two anthems, _Behold, O God,
+our Defender_, and _God spake sometimes in visions_; some harpsichord
+pieces for the second part of Playford's _Musick's Handmaid_ (1869);
+_Epicedium for Queen Mary_ (1695); _Ode on the Death of Purcell_ (1696).
+In 1700 he published his Amphion Anglicus, a collection of pieces of
+music for one, two, three and four voices, with a figured-bass
+accompaniment. A famous page in Burney's _History of Music_ is devoted
+to illustrations of "Dr Blow's Crudities," most of which only show the
+meritorious if immature efforts in expression characteristic of English
+music at the time, while some of them (where Burney says "Here we are
+lost") are really excellent. Blow died on the 1st of October 1708 at his
+house in Broad Sanctuary, and was buried in the north aisle of
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+
+
+
+BLOW-GUN, a weapon consisting of a long tube, through which, by blowing
+with the mouth, arrows or other missiles can be shot accurately to a
+considerable distance. Blow-guns are used both in warefare and the chase
+by the South American Indian tribes inhabiting the region between the
+Amazon and Orinoco rivers, and by the Dyaks of Borneo. In the 18th
+century they were also known to certain North American Indians,
+especially the Choctaws and Cherokees of the lower Mississippi. Captain
+Bossu, in his _Travels through Louisiana_ (1756), says of the Choctaws:
+"They are very expert in shooting with an instrument made of reeds about
+7 ft. long, into which they put a little arrow feathered with the wool
+of the thistle (wild cotton?)." The blow-guns of the South American
+Indians differ in style and workmanship. That of the Macusis of Guiana,
+called _pucuna_, is the most perfect. It is made of two tubes, the inner
+of which, called _oorah_, is a light reed 1/2 in. in diameter which
+often grows to a length of 15 ft. without a joint. This is enclosed, for
+protection and solidity, in an outer tube of a variety of palm
+(_Iriartella setigera_). The mouth-piece is made of a circlet of
+silk-grass, and the farther end is feruled with a kind of nut, forming a
+sight. A rear open sight is formed of two teeth of a small rodent. The
+length of the _pucuna_ is about 11 ft. and its weight 1-1/2 lb. The
+arrows, which are from 12 to 18 in. long and very slender, are made of
+ribs of the cocorite palm-leaf. They are usually feathered with a tuft
+of wild cotton, but some have in place of the cotton a thin strip of
+bark curled into a cone, which, when the shooter blows into the
+_pucuna_, expands and completely fills the tube, thus avoiding windage.
+Another kind of arrow is furnished with fibres of bark fixed along the
+shaft, imparting a rotary motion to the missile, a primitive example of
+the theory of the rifle. The arrows used in Peru are only a few inches
+long and as thin as fine knitting-needles. All South American blow-gun
+arrows are steeped in poison. The natives shoot very accurately with the
+_pucuna_ at distances up to 50 or 60 yds.
+
+The blow-gun of the Borneo Dyaks, called _sumpitan_, is from 6 to 7 ft.
+long and made of ironwood. The bore, of 1/2 in., is made with a long
+pointed piece of iron. At the muzzle a small iron hook is affixed, to
+serve as a sight, as well as a spear-head like a bayonet and for the
+same purpose. The arrows used with the _sumpitan_ are about 10 in. long,
+pointed with fish-teeth, and feathered with pith. They are also
+envenomed with poison.
+
+Poisoned arrows are also used by the natives of the Philippine island of
+Mindanao, whose blow-pipes, from 3 to 4 ft. long and made of bamboo, are
+often richly ornamented and even jewelled.
+
+The principle of the blow-gun is, of course, the same as that of the
+common "pea-shooter."
+
+  See _Sport with Rod and Gun in American Woods and Waters_, by A.M.
+  Mayer, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1884); _Wanderings in South America_, &c.,
+  by Charles Waterton (London, 1828); _The Head Hunters of Borneo_, by
+  Carl Bock (London, 1881).
+
+
+
+
+BLOWITZ, HENRI GEORGES STEPHAN ADOLPHE DE (1825-1903), Anglo-French
+journalist, was born, according to the account given in his memoirs, at
+his father's chateau in Bohemia on the 28th of December 1825. At the age
+of fifteen he left home, and travelled over Europe for some years in
+company with a young professor of philology, acquiring a thorough
+knowledge of French, German and Italian and a mixed general education.
+The finances of his family becoming straitened, young Blowitz was on the
+point of starting to seek his fortune in America, when he became
+acquainted in Paris with M. de Falloux, minister of public instruction,
+who appointed him professor of foreign languages at the Tours Lycee,
+whence, after some years, he was transferred to the Marseilles Lycee.
+After marrying in 1859 he resigned his professorship, but remained at
+Marseilles, devoting himself to literature and politics. In 1869
+information which he supplied to a legitimist newspaper at Marseilles
+with regard to the candidature of M. de Lesseps as deputy for that city
+led to a demand for his expulsion from France. He was, however, allowed
+to remain, but had to retire to the country. In 1870 his predictions of
+the approaching fall of the Empire caused the demand for his expulsion
+to be renewed. While his case was under discussion the battle of Sedan
+was fought, and Blowitz effectually ingratiated himself with the
+authorities by applying for naturalization as a French subject. Once
+naturalized, he returned to Marseilles, where he was fortunately able to
+render considerable service to Thiers, who subsequently employed him in
+collecting information at Versailles, and when this work was finished
+offered him the French consulship at Riga. Blowitz was on the point of
+accepting this post when Laurence Oliphant, then Paris correspondent of
+_The Times_, for which Blowitz had already done some occasional work,
+asked him to act as his regular assistant for a time, Frederick Hardman,
+the other Paris correspondent of _The Times_, being absent. Blowitz
+accepted the offer, and when, later on, Oliphant was succeeded by
+Hardman he remained as assistant correspondent. In 1873 Hardman died,
+and Blowitz became chief Paris correspondent to _The Times_. In this
+capacity he soon became famous in the world of journalism and diplomacy.
+In 1875 the duc de Decazcs, then French foreign minister, showed Blowitz
+a confidential despatch from the French ambassador in Berlin (in which
+the latter warned his government that Germany was contemplating an
+attack on France), and requested the correspondent to expose the German
+designs in _The Times_. The publication of the facts effectually aroused
+European public opinion, and any such intention was immediately
+thwarted. Blowitz's most sensational journalistic feat was achieved in
+1878, when his enterprise enabled _The Times_ to publish the whole text
+of the treaty of Berlin at the actual moment that the treaty was being
+signed in Germany. In 1877 and again in 1888 Blowitz rendered
+considerable service to the French government by his exposure of
+internal designs upon the Republic. He died on the 18th of January 1903.
+
+  _My Memoirs_, by H.S. de Blowitz, was published in 1903.
+
+
+
+
+BLOWPIPE, in the arts and chemistry, a tube for directing a jet of air
+into a fire or into the flame of a lamp or gas jet, for the purpose of
+producing a high temperature by accelerating the combustion. The
+blowpipe has been in common use from the earliest times for soldering
+metals and working glass, but its introduction into systematic chemical
+analysis is to be ascribed to A.F. Cronstedt, and not to Anton Swab, as
+has been maintained (see J. Landauer, _Ber_. 26, p. 898). The first work
+on this application of the blowpipe was by G. v. Engestrom, and was
+published in 1770 as an appendix to a treatise on mineralogy. Its
+application has been variously improved at the hands of T.O. Bergman,
+J.G. Gahn, J.J. Berzelius, C.F. Plattner and others, but more especially
+by the two last-named chemists.
+
+The simplest and oldest form of blowpipe is a conical brass tube, about
+7 in. in length, curved at the small end into a right angle, and
+terminating in a small round orifice, which is applied to the flame,
+while the larger end is applied to the mouth. Where the blast has to be
+kept up for only a few seconds, this instrument is quite serviceable,
+but in longer chemical operations inconvenience arises from the
+condensation of moisture exhaled by the lungs in the tube. Hence most
+blowpipes are now made with a cavity for retaining the moisture.
+Cronstedt placed a bulb in the centre of his blowpipe. Dr Joseph Black's
+instrument consists of a conical tube of tin plate, with a small brass
+tube, supporting the nozzle, inserted near the wider end, and a
+mouth-piece at the narrow end.
+
+The sizes of orifice recommended by Plattner are 0.4 and 0.5 mm. A
+trumpet mouth-piece is recommended from the support it gives to the
+cheeks when inflated. The mode of blowing is peculiar, and requires some
+practice; an uninterrupted blast is kept up by the muscular action of
+the cheeks, while the ordinary respiration goes on through the nostrils.
+
+If the flame of a candle or lamp be closely examined, it will be seen to
+consist of four parts--(a) a deep blue ring at the base, (b) a dark cone
+in the centre, (c) a luminous portion round this, and (d) an exterior
+pale blue envelope (see FLAME). In blowpipe work only two of these four
+parts are made use of, viz. the pale envelope, for oxidation, and the
+luminous portion, for reduction. To obtain a good _oxidizing flame_, the
+blowpipe is held with its nozzle inserted in the edge of the flame close
+over the level of the wick, and blown into gently and evenly. A conical
+jet is thus produced, consisting of an inner cone, with an outer one
+commencing near its apex--the former, corresponding to (a) in the free
+flame, blue and well defined; the latter corresponding to (d), pale blue
+and vague. The heat is greatest just beyond the point of the inner cone,
+combustion being there most complete. Oxidation is better effected (if a
+very high temperature be not required) the farther the substance is from
+the apex of the inner cone, for the air has thus freer access. To obtain
+a good _reducing flame_ (in which the combustible matter, very hot, but
+not yet burned, is disposed to take oxygen from any compound containing
+it), the nozzle, with smaller orifice, should just touch the flame at a
+point higher above the wick, and a somewhat weaker current of air should
+be blown. The flame then appears as a long, narrow, luminous cone, the
+end being enveloped by a dimly visible portion of flame corresponding to
+that which surrounds the free flame, while there is also a dark nucleus
+about the wick. The substance to be reduced is brought into the luminous
+portion, where the reducing power is strongest.
+
+Various materials are used as supports for substances in the blowpipe
+flame; the principal are charcoal, platinum and glass or porcelain.
+Charcoal is valuable for its infusibility and low conductivity for heat
+(allowing substances to be strongly heated upon it), and for its
+powerful reducing properties; so that it is chiefly employed in testing
+the fusibility of minerals and in reduction. The best kind of charcoal
+is that of close-grained pine or alder; it is cut in short prisms,
+having a flat smooth surface at right angles to the rings of growth. In
+this a shallow hole is made for receiving the substance to be held in
+the flame. Gas-carbon is sometimes used, since it is more permanent in
+the flame than wood charcoal. _Platinum_ is employed in oxidizing
+processes, and in the fusion of substances with fluxes; also in
+observing the colouring effect of substances on the blowpipe flame
+(which effect is apt to be somewhat masked by charcoal). Most commonly
+it is used in the form of wire, with a small bend or loop at the end.
+
+The mouth blowpipe is unsuitable for the production of a large flame,
+and cannot be used for any lengthy operations; hence recourse must be
+made to types in which the air-blast is occasioned by mechanical means.
+The laboratory form in common use consists of a bellows worked by either
+hand or foot, and a special type of gas burner formed of two concentric
+tubes, one conveying the blast, the other the gas; the supply of air and
+gas being regulated by stopcocks. The _hot blast blowpipe_ of T.
+Fletcher, in which the blast is heated by passing through a copper coil
+heated by a separate burner, is only of service when a pointed flame of
+a fairly high temperature is required. Blowpipes in which oxygen is used
+as the blast have been manufactured by Fletcher, Russell & Co., and have
+proved of great service in conducting fusions which require a
+temperature above that yielded by the air-blowpipe.
+
+  For the applications of the blowpipe in chemical analysis see
+  CHEMISTRY: _Analytical_.
+
+
+
+
+BLUCHER, GEBHARD LEBERECHT VON (1742-1819), Prussian general field
+marshal, prince of Wahlstadt in Silesia, was born at Rostock on the 16th
+of December 1742. In his fourteenth year he entered the service of
+Sweden, and in the Pomeranian campaign of 1760 he was taken prisoner by
+the Prussians. He was persuaded by his captors to enter the Prussian
+service. He took part in the later battles of the Seven Years' War, and
+as a hussar officer gained much experience of light cavalry work. In
+peace, however, his ardent spirit led him into excesses of all kinds,
+and being passed over for promotion he sent in his resignation, to which
+Frederick replied, "Captain Blucher can take himself to the devil"
+(1773). He now settled down to farming, and in fifteen years he had
+acquired an honourable independence. But he was unable to return to the
+army until after the death of Frederick the Great. He was then
+reinstated as major in his old regiment, the Red Hussars. He took part
+in the expedition to Holland in 1787, and in the following year became
+lieutenant-colonel. In 1789 he received the order _pour le merite_, and
+in 1794 he became colonel of the Red Hussars. In 1793 and 1794 he
+distinguished himself in cavalry actions against the French, and for his
+success at Kirrweiler he was made a major-general. In 1801 he was
+promoted lieutenant-general.
+
+He was one of the leaders of the war party in Prussia in 1805-1806, and
+served as a cavalry general in the disastrous campaign of the latter
+year. At Auerstadt Blucher repeatedly charged at the head of the
+Prussian cavalry, but without success. In the retreat of the broken
+armies he commanded the rearguard of Prince Hohenlohe's corps, and upon
+the capitulation of the main body of Prenzlau he carried off a remnant
+of the Prussian army to the northward, and in the neighbourhood of
+Lubeck he fought a series of combats, which, however, ended in his being
+forced to surrender at Ratkau (November 7, 1806). His adversaries
+testified in his capitulation that it was caused by "want of provisions
+and ammunition." He was soon exchanged for General Victor, and was
+actively employed in Pomerania, at Berlin, and at Konigsberg until the
+conclusion of the war. After the war, Blucher was looked upon as the
+natural leader of the patriot party, with which he was in close touch
+during the period of Napoleonic domination. His hopes of an alliance
+with Austria in the war of 1809 were disappointed. In this year he was
+made general of cavalry. In 1812 he expressed himself so openly on the
+alliance of Russia with France that he was recalled from his military
+governorship of Pomerania and virtually banished from the court.
+
+When at last the Napoleonic domination was ended by the outbreak of the
+War of Liberation in 1813, Blucher of course was at once placed in high
+command, and he was present at Lutzen and Bautzen. During the armistice
+he worked at the organization of the Prussian forces, and when the war
+was resumed Blucher became commander-in-chief of the Army of Silesia,
+with Gneisenau and Muffling as his principal staff officers, and 40,000
+Prussians and 50,000 Russians under his control. The autumn campaign of
+1813 will be found described in the article NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS, and it
+will here be sufficient to say that the most conspicuous military
+quality displayed by Blucher was his unrelenting energy. The
+irresolution and divergence of interests usual in allied armies found in
+him a restless opponent, and the knowledge that if he could not induce
+others to co-operate he was prepared to attempt the task in hand by
+himself often caused other generals to follow his lead. He defeated
+Marshal Macdonald at the Katzbach, and by his victory over Marmont at
+Mockern led the way to the decisive overthrow of Napoleon at Leipzig,
+which place was stormed by Blucher's own army on the evening of the last
+day of the battle. On the day of Mockern (October 16, 1813) Blucher was
+made a general field marshal, and after the victory he pursued the
+routed French with his accustomed energy. In the winter of 1813-1814
+Blucher, with his chief staff officers, was mainly instrumental in
+inducing the allied sovereigns to carry the war into France itself. The
+combat of Brienne and the battle of La Rothiere were the chief incidents
+of the first stage of the celebrated campaign of 1814, and they were
+quickly followed by the victories of Napoleon over Blucher at
+Champaubert, Vauxchamps and Montmirail. But the courage of the Prussian
+leader was undiminished, and his great victory of Laon (March 9 to 10)
+practically decided the fate of the campaign. After this Blucher infused
+some of his own energy into the operations of Prince Schwarzenberg's
+Army of Bohemia, and at last this army and the Army of Silesia marched
+in one body direct upon Paris. The victory of Montmartre, the entry of
+the allies into the French capital, and the overthrow of the First
+Empire were the direct consequences. Blucher was disposed to make a
+severe retaliation upon Paris for the calamities that Prussia had
+suffered from the armies of France had not the allied commanders
+intervened to prevent it. Blowing up the bridge of Jena was said to be
+one of his contemplated acts. On the 3rd of June 1814 he was made prince
+of Wahlstadt (in Silesia on the Katzbach battlefield), and soon
+afterwards he paid a visit to England, being received everywhere with
+the greatest enthusiasm.
+
+After the peace he retired to Silesia, but the return of Napoleon soon
+called him to further service. He was put in command of the Army of the
+Lower Rhine with General Gneisenau as his chief of staff (see WATERLOO
+CAMPAIGN). In the campaign of 1815 the Prussians sustained a very severe
+defeat at the outset at Ligny (June 16), in the course of which the old
+field marshal was ridden over by cavalry charges, his life being saved
+only by the devotion of his aide-de-camp, Count Nostitz. He was unable
+to resume command for some hours, and Gneisenau drew off the defeated
+army. The relations of the Prussian and the English headquarters were at
+this time very complicated, and it is uncertain whether Blucher himself
+was responsible for the daring resolution to march to Wellington's
+assistance. This was in fact done, and after an incredibly severe march
+Blucher's army intervened with decisive and crushing effect in the
+battle of Waterloo. The great victory was converted into a success
+absolutely decisive of the war by the relentless pursuit of the
+Prussians, and the allies re-entered Paris on the 7th of July. Prince
+Blucher remained in the French capital for some months, but his age and
+infirmities compelled him to retire to his Silesian residence at
+Krieblowitz, where he died on the 12th of September 1819, aged
+seventy-seven. He retained to the end of his life that wildness of
+character and proneness to excesses which had caused his dismissal from
+the army in his youth, but however they may be regarded, these faults
+sprang always from the ardent and vivid temperament which made Blucher a
+dashing leader of horse. The qualities which made him a great general
+were his patriotism and the hatred of French domination which inspired
+every success of the War of Liberation. He was twice married, and had,
+by his first marriage, two sons and a daughter. Statues were erected to
+his memory at Berlin, Breslau and Rostock.
+
+  Of the various lives of Prince Blucher, that by Varnhagen von Ense
+  (1827) is the most important. His war diaries of 1793-1794, together
+  with a memoir (written in 1805) on the subject of a national army,
+  were edited by Golz and Ribbentrop (Campagne Journal 1793-4 von _Gl.
+  Lt. v. Blucher_).
+
+
+
+
+BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages), the name of
+a colour, used in many colloquial phrases. From the fact of various
+parties, political and other, having adopted the colour blue as their
+badge, various classes of people have come to be known as "blue" or
+"blues"; thus "true blue" meant originally a staunch Presbyterian, the
+Covenanters having adopted blue as their colour as opposed to red, the
+royal colour; similarly, in the navy, there was in the 18th century a
+"Blue Squadron," Nelson being at one time "Rear-Admiral of the Blue";
+again, in 1690, the Royal Horse Guards were called the "Blues" from
+their blue uniforms, or, from their leader, the earl of Oxford, the
+"Oxford Blues"; also, from the blue ribbon worn by the knights of the
+Garter comes the use of the phrase as the highest mark of distinction
+that can be worn, especially applied on the turf to the winning of the
+Derby. The "blue Peter" is a rectangular blue flag, with a white square
+in the centre, hoisted at the top of the foremast as a signal that a
+vessel is about to leave port. At Oxford and Cambridge a man who
+represents his university in certain athletic sports is called a "blue"
+from the "colours" he is then entitled to wear, dark blue for Oxford and
+light blue for Cambridge.
+
+
+
+
+BLUEBEARD, the monster of Charles Perrault's tale of _Barbe Bleue_, who
+murdered his wives and hid their bodies in a locked room. Perrault's
+tale was first printed in his _Histoires et contes du temps passe_
+(1697). The essentials of the story--Bluebeard's prohibition to his wife
+to open a certain door during his absence, her disobedience, her
+discovery of a gruesome secret, and her timely rescue from death--are to
+be found in other folklore stories, none of which, however, has attained
+the fame of _Bluebeard_. A close parallel exists in an Esthonian legend
+of a husband who had already killed eleven wives, and was prevented from
+killing the twelfth, who had opened a secret room, by a gooseherd, the
+friend of her childhood. In "The Feather Bird" of Grimm's _Hausmarchen_,
+three sisters are the victims, the third being rescued by her brothers.
+Bluebeard, though Perrault does not state the number of his crimes, is
+generally credited with the murder of seven wives. His history belongs
+to the common stock of folklore, and has even been ingeniously fitted
+with a mythical interpretation. In France the Bluebeard legend has its
+local habitation in Brittany, but whether the existing traditions
+connecting him with Gilles de Rais (q.v.) or Comorre the Cursed, a
+Breton chief of the 6th century, were anterior to Perrault's time, we
+have no means of determining. The identification of Bluebeard with
+Gilles de Rais, the _bete d'extermination_ of Michelet's forcible
+language, persists locally in the neighbourhood of the various castles
+of the baron, especially at Machecoul and Tiffauges, the chief scenes of
+his infamous crimes. Gilles de Rais, however, had only one wife, who
+survived him, and his victims were in the majority of cases young boys.
+The traditional connexion may arise simply from the not improbable
+association of two monstrous tales. The less widespread identification
+of Bluebeard with Comorre is supported by a series of frescoes dating
+only a few years later than the publication of Perrault's story, in a
+chapel at St Nicolas de Bieuzy dedicated to St Tryphine, in which the
+tale of Bluebeard is depicted as the story of the saint, who in history
+was the wife of Comorre. Comorre or Conomor had his original
+headquarters at Carhaix, in Finistere. He extended his authority by
+marriage with the widow of Iona, chief of Domnonia, and attempted the
+life of his stepson Judwal, who fled to the Frankish court. About 547 or
+548 he obtained in marriage, through the intercession of St Gildas,
+Tryphine, daughter of Weroc, count of Vannes. The pair lived in peace at
+Castel Finans for some time, but Comorre, disappointed in his ambitions
+in the Vannetais, presently threatened Tryphine. She took flight, but
+her husband found her hiding in a wood, when he gave her a wound on the
+skull and left her for dead. She was tended and restored to health by St
+Gildas, and after the birth of her son retired to a convent of her own
+foundation. Eventually Comorre was defeated and slain by Judwal. In
+legend St Tryphine was decapitated and miraculously restored to life by
+Gildas. Alain Bouchard (_Grandes croniques_, Nantes, 1531) asserts that
+Comorre had already put several wives to death before he married
+Tryphine. In the _Legendes bretonnes_ of the count d'Amezeuil the
+church legend becomes a charming fairy tale.
+
+  See also E.A. Vizetclly, _Bluebeard_ (1902); E. Sidney Hartland, "The
+  Forbidden Chamber," in _Folklore_, vol. iii. (1885); and the editions
+  of the _Contes_ of Charles Perrault (q.v.). Cf. A. France, _Les Sept
+  Femmes de Barbe Bleue_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+BLUE-BOOK, the general name given to the reports and other documents
+printed by order of the parliament of the United Kingdom, so called from
+their being usually covered with blue paper, though some are bound in
+drab and others have white covers. The printing of its proceedings was
+first adopted by the House of Commons in 1681, and in 1836 was commenced
+the practice of selling parliamentary papers to the public. All notices
+of questions, resolutions, votes and proceedings in both Houses of
+Parliament are issued each day during the session; other publications
+include the various papers issued by the different government
+departments, the reports of committees and commissions of inquiry,
+public bills, as well as returns, correspondence, &c., specially ordered
+to be printed by either house. The papers of each session are so
+arranged as to admit of being bound up in regular order, and are well
+indexed. The terms upon which blue-books, single papers, &c., are issued
+to the general public are one halfpenny per sheet of four pages, but for
+an annual subscription of L20 all the parliamentary publications of the
+year may be obtained; but subscriptions can be arranged so that almost
+any particular class of publication can be obtained--for example, the
+daily votes and proceedings can be obtained for an annual subscription
+of L3, the House of Lords papers for L10, or the House of Commons papers
+for L15. Any publication can also be purchased separately.
+
+Most foreign countries have a distinctive colour for the binding of
+their official publications. That of the United Slates varies, but
+foreign diplomatic correspondence is bound in red. The United States
+government publications are not only on sale (as a rule) but are widely
+supplied gratis, with the result that important publications soon get
+out of print, and it is difficult to obtain access to many valuable
+reports or other information, except at a public library. German
+official publications are bound in white; French, in yellow; Austrian,
+in red; Portuguese, in white; Italian, in green; Spanish, in red;
+Mexican, in green; Japanese, in grey; Chinese, in yellow.
+
+
+
+
+BLUESTOCKING, a derisive name for a literary woman. The term originated
+in or about 1750, when Mrs Elizabeth Montagu (q.v.) made a determined
+effort to introduce into society a healthier and more intellectual tone,
+by holding assemblies at which literary conversation and discussions
+were to take the place of cards and gossip. Most of those attending were
+conspicuous by the plainness of their dress, and a Mr Benjamin
+Stillingfleet specially caused comment by always wearing blue or worsted
+stockings instead of the usual black silk. It was in special reference
+to him that Mrs Montagu's friends were called the Bluestocking Society
+or Club, and the women frequenting her house in Hill Street came to be
+known as the "Bluestocking Ladies" or simply "bluestockings." As an
+alternative explanation, the origin of the name is attributed to Mrs
+Montagu's deliberate adoption of blue stockings (in which fashion she
+was followed by all her women friends) as the badge of the society she
+wished to form. She is said to have obtained the idea from Paris, where
+in the 17th century there was a revival of a social reunion in 1590 on
+the lines of that formed in 1400 at Venice, the ladies and men of which
+wore blue stockings. The term had been applied in England as early as
+1653 to the Little Parliament, in allusion to the puritanically plain
+and coarse dress of the members.
+
+
+
+
+BLUFF (a word of uncertain origin; possibly connected with an obsolete
+Dutch word, _blaf_, broad), an adjective used of a ship, meaning broad
+and nearly vertical in the bows; similarly, of a cliff or shore,
+presenting a bold and nearly perpendicular front; of a person,
+good-natured and frank, with a rough or abrupt manner. Another word
+"bluff," perhaps connected with German _verbluffen_, to baffle, meant
+originally a horse's blinker, the corresponding verb meaning to
+blindfold: it survives as a term in such games as poker, where "to
+bluff" means to bet heavily on a hand so as to make an opponent believe
+it to be stronger than it is; hence such phrases as "the game of bluff,"
+"a policy of bluff."
+
+
+
+
+BLUM, ROBERT FREDERICK (1857-1903), American artist, was born in
+Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 9th of July 1857. He was employed for a time in
+a lithographic shop, and studied at the McMicken Art School of Design in
+Cincinnati, and at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in
+Philadelphia, but he was practically self-taught, and early showed great
+and original talent. He settled in New York in 1879, and his first
+published sketches--of Japanese jugglers--appeared in _St Nicholas_. His
+most important work is a large frieze in the Mendelssohn Music Hall, New
+York, "Music and the Dance" (1895). His pen-and-ink work for the Century
+magazine attracted wide attention, as did his illustrations for Sir
+Edwin Arnold's _Japonica_. In the country and art of Japan he had been
+interested for many years. "A Daughter of Japan," drawn by Blum and W.J.
+Baer, was the cover of _Scribner's Magazine_ for May 1893, and was one
+of the earliest pieces of colour-printing for an American magazine. In
+_Scribner's_ for 1893 appeared also his "Artist's Letters from Japan."
+He was an admirer of Fortuny, whose methods somewhat influenced his
+work. Blum's Venetian pictures, such as "A Bright Day at Venice" (1882),
+had lively charm and beauty. He died on the 8th of June 1903 in New York
+City. He was a member of the National Academy of Design, being elected
+after his exhibition in 1892 of "The Ameya"; and was president of the
+Painters in Pastel. Although an excellent draughtsman and etcher, it was
+as a colourist that he chiefly excelled.
+
+
+
+
+BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1752-1840), German physiologist and
+anthropologist, was born at Gotha on the 11th of May 1752. After
+studying medicine at Jena, he graduated doctor at Gottingen in 1775, and
+was appointed extraordinary professor of medicine in 1776 and ordinary
+professor in 1778. He died at Gottingen on the 22nd of January 1840. He
+was the author of _Institutiones Physiologicae_ (1787), and of a
+_Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie_ (1804), both of which were very
+popular and went through many editions, but he is best known for his
+work in connexion with anthropology, of which science he has been justly
+called the founder. He was the first to show the value of comparative
+anatomy in the study of man's history, and his craniometrical researches
+justified his division of the human race into several great varieties or
+families, of which he enumerated five--the Caucasian or white race, the
+Mongolian or yellow, the Malayan or brown race, the Negro or black race,
+and the American or red race. This classification has been very
+generally received, and most later schemes have been modifications of
+it. His most important anthropological work was his description of sixty
+human crania published originally in _fasciculi_ under the title
+_Collectionis suae craniorum diversarum gentium illustratae decades_
+(Gottingen, 1790-1828).
+
+
+
+
+BLUMENTHAL, LEONHARD, COUNT VON (1810-1900), Prussian field marshal, son
+of Captain Ludwig von Blumenthal (killed in 1813 at the battle of
+Dennewitz), was born at Schwedt-on-Oder on the 30th of July 1810.
+Educated at the military schools of Culm and Berlin, he entered the
+Guards as 2nd lieutenant in 1827. After serving in the Rhine provinces,
+he joined the topographical division of the general staff in 1846. As
+lieutenant of the 31st foot he took part in 1848 in the suppression of
+the Berlin riots, and in 1849 was promoted captain on the general staff.
+The same year he served on the staff of General von Bonin in the
+Schleswig-Holstein campaign, and so distinguished himself, particularly
+at Fredericia, that he was appointed chief of the staff of the
+Schleswig-Holstein army. In 1850 he was general staff officer of the
+mobile division under von Tietzen in Hesse-Cassel. He was sent on a
+mission to England in that year (4th class of Red Eagle), and on several
+subsequent occasions. Having attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, he
+was appointed personal adjutant to Prince Frederick Charles in 1859. In
+1860 he became colonel of the 31st, and later of the 71st, regiment. He
+was chief of the staff of the III. army corps when, on the outbreak of
+the Danish War of 1864, he was nominated chief of the general staff of
+the army against Denmark, and displayed so much ability, particularly at
+Duppel and the passage to Alsen island, that he was promoted
+major-general and given the order _pour le merite_. In the war of 1866
+Blumenthal occupied the post of chief of the general staff to the crown
+prince of Prussia, commanding the 2nd army. It was upon this army that
+the brunt of the fighting fell, and at Koniggratz it decided the
+fortunes of the day. Blumenthal's own part in these battles and in the
+campaign generally was most conspicuous. On the field of Koniggratz the
+crown prince said to his chief of staff, "I know to whom I owe the
+conduct of my army," and Blumenthal soon received promotion to
+lieutenant-general and the oak-leaf of the order _pour le merite_. He
+was also made a knight of the Hohenzollern Order. From 1866 to 1870 he
+commanded the 14th division at Dusseldorf. In the Franco-German War of
+1870-71 he was chief of staff of the 3rd army under the crown prince.
+Blumenthal's soldierly qualities and talent were never more conspicuous
+than in the critical days preceding the battle of Sedan, and his
+services in the war have been considered as scarcely less valuable and
+important than those of Moltke himself. In 1871 Blumenthal represented
+Germany at the British manoeuvres at Chobham, and was given the command
+of the IV. army corps at Magdeburg. In 1873 he became a general of
+infantry, and ten years later he was made a count. In 1888 he was made a
+general field marshal, after which he was in command of the 4th and 3rd
+army inspections. He retired in 1896, and died at Quellendorf near
+Kothen on the 21st of December 1900.
+
+  Blumenthal's diary of 1866 and 1870-1871 has been edited by his son,
+  Count Albrecht von Blumenthal (_Tagebuch des G.F.M. von Blumenthal_),
+  1902; an English translation (_Journals of Count von Blumenthal_) was
+  published in 1903.
+
+
+
+
+BLUNDERBUSS (a corruption of the Dutch _donder_, thunder, and the Dutch
+_bus_; cf. Ger. _Buchse_, a box or tube, hence a thunder-box or gun), an
+obsolete muzzle-loading firearm with a bell-shaped muzzle. Its calibre
+was large so that it could contain many balls or slugs, and it was
+intended to be fired at a short range, so that some of the charge was
+sure to take effect. The word is also used by analogy to describe a
+blundering and random person or talker.
+
+
+
+
+BLUNT, JOHN HENRY (1823-1884), English divine, was born at Chelsea in
+1823, and before going to the university of Durham in 1850 was for some
+years engaged in business as a manufacturing chemist. He was ordained in
+1852 and took his M.A. degree in 1855, publishing in the same year a
+work on _The Atonement_. He held in succession several preferments,
+among them the vicarage of Kennington near Oxford (1868), which he
+vacated in 1873 for the crown living of Beverston in Gloucestershire. He
+had already gained some reputation as an industrious theologian, and had
+published among other works an annotated edition of the Prayer Book
+(1867), a _History of the English Reformation_ (1868), and a _Book of
+Church Law_ (1872), as well as a useful _Dictionary of Doctrinal and
+Historical Theology_ (1870). The continuation of these labours was seen
+in a _Dictionary of Sects and Heresies_ (1874), an _Annotated Bible_ (3
+vols., 1878-1879), and a _Cyclopaedia of Religion_ (1884), and received
+recognition in the shape of the D.D. degree bestowed on him in 1882. He
+died in London on the 11th of April 1884.
