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diff --git a/33550.txt b/33550.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c71a50b --- /dev/null +++ b/33550.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18662 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 4, Slice 1, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 1 + "Bisharin" to "Bohea" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: August 27, 2010 [EBook #33550] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE BLEACHING: "Coal gas mixed with air is sent under pressure + through pipe a into the burners b, b, where the mixture burns with + an intense heat." 'into' amended from 'ino'. + + ARTICLE BLUEBEARD: "BLUEBEARD, the monster of Charles Perrault's + tale of Barbe Bleue, who murdered his wives and hid their bodies in + a locked room. Perrault's tale was first printed in his Histoires + et contes du temps passe (1697)." 'temps' amended from 'tems'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME IV, SLICE I + + Bisharin to Bohea + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + BISHARIN BLENDE + BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY BLENHEIM + BISHOP, ISABELLA BLENNERHASSETT, HARMAN + BISHOP BLERA + BISHOP AUCKLAND BLESSINGTON, MARGUERITE + BISHOP'S CASTLE BLIDA + BISHOP STORTFORD BLIGH, WILLIAM + BISKRA BLIND, MATHILDE + BISLEY BLIND HOOKEY + BISMARCK, OTTO LEOPOLD VON BLINDING + BISMARCK (North Dakota, U.S.A.) BLINDMAN'S-BUFF + BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO BLINDNESS + BISMILLAH BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON + BISMUTH BLISTER + BISMUTHITE BLIZZARD + BISMYA BLOCK, MARK ELIEZER + BISON BLOCK, MAURICE + BISQUE BLOCK + BISSELL, GEORGE EDWIN BLOCKADE + BISSEXT BLOCKHOUSE + BISTRE BLOEMAERT, ABRAHAM + BIT BLOEMEN, JAN FRANS VAN + BITHUR BLOEMFONTEIN + BITHYNIA BLOET, ROBERT + BITLIS BLOIS, LOUIS DE + BITONTO BLOIS + BITSCH BLOIS (Countship of) + BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS BLOMEFIELD, FRANCIS + BITTERFELD BLOMFIELD, SIR ARTHUR WILLIAM + BITTERLING BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES + BITTERN (bird) BLOMFIELD, EDWARD VALENTINE + BITTERN (liquor) BLONDEL, DAVID + BITTERS BLONDEL, JACQUES FRANCOIS + BITUMEN BLONDIN + BITURIGES BLOOD + BITZIUS, ALBRECHT BLOOD-LETTING + BIVOUAC BLOOD-MONEY + BIWA BLOODSTONE + BIXIO, NINO BLOOM + BIZERTA BLOOMER, AMELIA JENKS + BIZET GEORGES BLOOMFIELD, MAURICE + BJORNEBORG BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT + BJORNSON, BJORNSTJERNE BLOOMFIELD + BLACHFORD, FREDERIC ROGERS BLOOMINGTON (Illinois, U.S.A.) + BLACK, ADAM BLOOMINGTON (Indiana, U.S.A.) + BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN BLOOMSBURG + BLACK, JOSEPH BLOUNT, CHARLES + BLACK, WILLIAM BLOUNT, EDWARD + BLACK APE BLOUNT, THOMAS + BLACKBALL BLOUNT, SIR THOMAS POPE + BLACKBERRY BLOUNT, WILLIAM + BLACKBIRD BLOUSE + BLACK BUCK BLOW, JOHN + BLACKBURN, COLIN BLACKBURN BLOW-GUN + BLACKBURN, JONATHAN BLOWITZ, HENRI GEORGES ADOLPHE DE + BLACKBURN BLOWPIPE + BLACKBURNE, FRANCIS BLUCHER, GEBHARD LEBERECHT VON + BLACKCOCK BLUE + BLACK COUNTRY, THE BLUEBEARD + BLACK DROP BLUE-BOOK + BLACKFOOT BLUESTOCKING + BLACK FOREST BLUFF + BLACK HAWK BLUM, ROBERT FREDERICK + BLACKHEATH BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH + BLACK HILLS BLUMENTHAL, LEONHARD + BLACKIE, JOHN STUART BLUNDERBUSS + BLACK ISLE BLUNT, JOHN HENRY + BLACKLOCK, THOMAS BLUNT, JOHN JAMES + BLACKMAIL BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN + BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD BLUNTSCHLI, JOHANN KASPAR + BLACKMORE, RICHARD DODDRIDGE BLYTH + BLACK MOUNTAIN B'NAI B'RITH, INDEPENDENT ORDER OF + BLACKPOOL BOA + BLACK ROD BOABDIL + BLACK SEA (body of water) BOADICEA + BLACK SEA (district of Russia) BOAR + BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM BOARD + BLACK VEIL BOARDING-HOUSE + BLACKWATER BOARDING-OUT SYSTEM + BLACKWATER FEVER BOARDMAN, GEORGE DANA + BLACKWELL, THOMAS BOASE, HENRY SAMUEL + BLACKWOOD, WILLIAM BOAT + BLADDER BOATSWAIN + BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES BOBBILI + BLADDER-WORT BOBBIO + BLADES, WILLIAM BOBER + BLAENAVON BOBRUISK + BLAGOVYESHCHENSK BOCAGE, MANUEL MARIA BARBOSA DE + BLAIKIE, WILLIAM GARDEN BOCAGE + BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI + BLAINVILLE, HENRI DUCROTAY DE BOCCALINI, TRAJANO + BLAIR, FRANCIS PRESTON BOCCHERINI, LUIGI + BLAIR, HUGH BOCCHUS + BLAIR, JAMES BOCHART, SAMUEL + BLAIR, ROBERT BOCHOLT + BLAIR ATHOLL BOCHUM + BLAIRGOWRIE BOCKH, PHILIPP AUGUST + BLAKE, EDWARD BOCKLIN, ARNOLD + BLAKE, ROBERT BOCLAND + BLAKE, WILLIAM BOCSKAY, STEPHEN + BLAKELOCK, RALPH ALBERT BODE, JOHANN ELERT + BLAKENEY, WILLIAM BLAKENEY BODEL, JEHAN + BLAKESLEY, JOSEPH WILLIAMS BODENBACH + BLAMIRE, SUSANNA BODENSTEDT, FRIEDRICH MARTIN VON + BLANC, LOUIS BODHI VAMSA + BLANC, MONT BODICHON, BARBARA LEIGH SMITH + BLANCHARD, SAMUEL LAMAN BODIN, JEAN + BLANCHE, JACQUES EMILE BODKIN + BLANCHE OF CASTILE BODLE + BLANCH FEE BODLEY, GEORGE FREDERICK + BLANDFORD BODLEY, SIR THOMAS + BLANDRATA, GIORGIO BODMER, JOHANN JAKOB + BLANE, SIR GILBERT BODMIN + BLANFORD, WILLIAM THOMAS BODO + BLANK BODONI, GIAMBATTISTA + BLANKENBERGHE BODY-SNATCHING + BLANKENBURG BOECE, HECTOR + BLANKETEERS BOEHM, SIR JOSEPH EDGAR + BLANK VERSE BOEHM VON BAWERK, EUGEN + BLANQUI, JEROME ADOLPHE BOEHME, JAKOB + BLANQUI, LOUIS AUGUSTE BOEOTIA + BLANTYRE (town of Central Africa) BOER + BLANTYRE (parish of Scotland) BOERHAAVE, HERMANN + BLARNEY BOETHUS + BLASHFIELD, EDWIN HOWLAND BOETIUS, ANICIUS MANLIUS SEVERINUS + BLASIUS, SAINT BOG + BLASPHEMY BOGATZKY, KARL HEINRICH VON + BLASS, FRIEDRICH BOGHAZ KEUI + BLASTING BOGIE + BLAUBEUREN BOGNOR + BLAVATSKY, HELENA PETROVNA BOGO + BLAYDES, FREDERICK HENRY MARVELL BOGODUKHOV + BLAYDON BOGOMILS + BLAYE-ET-STE LUCE BOGORODSK + BLAZE BOGOS + BLAZON BOGOTA + BLEACHING BOGRA + BLEAK BOGUE, DAVID + BLEEK, FRIEDRICH BOGUS + BLEEK, WILHELM HEINRICH IMMANUEL BOHEA + + + + +BISHARIN (the anc. _Ichthyophagi_), a nomad tribe of African "Arabs," of +Hamitic origin, dwelling in the eastern part of the Nubian desert. In +the middle ages they were known as Beja (q.v.), and they are the most +characteristic of the Nubian "Arabs." With the Ababda and Hadendoa they +represent the Blemmyes of classical writers. Linguistically and +geographically the Bisharin form a connecting link between the Hamitic +populations and the Egyptians. Nominally they are Mahommedans. They, +however, preserve some non-Islamic religious practices, and exhibit +traces of animal-worship in their rule of never killing the serpent or +the partridge, which are regarded as sacred. + + + + +BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855), English musical composer, was born +in London on the 18th of November 1786. He received his artistic +training from Francisco Bianchi, and in 1804 wrote the music to a piece +called _Angelina_, which was performed at Margate. His next composition +was the music to the ballet of _Tamerlan et Bajazet_, produced in 1806 +at the King's theatre. This proved successful, and was followed within +two years by several others, of which _Caractacus_, a pantomimic ballet, +written for Drury Lane, may be named. In 1809 his first opera, _The +Circassian's Bride_, was produced at Drury Lane; but unfortunately the +theatre was burned down after one performance, and the score of the work +perished in the flames. His next work of importance, the opera of _The +Maniac_, written for the Lyceum in 1810, established his reputation, and +probably secured for him an appointment for three years as composer for +Covent Garden theatre. The numerous works--operas, burlettas, cantatas, +incidental music to Shakespeare's plays, &c.--which he composed while in +this position, are in great part forgotten. The most successful +were--_The Virgin of the Sun_ (1812), _The Miller and his Men_ (1813), +_Guy Mannering_ and _The Slave_ (1816), _Maid Marian_ and _Clari_, +introducing the well-known air of "Home, Sweet Home" (1822). In 1825 +Bishop was induced by Elliston to transfer his services from Covent +Garden to the rival house in Drury Lane, for which he wrote with unusual +care the opera of _Aladdin_, intended to compete with Weber's _Oberon_, +commissioned by the other house. The result was a failure, and with +_Aladdin_ Bishop's career as an operatic composer may be said to close. +On the formation of the Philharmonic Society (1813) Bishop was appointed +one of the directors, and he took his turn as conductor of its concerts +during the period when that office was held by different musicians in +rotation. In 1830 he was appointed musical director at Vauxhall; and it +was in the course of this engagement that he wrote the popular song "My +Pretty Jane." His sacred cantata, _The Seventh Day_, was written for the +Philharmonic Society and performed in 1833. In 1839 he was made bachelor +in music at Oxford. In 1841 he was appointed to the Reid chair of music +in the university of Edinburgh, but he resigned the office in 1843. He +was knighted in 1842, being the first musician who ever received that +honour. In 1848 he succeeded Dr Crotch in the chair of music at Oxford. +The music for the ode on the occasion of the installation of Lord Derby +as chancellor of the university (1853) proved to be his last work. He +died on the 30th of April 1855 in impoverished circumstances, though few +composers ever made more by their labours. Bishop was twice married: to +Miss Lyon and Miss Anne Riviere. Both he and his wives were singers. His +name lives in connexion with his numerous glees, songs and smaller +compositions. His melodies are clear, flowing, appropriate and often +charming; and his harmony is always pure, simple and sweet. + + + + +BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904), English traveller and author, daughter of +the Rev. Edward Bird, rector of Tattenhall, Cheshire, was born in +Yorkshire on the 15th of October 1832. Isabella Bird began to travel +when she was twenty-two. Her first book, _The Englishwoman in America_ +(1856), consisted of her correspondence during a visit to Canada +undertaken for her health. She visited the Rocky Mountains, the South +Pacific, Australia and New Zealand, producing some brightly written +books of travel. But her reputation was made by the records of her +extensive travels in Asia: _Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_ (2 vols., 1880), +_Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan_ (2 vols., 1891), _Among the Tibetans_ +(1894), _Korea and her Neighbours_ (2 vols., 1898), _The Yangtze Valley +and Beyond_ (1899), _Chinese Pictures_ (1900). She married in 1881 Dr +John Bishop, an Edinburgh physician, and was left a widow in 1886. In +1892 she became the first lady fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, +and in 1901 she rode a thousand miles in Morocco and the Atlas +Mountains. She died in Edinburgh on the 7th of October 1904. + + See Anna M. Stoddart, _The Life of Isabella Bird_ (1906). + + + + +BISHOP (A.S. _bisceop_, from Lat. _episcopus_, Gr. [Greek: episkopos], +"overlooker" or "overseer"), in certain branches of the Christian +Church, an ecclesiastic consecrated or set apart to perform certain +spiritual functions, and to exercise oversight over the lower clergy +(priests or presbyters, deacons, &c.). In the Catholic Church bishops +take rank at the head of the sacerdotal hierarchy, and have certain +spiritual powers peculiar to their office, but opinion has long been +divided as to whether they constitute a separate order or form merely a +higher degree of the order of priests (_ordo sacerdotium_). + + + Roman Catholic. + +In the Roman Catholic Church the bishop belongs to the highest order of +the hierarchy, and in this respect is the peer even of the pope, who +addresses him as "venerable brother." By the decree of the council of +Trent he must be thirty years of age, of legitimate birth, and of +approved learning and virtue. The method of his selection varies in +different countries. In France, under the Concordat, the sovereign--and +under the republic the president--had the right of nomination. The same +is true of Austria (except four sees), Bavaria, Spain and Portugal. In +some countries the bishop is elected by the cathedral chapter (as in +Wurttemberg), or by the bishops of the provinces (as in Ireland). In +others, as in Great Britain, the United States of America and Belgium, +the pope selects one out of a list submitted by the chapter. In all +cases the nomination or election is subject to confirmation by the Holy +See. Before this is granted the candidate is submitted to a double +examination as to his fitness, first by a papal delegate at his place of +residence (_processus informativus in partibus electi_), and afterwards +by the Roman Congregation of Cardinals assigned for this purpose +(_processus electionis definitivus in curia_). In the event of both +processes proving satisfactory, the bishop-elect is confirmed, +preconized, and so far promoted that he is allowed to exercise the +rights of jurisdiction in his see. He cannot, however, exercise the +functions proper to the episcopal _order_ (_potestas ordinis_) until his +consecration, which ordinarily takes place within three months of his +confirmation. The bishop is consecrated, after taking the oath of +fidelity to the Holy See, and subscribing the profession of faith, by a +bishop appointed by the pope for the purpose, assisted by at least two +other bishops or prelates, the main features of the act being the laying +on of hands, the anointing with oil, and the delivery of the pastoral +staff and other symbols of the office. After consecration the new bishop +is solemnly enthroned and blesses the assembled congregation. + +The _potestas ordinis_ of the bishop is not peculiar to the Roman +Church, and, in general, is claimed by all bishops, whether Oriental or +Anglican, belonging to churches which have retained the Catholic +tradition in this respect. Besides the full functions of the +presbyterate, or priesthood, bishops have the sole right (1) to confer +holy orders, (2) to administer confirmation, (3) to prepare the holy +oil, or chrism, (4) to consecrate sacred places or utensils (churches, +churchyards, altars, &c.), (5) to give the benediction to abbots and +abbesses, (6) to anoint kings. In the matter of their rights of +jurisdiction, however, Roman Catholic bishops differ from others in +their peculiar responsibility to the Holy See. Some of their powers of +legislation and administration they possess _motu proprio_ in virtue of +their position as diocesan bishops, others they enjoy under special +faculties granted by the Holy See; but all bishops are bound, by an oath +taken at the time of their consecration, to go to Rome at fixed +intervals (_visitare sacra limina apostolorum_) to report in person, and +in writing, on the state of their dioceses. + +The Roman bishop ranks immediately after the cardinals; he is styled +_reverendissimus_, _sanctissimus_ or _beatissimus_. In English the style +is "Right Reverend"; the bishop being addressed as "my lord bishop." + +The insignia (_pontificalia_ or pontificals) of the Roman Catholic +bishop are (1) a ring with a jewel, symbolizing fidelity to the church, +(2) the pastoral staff, (3) the pectoral cross, (4) the vestments, +consisting of the caligae, stockings and sandals, the tunicle, and +purple gloves, (5) the mitre, symbol of the royal priesthood, (6) the +throne (cathedra), surmounted by a baldachin or canopy, on the gospel +side of the choir in the cathedral church. + + + Anglican. + +The spiritual function and character of the Anglican bishops, allowing +for the doctrinal changes effected at the Reformation, are similar to +those of the Roman. They alone can administer the rite of confirmation, +ordain priests and deacons, and exercise a certain dispensing power. In +the established Church of England the appointment of bishops is vested +effectively in the crown, though the old form of election by the +cathedral chapter is retained. They must be learned presbyters at least +thirty years of age, born in lawful wedlock, and of good life and +behaviour. The mode of appointment is regulated by 25 Henry VIII. c. 20, +re-enacted in 1 Elizabeth c. 1 (Act of Supremacy 1558). On a vacancy +occurring, the dean and chapter notify the king thereof in chancery, and +pray leave to make election. A licence under the Great Seal to proceed +to the election of a bishop, known as the _conge d'eslire_, together +with a letter missive containing the name of the king's nominee, is +thereupon sent to the dean and chapter, who are bound under the +penalties of _Praemunire_ to proceed within twelve days to the election +of the person named in it. In the event of their refusing obedience or +neglecting to elect, the bishop may be appointed by letters patent under +the Great Seal without the form of election. Upon the election being +reported to the crown, a mandate issues from the crown to the archbishop +and metropolitan, requesting him and commanding him to confirm the +election, and to invest and consecrate the bishop-elect. Thereupon the +archbishop issues a commission to his vicar-general to examine formally +the process of the election of the bishop, and to supply by his +authority all defects in matters of form, and to administer to the +bishop-elect the oaths of allegiance, of supremacy and of canonical +obedience (see CONFIRMATION OF BISHOPS). In the disestablished and +daughter Churches the election is by the synod of the Church, as in +Ireland, or by a diocesan convention, as in the United States of +America. + +In the Church of England the _potestas ordinis_ is conferred by +consecration. This is usually carried out by an archbishop, who is +assisted by two or more bishops. The essential "form" of the +consecration is in the simultaneous "laying on of hands" by the +consecrating prelates. After this the new bishop, who has so far been +vested only in a rochet, retires and puts on the rest of the episcopal +habit, viz. the chimere. After consecration the bishop is competent to +exercise all the spiritual functions of his office; but a bishopric in +the Established Church, being a barony, is under the guardianship of the +crown during a vacancy, and has to be conferred afresh on each new +holder. A bishop, then, cannot enter into the enjoyment of the +temporalities of his see, including his rights of presentation to +benefices, before doing homage to the king. This is done in the ancient +feudal form, surviving elsewhere only in the conferring of the M.A. +degree at Cambridge. The bishop kneels before the king, places his hands +between his, and recites an oath of temporal allegiance; he then kisses +hands. + +Besides the functions exercised in virtue of their order, bishops are +also empowered by law to exercise a certain jurisdiction over all +consecrated places and over all ordained persons. This jurisdiction they +exercise for the most part through their consistorial courts, or through +commissioners appointed under the Church Discipline Act of 1840. By the +Clergy Discipline Act of 1892 it was decreed that the trial of clerks +accused of unfitness to exercise the cure of souls should be before the +consistory court with five assessors. Under the Public Worship +Regulation Act of 1874, which gave to churchwardens and aggrieved +parishioners the right to institute proceedings against the clergy for +breaches of the law in the conduct of divine service, a discretionary +right was reserved to the bishop to stay proceedings. + +The bishops also exercise a certain jurisdiction over marriages, +inasmuch as they have by the canons of the Church of England a power of +dispensing with the proclamation of banns before marriage. These +dispensations are termed marriage licences, and their legal validity is +recognised by the Marriage Act of 1823. The bishops had formerly +jurisdiction over all questions touching the validity of marriages and +the status of married persons, but this jurisdiction has been +transferred from the consistorial courts of the bishops to a court of +the crown by the Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857. They have in a similar +manner been relieved of their jurisdiction in testamentary matters, and +in matters of defamation and of brawling in churches; and the only +jurisdiction which they continue to exercise over the general laity is +with regard to their use of the churches and churchyards. The +churchwardens, who are representative officers of the parishes, are also +executive officers of the bishops in all matters touching the decency +and order of the churches and of the churchyards, and they are +responsible to the bishops for the due discharge of their duties; but +the abolition of church rates has relieved the churchwardens of the most +onerous part of their duties, which was connected with the stewardship +of the church funds of their parishes. + +The bishops are still authorized by law to dedicate and set apart +buildings for the solemnization of divine service, and grounds for the +performance of burials, according to the rites and ceremonies of the +Church of England; and such buildings and grounds, after they have been +duly consecrated according to law, cannot be diverted to any secular +purpose except under the authority of an act of parliament. + +The bishops of England have also jurisdiction to examine clerks who may +be presented to benefices within their respective dioceses, and they are +bound in each case by the 95th canon of 1604 to inquire and inform +themselves of the sufficiency of each clerk within twenty-eight days, +after which time, if they have not rejected him as insufficiently +qualified, they are bound to institute him, or to license him, as the +case may be, to the benefice, and thereupon to send their mandate to the +archdeacon to induct him into the temporalities of the benefice. Where +the bishop himself is patron of a benefice within his own diocese he is +empowered to collate a clerk to it,--in other words, to confer it on the +clerk without the latter being presented to him. Where the clerk himself +is patron of the living, the bishop may institute him on his own +petition. (See BENEFICE.) + +As spiritual peers, bishops of the Church of England have (subject to +the limitations stated below) seats in the House of Lords, though +whether as barons or in their spiritual character has been a matter of +dispute. The latter, however, would seem to be the case, since a bishop +was entitled to his writ of summons after confirmation and before doing +homage for his barony. Doubts having been raised whether a bishop of the +Church of England, being a lord of parliament, could resign his seat in +the Upper House, although several precedents to that effect are on +record, a statute of the realm, which was confined to the case of the +bishops of London and Durham, was passed in 1856, declaring that on the +resignation of their sees being accepted by their respective +metropolitans, those bishops should cease to sit as lords of parliament, +and their sees should be filled up in the manner provided by law in the +case of the avoidance of a bishopric. In 1869 the Bishops' Resignation +Act was passed. It provided that, on any bishop desiring to retire on +account of age or incapacity, the sovereign should be empowered to +declare the see void by an order in council, the retiring bishop of +archbishop to be secured the use of the episcopal residence for life and +a pension of one-third of the revenues of the see, or L2000, whichever +sum should prove the larger. Other sections defined the proceedings for +proving, in case of need, the incapacity of a bishop, provided for the +appointment of coadjutors and defined their status (Phillimore i. 82). + +In view of the necessity for increasing the episcopate in the 19th +century and the objection to the consequent increase of the spiritual +peers in the Upper House, it was finally enacted by the Bishoprics Act +of 1878 that only the archbishops and the bishops of London, Winchester +and Durham should be always entitled to writs summoning them to the +House of Lords. The rest of the twenty-five seats are filled up, as a +vacancy occurs, according to seniority of consecration. + +Bishops of the Church of England rank in order of precedency immediately +above barons. They may marry, but their wives as such enjoy no title or +precedence. Bishops are addressed as "Right Reverend" and have legally +the style of "Lord," which, as in the case of Roman Catholic bishops in +England, is extended to all, whether suffragans or holders of colonial +bishoprics, by courtesy. + +The insignia of the Anglican bishop are the rochet and the chimere, and +the episcopal throne on the gospel side of the chancel of the cathedral +church. The use of the mitre, pastoral staff and pectoral cross, which +had fallen into complete disuse by the end of the 18th century, has been +now very commonly, though not universally, revived; and, in some cases, +the interpretation put upon the "Ornaments rubric" by the modern High +Church school has led to a more complete revival of the pre-Reformation +vestments. + + + Orthodox Eastern. + +In the Orthodox Church of the East and the various communions springing +from it, the _potestas ordinis_ of the bishop is the same as in the +Western Church. Among his qualifications the most peculiar is that he +must be unmarried, which, since the secular priests are compelled to +marry, entails his belonging to the "black clergy" or monks. The +insignia of an oriental bishop, with considerable variation in form, are +essentially the same as those of the Catholic West. + + + Subordinate bishops. + +Besides bishops presiding over definite sees, there have been from time +immemorial in the Christian Church bishops holding their jurisdiction in +subordination to the bishop of the diocese. (1) The oldest of these were +the _chorepiscopi_ ([Greek: taes choras episkopoi]), i.e. country +bishops, who were delegated by the bishops of the cities in the early +church to exercise jurisdiction in the remote towns and villages as +these were converted from paganism. Their functions varied in different +times and places, and by some it has been held that they were originally +only presbyters. In any case, this class of bishops, which had been +greatly curtailed in the East in A.D. 343 by the council of Laodicea, +was practically extinct everywhere by the 10th century. It survived +longest in Ireland, where in 1152 a synod, presided over by the papal +legate, decreed that, after the death of the existing holders of the +office, no more should be consecrated. Their place was taken by +arch-presbyters and rural deans. (2) The _Episcopi regionarii_, or +_gentium_, were simply missionary bishops without definite sees. Such +were, at the outset, Boniface, the apostle of Germany, and Willibrord, +the apostle of the Frisians. (3) Bishops _in partibus infidelium_ were +originally those who had been expelled from their sees by the pagans, +and, while retaining their titles, were appointed to assist diocesan +bishops in their work. In later times the custom arose of consecrating +bishops for this purpose, or merely as an honorary distinction, with a +title derived from some place once included within, but now beyond the +bounds of Christendom. (4) _Coadjutor bishops_ are such as are appointed +to assist the bishop of the diocese when incapacitated by infirmity or +by other causes from fulfilling his functions alone. Coadjutors in the +early church were appointed with a view to their succeeding to the see; +but this, though common in practice, is no longer the rule. In the +Church of England the appointment and rights of coadjutor bishops were +regulated by the Bishops' Resignation Act of 1869. Under this act the +coadjutor bishop has the right of succession to the see, or in the case +of the archiepiscopal sees and those of London, Winchester and Durham, +to the see vacated by the bishop, translated from another diocese to +fill the vacancy. (5) _Suffragan bishops_ (_episcopi sufraganei_ or +_auxiliares_) are those appointed to assist diocesan bishops in their +pontifical functions when hindered by infirmity, public affairs or other +causes. In the Roman Church the appointment of the suffragan rests with +the pope, on the petition of the bishop, who must prove that such is the +custom of the see, name a suitable priest and guarantee his maintenance. +The suffragan is given a title _in partibus_, but never that of +archbishop, and the same title is never given to two suffragans in +succession. In the Church of England the status of suffragan bishops was +regulated by the Act 26 Henry VIII. c. 14. Under this statute, which, +after long remaining inoperative, was amended and again put into force +by the Suffragans' Nomination Act of 1888, every archbishop and bishop, +being disposed to have a suffragan to assist him, may name two honest +and discreet spiritual persons for the crown to give to one of them the +title, name, style and dignity of a bishop of any one of twenty-six sees +enumerated in the statute, as the crown may think convenient. The crown, +having made choice of one of such persons, is empowered to present him +by letters patent under the great seal to the metropolitan, requiring +him to consecrate him to the same name, title, style and dignity of a +bishop; and the person so consecrated is thereupon entitled to exercise, +under a commission from the bishop who has nominated him, such authority +and jurisdiction, within the diocese of such bishop, as shall be given +to him by the commission, and no other. + + + Lutheran churches. + +The title of bishop survived the Reformation in certain of the Lutheran +churches of the continent, in Denmark, Norway, Finland, Sweden and +Transylvania; it was temporarily restored in Prussia in 1701, for the +coronation of King Frederick I., again between 1816 and 1840 by +Frederick William III., and in Nassau in 1818. In these latter cases, +however, the title bishop is equivalent to that of "superintendent," the +form most generally employed. The Lutheran bishops, as a rule, do not +possess or claim unbroken "apostolic succession"; those of Finland and +Sweden are, however, an exception. The Lutheran bishops of Transylvania +sit, with the Roman and Orthodox bishops, in the Hungarian Upper House. +In some cases the secularization of episcopal principalities at the +Reformation led to the survival of the title of bishop as a purely +secular distinction. Thus the see of Osnabruck (Osnaburgh) was occupied, +from the peace of Westphalia to 1802, alternately by a Catholic and a +Protestant prince. From 1762 to 1802 it was held by Frederick, duke of +York, the last prince-bishop. Similarly, the bishopric of Schwerin +survived as a Protestant prince-bishopric until 1648, when it was +finally secularized and annexed to Mecklenburg, and the see of Lubeck +was held by Protestant "bishops" from 1530 till its annexation to +Oldenburg in 1803.[1] + +In other Protestant communities, e.g. the Moravians, the Methodist +Episcopal Church and the Mormons, the office and title of bishop have +survived, or been created. Their functions and status will be found +described in the accounts of the several churches. + + See Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_, s. "Bischof" and "Weihen"; + Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, vol. ii.; Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, + s. "Bischof" (the author rather arbitrarily classes Anglican with + Lutheran bishops as not bishops in any proper sense at all); + Phillimore's _Ecclesiastical Law_; the articles ORDER, HOLY; + VESTMENTS; ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION; EPISCOPACY. (W. A. P.