+
+
+
+
+BLUNT, JOHN JAMES (1794-1855), English divine, was born at
+Newcastle-under-Lyme in Staffordshire, and educated at St John's
+College, Cambridge, where he took his degree as fifteenth wrangler and
+obtained a fellowship (1816). He was appointed a Wort's travelling
+bachelor 1818, and spent some time in Italy and Sicily, afterwards
+publishing an account of his journey. He proceeded M.A. in 1819, B.D.
+1826, and was Hulsean Lecturer in 1831-1832 while holding a curacy in
+Shropshire. In 1834 he became rector of Great Oakley in Essex, and in
+1839 was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity at Cambridge. In
+1854 he declined the see of Salisbury, and he died on the 18th of June
+1855. His chief book was _Undesigned Coincidences in the Writings both
+of the Old and New Testaments_ (1833; fuller edition, 1847). Some of
+his writings, among them the _History of the Christian Church during the
+First Three Centuries_ and the lectures _On the Right Use of the Early
+Fathers_, were published posthumously.
+
+  A short memoir of him appeared in 1856 from the hand of William
+  Selwyn, his successor in the divinity professorship.
+
+
+
+
+BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN (1840-   ), English poet and publicist, was born
+on the 17th of August 1840 at Petworth House, Sussex, the son of Francis
+Scawen Blunt, who served in the Peninsular War and was wounded at
+Corunna. He was educated at Stonyhurst and Oscott, and entered the
+diplomatic service in 1858, serving successively at Athens, Madrid,
+Paris and Lisbon. In 1867 he was sent to South America, and on his
+return to England retired from the service on his marriage with Lady
+Anne Noel, daughter of the earl of Lovelace and a grand-daughter of the
+poet Byron. In 1872 he succeeded, by the death of his elder brother, to
+the estate of Crabbet Park, Sussex, where he established a famous stud
+for the breeding of Arab horses. Mr and Lady Anne Blunt travelled
+repeatedly in northern Africa, Asia Minor and Arabia, two of their
+expeditions being described in Lady Anne's _Bedouins of the Euphrates_
+(2 vols., 1879) and _A Pilgrimage to Nejd_ (2 vols., 1881). Mr Blunt
+became known as an ardent sympathizer with Mahommedan aspirations, and
+in his _Future of Islam_ (1888) he directed attention to the forces
+which afterwards produced the movements of Pan-Islamism and Mahdism. He
+was a violent opponent of the English policy in the Sudan, and in _The
+Wind and the Whirlwind_ (in verse, 1883) prophesied its downfall. He
+supported the national party in Egypt, and took a prominent part in the
+defence of Arabi Pasha. _Ideas about India_ (1885) was the result of two
+visits to that country, the second in 1883-1884. In 1885 and 1886 he
+stood unsuccessfully for parliament as a Home Ruler; and in 1887 he was
+arrested in Ireland while presiding over a political meeting in
+connexion with the agitation on Lord Clanricarde's estate, and was
+imprisoned for two months in Kilmainham. His best-known volume of verse,
+_Love Sonnets of Proteus_ (1880), is a revelation of his real merits as
+an emotional poet. _The Poetry of Wilfrid Blunt_ (1888), selected and
+edited by W.E. Henley and Mr George Wyndham, includes these sonnets,
+together with "Worth Forest, a Pastoral," "Griselda" (described as a
+"society novel in rhymed verse"), translations from the Arabic, and
+poems which had appeared in other volumes.
+
+
+
+
+BLUNTSCHLI, JOHANN KASPAR (1808-1881), Swiss jurist and politician, was
+born at Zurich on the 7th of March 1808, the son of a soap and candle
+manufacturer. From school he passed into the _Politische Institut_ (a
+seminary of law and political science) in his native town, and
+proceeding thence to the universities of Berlin and Bonn, took the
+degree of _doctor juris_ in the latter in 1829. Returning to Zurich in
+1830, he threw himself with ardour into the political strife which was
+at the time unsettling all the cantons of the Confederation, and in this
+year published _Uber die Verfassung der Stadt Zurich_ (On the
+Constitution of the City of Zurich). This was followed by _Das Volk und
+der Souveran_ (1830), a work in which, while pleading for constitutional
+government, he showed his bitter repugnance of the growing Swiss
+radicalism. Elected in 1837 a member of the Grosser Rath (Great
+Council), he became the champion of the moderate conservative party.
+Fascinated by the metaphysical views of the philosopher Friedrich Rohmer
+(1814-1856), a man who attracted little other attention, he endeavoured
+in _Psychologische Studien uber Staat und Kirche_ (1844) to apply them
+to political science generally, and in particular as a panacea for the
+constitutional troubles of Switzerland. Bluntschli, shortly before his
+death, remarked, "I have gained renown as a jurist, but my greatest
+desert is to have comprehended Rohmer." This philosophical essay,
+however, coupled with his uncompromising attitude towards both
+radicalism and ultramontanism, brought him many enemies, and rendered
+his continuance in the council, of which he had been elected president,
+impossible. He resigned his seat, and on the overthrow of the Sonderbund
+in 1847, perceiving that all hope of power for his party was lost, took
+leave of Switzerland with the pamphlet _Stimme eines Schweizers uber
+die Bundesreform_ (1847), and settled at Munich, where he became
+professor of constitutional law in 1848.
+
+At Munich he devoted himself with energy to the special work of his
+chair, and, resisting the temptation to identify himself with politics,
+published _Allgemeines Staatsrecht_ (1851-1852); _Lehre vom modernen
+Staat_ (1875-1876); and, in conjunction with Karl Ludwig Theodor Brater
+(1819-1869), _Deutsches Staats-worterbuch_ (II vols., 1857-1870:
+abridged by Edgar Loening in 3 vols., 1869-1875). Meanwhile he had
+assiduously worked at his code for the canton of Zurich,
+_Privatrechtliches Gesetzbuch fur den Kanton Zurich_ (4 vols.,
+1854-1856), a work which was much praised at the time, and which,
+particularly the section devoted to contracts, served as a model for
+codes both in Switzerland and other countries. In 1861 Bluntschli
+received a call to Heidelberg as professor of constitutional law
+(Staatsrecht), where he again entered the political arena, endeavouring
+in his _Geschichte des allgemeinen Staatsrechts und der Politik_ (1864)
+"to stimulate," as he said, "the political consciousness of the German
+people, to cleanse it of prejudices and to further it intellectually."
+In his new home, Baden, he devoted his energies and political influence,
+during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, towards keeping the country
+neutral. From this time Bluntschli became active in the field of
+international law, and his fame as a jurist belongs rather to this
+province than to that of constitutional law. His _Das moderne
+Kriegsrecht_ (1866); _Das moderns Volkerrecht_ (1868), and _Das
+Beuterecht im Krieg_ (1878) are likely to remain invaluable text-books
+in this branch of the science of jurisprudence. He also wrote a pamphlet
+on the "Alabama" case.
+
+Bluntschli was one of the founders, at Ghent in 1873, of the Institute
+of International Law, and was the representative of the German emperor
+at the conference on the international laws of war at Brussels. During
+the latter years of his life he took a lively interest in the
+_Protestantenverein_, a society formed to combat reactionary and
+ultramontane views of theology. He died suddenly at Karlsruhe on the
+21st of October 1881. His library was acquired by Johns Hopkins
+University at Baltimore, U.S.A.
+
+Among his works, other than those before mentioned, may be cited
+_Deutsches Privatrecht_ (1853-1854); _Deutsche Staatslehre fur
+Gebildete_ (1874); and _Deutsche Staatslehre und die heutige
+Staatenwelt_ (1880).
+
+  For notices of Bluntschli's life and works see his interesting
+  autobiography, _Denkwurdiges aus meinem Leben_ (1884); von
+  Holtzendorff, _Bluntschli und seine Verdienste um die
+  Staatswissenschaften_ (1882); Brockhaus, _Konversations-Lexicon_
+  (1901); and a biography by Meyer von Kronau, in _Allgemeine deutsche
+  Biographie_.
+
+
+
+
+BLYTH, a market town and seaport of Northumberland, England, in the
+parliamentary borough of Morpeth, 9 m. E.S.E. of that town, at the mouth
+of the river Blyth, on a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of
+urban district (1901) 5472. This is the port for a considerable
+coal-mining district, and its harbour, on the south side of the river,
+is provided with mechanical appliances for shipping coal. There are five
+dry docks, and upwards of 1-1/2 m. of quayage. Timber is largely
+imported. Some shipbuilding and the manufacture of rope, sails and
+ship-fittings are carried on, and the fisheries are valuable. Blyth is
+also in considerable favour as a watering-place; there are a pleasant
+park, a pier, protecting the harbour, about 1 m. in length, and a sandy
+beach affording sea-bathing. The river Blyth rises near the village of
+Kirkheaton, and has an easterly course of about 25 m. through a deep,
+well-wooded and picturesque valley.
+
+
+
+
+B'NAI B'RITH (or SONS OF THE COVENANT), INDEPENDENT ORDER OF, a Jewish
+fraternal society. It was founded at New York in 1843 by a number of
+German Jews, headed by Henry Jones, and is the oldest as well as the
+largest of the Jewish fraternal organizations. Its membership in 1908
+was 35,870, its 481 lodges and 10 grand lodges being distributed over
+the United States, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Rumania, Egypt and
+Palestine. Its objects are to promote a high morality among Jews,
+regardless of differences as to dogma and ceremonial customs, and
+especially to inculcate the supreme virtues of charity and brotherly
+love. Political and religious discussions were from the first excluded
+from the debates of the order. In 1851 the first grand lodge was
+established at New York; in 1856, the number of district lodges having
+increased, the supreme authority was vested in a central body consisting
+of one member from each lodge; and by the present constitution, adopted
+in 1868, this authority is vested in a president elected for five years,
+an executive committee and court of appeals (elected as before). The
+first lodge in Germany was instituted at Berlin in 1883. A large number
+of charitable and other public institutions have been established in the
+United States and elsewhere by the order, of which may be mentioned the
+large orphan asylum in Cleveland, the home for the aged and infirm at
+Yonkers, N.Y., the National Jewish hospital for consumptives at Denver,
+and the Maimonides library in New York City. The B'nai B'rith society
+has also co-operated largely with other Jewish philanthropic
+organizations in succouring distressed Israelites throughout the world.
+
+  See the _Jewish Encyclopaedia_ (1902), s.v.
+
+
+
+
+BOA, a name formerly applied to all large serpents which, devoid of
+poison fangs, kill their prey by constriction; but now confined to that
+subfamily of the _Boidae_ which are devoid of teeth in the praemaxilla
+and are without supraorbital bones. The others are known as pythons
+(q.v.). The true boas comprise some forty species; most of them are
+American, but the genus _Eryx_ inhabits North Africa, Greece and
+south-western Asia; the genus _Enygrus_ ranges from New Guinea to the
+Fiji; _Casarea dussumieri_ is restricted to Round Island, near
+Mauritius; and two species of _Boa_ and one of _Corallus_ represent this
+subfamily in Madagascar, while all the other boas live in America,
+chiefly in tropical parts. All _Boidae_ possess vestiges of pelvis and
+hind limbs, appearing externally as claw-like spurs on each side of the
+vent, but they are so small that they are practically without function
+in climbing. The usually short tail is prehensile.
+
+One of the commonest species of the genus _Boa_ is the _Boa
+constrictor_, which has a wide range from tropical Mexico to Brazil. The
+head is covered with small scales, only one of the preoculars being
+enlarged. The general colour is a delicate pale brown, with about a
+dozen and a half darker cross-bars, which are often connected by a still
+darker dorso-lateral streak, enclosing large oval spots. On each side is
+a series of large dark brown spots with light centres. On the tail the
+markings become bolder, brick red with black and yellow. The under parts
+are yellowish with black dots. This species rarely reaches a length of
+more than 10 ft. It climbs well, prefers open forest in the
+neighbourhood of water, is often found in plantations where it retires
+into a hole in the ground, and lives chiefly on birds and small mammals.
+Like most true boas, it is of a very gentle disposition and easily
+domesticates itself in the palm or reed thatched huts of the natives,
+where it hunts the rats during the night.
+
+The term "boa" is applied by analogy to a long article of women's dress
+wound round the neck.
+
+
+
+
+BOABDIL (a corruption of the name Abu Abdullah), the last Moorish king
+of Granada, called _el chico_, the little, and also _el zogoybi_, the
+unfortunate. A son of Muley Abu'l Hassan, king of Granada, he was
+proclaimed king in 1482 in place of his father, who was driven from the
+land. Boabdil soon after sought to gain prestige by invading Castile. He
+was taken prisoner at Lucena in 1483, and only obtained his freedom by
+consenting to hold Granada as a tributary kingdom under Ferdinand and
+Isabella, king and queen of Castile and Aragon. The next few years were
+consumed in struggles with his father and his uncle Abdullah ez Zagal.
+In 1491 Boabdil was summoned by Ferdinand and Isabella to surrender the
+city of Granada, and on his refusal it was besieged by the Castilians.
+Eventually, in January 1492, Granada was surrendered, and the king spent
+some time on the lands which he was allowed to hold in Andalusia.
+Subsequently he crossed to Africa, and is said to have been killed in
+battle fighting for his kinsman, the ruler of Fez. The spot from which
+Boabdil looked for the last time on Granada is still shown, and is known
+as "the last sigh of the Moor" (_el ultimo suspire del Moro_).
+
+  See J.A. Conde, _Dominacion de los Arabes en Espana_ (Paris, 1840),
+  translated into English by Mrs J. Foster (London, 1854-1855);
+  Washington Irving, _The Alhambra_ (New York, ed. 1880).
+
+
+
+
+BOADICEA, strictly BOUDICCA, a British queen in the time of the emperor
+Nero. Her husband Prasutagus ruled the Iceni (in what is now Norfolk) as
+an autonomous prince under Roman suzerainty. On his death (A.D. 61)
+without male heir, his dominions were annexed, and the annexation was
+carried out brutally. He had by his will divided his private wealth
+between his two daughters and Nero, trusting thereby to win imperial
+favour for his family. Instead, his wife was scourged (doubtless for
+resisting the annexation), his daughters outraged, his chief tribesmen
+plundered. The proud, fierce queen and her people rose, and not alone.
+With them rose half Britain, enraged, for other causes, at Roman rule.
+Roman taxation and conscription lay heavy on the province; in addition,
+the Roman government had just revoked financial concessions made a few
+years earlier, and L. Annaeus Seneca, who combined the parts of a
+moralist and a money-lender, had abruptly recalled large loans made from
+his private wealth to British chiefs. A favourable chance for revolt was
+provided by the absence of the governor-general, Suetonius Paulinus, and
+most of his troops in North Wales and Anglesey. All south-east Britain
+joined the movement. Paulinus rushed back without waiting for his
+troops, but he could do nothing alone. The Britons burnt the Roman
+municipalities of Verulam and Colchester, the mart of London, and
+several military posts, massacred "over 70,000" Romans and Britons
+friendly to Rome, and almost annihilated the Ninth Legion marching from
+Lincoln to the rescue. At last Paulinus, who seems to have rejoined his
+army, met the Britons in the field. The site of the battle is unknown.
+One writer has put it at Chester; others at London, where King's Cross
+had once a narrow escape of being christened Boadicea's Cross, and
+actually for many years bore the name of Battle Bridge, in supposed
+reference to this battle. Probably, however, it was on Watling Street,
+between London and Chester. In a desperate soldiers' battle Rome
+regained the province. Boadicea took poison; thousands of Britons fell
+in the fight or were hunted down in the ensuing guerrilla. Finally, Rome
+adopted a kindlier policy, and Britain became quiet. But the scantiness
+of Romano-British remains in Norfolk may be due to the severity with
+which the Iceni were crushed.
+
+  See Tacitus, _Annals_, xiv.; _Agric_. xv.; Dio lxii. The name Boudicca
+  seems to mean in Celtic much the same as Victoria.     (F. J. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BOAR (O. Eng. _bar_; the word is found only in W. Ger. languages, cf.
+Dutch _beer_, Ger. _Eber_), the name given to the un-castrated male of
+the domestic pig (q.v.), and to some wild species of the family _Suidae_
+(see SWINE). The European wild boar (_Sus scrofa_) is distributed over
+Europe, northern Africa, and central and northern Asia. It has long been
+extinct in the British Isles, where it once abounded, but traces have
+been found of its survival in Chartley Forest, Staffordshire, in an
+entry of 1683 in an account-book of the steward of the manor, and it
+possibly remained till much later in the more remote parts of Scotland
+and Ireland (J.E. Harting, _Extinct British Animals_, 1880). The wild
+boar is still found in Europe, in marshy woodland districts where there
+is plenty of cover, and it is fairly plentiful in Spain, Austria, Russia
+and Germany, particularly in the Black Forest.
+
+From the earliest times, owing to its great strength, speed, and
+ferocity when at bay, the boar has been one of the favourite beasts of
+the chase. Under the old forest laws of England it was one of the
+"beasts of the forest," and, as such, under the Norman kings the
+unprivileged killing of it was punishable by death or the loss of a
+member. It was hunted in England and in Europe on foot and on horseback
+with dogs, while the weapon of attack was always the spear. In Europe
+the wild boar is still hunted with dogs, but the spear, except when used
+in emergencies and for giving the _coup de grace_, has been given up for
+the gun. It is also shot in great forest drives in Austria, Germany and
+Russia. The Indian wild boar (_Sus cristatus_) is slightly taller than
+_Sus scrofa_, standing some 30 to 40 in. at the shoulder. It is found
+throughout India, Ceylon and Burma. Here the horse and spear are still
+used, and the sport is one of the most popular in India. (See
+PIG-STICKING.)
+
+The boar is one of the four heraldic beasts of venery, and was the
+cognizance of Richard III., king of England. As an article of food the
+boar's head was long considered a special delicacy, and its serving was
+attended with much ceremonial. At Queen's College, Oxford, the dish is
+still brought on Christmas day in procession to the high-table,
+accompanied by the singing of a carol.
+
+
+
+
+BOARD (O. Eng. _bord_), a plank or long narrow piece of timber. The word
+comes into various compounds to describe boards used for special
+purposes, or objects like boards (drawing-board, ironing-board,
+sounding-board, chess-board, cardboard, back-board, notice-board,
+scoring-board). The phrase "to keep one's name on the boards," at
+Cambridge University, signifies to remain a member of a college; at
+Oxford it is "on the books." In bookbinding, pasteboard covers are
+called boards. Board was early used of a table, hence such phrases as
+"bed and board," "board and lodging"; or of a gaming-table, as in the
+phrase "to sweep the board," meaning to pocket all the stakes, hence,
+figuratively, to carry all before one. The same meaning leads to "Board
+of Trade," "Local Government Board," &c.
+
+From the meaning of border or side, and especially ship's side, comes
+"sea-board," meaning sea-coast, and the phrases "aboard" (Fr. _abord_),
+"over-board," "by the board"; similarly "weather-board," the side of a
+ship which is to windward; "larboard and starboard" (the former of
+uncertain origin, Mid. Eng. _laddeboard_ or _latheboard_; the latter
+meaning "steering side," O. Eng. _steorbord_, the rudder of early ships
+working over the steering side), signifying (to one standing at the
+stern and looking forward) the left and right sides of the ship
+respectively.
+
+
+
+
+BOARDING-HOUSE, a private house in which the proprietor provides board
+and lodging for paying guests. The position of a guest in a
+boarding-house differs in English law, to some extent, on the one hand
+from that of a lodger in the ordinary sense of the term, and on the
+other from that of a guest in an inn. Unlike the lodger, he frequently
+has not the exclusive occupation of particular rooms. Unlike the guest
+in an inn, his landlord has no lien upon his property for rent or any
+other debt due in respect of his board (_Thompson v. Lacy_, 1820, 3 B.
+and Ald. 283). The landlord is under an obligation to take reasonable
+care for the safety of property brought by a guest into his house, and
+is liable for damages in case of breach of this obligation (_Scarborough
+v. Cosgrove_, 1905, 2 K.B. 803). Again, unlike the innkeeper, a
+boarding-house keeper does not hold himself out as ready to receive all
+travellers for whom he has accommodation, for which they are ready to
+pay, and of course he is entitled to get rid of any guest on giving
+reasonable notice (see _Lamond v. Richard_, 1897, I Q.B. 541, 548). What
+is reasonable notice depends on the terms of the contract; and, subject
+thereto, the course of payment of rent is a material circumstance (see
+LANDLORD AND TENANT). Apparently the same implied warranty of fitness
+for habitation at the commencement of the tenancy which exists in the
+case of furnished lodgings (see LODGER AND LODGINGS) exists also in the
+case of boarding-houses; and the guest in a boarding-house, like a
+lodger, is entitled to all the usual and necessary conveniences of a
+dwelling-house.
+
+The law of the United States is similar to English law.
+
+Under the French Code Civil, claims for subsistence furnished to a
+debtor and his family during the last year of his life by boarding-house
+keepers (_maitres de pension_) are privileged over the generality of
+moveables, the privilege being exerciseable after legal expenses,
+funeral expenses, the expenses of the last illness, and the wages of
+servants for the year elapsed and what is due for the current year (art.
+2101 (5)). Keepers of taverns (_aubergistes_) and hotels (_hoteliers_)
+are responsible for the goods of their guests--the committal of which to
+their custody is regarded as a deposit of necessity (_depot
+necessaire_). They are liable for the loss of such goods by theft,
+whether by servants or strangers, but not where the loss is due to
+_force majeure_ (arts. 1952-1954). Their liability for money and bearer
+securities not actually deposited is limited to 1000 francs (law of 18th
+of April 1889). These provisions are reproduced in substance in the
+Civil Codes of Quebec (arts. 1814, 1815, 1994, 2006) and of St Lucia
+(art. 1889). In Quebec, boarding-house keepers have a lien on the goods
+of their guests for the value or price of any food or accommodation
+furnished to them, and have also a right to sell their baggage and other
+property, if the amount remains unpaid for three months, under
+conditions similar to those imposed on innkeepers in England (art. 1816
+A; and see INNS AND INNKEEPERS); also in the Civil Code of St Lucia
+(arts. 1578, 1714, 1715)     (A. W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BOARDING-OUT SYSTEM, in the English poor law, the boarding-out of orphan
+or deserted children with suitable foster-parents. The practice was
+first authorized in 1868, though for many years previously it had been
+carried out by some boards of guardians on their own initiative.
+Boarding-out is governed by two orders of the Local Government Board,
+issued in 1889. The first permits guardians to board-out children within
+their own union, except in the metropolis. The second governs the
+boarding-out of children in localities outside the union. The sum
+payable to the foster-parents is not to exceed 4s. per week for each
+child. The system has been much discussed by authorities on the
+administration of the poor law. It has been objected that few
+working-men with an average-sized family can afford to devote such an
+amount for the maintenance of each child, and that, therefore,
+boarded-out children are better off than the children of the independent
+(Fawcett, _Pauperism_). Working-class guardians, also, do not favour the
+system, being suspicious as to the disinterestedness of the
+foster-parents. On the other hand, it is argued that from the economic
+and educational point of view much better results are obtained by
+boarding-out children; they are given a natural life, and when they grow
+up they are without effort merged in the general population (Mackay,
+_Hist. Eng. Poor Law_). See also POOR LAW.
+
+The "boarding-out" of lunatics is, in Scotland, a regular part of the
+lunacy administration. It has also been successfully adopted in Belgium.
+(See INSANITY.)
+
+
+
+
+BOARDMAN, GEORGE DANA (1801-1831), American Baptist missionary, was born
+at Livermore, Me., and educated at Waterville College and Andover
+Theological Seminary. In 1825 he went to India as a missionary, and in
+1827 to Burma, where his promising work among the Karens was cut short
+by his early death. His widow married another well-known Burmese
+missionary, Adoniram Judson.
+
+His son, GEORGE DANA BOARDMAN, the younger (1828-1903), made the voyage
+from Burma to America alone when six years of age. He graduated in 1852
+at Brown University, and from the Newton Theological Institution in
+1855. He held Baptist pastorates at Rochester (1856-1864), and at
+Philadelphia, and was president of the American Baptist Missionary
+Union, 1880-1884. At Philadelphia he is said to have taken his
+congregation through every verse of the New Testament in 643 Wednesday
+evening lectures, which occupied nearly eighteen years, and afterwards
+to have begun on the Old Testament in similar fashion. Among his
+published works are _Studies in the Model Prayer_ (1879), and
+_Epiphanies of the Risen Lord_ (1879).
+
+
+
+
+BOASE, HENRY SAMUEL (1799-1883), English geologist, the eldest son of
+Henry Boase (1763-1827), banker, of Madron, Cornwall, was born in London
+on the 2nd of September 1799. Educated partly at Tiverton
+grammar-school, and partly at Dublin, where he studied chemistry, he
+afterwards proceeded to Edinburgh and took the degree of M.D. in 1821.
+He then settled for some years as a medical practitioner at Penzance;
+there geology engaged his particular attention, and he became secretary
+of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. The results of his
+observations were embodied in his _Treatise on Primary Geology_ (1834),
+a work of considerable merit in regard to the older crystalline and
+igneous rocks and the subject of mineral veins. In 1837 he removed to
+London, where he remained for about a year, being elected F.R.S. In 1838
+he became partner in a firm of bleachers at Dundee. He retired in 1871,
+and died on the 5th of May 1883.
+
+
+
+
+BOAT (O. Eng. _bat_; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger.
+_boot_, Fr. _bateau_, Ital. _battello_ presents great difficulties;
+Celtic forms are from O. Eng.), a comparatively small open craft for
+conveyance on water, usually propelled by some form of oar or sail.
+
+The origin of the word "boat" is probably to be looked for in the A.S.
+_bat_ = a stem, a stick, a piece of wood. If this be so, the term in its
+inception referred to the material of which the primitive vessel was
+constructed, and in this respect may well be contrasted with the word
+"ship," of which the primary idea was the _process_ by which the
+material was fashioned and adapted for the use of man.
+
+We may assume that primitive man, in his earliest efforts to achieve the
+feat of conveying himself and his belongings by water, succeeded in
+doing so--(1) by fastening together a quantity of material of sufficient
+buoyancy to float and carry him above the level of the water; (2) by
+scooping out a fallen tree so as to obtain buoyancy enough for the same
+purpose. In these two processes is to be found the genesis of both boat
+and ship, of which, though often used as convertible terms, the former
+is generally restricted to the smaller type of vessel such as is dealt
+with in this article. For the larger type the reader is referred to
+SHIP.
+
+Great must have been the triumph of the man who first discovered that
+the rushes or the trunks he had managed to tie together would, propelled
+by a stick or a branch (cf. _ramus_ and _remus_) used as pole or paddle,
+convey him safely across the river or lake, which had hitherto been his
+barrier. But use multiplies wants, discovers deficiencies, suggests
+improvements. Man soon found out that he wanted to go faster than the
+raft would move, that the water washed over and up through it, and this
+need of speed, and of dry carrying power, which we find operative
+throughout the history of the boat down to the present day, drove him to
+devise other modes of flotation as well as to try to improve his first
+invention.
+
+The invention of the hollowed trunk, of the "dug-out" (monoxylon),
+however it came about, whenever and wherever it came into comparison
+with the raft, must have superseded the latter for some purposes, though
+not by any means for all. It was superior to the raft in speed, and was,
+to a certain extent, water-tight. On the other hand it was inferior in
+carrying power and stability. But the two types once conceived had come
+to stay, and to them severally, or to attempts to combine the useful
+properties of both, may be traced all the varieties of vessel to which
+the name of boat may be applied.
+
+The development of the raft is admirably illustrated in the description,
+given us by Homer in the Odyssey, of the construction by the hero
+Ulysses of a vessel of the kind. Floating timber is cut down and
+carefully shaped and planed with axe and adze, and the timbers are then
+exactly fitted face to face and compacted with trenails and dowels, just
+as the flat floor of a lump or lighter might be fashioned and fitted
+nowadays. A platform is raised upon the floor and a bulwark of osiers
+contrived to keep out the wash of the waves (cf. _infra_, Malay boats).
+It seems as if the poet, who was intimately acquainted with the sea ways
+of his time, intended to convey the idea of progress in construction, as
+illustrated by the technical skill of his hero, and the use of the
+various tools with which he supplies him.
+
+On the other hand the dug-out had its limitations. The largest tree that
+could be thrown and scooped out afforded but a narrow space for carrying
+goods, and presented problems as to stability which must have been very
+difficult to solve. The shaping of bow and stern, the bulging out of the
+sides, the flattening of the bottom, the invention of a keel piece, the
+attempt to raise the sides by building up with planks, all led on
+towards the idea of constructing a boat properly so called, or perhaps
+to the invention of the canoe, which in some ways may be regarded as the
+intermediate stage between dug-out and boat.
+
+Meanwhile the raft had undergone improvements such as those which Homer
+indicates. It had arrived at a floor composed of timbers squared and
+shaped. It had risen to a platform, the prototype of a deck. It was but
+a step to build up the sides and turn up the ends, and at this point we
+reach the genesis of ark and punt, of sanpan and junk, or, in other
+words, of all the many varieties of flat-bottomed craft.
+
+When once we have reached the point at which the improvements in the
+construction of the raft and dug-out bring them, as it were, within
+sight of each other, we can enter upon the history of the development of
+boats properly so called, which, in accordance with the uses and the
+circumstances that dictated their build, may be said to be descended
+from the raft or the dug-out, or from the attempt to combine the
+respective advantages of the two original types.
+
+Uses and circumstances are infinite in variety and have produced an
+infinite variety of boats. But we may safely say that in all cases the
+need to be satisfied, the nature of the material available, and the
+character of the difficulties to be overcome have governed the reason
+and tested the reasonableness of the architecture of the craft in use.
+
+It is not proposed in this article to enter at any length into the
+details of the construction of boats, but it is desirable, for the sake
+of clearness, to indicate certain broad distinctions in the method of
+building, which, though they run back into the far past, in some form or
+other survive and are in use at the present day.
+
+The tying of trunks together to form a raft is still not unknown in the
+lumber trade of the Danube or of North America, nor was it in early days
+confined to the raft. It extended to many boats properly so called, even
+to many of those built by the Vikings of old. It may still be seen in
+the Madras surf boats, and in those constructed out of driftwood by the
+inhabitants of Easter Island in the south Pacific. Virgil, who was an
+archaeologist, represents Charon's boat on the Styx as of this
+construction, and notes the defect, which still survives, in the craft
+of the kind when loaded--
+
+                "Gemuit sub pondere cymba
+  Sutilis, et multam accepit rimosa paludem!"
+    _Aen._ vi. 303.
+
+Next to the raft, and to be counted in direct descent from it, comes the
+whole class of flat-bottomed boats including punts and lighters. As soon
+as the method of constructing a solid floor, with trenails and dowels,
+had been discovered, the method of converting it into a water-tight box
+was pursued, sides were attached plank fashion, with strong knees to
+stiffen them, and cross pieces to _yoke_ or _key_ (cf. [Greek: zugon,
+klaeis]) them together. These thwarts once fixed naturally suggested
+seats for those that plied the paddle or the oar. The ends of the vessel
+were shaped into bow or stern, either turned up, or with the side
+planking convergent in stem or stern post, or joined together fore and
+aft by bulkheads fitted in, while interstices were made water-tight by
+caulking, and by smearing with bitumen or some resinous material.
+
+The evolution of the boat as distinct from the punt, or flat-bottomed
+type, and following the configuration of the dug-out in its length and
+rounded bottom, must have taxed the inventive art and skill of
+constructors much more severely than that of the raft. It is possible
+that the coracle or the canoe may have suggested the construction of a
+framework of sufficient stiffness to carry a water-tight wooden skin,
+such as would successfully resist the pressure of wind and water. And in
+this regard two methods were open to the builder, both of which have
+survived to the present day: (1) the construction first of the shell of
+the boat, into which the stiffening ribs and cross ties were
+subsequently fitted; (2) the construction first of a framework of
+requisite size and shape, on to which the outer skin of the boat was
+subsequently attached.
+
+Further, besides the primitive mode of tying the parts together, two
+main types of build must be noticed, in accordance with which a boat is
+said to be either carvel-built or clinker-built. (1) A boat is
+carvel-built when the planks are laid edge to edge so that they present
+a smooth surface without. (2) A boat is clinker-built when each plank is
+laid on so as to overlap the one below it, thus presenting a series of
+ledges running longitudinally.
+
+The former method is said to be of Mediterranean, or perhaps of Eastern
+origin. The latter was probably invented by the old Scandinavian
+builders, and from them handed down through the fishing boats of the
+northern nations to our own time.
+
+
+  Ancient boats.
+
+The accounts of vessels used by the Egyptians and Phoenicians generally
+refer to larger craft which naturally fall under the head of SHIP
+(q.v.). The Nile boats, however, described by Herodotus (ii. 60),
+built of acacia wood, were no doubt of various sizes, some of them quite
+small, but all following the same type of construction, built up brick
+fashion, the blocks being fastened internally to long poles secured by
+cross pieces, and the interstices caulked with papyrus. The ends rose
+high above the water, and to prevent hogging were often attached by a
+truss running longitudinally over crutches from stem to stern.
+
+The Assyrian and Babylonian vessels described by Herodotus (i. 194),
+built up of twigs and boughs, and covered with skins smeared with
+bitumen, were really more like huge coracles and hardly deserve the name
+of boats.
+
+The use of boats by the Greeks and Romans is attested by the frequent
+reference to them in Greek and Latin literature, though, as regards such
+small craft, the details given are hardly enough to form the basis of an
+accurate classification.
+
+We hear of small boats attendant on a fleet ([Greek: kelaetion], Thuc.
+i. 53), and of similar craft employed in piracy (Thuc. iv. 9), and in
+one case of a sculling boat, or pair oar ([Greek: akation amphaerikon],
+Thuc. iv. 67), which was carted up and down between the town of Megara
+and the sea, being used for the purpose of marauding at night. We are
+also familiar with the passage in the Acts (xxvii.) where in the storm
+they had hard work "to come by the boat"; which same boat the sailors
+afterwards "let down into the sea, under colour as though they would
+have cast anchors out of the foreship," and would have escaped to land
+in her themselves, leaving the passengers to drown, if the centurion and
+soldiers acting upon St Paul's advice had not cut off the ropes of the
+boat and let her fall off.
+
+There can be little doubt that boat races were in vogue among the Greeks
+(see Prof. Gardner, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, ii. 91 ff.), and
+probably formed part of the Panathenaic and Isthmian festivals. It is,
+however, difficult to prove that small boats took part in these races,
+though it is not unlikely that they may have done so. The testimony of
+the coins, such as it is, points to galleys, and the descriptive term
+([Greek: neon amilla]) leads to the same conclusion.
+
+It is hardly possible now to define the differences which separated
+[Greek: akatos], [Greek: akation], from [Greek: kelaes], [Greek:
+kelaetion], or from [Greek: lembos] or [Greek: karabos]. They seem all
+to have been rowing boats, probably carvel-built, some with keels
+(_acatii modo carinata_, Plin. ix. 19), and to have varied in size, some
+being simply sculling boats, and others running up to as many as thirty
+oars.
+
+Similarly in Latin authors we have frequent mention of boats
+accompanying ships of war. Of this there is a well-known instance in the
+account of Caesar's invasion of Britain (_B.G._ iv. 26), when the boats
+of the fleet, and the pinnaces, were filled with soldiers and sent to
+assist the Legionaries who were being fiercely attacked as they waded on
+to the shore. There is also an instance in the civil war, which is a
+prototype of a modern attack of torpedo boats upon men of war, when
+Antonius manned the pinnaces of his large ships to the number of sixty,
+and with them attacked and defeated an imprudent squadron of Quadriremes
+(_B.C._ iii. 24). The class of boats so frequently mentioned as
+_actuariae_ seems to have contained craft of all sizes, and to have been
+used for all purposes, whether as pleasure boats or as despatch vessels,
+or for piracy. In fact the term was employed vaguely just as we speak of
+craft in general.
+
+The _lembus_, which is often referred to in Livy and Polybius, seems to
+have been of Illyrian origin, with fine lines and sharp bows. The class
+contained boats of various sizes and with a variable number of oars
+(biremis, Livy xxiv. 40, sexdecim, Livy xxxiv. 35); and it is
+interesting to note the origin in this case, as the invention of the
+light Liburnian galleys, which won the battle of Actium, and altered the
+whole system of naval construction, came from the same seaboard.
+
+Besides these, the piratical _myoparones_ (see Cic. _In Verrem_), and
+the poetical _phaselus_, deserve mention, but here again we are met with
+the difficulty of distinguishing boats from ships. There is also an
+interesting notice in Tacitus (_Hist_. iii. 47) of boats hastily
+constructed by the natives of the northern coast of Asia Minor, which he
+describes as of broad beam with narrow sides (probably meaning that the
+sides "tumbled home"), joined together without any fastenings of brass
+or iron. In a sea-way the sides were raised with planks added till they
+were cased in as with a roof, whence their name _camarae_, and so they
+rolled about in the waves, having prow and stern alike and convertible
+rowlocks, so that it was a matter of indifference and equally safe, or
+perhaps unsafe, whichever way they rowed.
+
+Similar vessels were constructed by Germanicus in his north German
+campaign (_Ann_. ii. 6) and by the Suiones (_Ger_. 44). These also had
+stem and stern alike, and remind us of the old Norse construction, being
+rowed either way, having the oars loose in the rowlock, and not, as was
+usual in the south, attached by a thong to the thowl pin.
+
+Lastly, as a class of boat directly descended from the raft, we may
+notice the flat-bottomed boats or punts or lighters which plied on the
+Tiber as ferry-boats, or carrying goods, which were called _codicariae_
+from _caudex_, the old word for a plank.
+
+It is difficult to trace any order of development in the construction of
+boats during the Byzantine period, or the middle ages. Sea-going vessels
+according to their size carried one or more boats, some of them small
+boats with two or four oars, others boats of a larger size fitted with
+masts and sail as well as with oars. We find _lembus_ and _phaselus_ as
+generic names in the earlier period, but the indications as to size and
+character are vague and variable. The same may be said of the _batelli,
+coquets, chaloupes, chalans, gattes_, &c., of which, in almost endless
+number and variety, the nautical erudition of M. Jal has collected the
+names in his monumental works, _Archeologie navale_ and the _Glossaire
+nautique_.
+
+It is clear, however, that in many instances the names, originally
+applied to boats properly so called, gradually attached themselves to
+larger vessels, as in the case of _chaloupe_ and others, a fact which
+leads to the conclusion that the type of build followed originally in
+smaller vessels was often developed on a larger scale, according as it
+was found useful and convenient, while the name remained the same. Many
+of these types still survive and may be found in the Eastern seas, or in
+the Mediterranean or in the northern waters, each of which has its own
+peculiarities of build and rig.
+
+
+  Existing types.
+
+It would be impossible within our limits to do justice to the number and
+variety of existing types in sea-going boats, and for more detailed
+information concerning them the reader would do well to consult _Mast
+and Sail in Europe and Asia_, by H. Warington Smyth, an excellent and
+exhaustive work, from which much of the information which follows
+regarding them has been derived.
+
+In the Eastern seas the Chinese _sanpan_ is ubiquitous. Originally a
+small raft of three timbers with fore end upturned, it grew into a boat
+in very early times, and has given its name to a very large class of
+vessels. With flat bottom, and considerable width in proportion to its
+length, the normal sanpan runs out into two tails astern, the timbers
+rounding up, and the end being built in like a bulkhead, with room for
+the rudder to work between it and the transom which connects the two
+projecting upper timbers of the stern. Some of them are as much as 30
+ft. in length and 8 to 10 ft. in beam. They are good carriers and
+speedy under sail.
+
+The Chinese in all probability were the earliest of all peoples to solve
+the chief problems of boat building, and after their own fashion to work
+out the art of navigation, which for them has now been set and unchanged
+for thousands of years. They appear to have used the lee-board and
+centre-board in junks and sanpans, and to have extended their trade to
+India and even beyond, centuries before anything like maritime
+enterprise is heard of in the north of Europe.
+
+As regards the practice of long boat racing on rivers or tidal waters
+the Chinese are easily antecedent in time to the rest of the world. On
+great festivals in certain places the Dragon boat race forms part of the
+ceremony. The Dragon boats are just over 73 ft. long, with 4 ft. beam,
+and depth 21 in. The rowing or paddling space is about 63 ft. and the
+number of thwarts 27, thus giving exactly the same number of rowers as
+that of the Zygites in the Greek trireme. The two extremities of the
+boat are much cambered and rise to about 2 ft. above the water. At about
+15 ft. from each end the single plank gives place to three, so as to
+offer a concave surface to the water. The paddle blade is spade-like in
+form and about 6-1/2 in. broad.
+
+Both in Siam and Burma there is a very large river population, and boat
+racing is on festival days a common amusement. The typical craft,
+however, is the Duck-boat, which in the shape of hull is in direct
+contrast to the dug-out form, and primarily intended for sailing. It is
+interesting to note that the Siamese method of slinging and using
+quarter rudders is the oldest used by men in sailing craft, being in
+fact the earliest development from the simple paddle rudder, which has
+in all ages been the first method of steering boats. The king of Siam's
+state barge, we are told, is steered by long paddles, precisely in the
+same way as is figured in the case of the Egyptian boats of the 3rd
+dynasty (6000 B.C.). On the other hand the slung quarter rudders are the
+same in fashion as those used by Roman and Greek merchantmen, by
+Norsemen and Anglo-Saxons, and by medieval seamen down to about the 14th
+century.
+
+The Malays have generally the credit of being expert boat-builders, but
+the local conditions are not such as to favour the construction of a
+good type of boat. "Small displacement, hollow lines, V-shaped sections,
+shallow draught and lack of beam" result in want of stability and
+weatherliness. But it is among them that the ancient process of dug-out
+building still survives and flourishes, preserving all the primitive and
+ingenious methods of hollowing the tree trunk, of forcing its sides
+outwards, and in many cases building them up with added planks, so that
+from the dug-out a regular boat is formed, with increased though limited
+carrying power, increased though still hardly sufficient stability.
+
+To ensure this last very necessary quality many devices and contrivances
+are resorted to.
+
+In some cases (just as Ulysses is described as doing by Homer, _Od_. v.
+256) the boatman fastens bundles of reeds or of bamboos all along the
+sides of his boat. These being very buoyant not only act as a defence
+against the wash of the waves, but are sufficient to keep the boat
+afloat in any sea.
+
+But the most characteristic device is the outrigger, a piece of floating
+wood sharpened at both ends, which is fixed parallel to the longer axis
+of the boat, at a distance of two or three beams, by two or more poles
+laid at right angles to it. This, while not interfering materially with
+the speed of the boat, acts as a counterpoise to any pressure on it
+which would tend, owing to its lack of stability, to upset it, and makes
+it possible for the long narrow dug-out to face even the open sea. It is
+remarkable that this invention, which must have been seen by the
+Egyptians and Phoenicians in very early times, was not introduced by
+them into the Mediterranean. Possibly this was owing to the lack of
+large timber suitable for dug-outs, and the consequent evolution by them
+of boat from raft, with sufficient beam to rely upon for stability.
+
+On the other hand in the boats of India the influence of Egyptian and
+Arab types of build is apparent, and the dinghy of the Hugli is cited
+as being in form strangely like the ancient Egyptian model still
+preserved in the Ghizeh museum. Coming westward the dominant type of
+build is that of the Arab _dhow_, the boat class of which has all the
+characteristics of the larger vessel developed from it, plenty of beam,
+overhanging stem and transom stern. The planking of the shell over the
+wooden frame has a double thickness which conduces to dryness and
+durability in the craft.
+
+On the Nile it is interesting to find the _naggar_ preserving, in its
+construction out of blocks of acacia wood pinned together, the old-world
+fashion of building described by Herodotus. The _gaiassa_ and _dahabiah_
+are too large to be classed as boats, but they and their smaller sisters
+follow the Arab type in build and rig.
+
+It is noteworthy that nothing apparently of the ancient Egyptian or
+classical methods of build survives in the Mediterranean, while the
+records of the development of boat-building in the middle ages are
+meagre and confusing. The best illustrations of ancient methods of
+construction, and of ancient seamanship, are to be found, if anywhere,
+in the East, that conservative storehouse of types and fashions, to
+which they were either communicated, or from which they were borrowed,
+by Egyptians or Phoenicians, from whom they were afterwards copied by
+Greeks and Romans.
+
+In the Mediterranean the chief characteristics of the types belonging to
+it are "carvel-build, high bow, round stern and deep rudder hung on
+stern post outside the vessel."
+
+In the eastern basin the long-bowed wide-sterned _caique_ of the
+Bosporus is perhaps the type of boat best known, but both Greek and
+Italian waters abound with an unnumbered variety of boats of "beautiful
+lines and great carrying power." In the Adriatic, the Venetian gondola,
+and the light craft generally, are of the type developed from the raft,
+flat-bottomed, and capable of navigating shallow waters with minimum of
+draught and maximum of load.
+
+In the western basin the majority of the smaller vessels are of the
+sharp-sterned build. Upon the boats of the _felucca_ class, long vessels
+with easy lines and low free-board, suitable for rowing as well as
+sailing, the influence of the long galley of the middle ages was
+apparent. In Genoese waters at the beginning of the 19th century there
+were single-decked rowing vessels, which preserved the name of galley,
+and were said to be the descendants of the Liburnians that defeated the
+many-banked vessels of Antonius at Actium. But the introduction of steam
+vessels has already relegated into obscurity these memorials of the
+past.
+
+Along the Riviera and the Spanish coast a type of boat is noticeable
+which is peculiar for the inward curve of both stem and stern from a
+keel which has considerable camber, enabling them to be beached in a
+heavy surf.
+
+On the Douro, in Portugal, it is said that the boats which may be seen
+laden with casks of wine, trailing behind them an enormously long
+steering paddle, are of Phoenician ancestry, and that the curious signs,
+which many of them have painted on the cross board over the cabin, are
+of Semitic origin though now undecipherable.
+
+Coming to the northern waters, as with men, so with boats, we meet with
+a totally different type. Instead of the smooth exterior of the
+carvel-build, we have the more rugged form of clinker-built craft with
+great beam, and raking sterns and stems, and a wide flare forward. In
+the most northern waters the strakes of the sea-going boats are wide and
+of considerable thickness, of oak or fir, often compacted with wooden
+trenails, strong and fit to do battle with the rough seas and rough
+usage which they have to endure.
+
+In most of these the origin of form and character is to be sought for in
+the old Viking vessels or long _keeles_ of the 5th century A.D., with
+curved and elevated stem and stern posts, and without decks or, at the
+most, half decked.
+
+In the Baltic and the North Sea most of the fishing boats follow this
+type, with, however, considerable variety in details. It is noticeable
+that here also, as in other parts of the world, and at other times, the
+pressing demand for speed and carrying power has increased the size in
+almost all classes of boats till they pass into the category of ships.
+At the same time the carvel-build is becoming more common, while, in the
+struggle for life, steam and motor power are threatening to obliterate
+the old types of rowing and sailing boats altogether.
+
+Next to the Norse skiff and its descendants, perhaps the oldest type of
+boat in northern waters is to be found in Holland, where the conditions
+of navigation have hardly altered for centuries. It is to the Dutch that
+we chiefly owe the original of our pleasure craft, but, though we have
+developed these enormously, the Dutch boats have remained pretty much
+the same. The clinker-build and the wide rounded bow are now very much
+of the same character as they are represented in the old pictures of the
+17th and 18th centuries.
+
+The development of boat-building in the British Isles during the 19th
+century has been unceasing and would need a treatise to itself to do it
+justice. The expansion of the fishing industry and the pressure of
+competition have stimulated constant improvement in the craft engaged,
+and here also are observable the same tendencies to substitute carvel,
+though it is more expensive, for clinker build, and to increase the
+length and size of the boats, and the gradual supersession of sail and
+oar by steam power. Under these influences we hear of the _fifie_ and
+the _skaffie_ classes, old favourites in northern waters, being
+superseded by the more modern _Zulu_, which is supposed to unite the
+good qualities of both; and these in turn running to such a size as to
+take them outside the category of boats. But even in the case of smaller
+boats the _Zulu_ model is widely followed, so that they have actually
+been imported to the Irish coast for the use of the crofter fishermen in
+the congested districts.
+
+For the Shetland _sexern_ and the broad boats of the Orkneys, and the
+_nabbies_ of the west coast of Scotland, the curious will do well to
+refer to H. Warington Smyth's most excellent account.
+
+On the eastern coast of England the influence of the Dutch type of build
+is manifest in many of the flat-bottomed and mostly round-ended craft,
+such as the Yorkshire _Billyboy_, and partly in the _coble_, which
+latter is interesting as built for launching off beaches against heavy
+seas, and as containing relics of Norse influence, though in the main of
+Dutch origin.
+
+The life-boats of the eastern coast are in themselves an admirable class
+of boat, with fine lines, great length, and shallow draught, wonderful
+in their daring work in foul weather and heavy seas, in which as a rule
+their services are required. Here, however, as in the fishing boats, the
+size is increasing, and steam is appropriating to itself the provinces
+of the sail and the oar.
+
+The wherry of the Norfolk Broads has a type of its own, and is often
+fitted out as a pleasure boat. It is safe and comfortable for inland
+waters, but not the sort of boat to live in a sea-way in anything but
+good weather.
+
+The Thames and its estuary rejoice in a great variety of boats, of which
+the old _Peter_ boat (so called after the legend of the foundation of
+the abbey on Thorney Island) preserved a very ancient type of build,
+shorter and broader than the old Thames pleasure wherry. But these and
+the old _hatch_ boat have now almost disappeared. Possibly survivors may
+still be seen on the upper part of the tidal river. Round the English
+coast from the mouth of the Thames southwards the conditions of landing
+and of hauling up boats above high-water mark affect the type, demanding
+strong clinker-build and stout timbers. Hence there is a strong family
+resemblance in most of the short boats in use from the North Foreland
+round to Brighton. Among these are the life-boats of Deal and the other
+Channel ports, which have done and are still doing heroic work in saving
+life from wrecks upon the Goodwins and the other dangerous shoals that
+beset the narrowing sleeve of the English Channel.
+
+Farther down, along the southern coast, and to the west, where harbours
+are more frequent, a finer and deeper class of boats, chiefly of
+carvel-build, is to be found. The Cornish ports are the home of a great
+boat-building industry, and from them a large number of the finest
+fishing boats in the world are turned out annually. Most of them are
+built with stem and stern alike, with full and bold quarters, and ample
+floor.
+
+It is not possible here to enumerate, much less to describe in detail,
+the variety of types in sea-going boats which have been elaborated in
+England and in America. For this purpose reference should be made to the
+list of works given at the end of the article.
+
+The following is a list of the boats at present used in the royal navy.
+They have all of them a deep fore foot, and with the exception of the
+whalers and Berthon boats, upright stems and transom sterns. The whalers
+have a raking stem and a sharp stern, and a certain amount of sheer in
+the bows.
+
+                                            Length.   Beam.    Depth.
+                                             Feet.   Ft. In.  Ft. In.
+  1a. Dinghy. Freeboard about 9 in.
+        Weight 3 cwt. 2 qr. Between
+        thwarts 2 ft. 9 in. Elm.              13-1/2  4' 8"    2' 2"
+  1b. Skiff dinghy for torpedo boats.
+        Freeboard about 9 in. Carry about
+        ten men in moderate weather.
+        Between thwarts 2 ft. 7-1/2 in.
+        Weight 3 cwt. 4 lb. Yellow pine.      16      4' 6"    1' 10"
+  2a. Whaler for destroyers. 5 in. sheer.
+        Yellow pine.                          25      5' 6"    2'
+  2b. Whaler. Between thwarts 2 ft. 10 in.
+        Freeboard about 12 in. Weight,
+        8 cwt. Strakes No. 13. Lap
+        3/4 in. Elm.                          27      5' 6"    2' 2"
+    (All have bilge strakes with hand-holes.)
+  3. Gig. Between thwarts 2 ft. 9-1/2 in.
+       Weight 8 cwt. 2 qr. 15 lb. 13
+       Strakes. Elm.                          30      5' 6"    2' 2"
+  4. Cutter. Between thwarts 3 ft. 1 in.
+       To carry 49 men. Carvel built.         30      8' 1"    2' 8-1/2"
+  5. Pinnace. Between thwarts 3 ft.
+       Carvel-built. Elm.                     36     10' 2"    3' 5"
+  6. Launch. Between thwarts 3 ft. 1 in.
+       To carry 140 men. Double skin
+       diagonal. Teak.                        42     11' 6"    4' 6"
+  7. Berthon collapsible boats weighing
+       7 cwt. for destroyers.
+
+With the exception of the larger classes, viz. cutters, pinnaces and
+launches, the V-shape of bottom is still preserved, which does not tend
+to stability, and it is difficult to see why the smaller classes have
+not followed the improvement made in their larger sisters.
+
+
+  Pleasure boats and racing.
+
+Though the number and variety of sea-going boats is of much greater
+importance, no account of boats in general would be complete without
+reference to the development of pleasure craft upon rivers and inland
+waters, especially in England, during the past century. There is a
+legend, dating from Saxon times, which tells of King Edgar the Peaceable
+being rowed on the Dee from his palace in Chester to the church of St
+John, by eight kings, himself the ninth, steering this ancient 8-oar;
+but not much is heard of rowing in England until 1453, when John Norman,
+lord mayor of London, set the example of going by water to Westminster,
+which, we are told, made him popular with the watermen of his day, as in
+consequence the use of pleasure boats by the citizens became common.
+Thus it was that the old Thames pleasure wherry, with its high bows and
+low sharp stern and V-shaped section, and the old skiff came into vogue,
+both of which have now given way to boats, mostly of clinker-build, but
+with rounder bottoms and greater depth, safer and more comfortable to
+row in.
+
+In 1715 Thomas Doggett (q.v.) founded a race which is still rowed in
+peculiar sculling boats, straked, and with sides flaring up to the sill
+of the rowlock. Strutt tells us of a regatta in 1775 in which watermen
+contended in pair-oared boats or skiffs.
+
+At the beginning of the 19th century numerous rowing clubs flourished on
+the upper tidal waters of the Thames, and we hear of four-oared races
+from Westminster to Putney, and from Putney to Kew, in what we should
+now consider large and heavy boats, clinker-built, with bluff entry.
+
+Longer boats, 8-oars, and 10-oars, seem to have been existent at the end
+of the 18th century. Eton certainly had one 10-oar, and three 8-oars,
+and two 6-oars, before 1811. The record of 8-oar races at Oxford begins
+in 1815, at Cambridge in 1827. Pair-oar and sculling races in lighter
+boats seem to have come in soon after 1820, and the first Oxford and
+Cambridge eight-oared race was rowed in 1829, in which year also Eton
+and Westminster contended at Putney.
+
+Henley regatta was founded in 1839, and since that date the building of
+racing boats, eights, fours, pairs, and sculling boats, has made great
+progress. The products of the present time are such, in lightness of
+build and swiftness of propulsion, as would have been thought impossible
+between 1810 and 1830.
+
+In the middle of the 19th century the long boats in use were mostly
+clinker-built with a keel. At Oxford the torpids were rowed, as now, in
+clinker-built craft, but the summer races were rowed in carvel-built
+boats, which also had a keel.
+
+In 1855 the first keelless 8-oar made its appearance at Henley, built by
+Mat Taylor for the Royal Chester Rowing Club. The new type was
+constructed on moulds, bottom upwards, a cedar skin bent and fitted on
+to the moulds, and the ribs built in after the boat had been turned
+over.
+
+In 1857 Oxford rowed in a similar boat at Putney, 55 ft. long, 25 in.
+beam. From that time the keelless racing boat has held its own, fours
+and pairs and sculling boats all following suit. But with the
+introduction of sliding seats racing eights have developed in length to
+63 ft. or more, with considerable camber, and a beam of 23-24 in. There
+are, however, still advocates of the shorter type with broader beam, and
+it is noticeable that the Belgian boat that won the Grand Challenge at
+Henley in 1906 did not exceed 60 ft. The boat in which Oxford won the
+University race in 1901 was 56 ft. long with 27 in. of beam.
+
+In sculling boats the acceptance of the Australian type of build has led
+to the construction of a much shorter boat with broader beam than that
+which was in vogue twenty years ago. The same tendency has not shown
+itself so pronouncedly in pair oars, but will no doubt be manifest in
+time as the build improves. In fact we may expect the controversy
+between long and short racing boats, and the proper method of propelling
+them respectively, to be carried a step farther. The tendency, with the
+long slide, and long type of boat, is to try to avoid "pinch" by
+adopting the scullers' method of easy beginning, and strong drive with
+the legs, and sharp finish to follow, but it remains to be seen whether
+superior pace is not to be obtained in a shorter boat by sharp beginning
+at a reasonable angle to the boat's side, and a continuous drive right
+out to the finish of the stroke.
+
+Appended is a list of pleasure boats in use (1909) on the Thames, with
+their measurements (in feet and inches).
+
+    Class of Boat.       Length.         Beam.           Depth.
+
+  Racing eight          56' to 63'    23" to 27"      9" to 10"
+  Clinker eight         56' to 60'    24" to 27"      9" to 10"
+  Clinker four          38' to 42'    23" to 24"      8" to 9"
+  Tub fours             30' to 32'    3'8"-3'10"      13" from keel to
+                                                        top of stem
+  Outrigger pair        30' to 34'    14" to 16"      7" to 8"
+  Outrigger sculls      25' to 30'    10" to 13"      5-1/2" to 6"
+  Coaching gigs         26' to 28'    3' to 3'4"      10-1/2" to 14"
+  Skiffs (Thames)       24' to 26'    3'9" to 4'      12"
+  Skiffs (Eton)         27'           2'3"            9-1/2"
+  Gigs (pleasure)       24' to 36'    4'              15" to 16"
+  Randans               27' to 30'    4' to 4'6"      13" from keel to
+                                                        top of stem
+  Whiffs                20' to 23'    1'4" to 1'6"    6" from keel to
+                                                        top of stem
+  Whiff Gigs            19' to 20'    2'8" to 2'10"   12" over all
+  Punts racers          30' to 34'    1'3" to 1'6"    6" to 7"
+    "   semi racers     28' to 30'    2'              9" to 10-1/2"
+    "   pleasure        26' to 28'    2'9" to 3'      12" to 13"
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For ancient boats: _Dict. Ant._, "Navis"; C. Torr,
+  _Ancient Ships_; Smith, _Voyage and Shipwreck of St Paul_; Graser, _De
+  re navali_; Breusing, _Die Nautik der Alten_; Contre-amiral Serre, _La
+  Marine des anciens_; Jules Var, _L'Art nautique dans l'antiquite_.
+  Medieval: Jal, _Archeologie navale_, and _Glossaire nautique_; Marquis
+  de Folin, _Bateaux et navires, progres de la construction navale_;
+  W.S. Lindsay, _History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce_.
+  Modern: H. Warington Smyth, _Mast and Sail in Europe and Asia_; Dixon
+  Kempe, _Manual of Yacht and Boat Sailing_; H.C. Folkhard, _The Sailing
+  Boat_; F.G. Aflato, _The Sea Fishing Industry of England and Wales_;
+  R.C. Leslie, _Old Sea Wings_, &c.     (E. Wa.)
+
+
+
+
+BOATSWAIN (pronounced "bo'sun"; derived from "boat" and "swain," a
+servant), the warrant officer of the navy who in sailing-ships had
+particular charge of the boats, sails, rigging, colours, anchors and
+cordage. He superintended the rigging of the ship in dock, and it was
+his duty to summon the crew to work by a whistle. The office still
+remains, though with functions modified by the introduction of steam. In
+a merchant ship the boatswain is the foreman of the crew and is
+sometimes also third or fourth mate.
+
+
+
+
+BOBBILI, a town of British India, in the Vizagapatam district of Madras,
+70 m. north of Vizagapatam town. Pop. (1901) 17,387. It is the residence
+of a raja of old family, whose estate covers an area of 227 sq. m.;
+estimated income, L40,000; permanent land revenue, L9000.
+
+The attack on the fort at Bobbili made by General Bussy in 1756 is one
+of the most memorable episodes in Indian history. There was a constant
+feud between the chief of Bobbili and the raja of Vizianagram; and when
+Bussy marched to restore order the raja persuaded him that the fault lay
+with the chief of Bobbili and joined the French with 11,000 men against
+his rival. In spite of the fact that the French field-pieces at once
+made practicable breaches in the mud walls of the fort, the defenders
+held out with desperate valour. Two assaults were repulsed after hours
+of hand-to-hand fighting; and when, after a fresh bombardment, the
+garrison saw that their case was hopeless, they killed their women and
+children, and only succumbed at last to a third assault because every
+man of them was either killed or mortally wounded. An old man, however,
+crept out of a hut with a child, whom he presented to Bussy as the son
+of the dead chief. Three nights later four followers of the chief of
+Bobbili crept into the tent of the raja of Vizianagram and stabbed him
+to death. The child, Chinna Ranga Rao, was invested by Bussy with his
+father's estate, but during his minority it was seized by his uncle.
+After a temporary arrangement of terms with the raja of Vizianagram the
+old feud broke out again, and the Bobbili chief was forced to take
+refuge in the nizam's country. In 1794, however, on the break-up of the
+Vizianagram estate, Chinna Ranga Rao was restored by the British, and in
+1801 a permanent settlement was made with his son. The title of raja was
+recognized as hereditary in the family; that of maharaja was conferred
+as a personal distinction on Sir Venkataswetachalapati Ranga Rao,
+K.C.I.E., the adopted great-great-grandson of Chinna Ranga Rao.
+
+  For the siege see _Imp. Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908), s.v.
+  "Bobbili Estate."
+
+
+
+
+BOBBIO, a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
+Pavia, 32-1/2 m. S.W. of Piacenza by road. Pop. (1901) 4848. Its most
+important building is the church dedicated to St Columban, who became
+first abbot of Bobbio in 595 or 612, and died there in 615. It was
+erected in Lombard style in the 11th or 12th century (to which period
+the campanile belongs) and restored in the 13th. The cathedral is also
+interesting. Bobbio was especially famous for the manuscripts which
+belonged to the monastery of St Columban, and are now dispersed, the
+greater part being in the Vatican library at Rome, and others at Milan
+and Turin. The cathedral archives contain documents of the 10th and 11th
+centuries.
+
+  See M. Stokes, _Six Months in the Apennines_ (London, 1892), 154 seq.;
+  C. Cipolla, in _L'Arte_ (1904), 241.
+
+
+
+
+BOBER, a river of Germany, the most considerable of the left bank
+tributaries of the Oder; it rises at an altitude of 2440 ft., on the
+northern (Silesian) side of the Riesengebirge. In its upper course it
+traverses a higher plateau, whence, after passing the town of Landeshut,
+it descends through a narrow and fertile valley to Kupferberg. Here its
+romantic middle course begins, and after dashing through a deep ravine
+between the towns of Hirschberg and Lowenberg, it gains the plain. In
+its lower course it meanders through pleasant pastures, bogland and pine
+forests in succession, receives the waters of various mountain streams,
+passes close by Bunzlau and through Sagan, and finally, after a course
+of 160 m., joins the Oder at Crossen. Swollen by the melting of the
+winter snows and by heavy rains in the mountains, it is frequently a
+torrent, and is thus, except in the last few miles, unnavigable for
+either boats or rafts.
+
+
+
+
+BOBRUISK, a town and formerly a first-class fortress of Russia, in the
+government of Minsk, and 100 m. by rail S.E. of the town of Minsk, in 53
+deg. 15' N. lat. and 28 deg. 52' E. long., on the right bank of the
+Berezina river, and on the railway from Libau and Vilna to
+Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1860) 23,761; (1897) 35,177, of whom one-half were
+Jews. In the reign of Alexander I. there was erected here, at the
+confluence of the Bobruiska with the Berezina, nearly a mile from the
+town, a fort, which successfully withstood a bombardment by Napoleon in
+1812, and was made equal to the best in Europe by the emperor Nicholas
+I. It was demolished in 1897, the defences being antiquated. The town
+has a military hospital and a departmental college. There are ironworks
+and flour-mills; and corn and timber are shipped to Libau. The town was
+half burnt down in 1902.
+
+
+
+
+BOCAGE, MANUEL MARIA BARBOSA DE (1765-1805), Portuguese poet, was a
+native of Setubal. His father had held important judicial and
+administrative appointments, and his mother, from whom he took his last
+surname, was the daughter of a Portuguese vice-admiral of French birth
+who had fought at the battle of Matapan. Bocage began to make verses in
+infancy, and being somewhat of a prodigy grew up to be flattered,
+self-conscious and unstable. At the age of fourteen, he suddenly left
+school and joined the 7th infantry regiment; but tiring of garrison life
+at Setubal after two years, he decided to enter the navy. He proceeded
+to the royal marine academy in Lisbon, but instead of studying he
+pursued love adventures, and for the next five years burnt incense on
+many altars, while his retentive memory and extraordinary talent for
+improvisation gained him a host of admirers and turned his head. The
+Brazilian _modinhas_, little rhymed poems sung to a guitar at family
+parties, were then in great vogue, and Bocage added to his fame by
+writing a number of these, by his skill in extemporizing verses on a
+given theme, and by allegorical idyllic pieces, the subjects of which
+are similar to those of Watteau's and Boucher's pictures. In 1786 he was
+appointed _guardamarinha_ in the Indian navy, and he reached Goa by way
+of Brazil in October. There he came into an ignorant society full of
+petty intrigue, where his particular talents found no scope to display
+themselves; the glamour of the East left him unmoved and the climate
+brought on a serious illness. In these circumstances he compared the
+heroic traditions of Portugal in Asia, which had induced him to leave
+home, with the reality, and wrote his satirical sonnets on "The
+Decadence of the Portuguese Empire in Asia," and those addressed to
+Affonso de Albuquerque and D. Joao de Castro. The irritation caused by
+these satires, together with rivalries in love affairs, made it
+advisable for him to leave Goa, and early in 1789 he obtained the post
+of lieutenant of the infantry company at Damaun; but he promptly
+deserted and made his way to Macao, where he arrived in July-August.
+According to a modern tradition much of the _Lusiads_ had been written
+there, and Bocage probably travelled to China under the influence of
+Camoens, to whose life and misfortunes he loved to compare his own.
+Though he escaped the penalty of his desertion, he had no resources and
+lived on friends, whose help enabled him to return to Lisbon in the
+middle of the following year.