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The title prince-bishop, attached in Austria to the sees of + Laibach, Seckau, Gurk, Brixen, Trent and Lavant, and in Prussia to + that of Breslau, no longer implies any secular jurisdiction, but is + merely a title of honour recognized by the state, owing either to the + importance of the sees or for reasons purely historical. + + + + +BISHOP AUCKLAND, a market town in the Bishop Auckland parliamentary +division of Durham, England, 11 m. S.S.W. of the city of Durham, the +junction of several branches of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban +district (1901) 11,969. It is beautifully situated on an eminence near +the confluence of the Wear and the Gaunless. The parish church is 1 m. +distant, at Auckland St Andrews, a fine cruciform structure, formerly +collegiate, in style mainly Early English, but with earlier portions. +The palace of the bishops of Durham, which stands at the north-east end +of the town, is a spacious and splendid, though irregular pile The site +of the palace was first chosen by Bishop Anthony Beck, in the time of +Edward I. The present building covers about 5 acres, and is surrounded +by a park of 800 acres. On the Wear 1-1/2 m. above Bishop Auckland there +is a small and very ancient church at Escomb, massively built and +tapering from the bottom upward. It is believed to date from the 7th +century, and some of the stones are evidently from a Roman building, one +bearing an inscription. These, no doubt, came from Binchester, a short +distance up stream, where remains of a Roman fort (_Vinovia_) are +traceable. It guarded the great Roman north road from York to Hadrian's +wall. The industrial population of Bishop Auckland is principally +employed in the neighbouring collieries and iron works. + + + + +BISHOP'S CASTLE, a market town and municipal borough in the southern +parliamentary division of Shropshire, England; the terminus of the +Bishop's Castle light railway from Craven Arms. Pop. (1901) 1378. It is +pleasantly situated in a hilly district to the east of Clun Forest, +climbing the flank and occupying the summit of an eminence. Of the +castle of the bishops of Hereford, which gave the town its name, there +are only the slightest fragments remaining. The town has some +agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 +councillors. Area, 1867 acres. + + Bishop's Castle was included in the manor of Lydbury, which belonged + to the church of Hereford before the Conquest. The castle, at first + called Lydbury Castle, was built by one of the bishops of Hereford + between 1085 and 1154, to protect his manor from the Welsh, and the + town which sprang up round the castle walls acquired the name of + Bishop's Castle in the 13th century. In 1292 the bishop claimed to + have a market every Friday, a fair on the eve, day and morrow of the + Decollation of St John, and assize of bread and ale in Bishop's + Castle, which his predecessors had held from time immemorial. Ten + years later he received a grant from Richard II. of a market every + Wednesday and a fair on the 2nd of November and two days following. + Although the town was evidently a borough by the 13th century, since + the burgesses are mentioned as early as 1292, it has no charter + earlier than the incorporation charter granted by Queen Elizabeth in + 1572. This was confirmed by James I. in 1617 and by James II. in 1688. + In 1584 Bishop's Castle returned two members to parliament, and was + represented until 1832, when it was disfranchised. + + + + +BISHOP STORTFORD, a market town in the Hertford parliamentary division +of Hertfordshire, England; 30-1/2 m. N.N.E. from London by the Cambridge +line of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7143. +It lies on the river Stort, close to the county boundary with Essex, and +has water-communication with London through the Lea and Stort +Navigation. The church of St Michael, standing high above the valley, is +a fine embattled Perpendicular building with western tower and spire. +The high school, formerly the grammar school, was founded in the time of +Elizabeth. Here were educated Sir Henry Chauncy, an early historian of +Hertfordshire (d. 1719), and Cecil Rhodes, who was born at Bishop +Stortford in 1853. There are a Nonconformist grammar school, a diocesan +training college for mistresses, and other educational establishments. +The industries include brewing and malting, coach-building, lime-burning +and founding, and there are important horse and cattle markets. + + Before the Conquest the manor of Bishop Stortford is said to have + belonged to Eddeva the Fair, wife of Harold, who sold it to the bishop + of London, from whom it was taken by William the Conqueror. William + restored it after a few years, and with it gave the bishop a small + castle called Waytemore, of which there are scanty remains. The + dungeon of this castle, called "Bishop's Hole" or "Bishop's Prison," + was used as an ecclesiastical prison until the 16th century. The town + now possesses no early incorporation charters, and although both + Chauncy and Salmon in their histories of Hertfordshire state that it + was created a borough by charter of King John in 1206, the charter + cannot now be found. The first mention of Bishop Stortford as a + borough occurs in 1311, in which year the burgesses returned two + members to parliament. The town was represented from that date until + 1332, and again in 1335-1336, but the privilege was then allowed to + lapse and has never been revived. + + + + +BISKRA, a town of Algeria, in the arrondissement of Batna, department of +Constantine, 150 m. S.W. of the city of Constantine and connected with +it and with Philippeville by rail. It lies in the Sahara 360 ft. above +the sea, on the right bank of the Wad Biskra, a river which, often +nearly dry for many months in the year, becomes a mighty torrent after +one or two days' rain in winter. The name Biskra applies to a union of +five or six villages of the usual Saharan type, scattered through an +oasis 3 m. in length by less than 1 m. broad, and separated by huge +gardens full of palm and olive trees. The houses are built of hardened +mud, with doors and roof of palm wood. The foreign settlement is on the +north of the oasis; it consists of a broad main street, the rue Berthe +(from which a few side streets branch at right angles), lined with +European houses, the whole in the style of a typical French winter +resort, a beautiful public garden, with the church in the centre, an +arcade, a pretentious _mairie_ in pseudo-Moorish style with entrance +guarded by terra-cotta lions, some good shops, a number of excellent +hotels and cafes, a casino, clubs, and, near by, a street of dancing and +singing girls of the tribe of Walad-Nail. East of the public garden is +Fort St Germain, named after an officer killed in the insurrection of +the Zaatcha in 1849; it is capable of resisting any attack of the Arabs, +and extensive enough to shelter the whole of the civil population, who +took refuge therein during the rebellion of 1871. It contains barracks, +hospital and government offices. To the south-east lies the Villa Landon +with magnificent gardens filled with tropical plants. The population +(1906) of the chief settlement was 4218, of the whole oasis 10,413. + +From November to April the climate of Biskra is delightful. Nowhere in +Algeria can be found more genial temperature or clearer skies, and while +in summer the thermometer often registers 110 deg. F. in the shade, and +90 deg. at night, the pure dryness of the air in this practically +rainless region makes the heat endurable. The only drawback to the +climat is the prevalence of high cold winds in winter. These winds cause +temperatures as low as 36 deg., but the mean reading, on an average of +ten years, is 73 deg. + +In the oasis are some 200,000 fruit trees, of which about 150,000 are +date-palms, the rest being olives, pomegranates and apricots. In the +centre of the oasis is the old kasbah or citadel. + +In 1844 the duc d'Aumale occupied this fort, and here, on the night of +the 12th of May of that year, the 68 men who formed the French garrison +were, with one exception, massacred by Arabs. In the fort are a few +fragments of Roman work--all that remains of the Roman post Ad Piscinam. + +Biskra is the capital of the Ziban (plural of Zab), a race of mixed +Berber and Arab origin, whose villages extend from the southern slopes +of the Aures to the Shat Melrir. These villages, built in oases dotted +over the desert, nestle in groves of date-palms and fruit trees and +waving fields of barley. The most interesting village is that of Sidi +Okba, 12 m. south-east of Biskra. It is built of houses of one story +made of sun-dried bricks. The mosque is square, with a flat roof +supported on clay columns, and crowned by a minaret. In the north-west +corner of the mosque is the tomb of Sidi Okba, the leader of the Arabs +who in the 1st century of the Hegira conquered Africa for Islam from +Egypt to Tangier. Sidi Okba was killed by the Berbers near this place in +A.D. 682. On his tomb is the inscription in Cufic characters, "This is +the tomb of Okba, son of Nafi. May God have mercy upon him." No older +Arabic inscription is known to exist in Africa. + + + + +BISLEY, a village of Surrey, England, 3-1/2 m. N.W. of Woking. The +ranges of the National Rifle Association were transferred from Wimbledon +here in 1890. (See RIFLE.) + + + + +BISMARCK, OTTO EDUARD LEOPOLD VON, PRINCE, duke of Lauenburg +(1815-1898), German statesman, was born on the 1st of April 1815, at the +manor-house of Schonhausen, his father's seat in the mark of +Brandenburg. The family has, since the 14th century, belonged to the +landed gentry, and many members had held high office in the kingdom of +Prussia. His father (d. 1845), of whom he always spoke with much +affection, was a quiet, unassuming man, who retired from the army in +early life with the rank of captain of cavalry (_Rittmeister_). His +mother, a daughter of Mencken, cabinet secretary to the king, was a +woman of strong character and ability, who had been brought up at Berlin +under the "Aufklarung." Her ambition was centred in her sons, but +Bismarck in his recollections of his childhood missed the influences of +maternal tenderness. There were several children of the marriage, which +took place in 1806, but all died in childhood except Bernhard +(1810-1893), Otto, and one sister, Malvina (b. 1827), who married in +1845 Oscar von Arnim. Young Bismarck was educated in Berlin, first at a +private school, then at the gymnasium of the Graue Kloster (Grey +Friars). At the age of seventeen he went to the university of Gottingen, +where he spent a little over a year; he joined the corps of the +Hannoverana and took a leading part in the social life of the students. +He completed his studies at Berlin, and in 1835 passed the examinations +which admitted him to the public service. He was intended for the +diplomatic service, but spent some months at Aix-la-Chapelle in +administrative work, and then was transferred to Potsdam and the +judicial side. He soon retired from the public service; he conceived a +great distaste for it, and had shown himself defective in discipline and +regularity. In 1839, after his mother's death, he undertook, with his +brother, the management of the family estates in Pomerania; at this time +most of the estate attached to Schonhausen had to be sold. In 1844, +after the marriage of his sister, he went to live with his father at +Schonhausen. He and his brother took an active part in local affairs, +and in 1846 he was appointed _Deichhauptmann_, an office in which he was +responsible for the care of the dykes by which the country, in the +neighbourhood of the Elbe, was preserved from inundation. During these +years he travelled in England, France and Switzerland. The influence of +his mother, and his own wide reading and critical character, made him at +one time inclined to hold liberal opinions on government and religion, +but he was strongly affected by the religious revival of the early years +of the reign of Frederick William IV.; his opinions underwent a great +change, and under the influence of the neighbouring country gentlemen he +acquired those strong principles in favour of monarchical government as +the expression of the Christian state, of which he was to become the +most celebrated exponent. His religious convictions were strengthened by +his marriage to Johanna von Puttkamer, which took place in 1847. + + + Parliamentary career. + +In the same year he entered public life, being chosen as substitute for +the representative of the lower nobility of his district in the +estates-general, which were in that year summoned to Berlin. He took his +seat with extreme right, and distinguished himself by the vigour and +originality with which he defended the rights of the king and the +Christian monarchy against the Liberals. When the revolution broke out +in the following year he offered to bring the peasants of Schonhausen to +Berlin in order to defend the king against the revolutionary party, and +in the last meeting of the estates voted in a minority of two against +the address thanking the king for granting a constitution. He did not +sit in any of the assemblies summoned during the revolutionary year, but +took a very active part in the formation of a union of the Conservative +party, and was one of the founders of the _Kreuzzeitung_, which has +since then been the organ of the Monarchical party in Prussia. In the +new parliament which was elected at the beginning of 1849, he sat for +Brandenburg, and was one of the most frequent and most incisive speakers +of what was called the Junker party. He took a prominent part in the +discussions on the new Prussian constitution, always defending the power +of the king. His speeches of this period show great debating skill, +combined with strong originality and imagination. His constant theme +was, that the party disputes were a struggle for power between the +forces of revolution, which derived their strength from the fighters on +the barricades, and the Christian monarchy, and that between these +opposed principles no compromise was possible. He took also a +considerable part in the debates on the foreign policy of the Prussian +government; he defended the government for not accepting the Frankfort +constitution, and opposed the policy of Radowitz, on the ground that the +Prussian king would be subjected to the control of a non-Prussian +parliament. The only thing, he said, that had come out of the +revolutionary year unharmed, and had saved Prussia from dissolution and +Germany from anarchy, was the Prussian army and the Prussian civil +service; and in the debates on foreign policy he opposed the numerous +plans for bringing about the union of Germany, by subjecting the crown +and Prussia to a common German parliament. He had a seat in the +parliament of Erfurt, but only went there in order to oppose the +constitution which the parliament had framed. He foresaw that the policy +of the government would lead it into a position when it would have to +fight against Austria on behalf of a constitution by which Prussia +itself would be dissolved, and he was, therefore, one of the few +prominent politicians who defended the complete change of front which +followed the surrender of Olmutz. + + + Diplomatic career. + +It was probably his speeches on German policy which induced the king to +appoint him Prussian representative at the restored diet of Frankfort in +1851. The appointment was a bold one, as he was entirely without +diplomatic experience, but he justified the confidence placed in him. +During the eight years he spent at Frankfort he acquired an unrivalled +knowledge of German politics. He was often used for important missions, +as in 1852, when he was sent to Vienna. He was entrusted with the +negotiations by which the duke of Augustenburg was persuaded to assent +to the arrangements by which he resigned his claims to Schleswig and +Holstein. The period he spent at Frankfort, however, was of most +importance because of the change it brought about in his own political +opinions. When he went to Frankfort he was still under the influence of +the extreme Prussian Conservatives, men like the Gerlachs, who regarded +the maintenance of the principle of the Christian monarchy against the +revolution as the chief duty of the Prussian government. He was prepared +on this ground for a close alliance with Austria. He found, however, a +deliberate intention on the part of Austria to humble Prussia, and to +degrade her from the position of an equal power, and also great jealousy +of Prussia among the smaller German princes, many of whom owed their +thrones to the Prussian soldiers, who, as in Saxony and Baden, had +crushed the insurgents. He therefore came to the conclusion that if +Prussia was to regain the position she had lost she must be prepared for +the opposition of Austria, and must strengthen herself by alliances with +other powers. The solidarity of Conservative interests appeared to him +now a dangerous fiction. At the time of the Crimean War he advocated +alliance with Russia, and it was to a great extent owing to his advice +that Prussia did not join the western powers. Afterwards he urged a good +understanding with Napoleon, but his advice was met by the insuperable +objection of King Frederick William IV. to any alliance with a ruler of +revolutionary origin. + +The change of ministry which followed the establishment of a regency in +1857 made it desirable to appoint a new envoy at Frankfort, and in 1858 +Bismarck was appointed ambassador at St Petersburg, where he remained +for four years. During this period he acquired some knowledge of +Russian, and gained the warm regard of the tsar, as well as of the +dowager-empress, herself a Prussian princess. During the first two years +he had little influence on the Prussian government; the Liberal +ministers distrusted his known opinions on parliamentary government, and +the monarchical feeling of the prince regent was offended by Bismarck's +avowed readiness for alliance with the Italians and his disregard of the +rights of other princes. The failure of the ministry, and the +estrangement between King William and the Liberal party, opened to him +the way to power. Roon, who was appointed minister of war in 1861, was +an old friend of his, and through him Bismarck was thenceforward kept +closely informed of the condition of affairs in Berlin. On several +occasions the prospect of entering the ministry was open to him, but +nothing came of it, apparently because he required a free hand in +foreign affairs, and this the king was not prepared to give him. When an +acute crisis arose out of the refusal of parliament, in 1862, to vote +the money required for the reorganization of the army, which the king +and Roon had carried through, he was summoned to Berlin; but the king +was still unable to make up his mind to appoint him, although he felt +that Bismarck was the only man who had the courage and capacity for +conducting the struggle with parliament. He was, therefore, in June, +made ambassador at Paris as a temporary expedient. There he had the +opportunity for renewing the good understanding with Napoleon which had +been begun in 1857. He also paid a short visit to England, but it does +not appear that this had any political results. In September the +parliament, by a large majority, threw out the budget, and the king, +having nowhere else to turn for help, at Roon's advice summoned Bismarck +to Berlin and appointed him minister president and foreign minister. + + + Ministry. + +Bismarck's duty as minister was to carry on the government against the +wishes of the lower house, so as to enable the king to complete and +maintain the reorganized army. The opposition of the House was supported +by the country and by a large party at court, including the queen and +crown prince. The indignation which his appointment caused was intense; +he was known only by the reputation which in his early years he had won +as a violent ultra-Conservative, and the apprehensions were increased by +his first speech, in which he said that the German question could not be +settled by speeches and parliamentary decrees, but only by blood and +iron. His early fall was predicted, and it was feared that he might +bring down the monarchy with him. Standing almost alone he succeeded in +the task he had undertaken. For four years he ruled without a budget, +taking advantage of an omission in the constitution which did not +specify what was to happen in case the crown and the two Houses could +not agree on a budget. The conflict of the ministers and the House +assumed at times the form of bitter personality hostility; in 1863 the +ministers refused any longer to attend the sittings, and Bismarck +challenged Virchow, one of his strongest opponents, to a duel, which, +however, did not take place. In 1852 he had fought a duel with pistols +against Georg von Vindre, a political opponent. In June 1863, as soon as +parliament had risen, Bismarck published ordinances controlling the +liberty of the press, which, though in accordance with the letter, +seemed opposed to the intentions of the constitution, and it was on this +occasion that the crown prince, hitherto a silent opponent, publicly +dissociated himself from the policy of his father's ministers. Bismarck +depended for his position solely on the confidence of the king, and the +necessity for defending himself against the attempts to destroy this +confidence added greatly to the suspiciousness of his nature. He was, +however, really indispensable, for his resignation must be followed by a +Liberal ministry, parliamentary control over the army, and probably the +abdication of the king. Not only, therefore, was he secure in the +continuance of the king's support, but he had also the complete control +of foreign affairs. Thus he could afford to ignore the criticism of the +House, and the king was obliged to acquiesce in the policy of a minister +to whom he owed so much. + + + Foreign policy. + +He soon gave to the policy of the monarchy a resolution which had long +been wanting. When the emperor of Austria summoned a meeting of the +German princes at Frankfort to discuss a reform of the confederation, +Bismarck insisted that the king of Prussia must not attend. He remained +away, and his absence in itself made the congress unavailing. There can +be no doubt that from the time he entered on office Bismarck was +determined to bring to an issue the long struggle for supremacy in +Germany between the house of Habsburg and the house of Hohenzollern. +Before he was able to complete his preparations for this, two unforeseen +occurrences completely altered the European situation, and caused the +conflict to be postponed for three years. The first was the outbreak of +rebellion in Poland. Bismarck, an inheritor of the older Prussian +traditions, and recollecting how much of the greatness of Prussia had +been gained at the expense of the Poles, offered his help to the tsar. +By this he placed himself in opposition to the universal feeling of +western Europe; no act of his life added so much to the repulsion with +which at this time he was regarded as an enemy of liberty and right. He +won, however, the gratitude of the tsar and the support of Russia, which +in the next years was to be of vital service to him. Even more serious +were the difficulties arising in Denmark. On the death of King Frederick +VII. in 1863, Prince Frederick of Augustenburg came forward as claimant +to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which had hitherto been joined +to the crown of Denmark. He was strongly supported by the whole German +nation and by many of its princes. Bismarck, however, once more was +obliged to oppose the current of national feeling, which imperiously +demanded that the German duchies should be rescued from a foreign yoke. +Prussia was bound by the treaty of London of 1852, which guaranteed the +integrity of the Danish monarchy; to have disregarded this would have +been to bring about a coalition against Germany similar to that of 1851. +Moreover, he held that it would be of no advantage to Prussia to create +a new German state; if Denmark were to lose the duchies, he desired that +Prussia should acquire them, and to recognize the Augustenburg claims +would make this impossible. His resistance to the national desire made +him appear a traitor to his country. To check the agitation he turned +for help to Austria; and an alliance of the two powers, so lately at +variance, was formed. He then falsified all the predictions of the +opposition by going to war with Denmark, not, as they had required, in +support of Augustenburg, but on the ground that the king of Denmark had +violated his promise not to oppress his German subjects. Austria +continued to act with Prussia, and, after the defeat of the Danes, at +the peace of Vienna the sovereignty of the duchies was surrendered to +the two allies--the first step towards annexation by Prussia. There is +no part of Bismarck's diplomatic work which deserves such careful study +as these events. Watched as he was by countless enemies at home and +abroad, a single false step would have brought ruin and disgrace on +himself; the growing national excitement would have burst through all +restraint, and again, as fifteen years before, Germany divided and +unorganized would have had to capitulate to the orders of foreign powers +(see SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION). + + + War with Austria. + +The peace of Vienna left him once more free to return to his older +policy. For the next eighteen months he was occupied in preparing for +war with Austria. For this war the was alone responsible; he undertook +it deliberately as the only means of securing Prussian ascendancy in +Germany. The actual cause of dispute was the disposition of the +conquered duchies, for Austria now wished to put Augustenburg in as +duke, a plan to which Bismarck would not assent. In 1865 a provisional +arrangement was made by the treaty of Gastein, for Bismarck was not yet +ready. He would not risk a war unless he was certain of success, and for +this he required the alliance of Italy and French support; both he +secured during the next year. In October 1865 he visited Napoleon at +Biarritz and Paris. No formal treaty was made, but Napoleon promised to +regard favourably an extension of Prussian power in Germany; while +Bismarck led the emperor to believe that Prussia would help him in +extending the frontier of France. A treaty of alliance with Italy was +arranged in the spring of 1866; and Bismarck then with much difficulty +overcame the reluctance of the king to embark in a war with his old +ally. The results of the war entirely justified his calculations. +Prussia, though opposed by all the German states except a few +principalities in the north, completely defeated all her enemies, and at +the end of a few weeks the whole of Germany lay at her feet. + + + Settlement of 1866. + +The war of 1866 is more than that of 1870 the crisis of modern German +history. It finally settled the controversy which had begun more than a +hundred years before, and left Prussia the dominant power in Germany. It +determined that the unity of Germany should be brought about not by +revolutionary means as in 1848, not as in 1849 had been attempted by +voluntary agreement of the princes, not by Austria, but by the sword of +Prussia. This was the great work of Bismarck's life; he had completed +the programme foreshadowed in his early speeches, and finished the work +of Frederick the Great. It is also the turning-point in Bismarck's own +life. Having secured the dominance of the crown in Prussia and of +Prussia in Germany, he could afford to make a reconciliation with the +parties which had been his chief opponents, and turn to them for help in +building up a new Germany. The settlement of 1866 was peculiarly his +work. We must notice, first, how in arranging the terms of peace he +opposed the king and the military party who wished to advance on Vienna +and annex part of Austrian Silesia; with greater foresight he looked to +renewing the old friendship with Austria, and insisted (even with the +threat of resignation) that no territory should be demanded. The +southern states he treated with equal moderation, and thereby was able +to arrange an offensive and defensive alliance with them. On the other +hand, in order to secure the complete control of North Germany, which +was his immediate object, he required that the whole of Hanover, +Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Nassau and the city of Frankfort, as well as the +Elbe duchies, should be absorbed in Prussia. He then formed a separate +confederation of the North German states, but did not attempt to unite +the whole of Germany, partly because of the internal difficulties which +this would have produced, partly because it would have brought about a +war with France. In the new confederation he became sole responsible +minister, with the title _Bundes-Kanzler_; this position he held till +1890, in addition to his former post of premier minister. In 1871 the +title was altered to _Reichs-Kanzler_. + +The reconciliation with the Prussian parliament he effected by bringing +in a bill of indemnity for the money which had been spent without leave +of parliament. The Radicals still continued their opposition, but he +thereby made possible the formation of a large party of moderate +Liberals, who thenceforward supported him in his new Nationalist policy. +He aslo, in the constitution for the new confederation, introduced a +parliament (_Bundestag_) elected by universal suffrage. This was the +chief demand of the revolutionists in 1848; it was one to which in his +early life he had been strongly opposed. His experience at Frankfort had +diminished his dislike of popular representation, and it was probably to +the advice of Lassalle that his adoption of universal suffrage was due. +He first publicly proposed it just before the war; by carrying it out, +notwithstanding the apprehensions of many Liberal politicians, he placed +the new constitution on a firmer base than would otherwise have been +possible. + +Up to 1866 he had always appeared to be an opponent of the National +party in Germany, now he became their leader. His next task was to +complete the work which was half-finished, and it was this which brought +about the second of the great wars which he undertook. + + + Bismarck and France. + +The relations with Napoleon III. form one of the most interesting but +obscurest episodes in Bismarck's career. We have seen that he did not +share the common prejudice against co-operation with France. He found +Napoleon willing to aid Prussia as he had aided Piedmont, and was ready +to accept his assistance. There was this difference, that he asked only +for neutrality, not armed assistance, and it is improbable that he ever +intended to alienate any German territory; he showed himself, however, +on more than one occasion, ready to discuss plans for extending French +territory, on the side of Belgium and Switzerland. Napoleon, who had not +anticipated the rapid success of Prussia, after the battle of Koniggratz +at the request of Austria came forward as mediator, and there were a few +days during which it was probable that Prussia would have to meet a +French attempt to dictate terms of peace. Bismarck in this crisis by +deferring to the emperor in appearance avoided the danger, but he knew +that he had been deceived, and the cordial understanding was never +renewed. Immediately after an armistice had been arranged, Benedetti, at +the orders of the French government, demanded as recompense a large +tract of German territory on the left bank of the Rhine. This Bismarck +peremptorily refused, declaring that he would rather have war. Benedetti +then made another proposal, submitting a draft treaty by which France +was to support Prussia in adding the South German states to the new +confederation, and Germany was to support France in the annexation of +Luxemburg and Belgium. Bismarck discussed, but did not conclude the +treaty; he kept, however, a copy of the draft in Benedetti's +handwriting, and published it in _The Times_ in the summer of 1870 so as +to injure the credit of Napoleon in England. The failure of the scheme +made a contest with France inevitable, at least unless the Germans were +willing to forgo the purpose of completing the work of German unity, and +during the next four years the two nations were each preparing for the +struggle, and each watching to take the other at a disadvantage. + + + The Ems telegram. + +It is necessary, then, to keep in mind the general situation in +considering Bismarck's conduct in the months immediately preceding the +war of 1870. In 1867 there was a dispute regarding the right to garrison +Luxemburg. Bismarck then produced the secret treaties with the southern +states, an act which was, as it were, a challenge to France by the whole +of Germany. During the next three years the Ultramontane party hoped to +bring about an anti-Prussian revolution, and Napoleon was working for an +alliance with Austria, where Beust, an old opponent of Bismarck's, was +chancellor. Bismarck was doubtless well informed as to the progress of +the negotiations, for he had established intimate relations with the +Hungarians. The pressure at home for completing the work of German unity +was so strong that he could with difficulty resist it, and in 1870 he +was much embarrassed by a request from Baden to be admitted to the +confederation, which he had to refuse. It is therefore not surprising +that he eagerly welcomed the opportunity of gaining the goodwill of +Spain, and supported by all the means in his power the offer made by +Marshal Prim that Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern should be chosen king +of that country. It was only by his urgent and repeated representations +that the prince was persuaded against his will to accept. The +negotiations were carried out with the greatest secrecy, but as soon as +the acceptance was made known the French government intervened and +declared that the project was inadmissable. Bismarck was away at Varzin, +but on his instructions the Prussian foreign office in answer to +inquiries denied all knowledge or responsibility. This was necessary, +because it would have caused a bad impression in Germany had he gone to +war with France in support of the prince's candidature. The king, by +receiving Benedetti at Ems, departed from the policy of reserve Bismarck +himself adopted, and Bismarck (who had now gone to Berlin) found himself +in a position of such difficulty that he contemplated resignation. The +French however, by changing and extending their demands enabled him to +find a cause of war of such nature that the whole of Germany would be +united against French agression. France asked for a letter of apology, +and Benedetti personally requested from the king a promise that he would +never allow the candidature to be resumed. Bismarck published the +telegram in which this information and the refusal of the king were +conveyed, but by omitting part of the telegram made it appear that the +request and refusal had both been conveyed in a more abrupt form than +had really been the case.[1] But even apart from this, the publication +of the French demand, which could not be complied with, must have +brought about a war. + +In the campaign of 1870-71 Bismarck accompanied the headquarters of the +army, as he had done in 1866. He was present at the battle of Gravelotte +and at the surrender of Sedan, and it was on the morning of the 2nd of +September that he had his famous meeting with Napoleon after the +surrender of the emperor. He accompanied the king to Paris, and spent +many months at Versailles. Here he was occupied chiefly with the +arrangments for admitting the southern states to the confederation, and +the establishment of the empire. He also underwent much anxiety lest the +efforts of Thiers to bring about an interference by the neutral powers +might be successful. He had to carry on the negotiations with the French +preliminary to the surrender of Paris, and to enforce upon them the +German terms of peace. + + + After 1870. + +For Bismarck's political career after 1870 we must refer to the article +GERMANY, for he was thenceforward entirely absorbed in the affairs of +his country. The foreign policy he controlled absolutely. As chancellor +he was responsible for the whole internal policy of the empire, and his +influence is to be seen in every department of state, especially, +however, in the great change of policy after 1878. During the earlier +period the estrangement from the Conservatives, which had begun in 1866, +became very marked, and brought about a violent quarrel with many of his +old friends, which culminated in the celebrated Arnim trial. He incurred +much criticism during the struggle with the Roman Catholic Church, and +in 1873 he was shot at and slightly wounded by a youth called Rullmann, +who professed to be an adherent of the Clerical party. Once before, in +1866, just before the outbreak of war, his life had been attempted by a +young man called Cohen, a native of Wurttemberg, who wished to save +Germany from a fratricidal war. In 1872 he retired from the presidency +of the Prussian ministry, but returned after a few months. On several +occasions he offered to retire, but the emperor always refused his +consent, on the last time with the word "Never." In 1877 he took a long +leave of absence for ten months. His health at this time was very bad. +In 1878 he presided over the congress of Berlin. The following years +were chiefly occupied, besides foreign affairs, which were always his +first care, with important commercial reforms, and he held at this time +also the office of Prussian minister of trade in addition to his other +posts. During this period his relations with the Reichstag were often +very unsatisfactory, and at no time did he resort so freely to +prosecutions in the law-courts in order to injure his opponents, so that +the expression _Bismarck-Beleidigung_ was invented. He was engaged at +this time in a great struggle with the Social-Democrats, whom he tried +to crush by exceptional penal laws. The death of the emperor William in +1888 made a serious difference in his position. He had been bound to him +by a long term of loyal service, which had been rewarded with equal +loyalty. For his relations to the emperors Frederick and William II., +and for the events connected with his dismissal from office in March +1890, we must refer to the articles under those names. + +After his retirement he resided at Friedrichsruh, near Hamburg, a house +on his Leuenburg estates. His criticisms of the government, given +sometimes in conversation, sometimes in the columns of the _Hamburger +Nachrichten_, caused an open breach between him and the emperor; and the +new chancellor, Count Caprivi, in a circular despatch which was +afterwards published, warned all German envoys that no real importance +must be attached to what he said. When he visited Vienna for his son's +wedding the German ambassador, Prince Reuss, was forbidden to take any +notice of him. A reconciliation was effected in 1893. In 1895 his +eightieth birthday was celebrated with great enthusiasm: the Reichstag +alone, owing to the opposition of the Clericals and the Socialists, +refused to vote an address. In 1891 he had been elected a member of the +Reichstag, but he never took his seat. He died at Friedrichsruh on the +31st of July 1898. + +Bismarck was made a count in 1865; in 1871 he received the rank of Furst +(prince). On his retirement the emperor created him duke of Lauenburg, +but he never used the title, which was not inherited by his son. In 1866 +he received L60,000 as his share of the donation voted by the Reichstag +for the victorious generals. With this he purchased the estate of Varzin +in Pomerania, which henceforth he used as a country residence in +preference to Schonhausen. In 1871 the emperor presented him with a +large part of the domains of the duchy of Lauenburg. On his seventieth +birthday a large sum of money (L270,000) was raised by public +subscription, of which half was devoted to repurchasing the estate of +Schonhausen for him, and the rest was used by him to establish a fund +for the assistance of schoolmasters. As a young man he was an officer in +the Landwehr and militia, and in addition to his civil honours he was +eventually raised to the rank of general. Among the numerous orders he +received we may mention that he was the first Protestant on whom the +pope bestowed the order of Christ; this was done after the cessation of +the Kulturkampf and the reference of the dispute with Spain concerning +the Caroline Islands to the arbitration of the pope. + +Bismarck's wife died in 1894. He left one daughter and two sons. Herbert +(1840-1904), the elder, was wounded at Mars-le-Tour, afterwards entered +the foreign office, and acted as private secretary to his father +(1871-1881). In 1882 he became councillor to the embassy at London, in +1884 was transferred to St Petersburg, and in 1885 became +under-secretary of state for foreign affairs. In 1884 he had been +elected to the Reichstag, but had to resign his seat when, in 1886, he +was made secretary of state for foreign affairs and Prussian minister. +He conducted many of the negotiations with Great Britain on colonial +affairs. He retired in 1890 at the same time as his father, and in 1893 +was again elected to the Reichstag. He married Countess Margarete Hoyos +in 1892, and died on the 18th of September 1904. He left two daughters +and three sons, of whom the eldest, Otto Christian Archibald (b. 1897), +succeeded to the princely title. The second son, Wilhelm, who was +president of the province of Prussia, died in 1901. By his wife, Sybilla +von Arnim-Krochlendorff, he left three daughters and a son, Count +Nikolaus (b. 1896). + + AUTHORITIES.--The literature on Bismarck's life is very extensive, and + it is only possible to enumerate a few of the most important books. + The first place belongs to his own works. These include his own + memoirs, published after his death, under the title _Gedanken und + Erinnerungen_; there is an English translation, _Bismarck: his + Reflections and Reminiscences_ (London, 1898). They are incomplete, + but contain very valuable discussions on particular points. The + speeches are of the greatest importance both for his character and for + political history; of the numerous editions that by Horst Kehl, in 12 + vols. (Stuttgart, 1892-1894), is the best; there is a cheap edition in + Reclam's _Universalbibliothek._ Bismarck was an admirable + letter-writer, and numbers of his private letters have been published; + a collected edition has been brought out by Horst Kohl. His letters to + his wife were published by Prince Herbert Bismarck (Stuttgart, 1900). + A translation of a small selection of the private letters was + published in 1876 by F. Maxse. Of great value for the years 1851-1858 + is the corrspondence with General L. v. Gerlach, which has been edited + by Horst Kohl (3rd ed., Berlin, 1893). A selection of the political + letters was also published under the title _Politische Briefe aus den + Jahren 1849-1899_ (2nd ed., Berlin, 1890). Of far greater importance + are the collections of despatches and state papers edited by Herr v. + Poschinger. These include four volumes entitled _Preussen im + Bundestag, 1851-1859_ (4 vols., Leipzig, 1882-1885), which contain his + despatches during the time he was at Frankfort. Next in importance are + two works, _Bismarck als Volkswirth_ and _Aktenstucke zur + Wirthschaftspolitik des Fursten Bismarck_, which are part of the + collection of state papers, _Akenstucke zur Geschichte der + Wirthschaftspolitik in Preussen._ They contain full information on + Bismarck's commercial policy, including a number of important state + papers. A useful general collection is that by Ludwig Hahn, _Bismarck, + sein politisches Leben_, &c. (5 vols., Berlin, 1878-1891), which + includes a selection from letters, speeches and newspaper articles. + These collections have only been possible owing to the extreme + generosity which Bismarck showed in permitting the publication of + documents; he always professed to have no secrets. A full account of + the diplomatic history from 1863 to 1866 is given by Sybel in _Die + Begrundung des deutschen Reichs_ (Munich, 1889-1894), written with the + help of the Prussian archives. The last two volumes, covering + 1866-1870, are of less value, as he was not able to use the archives + for this period. Poschinger has also edited a series of works in which + anecdotes, minutes of interviews and conversations are recorded; they + are, however, of very unequal value. They are _Bismarck und die + Parlamentarier, Furst Bismarck und der Bundesrath, Die Ansprache des + Fursten Bismarck, Neue Tischgesprache_, and _Bismarck und die + Diplomaten_. Selections from these have been published in English by + Charles Lowe, _The Tabletalk of Prince Bismarck_, and by Sidney + Whitman, _Conversations with Bismarck_. By far the fullest guide to + Bismarck's life is Horst Kohl's _Furst Bismarck, Regesten zu einer + wissenschaftlichen Biographie_ (Leipzig, 1891-1892), which contains a + record of Bismarck's actions on each day, with references to and + extracts from his letters and speeches. For the works of Moritz Busch, + which contain graphic pictures of his daily life, see the article + BUSCH. Further materials were published periodically in the + _Bismarck-Jahrbuch_, edited by Horst Kohl (Berlin, 1894-1896; + Stuttgart, 1897-1899). Herr v. Poschinger also brought out a _Bismarck + Portfeuille_. Of German biographies may be mentioned Hans Blum, + _Bismarck und seine Zeit_ (6 vols., Munich, 1894-1895), with a volume + of appendices, &c. (1898); Heyck, _Bismarck_ (Bielefeld, 1898); + Kreutzer, _Otto von Bismarck_ (2 vols., Leipzig, 1900); + Klein-Hattingen, _Bismarck und seine Welt, 1815-1871_, Bd. i. (Berlin, + 1902); Lenz, _Geschichte Bismarcks_ (Leipzig, 1902); Penzler, _Furst + Bismarck nach seiner Entlassung_ (7 vols., ib. 1897-1898); Liman, one + volume under the same title (ib. 1901). There are English biographies + by Charles Lowe, _Bismarck, a Political Biography_ (revised edition in + 1 vol., 1895), by James Headlam (1899), and by F. Stearns + (Philadelphia, 1900). A useful bibliography of all works on Bismarck + up to 1895 is Paul Schulze and Otto Koller's _Bismarck-Literatur_ + (Leipzig, 1896). (J. W. He.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] It was not till many years later that our knowledge of these + events (which is still incomplete) was established; in 1894 the + publication of the memoirs of the king of Rumania showed, what had + hitherto been denied, that Bismarck had taken a leading part in + urging the election of the prince of Hohenzollern. It was in 1892 + that the language used by Bismarck himself made it necessary for the + German government to publish the original form of the Ems telegram. + + + + +BISMARCK, the capital of North Dakota, U.S.A., and the county-seat of +Burleigh county, on the E. bank of the Missouri river, in the S. central +part of the state. Pop. (1890) 2186, (1900) 3319, of whom 746 were +foreign-born, (1905) 4913, (1910) 5443. It is on the main line of the +Northern Pacific, and on the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie +railways; and steamboats run from here to Mannhaven, Mercer county, and +Fort Yates, Morton county. The city is about 1650 ft. above sea-level. +It contains the state capitol, the state penitentiary, a U.S. land +office, a U.S. surveyor-general's office, a U.S. Indian school and a +U.S. weather station; about a mile S. of the city is Fort Lincoln, a +United States army post. Bismarck is the headquarters for navigation of +the upper Missouri river, is situated in a good agricultural region, and +has a large wholesale trade, shipping grain, hides, furs, wool and coal. +It was founded in 1873, and was chartered as a city in 1876; from 1883 +to 1889 it was the capital of Dakota Territory, on the division of which +it became the capital of North Dakota. + + + + +BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO, the collective name of a large number of islands +lying N. and N.E. of New Guinea, between 1 deg. and 7 deg. S., and 146 +deg. and 153 deg. E., belonging to Germany. The largest island is New +Pomerania, and the archipelago also includes New Mecklenburg, New +Hanover, with small attendant islands, the Admiralty Islands and a chain +of islands off the coast of New Guinea, the whole system lying in the +form of a great amphitheatre of oval shape. The archipelago was named in +honour of the first chancellor of the German empire, after a German +protectorate had been declared in 1884. (See ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, NEW +MECKLENBURG, NEW POMERANIA, NEW GUINEA.) + + + + +BISMILLAH, an Arabic exclamation, meaning "in the name of God." + + + + +BISMUTH, a metallic chemical element; symbol Bi, atomic weight 208.5 (O += 16). It was probably unknown to the Greeks and Romans, but during the +middle ages it became quite familiar, notwithstanding its frequent +confusion with other metals. In 1450 Basil Valentine referred to it by +the name "wismut," and characterized it as a metal; some years later +Paracelsus termed it "wissmat," and, in allusion to its brittle nature, +affirmed it to be a "bastard" or "half-metal"; Georgius Agricola used +the form "wissmuth," latinized to "bisemutum," and also the term +"plumbum cineareum." Its elementary nature was imperfectly understood; +and the impure specimens obtained by the early chemists explain, in some +measure, its confusion with tin, lead, antimony, zinc and other metals; +in 1595 Andreas Libavius confused it with antimony, and in 1675 Nicolas +Lemery with zinc. These obscurities began to be finally cleared up with +the researches of Johann Heinrich Pott (1692-1777), a pupil of Stahl, +published in his _Exercitationes chemicae de Wismutho_ (1769), and of N. +Geoffroy, son of Claude Joseph Geoffroy, whose contribution to our +knowledge of this metal appeared in the _Memoires de l'academie +francaise_ for 1753. Torbern Olof Bergman reinvestigated its properties +and determined its reactions; his account, which was published in his +_Opuscula_, contains the first fairly accurate description of the metal. + +_Ores and Minerals._--The principal source of bismuth is the native +metal, which is occasionally met with as a mineral, usually in +reticulated and arborescent shapes or as foliated and granular masses +with a crystalline fracture. Although bismuth is readily obtained in +fine crystals by artificial means, yet natural crystals are rare and +usually indistinct; they belong to the rhombohedral system and a +cube-like rhombohedron with interfacial angles of 92 deg. 20' is the +predominating form. There is a perfect cleavage perpendicular to the +trigonal axis of the crystals; the fact that only two (opposite) corners +of the cube-like crystals can be truncated by cleavage at once +distinguishes them from true cubes. When not tarnished, the mineral has +a silver-white colour with a tinge of red, and the lustre is metallic. +Hardness 2-2-1/2; specific gravity 9.70-9.83. The slight variations in +specific gravity are due to the presence of small amounts of arsenic, +sulphur or tellurium, or to enclosed impurities. + +Bismuth occurs in metalliferous veins traversing gneiss or clay-slate, +and is usually associated with ores of silver and cobalt. Well-known +localities are Schneeberg in Saxony and Joachimsthal in Bohemia; at the +former it has been found as arborescent groups penetrating brown jasper, +which material has occasionally been cut and polished for small +ornaments. The mineral has been found in some Cornish mines and is +fairly abundant in Bolivia (near Sorata, and at Tasna in Potosi). It is +the chief commercial source of bismuth. + +The oxide, bismuth ochre, Bi2O3, and the sulphide, bismuth glance or +bismuthite, are also of commercial importance. The former is found, +generally mixed with iron, copper and arsenic oxides, in Bohemia, +Siberia, Cornwall, France (Meymac) and other localities; it also occurs +admixed with bismuth carbonate and hydrate. The hydrated carbonate, +bismutite, is of less importance; it occurs in Cornwall, Bolivia, +Arizona and elsewhere. + +Of the rarer bismuth minerals we may notice the following:--the complex +sulphides, copper bismuth glance or wittichenite, BiCu3S3, silver +bismuth glance, bismuth cobalt pyrites, bismuth nickel pyrites or +saynite, needle ore (patrinite or aikinite), BiCuPbS3, emplectite, +CuBiS2, and kobellite, BiAsPb3S6; the sulphotelluride tetradymite; the +selenide guanajuatite, Bi2Se3, the basic tellurate montanite, +Bi2(OH)4TeOe; the silicates eulytite and agricolite, Bi4(SiO2)3; and the +urnayl arsenate walpurgite, Bi(UO2),(OH)24(A3O4)4. + + _Metallurgy._--Bismuth is extracted from its ores by dry, wet, or + electro-matallurgical methods, the choice depending upon the + composition of the ore and economic conditions. The dry process is + more frequently practised, for the easy reducibility of the oxide and + sulphide, together with the low melting-point of the metal, renders it + possible to effect a ready separation of the metal from the gangue and + impurities. The extraction from ores in which the bismuth is present + in the metallic condition may be accomplished by a simple liquation, + or melting, in which the temperature is just sufficient to melt the + bismuth, or by a complete fusion of the ore. The first process never + extracts all the bisbuth, as much as one-third being retained in the + matte or speiss; the second is more satisfactory, since the extraction + is more complete, and also allows the addition of reducing agents to + decompose any admixed bismuth oxide or sulphide. In the liquidation + process the ore is heated in inclined cylindrical retorts, and the + molten metal is tapped at the lower end; the residues being removed + from the upper end. The fusion process is preferably carried out in + crucible furnaces; shaft furnaces are unsatisfactory on account of the + disintegrating action of the molten bismuth on the furnace linings. + + Sulphuretted ores are smelted, either with or without a preliminary + calcination, with metallic iron; calcined ores may be smelted with + carbon (coal). The reactions are strictly analogous to those which + occur in the smelting of galena (see LEAD), the carbon reducing any + oxide, either present originally in the ore or produced in the + calcination and the iron combining with the sulphur of the bismuthite. + A certain amount of bismuth sulphate is always formed during the + calcination; this is subsequently reduced to the sulphide and + ultimately to the metal in the fusion. Calcination in reverberatory + furnaces and a subsequent smelting in the same type of furnace with + the addition of about 3% of coal, lime, soda and fluorspar, has been + adopted for treating the Bolivian ores, which generally contain the + sulphides of bismuth, copper, iron, antimony, lead and a little + silver. The lowest layer of the molten mass is principally metallic + bismuth, the succeeding layers are a bismuth copper matte, which is + subsequently worked up, and a slag. Ores containing the oxide and + carbonate are treated either by smelting with carbon or by a wet + process. + + In the wet process the ores, in which the bismuth is present as oxide + or carbonate, are dissolved out with hydrochloric acid, or, if the + bismuth is to be extracted from a matte or alloy, the solvent employed + is _aqua regia_ or strong sulphuric acid. The solution of metallic + chlorides or sulphates so obtained is precipitated by iron, the + metallic bismuth filtered, washed with water, pressed in canvas bags, + and finally fused in graphite crucibles, the surface being protected + by a layer of charcoal. Another process consists in adding water to + the solution and so precipitating the bismuth as oxychloride, which is + then converted into the metal. + + The crude metal obtained by the preceding processes is generally + contaminated by arsenic, sulphur, iron, nickel, cobalt and antimony, + and sometimes with silver or gold. A dry method of purification + consists in a liquation on a hearth of peculiar construction, which + occasions the separation of the unreduced bismuth sulphide and the + bulk of the other impurities. A better process is to remelt the metal + in crucibles with the addition of certain refining agents. The details + of this process vary very considerably, being conditioned by the + composition of the impure metal and the practice of particular works. + The wet refining process is more tedious and expensive, and is only + exceptionally employed, as in the case of preparing the pure metal or + its salts for pharmaceutical or chemical purposes. The basic nitrate + is the salt generally prepared, and, in general outline, the process + consists in dissolving the metal in nitric acid, adding water to the + solution, boiling the precipitated basic nitrate with an alkali to + remove the arsenic and lead, dissolving the residue in nitric acid, + and reprecipitating as basic nitrate with water. J.F.W. Hampe prepared + chemically pure bismuth by fusing the metal with sodium carbonate and + sulphur, dissolving the bismuth sulphide so formed in nitric acid, + precipitating the bismuth as the basic nitrate, re-dissolving this + salt in nitric acid, and then precipitating with ammonia. The bismuth + hydroxide so obtained is finally reduced by hydrogen. + + _Properties._--Bismuth is a very brittle metal with a white + crystalline fracture and a characteristic reddish-white colour. It + crystallizes in rhombohedra belonging to the hexagonal system, having + interfacial angles of 87 deg. 40'. According to G.W.A. Kahlbaum, Roth + and Siedler (_Ziet. Anorg. Chem. 29_, p. 294), its specific gravity is + 9.78143; Roberts and Wrightson give the specific gravity of solid + bismuth as 9.82, and of molten bismuth as 10.035. It therefore expands + on solidification; and as it retains this property in a number of + alloys, the metal receives extensive application in forming + type-metals. Its melting-point is variously given as 268.3 deg. (F. + Rudberg and A.D. von Riemsdijk) and 270.5 deg. (C.C. Person); + commercial bismuth melts at 260 deg. (Ledebur), and electrolytic + bismuth at 264 deg. (Classen). It vaporizes in a vacuum at 292 deg., + and its boiling-point, under atmospheric pressure, is between 1090 + deg. and 1450 deg. (T. Carnelley and W.C. Williams). Regnault + determined its specific heat between 0 deg. and 100 deg. to be 0.0308; + Kahlbaum, Roth and Siedler (_loc. cit._) give the value 0.03055. Its + thermal conductivity is the lowest of all metals, being 18 as compared + with silver as 1000; its coefficient of expansion between 0 deg. and + 100 deg. is 0.001341. Its electrical conductivity is approximately + 1.2, silver at 0 deg. being taken as 100; it is the most diamagnetic + substance known, and its thermoelectric properties render it + especially valuable for the construction of thermopiles. + + The metal oxidizes very slowly in dry air at ordinary temperatures, + but somewhat more rapidly in moist air or when heated. In the last + case it becomes coated with a greyish-black layer of an oxide (dioxide + (?)), at a red heat the layer consists of the trioxide (Bi2O3); and is + yellow or green in the case of pure bismuth, and violet or blue if + impure; at a bright red heat it burns with a bluish flame to the + trioxide. Bismuth combines directly with the halogens, and the + elements of the sulphur group. It readily dissolves in nitric acid, + _aqua regia_ and hot sulphuric acid, but tardily in hot hydrochloric + acid. It is precipitated as the metal from solutions of its salts by + the metals of the alkalis and alkaline earths, zinc, iron, copper, &c. + In its chemical affinities it resembles arsenic and antimony; an + important distinction is that it forms no hydrogen compound analogous + to arsine and stibine. + + _Alloys_.--Bismuth readily forms alloys with other metals. Treated + with sodammonium it yields a bluish-black mass, BiNa3, which takes + fire in the air and decomposes water. A brittle potassium alloy of + silver-white colour and lamellar fracture is obtained by calcining 20 + parts of bismuth with 16 of cream of tartar at a strong red heat. When + present in other metals, even in very small quantity, bismuth renders + them brittle and impairs their electrical conductivity. With mercury + it forms amalgams. Bismuth is a component of many ternary alloys + characterized by their low fusibility and expansion in solidification; + many of them are used in the arts (see FUSIBLE METAL). + + _Compounds_.--Bismuth forms four oxides, of which the trioxide, Bi2O3, + is the most important. This compound occurs in nature as bismuth + ochre, and may be prepared artificially by oxidizing the metal at a + red heat, or by heating the carbonate, nitrate or hydrate. Thus + obtained it is a yellow powder, soluble in the mineral acids to form + soluble salts, which are readily precipitated as basic salts when the + solution is diluted. It melts to a reddish-brown liquid, which + solidifies to a yellow crystalline mass on cooling. The Hydrate, + Bi(OH)3, is obtained as a white powder by adding potash to a solution + of a bismuth salt. Bismuth dioxide, BiO or Bi2O2, is said to be formed + by the limited oxidation of the metal, and as a brown precipitate by + adding mixed solutions of bismuth and stannous chlorides to a solution + of caustic potash. Bismuth tetroxide, Bi2O4, sometimes termed bismuth + bismuthate, is obtained by melting bismuth trioxide with potash, or by + igniting bismuth trioxide with potash and potassium chlorate. It is + also formed by oxidizing bismuth trioxide suspended in caustic potash + with chlorine, the pentoxide being formed simultaneously; oxidation + and potassium ferricyanide simply gives the tetroxide (Hauser and + Vanino, _Zeit. Anorg. Chem_., 1904, 39, p. 381). The hydrate, + Bi2O4.2H2O, is also known. Bismuth pentoxide, Bi2C5, is obtained by + heating bismuthic acid, HBiO3, to 130 deg.C.; this acid (in the form + of its salts) being the product of the continued oxidation of an + alkaline solution of bismuth trioxide. + + Bismuth forms two chlorides: BiCl2 and BiCl3. The dichloride, BiCl2, + is obtained as a brown crystalline powder by fusing the metal with the + trichloride, or in a current of chlorine, or by heating the metal with + calomel to 250 deg. Water decomposes it to metallic bismuth and the + oxychloride, BiOCl. Bismuth trichloride, BiCl3, was obtained by Robert + Boyle by heating the metal with corrosive sublimate. It is the final + product of burning bismuth in an excess of chlorine. It is a white + substance, melting at 225 deg.-230 deg. and boiling at 435 deg.-441 + deg. With excess of water, it gives a white precipitate of the + oxychloride, BiOCl. Bismuth trichloride forms double compounds with + hydrochloric acid, the chlorides of the alkaline metals, ammonia, + nitric oxide and nitrosyl chloride. _Bismuth trifluoride_, BiF3, a + white powder, _bismuth tribromide_, BiBr3, golden yellow crystals, + _bismuth iodide_, BiI3, greyish-black crystals, are also known. These + compounds closely resemble the trichloride in their methods of + preparation and their properties, forming oxyhaloids with water, and + double compounds with ammonia, &c. + + _Carbonates_.--The basic carbonate, 2(BiO)2CO3.H2O, obtained as a + white precipitate when an alkaline carbonate is added to a solution of + bismuth nitrate, is employed in medicine. Another basic carbonate, + 3(BiO)2CO3.2Bi(OH)3.3H2O, constitutes the mineral bismutite. + + _Nitrates_.--The normal nitrate, Bi(NO3)3.5H2O, is obtained in large + transparent asymmetric prisms by evaporating a solution of the metal + in nitric acid. The action of water on this solution produces a + crystalline precipitate of basic nitrate, probably Bi(OH)2NO3, though + it varies with the amount of water employed. This precipitate + constitutes the "magistery of bismuth" or "subnitrate of bismuth" of + pharmacy, and under the name of pearl white, _blanc d'Espagne_ or + _blanc de fard_ has long been used as a cosmetic. + + _Sulphides_.--Bismuth combines directly with sulphur to form a, + disulphide, Bi2S2, and a trisulphide, Bi2S3, the latter compound being + formed when the sulphur is in excess. A hydrated disulphide, + Bi2S2.2H2O, is obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a + solution of bismuth nitrate and stannous chloride. Bismuth disulphide + is a grey metallic substance, which is decomposed by hydrochloric acid + with the separation of metallic bismuth and the formation of bismuth + trichloride. Bismuth trisulphide, Bi2S3, constitutes the mineral + bismuthite, and may be prepared by direct union of its constituents, + or as a brown precipitate by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a + solution of a bismuth salt. It is easily soluble in nitric acid. When + heated to 200 deg. it assumes the crystalline form of bismuthite. + Bismuth forms several oxysulphides: Bi4O3S constitutes the mineral + karelinite found at the Zavodinski mine in the Altai; Bi6O3S4 and + Bi2O3S have been prepared artificially. Bismuth also forms the + sulphohaloids, BiSCl, BiSBr, BiSI, analogous to the oyxhaloids. + + Bismuth sulphate, Bi2(SO4)3, is obtained as a white powder by + dissolving the metal or sulphide in concentrated sulphuric acid. Water + decomposes it, giving a basic salt, Bi2(SO4)(OH)4, which on heating + gives (BiO)2SO4. Other basic salts are known. + + Bismuth forms compounds similar to the trisulphide with the elements + selenium and tellurium. The tritelluride constitutes the mineral + tetradymite, Bi2Te3. + + _Analysis_.