+
+Once back in Portugal he found his old popularity, and resumed his
+vagabond existence. The age was one of reaction against the Pombaline
+reforms, and the famous intendant of police, Manique, in his
+determination to keep out French revolutionary and atheistic propaganda,
+forbade the importation of foreign classics and the discussion of all
+liberal ideas. Hence the only vehicle of expression left was satire,
+which Bocage employed with an unsparing hand. His poverty compelled him
+to eat and sleep with friends like the turbulent friar Jose Agostinho de
+Macedo (q.v.), and he soon fell under suspicion with Manique. He became
+a member of the New Arcadia, a literary society founded in 1790, under
+the name of Elmano Sadino, but left it three years later. Though
+including in its ranks most of the poets of the time, the New Arcadia
+produced little of real merit, and before long its adherents became
+enemies and descended to an angry warfare of words. But Bocage's
+reputation among the general public and with foreign travellers grew
+year by year. Beckford, the author of _Vathek_, for instance, describes
+him as "a pale, limber, odd-looking young man, the queerest but perhaps
+the most original of God's poetical creatures. This strange and
+versatile character may be said to possess the true wand of enchantment
+which at the will of its master either animates or petrifies." In 1797
+enemies of Bocage belonging to the New Arcadia delated him to Manique,
+who on the pretext afforded by some anti-religious verses, the _Epistola
+a Marilia_, and by his loose life, arrested him when he was about to
+flee the country and lodged him in the Limoeiro, where he spent his
+thirty-second birthday. His sufferings induced him to a speedy
+recantation, and after much importuning of friends, he obtained his
+transfer in November from the state prison to that of the Inquisition,
+then a mild tribunal, and shortly afterwards recovered his liberty. He
+returned to his bohemian life and subsisted by writing empty _Elogios
+Dramaticos_ for the theatres, printing volumes of verses and translating
+the didactic poems of Delille, Castel and others, some second-rate
+French plays and Ovid's _Metamorphoses_. These resources and the help of
+brother Freemasons just enabled him to exist, and a purifying influence
+came into his life in the shape of a real affection for the two
+beautiful daughters of D. Antonio Bersane Leite, which drew from him
+verses of true feeling mixed with regrets for the past. He would have
+married the younger lady, D. Anna Perpetua (Analia), but excesses had
+ruined his health. In 1801 his poetical rivalry with Macedo became more
+acute and personal, and ended by drawing from Bocage a stinging
+extempore poem, _Pena de Taliao_, which remains a monument to his powers
+of invective. In 1804 the malady from which he suffered increased, and
+the approach of death inspired some beautiful sonnets, including one
+directed to D. Maria (_Marcia_), elder sister of Analia, who visited and
+consoled him. He became reconciled to his enemies, and breathed his last
+on the 21st of December 1805. His end recalled that of Camoens, for he
+expired in poverty on the eve of the French invasion, while the singer
+of the _Lusiads_ just failed to see the occupation of Portugal by the
+duke of Alva's army. The gulf that divides the life and achievements of
+these two poets is accounted for, less by difference of talent and
+temperament than by their environment, and it gives an accurate measure
+of the decline of Portugal in the two centuries that separate 1580 from
+1805.
+
+To Beckford, Bocage was "a powerful genius," and Link was struck by his
+nervous expression, harmonious versification and the fire of his poetry.
+He employed every variety of lyric and made his mark in all. His
+roundels are good, his epigrams witty, his satires rigorous and
+searching, his odes often full of nobility, but his fame must rest on
+his sonnets, which almost rival those of Camoens in power, elevation of
+thought and tender melancholy, though they lack the latter's scholarly
+refinement of phrasing. So dazzled were contemporary critics by his
+brilliant and inspired extemporizations that they ignored Bocage's
+licentiousness, and overlooked the slightness of his creative output and
+the artificial character of most of his poetry. In 1871 a monument was
+erected to the poet in the chief square of Setubal, and the centenary of
+his death was kept there with much circumstance in 1905.
+
+  The best editions of his collected works are those of I.F. da Silva,
+  with a biographical and literary study by Rebello da Silva, in 6 vols.
+  (Lisbon, 1853), and of Dr Theophilo Braga, in 8 vols. (Oporto,
+  1875-1876). See also I.F. da Silva _Diccionario Bibliographico
+  Portuguez_, vol. vi. pp. 45-53, and vol. xvi. pp. 260-264; Dr T.
+  Braga, _Bocage, sua vida e epoca litteraria_ (Oporto, 1902). A
+  striking portrait of Bocage by H.J. da Silva was engraved by
+  Bartolozzi, who spent his last years in Lisbon.     (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+BOCAGE (from O. Fr. _boscage_, Late Lat. _boscum_, a wood), a French
+topographical term applied to several regions of France, the commonest
+characteristics of which are a granite formation and an undulating or
+hilly surface, consisting largely of heath or reclaimed land, and dotted
+with clumps of trees. The most important districts designated by the
+word are (1) the Bocage of Normandy, which comprises portions of the
+departments of Calvados, Manche and Orne; (2) the Bocage of Vendee,
+situated in the departments of Vendee, Deux-Sevres, Maine-et-Loire, and
+Loire-Inferieure.
+
+
+
+
+BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI (1313-1375), Italian author, whose _Decameron_ is
+one of the classics of literature, was born in 1313, as we know from a
+letter of Petrarch, in which that poet, who was born in 1304, calls
+himself the senior of his friend by nine years. The place of his birth
+is somewhat doubtful--Florence, Paris and Certaldo being all mentioned
+by various writers as his native city. Boccaccio undoubtedly calls
+himself a Florentine, but this may refer merely to the Florentine
+citizenship acquired by his grandfather. The claim of Paris has been
+supported by Baldelli and Tiraboschi, mainly on the ground that his
+mother was a lady of good family in that city, where she met Boccaccio's
+father. There is a good deal in favour of Certaldo, a small town or
+castle in the valley of the Elsa, 20 m. from Florence, where the family
+had some property, and where the poet spent much of the latter part of
+his life. He always signed his name Boccaccio da Certaldo, and named
+that town as his birthplace in his own epitaph. Petrarch calls his
+friend Certaldese; and Filippo Villani, a contemporary, distinctly says
+that Boccaccio was born in Certaldo.
+
+Boccaccio, an illegitimate son, as is put beyond dispute by the fact
+that a special licence had to be obtained when he desired to become a
+priest, was brought up with tender care by his father, who seems to have
+been a merchant of respectable rank. His elementary education he
+received from Giovanni da Strada, an esteemed teacher of grammar in
+Florence. But at an early age he was apprenticed to an eminent merchant,
+with whom he remained for six years, a time entirely lost to him, if we
+may believe his own statement. For from his tenderest years his soul was
+attached to that "_alma poesis_," which, on his tombstone, he names as
+the task and study of his life. In one of his works he relates that, in
+his seventh year, before he had ever seen a book of poetry or learned
+the rules of metrical composition, he began to write verse in his
+childish fashion, and earned for himself amongst his friends the name of
+"the poet." It is uncertain where Boccaccio passed these six years of
+bondage; most likely he followed his master to various centres of
+commerce in Italy and France. We know at least that he was in Naples and
+Paris for some time, and the youthful impressions received in the latter
+city, as well as the knowledge of the French language acquired there,
+were of considerable influence on his later career. Yielding at last to
+his son's immutable aversion to commerce, the elder Boccaccio permitted
+him to adopt a course of study somewhat more congenial to the literary
+tastes of the young man. He was sent to a celebrated professor of canon
+law, at that time an important field of action both to the student and
+the practical jurist. According to some accounts--far from authentic, it
+is true--this professor was Cino da Pistoia, the friend of Dante, and
+himself a celebrated poet and scholar. But, whoever he may have been,
+Boccaccio's master was unable to inspire his pupil with scientific
+ardour. "Again," Boccaccio says, "I lost nearly six years. And so
+nauseous was this study to my mind, that neither the teaching of my
+master, nor the authority and command of my father, nor yet the
+exertions and reproof of my friends, could make me take to it, for my
+love of poetry was invincible."
+
+About 1333 Boccaccio settled for some years at Naples, apparently sent
+there by his father to resume his mercantile pursuits, the canon law
+being finally abandoned. The place, it must be confessed, was little
+adapted to lead to a practical view of life one in whose heart the love
+of poetry was firmly rooted. The court of King Robert of Anjou at Naples
+was frequented by many Italian and French men of letters, the great
+Petrarch amongst the number. At the latter's public examination in the
+noble science of poetry by the king, previous to his receiving the
+laurel crown at Rome, Boccaccio was present,--without, however, making
+his personal acquaintance at this period. In the atmosphere of this gay
+court, enlivened and adorned by the wit of men and the beauty of women,
+Boccaccio lived for several years. We can imagine how the tedious duties
+of the market and the counting-house became more and more distasteful
+to his aspiring nature. We are told that, finding himself by chance on
+the supposed grave of Virgil, near Naples, Boccaccio on that sacred spot
+took the firm resolution of devoting himself for ever to poetry. But
+perhaps another event, which happened some time after, led quite as much
+as the first-mentioned occurrence to this decisive turning-point in his
+life. On Easter-eve, 1341, in the church of San Lorenzo, Boccaccio saw
+for the first time the natural daughter of King Robert, Maria, whom he
+immortalized as Fiammetta in the noblest creations of his muse.
+Boccaccio's passion on seeing her was instantaneous, and (if we may
+accept as genuine the confessions contained in one of her lover's works)
+was returned with equal ardour on the part of the lady. But not till
+after much delay did she yield to the amorous demands of the poet, in
+spite of her honour and her duty as the wife of another. All the
+information we have with regard to Maria or Fiammetta is derived from
+the works of Boccaccio himself, and owing to several apparently
+contradictory statements occurring in these works, the very existence of
+the lady has been doubted by commentators, who seem to forget that,
+surrounded by the chattering tongues of a court, and watched perhaps by
+a jealous husband, Boccaccio had all possible reason to give the
+appearance of fictitious incongruity to the effusions of his real
+passion. But there seems no more reason to call into question the main
+features of the story, or even the identity of the person, than there
+would be in the case of Petrarch's Laura or of Dante's Beatrice. It has
+been ingeniously pointed out by Baldelli, that the fact of her descent
+from King Robert being known only to Maria herself, and through her to
+Boccaccio, the latter was the more at liberty to refer to this
+circumstance,--the bold expression of the truth serving in this case to
+increase the mystery with which the poets of the middle ages loved, or
+were obliged, to surround the objects of their praise. From Boccaccio's
+_Ameto_ we learn that Maria's mother was, like his own, a French lady,
+whose husband, according to Baldelli's ingenious conjecture, was of the
+noble house of Aquino, and therefore of the same family with the
+celebrated Thomas Aquinas. Maria died, according to his account, long
+before her lover, who cherished her memory to the end of his life, as we
+see from a sonnet written shortly before his death.
+
+The first work of Boccaccio, composed by him at Fiammetta's command, was
+the prose tale, _Filocopo_, describing the romantic love and adventures
+of Florio and Biancafiore, a favourite subject with the knightly
+minstrels of France, Italy and Germany. The treatment of the story by
+Boccaccio is not remarkable for originality or beauty, and the narrative
+is encumbered by classical allusions and allegorical conceits. The style
+also cannot be held worthy of the future great master of Italian prose.
+Considering, however, that this prose was in its infancy, and that this
+was Boccaccio's first attempt at remoulding the unwieldy material at his
+disposal, it would be unjust to deny that _Filocopo_ is a highly
+interesting work, full of promise and all but articulate power. Another
+work, written about the same time by Fiammetta's desire and dedicated to
+her, is the _Teseide_, an epic poem, and indeed the first heroic epic in
+the Italian language. The name is chosen somewhat inappropriately, as
+King Theseus plays a secondary part, and the interest of the story
+centres in the two noble knights, Palemone and Arcito, and their wooing
+of the beautiful Emelia. The _Teseide_ is of particular interest to the
+student of poetry, because it exhibits the first example of the _ottava
+rima_, a metre which was adopted by Tasso and Ariosto, and in English by
+Byron in _Don Juan_. Another link between Boccaccio's epic and English
+literature is formed by the fact of Chaucer having in the _Knight's
+Tale_ adopted its main features.
+
+Boccaccio's poetry has been severely criticized by his countrymen, and
+most severely by the author himself. On reading Petrarch's sonnets,
+Boccaccio resolved in a fit of despair to burn his own attempts, and
+only the kindly encouragement of his great friend prevented the
+holocaust. Posterity has justly differed from the author's sweeping
+self-criticism. It is true, that compared with Dante's grandeur and
+passion, and with Petrarch's absolute mastership of metre and language,
+Boccaccio's poetry seems to be somewhat thrown into shade. His verse is
+occasionally slip-shod, and particularly his epic poetry lacks what in
+modern parlance is called poetic diction,--the quality, that is, which
+distinguishes the elevated pathos of the recorder of heroic deeds from
+the easy grace of the mere _conteur_. This latter feature, so charmingly
+displayed in Boccaccio's prose, has to some extent proved fatal to his
+verse. At the same time, his narrative is always fluent and interesting,
+and his lyrical pieces, particularly the poetic interludes in the
+_Decameron_, abound with charming gallantry, and frequently rise to
+lyrical pathos.
+
+About the year 1341 Boccaccio returned to Florence by command of his
+father, who in his old age desired the assistance and company of his
+son. Florence, at that time disturbed by civil feuds, and the silent
+gloom of his father's house could not but appear in an unfavourable
+light to one accustomed to the gay life of the Neapolitan court. But
+more than all this, Boccaccio regretted the separation from his beloved
+Fiammetta. The thought of her at once embittered and consoled his
+loneliness. Three of his works owe their existence to this period. With
+all of them Fiammetta is connected; of one of them she alone is the
+subject. The first work, called _Ameto_, describes the civilizing
+influence of love, which subdues the ferocious manners of the savage
+with its gentle power. Fiammetta, although not the heroine of the story,
+is amongst the nymphs who with their tales of true love soften the mind
+of the huntsman. _Ameto_ is written in prose alternating with verse,
+specimens of which form occur in old and middle Latin writings. It is
+more probable, however, that Boccaccio adopted it from that sweetest and
+purest blossom of medieval French literature, _Aucassin et Nicolette_,
+which dates from the 13th century, and was undoubtedly known to him. So
+pleased was Boccaccio with the idea embodied in the character of _Ameto_
+that he repeated its essential features in the Cimone of his _Decameron_
+(Day 5th, tale i.). The second work referred to is a poem in fifty
+chapters, called _L'amorosa Visione_. It describes a dream in which the
+poet, guided by a lady, sees the heroes and lovers of ancient and
+medieval times. Boccaccio evidently has tried to imitate the celebrated
+_Trionfi_ of Petrarch, but without much success. There is little organic
+development in the poem, which reads like the _catalogue raisonne_ of a
+picture gallery; but it is remarkable from another point of view. It is
+perhaps the most astounding instance in literature of ingenuity wasted
+on trifles; even Edgar Poe, had he known Boccaccio's puzzle, must have
+confessed himself surpassed. For the whole of the _Amorosa Visione_ is
+nothing but an acrostic on a gigantic scale. The poem is written, like
+the _Divina Commedia_, in _terza rima_, and the initial letters of all
+the triplets throughout the work compose three poems of considerable
+length, in the first of which the whole is dedicated to Boccaccio's
+lady-love, this time under her real name of Maria. In addition to this,
+the initial letters of the first, third, fifth, seventh and ninth lines
+of the dedicatory poem form the name of Maria; so that here we have the
+acrostic in the second degree. No wonder that thus entrammelled the
+poet's thought begins to flag and his language to halt. The third
+important work written by Boccaccio during his stay at Florence, or soon
+after his return to Naples, is called _L'amorosa Fiammetta_; and
+although written in prose, it contains more real poetry than the
+elaborate production just referred to. It purports to be Fiammetta's
+complaint after her lover, following the call of filial duty, had
+deserted her. Bitterly she deplores her fate, and upbraids her lover
+with coldness and want of devotion. Jealous fears add to her torture,
+not altogether unfounded, if we believe the commentators' assertion that
+the heroine of _Ameto_ is in reality the beautiful Lucia, a Florentine
+lady loved by Boccaccio. Sadly Fiammetta recalls the moments of former
+bliss, the first meeting, the stolen embrace. Her narrative is indeed
+our chief source of information for the incidents of this strange
+love-story. It has been thought unlikely, and indeed impossible, that
+Boccaccio should thus have become the mouthpiece of a real lady's real
+passion for himself; but there seems nothing incongruous in the
+supposition that after a happy reunion the poet should have heard with
+satisfaction, and surrounded with the halo of ideal art, the story of
+his lady's sufferings. Moreover, the language is too full of individual
+intensity to make the conjecture of an entirely fictitious love affair
+intrinsically probable. _L'amorosa Fiammetta_ is a monody of passion
+sustained even to the verge of dulness, but strikingly real, and
+therefore artistically valuable.
+
+By the intercession of an influential friend, Boccaccio at last obtained
+(in 1344) his father's permission to return to Naples, where in the
+meantime Giovanna, grand-daughter of King Robert, had succeeded to the
+crown. Being young and beautiful, fond of poetry and of the praise of
+poets, she received Boccaccio with all the distinction due to his
+literary fame. For many years she remained his faithful friend, and the
+poet returned her favour with grateful devotion. Even when the charge of
+having instigated, or at least connived at, the murder of her husband
+was but too clearly proved against her, Boccaccio was amongst the few
+who stood by her, and undertook the hopeless task of clearing her name
+from the dreadful stain. It was by her desire, no less than by that of
+Fiammetta, that he composed (between 1344 and 1350) most of the stories
+of his _Decameron_, which afterwards were collected and placed in the
+mouths of the Florentine ladies and gentlemen. During this time he also
+composed the _Filostrato_, a narrative poem, the chief interest of
+which, for the English reader, lies in its connexion with Chaucer. With
+a boldness pardonable only in men of genius, Chaucer adopted the main
+features of the plot, and literally translated parts of Boccaccio's
+work, without so much as mentioning the name of his Italian source.
+
+In 1350 Boccaccio returned to Florence, owing to the death of his
+father, who had made him guardian to his younger brother Jacopo. He was
+received with great distinction, and entered the service of the
+Republic, being at various times sent on important missions to the
+margrave of Brandenburg, and to the courts of several popes, both in
+Avignon and Rome. Boccaccio boasts of the friendly terms on which he had
+been with the great potentates of Europe, the emperor and pope amongst
+the number. But he was never a politician in the sense that Dante and
+Petrarch were. As a man of the world he enjoyed the society of the
+great, but his interest in the internal commotions of the Florentine
+state seems to have been very slight. Besides, he never liked Florence,
+and the expressions used by him regarding his fellow-citizens betray
+anything but patriotic prejudice. In a Latin eclogue he applies to them
+the term "Batrachos" (frogs), by which, he adds parenthetically--_Ego
+intelligo Florentinorum morem; loquacissimi enim sumus, verum in rebus
+bellicis nihil valemus._ The only important result of Boccaccio's
+diplomatic career was his intimacy with Petrarch. The first acquaintance
+of these two great men dates from the year 1350, when Boccaccio, then
+just returned to Florence, did all in his power to make the great poet's
+short stay in that city agreeable. When in the following year the
+Florentines were anxious to draw men of great reputation to their
+newly-founded university, it was again Boccaccio who insisted on the
+claims of Petrarch to the most distinguished position. He himself
+accepted the mission of inviting his friend to Florence, and of
+announcing to Petrarch at the same time that the forfeited estates of
+his family had been restored to him. In this manner an intimate
+friendship grew up between them to be parted only by death. Common
+interests and common literary pursuits were the natural basis of their
+friendship, and both occupy prominent positions in the early history of
+that great intellectual revival commonly called the Renaissance.
+
+During the 14th century the study of ancient literature was at a low ebb
+in Italy. The interest of the lay world was engrossed by political
+struggles, and the treasures of classical history and poetry were at the
+mercy of monks, too lazy or too ignorant to use, or even to preserve
+them. Boccaccio himself told that, on asking to see the library of the
+celebrated monastery of Monte Cassino, he was shown into a dusty room
+without a door to it. Many of the valuable manuscripts were mutilated;
+and his guide told him that the monks were in the habit of tearing
+leaves from the codices to turn them into psalters for children, or
+amulets for women at the price of four or five _soldi_ apiece.
+Boccaccio did all in his power to remove by word and example this
+barbarous indifference. He bought or copied with his own hand numerous
+valuable manuscripts, and an old writer remarks that if Boccaccio had
+been a professional copyist, the amount of his work might astonish us.
+His zealous endeavours for the revival of the all but forgotten Greek
+language in western Europe are well known. The most celebrated Italian
+scholars about the beginning of the 15th century were unable to read the
+Greek characters. Boccaccio deplored the ignorance of his age. He took
+lessons from Leone Pilato, a learned adventurer of the period, who had
+lived a long time in Thessaly and, although born in Calabria, pretended
+to be a Greek. By Boccaccio's advice Leone Pilato was appointed
+professor of Greek language and literature in the university of
+Florence, a position which he held for several years, not without great
+and lasting benefit for the revival of classical learning. Boccaccio was
+justly proud of having been intimately connected with the foundation of
+the first chair of Greek in Italy. But he did not forget, in his
+admiration of classic literature, the great poets of his own country. He
+never tires in his praise of the sublime Dante, whose works he copied
+with his own hand. He conjures his friend Petrarch to study the great
+Florentine, and to defend himself against the charges of wilful
+ignorance and envy brought against him. A life of Dante, and the
+commentaries on the first sixteen cantos of the _Inferno_, bear witness
+to Boccaccio's learning and enthusiasm.
+
+In the chronological enumeration of our author's writings we now come to
+his most important work, the _Decameron_, a collection of one hundred
+stories, published in their combined form in 1353, although mostly
+written at an earlier date. This work marks in a certain sense the rise
+of Italian prose. It is true that Dante's _Vita Nuova_ was written
+before, but its involved sentences, founded essentially on Latin
+constructions, cannot be compared with the infinite suppleness and
+precision of Boccaccio's prose. The _Cento Novelle Antiche_, on the
+other hand, which also precedes the _Decameron_ in date, can hardly be
+said to be written in artistic language according to definite rules of
+grammar and style. Boccaccio for the first time speaks a new idiom,
+flexible and tender, like the character of the nation, and capable of
+rendering all the shades of feeling, from the coarse laugh of cynicism
+to the sigh of hopeless love. It is by the name of "Father of Italian
+Prose" that Boccaccio ought to be chiefly remembered.
+
+Like most progressive movements in art and literature, Boccaccio's
+remoulding of Italian prose may be described as a "return to nature." It
+is indeed the nature of the Italian people itself which has become
+articulate in the _Decameron_; here we find southern grace and elegance,
+together with that unveiled _naivete_ of impulse which is so striking
+and so amiable a quality of the Italian character. The undesirable
+complement of the last-mentioned feature, a coarseness and indecency of
+conception and expression hardly comprehensible to the northern mind,
+also appears in the _Decameron_, particularly where the life and
+conversation of the lower classes are the subject of the story. At the
+same time, these descriptions of low life are so admirable, and the
+character of popular parlance rendered with such humour, as often to
+make the frown of moral disgust give way to a smile.
+
+It is not surprising that a style so concise and yet so pliable so
+typical and yet so individual, as that of Boccaccio was of enormous
+influence on the further progress of a prose in a manner created by it.
+This influence has indeed prevailed down to the present time, to an
+extent beneficial upon the whole, although frequently fatal to the
+development of individual writers. Novelists like Giovanni Fiorentino or
+Franco Sacchetti are completely under the sway of their great model; and
+Boccaccio's influence may be discerned equally in the plastic fulness of
+Machiavelli and in the pointed satire of Aretino. Without touching upon
+the individual merits of Lasca, Bandello and other novelists of the
+_cinque-cento_, it may be asserted that none of them created a style
+independent of their great predecessor. One cannot indeed but acquiesce
+in the authoritative utterance of the Accademia della Crusca, which
+holds up the _Decameron_ as the standard and model of Italian prose.
+Even the Della Cruscan writers themselves have been unable to deprive
+the language wholly of the fresh spontaneity of Boccaccio's manner,
+which in modern literature we again admire in Manzoni's _Promessi
+sposi_.
+
+A detailed analysis of a work so well known as the _Decameron_ would be
+unnecessary. The description of the plague of Florence preceding the
+stories is universally acknowledged to be a masterpiece of epic grandeur
+and vividness. It ranks with the paintings of similar calamities by
+Thucydides, Defoe and Manzoni. Like Defoe, Boccaccio had to draw largely
+on hearsay and his own imagination, it being almost certain that in 1348
+he was at Naples, and therefore no eye-witness of the scenes he
+describes. The stories themselves, a hundred in number, range from the
+highest pathos to the coarsest licentiousness. A creation like the
+patient Griselda, which international literature owes to Boccaccio,
+ought to atone for much that is morally and artistically objectionable
+in the _Decameron_. It may be said on this head, that his age and his
+country were not only deeply immoral, but in addition exceedingly
+outspoken. Moreover, his sources were anything but pure. Most of his
+improper stories are either anecdotes from real life, or they are taken
+from the _fabliaux_ of medieval French poets. On comparing the latter
+class of stories (about one-fifth of the whole _Decameron_) with their
+French originals, one finds that Boccaccio has never added to, but has
+sometimes toned down the revolting ingredients. Notwithstanding this, it
+cannot be denied that the artistic value of the _Decameron_ is greatly
+impaired by descriptions and expressions, the intentional licentiousness
+of which is but imperfectly veiled by an attempt at humour.
+
+Boccaccio has been accused of plagiarism, particularly by French
+critics, who correctly state that the subjects of many stories in the
+_Decameron_ are borrowed from their literature. A similar objection
+might be raised against Chaucer, Shakespeare, Goethe (in _Faust_), and
+indeed most of the master minds of all nations. Power of invention is
+not the only nor even the chief criterion of a great poet. He takes his
+subjects indiscriminately from his own fancy, or from the consciousness
+of his and other nations. Stories float about in the air, known to all
+yet realized by few; the poet gathers their _disjecta membra_ into an
+organic whole, and this he inspires and calls into life with the breath
+of his genius. It is in this sense that Boccaccio is the creator of
+those innumerable beautiful types and stories, which have since become
+household words amongst civilized nations. No author can equal him in
+these contributions to the store of international literature. There are
+indeed few great poets who have not in some way become indebted to the
+inexhaustible treasure of Boccaccio's creativeness. One of the greatest
+masterpieces of German literature, Lessing's _Nathan the Wise_, contains
+a story from Boccaccio (_Decameron_, Day 1st, tale iii.), and the list
+of English poets who have drawn from the same source comprises, among
+many others, the names of Chaucer, Lydgate, Dryden, Keats and Tennyson.
+
+For ten years Boccaccio continued to reside in Florence, leaving the
+city only occasionally on diplomatic missions or on visits to his
+friends. His fame in the meantime began to spread far and wide, and his
+_Decameron_, in particular, was devoured by the fashionable ladies and
+gentlemen of the age. About 1360 he seems to have retired from the
+turbulent scenes of Florence to his native Certaldo, the secluded charms
+of which he describes with rapture. In the following year took place
+that strange turning-point in Boccaccio's career which is generally
+described as his conversion. It seems that a Carthusian monk came to him
+while at Certaldo charged with a posthumous message from another monk of
+the same order, to the effect that if Boccaccio did not at once abandon
+his godless ways in life and literature his death would ensue after a
+short time. It is also mentioned that the revelation to the friar on his
+deathbed of a secret known only to Boccaccio gave additional import to
+this alarming information. Boccaccio's impressionable nature was deeply
+moved. His life had been far from virtuous; in his writings he had
+frequently sinned against the rules of morality, and worse still, he had
+attacked with bitter satire the institutions and servants of holy mother
+church. Terrified by the approach of immediate death, he resolved to
+sell his library, abandon literature, and devote the remainder of his
+life to penance and religious exercise. To this effect he wrote to
+Petrarch. We possess the poet's answer; it is a masterpiece of writing,
+and what is more, a proof of tenderest friendship. The message of the
+monk Petrarch is evidently inclined to treat simply as pious fraud,
+without, however, actually committing himself to that opinion. "No monk
+is required to tell thee of the shortness and precariousness of human
+life. Of the advice received accept what is good; abandon worldly cares,
+conquer thy passions, and reform thy soul and life of degraded habits.
+But do not give up the studies which are the true food of a healthy
+mind." Boccaccio seems to have acted on this valuable advice. His later
+works, although written in Latin and scientific in character, are by no
+means of a religious kind. It seems, however, that his entering the
+church in 1362 is connected with the events just related.
+
+In 1363 Boccaccio went on a visit to Naples to the seneschal Acciajuoli
+(the same Florentine who had in 1344 persuaded the elder Boccaccio to
+permit his son's return to Naples), who commissioned him to write the
+story of his deeds of valour. On his arrival, however, the poet was
+treated with shameful neglect, and revenged himself by denying the
+possibility of relating any valorous deeds for want of their existence.
+This declaration, it must be confessed, came somewhat late, but it was
+provoked by a silly attack on the poet himself by one of the seneschal's
+indiscreet friends.
+
+During the next ten years Boccaccio led an unsettled life, residing
+chiefly at Florence or Certaldo, but frequently leaving his home on
+visits to Petrarch and other friends, and on various diplomatic errands
+in the service of the Republic. He seems to have been poor, having spent
+large sums in the purchase of books, but his independent spirit rejected
+the numerous splendid offers of hospitality made to him by friends and
+admirers. During this period he wrote four important Latin works--_De
+Genealogia Deorum libri XV._, a compendium of mythological knowledge
+full of deep learning; _De Montium, Silvarum, Lacuum, et Marium
+nominibus liber_, a treatise on ancient geography; and two historical
+books--_De Casibus Virorum et Feminarum Illustrium libri IX._,
+interesting to the English reader as the original of John Lydgate's
+_Fall of Princes_; and _De Claris Mulieribus_. To the list of his works
+ought to be added _Il Ninfale Fiesolano_, a beautiful love-story in
+verse, and _Il Corbaccio ossia Il Laberinto d'Amore_, a coarse satire on
+a Florentine widow who had jilted the poet, written about 1355, not to
+mention many eclogues in Latin and miscellaneous _Rime_ in Italian (the
+latter collected by his biographer Count Baldelli in 1802).
+
+In 1373 we find Boccaccio again settled at Certaldo. Here he was
+attacked by a terrible disease which brought him to the verge of death,
+and from the consequences of which he never quite recovered. But
+sickness could not subdue his intellectual vigour. When the Florentines
+established a chair for the explanation of the _Divina Commedia_ in
+their university, and offered it to Boccaccio, the senescent poet at
+once undertook the arduous duty. He delivered his first lecture on the
+23rd of October 1373. The commentary on part of the _Inferno_, already
+alluded to, bears witness of his unabated power of intellect. In 1374
+the news of the loss of his dearest friend Petrarch reached Boccaccio,
+and from this blow he may be said to have never recovered. Almost his
+dying efforts were devoted to the memory of his friend; urgently he
+entreated Petrarch's son-in-law to arrange the publication of the
+deceased poet's Latin epic _Africa_, a work of which the author had been
+far more proud than of his immortal sonnets to Laura.
+
+In his last will Boccaccio left his library to his father confessor, and
+after his decease to the convent of Santo Spirito in Florence. His small
+property he bequeathed to his brother Jacopo. His own natural children
+had died before him. He himself died on the 21st of December 1375 at
+Certaldo, and was buried in the church of SS. Jacopo e Filippo of that
+town. On his tombstone was engraved the epitaph composed by himself
+shortly before his death. It is calm and dignified, worthy indeed of a
+great life with a great purpose. These are the lines:--
+
+  "Hac sub mole jacent cineres ac ossa Joannis;
+   Mens sedet ante Deum, meritis ornata laborum
+   Mortalis vitae. Genitor Boccaccius illi;
+   Patria Certaldum; studium fuit alma poesis."
+
+  A complete edition of Boccaccio's Italian writings, in 17 vols., was
+  published by Moutier (Florence, 1834). The life of Boccaccio has been
+  written by Tiraboschi, Mazzuchelli, Count Baldelli (_Vita di
+  Boccaccio_, Florence, 1806), and others. In English the best biography
+  is Edward Hutton (1909.) The first printed edition of the _Decameron_
+  is without date, place or printer's name; but it is believed to belong
+  to the year 1469 or 1470, and to have been printed at Florence.
+  Besides this, Baldelli mentions eleven editions during the 15th
+  century. The entire number of editions by far exceeds a hundred. A
+  curious expurgated edition, authorized by the pope, appeared at
+  Florence, 1573. Here, however, the grossest indecencies remain, the
+  chief alteration being the change of the improper personages from
+  priests and monks into laymen. The best old edition is that of
+  Florence, 1527. Of modern reprints, that by Forfoni (Florence, 1857)
+  deserves mention. Manni has written a _Storia del Decamerone_ (1742),
+  and a German scholar, M. Landau, who published (Vienna, 1869) a
+  valuable investigation of the sources of the _Decameron_, subsequently
+  brought out in 1877 a general study of Boccaccio's life and works. An
+  interesting English translation of the _Decameron_ appeared in 1624,
+  under the title _The Model of Mirth, Wit, Eloquence and Conversation_.
+       (F. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BOCCALINI, TRAJANO (1556-1613), Italian satirist, was born at Loretto in
+1556. The son of an architect, he himself adopted that profession, and
+it appears that he commenced late in life to apply to literary pursuits.
+Pursuing his studies at Rome, he had the honour of teaching Bentivoglio,
+and acquired the friendship of the cardinals Gaetano and Borghesi, as
+well as of other distinguished personages. By their influence he
+obtained various posts, and was even appointed by Gregory XIII. governor
+of Benevento in the states of the church. Here, however, he seems to
+have acted imprudently, and he was soon recalled to Rome, where he
+shortly afterwards composed his most important work, the _Ragguagli di
+Parnaso_, in which Apollo is represented as receiving the complaints of
+all who present themselves, and distributing justice according to the
+merits of each particular case. The book is full of light and fantastic
+satire on the actions and writings of his eminent contemporaries, and
+some of its happier hits are among the hackneyed felicities of
+literature. To escape, it is said, from the hostility of those whom his
+shafts had wounded, he returned to Venice, and there, according to the
+register in the parochial church of Sta Maria Formosa, died of colic,
+accompanied with fever, on the 16th of November 1613. It was asserted,
+indeed, by contemporary writers that he had been beaten to death with
+sand-bags by a band of Spanish bravadoes, but the story seems without
+foundation. At the same time, it is evident from the _Pietra del
+Paragone_, which appeared after his death in 1615, that whatever the
+feelings of the Spaniards towards him, he cherished against them
+feelings of the bitterest hostility. The only government, indeed, which
+is exempt from his attacks is that of Venice, a city for which he seems
+to have had a special affection.
+
+  The _Ragguagli_, first printed in 1612, has frequently been
+  republished. The _Pietra_ has been translated into French, German,
+  English and Latin; the English translator was Henry, earl of Monmouth,
+  his version being entitled _The Politicke Touchstone_ (London, 1674).
+  Another posthumous publication of Boccalini was his _Commentarii sopra
+  Cornelia Tacito_ (Geneva, 1669). Many of his manuscripts are preserved
+  still unprinted.
+
+
+
+
+BOCCHERINI, LUIGI (1743-1805), Italian composer, son of an Italian
+bass-player, was born at Lucca, and studied at Rome, where he became a
+fine 'cellist, and soon began to compose. He returned to Lucca, where
+for some years he was prominent as a player, and there he produced two
+oratorios and an opera. He toured in Europe, and in 1768 was received in
+Paris by Gossec and his circle with great enthusiasm, his instrumental
+pieces being highly applauded; and from 1769 to 1785 he held the post of
+"composer and virtuoso" to the king of Spain's brother, the infante
+Luis, at Madrid. He afterwards became "chamber-composer" to King
+Frederick William II. of Prussia, till 1797, when he returned to Spain.
+He died at Madrid on the 28th of May 1805.
+
+As an admirer of Haydn, and a voluminous writer of instrumental music,
+chiefly for the violoncello, Boccherini represents the effect of the
+rapid progress of a new art on a mind too refined to be led into
+crudeness, too inventive and receptive to neglect any of the new
+artistic resources within its cognizance, and too superficial to grasp
+their real meaning. His mastery of the violoncello, and his advanced
+sense of beauty in instrumental tone-colour, must have made even his
+earlier works seem to contemporaries at least as novel and mature as any
+of those experiments at which Haydn, with eight years more of age and
+experience, was labouring in the development of the true new forms. Most
+of Boccherini's technical resources proved useless to Haydn, and
+resemblances occur only in Haydn's earliest works (e.g. most of the
+slow movements of the quartets in _op_. 3 and in some as late as _op_.
+17); whichever derived the characteristics of such movements from the
+other, the advantage is decidedly with Boccherini. But the progress of
+music did not lie in the production of novel beauties of instrumental
+tone in a style in which polyphonic organization was either deliberately
+abandoned or replaced by a pleasing illusion, while the form in its
+larger aspects was a mere inorganic amplification of the old
+suite-forms, which presupposed a genuine polyphonic organization as the
+vitalizing principle of their otherwise purely decorative nature. The
+true tendency of the new sonata forms was to make instrumental music
+dramatic in its variety and contrasts, instead of merely decorative.
+Haydn from the outset buried himself with the handling of new rhythmic
+proportions; and if it is hardly an exaggeration to say that the
+surprising beauty of colour in such a specimen of Boccherini's 125
+string-quintets as that in E major (containing the popular minuet) is
+perhaps more modern and certainly safer in performance than any special
+effect Haydn ever achieved, it is nevertheless true that even this
+beauty fails to justify the length and monotony of the work. Where Haydn
+uses any fraction of the resources of such a style, the ultimate effect
+is in proportion to a purpose of which Boccherini, with all his genuine
+admiration of his elder brother in art, could form no conception.
+Boccherini's works are, however, still indispensable for violoncellists,
+both in their education and their concert repertories; and his position
+in musical history is assured as that of the most original and, next to
+Tartini, perhaps the greatest writer of music for stringed instruments
+in the late Italian amplifications of the older quasi-polyphonic sonata
+or suite-form that survived into the beginning of the 19th century in
+the works of Nardini. Boccherini may safely be regarded as its last real
+master. He was wittily characterized by the contemporary violinist Puppo
+as "the wife of Haydn"; which is very true, if man and woman are two
+different species; but not as true as e.g. the equally common saying
+that "Schubert is the wife of Beethoven," and still less true than that
+"Vittoria is the wife of Palestrina."
+
+  His life, with a _Catalogue raisonne_, was published by L. Picquot
+  (1851).     (D. F. T.)
+
+
+
+
+BOCCHUS, king of Mauretania (about 110 B.C.), and father-in-law of
+Jugurtha. In 108 he vacillated between Jugurtha and the Romans, and
+joined Jugurtha only on his promising him the third part of his kingdom.
+The two kings were twice defeated. Bocchus again made overtures to the
+Romans, and after an interview with Sulla, who was Marius's quaestor at
+that time, sent ambassadors to Rome. At Rome the hope of an alliance was
+encouraged, but on condition that Bocchus showed himself deserving of
+it. After further negotiations with Sulla, he finally agreed to send a
+message to Jugurtha requesting his presence. Jugurtha fell into the trap
+and was given up to Sulla. Bocchus concluded a treaty with the Romans,
+and a portion of Numidia was added to his kingdom. Further to conciliate
+the Romans and especially Sulla, he sent to the Capitol a group of
+Victories guarding a device in gold showing Bocchus handing over
+Jugurtha to Sulla.
+
+  See JUGURTHA; also Sallust, _Jugurtha_, 80-120; Plutarch, _Marius_,
+  8-32, _Sulla_, 3; A.H.J. Greenidge, _History of Rome_ (London, 1904).
+
+His son, BOCCHUS, was king of Mauretania, jointly with a younger
+brother Bogud. As enemies of the senatorial party, their title was
+recognized by Caesar (49 B.C.). During the African war they invaded
+Numidia and conquered Cirta, the capital of the kingdom of Juba, who was
+thus obliged to abandon the idea of joining Metellus Scipio against
+Caesar. At the end of the war, Caesar bestowed upon Bocchus part of the
+territory of Massinissa, Juba's ally, which was recovered after Caesar's
+murder by Massinissa's son Arabion. Dio Cassius says that Bocchus sent
+his sons to support Sextus Pompeius in Spain, while Bogud fought on the
+side of Caesar, and there is no doubt that after Caesar's death Bocchus
+supported Octavian, and Bogud Antony. During Bogud's absence in Spain,
+his brother seized the whole of Numidia, and was confirmed sole ruler by
+Octavian. After his death in 33, Numidia was made a Roman province.
+
+  _Bell. Afric._ 25; Dio Cassius xli. 42, xliii. 36, xlviii. 45; Appian,
+  _Bell. Civ._ ii. 96, iv. 54.
+
+
+
+
+BOCHART, SAMUEL (1599-1667), French scholar, was born at Rouen on the
+30th of May 1599. He was for many years a pastor of a Protestant church
+at Caen, and became tutor to Wentworth Dillon, earl of Roscommon. In
+1646 he published his _Phaleg_ and _Chanaan_ (Caen, 1646 and 1651), the
+two parts of his _Geographia Sacra_. His _Hierozoicon_, which treats of
+the animals of Scripture, was printed in London (2 vols., 1663). In 1652
+Christina of Sweden invited him to Stockholm, where he studied the
+Arabian manuscripts in the queen's possession. He was accompanied by
+Pierre Daniel Huet, afterwards bishop of Avranches. On his return to
+Caen he was received into the academy of that city. Bochart was a man of
+profound erudition; he possessed a thorough knowledge of the principal
+Oriental languages, including Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldaic and Arabic; and
+at an advanced age he wished to learn Ethiopic. He was so absorbed in
+his favourite study, that he saw Phoenician and nothing but Phoenician
+in everything, even in Celtic words, and hence the number of chimerical
+etymologies which swarm in his works. He died at Caen on the 16th of May
+1667.
+
+  A complete edition of his works was published at Leiden, under the
+  title of _Sam. Bochart Opera Omnia_ (1675, 2 vols. folio; 4th ed., 3
+  vols., 1712). An _Essay on the Life and Writings of Samuel Bochart_,
+  by W.R. Whittingham, appeared in 1829.
+
+
+
+
+BOCHOLT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, near
+the frontier of Holland, 12 m. by rail north of Wesel. It is a seat of
+the cotton industry. Pop. (1900) 21,278.
+
+
+
+
+BOCHUM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 11 m.
+by rail west from Dortmund. Pop. (1905) 118,000. It is a centre of the
+iron and steel industries, producing principally cast steel, cast iron,
+iron pipes, wire and wire ropes, and lamps, with tin and zinc works,
+coal-mining, factories for carpets, calcium carbide and paper-roofing,
+brickworks and breweries. The Bochumer Verein fur Bergbau (mining) und
+Gusstahl Fabrication (steel manufacture) is one of the principal trusts
+in this industry, founded in 1854. There are a mining and a
+metallurgical school.
+
+
+
+
+BOCKH, PHILIPP AUGUST (1785-1867), German classical scholar and
+antiquarian, was born in Karlsruhe on the 24th of November 1785. He was
+sent to the gymnasium of his native place, and remained there until he
+left for the university of Halle (1803), where he devoted himself to the
+study of theology. F.A. Wolf was then creating there an enthusiasm for
+classical studies; Bockh fell under the spell, passed from theology to
+philology, and became the greatest of all Wolf's scholars. In 1807 he
+established himself as privat-docent in the university of Heidelberg and
+was shortly afterwards appointed a professor extraordinarius, becoming
+professor two years later. In 1811 he removed to the new Berlin
+University, having been appointed professor of eloquence and classical
+literature. He remained there till his death on the 3rd of August 1867.
+He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin in 1814,
+and for a long time acted as its secretary. Many of the speeches
+contained in his _Kleine Schriften_ were delivered in this latter
+capacity.
+
+Bockh worked out the ideas of Wolf in regard to philology, and
+illustrated them by his practice. Discarding the old notion that
+philology consisted in a minute acquaintance with words and the exercise
+of the critical art, he regarded it as the entire knowledge of
+antiquity, historical and philosophical. He divides philology into five
+parts: first, an inquiry into public acts, with a knowledge of times and
+places, into civil institutions, and also into law; second, an inquiry
+into private affairs; third, an exhibition of the religions and arts of
+the ancient nations; fourth, a history of all their moral and physical
+speculations and beliefs, and of their literatures; and fifth, a
+complete explanation of the language. These ideas in regard to philology
+Bockh set forth in a Latin oration delivered in 1822 (_Gesammelte kleine
+Schriften_, i.). In his speech at the opening of the congress of German
+philologists in 1850, he defined philology as the historical
+construction of the entire life--therefore, of all forms of culture and
+all the productions of a people in its practical and spiritual
+tendencies. He allows that such a work is too great for any one man; but
+the very infinity of subjects is the stimulus to the pursuit of truth,
+and men strive because they have not attained (_ib_. ii.). An account of
+Bockh's division of philology will be found in Freund's _Wie studirt man
+Philologie?_
+
+From 1806 till his death Bockh's literary activity was unceasing. His
+principal works were the following:--(1) An edition of Pindar, the first
+volume of which (1811) contains the text of the Epinician odes; a
+treatise, _De Metris Pindari_, in three books; and _Notae Criticae_: the
+second (1819) contains the _Scholia_; and part ii. of volume ii. (1821)
+contains a Latin translation, a commentary, the fragments and indices.
+It is still the most complete edition of Pindar that we have. But it was
+especially the treatise on the metres which placed Bockh in the first
+rank of scholars. This treatise forms an epoch in the treatment of the
+subject. In it the author threw aside all attempts to determine the
+Greek metres by mere subjective standards, pointing out at the same time
+the close connexion between the music and the poetry of the Greeks. He
+investigated minutely the nature of Greek music as far as it can be
+ascertained, as well as all the details regarding Greek musical
+instruments; and he explained the statements of the ancient Greek
+writers on rhythm. In this manner he laid the foundation for a
+scientific treatment of Greek metres. (2) _Die Staatshaushaltung der
+Athener_, 1817 (2nd ed. 1851, with a supplementary volume _Urkunden uber
+das Seewesen des attischen Staats_; 3rd ed. by Frankel, 1886),
+translated into English by Sir George Cornewall Lewis (1828) under the
+title of _The Public Economy of Athens_. In it he investigated a subject
+of peculiar difficulty with profound learning. He amassed information
+from the whole range of Greek literature, carefully appraised the value
+of the information given, and shows throughout every portion of it rare
+critical ability and insight. A work of a similar kind was his
+_Metrologische Untersuchungen uber Gewichte, Munzfusse, und Masse des
+Alterthums_ (1838). (3) Bockh's third great work arose out of his
+second. In regard to the taxes and revenue of the Athenian state he
+derived a great deal of his most trustworthy information from
+inscriptions, many of which are given in his book. It was natural,
+therefore, that when the Berlin Academy of Sciences projected the plan
+of a _Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, Bockh should be chosen as the
+principal editor. This great work (1828-1877) is in four volumes, the
+third and fourth volumes being edited by J. Franz, E. Curtius, A.
+Kirchhoff and H. Rohl.
+
+Bockh's activity was continually digressing into widely different
+fields. He gained for himself a foremost position amongst the
+investigators of ancient chronology, and his name occupies a place by
+the side of those of Ideler and Mommsen. His principal works on this
+subject were: _Zur Geschichte der Mondcyclen der Hellenen_ (1855);
+_Epigraphisch-chronologische Studien_ (1856); _Uber die vierjahrigen
+Sonnenkreise der Alten_ (1863), and several papers which he published in
+the _Transactions of the Berlin Academy_. Bockh also occupied himself
+with philosophy. One of his earliest papers was on the Platonic doctrine
+of the world, _De Platonica corporis mundani fabrica_ (1809), followed
+by _De Platonico Systemate Caelestium globorum et de vera Indole
+Astronomiae Philolaice_ (1810), to which may be added _Manetho und die
+Hundsternperiode_ (1845). In opposition to Otto Gruppe (1804-1876), he
+denied that Plato affirmed the diurnal rotation of the earth
+(_Untersuchungen uber das kosmische System des Platon_, 1852), and when
+in opposition to him Grote published his opinions on the subject (Plato
+and the Rotation of the Earth) Bockh was ready with his reply. Another
+of his earlier papers, and one frequently referred to, was _Commentatio
+Academica de simultate quae Platoni cum Xenophonte intercessisse fertur_
+(1811). Other philosophical writings were _Commentatio in Platonis qui
+vulgo fertur Minoem_ (1806), and _Philolaos' des Pythagoreers Lehren
+nebst den Bruchstucken_ (1819), in which he endeavoured to show the
+genuineness of the fragments.
+
+Besides his edition of Pindar, Bockh published an edition of the
+Antigone of Sophocles (1843) with a poetical translation and essays. An
+early and important work on the Greek tragedians is his _Graecae
+Tragoediae Principum ... num ea quae supersunt et genuina omnia sint et
+forma primitiva servata_ (1808).
+
+  The smaller writings of Bockh began to be collected in his lifetime.
+  Three of the volumes were published before his death, and four after
+  (_Gesammelte kleine Schriften_, 1858-1874). The first two consist of
+  orations delivered in the university or academy of Berlin, or on
+  public occasions. The third, fourth, fifth and sixth contain his
+  contributions to the _Transactions of the Berlin Academy_, and the
+  seventh contains his critiques. Bockh's lectures, delivered from
+  1809-1865, were published by Bratuschek under the title of
+  _Encyclopadie und Methodologie der philologischen Wissenschaften_ (2nd
+  ed, Klussmann, 1886). His philological and scientific theories are set
+  forth in Elze, _Uber Philologie als System_ (1845), and Reichhardt,
+  _Die Gliederung der Philologie entwickelt_ (1846). His correspondence
+  with Ottfried Muller appeared at Leipzig in 1883. See Sachse,
+  _Erinnerungen an August Bockh_ (1868); Stark, in the _Verhandlungen
+  der Wurzburger Philologensammlung_ (1868); Max Hoffmann, _August
+  Bockh_ (1901); and S. Reiter, in _Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische
+  Altertum_ (1902), p. 436.
+
+
+
+
+BOCKLIN, ARNOLD (1827-1901), Swiss painter, was born at Basel on the
+16th of October 1827. His father, Christian Frederick Bocklin (b. 1802),
+was descended from an old family of Schaffhausen, and engaged in the
+silk trade. His mother, Ursula Lippe, was a native of the same city. In
+1846 he began his studies at the Dusseldorf academy under Schirmer, who
+recognized in him a student of exceptional promise, and sent him to
+Antwerp and Brussels, where he copied the works of Flemish and Dutch
+masters. Bocklin then went to Paris, worked at the Louvre, and painted
+several landscapes; his "Landscape and Ruin" reveals at the same time a
+strong feeling for nature and a dramatic conception of scenery. After
+serving his time in the army he set out for Rome in March 1850, and the
+sight of the Eternal City was a fresh stimulus to his mind. So, too, was
+the influence of Italian nature and that of the dead pagan world. At
+Rome he married (June 20, 1853) Angela Rosa Lorenza Pascucci. In 1856 he
+returned to Munich, and remained there four years. He then exhibited the
+"Great Park," one of his earliest works, in which he treated ancient
+mythology with the stamp of individuality, which was the basis of his
+reputation. Of this period, too, are his "Nymph and Satyr," "Heroic
+Landscape" (Diana Hunting), both of 1858, and "Sappho" (1859). These
+works, which were much discussed, together with Lenbach's
+recommendation, gained him his appointment as professor at the Weimar
+academy. He held the office for two years, painting the "Venus and
+Love," a "Portrait of Lenbach," and a "Saint Catherine." He was again at
+Rome from 1862 to 1866, and there gave his fancy and his taste for
+violent colour free play in his "Portrait of Mme Bocklin," now in the
+Basel gallery, in "An Anchorite in the Wilderness" (1863); a "Roman
+Tavern," and "Villa on the Sea-shore" (1864); this last, one of his best
+pictures. He returned to Basel in 1866 to finish his frescoes in the
+gallery, and to paint, besides several portraits, "The Magdalene with
+Christ" (1868); "Anacreon's Muse" (1869); and "A Castle and Warriors"
+(1871). His "Portrait of Myself," with Death playing a violin (1873),
+was painted after his return again to Munich, where he exhibited his
+famous "Battle of the Centaurs" (in the Basel gallery); "Landscape with
+Moorish Horsemen" (in the Lucerne gallery); and "A Farm" (1875). From
+1876 to 1885 Bocklin was working at Florence, and painted a "Pieta,"
+"Ulysses and Calypso," "Prometheus," and the "Sacred Grove." From 1886
+to 1892 he settled at Zurich. Of this period are the "Naiads at Play,"
+"A Sea Idyll," and "War." After 1892 Bocklin resided at San Domenico,
+near Florence. An exhibition of his collected works was held at Basel
+from the 20th of September to the 24th of October 1897. He died on the
+16th of January 1901.
+
+  His life has been written by Henri Mendelssohn. See also F. Hermann,
+  _Gazette des Beaux Arts_ (Paris, 1893); Max Lehrs, _Arnold Bocklin,
+  Ein Leitfaden zum Verstandniss seiner Kunst_ (Munich, 1897); W.
+  Ritter, _Arnold Bocklin_ (Gand, 1895); _Katalog der Bocklin Jubilaums
+  Ausstellung_ (Basel, 1897).     (H. Fr.)
+
+
+
+
+BOCLAND, BOCKLAND or BOOKLAND (from A.S. _boc_, book), an original mode
+of tenure of land, also called charter-land or deed-land. Bocland was
+folk-land granted to individuals in private ownership by a document
+(charter or book) in writing, with the signatures of the king and
+witenagemot; at first it was rarely, if ever, held by laymen, except for
+religious purposes. Bocland to a certain extent resembled full ownership
+in the modern sense, in that the owner could grant it in his lifetime,
+in the same manner as he had received it, by _boc_ or book, and also
+dispose of it by will. (See also FOLKLAND.)
+
+
+
+
+BOCSKAY, STEPHEN [ISTVAN] (1557-1606), prince of Transylvania, the most
+eminent member of the ancient Bocskay family, son of Gyorgy Bocskay and
+Krisztina Sulyok, was born at Kolozsvar, Hungary. As the chief
+councillor of Prince Zsigmond Bathory, he advised his sovereign to
+contract an alliance with the emperor instead of holding to the Turk,
+and rendered important diplomatic services on frequent missions to
+Prague and Vienna. The enmity towards him of the later Bathory princes
+of Transylvania, who confiscated his estates, drove him to seek
+protection at the imperial court (1599); but the attempts of the emperor
+Rudolph II. to deprive Hungary of her constitution and the Protestants
+of their religious liberties speedily alienated Bocskay, especially
+after the terrible outrages inflicted on the Transylvanians by the
+imperial generals Basta and Belgiojoso from 1602 to 1604. Bocskay, to
+save the independence of Transylvania, assisted the Turks; and in 1605,
+as a reward for his part in driving Basta out of Transylvania, the
+Hungarian diet, assembled at Modgyes, elected him prince (1605), on
+which occasion the Ottoman sultan sent a special embassy to congratulate
+him and a splendid jewelled crown made in Persia. Bocskay refused the
+royal dignity, but made skilful use of the Turkish alliance. To save the
+Austrian provinces of Hungary, the archduke Matthias, setting aside his
+semi-lunatic imperial brother Rudolph, thereupon entered into
+negotiations with Bocskay, and ultimately the peace of Vienna was
+concluded (June 23, 1606), which guaranteed all the constitutional and
+religious rights and privileges of the Hungarians both in Transylvania
+and imperial Hungary. Bocskay, at the same time, was acknowledged as
+prince of Transylvania by the Austrian court, and the right of the
+Transylvanians to elect their own independent princes in future was
+officially recognized. The fortress of Tokaj and the counties of Bereg,
+Szatmar and Ugocsa were at the same time ceded to Bocskay, with
+reversion to Austria if he should die childless. Simultaneously, at
+Zsitvatorok, a peace, confirmatory of the peace of Vienna, was concluded
+with the Turks. Bocskay survived this signal and unprecedented triumph
+only a few months. He is said to have been poisoned (December 29, 1606)
+by his chancellor, Mihaly Katay, who was hacked to bits by Bocskay's
+adherents in the market-place of Kassa.
+
+  See _Political Correspondence of Stephen Bocskay_ (Hung.), edited by
+  Karoly Szabo (Budapest, 1882); Jeno Thury, _Stephen Bocskay's
+  Rebellion_ (Hung.), Budapest, 1899.     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BODE, JOHANN ELERT (1747-1826), German astronomer, was born at Hamburg
+on the 19th of January 1747. Devoted to astronomy from his earliest
+years, he eagerly observed the heavens at a garret window with a
+telescope made by himself, and at nineteen began his career with the
+publication of a short work on the solar eclipse of the 5th of August
+1766. This was followed by an elementary treatise on astronomy entitled
+_Anleitung zur Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels_ (1768, 10th ed. 1844),
+the success of which led to his being summoned to Berlin in 1772 for the
+purpose of computing ephemerides on an improved plan. There resulted the
+foundation by him, in 1774, of the well-known _Astronomisches Jahrbuch_,
+51 yearly volumes of which he compiled and issued. He became director of
+the Berlin observatory in 1786, withdrew from official life in 1825, and
+died at Berlin on the 23rd of November 1826. His works were highly
+effective in diffusing throughout Germany a taste for astronomy. Besides
+those already mentioned he wrote:--_Sammlung astronomischer Tafeln_ (3
+vols., 1776); _Erlauterung der Sternkunde_ (1776, 3rd ed. 1808);
+_Uranographia_ (1801), a collection of 20 star-maps accompanied by a
+catalogue of 17,240 stars and nebulae. In one of his numerous incidental
+essays he propounded, in 1776, a theory of the solar constitution
+similar to that developed in 1795 by Sir William Herschel. He gave
+currency, moreover, to the empirical rule known as "Bode's Law," which
+was actually announced by Johann Daniel Titius of Wittenberg in 1772. It
+is expressed by the statement that the proportionate distances of the
+several planets from the sun may be represented by adding 4 to each term
+of the series; 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, &c. The irregularity will be noticed of
+the first term, which should be 1-1/2 instead of 0. (See SOLAR SYSTEM.)
+
+  See J.F. Encke, _Berlin Abhandlungen_ (1827), p. xi.; H.C. Schumacher.
+  _Astr. Nach._ v. 255, 367 (1827); Poggendorff, _Biog. literarisches
+  Handworterbuch; Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, iii. 1.
+
+
+
+
+BODEL, JEHAN (died _c._ 1210), French _trouvere_, was born at Arras in
+the second half of the 12th century. Very little is known of his life,
+but in 1205 he was about to start for the crusade when he was attacked
+by leprosy. In a touching poem called _Le Conge_ (pr. by Meon in
+_Recueil de fabliaux et contes_, vol. i.), he bade farewell to his
+friends and patrons, and begged for a nomination to a leper hospital. He
+wrote _Le Jeu de Saint Nicolas_, one of the earliest miracle plays
+preserved in French (printed in Monmerque and Michel's _Theatre francais
+du moyen age_, 1839, and for the _Soc. des bibliophiles francais_,
+1831); the _Chanson des Saisnes_ (ed. F. Michel 1839), four
+_pastourelles_ (printed in K. Bartsch's _Altfranz. Romanzen und
+Pastourellen_, Leipzig, 1870); and probably, the eight _fabliaux_
+attributed to an unknown Jean Bedel. The legend of Saint Nicholas had
+already formed the subject of the Latin _Ludus Sancti Nicholai_ of
+Hilarius. Bodel placed the scene partly on a field of battle in Africa,
+where the crusaders perish in a hopeless struggle, and partly in a
+tavern. The piece, loosely connected by the miracle of Saint Nicholas
+narrated in the prologue, ends with a wholesale conversion of the
+African king and his subjects. The dialogue in the tavern scenes is
+written in thieves' slang, and is very obscure. The _Chanson des
+Saisnes_, Bodel's authorship of which has been called in question, is a
+_chanson de geste_ belonging to the period of decadence, and is really a
+_roman d'aventures_ based on earlier legends belonging to the
+Charlemagne cycle. It relates the wars of Charlemagne against the Saxons
+under Guiteclin de Sassoigne (Witikind or Widukind), with the second
+revolt of the Saxons and their final submission and conversion. Jehan
+Bodel makes no allusion to Ogier the Dane and many other personages of
+the Charlemagne cycle, but he mentions the defeat of Roland at
+Roncevaux. The romance is based on historical fact, but is overlaid with
+romantic detail. It really embraces three distinct legends--those of the
+wars against the Saxons, of Charlemagne's rebellious barons, and of
+Baudouim and Sebille. The earlier French poems on the subject are lost,
+but the substance of them is preserved in the Scandinavian versions of
+the Charlemagne cycle (supposed to have been derived from English
+sources) known as the _Karlamagnussaga_ (ed. Unger, Christiania, 1860)
+and _Keiser Karl Magnus Kronike_ (Romantisk Digtnung, ed. C.J. Brandt,
+Copenhagen, 1877).
+
+  See also the article on Jehan Bodel by Paulin Paris in _Hist. litt, de
+  la France_, xx. pp. 605-638; Gaston Paris, _Histoire poetique de
+  Charlemagne_ (1865); Leon Gautier, _Les Epopees francaises_ (revised
+  edition, vol. iii. pp. 650-684), where there is a full analysis of the
+  _Chanson des Saisnes_ and a bibliography; H. Meyer, in _Ausgaben und
+  Abhandlungen aus ... der romanischen Philologie_ (Marburg, 1883), pp.
+  1-76, where its relation to the rest of the Charlemagne cycle is
+  discussed.
+
+
+
+
+BODENBACH (Czech _Podmokly_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 83 m. N.N.E.
+of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 10,782, almost exclusively German. It is
+situated on the left bank of the Elbe opposite Tetschen, and is an
+important railway junction, containing also an Austrian and a Saxon
+custom-house. Bodenbach, which in the middle of the 19th century had
+only a few hundred inhabitants, has become a very important industrial
+centre. Its principal manufactures include cotton and woollen goods,
+earthenware and crockery, chemicals, chicory, chocolate, sweetmeats and
+preserves, and beer. It has also a very active transit trade.
+
+
+
+
+BODENSTEDT, FRIEDRICH MARTIN VON (1819-1892), German author, was born at
+Peine, in Hanover, on the 22nd of April 1819. He studied in Gottingen,
+Munich and Berlin. His career was determined by his engagement in 1841
+as tutor in the family of Prince Gallitzin at Moscow, where he gained a
+thorough knowledge of Russian. This led to his appointment in 1844 as
+the head of a public school at Tiflis, in Transcaucasia. He took the
+opportunity of his proximity to Persia to study Persian literature, and
+in 1851 published a volume of original poetry in oriental guise under
+the fanciful title, _Die Lieder des Mirza Schaffy_ (English trans. by E.
+d'Esterre, 1880). The success of this work can only be compared with
+that of Edward FitzGerald's _Omar Khayyam_, produced in somewhat similar
+circumstances, but differed from it in being immediate. It has gone
+through 160 editions in Germany, and has been translated into almost all
+literary languages. Nor is this celebrity undeserved, for although
+Bodenstedt does not attain the poetical elevation of FitzGerald, his
+view of life is wider, more cheerful and more sane, while the execution
+is a model of grace. On his return from the East, Bodenstedt engaged for
+a while in journalism, married the daughter of a Hessian officer
+(Matilde, the _Edlitam_ of his poems), and was in 1854 appointed
+professor of Slavonic at Munich. The rich stores of knowledge which
+Bodenstedt brought back from the East were turned to account in two
+important books, _Die Volker des Kaukasus und ihre Freiheits-Kampfe
+gegen die Russen_ (1848), and _Tausend und ein Tag im Orient_ (1850).
+For some time Bodenstedt continued to devote himself to Slavonic
+subjects, producing translations of Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgweniev, and
+of the poets of the Ukraines, and writing a tragedy on the false
+Demetrius, and an epic, _Ada die Lesghierin_, on a Circassian theme.
+Finding, probably, this vein exhausted, he exchanged his professorship
+in 1858 for one of Early English literature, and published (1858-1860) a
+valuable work on the English dramatists contemporary with Shakespeare,
+with copious translations. In 1862 he produced a standard translation of
+Shakespeare's sonnets, and between 1866 and 1872 published a complete
+version of the plays, with the help of many coadjutors. In 1867 he
+undertook the direction of the court theatre at Meiningen, and was
+ennobled by the duke. After 1873 he lived successively at Altona, Berlin
+and Wiesbaden, where he died on the 19th of April 1892. His later works
+consist of an autobiography (1888), successful translations from Hafiz
+and Omar Khayyam, and lyrics and dramas which added little to his
+reputation.
+
+  An edition of his collected works in 12 vols. was published at Berlin
+  (1866-1869), and his _Erzahlungen und Romane_ at Jena (1871-1872). For
+  further biographical details, see Bodenstedt's _Erinnerungen aus
+  meinem Leben_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1888-1890); and G. Schenck, _Friedrich
+  von Bodenstedt. Ein Dichterleben in seinen Briefen_ (Berlin, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+BODHI VAMSA, a prose poem in elaborate Sanskritized Pali, composed by
+Upatissa in the reign of Mahinda IV. of Ceylon about A.D. 980. It is an
+adaptation of a previously existing work in Sinhalese on the same
+subject, and describes the bringing of a branch of the celebrated Bo or
+Bodhi tree (i.e. Wisdom Tree, under which the Buddha had attained
+wisdom) to Ceylon in the 3rd century B.C. The Bodhi Vamsa quotes verses
+from the Mahavamsa, but draws a great deal of its material from other
+sources; and it has occasionally preserved details of the older
+tradition not found in any other sources known to us.
+
+  Edition in Pali for the Pali Text Society by S. Arthur Strong (London,
+  1891).
+
+
+
+
+BODICHON, BARBARA LEIGH SMITH (1827-1891), English educationalist, was
+born at Watlington, Norfolk, on the 8th of April 1827, the daughter of
+Benjamin Smith (1783-1860), long M.P. for Norwich. She early showed a
+force of character and catholicity of sympathy that later won her a
+prominent place among philanthropists and social workers. In 1857 she
+married an eminent French physician, Dr Eugene Bodichon, and, although
+wintering many years in Algiers, continued to lead the movements she had
+initiated in behalf of Englishwomen. In 1869 she published her _Brief
+Summary of the Laws of England concerning Women_, which had a useful
+effect in helping forward the passage of the Married Women's Property
+Act. In 1866, co-operating with Miss Emily Davies, she matured a scheme
+for the extension of university education to women, and the first small
+experiment at Hitchin developed into Girton College, to which Mme
+Bodichon gave liberally of her time and money. With all her public
+interests she found time for society and her favourite art of painting.
+She studied under William H. Hunt, and her water-colours, exhibited at
+the Salon, the Academy and elsewhere, showed great originality and
+talent, and were admired by Corot and Daubigny. Her London salon
+included many of the literary and artistic celebrities of her day; she
+was George Eliot's most intimate friend, and, according to her, the
+first to recognize the authorship of _Adam Bede_. Her personal
+appearance is said to be described in that of Romola. Mme Bodichon died
+at Robertsbridge, Sussex, on the 11th of June 1891.