--Traces of bismuth may be detected by treating the + solution with excess of tartaric acid, potash and stannous chloride, a + precipitate or dark coloration of bismuth oxide being formed even when + only one part of bismuth is present in 20,000 of water. The blackish + brown sulphide precipitated from bismuth salts by sulphuretted + hydrogen is insoluble in ammonium sulphide, but is readily dissolved + by nitric acid. The metal can be reduced by magnesium, zinc, cadmium, + iron, tin, copper and substances like hypophosphorous acid from acid + solutions or from alkaline ones by formaldehyde. In quantitative + estimations it is generally weighed as oxide, after precipitation as + sulphide or carbonate, or in the metallic form, reduced as above. + + _Pharmacology_.--The salts of bismuth are feebly antiseptic. Taken + internally the subnitrate, coming into contact with water, tends to + decompose, gradually liberating nitric acid, one of the most powerful + antiseptics. The physical properties of the powder also give it a mild + astringent action. There are no remote actions. + + _Therapeutics_.--The subnitrate of bismuth is invaluable in certain + cases of dyspepsia, and still more notably so in diarrhoea. It owes + its value to the decomposition described above, by means of which a + powerful antiseptic action is safely and continuously exerted. There + is hardly a safer drug. It may be given in drachm doses with impunity. + It colours the faeces black owing to the formation of sulphide. + + + + +BISMUTHITE, a somewhat rare mineral, consisting of bismuth trisulphide, +Bi2S3. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and is isomorphous +with stibnite (Sb2S3), which it closely resembles in appearance. It +forms loose interlacing aggregates of acicular crystals without terminal +faces (only in a single instance has a terminated crystal been +observed), or as masses with a foliated or fibrous structure. An +important character is the perfect cleavage in one direction parallel to +the length of the needles. The colour is lead-grey inclining to +tin-white and often with a yellowish or iridescent tarnish. The hardness +is 2; specific gravity 6.4-6.5. Bismuthite occurs at several localities +in Cornwall and Bolivia, often in association with native bismuth and +tin-ores. Other localities are known; for instance, Brandy Gill in +Caldbeck Fells, Cumberland, where with molybdenite and apatite it is +embedded in white quartz. The mineral was known to A. Cronstedt in 1758, +and was named bismuthine by F.S. Beudant in 1832. This name, which is +also used in the forms bismuthite and bismuthinite, is rather +unfortunate, since it is readily confused with bismite (bismuth oxide) +and bismutite (basic bismuth carbonate), especially as the latter has +also been used in the form bismuthite. The name bismuth-glance or +bismutholamprite for the species under consideration is free from this +objection. (L. J. S.) + + + + +BISMYA, a group of ruin mounds, about 1 m. long and 1/2 m. wide, +consisting of a number of low ridges, nowhere exceeding 40 ft. in +height, lying in the Jezireh, somewhat nearer to the Tigris than the +Euphrates, about a day's journey to the south-east of Nippur, a little +below 32 deg. N. and about 45 deg. 40' E. Excavations conducted here for +six months, from Christmas of 1903 to June 1904, for the university of +Chicago, by Dr Edgar J. Banks, proved that these mounds covered the site +of the ancient city of Adab (Ud-Nun), hitherto known only from a brief +mention of its name in the introduction to the Khammurabi code (c. 2250 +B.C.). The city was divided into two parts by a canal, on an island in +which stood the temple, E-mach, with a _ziggurat_, or stage tower. It +was evidently once a city of considerable importance, but deserted at a +very early period, since the ruins found close to the surface of the +mounds belong to Dungi and Ur Gur, kings of Ur in the earlier part of +the third millennium B.C. Immediately below these, as at Nippur, were +found the remains of Naram-Sin and Sar-gon, c. 3000 B.C. Below these +there were still 35 ft. of stratified remains, constituting +seven-eighths of the total depth of the ruins. Besides the remains of +buildings, walls, graves, &c., Dr Banks discovered a large number of +inscribed clay tablets of a very early period, bronze and stone tablets, +bronze implements and the like. But the two most notable discoveries +were a complete statue in white marble, apparently the most ancient yet +found in Babylonia (now in the museum in Constantinople), bearing the +inscription--"E-mach, King Da-udu, King of Ud-Nun"; and a temple refuse +heap, consisting of great quantities of fragments of vases in marble, +alabaster, onyx, porphyry and granite, some of which were inscribed, and +others engraved and inlaid with ivory and precious stones. + (J. P. Pe.) + + + + +BISON, the name of the one existing species of European wild ox, _Bos +(Bison) bonasus_, known in Russian as _zubr_. Together with the nearly +allied New World animal known in Europe as the (North) American bison, +but in its own country as "buffalo," and scientifically as _Bos (Bison) +bison_, the bison represents a group of the ox tribe distinguished from +other species by the greater breadth and convexity of the forehead, +superior length of limb, and the longer spinal processes of the dorsal +vertebrae, which, with the powerful muscles attached for the support of +the massive head, form a protuberance or hump on the shoulders. The +bisons have also fourteen pairs of ribs, while the common ox has only +thirteen. The forehead and neck of both species are covered with long, +shaggy hair of a dark brown colour; and in winter the whole of the neck, +shoulders and hump are similarly clothed, so as to form a curly, felted +mane. This mane in the European species disappears in summer; but in the +American bison it is to a considerable extent persistent. + +The bison is now the largest European quadruped, measuring about 10 ft. +long, exclusive of the tail, and standing nearly 6 ft. high. Formerly it +was abundant throughout Europe, as is proved by the fossil remains of +this or a closely allied form found on the continent and in England, +associated with those of the extinct mammoth and rhinoceros. Caesar +mentions the bison as abounding, along with the extinct aurochs or wild +ox, in the forests of Germany and Belgium, where it appears to have been +occasionally captured and afterwards exhibited alive in the Roman +amphitheatres. At that period, and long after, it seems to have been +common throughout central Europe, as we learn from the evidence of +Herberstein in the 16th century. Nowadays bison are found in a truly +wild condition only in the forests of the Caucasus, where they are +specially protected by the Russian government. There is, however, a +herd, somewhat in the condition of park-animals, in the forest of +Byelovitsa, in Lithuania, where it is protected by the tsar, but +nevertheless is gradually dying out. In 1862 the Lithuanian bisons +numbered over 1200, but by 1872 they had diminished to 528, and in 1892 +there were only 491. The prince of Pless has a small herd at Promnitz, +his Silesian estate, founded by the gift of a bull and three cows by +Alexander II. in 1855, his herd being the source of the menagerie +supply. + +Bison feed on a coarse aromatic grass, and browse on the leaves, shoots, +bark and twigs of trees. + +The American bison is distinguished from its European cousin by the +following among other features: The hind-quarters are weaker and fall +away more suddenly, while the withers are proportionately higher. +Especially characteristic is the great mass of brown or blackish brown +hair clothing the head, neck and forepart of the body. The shape of the +skull and horns is also different; the horns themselves being shorter, +thicker, blunter and more sharply curved, while the forehead of the +skull is more convex and the sockets of the eyes are more distinctly +tubular. This species formerly ranged over a third of North America in +countless numbers, but is now practically extinct. The great herd was +separated into a northern and southern division by the completion of +the Union Pacific railway, and the annual rate of destruction from 1870 +to 1875 has been estimated at 2,500,000 head. In 1880 the completion of +the Northern Pacific railway led to an attack upon the northern herd. +The last of the Dakota bisons were destroyed by Indians in 1883, leaving +then less than 1000 wild individuals in the United State. + +A count which was concluded at the end of February 1903, put the number +of captive bisons at 1119, of which 969 were in parks and zoological +gardens in the United States, 41 in Canada and 109 in Europe. At the +same time it was estimated that there were 34 wild bison in the United +States and 600 in Canada. + +In England small herds are kept by the duke of Bedford at Woburn Abbey, +Bedfordshire, and by Mr C.J. Leyland at Haggerston Castle, +Northumberland. + +Two races of the American bison have been distinguished--the typical +prairie form, and the woodland race, _B. bison athabascae_; but the two +are very similar. (R. L.*) + + + + +BISQUE (a French word of unknown origin, formerly spelt in English +"bisk"), a term for odds given in the games of tennis, lawn tennis, +croquet and golf; in the two former a bisque is one point to be taken at +any time during a "set" at the choice of the receiver of the odds, while +in croquet and golf it is one extra stroke to be taken similarly during +a game. The name is given, in cookery, to a thick soup, made +particularly of crayfish or lobsters. + + + + +BISSELL, GEORGE EDWIN (1839- ), American sculptor, son of a quarryman +and marble-cutter, was born at New Preston, Connecticut, on the 16th of +February 1839. During the Civil War he served as a private in the 23rd +Connecticut volunteers in the Department of the Gulf (1862-1863), and on +being mustered out became acting assistant paymaster in the South +Atlantic squadron. At the close of the war he joined his father in +business. He studied the art of sculpture abroad in 1875-1876, and lived +much in Paris during the years 1883-1896, with occasional visits to +America. Among his more important works are the soldiers' and sailors' +monument, and a statue of Colonel Chatfield, at Waterbury, Connecticut; +and statues of General Gates at Saratoga, New York, of Chancellor John +Watts in Trinity churchyard, New York City; of Colonel Abraham de +Peyster in Bowling Green, New York City; of Abraham Lincoln at +Edinburgh; of Burns and "Highland Mary," in Ayr, Scotland; of Chancellor +James Kent, in the Congressional library, Washington; and of President +Arthur in Madison Square, New York City. + + + + +BISSEXT, or BISSEXTUS (Lat. _bis_, twice; _sextus_, sixth), the day +intercalated by the Julian calendar in the February of every fourth year +to make up the six hours by which the solar year was computed to exceed +the year of 365 days. The day was inserted after the 24th of February, +i.e. the 6th day before the calends (1st) of March; there was +consequently, besides the _sextus_, or sixth before the calends, the +_bis-sextus_ or "second sixth," our 25th of February. In modern usage, +with the exception of ecclesiastical calendars, the intercalary day is +added for convenience at the end of the month, and years in which +February has 29 days are called "bissextile," or leap-years. + + + + +BISTRE, the French name of a brown paint made from the soot of wood, now +largely superseded by Indian ink. + + + + +BIT (from the verb "to bite," either in the sense of a piece bitten off, +or an act of biting, or a thing that bites or is bitten), generally, a +piece of anything; the word is, however, used in various special senses, +all derivable from its origin, either literally or metaphorically. The +most common of these are (1) its use as the name of various tools, e.g. +centre-bit; (2) a horse's "bit," or the metal mouth-piece of the bridle; +(3) in money, a small sum of money of varying value (e.g. +threepenny-bit), especially in the West Indies and southern United +States. + + + + +BITHUR, a town in the Cawnpore district of the United Provinces of +India, 12 m. N.W. of Cawnpore city. Pop. (1901) 7173. It is chiefly +notable for its connexion with the mutiny of 1857. The last of the +peshwas, Baji Rao, was banished to Bithur, and his adopted son, the Nana +Sahib, made the town his head-quarters. It was captured by Havelock on +the 19th of July 1857, when the Nana's palaces were destroyed. + + + + +BITHYNIA ([Greek: Bituvia]), an ancient district in the N.W. of Asia +Minor, adjoining the Propontis, the Thracian Bosporus and the Euxine. +According to Strabo it was bounded on the E. by the river Sangarius; but +the more commonly received division extended it to the Parthenius, which +separated it from Paphlagonia, thus comprising the district inhabited by +the Mariandyni. On the W. and S.W. it was separated from Mysia by the +river Rhyndacus; and on the S. it adjoined Phrygia Epictetus and +Galatia. It is in great part occupied by mountains and forests, but has +valleys and districts near the sea-coast of great fertility. The most +important mountain range is the (so-called) "Mysian" Olympus (7600 ft.), +which towers above Brusa and is clearly visible as far away as +Constantinople (70 m.). Its summits are covered with snow for a great +part of the year. East of this the range now called Ala-Dagh extends far +above 100 m. from the Sangarius to Paphlagonia. Both of these ranges +belong to that border of mountains which bounds the great tableland of +Asia Minor. The country between them and the coast, covered with forests +and traversed by few lines of route, is still imperfectly known. But the +broad tract which projects towards the west as far as the shores of the +Bosporus, though hilly and covered with forests--the Turkish Aghatch +Denizi, or "The Ocean of Trees"--is not traversed by any mountain chain. +The west coast is indented by two deep inlets, (1) the northernmost, the +Gulf of Ismid (anc. Gulf of Astacus), penetrating between 40 and 50 m. +into the interior as far as Ismid (anc. Nicomedia), separated by an +isthmus of only about 25 m. from the Black Sea; (2) the Gulf of Mudania +or Gemlik (Gulf of Cius), about 25 m. long. At its extremity is situated +the small town of Gemlik (anc. Cius) at the mouth of a valley, +communicating with the lake of Isnik, on which was situated Nicaea. + +The principal rivers are the Sangarius (mod. Sakaria), which traverses +the province from south to north; the Rhyndacus, which separated it from +Mysia; and the Billaeus (Filiyas), which rises in the Ala-Dagh, about 50 +m. from the sea, and after flowing by Boli (anc. Claudiopolis) falls +into the Euxine, close to the ruins of the ancient Tium, about 40 m. +north-east of Heraclea, having a course of more than 100 m. The +Parthenius (mod. Bartan), the boundary of the province towards the east, +is a much less considerable stream. + +The natural resources of Bithynia are still imperfectly developed. Its +vast forests would furnish an almost inexhaustible supply of timber, if +rendered accessible by roads. Coal also is known to exist near Eregli +(Heraclea). The valleys towards the Black Sea abound in fruit trees of +all kinds, while the valley of the Sangarius and the plains near Brusa +and Isnik (Nicaea) are fertile and well cultivated. Extensive +plantations of mulberry trees supply the silk for which Brusa has long +been celebrated, and which is manufactured there on a large scale. + +According to ancient authors (Herodotus, Xenophon, Strabo, &c.), the +Bithynians were an immigrant Thracian tribe. The existence of a tribe +called Thyni in Thrace is well attested, and the two cognate tribes of +the Thyni and Bithyni appear to have settled simultaneously in the +adjoining parts of Asia, where they expelled or subdued the Mysians, +Caucones, and other petty tribes, the Mariandyni alone maintaining +themselves in the north-east. Herodotus mentions the Thyni and Bithyni +as existing side by side; but ultimately the latter must have become the +more important, as they gave their name to the country. They were +incorporated by Croesus with the Lydian monarchy, with which they fell +under the dominion of Persia (546 B.C.), and were included in the +satrapy of Phrygia, which comprised all the countries up to the +Hellespont and Bosporus. But even before the conquest by Alexander the +Bithynians appear to have asserted their independence, and successfully +maintained it under two native princes, Bas and Zipoetes, the last of +whom transmitted his power to his son Nicomedes I., the first to assume +the title of king. This monarch founded Nicomedia, which soon rose to +great prosperity, and during his long reign (278-250 B.C.), as well as +those of his successors, Prusias I., Prusias II. and Nicomedes II. +(149-91 B.C.), the kingdom of Bithynia held a considerable place among +the minor monarchies of Asia. But the last king, Nicomedes III., was +unable to maintain himself against Mithradates of Pontus, and, after +being restored to his throne by the Roman senate, he bequeathed his +kingdom by will to the Romans (74 B.C.). Bithynia now became a Roman +province. Its limits were frequently varied, and it was commonly united +for administrative purposes with the province of Pontus. This was the +state of things in the time of Trajan, when the younger Pliny was +appointed governor of the combined provinces (103-105 A.D.), a +circumstance to which we are indebted for valuable information +concerning the Roman provincial administration. Under the Byzantine +empire Bithynia was again divided into two provinces, separated by the +Sangarias, to the west of which the name of Bithynia was restricted. + +The most important cities were Nicomedia and Nicaea, which disputed with +one another the rank of capital. Both of these were founded after +Alexander the Great; but at a much earlier period the Greeks had +established on the coast the colonies of Cius (afterwards Prusias, mod. +Gemlik); Chalcedon, at the entrance of the Bosporus, nearly opposite +Constantinople; and Heraclea Pontica, on the Euxine, about 120 m. east +of the Bosporus. All these rose to be flourishing places of trade, as +also Prusa at the foot of M. Olympus (see BRUSA). The only other places +of importance at the present day are Ismid (Nicomedia) and Scutari. + + See C. Texier, _Asie Mineure_ (Paris, 1839); G. Perrot, _Calatie et + Bithynie_ (Paris, 1862); W. von Diest in _Petermanns Mittheilungen_, + Ergansungshelt, 116 (Gotha, 1895). (E. H. B.; F. W. Ha.) + + + + +BITLIS, or BETLIS (Arm. _Paghesh_), the chief town of a vilayet of the +same name in Asiatic Turkey, situated at an altitude of 4700 ft. in the +deep, narrow valley of the Bitlis Chai, a tributary of the Tigris. The +main part of the town and the bazaars are crowded alongside the stream, +while suburbs with scattered houses among orchards and gardens extend up +two tributary streams. The houses are massive and well built of a soft +volcanic tufa, and with their courtyards and gardens climbing up the +hillsides afford a striking picture. At the junction of two streams in +the centre of the town is a fine old castle, partly ruined, which, +according to local tradition, occupies the site of a fortress built by +Alexander the Great. It is apparently an Arab building, as Arabic +inscriptions appear on the walls, but as the town stands on the +principal highway between the Van plateau and the Mesopotamian plain it +must always have been of strategic importance. The bazaars are crowded, +covered across with branches in summer, and typical of a Kurdish town. +The population numbers 35,000, of whom about 12,000 are Armenians and +the remainder are Kurds or of Kurdish descent. + +Kurdish beys and sheids have much influence in the town and wild +mountain districts adjoining, while the Sasun mountains, the scene of +successive Armenian revolutions of late years, are not far off to the +west. The town was ruled by a semi-independent Kurdish bey as late as +1836. There are some fine old mosques and _medresses_ (colleges), and +the Armenians have a large monastery and churches. There are British, +French and Russian consuls in the town, and a branch of the American +Mission with schools is established also. The climate is healthy and the +thermometer rarely falls below 0 deg. Fahr., but there is a heavy +snowfall and the narrow streets are blocked for some five months in the +year. + +A good road runs southward down the pass, passing after a few miles some +large chalybeate and sulphur springs. Roads also lead north to Mush and +Erzerum and along the lake to Van. Postal communication is through +Erzerum with Trebizond. Tobacco of an inferior quality is largely grown, +and the chief industry is the weaving of a coarse red cloth. Manna and +gum tragacanth are also collected. Fruit is also plentiful, and there +are many vineyards close by. + +The Bitlis vilayet comprises a very varied section of Asiatic Turkey, as +it includes the Mush plain and the plateau country west of Lake Van, as +well as a large extent of wild mountain districts inhabited by turbulent +Kurds and Armenians on either side of the central town of Bitlis, also +some of the lower country about Sairt along the left bank of the main +stream of the Tigris. The mountains have been little explored, but are +believed to be rich in minerals, iron, lead, copper, traces of gold and +many mineral springs are known to exist. (F. R. M.) + + + + +BITONTO (anc. _Butunti_), a town and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in +the province of Bari, 10 m. west by steam tramway from Bari. Pop. (1901) +30,617. It was a place of no importance in classical times. Its medieval +walls are still preserved. Its cathedral is one of the finest examples +of the Romanesque architecture of Apulia, and has escaped damage from +later restorations. The palazzo Sylos-Labini has a fine Renaissance +court of 1502. + + + + +BITSCH (Fr. _Bitche_), a town of Germany, in Alsace-Lorraine, on the +Horn, at the foot of the northern slope of the Vosges between Hagenau +and Saargemund. Pop. (1905) 4000. There are a Roman Catholic and a +Protestant church, a classical school and an academy of forestry. The +industries include shoe-making and watch-making, and there is some trade +in grain and timber. The town of Bitsch, which was formed out of the +villages of Rohr and Kaltenhausen in the 17th century, derives its name +from the old stronghold (mentioned in 1172 as Bytis Castrum) standing on +a rock some 250 ft. above the town. This had long given its name to the +countship of Bitsch, which was originally in the possession of the dukes +of Lorraine. In 1297 it passed by marriage to Eberhard I. of +Zweibrucken, whose line became extinct in 1569, when the countship +reverted to Lorraine. It passed with that duchy to France in 1766. After +that date the town rapidly increased in population. The citadel, which +had been constructed by Vauban on the site of the old castle after the +capture of Bitsch by the French in 1624, had been destroyed when it was +restored to Lorraine in 1698. This was restored and strengthened in 1740 +into a fortress that proved impregnable in all succeeding wars. The +attack upon it by the Prussians in 1793 was repulsed; in 1815 they had +to be content with blockading it; and in 1870, though it was closely +invested by the Germans after the battle of Worth, it held out until the +end of the war. A large part of the fortification is excavated in the +red sandstone rock, and rendered bomb-proof; a supply of water is +secured to the garrison by a deep well in the interior. + + + + +BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867- ), American sculptor, was born in +Vienna on the 6th of December 1867. After studying art there, in 1889 he +removed to the United States, where he became naturalized. In America he +gained great popularity as a sculptor, and in 1906-1907 was president of +the National Sculpture Society, New York. Among his principal works are: +the Astor memorial gates, Trinity church, New York; "Elements Controlled +and Uncontrolled," on the Administration Building at the Chicago +Exposition; a large relief, "Triumph of Civilization," in the +waiting-room of the Broad Street station of the Pennsylvania railway in +Philadelphia; decorations for the Dewey Naval Arch in New York City; the +"Standard Bearers," at the Pan-American Exposition grounds; a sitting +statue and a bust of Dr Pepper, provost of the University of +Pennsylvania; and the Villard and Hubbard memorials in the New York +chamber of commerce. + + + + +BITTERFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, 26 m. +N. from Leipzig by rail, on the river Mulde, and an important junction +of railways from Leipzig and Halle to Berlin. Pop. (1900) 11,839. It +manufactures drain-pipes, paper-roofing and machinery, and has +saw-mills. Several coal-mines are in the vicinity. The town was built by +a colony of Flemish immigrants in 1153. It was captured by the landgrave +of Meissen in 1476, and belonged thenceforth to Saxony, until it was +ceded to Prussia in 1815. Owing to its pleasant situation and +accessibility, it has become a favourite residence of business men of +Leipzig and Halle. + + + + +BITTERLING (_Rhodeus amarus_), a little carp-like fish of central +Europe, belonging to the Cyprinid family. In it we have a remarkable +instance of symbiosis. The genital papilla of the female acquires a +great development during the breeding season and becomes produced into a +tube nearly as long as the fish itself; this acts as an ovipositor by +means of which the comparatively few and large eggs (3 millimetres in +diameter) are introduced through the gaping valves between the branchiae +of pond mussels (_Unio_ and _Anodonta_), where, after being inseminated, +they undergo their development, the fry leaving their host about a month +later. The mollusc reciprocates by throwing off its embryos on the +parent fish, in the skin of which they remain encysted for some time, +the period of reproduction of the fish and the mussel coinciding. + + + + +BITTERN, a genus of wading birds, belonging to the family _Ardeidae_, +comprising several species closely allied to the herons, from which they +differ chiefly in their shorter neck, the back of which is covered with +down, and the front with long feathers, which can be raised at pleasure. +They are solitary birds, frequenting countries possessing extensive +swamps and marshy grounds, remaining at rest by day, concealed among the +reeds and bushes of their haunts, and seeking their food, which consists +of fish, reptiles, insects and small quadrupeds, in the twilight. The +common bittern (_Botaurus stellaris_) is nearly as large as the heron, +and is widely distributed over the eastern hemisphere. Formerly it was +common in Britain, but extensive drainage and persecution have greatly +dimished its numbers and it is now only an uncertain visitor. Not a +winter passes without its appearing in some numbers, when its uncommon +aspect, its large size, and beautifully pencilled plumage cause it to be +regarded as a great prize by the lucky gun-bearer to whom it falls a +victim. Its value as a delicacy for the table, once so highly esteemed, +has long vanished. The old fable of this bird inserting its beak into a +reed or plunging it into the ground, and so causing the booming sound +with which its name will always be associated, is also exploded, and +nowadays indeed so few people in Britain have ever heard its loud and +awful voice, which seems to be uttered only in the breeding-season, and +is therefore unknown in a country where it no longer breeds, that +incredulity as to its booming at all has in some quarters succeeded the +old belief in this as in other reputed peculiarities of the species. The +bittern in the days of falconry was strictly preserved, and afforded +excellent sport. It sits crouching on the ground during the day, with +its bill pointing in the air, a position from which it is not easily +roused, and even when it takes wing, its flight is neither swift nor +long sustained. When wounded it requires to be approached with caution, +as it will then attack either man or dog with its long sharp bill and +its acute claws. It builds a rude nest among the reeds and flags, out of +materials which surround it, and the female lays four or five eggs of a +brownish olive. During the breeding season it utters a booming noise, +from which it probably derives its generic name, _Botaurus_, and which +has made it in many places an object of superstitious dread. Its plumage +for the most part is of a pale buff colour, rayed and speckled with +black and reddish brown. The American bittern (_Botaurus lentiginosus_) +is somewhat smaller than the European species, and is found throughout +the central and southern portions of North America. It also occurs in +Britain as an occasional straggler. It is distinguishable by its uniform +greyish-brown primaries, which want the tawny bars that characterize _B. +stellaris_. Both species are good eating. + +[Illustration: Bittern.] + + + + +BITTERN (from "bitter"), the mother liquor obtained from sea-water or +brines after the separation of the sodium chloride (common salt) by +crystallization. It contains various magnesium salts (sulphate, +chloride, bromide and iodide) and is employed commercially for the +manufacture of Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate) and bromine. The same +term is applied to a mixture of quassia, iron sulphate, _cocculus +indicus_, liquorice, &c., used in adulterating beer. + + + + +BITTERS, the name given to aromatized (generally alcoholic) beverages +containing a bitter substance or substances, used as tonics, appetizers +or digestives. The bitterness is imparted by such substances as bitter +orange rind, gentian, rhubarb, quassia, cascarilla, angostura, quinine +and cinchona. Juniper, cinnamon, carraway, camomile, cloves and other +flavouring agents are also employed in conjunction with the bitter +principles, alcohol and sugar. Some bitters are prepared by simple +maceration and subsequent filtration (see LIQUEURS), others by the more +complicated distillation process. Those prepared by the latter process +are the finer commercial articles. Bitters are usually sold under the +name of the substance which has been used to give them the predominant +flavour, such as orange, angostura or peach bitters, &c. The alcoholic +strength of bitters varies, but is generally in the neighbourhood of 40% +of alcohol. Some bitters, although possessing tonic properties, may be +regarded as beverages pure and simple, notwithstanding the fact that +they are seldom consumed in an undiluted state; others again, are +obviously medicinal preparations and should be treated as such. + + + + +BITUMEN, the name applied by the Romans to the various descriptions of +natural hydrocarbons, the word _petroleum_ not being used in classical +Latin. In its widest sense it embraces the whole range of these +substances, including _natural gas_, the more or less liquid +descriptions of _petroleum_, and the solid forms of _asphalt, albertite, +gilsonite_ or _uintahite, elaterite, ozokerite_ and _hatchettite_. To +distinguish bitumen intermediate in consistency between asphalt and the +more liquid kinds of crude petroleum, the term _maltha_ (Latin) is +frequently employed. The bitumens of chief commercial importance may be +grouped under the three headings of (1) _natural gas_, (2) _petroleum_, +and (3) _asphalt_, and will be found fully described under these titles. +In the scriptures there are numerous references to bitumen, among which +the following may be quoted:--In Genesis ix. 3, we are told that in the +building of the tower of Babel "slime had they for mortar," and in +Genesis xiv. 10, that the vale of Siddim "was full of slime-pits," the +word _slime_ in the latter quotation from our version appearing as +_bitumen_ in the Vulgate. Herodotus alludes to the use of the bitumen +brought down by the Is, a tributary of the Euphrates, as mortar in +building the walls of Babylon. Diodorus, Curtius, Josephus, Bochart and +others make similar mention of this use of bitumen, and Vitruvius tells +us that it was employed in admixture with clay. + +In its various forms, bitumen is one of the most widely distributed of +substances. It occurs, though sometimes only in small quantity, in +almost every part of the globe, and throughout the whole range of +geological strata, from the Laurentian rocks to the most recent members +of the Quaternary period. Although the gaseous and liquid forms of +bitumen may be regarded as having been formed in the strata in which +they are found or as having been received into such strata shortly after +formation, the semi-solid and solid varieties may be considered to have +been produced by the oxidation and evaporation of liquid petroleum +escaping from underlying or better preserved deposits into other strata, +or into fissures where atmospheric action and loss of the more volatile +constituents can take place. It should, however, be stated that there is +some difference of opinion as to the precise manner of production of +some of the solid forms of bitumen, and especially of ozokerite. + (B. R.) + + + + +BITURIGES, a Celtic people, according to Livy (v. 34) the most powerful +in Gaul in the time of Tarquinius Priscus. At some period unknown they +split up into two branches--Bituriges Cubi and Bituriges Vivisci. The +name is supposed to mean either "rulers of the world" or "perpetual +kings." + +The Bituriges Cubi, called simply Bituriges by Caesar, in whose time +they acknowledged the supremacy of the Aedui, inhabited the modern +diocese of Bourges, including the departments of Cher and Indre, and +partly that of Allier. Their chief towns were Avaricum (Bourges), +Argentomagus (Argenton-sur-Creuse), Neriomagus (Neris-les-Bains), +Noviodunum (perhaps Villate). At the time of the rebellion of +Vercingetoix (52 B.C.), Avaricum, after a desperate resistance, was +taken by assault, and the inhabitants put to the sword. In the following +year, the Bituriges submitted to Caesar, and under Augustus they were +incorporated (in 28 B.C.) in Aquitania. Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ iv. 109) +speaks of them as _liberi_, which points to their enjoying a certain +amount of independence under Roman government. The district contained a +number of iron works, and Caesar says they were skilled in driving +galleries and mining operations. + +The Biturgies Vivisci occupied the strip of land between the sea and the +left bank of the Garonne, comprising the greater part of the modern +department of Gironde. Their capital was Burdigala (Bordeaux), even then +a place of considerable importance and a wine-growing centre. Like the +Cubi, they also are called _liberi_ by Pliny. + + See A. Desjardins, _Geographie historique de la Gaule romaine_, ii. + (1876-1893); A. Longnon, _Geographie de la Gaule on VI^e siecle_ + (1878); A. Hohler, _Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz_; T.R. Holmes, + _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_ (1899). + + + + +BITZIUS, ALBRECHT (1797-1854), Swiss novelist, best known by his pet +name of "Jeremias Gotthelf," was born on the 4th of October 1797 at +Morat, where his father was pastor. In 1804 the home was moved to +Utzenstorf, a village in the Bernese Emmenthal. Here young Bitzius grew +up, receiving his early education and consorting with the boys of the +village, as well as helping his father to cultivate his glebe. In 1812 +he went to complete his education at Bern, and in 1820 was received as a +pastor. In 1821 he visited the university of Gottingen, but returned +home in 1822 to act as his father's assistant. On his father's death +(1824) he went in the same capacity to Herzogenbuchsee, and later to +Bern (1829). Early in 1831 he went as assistant to the aged pastor of +the village of Lutzelfluh, in the Upper Emmenthal (between Langnau and +Burgdorf), being soon elected his successor (1832) and marrying one of +his granddaughters (1833). He spent the rest of his life there, dying on +the 22nd of October 1854, and leaving three children (the son was a +pastor, the two daughters married pastors). His first work, the +_Bauernspiegel_, appeared in 1837. It purported to be the life of +Jeremias Gotthelf, narrated by himself, and this name was later adopted +by the author as his pen name. It is a living picture of Bernese (or, +strictly speaking, Emmenthal) village life, true to nature, and not +attempting to gloss over its defects and failings. It is written (like +the rest of his works) in the Bernese dialect of the Emmenthal, though +it must be remembered that Bitzius was not (like Auerbach) a peasant by +birth, but belonged to the educated classes, so that he reproduces what +he had seen and learnt, and not what he had himself personally +experienced. The book was a great success, as it was a picture of real +life, and not of fancifully beribboned 18th-century villagers. Among his +later tales are the _Leiden und Freuden eines Schulmeisters_ +(1838-1839), _Uli der Knecht_ (1841), with its continuation, _Uli der +Pachter_ (1849), _Anne Babi Jowager_ (1843-1844), _Kathi die +Grossmutter_ (1847), _Die Kaserei in der Vehfreude_ (1850), and the +_Erlebnisse eines Schuldenbauers_ (1854). He published also several +volumes of shorter tales. One slight drawback to some of his writings is +the echo of local political controversies, for Bitzius was a Whig and +strongly opposed to the Radical party in the canton, which carried the +day in 1846. + + Lives by C. Manuel, in the Berlin edition of Bitzius's works (Berlin, + 1861), and by J. Ammann in vol. i. (Bern, 1884) of the _Sammlung + Bernischer Biographien_. His works were issued in 24 vols. at Berlin, + 1856-1861, while 10 vols., giving the original text of each story, + were issued at Bern, 1898-1900 (edition not to be completed). + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +BIVOUAC (a French word generally said to have been introduced during the +Thirty Years' War, perhaps derived from _Beiwacht_, extra guard), +originally, a night-watch by a whole army under arms to prevent +surprise. In modern military parlance the word is used to mean a +temporary encampment in the open field without tents, as opposed to +"billets" or "cantonment" on the one hand and "camp" on the other. The +use of bivouacs permits an army to remain closely concentrated for all +emergencies, and avoids the necessity for numerous wagons carrying +tents. Constant bivouacs, however, are trying to the health of men and +horses, and this method of quartering is never employed except when the +military situation demands concentration and readiness. Thus the +outposts would often have to bivouac while the main body of the army lay +in billets. + + + + +BIWA, a lake in the province of Omi, Japan. It measures 36 m. in length +by 12 m. in extreme breadth, has an area of 180 sq. m., is about 330 ft. +above sea-level, and has an extreme depth of some 300 ft. There are a +few small islands in the lake, the principal being Chikubu-shima at the +northern end. + +Tradition alleges that Lake Biwa and the mountain of Fuji were produced +simultaneously by an earthquake in 286 B.C. On the west of the lake the +mountains Hiei-zan and Hira-yama slope down almost to its margin, and on +the east a wide plain extends towards the boundaries of the province of +Mino. It is drained by a river flowing out of its southern end, and +taking its course into the sea at Osaka. This river bears in succession +the names of Seta-gawa, Uji-gawa and Yodo-gawa. The lake abounds with +fish, and the beauty of its scenery is remarkable. Small steamboats ply +constantly to the points of chief interest, and around its shores are to +be viewed the _Omi-no-hakkei_, or "eight landscapes of Omi"; namely, the +lake silvering under an autumn moon as one looks down from Ishi-yama; +the snow at eve on Hira-yama; the glow of sunset at Seta; the groves and +classic temple of Mii-dera as the evening bell sounds; boats sailing +home from Yabase; cloudless peaks at Awazu; rain at nightfall over +Karasaki; and wild geese sweeping down to Katata. The lake is connected +with Kyoto by a canal constructed in 1890, and is thus brought into +water communication with Osaka. + + + + +BIXIO, NINO (1821-1873), Italian soldier, was born on the 2nd of October +1821. While still a boy he was compelled by his parents to embrace a +maritime career. After numerous adventures he returned to Italy in 1846, +joined the Giovine Italia, and, on 4th November 1847, made himself +conspicuous at Genoa by seizing the bridle of Charles Albert's horse and +crying, "Pass the Ticino, Sire, and we are all with you." He fought +through the campaign of 1848, became captain under Garibaldi at Rome in +1849, taking prisoners an entire French battalion, and gaining the gold +medal for military valour. In 1859 he commanded a Garibaldian battalion, +and gained the military cross of Savoy. Joining the Marsala expedition +in 1860, he turned the day in favour of Garibaldi at Calatafimi, was +wounded at Palermo, but recovered in time to besiege Reggio in Calabria +(21st of August 1860), and, though again wounded, took part in the +battle of Volturno, where his leg was broken. Elected deputy in 1861, he +endeavoured to reconcile Cavour and Garibaldi. In 1866, at the head of +the seventh division, he covered the Italian retreat from Custozza, +ignoring the Austrian summons to surrender. Created senator in February +1870, he was in the following September given command of a division +during the movement against Rome, took Civita Vecchia, and participated +in the general attack upon Rome (20th September 1870). He died of +cholera at Achin Bay in Sumatra _en route_ for Batavia, whither he had +gone in command of a commercial expedition (16th December 1873). + + + + +BIZERTA (properly pronounced Ben Zert; Fr. _Bizerte_), a seaport of +Tunisia, in 37 deg. 17' N., 9 deg. 50' E. Pop. about 12,000. Next to +Toulon, Bizerta is the most important naval port of France in the +Mediterranean. It occupies a commanding strategical position in the +narrowest part of the sea, being 714 m. E. of Gibraltar, 1168 m. W.N.W. +of Port Said, 240 m. N.W. of Malta, and 420 m. S. by E. of Toulon. It is +60 m. by rail N.N.W. of Tunis. The town is built on the shores of the +Mediterranean at the point where the Lake of Bizerta enters the sea +through a natural channel, the mouth of which has been canalized. The +modern town lies almost entirely on the north side of the canal. A +little farther north are the ancient citadel, the walled "Arab" town and +the old harbour (disused). The present outer harbour covers about 300 +acres and is formed by two converging jetties and a breakwater. The +north jetty is 4000 ft. long, the east jetty 3300 ft., and the +breakwater--which protects the port from the prevalent north-east +winds--2300 ft. long. The entrance to the canal is in the centre of the +outer harbour. The canal is 2600 ft. long and 787 ft. wide on the +surface. Its banks are lined with quays, and ships drawing 26 ft. of +water can moor alongside. At the end of the canal is a large commercial +harbour, beyond which the channel opens into the lake--in reality an arm +of the sea--roughly circular in form and covering about 50 sq. m., +two-thirds of its waters having a depth of 30 to 40 ft. The lake, which +merchant vessels are not allowed to enter, contains the naval port and +arsenal. There is a torpedo and submarine boat station on the north side +of the channel at the entrance to the lake, but the principal naval +works are at Sidi Abdallah at the south-west corner of the lake and 10 +m. from the open sea. Here is an enclosed basin covering 123 acres with +ample quayage, dry docks and everything necessary to the accommodation, +repair, revictualling and coaling of a numerous fleet. Barracks, +hospitals and waterworks have been built, the military town, called +Ferryville, being self-contained. + +Fortifications have been built for the protection of the port. They +comprise (a) the older works surrounding the town; (b) a group of coast +batteries on the high ground of Cape Bizerta or Guardia, 4 m. +north-north-west of the town; these are grouped round a powerful fort +called Jebel Kebir, and have a command of 300 to 800 ft. above +sea-level; (c) another group of batteries on the narrow ground between +the sea and the lake to the east of the town; the highest of these is +the Jebel Tuila battery 265 ft. above sea-level. + +The LAKE OF BIZERTA, called Tinja by the Arabs, abounds in excellent +fish, especially mullets, the dried roe of which, called _botargo_, is +largely exported, and the fishing industry employs a large proportion of +the inhabitants. The western shore of the lake is low, and in many +places is covered with olive trees to the water's edge. The +south-eastern shores are hilly and wooded, and behind them rises a range +of picturesque hills. A narrow and shallow channel leads from the +western side of the lake into another sheet of water, the Lake of +Ishkul, so called from Jebel Ishkul, a hill on its southern bank 1740 +ft. high. The Lake of Ishkul is nearly as large as the first lake, but +is very shallow. Its waters are generally sweet. + +Bizerta occupies the site of the ancient Tyrian colony, Hippo Zarytus or +Diarrhytus, the harbour of which, by means of a spacious pier, +protecting it from the north-east wind, was rendered one of the safest +and finest on this coast. The town became a Roman colony, and was +conquered by the Arabs in the 7th century. The place thereafter was +subject either to the rulers of Tunis or of Constantine, but the +citizens were noted for their frequent revolts. They threw in their lot +(c. 1530) with the pirate Khair-ed-Din, and subsequently received a +Turkish garrison. Bizerta was captured by the Spaniards in 1535, but not +long afterwards came under the Tunisian government. Centuries of neglect +followed, and the ancient port was almost choked up, though the value of +the fisheries saved the town from utter decay. Its strategical +importance was one of the causes which led to the occupation of Tunisia +by the French in 1881. In 1890 a concession for a new canal and harbour +was granted to a company, and five years later the new port was formally +opened. Since then the canal has been widened and deepened, and the +naval port at Sidi Abdallah created. + + + + +BIZET [ALEXANDRE CESAR LEOPOLD] GEORGES (1838-1875), French musical +composer, was born at Bougival, near Paris, on the 25th of October 1838, +the son of a singing-master. He displayed musical ability at an early +age, and was sent to the Paris Conservatoire, where he studied under +Halevy and speedily distinguished himself, carrying off prizes for organ +and fugue, and finally in 1857, after an ineffectual attempt in the +previous year, the Grand Prix de Rome for a cantata called _Cloris et +Clotilde_. A success of a different kind also befell him at this time. +Offenbach, then manager of the Theatre des Bouffes-Parisiens, had +organized a competition for an operetta, in which young Bizet was +awarded the first prize in conjunction with Charles Lecocq, each of them +writing an operetta called _Docteur Miracle_. After the three years +spent in Rome, an obligation imposed by the French government on the +winners of the first prize at the Conservatoire, Bizet returned to +Paris, where he achieved a reputation as a pianist and accompanist. On +the 23rd of September 1863 his first opera, _Les Pecheurs de perles_, +was brought out at the Theatre Lyrique, but owing possibly to the +somewhat uninteresting nature of the story, the opera did not enjoy a +very long run. The qualities displayed by the composer, however, were +amply recognized, although the music was stated, by some critics, to +exhibit traces of Wagnerian influence. Wagnerism at that period was a +sort of spectre that haunted the imagination of many leading members of +the musical press. It sufficed for a work to be at all out of the common +for the epithet "Wagnerian" to be applied to it. The term, it may be +said, was intended to be condemnatory, and it was applied with little +understanding as to its real meaning. The score of the _Pecheurs de +perles_ contains several charming numbers; its dreamy melodies are well +adapted to fit a story laid in Eastern climes, and the music reveals a +decided dramatic temperament. Some of its dances are now usually +introduced into the fourth act of _Carmen_. + +On the 3rd of June 1865 Bizet married a daughter of his old master, +Halevy. His second opera, _La Jolie Fitte de Perth_, produced at the +Theatre Lyrique on 26th December 1867, was scarcely a step in advance. +The libretto was founded on Sir Walter Scott's novel, but the opera +lacks unity of style, and its pages are marred by concessions to the +vocalist. One number has survived, the characteristic Bohemian dance +which has been interpolated into the fourth act of _Carmen_. In his +third opera Bizet returned to an oriental subject. _Djamileh_, a one-act +opera given at the Opera Comique on the 22nd of May 1872, is certainly +one of his most individual efforts. Again were accusations of Wagnerism +hurled at the composer's head, and _Djamileh_ did not achieve the +success it undoubtedly deserved. The composer was more fortunate with +the incidental music he wrote to Alphonse Daudet's drama, +_L'Arlesienne_, produced in October 1872. Different numbers from this, +arranged in the form of suites, have often been heard in the +concert-room. Rarely have poetry and imagination been so well allied as +in these exquisite pages, which seem to reflect the sunny skies of +Provence. + +Bizet's masterpiece, _Carmen_, was brought out at the Opera Comique on +the 3rd of March 1875. It was based on a version by Meilhac and Halevy +of a study by Prosper Merimee--in which the dramatic element was +obscured by much descriptive writing. The detection of the drama +underlying this psychological narrative was in itself a brilliant +discovery, and in reconstructing the story in dramatic form the authors +produced one of the most famous libretti in the whole range of opera. +Still more striking than the libretto was the music composed by Bizet, +in which the peculiar use of the flute and of the lowest notes of the +harp deserves particular attention. + +On the 3rd of June, three months after the production of _Carmen_ in +Paris, the genial composer expired after a few hours' illness from a +heart affection. Before dying he had the satisfaction of knowing that +_Carmen_ had been accepted for production at Vienna. After the Austrian +capital came Brussels, Berlin and, in 1878, London, when _Carmen_ was +brought out at Her Majesty's theatre with immense success. The influence +exercised by Bizet on dramatic music has been very great, and may be +discerned in the realistic works of the young Italian school, as well as +in those of his own countrymen. + + + + +BJORNEBORG (Finnish, _Pori_), a district town of Finland, province of +Abo-Bjorneborg, on the E. coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, at the mouth of +the Kumo. Lat. 51 deg. 8' N., long. 46 deg. 0' E. Pop. (1904) 16,053, +mostly Swedes. Large vessels cannot enter its roadstead, and stop at +Rafso. The town has shipbuilding wharves, machine works, and several +tanneries and brick-works, and has a total trade of over 16,000,000 +marks, the chief export being timber. + + + + +BJORNSON, BJORNSTJERNE (1832-1910), Norwegian poet, novelist and +dramatist, was born on the 8th of December 1832 at the farmstead of +Bjorngen, in Kvikne, in Osterdal, Norway. In 1837 his father, who had been +pastor of Kvikne, was transferred to the parish of Noesset, in Romsdal; in +this romantic district the childhood of Bjornson was spent. After some +teaching at the neighbouring town of Molde, he was sent at the age of +seventeen to a well-known school in Christiania to study for the +university; his instinct for poetry was already awakened, and indeed he +had written verses from his eleventh year. He matriculated at the +university of Christiania in 1852, and soon began to work as a journalist, +especially as a dramatic critic. In 1857 appeared _Synnove Solbakken_, the +first of Bjornson's peasant-novels; in 1858 this was followed by _Arne_, +in 1860 by _A Happy Boy_, and in 1868 by _The Fisher Maiden_. These are +the most important specimens of his _bonde-fortaellinger_ or +peasant-tales--a section of his literary work which has made a profound +impression in his own country, and has made him popular throughout the +world. Two of the tales, _Arne_ and _Synnove Solbakken_, offer perhaps +finer examples of the pure peasant-story than are to be found elsewhere in +literature. + +Bjornson was anxious "to create a new saga in the light of the peasant," +as he put it, and he thought this should be done, not merely in prose +fiction, but in national dramas or _folke-stykker_. The earliest of +these was a one-act piece the scene of which is laid in the 12th +century, _Between the Battles_, was written in 1855, but not produced +until 1857. He was especially influenced at this time by the study of +Baggesen and Ochlenschlager, during a visit to Copenhagen 1856-1857. +_Between the Battles_ was followed by _Lame Hulda_ in 1858, and _King +Sverre_ in 1861. All these efforts, however, were far excelled by the +splendid trilogy of _Sigurd the Bastard_, which Bjornson issued in 1862. +This raised him to the front rank among the younger poets of Europe. His +_Sigurd the Crusader_ should be added to the category of these heroic +plays, although it was not printed until 1872. + +At the close of 1857 Bjornson had been appointed director of the theatre +at Bergen, a post which he held, with much journalistic work, for two +years, when he returned to the capital. From 1860 to 1863 he travelled +widely throughout Europe. Early in 1865 he undertook the management of +the Christiania theatre, and brought out his popular comedy of _The +Newly Married_ and his romantic tragedy of _Mary Stuart in Scotland_. +Although Bjornson has introduced into his novels and plays songs of +extraordinary beauty, he was never a very copious writer of verse; in +1870 he published his _Poems and Songs_ and the epic cycle called +_Arnljot Gelline_; the latter volume contains the magnificent ode called +"Bergliot," Bjornson's finest contribution to lyrical poetry. Between +1864 and 1874, in the very prime of life, Bjornson displayed a +slackening of the intellectual forces very remarkable in a man of his +energy; he was indeed during these years mainly occupied with politics, +and with his business as a theatrical manager. This was the period of +Bjornson's most fiery propaganda as a radical agitator. In 1871 he began +to supplement his journalistic work in this direction by delivering +lectures over the length and breadth of the northern countries. He +possessed to a surprising degree the arts of the orator, combined with a +magnificent physical prestige. From 1873 to 1876 Bjornson was absent +from Norway, and in the peace of voluntary exile he recovered his +imaginative powers. His new departure as a dramatic author began with _A +Bankruptcy_ and _The Editor_ in 1874, social dramas of an extremely +modern and realistic cast. + +The poet now settled on his estate of Aulestad in Gausdal. In 1877 he +published another novel, _Magnhild_--an imperfect production, in which +his ideas on social questions were seen to be in a state of +fermentation, and gave expression to his republican sentiments in the +polemical play called _The King_, to a later edition of which he +prefixed an essay on "Intellectual Freedom," in further explanation of +his position. _Captain Mansana_, an episode of the war of Italian +independence, belongs to 1878. Extremely anxious to obtain a full +success on the stage, Bjornson concentrated his powers on a drama of +social life, _Leonardo_ (1879), which raised a violent controversy. A +satirical play, _The New System_, was produced a few weeks later. +Although these plays of Bjornson's second period were greatly discussed, +none of them (except _A Bankruptcy_) pleased on the boards. When once +more he produced a social drama, _A Gauntlet_, in 1883, he was unable to +persuade any manager to stage it, except in a modified form, though this +play gives the full measure of his power as a dramatist. In the autumn +of the same year, Bjornson published a mystical or symbolic drama +_Beyond our Powers_, dealing with the abnormal features of religious +excitement with extraordinary force; this was not acted until 1899, when +it achieved a great success. + +Meanwhile, Bjornson's political attitude had brought upon him a charge +of high treason, and he took refuge for a time in Germany, returning to +Norway in 1882. Convinced that the theatre was practically closed to +him, he turned back to the novel, and published in 1884, _Flags are +Flying in Town and Port_, embodying his theories on heredity and +education. In 1889 he printed another long and still more remarkable +novel, _In God's Way_, which is chiefly concerned with the same +problems. The same year saw the publication of a comedy, _Geography and +Love_, which continues to be played with success. A number of short +stories, of a more or less didactic character, dealing with startling +points of emotional experience, were collected in 1894; among them those +which produced the greatest sensation were _Dust, Mother's Hands_, and +_Absalom's Hair_. Later plays were a political tragedy called _Paul +Lange and Tora Parsberg_ (1898), a second part of _Beyond our Powers_ +(1895), _Laboremus_ (1901), _At Storhove_ (1902), and _Daglannet_ +(1904). In 1899, at the opening of the National theatre, Bjornson +received an ovation, and his saga-drama of _Sigurd the Crusader_ was +performed. + +A subject which interested him greatly, and on which he occupied his +indefatigable pen, was the question of the _bonde-maal_, the adopting of +a national language for Norway distinct from the _dansk-norsk_ +(Dano-Norwegian), in which her literature has hitherto been written. +Bjornson's strong and sometimes rather narrow patriotism did not blind +him to the fatal folly of such a proposal, and his lectures and +pamphlets against the _maal-straev_ in its extreme form did more than +anything else to save the language in this dangerous moment. Bjornson +was one of the original members of the Nobel committee, and was +re-elected in 1900. In 1903 he was awarded the Nobel prize for +literature. Bjornson had done as much as any other man to rouse +Norwegian national feeling, but in 1903, on the verge of the rupture +between Norway and Sweden, he preached conciliation and moderation to +the Norwegians. He was an eloquent advocate of Pan-Germanism, and, +writing to the _Figaro_ in 1905, he outlined a Pan-Germanic alliance of +northern Europe and North America. He died on the 26th of April 1910. + + See Bjornson's _Samlede Vaerker_ (Copenhagen, 1900-1902, 11 vols.); + _The Novels of Bjornstjerne Bjornson_ (1894, &c.), edited by Edmund + Gosse; G. Brandes, _Critical Studies_ (1899); E. Tissot, _Le drame + norvegien_ (1893); C.D. af Wirsen, _Kritiker_ (1901); Chr. Collin, + _Bjornstjerne Bjornson_ (2 vols., German ed., 1903), the most complete + biography and criticism at present available; and B. Halvorsen, _Norsk + Forfatter Lexikon_ (1885). (E. G.) + + + + +BLACHFORD, FREDERIC ROGERS, BARON (1811-1889), British civil servant, +eldest son of Sir Frederick Leman Rogers, 7th Bart. (whom he succeeded +in the baronetcy in 1851), was born in London on the 31st of January +1811. He was educated at Eton and Oriel college, Oxford, where he had a +brilliant career, winning the Craven University scholarship, and taking +a double first-class in classics and mathematics. He became a fellow of +Oriel (1833), and won the Vinerian scholarship (1834), and fellowship +(1840). He was called to the bar in 1837, but never practised. At school +and at Oxford he was a contemporary of W.E. Gladstone, and at Oxford he +began a lifelong friendship with J.H. Newman and R.W. Church; his +classical and literary tastes, and his combination of liberalism in +politics with High Church views in religion, together with his good +social position and interesting character, made him an admired member of +their circles. For two or three years (1841-1844) he wrote for _The +Times_, and he helped to found _The Guardian_ in 1846; he also did a +good deal to assist the Tractarian movement. But he eventually settled +down to the life of a government official. He began in 1844 as registrar +of joint-stock companies, and in 1846 became commissioner of lands and +emigration. Between 1857 and 1859 he was engaged in government missions +abroad, connected with colonial questions, and in 1860 he was appointed +permanent under-secretary of state for the colonies. Sir Frederic Rogers +was the guiding spirit of the colonial office under six successive +secretaries of state, and on his retirement in 1871 was raised to the +peerage as Baron Blachford of Wisdome, a title taken from his place in +Devonshire. He died on the 21st of November 1889. + + A volume of his letters, edited by G.E. Marindin (1896), contains an + interesting Life, partly autobiographical. + + + + +BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874), Scottish publisher, founder of the firm of A. & +C. Black, the son of a builder, was born in Edinburgh on the 20th of +February 1784. After serving his apprenticeship to the bookselling trade +in Edinburgh and London, he began business for himself in Edinburgh in +1808. By 1826 he was recognized as one of the principal booksellers in +the city; and a few years later he was joined in business by his nephew +Charles. The two most important events connected with the history of the +firm were the publication of the 7th, 8th and 9th editions of the +_Encyclopaedia Brittannica_, and the purchase of the stock and copyright +of the Waverley Novels. The copyright of the _Encyclopaedia_ passed into +the hands of Adam Black and a few friends in 1827. In 1851 the firm +bought the copyright of the Waverley Novels for L27,000; and in 1861 +they became the proprietors of De Quincey's works. Adam Black was twice +lord provost of Edinburgh, and represented the city in parliament from +1856 to 1865. He retired from business in 1865, and died on the 24th of +January 1874. He was succeeded by his sons, who removed their business +in 1895 to London. There is a bronze statue of Adam Black in East +Princes Street Gardens, Edinburgh. + + See _Memoirs of Adam Black_, edited by Alexander Nicholson (2nd ed., + Edinburgh, 1885). + + + + +BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810-1883), American lawyer and statesman, was +born in Stony Creek township, Somerset county, Pennsylvania, on the 10th +of January 1810. He was largely self-educated, and before he was of age +was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar. He gradually became one of the +leading American lawyers, and in 1851-1857 was a member of the supreme +court of Pennsylvania (chief-justice 1851-1854). In 1857 he entered +President Buchanan's cabinet as attorney-general of the United States. +In this capacity he successfully contested the validity of the +"California land claims"--claims to about 19,000 sq. m. of land, +fraudulently alleged to have been granted to land-grabbers and others by +the Mexican government prior to the close of the Mexican War. From the +17th of December 1860 to the 4th of March 1861 he was secretary of +state. Perhaps the most influential of President Buchanan's official +advisers, he denied the constitutionality of secession, and urged that +Fort Sumter be properly reinforced and defended. "For ... the vigorous +assertion at last in word and in deed that the United States is a +nation," says James Ford Rhodes, "for pointing out the way in which the +authority of the Federal government might be exercised without +infringing on the rights of the states, the gratitude of the American +people is due to Jeremiah S. Black." He became reporter to the Supreme +Court of the United States in 1861, but after publishing the reports for +the years 1861 and 1862 he resigned, and devoted himself almost +exclusively to his private practice, appearing in such important cases +before the Supreme Court as the one known as _Ex-Parte Milligan_, in +which he ably defended the right of trial by jury, the McCardle case and +the _United States_ v. _Blyew et al_. After the Civil War he vigorously +opposed the Congressional plan of reconstructing the late Confederate +states, and himself drafted the message of President Johnson, vetoing +the Reconstruction Act of the 2nd of March 1867. Black was also for a +short time counsel for President Andrew Johnson, in his trial on the +article of impeachment, before the United States Senate, and for William +W. Belknap (1829-1890), secretary of war from 1869 to 1876, who in 1876 +was impeached on a charge of corruption; and with others he represented +Samuel J. Tilden during the contest for the presidency between Tilden +and Hayes (see ELECTORAL COMMISSION). He died at Brockie, Pennsylvania, +on the 19th of August 1883. + + See _Essays and Speeches of Jeremiah S. Black, with a Biographical + Sketch_ (New York, 1885), by his son, C.F. Black. + + + + +BLACK, JOSEPH (1728-1799), Scottish chemist and physicist, was born in +1728 at Bordeaux, where his father--a native of Belfast but of Scottish +descent--was engaged in the wine trade. At the age of twelve he was sent +to a grammar school in Belfast, whence he