+
+
+
+
+BODIN, JEAN (1530-1596), French political philosopher, was born at
+Angers in 1530. Having studied law at Toulouse and lectured there on
+jurisprudence, he settled in Paris as an advocate, but soon applied
+himself to literature. In 1555 he published his first work, a
+translation of Oppian's _Cynegeticon_ into Latin verse, with a
+commentary. The celebrated scholar, Turnebus, complained that some of
+his emendations had been appropriated without acknowledgment. In 1588,
+in refutation of the views of the seigneur de Malestroit, comptroller of
+the mint, who maintained that there had been no rise of prices in France
+during the three preceding centuries, he published his _Responsio ad
+Paradoxa Malestretti_ (_Reponse aux paradoxes de M. Malestroit_), which
+the first time explained in a nearly satisfactory manner the revolution
+of prices which took place in the 16th century. Bodin showed a more
+rational appreciation than many of his contemporaries of the causes of
+this revolution, and the relation of the variations in money to the
+market values of wares in general as well as to the wages of labour. He
+saw that the amount of money in circulation did not constitute the
+wealth of the community, and that the prohibition of the export of the
+precious metals was rendered inoperative by the necessities of trade.
+This tract, the _Discours sur les causes de l'exterme cherte qui est
+aujourdhuy en France_ (1574), and the disquisition on public revenues in
+the sixth book of the _Republique_, entitle Bodin to a distinguished
+position among the earlier economists.
+
+His learning, genial disposition, and conversational powers won him the
+favor of Henry III. and of his brother, the duc d'Alencon; and he was
+appointed king's attorney at Laon in 1576. In this year he married,
+performed his most brilliant service to his country, and completed his
+greatest literary work. Elected by the _tiers etat_ of Vermandois to
+represent it in the states-general of Blois, he contended with skill and
+boldness in extremely difficult circumstances for freedom of conscience,
+justice and peace. The nobility and clergy favoured the League, and
+urged the king to force his subjects to profess the Catholic religion.
+When Bodin found he could not prevent this resolution being carried, he
+contrived to get inserted in the petition drawn up by the states the
+clause "without war," which practically rendered nugatory all its other
+clauses. While he thus resisted the clergy and nobility he successfully
+opposed the demand of the king to be allowed to alienate the public
+lands and royal demesnes, although the chief deputies had been won over
+to assent. This lost him the favour of the king, who wanted money on any
+terms. In 1581 he acted as secretary to the duc d'Alencon when that
+prince came over to England to seek the hand of Queen Elizabeth. Here he
+had the pleasure of finding that the _Republique_ was studied at London
+and Cambridge, although in a barbarous Latin translation. This
+determined him to translate his work into Latin himself (1586). The
+latter part of Bodin's life was spent at Laon, which he is said to have
+persuaded to declare for the League in 1589, and for Henry IV. five
+years afterwards. He died of the plague in 1596, and was buried in the
+church of the Carmelites.
+
+With all his breadth and liberality of mind Bodin was a credulous
+believer in witchcraft, the virtues of numbers and the power of the
+stars, and in 1580 he published the _Demonomanie des sorciers_, a work
+which shows that he was not exempt from the prejudices of the age.
+Himself regarded by most of his contemporaries as a sceptic, and by some
+as an atheist, he denounced all who dared to disbelieve in sorcery, and
+urged the burning of witches and wizards. It might, perhaps, have gone
+hard with him if his counsel had been strictly followed, as he confessed
+to have had from his thirty-seventh year a friendly demon, who, if
+properly invoked, touched his right ear when he purposed doing what was
+wrong, and his left when he meditated doing good.
+
+His chief work, the _Six livres de la Republique_ (Paris, 1576), which
+passed through several editions in his lifetime, that of 1583 having as
+an appendix _L'Apologie de Rene Herpin_ (Bodin himself), was the first
+modern attempt to construct an elaborate system of political science. It
+is perhaps the most important work of its kind between Aristotle and
+modern writers. Though he was much indebted to Aristotle he used the
+material to advantage, adding much from his own experience and
+historical knowledge. In harmony with the conditions of his age, he
+approved of absolute governments, though at the same time they must, he
+thought, be controlled by constitutional laws. He entered into an
+elaborate defence of individual property against Plato and More, rather
+perhaps because the scheme of his work required the treatment of that
+theme than because it was practically urgent in his day, when the
+excesses of the Anabaptists had produced a strong feeling against
+communistic doctrines. He was under the general influence of the
+mercantilist views, and approved of energetic governmental interference
+in industrial matters, of high taxes on foreign manufactures and low
+duties on raw materials and articles of food, and attached great
+importance to a dense population. But he was not a blind follower of the
+system; he wished for unlimited freedom of trade in many cases; and he
+was in advance of his more eminent contemporary Montaigne in perceiving
+that the gain of one nation is not necessarily the loss of another. To
+the public finances, which he called "the sinews of the state," he
+devoted much attention, and insisted on the duties of the government in
+respect to the right adjustment of taxation. In general he deserves the
+praise of steadily keeping in view the higher aims and interests of
+society in connexion with the regulation and development of its material
+life.
+
+Among his other works are _Oratio de instituenda in republica juventate_
+(1559); _Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem_ (1566);
+_Universale Naturae Theatrum_ (1596, French trans. by Fougerolles,
+1597), and the _Colloquium Heptaplomeres de abditis rerum sublimium
+arcanis_, written in 1588, published first by Guhrauer (1841), and in a
+complete form by L. Noack (1857). The last is a philosophy of naturalism
+in the form of a conversation between seven learned men--a Jew, a
+Mahommedan, a Lutheran, a Zwinglian, a Roman Catholic, an Epicurean and
+a Theist. The conclusion to which they are represented as coming is that
+they will live together in charity and toleration, and cease from
+further disputation as to religion. It is curious that Leibnitz, who
+originally regarded the _Colloquium_ as the work of a professed enemy of
+Christianity, subsequently described it as a most valuable production
+(cf. M. Carriere, _Weltanschauung_, p. 317).
+
+  See H. Baudrillart, _J. Bodin et son temps_ (Paris, 1853); Ad. Franck,
+  _Reformateurs et publicistes de l'Europe_ (Paris, 1864); N.
+  Planchenault, _Etudes sur Jean Bodin_ (Angers, 1858); E. de
+  Barthelemy, _Etude sur J. Bodin_ (Paris, 1876); for the political
+  philosophy of Bodin, see P. Janet, _Hist. de la science polit._ (3rd
+  ed., Paris, 1887); Hancke, _B. Studien uber d. Begriff d.
+  Souveranitat_ (Breslau, 1894), A. Bardoux. _Les Legistes et leur
+  influence sur la soc. francaise_; Fournol, _Bodin predecesseur de
+  Montesquieu_ (Paris, 1896); for his political economy, J.K. Ingram,
+  _Hist. of Pol. Econ._ (London, 1888); for his ethical teaching, A.
+  Desjardins, _Les Moralistes francais du seizieme siecle_, ch. v.; and
+  for his historical views, R. Flint's _Philosophy of History in Europe_
+  (ed. 1893), pp. 190 foll.
+
+
+
+
+BODKIN (Early Eng. _boydekin_, a dagger, a word of unknown origin,
+possibly connected with the Gaelic _biodag_, a short sword), a small,
+needle-like instrument of steel or bone with a flattened knob at one
+end, used in needlework. It has one or more slits or eyes, through which
+cord, tape or ribbon can be passed, for threading through a hem or
+series of loops. The word is also used of a small piercing instrument
+for making holes in cloth, &c.
+
+
+
+
+BODLE or BODDLE (said to be from Bothwell, the name of a mint-master), a
+Scottish copper coin worth about one-sixth of an English penny, first
+issued under Charles II. It survives in the phrase "not to care a
+bodle."
+
+
+
+
+BODLEY, GEORGE FREDERICK (1827-1907), English architect, was the
+youngest son of a physician at Brighton, his elder brother, the Rev.
+W.H. Bodley, becoming a well-known Roman Catholic preacher and a
+professor at Oscott. He was articled to the famous architect Sir Gilbert
+Scott, under whose influence he became imbued with the spirit of the
+Gothic revival, and he gradually became known as the chief exponent of
+14th-century English Gothic, and the leading ecclesiastical architect in
+England. One of his first churches was St Michael and All Angels,
+Brighton (1855), and among his principal erections may be mentioned All
+Saints, Cambridge; Eton Mission church, Hackney Wick; Clumber church;
+Eccleston church; Hoar Cross church; St Augustine's, Pendlebury; Holy
+Trinity, Kensington; Chapel Allerton, Leeds; St Faith's, Brentford;
+Queen's College chapel, Cambridge; Marlborough College chapel; and
+Burton church. His domestic work included the London School Board
+offices, the new buildings at Magdalen, Oxford, and Hewell Grange (for
+Lord Windsor). From 1872 he had for twenty years the partnership of Mr
+T. Garner, who worked with him. He also designed (with his pupil James
+Vaughan) the cathedral at Washington, D.C., U.S.A., and cathedrals at
+San Francisco and in Tasmania; and when Mr Gilbert Scott's design for
+his new Liverpool cathedral was successful in the competition he
+collaborated with the young architect in preparing for its erection.
+Bodley began contributing to the Royal Academy in 1854, and in 1881 was
+elected A.R.A., becoming R.A. in 1902. In addition to being a most
+learned master of architecture, he was a beautiful draughtsman, and a
+connoisseur in art; he published a volume of poems in 1899; and he was a
+designer of wall-papers and chintzes for Watts & Co., of Baker Street,
+London; in early life he had been in close alliance with the
+Pre-Raphaelites, and he did a great deal, like William Morris, to
+improve public taste in domestic decoration and furniture. He died on
+the 21st of October 1907, at Water Eaton, Oxford.
+
+
+
+
+BODLEY, SIR THOMAS (1545-1613), English diplomatist and scholar, founder
+of the Bodleian library, Oxford, was born at Exeter on the 2nd of March
+1545. During the reign of Queen Mary, his father, John Bodley, being
+obliged to leave the kingdom on account of his Protestant principles,
+went to live at Geneva. In that university, in which Calvin and Beza
+were then teaching divinity, young Bodley studied for a short time. On
+the accession of Queen Elizabeth he returned with his father to England,
+and soon after entered Magdalen College, Oxford. In 1563 he took his
+B.A. degree, and was admitted a fellow of Merton College. In 1565 he
+read a Greek lecture in hall, took his M.A. degree the year after, and
+read natural philosophy in the public schools. In 1569 he was proctor,
+and for some time after was deputy public orator. Quitting Oxford in
+1576, he made the tour of Europe; shortly after his return he became
+gentleman-usher to Queen Elizabeth; and in 1587, apparently, he married
+Ann Ball, a widow lady of considerable fortune, the daughter of a Mr
+Carew of Bristol. In 1584 he entered parliament as member for
+Portsmouth, and represented St German's in 1586. In 1585 Bodley was
+entrusted with a mission to form a league between Frederick II. of
+Denmark and certain German princes to assist Henry of Navarre. He was
+next despatched on a secret mission to France; and in 1588 he was sent
+to the Hague as minister, a post which demanded great diplomatic skill,
+for it was in the Netherlands that the power of Spain had to be fought.
+The essential difficulties of his mission were complicated by the
+intrigues of the queen's ministers at home, and Bodley repeatedly begged
+that he might be recalled. He was finally permitted to return to England
+in 1596, but finding his preferment obstructed by the jarring interests
+of Burleigh and Essex, he retired from public life. He was knighted on
+the 18th of April 1604. He is, however, remembered specially as the
+founder of the Bodleian at Oxford, practically the earliest public
+library in Europe (see LIBRARIES). He determined, he said, "to take his
+farewell of state employments and to set up his staff at the library
+door in Oxford." In 1598 his offer to restore the old library was
+accepted by the university. Bodley not only used his private fortune in
+his undertaking, but induced many of his friends to make valuable gifts
+of books. In 1611 he began its permanent endowment, and at his death in
+London on the 28th of January 1613, the greater part of his fortune was
+left to it. He was buried in the choir of Merton College chapel where a
+monument of black and white marble was erected to him.
+
+  Sir Thomas wrote his own life to the year 1609, which, with the first
+  draft of the statutes drawn up for the library, and his letters to the
+  librarian, Thomas James, was published by Thomas Hearne, under the
+  title of _Reliquiae Bodleianae, or Authentic Remains of Sir Thomas
+  Bodley_ (London, 1703, 8vo).
+
+
+
+
+BODMER, JOHANN JAKOB (1698-1783), Swiss-German author, was born at
+Greifensee, near Zurich, on the 19th of July 1698. After first studying
+theology and then trying a commercial career, he finally found his
+vocation in letters. In 1725 he was appointed professor of Helvetian
+history in Zurich, a chair which he held for half a century, and in 1735
+became a member of the "Grosser Rat." He published (1721-1723), in
+conjunction with J.J. Breitinger (1701-1774) and several others, _Die
+Discourse der Mahlern_, a weekly journal after the model of the
+Spectator. Through his prose translation of Milton's Paradise Lost
+(1732) and his successful endeavours to make a knowledge of English
+literature accessible to Germany, he aroused the hostile criticism of
+Gottsched (_q.v_.) and his school, a struggle which ended in the
+complete discomfiture of the latter. His most important writings are the
+treatises _Von dem Wunderbaren in der Poesie_ (1740) and _Kritische
+Betrachtungen uber die poetischen Gemalde der Dichter_ (1741), in which
+he pleaded for the freedom of the imagination from the restriction
+imposed upon it by French pseudo-classicism. Bodmer's epics _Die
+Sundfluth_ (1751) and _Noah_ (1751) are weak imitations of Klopstock's
+_Messias_, and his plays are entirely deficient in dramatic qualities.
+He did valuable service to German literature by his editions of the
+Minnesingers and part of the _Nibelungenlied_. He died at Zurich on the
+2nd of January 1783.
+
+  See T.W. Danzel, _Gottsched und seine Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1848); J.
+  Cruger, _J.C. Gottsched, Bodmer und Breitinger_ (Stuttgart, 1884); F.
+  Braitmaier, _Geschichte der poetischen Theorie und Kritik von den
+  Diskursen der Maler bis auf Lessing_ (Leipzig, 1888); _Denkschrift zu
+  Bodmers 200. Geburtstag_ (Zurich, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+BODMIN, a market town and municipal borough in the Bodmin parliamentary
+division of Cornwall, England, the county town, 30-1/2 m. W.N.W. of
+Plymouth, on branches of the Great Western and London & South-Western
+railways. Pop. (1901) 5353. It lies between two hills in a short valley
+opening westward upon that of the Camel, at the southern extremity of
+the high open Bodmin Moor. The large church of St Petrock, mainly
+Perpendicular, has earlier portions, and a late Norman font. East of it
+there is a ruined Decorated chapel of St Thomas of Canterbury, with a
+crypt. A tower of Tudor date, in the cemetery, marks the site of a
+chapel of the gild of the Holy Rood. Part of the buildings of a
+Franciscan friary, founded _c._ 1240, are incorporated in the
+market-house, and the gateway remains in an altered form. At Bodmin are
+a prison, with civil and naval departments, the county gaol and asylum,
+the headquarters of the constabulary, and those of the duke of
+Cornwall's Light Infantry. Cattle, sheep and horse fairs are held, and
+there is a considerable agricultural trade. The borough is under a
+mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 2797 acres.
+
+Traces of Roman occupation have been found in the western part of the
+parish, belonging to the first century A.D. Possibly tin-mining was
+carried on here at that period. The grant of a charter by King Edred to
+the prior and canons of Bodmin (Bomine, Bodman, Bodmyn) in respect of
+lands in Devonshire appears in an _inspeximus_ of 1252. To its
+ecclesiastical associations it owed its importance at the time of the
+Domesday survey, when St Petrock held the manor of Bodmin, wherein were
+sixty-eight houses and one market. To successive priors, as mesne lords,
+it also owed its earliest municipal privileges. King John's charter to
+the prior and convent, dated the 17th of July 1199, contained a clause
+(subsequently cancelled by Richard II.) by which burgesses were exempt
+from being impleaded, touching any tenements in their demesne, except
+before the king and his chief justice. Richard of Cornwall, king of the
+Romans, confirmed to the burgesses their gild merchant, Edward I. the
+pesage of tin, and Edward II. a market for tin and wool. Queen Elizabeth
+in 1563 constituted the town a free borough and the burgesses a body
+corporate, granting at the same time two fairs and a Saturday market.
+There are still held also three other fairs whose origin is uncertain.
+An amended charter granted in 1594 remained in force until 1789, when
+the corporation became extinct owing to the diminution of the burgesses.
+By virtue of a new charter of incorporation granted in 1798 and
+remodelled by the act of 1835, the corporation now consists of a mayor,
+four aldermen and twelve councillors. The first members for Bodmin were
+summoned in 1295. Retaining both its members in 1832, losing one in 1868
+and the other in 1885, it has now become merged in the south-eastern
+division of the county. From 1715 to 1837 the assizes were generally
+held alternately at Launceston and Bodmin; since 1837 they have been
+held at Bodmin only. A court of probate has also been held at Bodmin
+since 1773. A festival known as "Bodmin Riding" was formerly celebrated
+here on the Sunday and Monday following St Thomas's day (July 7). It is
+thought by some to have been instituted in 1177 to celebrate the
+recovery of the bones of St Petrock.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Cornwall_; John Maclean, _Parochial and
+  Family History of the Deanery of Trigg Minor, Cornwall_ (3 vols.,
+  1873-1879).
+
+
+
+
+BODO, a seaport on the north-western coast of Norway, in Nordland _amt_
+(county), lat. 67 deg. 17' N. Pop. (1900) 4827. The rock-bound harbour
+admits large vessels, and there is a brisk trade in fish and eider-down.
+The neighbouring country has many scenic attractions. Sixty miles inland
+(E.) rises the great massif of Sulitelma on the Swedish frontier, with
+its copper mines, broad snow-fields and glaciers. The fjords of the
+district include the imposing Beierenfjord, the Saltenfjord, and the
+Skjerstadfjord, at the narrow mouths of which, between islands, a
+remarkable cataract (Saltstrom) is formed at the turn of the tide. On
+this fjord is Skjerstad, a large scattered village.
+
+
+
+
+BODONI, GIAMBATTISTA (1740-1813), Italian printer, was born in 1740 at
+Saluzzo in Piedmont, where his father owned a printing establishment.
+While yet a boy he began to engrave on wood. He at length went to Rome,
+and there became a compositor for the press of the Propaganda. He made
+himself acquainted with the Oriental languages, and thus was enabled to
+render essential service to the Propaganda press, by restoring and
+accurately distributing the types of several Oriental alphabets which
+had fallen into disorder. The infante Don Ferdinand, afterwards duke of
+Parma, having established, about 1760, a printing-house on the model of
+those in Paris, Madrid and Turin, Bodoni was placed at the head of this
+establishment, which he soon rendered the first of the kind in Europe.
+The beauty of his typography, &c., leaves nothing further to be desired;
+but the intrinsic value of his editions is seldom equal to their outward
+splendour. His Homer, however, is a truly magnificent work; and, indeed,
+his Greek letters are faultless imitations of the best Greek
+manuscript. His editions of the Greek, Latin, Italian and French
+classics are all highly prized for their typographical elegance, and
+some of them are not less remarkable for their accuracy. Bodoni died at
+Padua in 1813. In 1818 a magnificent work appeared in two volumes
+quarto, entitled _Manuale Tipografico_, containing specimens of the vast
+collection of types which had belonged to him.
+
+  See De Lama, _Vita del Cavaliere Giambattista Bodoni_ (1816).
+
+
+
+
+BODY-SNATCHING, the secret disinterring of dead bodies in churchyards in
+order to sell them for the purpose of dissection. Those who practised
+body-snatching were frequently called resurrectionists or
+resurrection-men. Previous to the passing of the Anatomy Act 1832 (see
+ANATOMY: _History_), no licence was required in Great Britain for
+opening an anatomical school, and there was no provision for supplying
+subjects to students for anatomical purposes. Therefore, though
+body-snatching was a misdemeanour at common law, punishable with fine
+and imprisonment, it was a sufficiently lucrative business to run the
+risk of detection. Body-snatching became so prevalent that it was not
+unusual for the relatives and friends of a deceased person to watch the
+grave for some time after burial, lest it should be violated. Iron
+coffins, too, were frequently used for burial, or the graves were
+protected by a framework of iron bars called _mortsafes_, well-preserved
+examples of which may still be seen in Greyfriars' churchyard,
+Edinburgh.
+
+  For a detailed history of body-snatching, see _The Diary of a
+  Resurrectionist_, edited by J.B. Bailey (London, 1896), which also
+  contains a full bibliography and the regulations in force in foreign
+  countries for the supply of bodies for anatomical purposes.
+
+
+
+
+BOECE (or BOYCE), HECTOR (c. 1465-c. 1536), Scottish historian, was
+born at Dundee about the year 1465, being descended of a family which
+for several generations had possessed the barony of Panbride in
+Forfarshire. He received his early education at Dundee, and completed
+his course of study in the university of Paris, where he took the degree
+of B.D. He was appointed regent, or professor, of philosophy in the
+college of Montaigu; and there he was a contemporary of Erasmus, who in
+two epistles has spoken of him in the highest terms. When William
+Elphinstone, bishop of Aberdeen, was laying his plans for the foundation
+of the university of Aberdeen (King's College) he made Boece his chief
+adviser; and the latter was persuaded, after receipt of the papal bull
+erecting the university (1494), to be the first principal. He was in
+Aberdeen about 1500 when lectures began in the new buildings, and he
+appears to have been well received by the canons of the cathedral,
+several of whom he has commemorated as men of learning. It was a part of
+his duty as principal to read lectures on divinity.
+
+The emoluments of his office were poor, but he also enjoyed the income
+of a canonry at Aberdeen and of the vicarage of Tullynessle. Under the
+date of 14th July 1527, we find a "grant to Maister Hector" of an annual
+pension of L50, to be paid by the sheriff of Aberdeen out of the king's
+casualties; and on the 26th of July 1529 was issued a "precept for a
+lettre to Mr Hector Boys, professor of theology, of a pension of L50
+Scots yearly, until the king promote him to a benefice of 100 marks
+Scots of yearly value; the said pension to be paid him by the custumars
+of Aberdeen." In 1533 and 1534, one-half of his pension was, however,
+paid by the king's treasurer, and the other half by the comptroller; and
+as no payment subsequent to that of Whitsuntide 1534 has been traced in
+the treasurer's accounts, he is supposed to have obtained the benefice
+soon after that period. This benefice was the rectorship of Tyrie.
+
+In 1528, soon after the publication of his history, Boece received the
+degree of D.D. at Aberdeen; and on this occasion the magistrates voted
+him a present of a tun of wine when the new wines should arrive, or,
+according to his option, the sum of L20 to purchase bonnets. He appears
+to have survived till the year 1536; for on the 22nd of November in that
+year, the king presented John Garden to the rectory of Tyrie, vacant by
+the death of "Mr Hector Boiss." He died at Aberdeen, and was buried
+before the high altar at King's College, beside the tomb of his patron
+Bishop Elphinstone.
+
+His earliest publication, _Episcoporum Murthlacensium et Aberdonensium
+per Hectorem Boetium Vitae_, was printed at the press of Jodocus Badius
+(Paris, 1522). The notices of the early prelates are of little value,
+but the portion of the book in which he speaks of Bishop Elphinstone is
+of enduring merit. Here we likewise find an account of the foundation
+and constitution of the college, together with some notices of its
+earliest members. His fame rests chiefly on his _History of Scotland_,
+published in 1527 under the title _Scotorum Historiae a prima gentis
+origine cum aliarum et rerum et gentium illustratione non vulgari_. This
+edition contains seventeen books. Another edition, containing the
+eighteenth book and a fragment of the nineteenth, was published by
+Ferrerius, who has added an appendix of thirty-five pages (Paris, 1574).
+
+The composition of the history displays much ability; but Boece's
+imagination was, however, stronger than his judgment: of the extent of
+the historian's credulity, his narrative exhibits many unequivocal
+proofs; and of deliberate invention or distortion of facts not a few,
+though the latter are less flagrant and intentional than early
+19th-century criticism has assumed. He professed to have obtained from
+the monastery of Icolmkill, through the good offices of the earl of
+Argyll, and his brother, John Campbell of Lundy, the treasurer, certain
+original historians of Scotland, and among the rest Veremundus, of whose
+writings not a single vestige is now to be found. In his dedication to
+the king he is pleased to state that Veremundus, a Spaniard by birth,
+was archdeacon of St Andrews, and that he wrote in Latin a history of
+Scotland from the origin of the nation to the reign of Malcolm III., to
+whom he inscribed his work. His propensity to the marvellous was at an
+early period exposed in the following verses by Leland:--
+
+  "Hectoris historici tot quot mendacia scripsit
+    Si vis ut numerem, lector amice, tibi,
+   Me jubeas etiam fluctus numerare marinos
+    Et liquidi Stellas connumerare poli."
+
+  Boece's _History of Scotland_ was translated into Scottish prose by
+  John Bellenden, and into verse by William Stewart. _The Lives of the
+  Bishops_ was reprinted for the Bannatyne Club, Edin., 1825, in a
+  limited edition of sixty copies. A commonplace verse-rendering of the
+  _Life of Bishop Elphinstone_, which was written by Alexander Gardyne
+  in 1619, remains in MS. There is no modern edition of the history,
+  though the versions of Bellenden and Stewart have been edited.
+
+
+
+
+BOEHM, SIR JOSEPH EDGAR, Bart. (1834-1890), British sculptor, was born
+of Hungarian parentage on the 4th of July 1834 at Vienna, where his
+father was director of the imperial mint. After studying the plastic art
+in Italy and at Paris, he worked for a few years as a medallist in his
+native city. After a further period of study in England, he was so
+successful as an exhibitor at the Exhibition of 1862 that he determined
+to abandon the execution of coins and medals, and to give his mind to
+portrait busts and statuettes, chiefly equestrian. The colossal statue
+of Queen Victoria, executed in marble (1869) for Windsor Castle, and the
+monument of the duke of Kent in St George's chapel, were his earliest
+great works, and so entirely to the taste of his royal patrons that he
+rose rapidly in favour with the court. He was made A.R.A. in 1878, and
+produced soon afterwards the statue of Carlyle on the Thames embankment
+at Chelsea. In 1881 he was appointed sculptor in ordinary to the queen,
+and in the ensuing year became full Academician. On the death of Dean
+Stanley, Boehm was commissioned to execute his sarcophagus in
+Westminster Abbey, and his achievement, a recumbent statue, has been
+pronounced to be one of the best portraits in modern sculpture. Less
+successful was his monument to General Gordon in St Paul's cathedral. He
+executed the equestrian statue of the duke of Wellington at Hyde Park
+Corner, and designed the coinage for the Jubilee of Queen Victoria in
+1887. Among his ideal subjects should be noted the "Herdsman and Bull."
+He died suddenly in his studio at South Kensington on the 12th of
+December 1890.
+
+
+
+
+BOEHM VON BAWERK, EUGEN (1851-   ), Austrian economist and statesman,
+was born at Brunn on the 12th of February 1851. Entering the Austrian
+department of finance in 1872, he held various posts until 1880, when he
+became qualified as a teacher of political economy in the university of
+Vienna. The following year, however, he transferred his services to the
+university of Innsbruck, where he became professor in 1884. In 1889 he
+became councillor in the ministry of finance, and represented the
+government in the Lower House on all questions of taxation. In 1895 and
+again in 1897-1898 he was minister of finance. In 1899 he was made a
+member of the Upper House, and in 1900 again became minister of finance.
+One of the leaders of the Austrian school of economists, he has made
+notable criticisms on the theory of value in relation to cost as laid
+down by the "classical school." His more important works are _Kapital
+und Kapitalzins_ (Innsbruck, 1884-1889), in two parts, translated by W.
+Smart, viz. _Capital and Interest_ (part i., 1890), and _The Positive
+Theory of Capital_ (part ii., 1891); _Karl Marx and the Close of his
+System_ (trans. A.M. Macdonald, 1898); _Recent Literature on Interest_
+(trans. W.A. Scott and S. Feilbogen, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+BOEHME (or BEHMEN), JAKOB (1575-1624), German mystical writer, whose
+surname (of which Fechner gives eight German varieties) appears in
+English literature as Beem, Behmont, &c., and notably Behmen, was born
+at Altseidenberg, in Upper Lusatia, a straggling hamlet among the hills,
+some 10 m. S.E. of Gorlitz. His father was a well-to-do peasant, and his
+first employment was that of herd boy on the Landskrone, a hill in the
+neighbourhood of Gorlitz; the only education he received was at the
+town-school of Seidenberg, a mile from his home. Seidenberg, to this
+day, is filled with shoemakers, and to a shoemaker Jakob was apprenticed
+in his fourteenth year (1589), being judged not robust enough for
+husbandry. Ten years later (1599) we find him settled at Gorlitz as
+master-shoemaker, and married to Katharina, daughter of Hans
+Kuntzschmann, a thriving butcher in the town. After industriously
+pursuing his vocation for ten years, he bought (1610) the substantial
+house, which still preserves his name, close by the bridge, in the
+Neiss-Vorstadt. Two or three years later he gave up business, and did
+not resume it as a shoemaker; but for some years before his death he
+made and sold woollen gloves, regularly visiting Prague fair for this
+purpose.
+
+Boehme's authorship began in his 37th year (1612) with a treatise,
+_Aurora, oder die Morgenrote im Aufgang_, which though unfinished was
+surreptitiously copied, and eagerly circulated in MS. by Karl von Ender.
+This raised him at once out of his homely sphere, and made him the
+centre of a local circle of liberal thinkers, considerably above him in
+station and culture. The charge of heresy was, however, soon directed
+against him by Gregorius Richter, then pastor primarius of Gorlitz.
+Feeling ran so high after Richter's pulpit denunciations, that, in July
+1613, the municipal council, fearing a disturbance of the peace, made a
+show of examining Boehme, took possession of his fragmentary quarto, and
+dismissed the writer with an admonition to meddle no more with such
+matters. For five years he obeyed this injunction. But in 1618 began a
+second period of authorship; he poured forth, but did not publish,
+treatise after treatise, expository and polemical, in the next and the
+two following years. In 1622 he composed nothing but a few short pieces
+on true repentance, resignation, &c., which, however, devotionally
+speaking, are the most precious of all his writings. They were the only
+pieces offered to the public in his lifetime and with his permission, a
+fact which is evidence of the essentially religious and practical
+character of his mind. Their publication at Gorlitz, on New Year's day
+1624, under the title of _Der Weg zu Christo_, was the signal for
+renewed clerical hostility. Boehme had by this time entered on the third
+and most prolific though the shortest period (1623-1624) of his
+speculation. His labours at the desk were interrupted in May 1624 by a
+summons to Dresden, where his famous "colloquy" with the Upper
+Consistorial court was made the occasion of a flattering but transient
+ovation on the part of a new circle of admirers. Richter died in August
+1624, and Boehme did not long survive his pertinacious foe. Seized with
+a fever when away from home, he was with difficulty conveyed to Gorlitz.
+His wife was at Dresden on business; and during the first week of his
+malady he was nursed by a literary friend. He died, after receiving the
+rites of the church, grudgingly administered by the authorities, on
+Sunday, the 17th of November.
+
+Boehme always professed that a direct inward opening or illumination was
+the only source of his speculative power. He pretended to no other
+revelation. Ecstatic raptures we should not expect, for he was
+essentially a Protestant mystic. No "thus saith the Lord" was claimed as
+his warrant, after the manner of Antoinette Bourignon, or Ludowick
+Muggleton; no spirits or angels held converse with him as with
+Swedenborg. It is needless to dwell, in the way either of acceptance or
+rejection, on the very few occasions in which his outward life seemed to
+him to come into contact with the invisible world. The apparition of the
+pail of gold to the herd boy on the Landskrone, the visit of the
+mysterious stranger to the young apprentice, the fascination of the
+luminous sheen, reflected from a common pewter dish, which first, in
+1600, gave an intuitive turn to his meditations, the heavenly music
+which filled his ears as he lay dying--none of these matters is
+connected organically with the secret of his special power. The
+mysteries of which he discoursed were not reported to him: he "beheld"
+them. He saw the root of all mysteries, the _Ungrund_ or _Urgrund_,
+whence issue all contrasts and discordant principles, hardness and
+softness, severity and mildness, sweet and bitter, love and sorrow,
+heaven and hell. These he "saw" in their origin; these he attempted to
+describe in their issue, and to reconcile in their eternal result. He
+saw into the being of God; whence the birth or going forth of the divine
+manifestation. Nature lay unveiled to him, he was at home in the heart
+of things. "His own book, which he himself was," the microcosm of man,
+with his threefold life, was patent to his vision. Such was his own
+account of his qualification. If he failed it was in expression; he
+confessed himself a poor mouthpiece, though he saw with a sure spiritual
+eye.
+
+It must not be supposed that the form in which Boehme's pneumatic
+realism worked itself out in detail was shaped entirely from within. In
+his writings we trace the influence of Theophr. Bombast von Hohenheim,
+known as Paracelsus (1493-1541), of Kaspar Schwenkfeld (1490-1561), the
+first Protestant mystic, and of Valentin Weigel (1533-1588). From the
+school of Paracelsus came much of his puzzling phraseology,--his _Turba_
+and _Tinctur_ and so forth,--a phraseology embarrassing to himself as
+well as to his readers. His friends plied him with foreign terms, which
+he was delighted to receive, interpreting them by an instinct, and using
+them often in a corrupted form and always in a sense of his own. Thus
+the word _Idea_ called up before him the image of "a very fair,
+heavenly, and chaste virgin." The title _Aurora_, by which his earliest
+treatise is best known, was furnished by Dr Balthasar Walther. These,
+however, were false helps, which only serve to obscure a difficult
+study, like the _Flagrat_ and _Lubet_, with which his English translator
+veiled Boehme's own honest _Schreck_ and _Lust_. There is danger lest
+his crude science and his crude philosophical vocabulary conceal the
+fertility of Boehme's ideas and the transcendent greatness of his
+religious insight. Few will take the pains to follow him through the
+interminable account of his seven _Quellgeister_, which remind us of
+Gnosticism; or even of his three first properties of eternal nature, in
+which his disciples find Newton's formulae anticipated, and which
+certainly bear a marvellous resemblance to the three [Greek: archai] of
+Schelling's _Theogonische Natur_. Boehme is always greatest when he
+breaks away from his fancies and his trammels, and allows speech to the
+voice of his heart. Then he is artless, clear and strong; and no man can
+help listening to him, whether he dive deep down with the conviction
+"ohne Gift und Grimm kein Leben," or rise with the belief that "the
+being of all beings is a wrestling power," or soar with the persuasion
+that Love "in its height is as high as God." The mystical poet of
+Silesia, Angelus Silesius, discerned where Boehme's truest power lay
+when he sang--
+
+  "Im Wasser lebt der Fisch, die Pflanze in der Erden,
+   Der Vogel in der Luft, die Sonn' am Firmament,
+   Der Salamander muss im Feu'r erhalten werden,
+   Und Gottes Herz ist Jakob Bohme's Element."
+
+The three periods of Boehme's authorship constitute three distinct
+stages in the development of his philosophy. He himself marks a
+threefold division of his subject-matter:--1. PHILOSOPHIA, i.e. the
+pursuit of the divine _Sophia_, a study of God in himself; this was
+attempted in the _Aurora_. 2. ASTROLOGIA, i.e., in the largest sense,
+cosmology, the manifestation of the divine in the structure of the world
+and of man; hereto belong, with others, _Die drei Principien gottlichen
+Wesens; Vom dreifachen Leben der Menschen; Von der Menschwerdung
+Christi;, Von der Geburt und Bezeichnung alter Wesen_ (known as
+_Signatura Rerum_). 3. THEOLOGIA, i.e., in Scougall's phrase, "the
+life of God in the soul of man." Of the speculative writings under this
+head the most important are _Von der Gnadenwahl; Mysterium Magnum_ (a
+spiritual commentary on Genesis); _Von Christi Testamenten_ (the
+Sacraments).
+
+Although Boehme's philosophy is essentially theological, and his
+theology essentially philosophical, one would hardly describe him as a
+philosophical theologian; and, indeed, his position is not one in which
+either the philosopher or the theologian finds it easy to make himself
+completely at home. The philosopher finds no trace in Boehme of a
+conception of God which rests its own validity on an accord with the
+highest canons of reason or of morals; it is in the actual not in the
+ideal that Boehme seeks God, whom he discovers as the spring of natural
+powers and forces, rather than as the goal of advancing thought. The
+theologian is staggered by a language which breaks the fixed association
+of theological phrases, and strangely reversing the usual point of view,
+characteristically pictures God as underneath rather than above. Nature
+rises out of Him; we sink into Him. The _Ungrund_ of the unmanifested
+Godhead is boldly represented in the English translations of Boehme by
+the word _Abyss_, in a sense altogether unexplained by its Biblical use.
+In the _Theologia Germanica_ this tendency to regard God as the
+_substantia_, the underlying ground of all things, is accepted as a
+foundation for piety; the same view, when offered in the colder logic of
+Spinoza, is sometimes set aside as atheistical. The procession of
+spiritual forces and natural phenomena out of the _Ungrund_ is described
+by Boehme in terms of a threefold manifestation, commended no doubt by
+the constitution of the Christian Trinity, but exhibited in a form
+derived from the school of Paracelsus. From Weigel he learned a purely
+idealistic explanation of the universe, according to which it is not the
+resultant of material forces, but the expression of spiritual
+principles. These two explanations were fused in his mind till they
+issued forth as equivalent forms of one and the same thought. Further,
+Schwenkfeld supplied him with the germs of a transcendental exegesis,
+whereby the Christian Scriptures and the dogmata of Lutheran orthodoxy
+were opened up in harmony with his new-found views. Thus equipped,
+Boehme's own genius did the rest. A primary effort of Boehme's
+philosophy is to show how material powers are substantially one with
+moral forces. This is the object with which he draws out the dogmatic
+scheme which dictates the arrangement of his seven _Quellgeister_.
+Translating Boehme's thought out of the uncouth dialect of material
+symbols (as to which one doubts sometimes whether he means them as
+concrete instances, or as pictorial illustrations, or as a mere _memoria
+technica_), we find that Boehme conceives of the correlation of two
+triads of forces. Each triad consists of a thesis, an antithesis and a
+synthesis; and the two are connected by an important link. In the hidden
+life of the Godhead, which is at once _Nichts_ and _Alles_, exists the
+original triad, viz. Attraction, Diffusion, and their resultant, the
+Agony of the unmanifested Godhead. The transition is made; by an act of
+will the divine Spirit comes to Light; and immediately the manifested
+life appears in the triad of Love, Expression, and their resultant,
+Visible Variety. As the action of contraries and their resultant are
+explained the relations of soul, body and spirit; of good, evil and free
+will; of the spheres of the angels, of Lucifer, and of this world. It is
+a more difficult problem to account on this philosophy for the
+introduction of evil. Boehme does not resort to dualism, nor has he the
+smallest sympathy with a pantheistic repudiation of the fact of sin.
+That the difficulty presses him is clear from the progressive changes
+in his attempted solution of the problem. In the _Aurora_ nothing save
+good proceeds from the _Ungrund_, though there is good that abides and
+good that fall;--Christ and Lucifer. In the second stage of his writing
+the antithesis is directly generated as such; good and its contrary are
+coincidently given from the one creative source, as factors of life and
+movement; while in the third period evil is a direct outcome of the
+primary principle of divine manifestation--it is the wrath side of God.
+Corresponding to this change we trace a significant variation in the
+moral end contemplated by Boehme as the object of this world's life and
+history. In the first stage the world is created in remedy of a decline;
+in the second, for the adjustment of a balance of forces; in the third,
+to exhibit the eternal victory of good over evil, of love over wrath.
+
+  Editions of Boehme's works were published by H. Betke (Amsterdam,
+  1675); by J.G. Gichtel (Amsterdam, 1682-1683, 10 vols.); by K.W.
+  Schiebler (Leipzig, 1831-1847, 7 vols.). Translations of sundry
+  treatises have been made into Latin (by J.A. Werdenhagen, 1632), Dutch
+  (complete, by W. v. Bayerland, 1634-1641), and French (by Jean Macle,
+  c. 1640, and L.C. de Saint-Martin, 1800-1809). Between 1644 and 1662
+  all Boehme's works were translated by John Ellistone (d. 1652) and
+  John Sparrow, assisted by Durand Hotham and Humphrey Blunden, who paid
+  for the undertaking. At that time regular societies of _Behmenists_,
+  embracing not only the cultivated but the vulgar, existed in England
+  and in Holland. They merged into the Quaker movement, holding already
+  in common with Friends that salvation is nothing short of the very
+  presence and life of Christ in the believer, and only kept apart by an
+  objective doctrine of the sacraments which exposed them to the polemic
+  of Quakers (e.g. J. Anderdon). Muggleton led an anthropomorphic
+  reaction against them, and between the two currents they were swept
+  away. The Philadelphian Society at the beginning of the 18th century
+  consisted of cultured mystics, Jane Lead, Pordage, Francis Lee,
+  Bromley, &c., who fed upon Boehme. William Law (1686-1761) somewhat
+  later recurred to the same spring, with the result, however, in those
+  dry times of bringing his own good sense into question rather than of
+  reviving the credit of his author. After Law's death the old English
+  translation was in great part re-edited (4 vols., 1762-1784) as a
+  tribute to his memory, by George Ward and Thomas Langcake, with plates
+  from the designs of D.A. Freher (Brit. Mus. Add. MSS. 5767-5794). This
+  forms what is commonly called Law's translation; to complete it a 5th
+  vol. (12mo, Dublin, 1820) is needed.
+
+  See also J. Hambetger, _Die Lehre des deutschen Philosophen J.
+  Boehmes_ (1844); Alb. Peip, _J. Boehme der deutsche Philosoph_ (1860);
+  von Harless, _J. Boehme und die Alchimisten_ (1870, 2nd ed. 1882). For
+  Boehme's life see the _Memoirs_ by Abraham von Frankenberg (d. 1652)
+  and others, trans, by F. Okely (1870); La Motte Fouque, _J. Boehm, ein
+  biographischer Denkstein_ (1831); H.A. Fechner, _J. Boehme, sein Leben
+  und seine Schriften_ (1857); H.L. Martensen, _J. Boehme, Theosophiske
+  Studier_ (Copenhagen, 1881; English trans. 1885); J. Claassen, _J.
+  Boehme, sein Leben und seine theosophische Werke_ (Gutersloh, 1885);
+  P. Deussen, _J. Boehme, uber sein Leben und seine Philosophie_ (Kiel,
+  1897).
+
+
+
+
+BOEOTIA, a district of central Greece, stretching from Phocis and Locris
+in the W. and N. to Attica and Megaris in the S. between the strait of
+Euboea and the Corinthian Gulf. This area, amounting in all to 1100 sq.
+m., naturally falls into two main divisions. In the north the basin of
+the Cephissus and Lake Copais lies between parallel mountain-walls
+continuing eastward the line of Parnassus in the extensive ridge of
+Helicon, the "Mountain of the Muses" (5470 ft.) and the east Locrian
+range in Mts. Ptoum, Messapium and other smaller peaks. These ranges,
+which mostly lie close to the seaboard, form by their projecting spurs a
+narrow defile on the Phocian frontier, near the famous battlefield of
+Chaeroneia, and shut in Copais closely on the south between Coronea and
+Haliartus. The north-east barrier was pierced by underground passages
+(_katavothra_) which carried off the overflow from Copais. The southern
+portion of the land forms a plateau which slopes to Mt. Cithaeron, the
+frontier range between Boeotia and Attica. Within this territory the low
+ridge of Teumessus separates the plain of Ismenus and Dirce, commanded
+by the citadel of Thebes, from the upland plain of the Asopus, the only
+Boeotian river that finds the eastern sea. Though the Boeotian climate
+suffered from the exhalations of Copais, which produced a heavy
+atmosphere with foggy winters and sultry summers, its rich soil was
+suited alike for crops, plantations and pasture; the Copais plain,
+though able to turn into marsh when the choking of the _katavothra_
+caused the lake to encroach, being among the most fertile in Greece.
+The central position of Boeotia between two seas, the strategic strength
+of its frontiers and the ease of communication within its extensive area
+were calculated to enhance its political importance. On the other hand
+the lack of good harbours hindered its maritime development; and the
+Boeotian nation, although it produced great men like Pindar,
+Epaminondas, Pelopidas and Plutarch, was proverbially as dull as its
+native air. But credit should be given to the people for their splendid
+military qualities: both their cavalry and heavy infantry achieved a
+glorious record.
+
+In the mythical days Boeotia played a prominent part. Of the two great
+centres of legends, Thebes with its Cadmean population figures as a
+military stronghold, and Orchomenus, the home of the Minyae, as an
+enterprising commercial city. The latter's prosperity is still attested
+by its archaeological remains (notably the "Treasury of Minyas") and the
+traces of artificial conduits by which its engineers supplemented the
+natural outlets. The "Boeotian" population seems to have entered the
+land from the north at a date probably anterior to the Dorian invasion.
+With the exception of the Minyae, the original peoples were soon
+absorbed by these immigrants, and the Boeotians henceforth appear as a
+homogeneous nation. In historical times the leading city of Boeotia was
+Thebes, whose central position and military strength made it a suitable
+capital. It was the constant ambition of the Thebans to absorb the other
+townships into a single state, just as Athens had annexed the Attic
+communities. But the outlying cities successfully resisted this policy,
+and only allowed the formation of a loose federation which in early
+times seems to have possessed a merely religious character. While the
+Boeotians, unlike the Arcadians, generally acted as a united whole
+against foreign enemies, the constant struggle between the forces of
+centralization and disruption perhaps went further than any other cause
+to check their development into a really powerful nation. Boeotia hardly
+figures in history before the late 6th century. Previous to this its
+people is chiefly known as the producer of a type of geometric pottery
+similar to the Dipylon ware of Athens. About 519 the resistance of
+Plataea to the federating policy of Thebes led to the interference of
+Athens on behalf of the former; on this occasion, and again in 507, the
+Athenians defeated the Boeotian levy. During the Persian invasion of
+480, while some of the cities fought whole-heartedly in the ranks of the
+patriots, Thebes assisted the invaders. For a time the presidency of the
+Boeotian League was taken away from Thebes, but in 457 the Spartans
+reinstated that city as a bulwark against Athenian aggression. Athens
+retaliated by a sudden advance upon Boeotia, and after the victory of
+Oenophyta brought under its power the whole country excepting the
+capital. For ten years the land remained under Athenian control, which
+was exercised through the newly installed democracies; but in 447 the
+oligarchic majority raised an insurrection, and after a victory at
+Coronea regained their freedom and restored the old constitutions. In
+the Peloponnesian War the Boeotians, embittered by the early conflicts
+round Plataea, fought zealously against Athens. Though slightly
+estranged from Sparta after the peace of Nicias, they never abated their
+enmity against their neighbours. They rendered good service at Syracuse
+and Arginusae; but their greatest achievement was the decisive victory
+at Delium over the flower of the Athenian army (424), in which both
+their heavy infantry and their cavalry displayed unusual efficiency.
+
+About this time the Boeotian League comprised eleven groups of sovereign
+cities and associated townships, each of which elected one Boeotarch or
+minister of war and foreign affairs, contributed sixty delegates to the
+federal council at Thebes, and supplied a contingent of about a thousand
+foot and a hundred horse to the federal army. A safeguard against undue
+encroachment on the part of the central government was provided in the
+councils of the individual cities, to which all important questions of
+policy had to be submitted for ratification. These local councils, to
+which the propertied classes alone were eligible, were subdivided into
+four sections, resembling the _prytaneis_ of the Athenian council, which
+took it in turns to take previous cognizance of all new measures.[1]
+
+Boeotia took a prominent part in the war of the Corinthian League
+against Sparta, especially at Haliartus and Coronea (395-394). This
+change of policy seems due mainly to the national resentment against
+foreign interference. Yet disaffection against Thebes was now growing
+rife, and Sparta fostered this feeling by stipulating for the complete
+independence of all the cities in the peace of Antalcidas (387). In 374
+Pelopidas restored the Theban dominion. Boeotian contingents fought in
+all the campaigns of Epaminondas, and in the later wars against Phocis
+(356-346); while in the dealings with Philip of Macedon the federal
+cities appear merely as the tools of Thebes. The federal constitution
+was also brought into accord with the democratic governments now
+prevalent throughout the land. The sovereign power was vested in the
+popular assembly, which elected the Boeotarchs (between seven and twelve
+in number), and sanctioned all laws. After the battle of Chaeroneia, in
+which the Boeotian heavy infantry once again distinguished itself, the
+land never rose again to prosperity. The destruction of Thebes by
+Alexander (335) seems to have paralysed the political energy of the
+Boeotians, though it led to an improvement in the federal constitution,
+by which each city received an equal vote. Henceforth they never pursued
+an independent policy, but followed the lead of protecting powers.
+Though the old military training and organization continued, the people
+proved unable to defend the frontiers, and the land became more than
+ever the "dancing-ground of Ares." Though enrolled for a short time in
+the Aetolian League (about 245 B.C.) Boeotia was generally loyal to
+Macedonia, and supported its later kings against Rome. In return for the
+excesses of the democracies Rome dissolved the league, which, however,
+was allowed to revive under Augustus, and merged with the other central
+Greek federations in the Achaean synod. The death-blow to the country's
+prosperity was given by the devastations during the first Mithradatic
+War.
+
+Save for a short period of prosperity under the Frankish rulers of
+Athens (1205-1310), who repaired the _katavothra_ and fostered
+agriculture, Boeotia long continued in a state of decay, aggravated by
+occasional barbarian incursions. The first step towards the country's
+recovery was not until 1895, when the outlets of Copais were again put
+into working order. Since then the northern plain has been largely
+reclaimed for agriculture, and the natural riches of the whole land are
+likely to develop under the influence of the railway to Athens. Boeotia
+is at present a Nomos with Livadia (the old Turkish capital) for its
+centre; the other surviving townships are quite unimportant. The
+population (65,816 in 1907) is largely Albanian.
+
+AUTHORITIES.--Thuc. iv. 76-101; Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iii.-vii.;
+Strabo, pp. 400-412; Pausanias ix.; Theopompus (or Cratippus) in the
+_Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, vol. v. (London, 1908), No. 842, col. 12; W.M.
+Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_, chs. xi.-xix. (London, 1835); H.F.
+Tozer, _Geography of Greece_ (London, 1873), pp. 233-238; W. Rhys
+Roberts, _The Ancient Boeotians_ (Cambridge, 1895); E.A. Freeman.
+_Federal Government_ (ed. 1893, London), ch. iv. S 2; B.V. Head,
+_Historia Numorum_, pp. 291 sqq. (Oxford, 1887); W. Larfeld, _Sylloge
+Inscriptionum Boeoticarum_ (Berlin, 1883). (See also THEBES.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Thucydides (v. 38), in speaking of the "four councils of the
+    Boeotians," is referring to the plenary bodies in the various states.
+
+
+
+
+BOER, the Dutch form of the Eng. "boor," in its original signification
+of husbandman (Ger. _Bauer_), a name given to the Dutch farmers of South
+Africa, and especially to the Dutch population of the Transvaal and
+Orange River States. (See SOUTH AFRICA and TRANSVAAL.)
+
+
+
+
+BOERHAAVE, HERMANN (1668-1738), Dutch physician and man of science, was
+born at Voorhout near Leiden on the 31st of December 1668. Entering the
+university of Leiden he took his degree in philosophy in 1689, with a
+dissertation _De distinctione mentis a corpore_, in which he attacked
+the doctrines of Epicurus, Hobbes and Spinoza. He then turned to the
+study of medicine, in which he graduated in 1693 at Harderwyck in
+Guelderland. In 1701 he was appointed lecturer on the institutes of
+medicine at Leiden; in his inaugural discourse, _De commendando
+Hippocratis studio_, he recommended to his pupils that great physician
+as their model. In 1709 he became professor of botany and medicine, and
+in that capacity he did good service, not only to his own university,
+but also to botanical science, by his improvements and additions to the
+botanic garden of Leiden, and by the publication of numerous works
+descriptive of new species of plants. In 1714, when he was appointed
+rector of the university, he succeeded Govert Bidloo (1649-1713) in the
+chair of practical medicine, and in this capacity he had the merit of
+introducing the modern system of clinical instruction. Four years later
+he was appointed also to the chair of chemistry. In 1728 he was elected
+into the French Academy of Sciences, and two years later into the Royal
+Society of London. In 1729 declining health obliged him to resign the
+chairs of chemistry and botany; and he died, after a lingering and
+painful illness, on the 23rd of September 1738 at Leiden. His genius so
+raised the fame of the university of Leiden, especially as a school of
+medicine, that it became a resort of strangers from every part of
+Europe. All the princes of Europe sent him disciples, who found in this
+skilful professor not only an indefatigable teacher, but an affectionate
+guardian. When Peter the Great went to Holland in 1715, to instruct
+himself in maritime affairs, he also took lessons from Boerhaave. His
+reputation was not confined to Europe; a Chinese mandarin wrote him a
+letter directed "To the illustrious Boerhaave, physician in Europe," and
+it reached him in due course.
+
+His principal works are--_Institutiones medicae_ (Leiden, 1708);
+_Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis morbis_ (Leiden, 1709), on which
+his pupil and assistant, Gerard van Swieten (1700-1772) published a
+commentary in 5 vols.; and _Elementa chemiae_ (Paris, 1724).
+
+
+
+
+BOETHUS, a sculptor of the Hellenistic age, a native of Carthage (or
+possibly Chalcedon). His date cannot be accurately fixed, but was
+probably the 2nd century B.C. He was noted for his representations of
+children, in dealing with whom earlier Greek art had not been very
+successful; and especially for a group representing a boy struggling
+with a goose, of which several copies survive in museums.
+
+
+
+
+BOETIUS (or BOETHIUS), ANICIUS MANLIUS SEVERINUS (c. A.D. 480-524),
+Roman philosopher and statesman, described by Gibbon as "the last of the
+Romans whom Cato or Tully could have acknowledged for their countryman."
+The historians of the day give us but imperfect records or make
+unsatisfactory allusions. Later chroniclers indulged in the fictitious
+and the marvellous, and it is almost exclusively from his own books that
+trustworthy information can be obtained. There is considerable diversity
+among authorities as to his name. One editor of his _De Consolatione_,
+Bertius, thinks that he bore the praenomen of Flavius, but there is no
+authority for this supposition. His father was Flavius Manlius Boetius,
+and it is probable that the Flavius Boetius, the praetorian prefect who
+was put to death in A.D. 455 by order of Valentinian III., was his
+grandfather, but these facts do not prove that he also had the praenomen
+of Flavius. Many of the earlier editions inserted the name of Torquatus,
+but it is not found in any of the best manuscripts. The last name is
+commonly written Boethius, from the idea that it is connected with the
+Greek [Greek: Boaethos]; but the best manuscripts agree in reading
+Boetius.
+
+His boyhood was spent in Rome during the reign of Odoacer. We know
+nothing of his early years. A passage in a treatise falsely ascribed to
+him (_De Disciplina Scholarium_) and a misinterpretation of a passage in
+Cassiodorus led early scholars to suppose that he spent some eighteen
+years in Athens pursuing his studies, but there is no foundation for
+this opinion. His father, consul in 487, seems to have died soon after;
+for Boetius states that, when he was bereaved of his parent, men of the
+highest rank took him under their charge (_De Con_. lib. ii. c. 3),
+especially the senator Q. Aur. Memmius Symmachus, whose daughter
+Rusticiana he married. By her he had two sons, Anicius Manlius Severinus
+Boetius and Q. Aurelius Memmius Symmachus. He became a favourite with
+Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, who ruled in Rome from 500, and was one of
+his intimate friends. Boetius was consul in 510, and his sons, while
+still young, held the same honour together (522). Boetius regarded it as
+the height of his good fortune when he witnessed his two sons, consuls
+at the same time, convoyed from their home to the senate-house amid the
+enthusiasm of the masses. On that day, he tells us, while his sons
+occupied the curule chairs in the senate-house, he himself had the
+honour of pronouncing a panegyric on the monarch. But his good fortune
+did not last, and he attributes the calamities that came upon him to the
+ill-will which his bold maintenance of justice had caused, and to his
+opposition to every oppressive measure. Of this he mentions particular
+cases. A famine had begun to rage. The prefect of the praetorium was
+determined to satisfy the soldiers, regardless altogether of the
+feelings of the provincials. He accordingly issued an edict for a
+_coemptio_, that is, an order compelling the provincials to sell their
+corn to the government, whether they would or not. This edict would have
+utterly ruined Campania. Boetius interfered. The case was brought before
+the king, and Boetius succeeded in averting the _coemptio_ from the
+Campanians. And he gives as a crowning instance that he exposed himself
+to the hatred of the informer Cyprianus by preventing the punishment of
+Albinus, a man of consular rank. He mentions in another place that when
+at Verona the king was anxious to transfer the accusation of treason
+brought against Albinus to the whole senate, he defended the senate at
+great risk. In consequence of the ill-will that Boetius had thus roused,
+he was accused of treason towards the end of the reign of Theodoric. The
+charges were that he had conspired against the king, that he was anxious
+to maintain the integrity of the senate, and to restore Rome to liberty,
+and that for this purpose he had written to the emperor Justin. Justin
+had, no doubt, special reasons for wishing to see an end to the reign of
+Theodoric. Justin was orthodox, Theodoric was an Arian. The orthodox
+subjects of Theodoric were suspicious of their ruler; and many would
+gladly have joined in a plot to displace him. The knowledge of this fact
+may have rendered Theodoric suspicious. But Boetius denied the
+accusation in unequivocal terms. He did indeed wish the integrity of the
+senate. He would fain have desired liberty, but all hope of it was gone.
+The letters addressed by him to Justin were forgeries, and he had not
+been guilty of any conspiracy. Notwithstanding his innocence he was
+condemned and sent to Ticinum (Pavia) where he was thrown into prison.
+It was during his confinement in this prison that he wrote his famous
+work _De Consolatione Philosophiae_. His goods were confiscated, and
+after an imprisonment of considerable duration he was put to death in
+524. Procopius relates that Theodoric soon repented of his cruel deed,
+and that his death, which took place soon after, was hastened by remorse
+for the crime he had committed against his great counsellor.
+
+Two or three centuries after the death of Boetius writers began to view
+his death as a martyrdom. Several Christian books were ascribed to him,
+and there was one especially on the Trinity (see below) which was
+regarded as proof that he had taken an active part against the heresy of
+Theodoric. It was therefore for his orthodoxy that Boetius was put to
+death. And these writers delight to paint with minuteness the horrible
+tortures to which he was exposed and the marvellous actions which the
+saint performed at his death. He was locally regarded as a saint, but he
+was not canonized. The brick tower in Pavia in which he was confined
+was, and still is, an object of reverence to the country people.
+Finally, in the year 996, Otho III. ordered the bones of Boetius to be
+taken out of the place in which they had lain hid, and to be placed in
+the church of S. Pietro in Ciel d'Oro within a splendid tomb, for which
+Gerbert, afterwards Pope Silvester II., wrote an inscription. Thence
+they were subsequently removed to a tomb beneath the high altar of the
+cathedral. It should be mentioned also that some have given him a
+decidedly Christian wife, of the name of Elpis, who wrote hymns, two of
+which are still extant (Daniel, _Thes. Hymn._ i. p. 156). This is a pure
+supposition inconsistent with chronology, and based only on a
+misinterpretation of a passage in the _De Consolatione_.
+
+The contemporaries of Boetius regarded him as a man of profound
+learning. Priscian the grammarian speaks of him as having attained the
+summit of honesty and of all sciences. Cassiodorus, _magister
+officiorum_ under Theodoric and the intimate acquaintance of the
+philosopher, employs language equally strong, and Ennodius, the bishop
+of Pavia, knows no bounds for his admiration. Theodoric had a profound
+respect for his scientific abilities. He employed him in setting right
+the coinage. When he visited Rome with Gunibald, king of the
+Burgundians, he took him to Boetius, who showed them, amongst other
+mechanical contrivances, a sun-dial and a water-clock. The foreign
+monarch was astonished, and, at the request of Theodoric, Boetius had to
+prepare others of a similar nature, which were sent as presents to
+Gunibald.
+
+The fame of Boetius increased after his death, and his influence during
+the middle ages was exceedingly powerful. His circumstances peculiarly
+favoured this influence. He appeared at a time when contempt for
+intellectual pursuits had begun to pervade society. In his early years
+he was seized with a passionate enthusiasm for Greek literature, and
+this continued through life. Even amidst the cares of the consulship he
+found time for commenting on the _Categories_ of Aristotle. The idea
+laid hold of him of reviving the spirit of his countrymen by imbuing
+them with the thoughts of the great Greek writers. He formed the
+resolution to translate all the works of Aristotle and all the dialogues
+of Plato, and to reconcile the philosophy of Plato with that of
+Aristotle. He did not succeed in all that he designed; but he did a
+great part of his work. He translated into Latin Aristotle's _Analytica
+Priora et Posteriora_, the _Topica_, and _Elenchi Sophistici_; and he
+wrote commentaries on Aristotle's _Categories_, on his book
+[Greek: peri ermaeneias], also a commentary on the _Isagoge_ of
+Porphyrius. These works formed to a large extent the source from which
+the middle ages derived their knowledge of Aristotle. (See Stahr,
+_Aristoteles bei den Romern_, pp. 196-234.) Boetius wrote also a
+commentary on the _Topica_ of Cicero; and he was also the author of
+independent works on logic:--_Introductio ad Categoricos Syllogismos_,
+in one book; _De Syllogismis Categoricis_, in two books; _De Syllogismis
+Hypotheticis_, in two books; _De Divisione_, in one book; _De
+Definitione_, in one book; _De Differentiis Topicis_, in four books.
+
+We see from a statement of Cassiodorus that he furnished manuals for the
+quadrivium of the schools of the middle ages (the "quattuor matheseos
+disciplinae," as Boetius calls them) on arithmetic, music, geometry and
+astronomy. The statement of Cassiodorus that he translated Nicomachus is
+rhetorical. Boetius himself tells us in his preface addressed to his
+father-in-law Symmachus that he had taken liberties with the text of
+Nicomachus, that he had abridged the work when necessary, and that he
+had introduced formulae and diagrams of his own where he thought them
+useful for bringing out the meaning. His work on music also is not a
+translation from Pythagoras, who left no writing behind him. But Boetius
+belonged to the school of musical writers who based their science on the
+method of Pythagoras. They thought that it was not sufficient to trust
+to the ear alone, to determine the principles of music, as did practical
+musicians like Aristoxenus, but that along with the ear, physical
+experiments should be employed. The work of Boetius is in five books and
+is a very complete exposition of the subject. It long remained a
+text-book of music in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. It is
+still very valuable as a help in ascertaining the principles of ancient
+music, and gives us the opinions of some of the best ancient writers on
+the art. The manuscripts of the geometry of Boetius differ widely from
+each other. One editor, Godofredus Friedlein, thinks that there are only
+two manuscripts which can at all lay claim to contain the work of
+Boetius. He published the _Ars Geometriae_, in two books, as given in
+these manuscripts; but critics are generally inclined to doubt the
+genuineness even of these. Professor Rand, Georgius Ernst and A.P.
+McKinlay regard the _Ars_ as certainly inauthentic, while they accept
+the _Interpretatio Euclidis_ (see works quoted in bibliography).
+
+By far the most important and most famous of the works of Boetius is
+his book _De Consolatione Philosophiae_. Gibbon justly describes it as
+"a golden volume, not unworthy of the leisure of Plato or Tully, but
+which claims incomparable merit from the barbarism of the times and the
+situation of the author." The high reputation it had in medieval times
+is attested by the numerous translations, commentaries and imitations of
+it which then appeared. Among others Asser, the instructor of Alfred the
+Great, and Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, commented on it.
+Alfred translated it into Anglo-Saxon. Versions of it appeared in
+German, French, Italian, Spanish and Greek before the end of the 15th
+century. Chaucer translated it into English prose before the year 1382;
+and this translation was published by Caxton at Westminster, 1480.
+Lydgate followed in the wake of Chaucer. It is said that, after the
+invention of printing, amongst others Queen Elizabeth translated it, and
+that the work was well known to Shakespeare. It was the basis of the
+earliest specimen of Provencal literature.
+
+  This famous work consists of five books. Its form is peculiar, and is
+  an imitation of a similar work by Marcianus Capella, _De Nuptiis
+  Philologiae et Mercurii_. It is alternately in prose and verse. The
+  verse shows great facility of metrical composition, but a considerable
+  portion of it is transferred from the tragedies of Seneca. The first
+  book opens with a few verses, in which Boetius describes how his
+  sorrows had brought him to a premature old age. As he is thus
+  lamenting, a woman appears to him of dignified mien, whom he
+  recognizes as his guardian, Philosophy. She, resolving to apply the
+  remedy for his grief, questions him for that purpose. She finds that
+  he believes that God rules the world, but does not know what he
+  himself is; and this absence of self-knowledge is the cause of his
+  weakness. In the second book Philosophy presents to Boetius Fortune,
+  who is made to state to him the blessings he has enjoyed, and after
+  that proceeds to discuss with him the kind of blessings that fortune
+  can bestow, which are shown to be unsatisfactory and uncertain. In the
+  third book Philosophy promises to lead him to true happiness, which is
+  to be found in God alone, for since God is the highest good, and the
+  highest good is true happiness, God is true happiness. Nor can real
+  evil exist, for since God is all-powerful, and since he does not wish
+  evil, evil must be non-existent. In the fourth book Boetius raises the
+  question, Why, if the governor of the universe is good, do evils
+  exist, and why is virtue often punished and vice rewarded? Philosophy
+  proceeds to show that in fact vice is never unpunished nor virtue
+  unrewarded. From this Philosophy passes into a discussion in regard to
+  the nature of providence and fate, and shows that every fortune is
+  good. The fifth and last book takes up the question of man's free will
+  and God's foreknowledge, and, by an exposition of the nature of God,
+  attempts to show that these doctrines are not subversive of each
+  other; and the conclusion is drawn that God remains a foreknowing
+  spectator of all events, and the ever-present eternity of his vision
+  agrees with the future quality of our actions, dispensing rewards to
+  the good and punishments to the wicked.
+
+  Several theological works have been ascribed to Boetius, as has been
+  already mentioned. The _Consolatio_ affords conclusive proof that the
+  author was not a practical believer in Christianity. The book contains
+  expressions such as _daemones_, _angelica virtus_, and _purgatoria
+  dementia_, which have been thought to be derived from the Christian
+  faith; but they are used in a heathen sense, and are explained
+  sufficiently by the circumstance that Boetius was on intimate terms
+  with Christians. The writer nowhere finds consolation in any Christian
+  belief, and Christ is never named in the work. It is not impossible,
+  however, that Boetius may have been brought up a Christian, and that
+  in his early years he may have written some Christian books. Peiper
+  thinks that the first three treatises are the productions of the early
+  years of Boetius. The first, _De Sancta Trinitate_, is addressed to
+  Symmachus (Domino Patri Symmacho), and the result of the short
+  discussion, which is of an abstract nature, and deals partly with the
+  ten categories, is that unity is predicated absolutely, or, in regard
+  to the substance of the Deity, trinity is predicated relatively. The
+  second treatise is addressed to John the deacon ("Ad Joannem
+  Diaconum"), and its subject is "Utrum Pater et Filius et Spiritus
+  Sanctus de divinitate substantialiter praedicentur." This treatise is
+  shorter than the first, occupying only two or three pages, and the
+  conclusion of the argument is the same. The third treatise bears the
+  title, _Quomodo substantiae in eo quod sint bonae sint cum non sint
+  substantialia bona_. It contains nothing distinctly Christian, and it
+  contains nothing of great value; therefore its authorship is a matter
+  of little consequence. Peiper thinks that, as the best MSS. uniformly
+  assign these treatises to Boetius, they are to be regarded as his;
+  that it is probable that Symmachus and John (who afterwards became
+  Pope) were the men of highest distinction who took charge of him when
+  he lost his father; and that these treatises are the first-fruits of
+  his studies, which he dedicates to his guardians and benefactors. He
+  thinks that the variations in the inscriptions of the fifth treatise
+  which is not found in the best manuscript, are so great that the name
+  of Boetius could not have originally been in the title. The fourth
+  book is also not found in the best manuscript, and two manuscripts
+  have no inscription. He infers, from these facts, that there is no
+  sure evidence for the authorship of the fourth and fifth treatises.