removed in 1746 to study +medicine in Glasgow. There he had William Cullen for his instructor in +chemistry, and the relation between the two soon became that of +professor and assistant rather than of master and pupil. The action of +lithontriptic medicines, especially lime-water, was one of the questions +of the day, and through his investigations of this subject Black was led +to the chemical discoveries associated with his name. The causticity of +alkaline bodies was explained at that time as depending on the presence +in them of the principle of fire, "phlogiston"; quicklime, for instance, +was chalk which had taken up phlogiston, and when mild alkalis such as +sodium or potassium carbonate were causticized by its aid, the +phlogiston was supposed to pass from it to them. Black showed that on +the contrary causticization meant the loss of something, as proved by +loss of weight; and this something he found to be an "air," which, +because it was fixed in the substance before it was causticized, he +spoke of as "fixed air." Taking _magnesia alba_, which he distinguished +from limestone with which it had previously been confused, he showed +that on being heated it lost weight owing to the escape of this fixed +air (named carbonic acid by Lavoisier in 1781), and that the weight was +regained when the calcined product was made to reabsorb the fixed air +with which it had parted. These investigations, by which Black not only +gave a great impetus to the chemistry of gases by clearly indicating the +existence of a gas distinct from common air, but also anticipated +Lavoisier and modern chemistry by his appeal to the balance, were +described in the thesis _De humore acido a cibis orto, et magnesia +alba_, which he presented for his doctor's degree in 1754; and a fuller +account of them was read before the Medical Society of Edinburgh in June +1753, and published in the following year as _Experiments upon magnesia, +quicklime and some other alkaline substances_. + +It is curious that Black left to others the detailed study of this +"fixed air" he had discovered. Probably the explanation is pressure of +other work. In 1756 he succeeded Cullen as lecturer in chemistry at +Glasgow, and was also appointed professor of anatomy, though that post +he was glad to exchange for the chair of medicine. The preparation of +lectures thus took up much of his time, and he was also gaining an +extensive practice as a physician. Moreover, his attention was engaged +on studies which ultimately led to his doctrine of latent heat. He +noticed that when ice melts it takes up a quantity of heat without +undergoing any change of temperature, and he argued that this heat, +which as was usual in his time he looked upon as a subtle fluid, must +have combined with the particles of ice and thus become latent in its +substance. This hypothesis he verified quantitatively by experiments, +performed at the end of 1761. In 1764, with the aid of his assistant, +William Irvine (1743-1787), he further measured the latent heat of +steam, though not very accurately. This doctrine of latent heat he +taught in his lectures from 1761 onwards, and in April 1762 he described +his work to a literary society in Glasgow. But he never published any +detailed account of it, so that others, such as J.A. Deluc, were able to +claim the credit of his results. In the course of his inquiries he also +noticed that different bodies in equal masses require different amounts +of heat to raise them to the same temperature, and so founded the +doctrine of specific heats; he also showed that equal additions or +abstractions of heat produced equal variations of bulk in the liquid of +his thermometers. In 1766 he succeeded Cullen in the chair of chemistry +in Edinburgh, where he devoted practically all his time to the +preparation of his lectures. Never very robust, his health gradually +became weaker and ultimately he was reduced to the condition of a +valetudinarian. In 1795 he received the aid of a coadjutor in his +professorship, and two years later he lectured for the last time. He +died in Edinburgh on the 6th of December 1799 (not on the 26th of +November as stated in Robison's life). + +As a scientific investigator, Black was conspicuous for the carefulness +of his work and his caution in drawing conclusions. Holding that +chemistry had not attained the rank of a science--his lectures dealt +with the "effects of heat and mixture"--he had an almost morbid horror +of hasty generalization or of anything that had the pretensions of a +fully fledged system. This mental attitude, combined with a certain lack +of initiative and the weakness of his health, probably prevented him +from doing full justice to his splendid powers of experimental research. +Apart from the work already mentioned he published only two papers +during his life-time--"The supposed effect of boiling on water, in +disposing it to freeze more readily" (_Phil. Trans._, 1775), and "An +analysis of the waters of the hot springs in Iceland" (_Trans. Roy. Soc. +Ed._, 1794). + + After his death his lectures were written out from his own notes, + supplemented by those of some of his pupils, and published with a + biographical preface by his friend and colleague, Professor John + Robison (1739-1805), in 1803 as _Lectures on the Elements of + Chemistry, delivered in the University of Edinburgh_. + + + + +BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898), British novelist, was born at Glasgow on the +9th of November 1841. His early ambition was to be a painter, but he +made no way, and soon had recourse to journalism for a living. He was at +first employed in newspaper offices in Glasgow, but obtained a post on +the _Morning Star_ in London, and at once proved himself a descriptive +writer of exceptional vivacity. During the war between Prussia and +Austria in 1866 he represented the _Morning Star_ at the front, and was +taken prisoner. This paper shortly afterwards failed, and Black joined +the editorial staff of the _Daily News_. He also edited the _Examiner_, +at a time when that periodical was already moribund. After his first +success in fiction, he gave up journalism, and devoted himself entirely +to the production of novels. For nearly thirty years he was successful +in retaining the popular favour. He died at Brighton on the 10th of +December 1898, without having experienced any of that reaction of the +public taste which so often follows upon conspicuous successes in +fiction. Black's first novel, _James Merle_, published in 1864, was a +complete failure; his second, _Love or Marraige_ (1868), attracted but +very slight attention. _In Silk Attire_ (1869) and _Kilmeny_ (1870) +marked a great advance on his first work, but in 1871 _A Daughter of +Heth_ suddenly raised him to the height of popularity, and he followed +up this success by a string of favourites. Among the best of his books +are _The Strange Adventures of a Phaeton_ (1872); _A Princess of Thule_ +(1874); _Madcap Violet_ (1876); _Macleod of Dare_ (1878); _White Wings_ +(1880); _Sunrise_ (1880); _Shandon Bells_ (1883); _Judith Shakespeare_ +(1884); _White Heather_ (1885); _Donald Ross of Heimra_ (1891); +_Highland Cousins_ (1894); and _Wild Eelin_ (1898). Black was a +thoroughgoing sportsman, particularly fond of fishing and yachting, and +his best stories are those which are laid amid the breezy mountains of +his native land, or upon the deck of a yacht at sea off its wild coast. +His descriptions of such scenery are simple and picturesque. He was a +word-painter rather than a student of human nature. His women are +stronger than his men, and among them are many wayward and lovable +creatures; but subtlety of intuition plays no part in his +characterization. Black also contributed a life of Oliver Goldsmith to +the _English Men of Letters_ series. + + + + +BLACK APE, a sooty, black, short-tailed, and long-faced representative +of the macaques, inhabiting the island of Celebes, and generally +regarded as forming a genus by itself, under the name of _Cynopithecus +niger_, but sometimes relegated to the rank of a subgenus of _Macacus_. +The nostrils open obliquely at some distance from the end of the snout, +and the head carries a crest of long hair. There are several local +races, one of which was long regarded as a separate species under the +name of the Moor macaque, _Macacus maurus_. (See PRIMATES.) + + + + +BLACKBALL, a token used for voting by ballot against the election of a +candidate for membership of a club or other association. Formerly white +and black balls about the size of pigeons' eggs were used respectively +to represent votes for and against a candidate for such election; and +although this method is now generally obsolete, the term "blackball" +survives both as noun and verb. The rules of most clubs provide that a +stated proportion of "blackballs" shall exclude candidates proposed for +election, and the candidates so excluded are said to have been +"blackballed"; but the ballot (q.v.) is now usually conducted by a +method in which the favourable and adverse votes are not distinguished +by different coloured balls at all. Either voting papers are employed, +or balls--of which the colour has no significance--are cast into +different compartments of a ballot-box according as they are favourable +or adverse to the candidate. + + + + +BLACKBERRY, or BRAMBLE, known botanically as _Rubus fruticosus_ (natural +order Rosaceac), a native of the north temperate region of the Old +World, and abundant in the British Isles as a copse and hedge-plant. It +is characterized by its prickly stem, leaves with usually three or five +ovate, coarsely toothed stalked leaflets, many of which persist through +the winter, white or pink flowers in terminal clusters, and black or +red-purple fruits, each consisting of numerous succulent drupels crowded +on a dry conical receptacle. It is a most variable plant, exhibiting +many more or less distinct forms which are regarded by different +authorities as sub-species or species. In America several forms of the +native blackberry, _Rubus nigrobaccus_ (formerly known as _R. +villosus_), are widely cultivated; it is described as one of the most +important and profitable of bush-fruits. + + For details see F.W. Card in L.H. Bailey's _Cyclopedia of American + Horticulture_ (1900). + + + + +BLACKBIRD (_Turdus merula_), the name commonly given to a well-known +British bird of the _Turdidae_ family, for which the ancient name was +ousel (q.v.), Anglo-Saxon _osle_, equivalent of the German _Amsel_, a +form of the word found in several old English books. The plumage of the +male is of a uniform black colour, that of the female various shades of +brown, while the bill of the male, especially during the breeding +season, is of a bright gamboge yellow. The blackbird is of a shy and +restless disposition, courting concealment, and rarely seen in flocks, +or otherwise than singly or in pairs, and taking flight when startled +with a sharp shrill cry. It builds its nest in March, or early in April, +in thick bushes or in ivy-clad trees, and usually rears at least two +broods each season. The nest is a neat structure of coarse grass and +moss, mixed with earth, and plastered internally with mud, and here the +female lays from four to six eggs of a blue colour speckled with brown. +The blackbird feeds chiefly on fruits, worms, the larvae of insects and +snails, extracting the last from their shells by dexterously chipping +them on stones; and though it is generally regarded as an enemy of the +garden, it is probable that the amount of damage by it to the fruit is +largely compensated for by its undoubted services as a vermin-killer. +The notes of the blackbird are rich and full, but monotonous as compared +with those of the song-thrush. Like many other singing birds it is, in +the wild state, a mocking-bird, having been heard to imitate the song +of the nightingale, the crowing of a cock, and even the cackling of a +hen. In confinement it can be taught to whistle a variety of tunes, and +even to imitate the human voice. + +The blackbird is found in every country of Europe, even +breeding--although rarely--beyond the arctic circle, and in eastern Asia +as well as in North Africa and the Atlantic islands. In most parts of +its range it is migratory, and in Britain every autumn its numbers +receive considerable accession from passing visitors. Allied species +inhabit most parts of the world, excepting Africa south of the Sahara, +New Zealand and Australia proper, and North America. In some of these +the legs as well as the bill are yellow or orange; and in a few both +sexes are glossy black. The ring-ousel, _Turdus torquatus_, has a dark +bill and conspicuous white gorget, whence its name. It is rarer and more +local than the common blackbird, and occurs in England only as a +temporary spring and autumn visitor. + + + + +BLACK BUCK (_Antilope cervicapra_), the Indian Antelope, the sole +species of its genus. This antelope, widely distributed in India, with +the exception of Ceylon and the region east of the Bay of Bengal, stands +about 32 in. high at the shoulder; the general hue is brown deepening +with age to black; chest, belly and inner sides of limbs pure white, as +are the muzzle and chin, and an area round the eyes. The horns are long, +ringed, and form spirals with from three to five turns. The doe is +smaller in size, yellowish-fawn above, and this hue obtains also in +young males. These antelopes frequent grassy districts and are usually +found in herds. Coursing black-buck with the cheeta (q.v.) is a +favourite Indian sport. + + + + +BLACKBURN, COLIN BLACKBURN, BARON (1813-1896), British judge, was born +in Selkirkshire in 1813, and educated at Eton and at Trinity College, +Cambridge, taking high mathematical honours in 1835. He was called to +the bar in 1838, and went the northern circuit. His progress was at +first slow, and he employed himself in reporting and editing, with T.F. +Ellis, eight volumes of the highly-esteemed Ellis and Blackburn reports. +His deficiency in all the more brilliant qualities of the advocate +almost confined his practice to commercial cases, in which he obtained +considerable employment in his circuit; but he continued to belong to +the outside bar, and was so little known to the legal world that his +promotion to a puisne judgeship in the court of queen's bench in 1859 +was at first ascribed to Lord Campbell's partiality for his countrymen, +but Lord Lyndhurst, Lord Wensleydale and Lord Cranworth came forward to +defend the appointment. Blackburn himself is said to have thought that a +county court judgeship was about to be offered him, which he had +resolved to decline. He soon proved himself one of the soundest lawyers +on the bench, and when he was promoted to the court of appeal in 1876 +was considered the highest authority on common law. In 1876 he was made +a lord of appeal and a life peer. Both in this capacity and as judge of +the queen's bench he delivered many judgments of the highest importance, +and no decisions have been received with greater respect. In 1886 he was +appointed a member of the commission charged to prepare a digest of the +criminal law, but retired on account of indisposition in the following +year. He died at his country residence, Doonholm in Ayrshire, on the 8th +of January 1896. He was the author of a valuable work on the _Law of +Sales_. + + See _The Times_, 10th of January 1896; E. Manson, _Builders of our + Law_ (1904). + + + + +BLACKBURN, JONATHAN (c. 1700-c. 1765), American portrait painter, was +born in Connecticut. He seems to have been the son of a painter, and to +have had a studio in Boston in 1750-1765; among his patrons were many +important early American families, including the Apthorps, Amorys, +Bulfinches, Lowells, Ewings, Saltonstalls, Winthrops, Winslows and +Otises of Boston. Some of his portraits are in the possession of the +public library of Lexington, Massachusetts, and of the Massachusetts +Historical Society, but most of them are privately owned and are +scattered over the country, the majority being in Boston. John Singleton +Copley was his pupil, and it is said that he finally left his studio in +Boston, through jealousy of Copley's superior success. He was a good +portrait painter, and some of his pictures were long attributed to +Copley. + + + + +BLACKBURN, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Lancashire, +England, 210 m. N.W. by N. from London, and 24-1/2 N.N.W. from +Manchester, served by the Lancashire & Yorkshire and the London & North +Western railways, with several lines from all parts of the county. Pop. +(1891) 120,064; (1901) 127,626. It lies in the valley of a stream called +in early times the Blackeburn, but now known as the Brook. The hills in +the vicinity rise to some 900 ft., and among English manufacturing towns +Blackburn ranks high in beauty of situation. Besides numerous churches +and chapels the public buildings comprise a large town hall (1856), +market house, exchange, county court, municipal offices, chamber of +commerce, free library, and, outside the town, an infirmary. There are +an Elizabethan grammar school, in modern buildings (1884) and an +excellent technical school. The Corporation Park and Queen's Park are +well laid out, and contain ornamental waters. There is an efficient +tramway service, connecting the town with Darwen, 5 m. south. The cotton +industry employs thousands of operatives, the iron trade is also very +considerable, and many are engaged in the making of machines; but a +former woollen manufacture is almost extinct. Blackburn's speciality in +the cotton industry is weaving. Coal, lime and building stone are +abundant in the neighbourhood. Blackburn received a charter of +incorporation in 1851, and is governed by a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42 +councillors. The county borough was created in 1888. The parliamentary +borough, which returns two members, is coextensive with the municipal, +and lies between the Accrington and Darwen divisions of the county. +Area, 7432 acres. + +Blackburn is of considerable antiquity; indeed, the 6th century is +allocated to the original foundation of a church on the site of the +present parish church. Of another church on this site Cranmer was rector +after the Reformation. Blackburn was for some time the chief town of a +district called Blackburnshire, and as early as the reign of Elizabeth +ranked as a flourishing market town. About the middle of the 17th +century it became famous for its "checks," which were afterwards +superseded by a similar linen-and-cotton fabric known as "Blackburn +greys." In the 18th century the ability of certain natives of the town +greatly fostered its cotton industry; thus James Hargreaves here +probably invented his spinning jenny about 1764, though the operatives, +fearing a reduction of labour, would have none of it, and forced him to +quit the town for Nottingham. He was in the employment of Robert Peel, +grandfather of the prime minister of that name, who here instituted the +factory system, and as the director of a large business carefully +fostered the improvement of methods. + + See W.A. Abram, _History of Blackburn_ (Blackburn, 1897). + + + + +BLACKBURNE, FRANCIS (1782-1867), lord chancellor of Ireland, was born at +Great Footstown, Co. Meath, Ireland, on the 11th of November 1782. +Educated at Trinity College, Dublin, he was called to the English bar in +1805, and practised with great success on the home circuit. Called to +the Irish bar in 1822, he vigorously administered the Insurrection Act +in Limerick for two years, effectually restoring order in the district. +In 1826 he became a serjeant-at-law, and in 1830, and again, in 1841, +was attorney-general for Ireland. In 1842 he became master of the rolls +in Ireland, in 1846 chief-justice of the queen's bench, and in 1852 (and +again in 1866) lord chancellor of Ireland. In 1856 he was made a lord +justice of appeal in Ireland. He is remembered as having prosecuted +O'Connell and presided at the trial of Smith O'Brien. He died on the +17th of September 1867. + + + + +BLACKCOCK (_Tetrao tetrix_), the English name given to a bird of the +family _Tetraonidae_ or grouse, the female of which is known as the grey +hen and the young as poults. In size and plumage the two sexes offer a +striking contrast, the male weighing about 4 lb., its plumage for the +most part of a rich glossy black shot with blue and purple, the lateral +tail feathers curved outwards so as to form, when raised, a fan-like +crescent, and the eyebrows destitute of feathers and of a bright +vermilion red. The female, on the other hand, weighs only 2 lb., its +plumage is of a russet brown colour irregularly barred with black, and +its tail feathers are but slightly forked. The males are polygamous, and +during autumn and winter associate together, feeding in flocks apart +from the females; but with the approach of spring they separate, each +selecting a locality for itself, from which it drives off all intruders, +and where morning and evening it seeks to attract the other sex by a +display of its beautiful plumage, which at this season attains its +greatest perfection, and by a peculiar cry, which Selby describes as "a +crowing note, and another similar to the noise made by the whetting of a +scythe." The nest, composed of a few stalks of grass, is built on the +ground, usually beneath the shadow of a low bush or a tuft of tall +grass, and here the female lays from six to ten eggs of a dirty-yellow +colour speckled with dark brown. The blackcock then rejoins his male +associates, and the female is left to perform the labours of hatching +and rearing her young brood. The plumage of both sexes is at first like +that of the female, but after moulting the young males gradually assume +the more brilliant plumage of their sex. There are also many cases on +record, and specimens may be seen in the principal museums, of old +female birds assuming, to a greater or less extent, the plumage of the +male. The blackcock is very generally distributed over the highland +districts of northern and central Europe, and in some parts of Asia. It +is found on the principal heaths in the south of England, but is +specially abundant in the Highlands of Scotland. + +[Illustration: Blackcock. ] + + + + +BLACK COUNTRY, THE, a name commonly applied to a district lying +principally in S. Staffordshire, but extending into Worcestershire and +Warwickshire, England. This is one of the chief manufacturing centres in +the United Kingdom, and the name arises from the effect of numerous +collieries and furnaces, which darken the face of the district, the +buildings and the atmosphere. Coal, ironstone and clay are mined in +close proximity, and every sort of iron and steel goods is produced. The +district extends 15 m. N.W. from Birmingham, and includes Smethwick, +West Bromwich, Dudley, Oldbury, Sedgley, Tipton, Bilston, Wednesbury, +Wolverhampton and Walsall as its most important centres. The ceaseless +activity of the Black Country is most readily realized when it is +traversed, or viewed from such an elevation as Dudley Castle Hill, at +night, when the glare of furnaces appears in every direction. The +district is served by numerous branches of the Great Western, London & +North Western, and Midland railways, and is intersected by canals, which +carry a heavy traffic, and in some places are made to surmount physical +obstacles with remarkable engineering skill, as in the case of the +Castle Hill tunnels at Dudley. Among the numerous branches of industry +there are several characteristic of certain individual centres. Thus, +locks are a specialty at Wolverhampton and Willenhall, and keys at +Wednesfield; horses' bits, harness-fittings and saddlery at Walsall and +Bloxwich, anchors and cables at Tipton, glass at Smethwick, and nails +and chains at Cradley. + + + + +BLACK DROP, in astronomy, an apparent distortion of the planet Mercury +or Venus at the time of internal contact with the limb of the sun at the +beginning or end of a transit. It has been in the past a source of much +perplexity to observers of transits, but is now understood to be a +result of irradiation, produced by the atmosphere or by the aberration +of the telescope. + + + + +BLACKFOOT (_Siksika_), a tribe and confederacy of North American Indians +of Algonquian stock. The name is explained as an allusion to their +leggings being observed by the whites to have become blackened by +marching over the freshly burned prairie. Their range was around the +headwaters of the Missouri, from the Yellowstone northward to the North +Saskatchewan and westward to the Rockies. The confederacy consisted of +three tribes, the Blackfoot or Siksika proper, the Kaina and the Piegan. +During the early years of the 19th century the Blackfoots were one of +the strongest Indian confederacies of the north-west, numbering some +40,000. At the beginning of the 20th century there were about 5000, some +in Montana and some in Canada. + + See Jean L'Heureux, _Customs and Religious Ideas of Blackfoot Indians + in J.A.I._, vol. xv. (1886); G.B. Grinnell, _Blackfoot Lodge Tales_ + (1892); G. Catlin, _North American Indians_ (1876); _Handbook of + American Indians_ (Washington, 1907), under "Siksika." + + + + +BLACK FOREST (Ger. _Schwarzwald_; the _Silva Marciana_ and _Abnoba_ of +the Romans), a mountainous district of south-west Germany, having an +area of 1844 sq. m., of which about two-thirds lie in the grand duchy of +Baden and the remaining third in the kingdom of Wurttemberg. Bounded on +the south and west by the valley of the Rhine, to which its declivities +abruptly descend, and running parallel to, and forming the counterpart +of the Vosges beyond, it slopes more gently down to the valley of the +Neckar in the north and to that of the Nagold (a tributary of the +Neckar) on the north-east. Its total length is 100 m., and its breadth +varies from 36 m. in the south to 21 in the centre and 13 in the north. +The deep valley of the Kinzig divides it laterally into halves, of which +the southern, with an average elevation of 3000 ft., is the wilder and +contains the loftiest peaks, which again mostly lie towards the western +side. Among them are the Feldberg (4898 ft.), the Herzogenhorn (4600), +the Blossling (4260) and the Blauen (3820). The northern half has an +average height of 2000 ft. On the east side are several lakes, and here +the majority of the streams take their rise. The configuration of the +hills is mainly conical and the geological formation consists of gneiss, +granite (in the south) and red sandstone. The district is poor in +minerals; the yield of silver and copper has almost ceased, but there +are workable coal seams near Offenburg, where the Kinzig debouches on +the plain. The climate in the higher districts is raw and the produce is +mostly confined to hardy cereals, such as oats. But the valleys, +especially those on the western side, are warm and healthy, enclose good +pasture land and furnish fruits and wine in rich profusion. They are +clothed up to a height of about 2000 ft. with luxuriant woods of oak and +beech, and above these again and up to an elevation of 4000 ft., +surrounding the hills with a dense dark belt, are the forests of fir +which have given the name to the district. The summits of the highest +peaks are bare, but even on them snow seldom lies throughout the summer. + +The Black Forest produces excellent timber, which is partly sawn in the +valleys and partly exported down the Rhine in logs. Among other +industries are the manufactures of watches, clocks, toys and musical +instruments. There are numerous mineral springs, and among the watering +places Baden-Baden and Wildbad are famous. The towns of Freiburg, +Rastatt, Offenburg and Lahr, which lie under the western declivities, +are the chief centres for the productions of the interior. + +The Black Forest is a favourite tourist resort and is opened up by +numerous railways. In addition to the main lines in the valleys of the +Rhine and Neckar, which are connected with the towns lying on its +fringe, the district is intersected by the Schwarzwaldbahn from +Offenburg to Singen, from which various small local lines ramify. + + + + +BLACK HAWK [Ma'katawimesheka'ka, "Black Sparrow Hawk"], (1767-1838), +American Indian warrior of the Sauk and Fox tribes, was born at the Sauk +village on Rock river, near the Mississippi, in 1767. He was a member of +the Thunder gens of the Sauk tribe, and, though neither an hereditary +nor an elected chief, was for some time the recognized war leader of the +Sauk and Foxes. From his youth he was intensely bloodthirsty and hostile +to the Americans. Immediately after the acquisition of "Louisiana," the +Federal government took steps for the removal of the Sauk and Foxes, who +had always been a disturbing element among the north-western Indians, to +the west bank of the Mississippi river. As early as 1804, by a treaty +signed at St Louis on the 3rd of November, they agreed to the removal in +return for an annuity of $1000. British influences were still strong in +the upper Mississippi valley and undoubtedly led Black Hawk and the +chiefs of the Sauk and Fox confederacy to repudiate this agreement of +1804, and subsequently to enter into the conspiracy of Tecumseh and take +part with the British in the war of 1812. The treaties of 1815 at +Portage des Sioux (with the Foxes) and of 1816 at St Louis (with the +Sauk) substantially renewed that of 1804. That of 1816 was signed by +Black Hawk himself, who declared, however, when in 1823 Chief Keokuk and +a majority of the two nations crossed the river, that the consent of the +chiefs had been obtained by fraud. In 1830 a final treaty was signed at +Prairie du Chien, by which all title to the lands of the Sauk and Foxes +east of the Mississippi was ceded to the government, and provision was +made for the immediate opening of the tract to settlers. Black Hawk, +leading the party in opposition to Keokuk, at once refused to accede to +this cession and threatened to retaliate if his lands were invaded. This +precipitated what is known as the Black Hawk War. Settlers began pouring +into the new region in the early spring of 1831, and Black Hawk in June +attacked several villages near the Illinois-Wisconsin line. After +massacring several isolated families, he was driven off by a force of +Illinois militia. He renewed his attack in the following year (1832), +but after several minor engagements, in most of which he was successful, +he was defeated (21st of July) at Wisconsin Heights on the Wisconsin +river, opposite Prairie du Sac, by Michigan volunteers under Colonels +Henry Dodge and James D. Henry, and fleeing westward was again +decisively defeated on the Mississippi at the mouth of the Bad Axe river +(on the 1st and 2nd of August) by General Henry Atkinson. His band was +completely dispersed, and he himself was captured by a party of +Winnebagoes. At Fort Armstrong, Rock Island, on the 21st of September, a +treaty was signed, by which a large tract of the Sauk and Fox territory +was ceded to the United States; and the United States granted to them a +reservation of 400 sq. m., the payment of $20,000 a year for thirty +years, and the settlement of certain traders' claims against the tribe. +With several warriors Black Hawk was sent to Fortress Monroe, Virginia, +where he was confined for a few weeks; afterwards he was taken by the +government through the principal Eastern cities. On his release he +settled in 1837 on the Sauk and Fox reservation on the Des Moines river, +in Iowa, where he died on the 3rd of October 1838. + + See Frank E. Stevens, _The Black Hawk War_ (Chicago, 1903); R.G. + Thwaites, "The Story of the Black Hawk War" in vol. xii. of the + _Collections of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin_; J.B. + Patterson, _Life of Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak or Black Hawk_ (Boston, + 1834), purporting to be Black Hawk's story as told by himself; and + Benjamin Drake, _Life of Black Hawk_ (Cincinnati, 1846). + + + + +BLACKHEATH, an open common in the south-east of London, England, mainly +in the metropolitan borough of Lewisham. This high-lying tract was +crossed by the Roman Watling Street from Kent, on a line approximating +to that of the modern Shooter's Hill; and was a rallying ground of Wat +Tyler (1381), of Jack Cade (1450), and of Audley, leader of the Cornish +rebels, defeated and captured here by the troops of Henry VII. in 1497. +It also witnessed the acclamations of the citizens of London on the +return of Henry V. from the victory of Agincourt, the formal meeting +between Henry VIII. and Anne of Cleves, and that between the army of +the restoration and Charles II. The introduction into England of the +game of golf is traditionally placed here in 1608, and attributed to +King James I. and his Scottish followers. The common, the area of which +is 267 acres, is still used for this and other pastimes. For the +residential district to which Blackheath gives name, see LEWISHAM. + + + + +BLACK HILLS, an isolated group of mountains, covering an area of about +6000 sq. m. in the adjoining corners of South Dakota and Wyoming, U.S.A. +They rise on an average some 2000 ft. above their base, the highest +peak, Harney, having an altitude above the sea of 7216 ft. They are +drained and in large part enclosed by the North (or Belle Fourche) and +South forks of the Cheyenne river (at whose junction a fur-trading post +was established about 1830); and are surrounded by semi-arid, alkaline +plains lying 3000 to 3500 ft. above the sea. The mass has an elliptical +shape, its long axis, which extends nearly N.N.W.