+  The fifth treatise is _Contra Eutychen et Nestorium_. Both Eutyches
+  and Nestorius are spoken of as living. A council is mentioned, in
+  which a letter was read, expounding the opinion of the Eutychians for
+  the first time. The novelty of the opinion is also alluded to. All
+  these circumstances point to the council of Chalcedon (451). The
+  treatise was therefore written before the birth of Boetius, if it be
+  not a forgery; but there is no reason to suppose that the treatise was
+  not a genuine production of the time to which it professes to belong.
+  The fourth treatise, _De Fide Catholica_, does not contain any
+  distinct chronological data; but the tone and opinions of the treatise
+  produce the impression that it probably belonged to the same period as
+  the treatise against Eutyches and Nestorius. Several inscriptions
+  ascribe both these treatises to Boetius. It will be seen from this
+  statement that Peiper bases his conclusions on grounds far too narrow;
+  and on the whole it is perhaps more probable that Boetius wrote none
+  of the four Christian treatises, particularly as they are not ascribed
+  to him by any of his contemporaries. Three of them express in the
+  strongest language the orthodox faith of the church in opposition to
+  the Arian heresy, and these three put in unmistakable language the
+  procession of the Holy Spirit from both Father and Son. The fourth
+  argues for the orthodox belief of the two natures and one person of
+  Christ. When the desire arose that it should be believed that Boetius
+  perished from his opposition to the heresy of Theodoric, it was
+  natural to ascribe to him works which were in harmony with this
+  supposed fact. The works may really have been written by one Boetius,
+  a bishop of Africa, as Jourdain supposes, or by some Saint Severinus,
+  as Nitzsch conjectures, and the similarity of name may have aided the
+  transference of them to the heathen or neutral Boetius.
+
+  Important and, if genuine, decisive evidence upon this point is
+  afforded by a passage in the _Anecdoton Holderi_, a fragment contained
+  in a 10th-century MS. (ed. H. Usener, Leipzig, 1877). The fragment
+  gives an extract from a previously unknown letter of Cassiodorus, the
+  important words being "Scripsit (i.e. Boetius) librum de sancta
+  trinitate, et capita quaedam dogmatica, et librum contra Nestorium."
+  Nitzsch, however, held that this was a copyist's gloss, harmonizing
+  with the received Boetius legend, which had been transferred to the
+  text, and did not consider that it outweighed the opposing internal
+  evidence from _De Cons. Phil._
+
+  EDITIONS.--The first collected edition of the works of Boetius was
+  published at Venice in 1492 (Basel, 1570); the last in J.P. Migne's
+  _Patrologia_, lxiii., lxiv. (Paris, 1847). Of the numerous editions of
+  the _De Consolatione_ the best are those of Theodorus Obbarius (Jena,
+  1843) and R. Peiper (Leipzig, 1871). The first contains prolegomena on
+  the life and writings of Boetius, on his religion and philosophy, and
+  on the manuscripts and editions, a critical apparatus, and notes. The
+  text of the second was based on the fullest collation of MSS. up to
+  that time, though a considerable number of MSS. still remained to be
+  collated. In addition to an account of the MSS. used, it gives the
+  Book of Lupus, "De Metris Boetii," the "Vita Boetii" contained in some
+  MSS., "Elogia Boetii," and a short list of the commentators,
+  translators and imitators of the _Consolatio_. It contains also an
+  account of the metres used by Boetius in the _Consolatio_, and a list
+  of the passages which he has borrowed from the tragedies of Seneca.
+  The work also includes the five treatises, four of them Christian, of
+  which mention has been made above. King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version
+  of the _De Consolatione_, with literal English translation, notes and
+  glossary, was published by S. Fox (1835) and again by W.J. Sedgefield
+  (1900); that of G. Colville (Colvile, Coldewel, 1556) was republished
+  by E.B. Bax (1897); translation (mixed prose and verse) by H.R. James
+  (1897). Queen Elizabeth's "Englishings" was reprinted in 1899; on the
+  style, see A. Engelbrecht in _Sitzungsber. der Wiener Akad. der
+  Wissenschaften_ (1902), pp. 15-36. The _De Institutione Arithmetica,
+  De Institutione Musica_, and the doubtful _Geometria_ (for which see
+  G. Ernst, _De Geometricis illis quae sub Boethii nomine nobis tradita
+  sunt quaestiones_, 1903; A.P. McKinlay in _Harvard Classical Studies_,
+  1907; M. Cantor, _Geschichte der Mathematik_, i., Leipzig, 1894; G.
+  Friedlein, _Gerbert, die Geometric des Boethius, und die indischen
+  Ziffern_, Erlangen, 1861, are edited by G. Friedlein (Leipzig, 1867);
+  German translation of the _De Musica_, with explanatory notes, by O.
+  Paul (Leipzig, 1872), and on the sources W. Miekley, _De Boethii libri
+  de musica primi fontibus_ (Jena, 1899). Commentary on Aristotle's _De
+  Interpretatione_ [Greek: peri hermaeneias]), ed. C. Meiser (Leipzig,
+  1877), and on Porphyry's _Isagoge_, ed. S. Brandt (Vienna, 1906).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--On Boetius generally, see J.G. Sutterer, _Der letzte
+  Romer_ (Eichstadt, 1852); H. Usener, _Anecdoton Holderi_ (Leipzig,
+  1877); H.F. Stewart, _Boethius: an Essay_ (Edinburgh, 1891); T.
+  Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, iii. bk. iv. ch. xii. (1896); A.
+  Ebert, _Allgemeine Geschichte der Litt. des Mittelalters_, i. (1889);
+  Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng. trans., 1900),
+  S478: on the date and order of his works, S. Brandt in _Philologus_,
+  lxii. pp. 141-154, 234-279, and A.P. McKinlay, as above, with refs.:
+  on his "Songs," H. Huttinger, _Studia in Boetii carmina collata_
+  (Regensburg, 1900): on his style, G. Bednarz, _De universo orationis
+  colore Boethii_ (Breslau, 1883): on his theological attitude and
+  works, F.A.B. Nitzsch, _Das System des Boethius und die ihm
+  zugeschriebenen theologischen Schriften_ (Berlin, 1860), and art. in
+  Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1897); C. Jourdain, _De l'Origine
+  des traditions sur le christianisme de Boece_ (1861); Gaston Boissier,
+  "Le Christianisme de Boece," in _Journal des Savants_ (1889), pp.
+  449-462; A. Hildebrand, _Boethius und seine Stellung zum Christentume_
+  (Regensburg, 1885); G. Schepps, "Zu Pseudo-Boethius de fide
+  catholica," in _Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Theologie_, xxxviii.
+  (1895).
+
+
+
+
+BOG (from Ir. and Gael, _bogach, bog_, soft), a tract of soft, spongy,
+water-logged ground, composed of vegetation, chiefly mosses, in various
+stages of decomposition. This vegetable matter when partially decomposed
+forms the substance known as "peat" (q.v.). When the accumulation of
+water is rapidly increased by excessive rainfall, there is a danger of a
+"bog-slide," or "bog-burst," which may obliterate the neighbouring
+cultivated land with a deposit of the contents of the bog. Destructive
+bog-slides have occurred in Ireland, such as that of the Knocknageeha
+Bog, Rathmore, Kerry, in 1896, at Castlerea, Roscommon, 1901, and at
+Kilmore, Galway, 1909.
+
+There is a French game of cards called "bog," said to be of Italian
+origin, played with a piquet pack on a table with six divisions, one of
+which is known by the name of the game and forms the pool. It was
+fashionable during the Second Empire.
+
+
+
+
+BOGATZKY, KARL HEINRICH VON (1690-1774), German hymn-writer, was born at
+Jankowe in Lower Silesia on the 7th of September 1690. At first a page
+at the ducal court of Saxe-Weissenfels, he next studied law and theology
+at Jena and Halle; but ill-health preventing his preferment he settled
+at Glancha in Silesia, where he founded an orphanage. After living for a
+time at Kostritz, and from 1740 to 1745 at the court of Christian Ernst,
+duke of Saxe-Coburg, at Saalfeld, he made his home at the Waisenhaus
+(orphanage) at Halle, where he engaged in spiritual work and in
+composing hymns and sacred songs, until his death on the 15th of June
+1774. Bogatzky's chief works are _Guldenes Schatzkastlein der Kinder
+Gottes_ (1718), which has reached more than sixty editions; and _Ubung
+der Gottseligkeit in allerlei geistlichen Liedern_ (1750).
+
+  See Bogatzky's autobiography--_Lebenslauf von ihm selbst geschrieben_
+  (Halle, 1801; new ed., Berlin, 1872); and Ledderhose, _Das Leben
+  Bogatzky's_ (Heidelberg, 1846); also Kelly, _C.H. von Bogatzky's Life
+  and Work_ (London, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+BOGHAZ KEUI, a small village in Asia Minor, north-west of Yuzgat in the
+Angora vilayet, remarkable for the ruins and rock-sculptures in its
+vicinity. The ruins are those of a ruling city of the oriental type
+which flourished in the pre-Greek period; and they are generally
+identified with Pteria (q.v.), a place taken by Croesus after he had
+crossed the Halys (Herodotus i. 76).
+
+
+
+
+BOGIE, a northern English dialect word of unknown origin, applied to a
+kind of low truck or "trolly." In railway engineering it is applied to
+an under-truck, most frequently with four wheels, which is often
+provided at one end of a locomotive or both ends of a carriage. It is
+pivoted or swivelled on the main frames, so that it can turn relatively
+to the body of the vehicle or engine, and thus it enables the wheels
+readily to follow the curves of the line. It has no connexion with the
+series of words, such as "bogey" or "bogy," "bogle," "boggle," "bogart"
+(in Shakespeare "bug," "bugs and goblins"), which are probably connected
+with the Welsh _bwg_, a spectre; hence the verb to "boggle," properly
+applied to a horse which shies at supposed spectres, and so meaning to
+hesitate, bungle.
+
+
+
+
+BOGNOR, a seaside resort in the Chichester parliamentary division of
+Sussex, England, 66 m. S.S.W. from London by the London, Brighton &
+South Coast railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6180. Besides the
+parish church there is a Roman Catholic priory and church. The town
+possesses a pier and promenade, a theatre, assembly rooms, and numerous
+convalescent homes, including an establishment belonging to the Merchant
+Taylors' Company. The church of the mother parish of South Bersted is
+Norman and Early English, and retains a fresco of the 16th century.
+
+
+
+
+BOGO, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine
+Islands, on Bogo Bay at the mouth of the Bulac river, in the north-east
+part of the island. Pop. (1903) 14,915. The climate is hot but healthy.
+The surrounding country is fertile, producing sugar, Indian corn, and
+maguay in abundance; rice, cacao and fruits are also produced. Hats,
+baskets, cloths and rope are woven and are exported to a limited extent;
+small quantities of copra are also exported. The fisheries are of
+considerable local importance. The language is Cebu-Visayan.
+
+
+
+
+BOGODUKHOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov, 45 m. by
+rail N.W. of the city of that name, in 49 deg. 58' N. lat. and 36 deg.
+9' E. long., was formerly fortified. Pop. (1860) 10,522; (1897) 11,928.
+There seems to have been a settlement on this site as early as 1571. In
+1709, at the time of the Russo-Swedish War, Bogodukhov was taken by
+Menshikov and the emperor Alexius. It contains a cathedral, built in
+1793. Boots, caps and furred gowns are manufactured, and gardening and
+tanning are carried on. The trade is principally in grain, cattle and
+fish.
+
+
+
+
+BOGOMILS, the name of an ancient religious community which had its
+origin in Bulgaria. It is difficult to ascertain whether the name was
+taken from the reputed founder of that sect, a certain pope Bogumil or
+Bogomil, or whether he assumed that name after it had been given to the
+whole sect. The word is a direct translation into Slavonic of
+_Massaliani_, the Syrian name of the sect corresponding to the Greek
+Euchites. The Bogomils are identified with the Massaliani in Slavonic
+documents of the 13th century. They are also known as _Pavlikeni_, i.e.
+Paulicians. It is a complicated task to determine the true character and
+the tenets of any ancient sect, considering that almost all the
+information that has reached us has come from the opponents. The
+heretical literature has to a great extent either perished or been
+completely changed; but much has also survived in a modified written
+form or through oral tradition. Concerning the Bogomils something can be
+gathered from the information collected by Euthymius Zygadenus in the
+12th century, and from the polemic _Against the Heretics_ written in
+Slavonic by St Kozma during the 10th century. The old Slavonic lists of
+forbidden books of the 15th and 16th centuries also give us a clue to
+the discovery of this heretical literature and of the means the Bogomils
+employed to carry on their propaganda. Much may also be learnt from the
+doctrines of the numerous heretical sects which arose in Russia after
+the 11th century.
+
+The Bogomils were without doubt the connecting link between the
+so-called heretical sects of the East and those of the West. They were,
+moreover, the most active agents in disseminating such teachings in
+Russia and among all the nations of Europe. They may have found in some
+places a soil already prepared by more ancient tenets which had been
+preserved in spite of the persecution of the official Church, and handed
+down from the period of primitive Christianity. In the 12th and 13th
+centuries the Bogomils were already known in the West as "Bulgari." In
+1207 the _Bulgarornm heresis_ is mentioned. In 1223 the Albigenses are
+declared to be the local _Bougres_, and at the same period mention is
+made of the "Pope of the Albigenses who resided within the confines of
+Bulgaria." The Cathars and Patarenes, the Waldenses, the Anabaptists,
+and in Russia the Strigolniki, Molokani and Dukhobortsi, have all at
+different times been either identified with the Bogomils or closely
+connected with them.
+
+_Doctrine._--From the imperfect and conflicting data which are alone
+available one positive result can be gathered, viz. that the Bogomils
+were both Adoptionists and Manichaeans. They had accepted the teaching
+of Paul of Samosata, though at a later period the name of Paul was
+believed to be that of the Apostle; and they were not quite free from
+the Dualistic principle of the Gnostics, at a later period too much
+identified with the teaching of Mani. They rejected the pneumatic
+Christianity of the orthodox churches and did not accept the docetic
+teaching of some of the other sects. Taking as our starting-point the
+teaching of the heretical sects in Russia, notably those of the 14th
+century, which are a direct continuation of the doctrines held by the
+Bogomils, we find that they denied the divine birth of Christ, the
+personal coexistence of the Son with the Father and Holy Ghost, and the
+validity of sacraments and ceremonies. The miracles performed by Jesus
+were interpreted in a spiritual sense, not as real material occurrences;
+the Church was the interior spiritual church in which all held equal
+share. Baptism was only to be practised on grown men and women. The
+Bogomils repudiated infant baptism, and considered the baptismal rite to
+be of a spiritual character neither by water nor by oil but by
+self-abnegation, prayers and chanting of hymns. Carp Strigolnik, who in
+the 14th century preached this doctrine in Novgorod, explained that St
+Paul had taught that simple-minded men should instruct one another;
+therefore they elected their "teachers" from among themselves to be
+their spiritual guides, and had no special priests. Prayers were to be
+said in private houses, not in separate buildings such as churches.
+Ordination was conferred by the congregation and not by any specially
+appointed minister. The congregation were the "elect," and each member
+could obtain the perfection of Christ and become a Christ or "Chlist."
+Marriage was not a sacrament. The Bogomils refused to fast on Mondays
+and Fridays. They rejected monachism. They declared Christ to be the Son
+of God only through grace like other prophets, and that the bread and
+wine of the eucharist were not transformed into flesh and blood; that
+the last judgment would be executed by God and not by Jesus; that the
+images and the cross were idols and the worship of saints and relics
+idolatry.
+
+These Paulician doctrines have survived in the great Russian sects, and
+can be traced back to the teachings and practice of the Bogomils. But in
+addition to these doctrines of an adoptionist origin, they held the
+Manichaean dualistic conception of the origin of the world. This has
+been partly preserved in some of their literary remains, and has taken
+deep root in the beliefs and traditions of the Bulgarians and other
+nations with whom they had come into close contact. The chief literature
+of all the heretical sects throughout the ages has been that of
+apocryphal Biblical narratives, and the popes Jeremiah or Bogumil are
+directly mentioned as authors of such forbidden books "which no orthodox
+dare read." Though these writings are mostly the same in origin as are
+known from the older lists of apocryphal books, they underwent in this
+case a certain modification at the hands of their Bogomil editors, so as
+to be used for the propagation of their own specific doctrines. In its
+most simple and attractive form--one at the same time invested with the
+authority of the reputed holy author--their account of the creation of
+the world and of man; the origin of sin and redemption, the history of
+the Cross, and the disputes between body and soul, right and wrong,
+heaven and hell, were embodied either in "Historiated Bibles"
+(Paleya[1]) or in special dialogues held between Christ and his
+disciples, or between renowned Fathers of the Church who expounded these
+views in a simple manner adapted to the understanding of the people
+(Lucidaria). The Bogomils taught that God had two sons, the elder
+Satanail and the younger Michael. The elder son rebelled against the
+father and became the evil spirit. After his fall he created the lower
+heavens and the earth and tried in vain to create man; in the end he had
+to appeal to God for the Spirit. After creation Adam was allowed to till
+the ground on condition that he sold himself and his posterity to the
+owner of the earth. Then Michael was sent in the form of a man; he
+became identified with Jesus, and was "elected" by God after the baptism
+in the Jordan. When the Holy Ghost (Michael) appeared in the shape of
+the dove, Jesus received power to break the covenant in the form of a
+clay tablet (_hierographon_) held by Satanail from Adam. He had now
+become the angel Michael in a human form; as such he vanquished
+Satanail, and deprived him of the termination _-il_ = God, in which his
+power resided. Satanail was thus transformed into Satan. Through his
+machinations the crucifixion took place, and Satan was the originator of
+the whole Orthodox community with its churches, vestments, ceremonies,
+sacraments and fasts, with its monks and priests. This world being the
+work of Satan, the perfect must eschew any and every excess of its
+pleasure. But the Bogomils did not go as far as to recommend asceticism.
+They held the "Lord's Prayer" in high respect as the most potent weapon
+against Satan, and had a number of conjurations against "evil spirits."
+Each community had its own twelve "apostles," and women could be raised
+to the rank of "elect." The Bogomils wore garments like mendicant friars
+and were known as keen missionaries, travelling far and wide to
+propagate their doctrines. Healing the sick and conjuring the evil
+spirit, they traversed different countries and spread their apocryphal
+literature along with some of the books of the Old Testament, deeply
+influencing the religious spirit of the nations, and preparing them for
+the Reformation. They sowed the seeds of a rich religious popular
+literature in the East as well as in the West. The Historiated Bible,
+the Letter from Heaven, the Wanderings through Heaven and Hell, the
+numerous Adam and Cross legends, the religious poems of the "Kaleki
+perehozhie" and other similar productions owe their dissemination to a
+large extent to the activity of the Bogomils of Bulgaria, and their
+successors in other lands.
+
+_History._--The Bogomil propaganda follows the mountain chains of
+central Europe, starting from the Balkans and continuing along the
+Carpathian Mountains, the Alps and the Pyrenees, with ramifications
+north and south (Germany, England and Spain). In the middle of the 8th
+century the emperor Constantine Copronymus settled a number of Armenian
+Paulicians in Thracia. These were noted heretics and were persecuted by
+the Greek Church with fire and sword. The empress Theodora killed,
+drowned or hanged no fewer than 100,000. In the 10th century the emperor
+John Zimisces, himself of Armenian origin, transplanted no less than
+200,000 Armenian Paulicians to Europe and settled them in the
+neighbourhood of Philippopolis, which henceforth became the centre of a
+far-reaching propaganda. Settled along the Balkans as a kind of bulwark
+against the invading Bulgars, the Armenians on the contrary soon
+fraternized with the newcomers, whom they converted to their own views;
+even a prince of the Bulgarians adopted their teaching. According to
+Slavonic documents the founder of this sect was a certain priest
+Bogumil, who "imbibed the Manichaean teaching and flourished at the time
+of the Bulgarian emperor Peter" (927-968). According to another source
+the founder was called Jeremiah (or there was another priest associated
+with him by the name of Jeremiah). The Slavonic sources are unanimous on
+the point that his teaching was Manichaean. A Synodikon from the year
+1210 adds the names of his pupils or "apostles," Mihail, Todur, Dobri,
+Stefan, Vasilie and Peter, all thoroughly Slavonic names. Zealous
+missionaries carried their doctrines far and wide. In 1004, scarcely 15
+years after the introduction of Christianity into Russia, we hear of a
+priest Adrian teaching the same doctrines as the Bogomils. He was
+imprisoned by Leontie, bishop of Kiev. In 1125 the Church in the south
+of Russia had to combat another heresiarch named Dmitri. The Church in
+Bulgaria also tried to extirpate Bogomilism. The popes in Rome whilst
+leading the Crusade against the Albigenses did not forget their
+counterpart in the Balkans and recommended the annihilation of the
+heretics.
+
+The Bogomils spread westwards, and settled first in Servia; but at the
+end of the 12th century Stephen Nemanya, king of Servia, persecuted them
+and expelled them from the country. Large numbers took refuge in Bosnia,
+where they were known under the name of Patarenes (q.v.) or Patareni.
+From Bosnia their influence extended into Italy (Piedmont). The
+Hungarians undertook many crusades against the heretics in Bosnia, but
+towards the close of the 15th century the conquest of that country by
+the Turks put an end to their persecution. It is alleged that a large
+number of the Bosnian Paterenes, and especially the nobles, embraced
+Islam (see BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA: _History_). Few or no remnants of
+Bogomilism have survived in Bosnia. The Ritual in Slavonic written by
+the Bosnian Radoslavov, and published in vol. xv. of the _Starine_ of
+the South Slavonic Academy at Agram, shows great resemblance to the
+Cathar ritual published by Cunitz, 1853. See F. Racki, "Bogomili i
+Paternai" in _Rad_, vols. vii., viii. and x. (Agram, 1870); Dollinger,
+_Beitrage zur Ketzergeschichte d. Mittelalters_, 2 vols. (Munich, 1890).
+
+Under Turkish rule the Bogomils lived unmolested as _Pavlikeni_ in
+their ancient stronghold near Philippopolis, and farther northward. In
+1650 the Roman Catholic Church gathered them into its fold. No less than
+fourteen villages near Nicopolis embraced Catholicism, and a colony of
+_Pavlikeni_ in the village of Cioplea near Bucharest followed the
+example of their brethren across the Danube.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Euthymius Zygadenus, _Narratio de Bogomilis_, ed.
+  Gieseler (Gottingen, 1842); J.C. Wolf, _Historia Bogomilorum_
+  (Wittenberg, 1712); "Slovo svyatago Kozmyi na eretiki," in Kukuljevic
+  Sakcinski, _Arkiv zapovyestnicu jugoslavensku_, vol. iv. pp. 69-97
+  (Agram, 1859); C.J. Jirecek, _Geschichte d. Bulgaren_, pp. 155,
+  174-175 (Prague, 1876); Korolev, "Dogmatichesko-to uchenie na
+  Bogomil-tie," in _Periodichesko spisanie_, vols. vii.-viii. pp. 75-106
+  (Braila, 1873); A. Lombard, _Pauliciens, Bulgares et Bons-hommes_
+  (Geneva, 1879); Episcopul Melchisedek, _Lipovenismul_, pp. 265 sqq.
+  (Bucharest, 1871); B.P. Hasdeu, _Cuvente den batrani_, vol. ii. pp.
+  247 sqq. (Bucharest, 1879); F.C. Conybeare, _The Key of Truth_, pp. 73
+  sqq. and specially pp. 138 sqq. (Oxford, 1898); M. Gaster,
+  _Greeko-Slavonic Literature_, pp. 17 sqq. (London, 1887); O.
+  Dahnhardt, _Natursagen_, vol. i. pp. 38 sqq. (Leipzig and Berlin,
+  1907).     (M. G.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] These betray their Gnostic (Marcianite) spirit by the anti-Jewish
+    tone of the oldest MSS. extant, though this prejudice tends to
+    decrease in later MSS.
+
+
+
+
+BOGORODSK, a town of central Russia, in the government of Moscow, and 38
+m. by rail E.N.E. of the city of Moscow, on the Klyazma. It has woollen,
+cotton and silk mills, chemical factories and dye-works, and is famous
+for its gold brocade. Pop. (1897) 11,210.
+
+
+
+
+BOGOS (BILENS), a pastoral race of mixed Hamitic descent, occupying the
+highlands immediately north of Abyssinia, now part of the Italian colony
+of Eritrea. They were formerly a self-governing community, though
+subject to Abyssinia. The community is divided into two classes, the
+_Shumaglieh_ or "elders" and _Tigre_ or "clients." The latter are serfs
+of the former, who, however, cannot sell them. The Tigre goes with the
+land, and his master must protect him. In blood-money he is worth
+another Tigre or ninety-three cows, while an elder's life is valued at
+one hundred and fifty-eight cattle or one of his own caste. The eldest
+son of a Shumaglieh inherits his father's two-edged sword, white cows,
+lands and slaves, but the house goes to the youngest son. Female
+chastity is much valued, but women have no rights, inherit nothing, and
+are classed with the hyaena, the most despised animal throughout
+Abyssinia. The Bogo husband never sees the face or pronounces the name
+of his mother-in-law, while it is a crime for a wife to utter her
+husband's or father-in-law's name.
+
+
+
+
+BOGOTA, or SANTA FE DE BOGOTA, the capital of the republic of Colombia,
+and of the interior department of Cundinamarca, in 4 deg. 6' N. lat. and
+78 deg. 30' W. long. Pop. about 125,000. The city is on the eastern
+margin of a large elevated plateau 8563 ft. above sea-level. The plateau
+may be described as a great bench or shelf on the western slope of the
+oriental Cordilleras, about 70 m. long and 30 m. wide, with a low rim on
+its western margin and backed by a high ridge on the east. The plain
+forming the plateau is well watered with numerous small lakes and
+streams. These several small streams, one of which, the San Francisco,
+passes through the city, unite near the south-western extremity of the
+plateau and form the Rio Funza, or Bogota, which finally plunges over
+the edge at Tequendama in a beautiful, perpendicular fall of about 475
+ft. The city is built upon a sloping plain at the base of two high
+mountains La Gaudalupe and Monserrate, upon whose crests stand two
+imposing churches. From a broad avenue on the upper side downward to the
+west slope the streets, through which run streams of cool, fresh water
+from the mountains above. The north and south streets cross these at
+right angles, and the blocks thus formed are like great terraces. A
+number of handsomely-laid-out plazas, or squares, ornamented with
+gardens and statuary, have been preserved; on these face the principal
+public buildings and churches. In Plaza Bolivar is a statue of Bolivar
+by Pietro Tenerani (1789-1869), a pupil of Canova, and in Plaza
+Santander is one of General Francisco de Paula Santander (1792-1840).
+Facing on Plaza de la Constitucion are the capitol and cathedral. The
+streets are narrow and straight, but as a rule they are clean and well
+paved. Owing to the prevalence of earthquakes, private houses are
+usually of one storey only, and are built of sun-dried bricks,
+white-washed. But few of the public buildings are imposing in
+appearance, though good taste in style and decoration are often shown.
+
+The city occupies an area of about 2-1/2 X 1-1/2 m. It has street cars,
+electric light and telephones. Short lines of railway connect it with
+Facatativa (24 m.) on the road to Honda, and with Zipaquira, where
+extensive salt mines are worked. A line of railway was also under
+construction in 1906 to Jirardot, at the head of navigation on the upper
+Magdalena. Bogota is an archiepiscopal see, founded in 1561, and is one
+of the strongholds of medieval clericalism in South America. It has a
+cathedral, rebuilt in 1814, and some 30 other churches, together with
+many old conventual buildings now used for secular purposes, their
+religious communities having been dissolved by Mosquera and their
+revenues devoted in great measure to education. The capitol, which is
+occupied by the executive and legislative departments, is an elegant and
+spacious building, erected since 1875. The interest which Bogota has
+always taken in education, and because of which she has been called the
+"Athens of South America," is shown in the number and character of her
+institutions of learning--a university, three endowed colleges, a school
+of chemistry and mineralogy, a national academy, a military school, a
+public library with some 50,000 volumes, a national observatory, a
+natural history museum and a botanic garden. The city also possesses a
+well-equipped mint, little used in recent years. The plain surrounding
+the city is very fertile, and pastures cattle and produces cereals,
+vegetables and fruit in abundance. It was the centre of Chibcha
+civilization before the Spanish conquest and sustained a large
+population. The climate is mild and temperate, the average annual
+temperature being about 58 deg. and the rainfall about 43-1/2 in. The
+geographical location of the city is unfavourable to any great
+development in commerce and manufactures beyond local needs.
+
+Bogota was founded in 1538 by Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada and was named
+Santa Fe de Bogota after his birthplace Santa Fe, and after the southern
+capital of the Chibchas, Bacata (or Funza). It was made the capital of
+the viceroyalty of Nueva Granada, and soon became one of the centres of
+Spanish colonial power and civilization on the South American continent.
+In 1811 its citizens revolted against Spanish rule and set up a
+government of their own, but in 1816 the city was occupied by Pablo
+Morillo (1777-1838), the Spanish general, who subjected it to a ruthless
+military government until 1819, when Bolivar's victory at Boyaca
+compelled its evacuation. On the creation of the republic of Colombia,
+Bogota became its capital, and when that republic was dissolved into its
+three constituent parts it remained the capital of Nueva Granada. It has
+been the scene of many important events in the chequered history of
+Colombia.     (A. J. L.)
+
+
+
+
+BOGRA, or BAGURA, a town and district of British India, in the Rajshahi
+division of eastern Bengal and Assam. The town is situated on the right
+bank of the river Karatoya. Pop. (1901) 7094. The DISTRICT OF BOGRA,
+which was first formed in 1821, lies west of the main channel of the
+Brahmaputra. It contains an area of 1359 sq. m. In 1901 the population
+(on a reduced area) was 854,533, showing an increase of 11% in the
+decade. The district stretches out in a level plain, intersected by
+numerous streams and dotted with patches of jungle. The Karatoya river
+flows from north to south, dividing it into two portions, possessing
+very distinct characteristics. The eastern tract consists of rich
+alluvial soil, well watered, and subject to fertilizing inundations,
+yielding heavy crops of coarse rice, oil-seeds and jute. The western
+portion of the district is high-lying and produces the finer qualities
+of rice. The principal rivers are formed by the different channels of
+the Brahmaputra, which river here bears the local names of the Konai,
+the Daokoba and the Jamuna, the last forming a portion of the eastern
+boundary of the district. Its bed is studded with alluvial islands. The
+Brahmaputra and its channels, together with three minor streams, the
+Bangali, Karatoya and Atrai, afford admirable facilities for commerce,
+and render every part of the district accessible to native cargo boats
+of large burden. The rivers swarm with fish. The former production of
+indigo is extinct, and the industry of silk-spinning is decaying. There
+is no town with as many as 10,000 inhabitants, trade being conducted at
+riverside marts. Nor are there any metalled roads. Several lines of
+railway (the Eastern Bengal, &c.), however, serve the district.
+
+
+
+
+BOGUE, DAVID (1750-1825), British nonconformist divine, was born in the
+parish of Coldingham, Berwickshire. After a course of study in
+Edinburgh, he was licensed to preach by the Church of Scotland, but made
+his way to London (1721), where he taught in schools at Edmonton,
+Hampstead and Camberwell. He then settled as minister of the
+Congregational church at Gosport in Hampshire (1777), and to his
+pastoral duties added the charge of an institution for preparing men for
+the ministry. It was the age of the new-born missionary enterprise, and
+Bogue's academy was in a very large measure the seed from which the
+London Missionary Society took its growth. Bogue himself would have gone
+to India in 1796 but for the opposition of the East India Company. He
+also had much to do with founding the British and Foreign Bible Society
+and the Religious Tract Society, and in conjunction with James Bennet,
+minister at Romsey, wrote a well-known _History of Dissenters_ (3 vols.,
+1809). Another of his writings was an _Essay on the Divine Authority of
+the New Testament_. He died at Brighton on the 25th of October 1825.
+
+
+
+
+BOGUS (of uncertain origin, possibly connected with the Fr. _bagasse_,
+sugar-cane refuse), a slang word, originally used in America of the
+apparatus employed in counterfeiting coins, and now generally of any
+sham or spurious transaction.
+
+
+
+
+BOHEA (a word derived from the Wu-i hills in the Fuhkien province of
+China, b being substituted for W or V), a kind of black tea (q.v.), or,
+in the 18th and early 19th centuries, tea generally, as in Pope's line,
+"So past her time 'twixt reading and bohea." Later the name "bohea" has
+been applied to an inferior quality of tea grown late in the season.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
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