-S.S.E., being about +120 m. and its shorter axis about 40 m. long. The hills are formed by a +short, broad, anticlinal fold, which is flat or nearly so on its summit. +From this fold the stratified beds have in large part been removed, the +more recent having been almost entirely eroded from the elevated mass. +The edges of these are now found encircling the mountains and forming a +series of fairly continuous rims of hog-backs. The carboniferous and +older stratified beds still cover the west half of the hills, while from +the east half they have been removed, exposing the granite. Scientific +exploration began in 1849, and systematic geological investigation about +1875. Rich gold placers had already been discovered, and in 1875 the +Sioux Indians within whose territory the hills had until then been +included, were removed, and the lands were open to white settlers. +Subsequently low-grade quartz mines were found and developed, and have +furnished a notable part of the gold supply of the country (about +$100,000,000 from 1875 to 1901). The output is to-day relatively small +in comparison with that of many other fields, but there are one or two +permanent gold mines of great value working low-grade ore. The silver +product from 1879 to 1901 was about $4,154,000. Deposits of copper, tin, +iron and tungsten have been discovered, and a variety of other mineral +products (graphite, mica, spodumene, coal, petroleum, &c.). In sharp +contrast to the surrounding plains the climate is subhumid, especially +in the higher Harney region. There is an abundance of fertile soil and +magnificent grazing land. A third of the total area is covered with +forests of pine and other trees, which have for the most part been made +a forest-reserve by the national government. Jagged crags, sudden +abysses, magnificent canyons, forests with open parks, undulating hills, +mountain prairies, freaks of weathering and erosion, and the enclosing +lines of the successive hog-backs afford scenery of remarkable variety +and wild beauty. There are several interesting limestone caverns, and +Sylvan Lake, in the high mountain district, is an important resort. + + See the publications of the United States Geological Survey + (especially Professional Paper No. 26, _Economic Resources of the + Northern Black Hills_, 1904), and of the South Dakota School of Mines + (Bulletin No. 4, containing a history and bibliography of Black Hills + investigations); also R.L. Dodge, _The Black Hills: A Minute + Description_ ... (New York, 1876). + + + + +BLACKIE, JOHN STUART (1809-1895), Scottish scholar and man of letters, +was born in Glasgow on the 28th of July 1809. He was educated at the New +Academy and afterwards at the Marischal College, in Aberdeen, where his +father was manager of the Commerical Bank. After attending classes at +Edinburgh University (1825-1826), Blackie spent three years at Aberdeen +as a student of theology. In 1829 he went to Germany, and after studying +at Gottingen and Berlin (where he came under the influence of Heeren, +Ottfried Muller, Schleiermacher, Neander and Bockh) he accompanied +Bunsen to Italy and Rome. The years spent abroad extinguished his former +wish to enter the Church, and at his father's desire he gave himself up +to the study of law. He had already, in 1824, been placed in a lawyer's +office, but only remained there six months. By the time he was admitted +a member of the Faculty of Advocates (1834) he had acquired a strong +love of the classics and a taste for letters in general. A translation +of _Faust_, which he published in 1834, met with considerable success. +After a year or two of desultory literary work he was (May 1839) +appointed to the newly-instituted chair of Humanity (Latin) in the +Marischal College. + +Difficulties arose in the way of his installation, owing to the action +of the Presbytery on his refusing to sign unreservedly the Confession of +Faith; but these were eventually overcome, and he took up his duties as +professor in November 1841. In the following year he married. From the +first his professorial lectures were conspicuous for the unconventional +enthusiasm with which he endeavoured to revivify the study of the +classics; and his growing reputation, added to the attention excited by +a translation of Aeschylus which he published in 1850, led to his +appointment in 1852 to the professorship of Greek at Edinburgh +University, in succession to George Dunbar, a post which he continued to +hold for thirty years. He was somewhat erratic in his methods, but his +lectures were a triumph of influential personality. A journey to Greece +in 1853 prompted his essay _On the Living Language of the Greeks_, a +favourite theme of his, especially in his later years; he adopted for +himself a modern Greek pronunciation, and before his death he endowed a +travelling scholarship to enable students to learn Greek at Athens. +Scottish nationality was another source of enthusiasm with him; and in +this connexion he displayed real sympathy with Highland home life and +the grievances of the crofters. The foundation of the Celtic chair at +Edinburgh University was mainly due to his efforts. In spite of the many +calls upon his time he produced a considerable amount of literary work, +usually on classical or Scottish subjects, including some poems and +songs of no mean order. He died in Edinburgh on the 2nd of March 1895. +Blackie was a Radical and Scottish nationalist in politics, but of a +fearlessly independent type; he was one of the "characters" of the +Edinburgh of the day, and was a well-known figure as he went about in +his plaid, worn shepherd-wise, wearing a broad-brimmed hat, and carrying +a big stick. His published works include (besides several volumes of +verse) _Homer and the Iliad_ (1866), maintaining the unity of the poems; +_Four Phases of Morals: Socrates, Aristotle, Christianity, +Utilitarianism_ (1871); _Essay on Self-Culture_ (1874); _Horae +Hellenicae_ (1874); _The Language and Literature of the Scottish +Highlands_ (1876); _The Natural History of Atheism_ (1877); _The Wise +Men of Greece_ (1877); _Lay Sermons_ (1881); _Altavona_ (1882); _The +Wisdom of Goethe_ (1883); _The Scottish Highlanders and the Land Laws_ +(1885); _Life of Burns_ (1888); _Scottish Song_ (1889); _Essays on +Subjects of Moral and Social Interest_ (1890); _Christianity and the +Ideal of Humanity_ (1893). Amongst his political writings may be +mentioned a pamphlet _On Democracy_ (1867), _On Forms of Government_ +(1867), and _Political Tracts_ (1868). + + See Anna M. Stoddart, _John Stuart Blackie_ (1895); A. Stodart-Walker, + _Selected Poems of J.S. Blackie_, with an appreciation (1896); Howard + Angus Kennedy, _Professor Blackie_ (1895). + + + + +BLACK ISLE, THE, a district in the east of the county of Ross and +Cromarty, Scotland, bounded N. by Cromarty Firth, E. by Moray Firth, S. +by Inner Moray Firth (or Firth of Inverness) and Beauly Firth, and W. by +the river Conon and the parish of Urray. It is a diamond-shaped +peninsula jutting out from the mainland in a north-easterly direction, +the longer axis, from Muir of Ord station to the South Sutor at the +entrance to Cromarty Firth, measuring 20 m., and the shorter, from +Ferryton Point to Craigton-Point, due north and south, 12 m., and it has +a coastline of 52 m. Originally called Ardmeanach (Gaelic _ard_, height; +_manaich_, monk, "the monk's height," from an old religious house on the +finely-wooded ridge of Mulbuie), it derived its customary name from the +fact that, since snow does not lie in winter, the promontory looks black +while the surrounding country is white. Within its limits are comprised +the parishes of Urquhart and Logie Wester, Killearnan, Knockbain (Gaelic +_cnoc_, hill; _ban_, white), Avoch (pron. Auch), Rosemarkie, Resolis +(Gaelic _rudha_ or _ros soluis_, "cape of the light") or Kirkmichael and +Cromarty. The Black Isle branch of the Highland railway runs from Muir +of Ord to Fortrose; steamers connect Cromarty with Invergordon and +Inverness, and Fortrose with Inverness; and there are ferries, on the +southern coast, at North Kessock (for Inverness) and Chanonry (for Fort +George), and, on the northern coast, at Alcaig (for Dingwall), +Newhallpoint (for Invergordon), and Cromarty (for Nigg). The principal +towns are Cromarty and Fortrose. Rosehaugh, near Avoch, belonged to Sir +George Mackenzie, founder of the Advocates' library in Edinburgh, who +earned the sobriquet of "Bloody" from his persecution of the +Covenanters. Redcastle, on the shore, near Killearnan church, dates from +1179 and is said to have been the earliest inhabited house in the north +of Scotland. On the forfeiture of the earldom of Ross it became a royal +castle (being visited by Queen Mary), and afterwards passed for a period +into the hands of the Mackenzies of Gairloch. The chief industries are +agriculture--high farming flourishes owing to the great fertility of the +peninsula--sandstone-quarrying and fisheries (mainly from Avoch). The +whole district, though lacking water, is picturesque and was once +forested. The Mulbuie ridge, the highest point of which is 838 ft. above +the sea, occupies the centre and is the only elevated ground. +Antiquarian remains are somewhat numerous, such as forts and cairns in +Cromarty parish, and stone circles in Urquhart and Logie Wester and +Knockbain parishes, the latter also containing a hut circle and rock +fortress. + + + + +BLACKLOCK, THOMAS (1721-1791), Scottish poet, the son of a bricklayer, +was born at Annan, in Dumfriesshire, in 1721. When not quite six months +old he lost his sight by smallpox, and his career is largely interesting +as that of one who achieved what he did in spite of blindness. Shortly +after his father's death in 1740, some of Blacklock's poems began to be +handed about among his acquaintances and friends, who arranged for his +education at the grammar-school, and subsequently at the university of +Edinburgh, where he was a student of divinity. His first volume of Poems +was published in 1746. In 1754 he became deputy librarian for the +Faculty of Advocates, by the kindness of Hume. He was eventually +estranged from Hume, and defended James Beattie's attack on that +philosopher. Blacklock was among the first friends of Burns in +Edinburgh, being one of the earliest to recognize his genius. He was in +1762 ordained minister of the church of Kirkcudbright, a position which +he soon resigned; in 1767 the degree of doctor in divinity was conferred +on him by Marischal College, Aberdeen. He died on the 7th of July 1791. + + An edition of his poems in 1793 contains a life by Henry Mackenzie. + + + + +BLACKMAIL, a term, in English law, used in three special meanings, at +different times. The usual derivation of the second half of the word is +from Norman Fr. _maille (medalia_; cf. "medal"), small copper coin; the +_New English Dictionary_ derives from "mail" (q.v.), meaning rent or +tribute. (1) The primary meaning of "blackmail" was rent paid in labour, +grain or baser metal (i.e. money other than sterling money), called +_reditus nigri_, in contradistinction to rent paid in silver or white +money (_mailles blanches_). (2) In the northern counties of England +(Northumberland, Westmorland and the bishopric of Durham) it signified a +tribute in money, corn, cattle or other consideration exacted from +farmers and small owners by freebooters in return for immunity from +robbers or moss-troopers. By a statute of 1601 it was made a felony +without benefit of clergy to receive or pay such tribute, but the +practice lingered until the union of England and Scotland in 1707. (3) +The word now signifies extortion of money or property by threats of +libel, presecution, exposure, &c. See such headings as COERCION, +CONSPIRACY, EXTORTION, and authorities quoted under CRIMINAL LAW. + + + + +BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD (c. 1650-1729), English physician and writer, was +born at Corsham, in Wiltshire, about 1650. He was educated at +Westminster school and St Edmund Hall, Oxford. He was for some time a +schoolmaster, but finally, after graduating in medicine at Padua, he +settled in practice as a physician in London. He supported the +principles of the Revolution, and was accordingly knighted in 1697. He +held the office of physician in ordinary both to William III. and Anne, +and died on the 9th of October 1729. Blackmore had a passion for +writing epics. _Prince Arthur, an Heroick Poem in X Books_ appeared in +1695, and was followed by six other long poems before 1723. Of these +_Creation_ ... (1712), a philosophic poem intended to refute the atheism +of Vanini, Hobbes and Spinoza, and to unfold the intellectual philosophy +of Locke, was the most favourably received. Dr Johnson anticipated that +this poem would transmit the author to posterity "among the first +favourites of the English muse," while John Dennis went so far as to +describe it as "a philosophical poem, which has equalled that of +Lucretius in the beauty of its versification, and infinitely surpassed +it in the solidity and strength of its reasoning." These opinions have +not been justified, for the poem, like everything else that Blackmore +wrote, is dull and tedious. His _Creation_ appears in Johnson's and +Anderson's collections of the British poets. He left also works on +medicine and on theological subjects. + + + + +BLACKMORE, RICHARD DODDRIDGE (1825-1900), English novelist, was born on +the 7th of June 1825 at Longworth, Berkshire, of which village his +father was curate in charge. He was educated at Blundell's school, +Tiverton, and Exeter College, Oxford, where he obtained a scholarship. +In 1847 he took a second class in classics. Two years later he entered +as a student at the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in 1852. +His first publication was a volume of _Poems by Melanter_ (1854), which +showed no particular promise, nor did the succeeding volume, _Epullia_ +(1855), suggest that Blackmore had the makings of a poet. He was +nevertheless enthusiastic in his pursuit of literature; and when, a few +years later, the complete breakdown of his health rendered it clear that +he must remove from London, he determined to combine a literary life in +the country with a business career as a market-gardener. He acquired +land at Teddington, and set earnestly to work, the literary fruits of +his new surroundings being a translation of the _Georgics_, published in +1862. In 1864 he published his first novel, _Clara Vaughan_, the merits +of which were promptly recognized. _Cradock Nowell_ (1866) followed, but +it was in 1869 that he suddenly sprang into fame with _Lorna Doone_. +This fine story was a pioneer in the romantic revival; and appearing at +a jaded hour, it was presently recognized as a work of singular charm, +vigour and imagination. Its success could scarcely be repeated, and +though Blackmore wrote many other capital stories, of which the best +known are _The Maid of Sker_ (1872), _Christowell_ (1880), _Perlycross_ +(1894), _Tales from the Telling House_ (1896) and _Dariel_ (1897), he +will always be remembered almost exclusively as the author of _Lorna +Doone_. He continued his quiet country life to the last, and died at +Teddington on the 20th of January 1900, in his seventy-fifth year. +_Lorna Doone_ has the true out-of-door atmosphere, is shot through and +through with adventurous spirit, and in its dramatic moments shows both +vigour and intensity. The heroine, though she is invested with qualities +of faery which are scarcely human, is an idyllic and haunting figure; +and John Ridd, the bluff hero, is, both in purpose and achievement, a +veritable giant of romance. The story is a classic of the West country, +and the many pilgrimages that are made annually to the Doone Valley (the +actual characteristics of which differ materially from the descriptions +given in the novel) are entirely inspired by the buoyant imagination of +Richard Blackmore. A memorial window and tablet to his memory were +erected in Exeter cathedral in 1904. + + + + +BLACK MOUNTAIN, a mountain range and district on the Hazara border of +the North-West Frontier Province of India. It is inhabited by Yusafzai +Pathans. The Black Mountain itself has a total length of 25 to 30 m., +and an average height of 8000 ft. above the sea. It rises from the Indus +basin near the village of Kiara, up to its watershed by Bruddur; thence +it runs north-west by north to the point on the crest known as +Chittabut. From Chittabut the range runs due north, finally descending +by two large spurs to the Indus again. The tribes which inhabit the +western face of the Black Mountain are the Hassanzais (2300 fighting +men), the Akazais (1165 fighting men) and the Chagarzais (4890 fighting +men), all sub-sections of the Yusafzai Pathans. It was in this district +that the Hindostani Fanatics had their stronghold, and they were +responsible for much of the unrest on this part of the border. + +The Black Mountain is chiefly notable for four British expeditions:-- + +1. Under Lieut.-Colonel F. Mackeson, in 1852-53, against the Hassanzais. +The occasion was the murder of two British customs officers. A force of +3800 British troops traversed their country, destroying their villages +and grain, &c. + +2. Under Major-General A.T. Wilde, in 1868. The occasion was an attack +on a British police post at Oghi in the Agror Valley by all three +tribes. A force of 12,500 British troops entered the country and the +tribes made submission. + +3. The First Hazara Expedition in 1888. The cause was the constant raids +made by the tribes on villages in British territory, culminating in an +attack on a small British detachment, in which two English officers were +killed. A force of 12,500 British troops traversed the country of the +tribes, and severely punished them. Punishment was also inflicted on the +Hindostani Fanatics of Palosi. + +4. The Second Hazara Expedition of 1891. The Black Mountain tribes fired +on a force within British limits. A force of 7300 British troops +traversed the country. The tribesmen made their submission and entered +into an agreement with government to preserve the peace of the border. + +The Black Mountain tribes took no part in the general frontier rising of +1897, and after the disappearance of the Hindostani Fanatics they sank +into comparative unimportance. + + + + +BLACKPOOL, a municipal and county borough and seaside resort in the +Blackpool parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, 46 m. N. of +Liverpool, served by the Lancashire & Yorkshire, and London & North +Western railways. Pop. (1891) 23,846; (1901) 47,346. The town, which is +quite modern, contains many churches and chapels of all denominations, a +town hall, public libraries, the Victoria hospital, three piers, +theatres, ball-rooms, and other places of public amusement, including a +lofty tower, resembling the Eiffel Tower of Paris. The municipality +maintains an electric tram service. There are handsome promenades along +the sea front, which command fine views. Extensive works upon these, +affording a sea front unsurpassed by that of any English watering-place, +were completed in 1905. The beach is sandy and the bathing good. The +borough was created in 1876 (county borough, 1904), and is governed by a +mayor, 12 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, exclusive of foreshore, +3496 acres; including foreshore, 4244 acres. + + + + +BLACK ROD (more fully, "Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod "), an official +of the House of Lords, instituted in 1350. His appointment is by royal +letters patent, and his title is due to his staff of office, an ebony +stick surmounted with a gold lion. He is a personal attendant of the +sovereign in the Upper House, and is also usher of the order of the +Garter, being doorkeeper at the meetings of the knights' chapter. He is +responsible for the maintenance of order in the House of Lords, and on +him falls the duty of arresting any peer guilty of breach of privilege +or other offence of which the House takes cognizance. But the duty which +brings him most into prominence is that of summoning the Commons and +their speaker to the Upper House to hear a speech from the throne or the +royal assent given to bills. If the sovereign is present in parliament, +Black Rod _commands_ the attendance of the gentlemen of the Commons, but +when lords commissioners represent the king, he only _desires_ such +attendance. Black Rod is on such occasions the central figure of a +curious ceremony of much historic significance. As soon as the +attendants of the House of Commons are aware of his approach, they close +the doors in his face. Black Rod then strikes three times with his +staff, and on being asked "Who is there?" replies "Black Rod." Being +then admitted he advances to the bar of the House, makes three +obeisances and says, "Mr Speaker, the king commands this honourable +House to attend his majesty immediately in the House of Lords." This +formality originated in the famous attempt of Charles I. to arrest the +five members, Hampden, Pym, Holies, Hesilrige and Strode, in 1642. +Indignant at this breach of privilege, the House of Commons has ever +since maintained its right of freedom of speech and uninterrupted debate +by the closing of the doors on the king's representative. + + + + +BLACK SEA (or EUXINE; anc. _Pontus Euxinus_),[1] a body of water lying +almost entirely between the latitudes 41 deg. and 45 deg. N., but +extending to about 47 deg. N. near Odessa. It is bounded N. by the +southern coast of Russia; W. by Rumania, Turkey and Bulgaria; S. and E. +by Asia Minor. The northern boundary is broken at Kertch by a strait +entering into the Sea of Azov, and at the junction of the western and +southern boundary is the Bosporus, which unites the Black Sea with the +Mediterranean through the Sea of Marmora and the Dardanelles. The +100-fathom line is about 10 to 20 m. from the shore except in the +north-west corner between Varna and Sevastopol, where it extends 140 m. +seawards. The greatest depth is 1030 fathoms (1227 Russian fathoms) near +the centre, there being only one basin. The steepest incline outside 100 +fathoms is to the south-east of the Crimea and at Amastra; the incline +to the greater depths is also steep off the Caucasus and between +Trebizond and Batum. The conditions that prevail in the Black Sea are +very different from those of the Mediterranean or any other sea. The +existence of sulphuretted hydrogen in great quantities below 100 +fathoms, the extensive chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate, the +stagnant nature of its deep waters, and the absence of deep-sea life are +conditions which make it impossible to discuss it along with the +physical and biological conditions of the Mediterranean proper. + +The depths of the Black Sea are lifeless, higher organic life not being +known to exist below 100 fathoms. Fossiliferous remains of _Dreissena_, +_Cardium_ and other molluscs have, however, been dredged up, which help +to show that conditions formerly existed in the Black Sea similar to +those that exist at the present day in the Caspian Sea. According to N. +Andrusov, when the union of the Black Sea with the Mediterranean through +the Bosporus took place, salt water rushed into it along the bottom of +the Bosporus and killed the fauna of the less saline waters. This gave +rise to a production of sulphuretted hydrogen which is found in the +deposits, as well as in the deeper waters. + +Observations in temperature and salinity have only been taken during +summer. During summer the surface salinity of the Black Sea is from 1.70 +to 2.00% down to 50 fathoms, whereas in the greater depths it attains a +salinity of 2.25%. The temperature is rather remarkable, there being an +intermediate cold layer between 25 and 50 fathoms. This is due to the +sinking of the cold surface water (which in winter reaches +freezing-point) on to the top of the denser more saline water of the +greater depths. There is thus a minimum circulation in the greater +depths causing there uniformity of temperature, an absence of the +circulation of oxygen by other means than diffusion, and a protection of +the sulphuretted hydrogen from the oxidation which takes place in +homologous situations in the open ocean. The temperature down to 25 +fathoms is from 78.3 deg. to 46.2 deg. F., and in the cold layer, +between 25 and 50 fathoms, is from 46.2 deg. to 43.5 deg. F., rising +again in greater depths to 48.2 deg. F. + +The _Sea of Marmora_ may be looked upon as an arm of the Aegean Sea and +thus part of the Mediterranean proper. Its salinity is comparable to +that of the eastern basin of the Mediterranean, which is greater than +that of the Black Sea, viz. 4%. Similar currents exist in the Bosporus +to those of the Strait of Gibraltar. Water of less salinity flows +outwards from the Black Sea as an upper current, and water of greater +salinity from the Sea of Marmora flows into the Black Sea as an +under-current. This under-current flows towards Cape Tarhangut, where it +divides into a left and right branch. The left branch is appreciably +noticed near Odessa and the north-west corner; the right branch sweeps +past the Crimea, strikes the Caucasian shore (where it comes to the +surface running across, but not into, the south-east corner of the Black +Sea), and finally disperses flowing westwards along the northern coast +of Asia Minor between Cape Jason and Sinope. This current causes a +warmer climate where it strikes. So marked is this current that it has +to be taken into account in the navigation of the Black Sea. + +The _Sea of Azov_ is exceedingly shallow, being only about 6 fathoms in +its deepest part, and it is largely influenced by the river Don. Its +water is considerably fresher than the Black Sea, varying from 1.55 to +0.68%. It freezes more readily and is not affected by the Mediterranean +current. + + See N. Andrusov, "Physical Exploration of the Black Sea," in + _Geographical Journal_, vol. i. p. 49. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The early Greek navigators gave it the epithet of _axenus_, i.e. + unfriendly to strangers, but as Greek colonies sprang up on the + shores this was changed to _euxinus_, friendly to strangers. + + + + +BLACK SEA (Russ. _Chernomorskaya_), a military district of the province of +Kuban, formerly an independent province of Transcaucasia, Russia; it +includes the narrow strip of land along the N.E. coast of the Black Sea +from Novorossiysk to the vicinity of Pitsunda, between the sea and the +crest of the main range of the Caucasus. Area, 2836 sq. m. Pop. (1897) +54,228; (1906, estimate) 71,900. It is penetrated by numerous spurs of +this range, which strike the sea abruptly at right angles to the coast, +and in many cases plunge down into it sheer. Owing to its southern +exposure, its sheltered position, and a copious rainfall, vegetation, in +part of a sub-tropical character, grows in great profusion. In +consequence, however, of the mountainous character of the region, it is +divided into a large number of more or less isolated districts, and there +is little intercourse with the country north of the Caucasus, the passes +over the range being few and difficult (see CAUCASUS). But since the +Russians became masters of this region, its former inhabitants (Circassian +tribes) have emigrated in thousands, so that the country is now only +thinly inhabited. It is divided into three districts--Novorossiysk, with +the town (pop. in 1897, 16,208) of the same name, which acts as the +capital of the Black Sea district; Velyaminovsk; and Sochi. Novorossiysk +is connected by rail, at the west end of the Caucasus, with the +Rostov-Vladikavkaz line, and a mountain road leads from Velyaminovsk (or +Tuapse) to Maikop in the province of Kuban. + + + + +BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM (1723-1780), English jurist, was born in London, +on the 10th of July 1723. His parents having died when he was young, his +early education, under the care of his uncle, Dr Thomas Bigg, was +obtained at the Charterhouse, from which, at the age of fifteen, he was +sent to Pembroke College, Oxford. He was entered in the Middle Temple in +1741. In 1744 he was elected a fellow of All Souls' College. From this +period he divided his time between the university and the Temple, where +he took chambers in order to attend the law courts. In 1746 he was +called to the bar. Though but little known or distinguished as a +pleader, he was actively employed, during his occasional residences at +the university, in taking part in the internal management of his +college. In May 1749, as a small reward for his services, and to give +him further opportunities of advancing the interests of the college, +Blackstone was appointed steward of its manors. In the same year, on the +resignation of his uncle, Seymour Richmond, he was elected recorder of +the borough of Wallingford in Berkshire. In 1750 he became doctor of +civil law. In 1753 he decided to retire from London work to his +fellowship and an academical life, still continuing the practice of his +profession as a provincial counsel. + +His lectures on the laws of England appear to have been an early and +favourite idea; for in the Michaelmas term immediately after he +abandoned London, he entered on the duty of reading them at Oxford; and +we are told by the author of his _Life_, that even at their +commencement, the high expectations formed from the acknowledged +abilities of the lecturer attracted to these lectures a very crowded +class of young men of the first families, characters and hopes. Bentham, +however, declares that he was a "formal, precise and affected +lecturer--just what you would expect from the character of his +writings--cold, reserved and wary, exhibiting a frigid pride." It was +not till the year 1758 that the lectures in the form they now bear were +read in the university. Blackstone, having been unanimously elected to +the newly-founded Vinerian professorship, on the 25th of October read +his first introductory lecture, afterwards prefixed to the first volume +of his celebrated _Commentaries_. It is doubtful whether the +_Commentaries_ were originally intended for the press; but many +imperfect and incorrect copies having got into circulation, and a +pirated edition of them being either published or preparing for +publication in Ireland, the author thought proper to print a correct +edition himself, and in November 1765 published the first volume, under +the title of _Commentaries on the Laws of England_. The remaining parts +of the work were given to the world in the course of the four succeeding +years. It may be remarked that before this period the reputation which +his lectures had deservedly acquired for him had induced him to resume +practice in London; and, contrary to the general order of the +profession, he who had quitted the bar for an academic life was sent +back from the college to the bar with a considerable increase of +business. He was likewise elected to parliament, first for Hindon, and +afterwards for Westbury in Wilts; but in neither of these departments +did he equal the expectations which his writings had raised. The part he +took in the Middlesex election drew upon him many attacks as well as a +severe animadversion from the caustic pen of "Junius." This circumstance +probably strengthened the aversion he professed to parliamentary +attendance, "where," he said, "amidst the rage of contending parties, a +man of moderation must expect to meet with no quarter from any side." In +1770 he declined the place of solicitor-general; but shortly afterwards, +on the promotion of Sir Joseph Yates to a seat in the court of common +pleas, he accepted a seat on the bench, and on the death of Sir Joseph +succeeded him there also. He died on the 14th of February 1780. + +The design of the _Commentaries_ is exhibited in his first Vinerian +lecture printed in the introduction to them. The author there dwells on +the importance of noblemen, gentlemen and educated persons generally +being well acquainted with the laws of the country; and his treatise, +accordingly, is as far as possible a popular exposition of the laws of +England. Falling into the common error of identifying the various +meanings of the word law, he advances from the law of nature (being +either the revealed or the inferred will of God) to municipal law, which +he defines to be a rule of civil conduct prescribed by the supreme power +in a state commanding what is right and prohibiting what is wrong. On +this definition he founds the division observed in the _Commentaries_. +The objects of law are rights and wrongs. Rights are either rights of +persons or rights of things. Wrongs are either public or private. These +four headings form respectively the subjects of the four books of the +_Commentaries_. + +Blackstone was by no means what would now be called a scientific jurist. +He has only the vaguest possible grasp of the elementary conceptions of +law. He evidently regards the law of gravitation, the law of nature, and +the law of England, as different examples of the same principle--as +rules of action or conduct imposed by a superior power on its subjects. +He propounds in terms the doctrine that municipal or positive laws +derive their validity from their conformity to the so-called law of +nature or law of God. "No human laws," he says, "are of any validity if +contrary to this." His distinction between rights of persons and rights +of things, implying, as it would appear, that things as well as persons +have rights, is attributable to a misunderstanding of the technical +terms of the Roman law. In distinguishing between private and public +wrongs (civil injuries and crimes) he fails to seize the true principle +of the division. Austin, who accused him of following slavishly the +method of Hale's _Analysis of the Law_, declares that he "blindly adopts +the mistakes of his rude and compendious model; missing invariably, with +a nice and surprising infelicity, the pregnant but obscure suggestions +which it proffered to his attention, and which would have guided a +discerning and inventive writer to an arrangement comparatively just." +By the want of precise and closely-defined terms, and his tendency to +substitute loose literary phrases, he falls occasionally into +irreconcilable contradictions. Even in discussing a subject of such +immense importance as equity, he hardly takes pains to discriminate +between the legal and popular senses of the word, and, from the small +place which equity jurisprudence occupies in his arrangement, he would +scarcely seem to have realized its true position in the law of England. +Subject, however, to these strictures the completeness of the treatise, +its serviceable if not scientific order, and the power of lucid +exposition possessed by the author demand emphatic recognition. +Blackstone's defects as a jurist are more conspicuous in his treatment +of the underlying principles and fundamental divisions of the law than +in his account of its substantive principles. + +Blackstone by no means confines himself to the work of a legal +commentator. It is his business, especially when he touches on the +framework of society, to find a basis in history and reason for all the +most characteristic English institutions. There is not much either of +philosophy or fairness in this part of his work. Whether through the +natural conservatism of a lawyer, or through his own timidity and +subserviency as a man and a politician, he is always found to be a +specious defender of the existing order of things. Bentham accuses him +of being the enemy of all reform, and the unscrupulous champion of every +form of professional chicanery. Austin says that he truckled to the +sinister interests and mischievous prejudices of power, and that he +flattered the overweening conceit of the English in their own +institutions. He displays much ingenuity in giving a plausible form to +common prejudices and fallacies; but it is by no means clear that he was +not imposed upon himself. More undeniable than the political fairness of +the treatise is its merits as a work of literature. It is written in a +most graceful and attractive style, and although no opportunity of +embellishment has been lost, the language is always simple and clear. +Whether it is owing to its literary graces, or to its success in +flattering the prejudices of the public to which it was addressed, the +influence of the book in England has been extraordinary. Not lawyers +only, and lawyers perhaps even less than others, accepted it as an +authoritative revelation of the law. It performed for educated society +in England much the same service as was rendered to the people of Rome +by the publication of their previously unknown laws. It is more correct +to regard it as a handbook of the law for laymen than as a legal +treatise; and as the first and only book of the kind in England it has +been received with somewhat indiscriminating reverence. It is certain +that a vast amount of the constitutional sentiment of the country has +been inspired by its pages. To this day Blackstone's criticism of the +English constitution would probably express the most profound political +convictions of the majority of the English people. Long after it has +ceased to be of much practical value as an authority in the courts, it +remains the arbiter of all public discussions on the law or the +constitution. On such occasions the _Commentaries_ are apt to be +construed as strictly as if they were a code. It is curious to observe +how much importance is attached to the _ipsissima verba_ of a writer who +aimed more at presenting a picture intelligible to laymen than at +recording the principles of the law with technical accuracy of detail. + + See also the article ENGLISH LAW. + + + + +BLACK VEIL, in the Roman Catholic Church, the symbol of the most +complete renunciation of the world and adoption of a nun's life. On the +appointed day the nun goes through all the ritual of the marriage +ceremony, after a solemn mass at which all the inmates of the convent +assist. She is dressed in bridal white with wreath and veil, and +receives a wedding-ring, as spouse of the Church. Afterwards she +presides at a wedding-breakfast, at which a bride-cake is cut. She thus +bids adieu to all her friends, and having previously taken the white +veil, the betrothal, she now assumes the black, and for ever forswears +the world and its pleasures. Her hair is cut short, and her bridal robes +are exchanged for the sombre religious habit. Her wedding-ring, however, +she continues to wear, and it is buried with her. + + + + +BLACKWATER, the name of a number of rivers and streams in England, +Scotland and Ireland. The Blackwater in Essex, which rises near Saffron +Walden, has a course of about 40 m. to the North Sea. The most important +river of the name is in southern Ireland, rising in the hills on the +borders of the counties Cork and Kerry, and flowing nearly due east for +the greater part of its course, as far as Cappoquin, where it turns +abruptly southward, and discharges through an estuary into Youghal Bay. +The length of its valley (excluding the lesser windings of the river) +is about 90 m., and the drainage area about 1300 sq. m. It is navigable +only for a few miles above the mouth, but its salmon fisheries are both +attractive to sportsmen and of considerable commercial value. The +scenery of its banks is at many points very beautiful. + + + + +BLACKWATER FEVER, a disease occurring in tropical countries and +elsewhere, which is often classed with malaria (q.v.). It is +characterized by irregular febrile paroxysms, accompanied by rigors, +bilious vomiting, jaundice and haemoglobinuria (Sambon). It has a wide +geographical distribution, including tropical Africa, parts of Asia, the +West Indies, the southern United States, and--in Europe--Greece, Sicily +and Sardinia; but its range is not coextensive with malaria. Malarial +parasites have occasionally been found in the blood. Some authorities +believe it to be caused by the excessive use of quinine, taken to combat +malaria. This theory has had the support of Koch, but it is not +generally accepted. If it were correct, one would expect blackwater +fever to be regularly prevalent in malarial countries and to be more or +less coextensive with the use of quinine, which is not at all the case. +It often resembles yellow fever, but the characteristic black vomit of +yellow fever rarely occurs in blackwater fever, while the black urine +from which the latter derives its name is equally rare in the former. +According to the modern school of tropical parasitology, blackwater +fever is neither a form of malaria nor produced by quinine, but a +specific disease due to a protozoal parasite akin to that which causes +the redwater fever of cattle. + + + + +BLACKWELL, THOMAS (1701-1757), Scottish classical scholar, was born at +Aberdeen on the 4th of August 1701. He took the degree of M.A. at the +Marischal College in 1718. He was appointed professor of Greek in 1723, +and was principal of the institution from 1748 until his death on the +8th of March 1757. In 1735 his first work, _An Inquiry into the Life and +Writings of Homer_, was published anonymously. It was reprinted in 1736, +and followed (in 1747) by _Proofs of the Enquiry into Homer's Life and +Writings_, a translation of the copious notes in foreign languages which +had previously appeared. This work, intended to explain the causes of +the superiority of Homer to all the poets who preceded or followed him, +shows considerable research, and contains many curious and interesting +details; but its want of method made Bentley say that, when he had gone +through half of it, he had forgotten the beginning, and, when he had +finished the reading of it, he had forgotten the whole. Blackwell's next +work (also published anonymously in 1748) was _Letters Concerning +Mythology_. In 1752 he took the degree of doctor of laws, and in the +following year published the first volume of _Memoirs of the Court of +Augustus_; the second volume appeared in 1755, the third in 1764 +(prepared for the press, after Blackwell's death, by John Mills). This +work shows considerable originality and erudition, but is even more +unmethodical than his earlier writings and full of unnecessary +digressions. Blackwell has been called the restorer of Greek literature +in the north of Scotland; but his good qualities were somewhat spoiled +by pomposity and affectation, which exposed him to ridicule. + + + + +BLACKWOOD, WILLIAM (1776-1834), Scottish publisher, founder of the firm +of William Blackwood & Sons, was born of humble parents at Edinburgh on +the 20th of November 1776. At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to +a firm of booksellers in Edinburgh, and he followed his calling also in +Glasgow and London for several years. Returning to Edinburgh in 1804, he +opened a shop in South Bridge Street for the sale of old, rare and +curious books. He undertook the Scottish agency for John Murray and +other London publishers, and gradually drifted into publishing on his +own account, removing in 1816 to Princes Street. On the 1st of April +1817 was issued the first number of the _Edinburgh Monthly Magazine_, +which on its seventh number, bore the name of _Blackwood's_ as the +leading part of the title. "Maga," as this magazine soon came to be +called, was the organ of the Scottish Tory party, and round it gathered +a host of able writers. William Blackwood died on the 16th of September +1834, and was succeeded by his two sons, Alexander and Robert, who +added a London branch to the firm. In 1845 Alexander Blackwood died, and +shortly afterwards Robert. + +A younger brother, John Blackwood (1818-1879), succeeded to the +business; four years later he was joined by Major William Blackwood, who +continued in the firm until his death in 1861. In 1862 the major's elder +son, William Blackwood (b. 1836), was taken into partnership. John +Blackwood was a man of strong personality and great business +discernment; it was in the pages of his magazine that George Eliot's +first stories, _Scenes of Clerical Life_, appeared. He also inaugurated +the "Ancient Classics for English readers" series. On his death Mr +William Blackwood was left in sole control of the business. With him +were associated his nephews, George William and J.H. Blackwood, sons of +Major George Blackwood, who was killed at Maiwand in 1880. + + See _Annals of a Publishing House; William Blackwood and his Sons_ ... + (1897-1898), the first two volumes of which were written by Mrs + Oliphant; the third, dealing with John Blackwood, by his daughter, Mrs + Gerald Porter. + + + + +BLADDER (from A.S. _blaeddre_, connected with _blawan_, to blow, cf. +Ger. _blase_), the membranous sac in animals which receives the urine +secreted from the kidneys. The word is also used for any similar sac, +such as the gall-bladder, the swim-bladder in fishes, or the small +vesicle in various seaweeds. + + + + +BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES. The urinary bladder in man (for the +anatomy see URINARY SYSTEM), being the temporary reservoir of the renal +secretion, and, as such, containing the urine for longer or shorter +periods, is liable to various important affections. These are dealt with +in the first part of this article. The diseases of the prostate are so +intimately allied that they are best considered, as in the subsequent +section, as part of the same subject. + + +_Diseases of the Bladder._ + + Cystitis. + +_Cystitis_, or inflammation of the bladder, which may be acute or +chronic, is due to the invasion of the mucous lining by micro-organisms, +which gain access either from the urethra, the kidneys or the +blood-stream. It is easy to see how the diplococci of gonorrhoea may +infect the bladder-membrane by direct extension of the inflammation, and +how the bacilli which are swarming in the neighbouring bowel may find +access to the urethra or bladder when the intervening tissues have been +rendered penetrable by a wound or by inflammation. Sometimes, however, +especially in the female, the germs from the large intestine enter the +bladder by way of the vulva and the urethra. + +Any condition leading to disturbance of the function of the bladder, +such as enlargement of the prostate, stricture of the urethra, stone, or +injury, may cause cystitis by preparing the way for bacillary invasion. +The bacilli of tuberculosis and of typhoid fever may set up cystitis by +coming down into the bladder from the kidneys with the urine, or they +reach it by the blood-stream, or invade it by the urethra. Another way +of cystitis being set up is by the introduction of the germs of +suppuration by a catheter or bougie sweeping them in from the urethra; +or the instrument itself may be unsterilized and dirty and so may +introduce them. It used formerly to be thought that wet or cold was +enough to cause inflammation of the bladder, but the probability is that +this acts only by lowering the resistance of the lining membrane of the +bladder, and preparing it for the invasion of the germs which were +merely waiting for an opportunity. In the same way, gout or injury may +lead to the lurking bacilli being enabled to effect their attack. But in +every case disease-germs are the cause of the trouble, and they may be +found in the urine. The first effect of inflammation is to render the +bladder irritable, so that as soon as a few drops of urine have +collected, the individual has intense or uncontrollable desire to +micturate. The effort may be very painful and may be accompanied by +bleeding from the overloaded blood-vessels of the inflamed membrane. In +addition to blood, pus is likely to be found in the urine, which by this +time is alkaline and ammoniacal, and teeming with micro-organisms. As +regards _treatment_, the patient should be at once sent to bed in a warm +room, and should sit several times a day in a very hot hip-bath. When +he has got back to bed, a fomentation under oil-silk, or some other +waterproof material, should be placed over the lower part of the +abdomen. The diet should be milk (diluted with hot or cold water), +barley-water, and bread and butter; no alcoholic drink should be +allowed. If the urine is acid, bicarbonate of soda may be given, or +citrate of soda; if alkaline, urotropine--a derivative of formic +aldehyde--may prove a useful urinary disinfectant. If the straining and +distress are great, a suppository of 1/4 or 1/2 a grain of morphia may +be introduced into the rectum every two or three hours. The bowels must +be kept freely open. If the urine is foul, the bladder should be +frequently washed out by a soft catheter and two or three feet of +india-rubber tubing with a funnel at the other end, weak and abundant +hot lotions of Sanitas or Condy's fluid being used. + +_Chronic cystitis_ is the condition left when the acute symptoms have +passed away, but it is liable at any moment to resume the acute +condition. If the cystitis is very intractable, refusing to yield to hot +irrigations, and to washings with nitrate of silver lotion, it may be +advisable to open the bladder from the front, and to explore, treat, +drain and rest it. + +In _tuberculous cystitis_ there is added to the symptoms the discovery +of the bacilli of tuberculosis in the urine, and cystoscopic examination +may reveal the presence of tubercles of the mucous membrane or even of +ulceration. The patient is probably losing weight, and he may present +foci of tuberculosis at the back of the testicle, the lung or kidney, or +in a joint or bone, or in a lymphatic gland. _Treatment_ is rebellious +and unpromising. Washings and lotions give but temporary relief, and if +the bladder is opened for rest, and for a more direct treatment, the +germs of suppuration may enter, and, working in conjunction with the +bacilli, may cause great havoc. Koch's tuberculin treatment should +certainly be given a trial. This consists of the injection into the body +of an emulsion of dead tubercle bacilli which have been sterilized by +heat. As a result of this injection the blood sets to work to form an +"opsonin"--a protective material which so modifies the disease-germs as +to render them attractive to the white corpuscles of the patient's blood +(phagocytes), which then seize upon and destroy them. Sir A.E. Wright +has devised a delicate method of examination of the blood (the +calculation of the opsonic index) which tells when the tuberculin +injections should be resorted to and when withheld (see BLOOD). + + + Stone. + +_Calculi and Gravel._--Uric acid is deposited from the urine either as +small crystals resembling cayenne pepper, or else, in combination with +soda and ammonia, as an amorphous "brick-dust" deposit, which, on +cooling, leaves a red stain on the bottom of the vessel, soluble in hot +water. These substances are derived from the disintegration of +nitrogenized food taken in excess of demand, and from the breaking down +of the human tissues. They occur therefore in fevers, in wasting +diseases, and in the normal subject after excessive muscular exercises, +especially if these exercises have been accompanied with so much +perspiration that the excess of water from the blood has escaped by the +skin rather than by the kidneys. The abundance of this deposit is in +accordance with the amount of heat developed and work done in the body, +and corresponds with the dust and ashes raked out of the fire-box of the +locomotive after a long run. But supposing that the uric acid debris +continues to be excessive, the risk of the formation of renal or vesical +calculi becomes considerable, and it may be advisable to place the +patient on a restricted nitrogenized diet, to induce him to drink large +quantities of water, and to keep his bowels so loose with watery +laxatives, such as Epsom salts or sulphate of soda, that the waste +products of his body are made to escape by the bowels rather than by the +kidneys. In addition to the salts just mentioned, an occasional dose of +blue pill will prove helpful. A course of treatment at Contrexeville or +Carlsbad may be taken with advantage. + +Alkaline urine is unable to hold the phosphates of ammonia and magnesia +in solution, so they are deposited in abundance either in the kidney or +bladder. If the voided urine is allowed to stand in a tall glass they +sink to the bottom with pus and mucus in a cloudy deposit. To remedy +this condition it is necessary to treat the cystitis with which the +bacterial decomposition of the urine is associated. It may be that a +calculus of acid urine, such as one of uric acid or oxalate of lime, has +been resting in the bladder and keeping up incessant irritation, and +that the micro-organisms of decomposition or suppuration have found +their way to the mucous lining of the bladder from either the bowel, the +urethra or the blood-stream; undergoing cultivation there they break up +the urea into carbonate of ammonia and so render the urine alkaline. +This alkaline urine deposits its phosphates, which light upon the +calculus and encrust it with a mortary shell, which may go on increasing +in size until it may even fill the bladder. Sometimes the nucleus of a +calculus is a chip of bone or a blood-clot, or some foreign substance +which has been introduced into the bladder. Sooner or later the urine +becomes alkaline and the calculus is encrusted with lime salts. + +When urine contains a larger amount of chemical constituents than it can +conveniently hold in solution, a certain quantity crystallizes out, and +may be deposited in the kidney or in the bladder. If the crystals run +together in the kidney the resulting concretion may either remain in +that organ or may find its way into the bladder, where it may remain to +form the nucleus of a larger vesical calculus, or, especially in the +case of females, it may, while still small, escape from the bladder +during micturition. + +In children, in whom there is a rapid disintegration of nitrogenized +tissues, a uric acid calculus in escaping from the bladder may block the +urethra and give rise to sudden retention of urine. On introducing a +metal "sound," the surgeon may strike the stone, and if it happens to be +near the bladder he may push it back and subsequently remove it by +crushing. But if it has made its way some distance along the urethra, so +that he can feel it from the outside, he should remove it by a clean +incision. + +A stone in the bladder worries the nerves of the mucous membrane, and, +giving them the impression that the bladder contains much water, causes +the desire and need for micturition to be constant. The irritation +causes an excessive secretion of mucus, just as a piece of grit under +the eyelid causes a constant running from the eye. So the urine, if +allowed to stand, gives a copious deposit. During micturition the +contracting bladder bruises its congested blood-vessels against the +stone, so that towards the end of micturition blood appears in the +urine. Lastly, cystitis occurs, and the urine contains fetid pus. A +stone in the bladder gives rise to pain at the end of the penis, and it +is apt suddenly to stop the flow of urine during micturition. + +The association of any of these symptoms leads the surgeon to suspect +the presence of a stone in the bladder, and he confirms his suspicions +by introducing a slender steel rod, a "sound," by which he strikes and +feels the stone. Further confirmation may be obtained by the help of the +X-rays, or, in the adult, by using a cystoscope. In a child the stone +may often be felt by a finger in the rectum, the front of the bladder +being pressed by a hand on the lower part of the abdomen. The +_cystoscope_ is a straight, hollow metal tube about the size of a long +cedar pencil, which the surgeon introduces into the adult bladder, which +has already been filled with warm boracic lotion. Down the tube run two +fine wires which control a minute electric lamp at the bladder end of +the instrument. At that end also is a small glass window which prevents +the fluid escaping by the tube, and also a prism; at the other end of +the tube is an eye-piece. By the use of this slender speculum the +practised surgeon can recognize the presence of tubercle or tuberculous +ulceration of the bladder, stone, or other foreign material, and +innocent or malignant growths. He can also watch the urine entering the +bladder by the openings of the ureters, and determine from which kidney +blood or pus is coming. + +The _treatment_ of stone in the bladder is governed by various +conditions. Speaking generally, the surgeon prefers to introduce a +lithotrite and crush the stone into small fragments, and then to flush +out the fragments by using a full-sized, hollow metal catheter and an +india-rubber wash-bottle. Even in children this operation may generally +be adopted with success, the stone being crushed to atoms and the +fragments being washed out to the last small chip. But if the stone is +a very hard one (as are some of the oxalate of lime calculi), or if it +is very large, or if the bladder or the prostate gland is in a state of +advanced disease, or if the urethra is not roomy enough to admit +instruments of adequate calibre, the crushing operation (_lithotrity_) +must be deemed unsuitable, and the stone must be removed by a cutting +operation (_lithotomy_). + +_Lithotomy_.--Cutting for stone has been long practised; but up to the +beginning of the 19th century it was performed only by a few men, who, +bolder than their contemporaries, had specially worked at that operation +and had attained celebrity as skilful lithotomists. Patients went long +distances to be operated on by them, and certain of the older surgeons, +as William Cheselden, performed a large number of operations with most +excellent results. The operation was by an incision from the perineum, +and is ordinarily spoken of as _lateral_ lithotomy. It was splendidly +designed, and gave good results, especially in children. But it is now a +thing of the past, having almost entirely given place to the _high_ or +_supra-pubic_ operation. In the high operation the patient, being duly +prepared, is placed upon his back and the bladder is washed out with hot +boracic lotion, and when the lotion returns quite clean a final +injection is made until the bladder is felt rising above the pubes. Then +the india-rubber tube is removed from the silver catheter by which the +injection has been made, and the end of the catheter is plugged by a +spigot. An incision is then made in the middle line of the abdomen over +the bladder region. The incision must be kept as low as possible, so +that the bladder may be reached below the peritoneum, which, higher up, +gives it an external, serous coat. As the bladder is approached, a good +many veins are seen to be in the way, some of which have to be wounded. +The bladder-wall is recognized by its coarse network of pale muscular +fibres, through which, on each side of the middle line, a strong suture +is passed, so that when the bladder is opened and the lotion comes +rushing out, the opening which has been made into the bladder may not +sink into the depths of the pelvis. A finger introduced into the bladder +makes out the exact size and position of the stone, or stones, and the +removal is effected by special forceps. Bleeding having ceased, the +bladder-wound is partly or entirely closed by sutures and allowed to +fall into the pelvis, the catheter having been removed. It is advisable +to leave a drainage tube in the abdominal wound for a while, so that if +urine leaks from the bladder-wound it may find a ready escape to the +dressings. + +_Litholapaxy_.--Lithotrity consists of two parts--the crushing of the +stone, and the removal of the detritus. The two stages are now carried +out at one "sitting," without an interval being allowed between them, as +was formerly the practice, and the term "litholapaxy" designates this +method. The patient having been anaesthetized, 10 oz. of hot boracic +lotion are injected, and the crushing instrument, the lithotrite, is +then passed into the bladder. The lithotrite has two blades, a "male" +and a "female," the latter fenestrated, the former solid with its +surface notched. When the stone is fixed between the blades the screw is +used, and great pressure is applied evenly, gradually and continuously +to the stone. The lithotrite is made of very tough steel, so that hard +stones may be crushed without danger of the instrument breaking or +bending. Care must be taken not to catch the bladder-wall with the +lithotrite. This danger is avoided by raising the point of the +lithotrite immediately after grasping the stone and before crushing. The +stone breaks into two or more pieces, and these fragments must be +crushed, one by one, until they are powdered fine enough to escape by +the large evacuating catheter. If the stone be large and hard, half an +hour or longer may be required to crush it sufficiently fine. When the +surgeon fails to catch any more large pieces, the presumption is that +the stone has been thoroughly broken up. The lithotrite is then +withdrawn and the detritus is washed out by an "aspirator," which +consists of a stiff elastic ball which is connected with a trap, into +which fragments of stone fall so as not to pass out on the instrument +being used at later periods in the operation. A large catheter, with the +eye very near the end of the short curve, is passed into the bladder; +the aspirator, full of boracic lotion, is attached to the catheter, and +a few ounces of the fluid are expressed from the aspirator into the +bladder by squeezing the rubber ball. When the pressure is taken off the +ball, it dilates and draws the fluid out of the bladder, and with it +some of the detritus, which falls into the trap. This is repeated until +all the fragments have been removed. After the operation the patient +sometimes suffers from discomfort. His urine should be drawn off by a +soft catheter at regular intervals for a few days. If the pain be +severe, it can generally be relieved by fomentations. The patient must +be kept in bed after the operation, and in cases where the stone has +been large and the bladder irritable, the surgeon should insist on his +remaining there for at least a week; in those cases which go on +favourably the patients are soon able to perform their ordinary duties. +Fatal terminations, however, do now and again occur from suppression of +urine, the result of the old-standing kidney disease which so often +complicates these cases. + +To Brigade-Surgeon Lieutenant-Colonel Dennis Francis Keegan, of the +Indian Medical Service, is due the fact that the operation of crushing +and promptly removing all fragments of a vesical calculus is as well +suited for boys as for men. In entire opposition to long-standing +European prejudices, Keegan's operation is now firmly and permanently +established. The old operation (Cheselden's) of cutting a stone out +through the bottom of a boy's bladder is now seldom resorted to, and if +a stone in a boy is found too large or too hard to lend itself to the +crushing operation, it is removed by a vertical incision through the +lower part of the anterior wall of the abdomen, as described above. For +a successful performance of the crushing operation in a boy a small +lithotrite has, of course, to be used, and it must be of the very best +English make. The operation has to be done with the utmost gentleness +and thoroughness, not a particle of the crushed stone being left in the +bladder, since otherwise the piece left becomes the nucleus of a fresh +stone and the trouble recurs. + +The treatment of vesical calculi by other means than operative surgery +is of little value. Attempts have been made to dissolve them by internal +remedies, or by the injection of chemical agents into the bladder; but, +although such methods have for a time been apparently successful, they +have invariably been found worthless for removing calculi once actually +formed. Nevertheless, much can be done towards _preventing_ the +formation of calculi in those who have a tendency to their formation, by +attention to diet, by taking proper exercise, and by the internal +administration of drugs. + + _Rupture of the bladder_ may be caused by a kick or blow over the + upper part of the abdomen, or by a wheel passing over it; or it may be + a complication of fracture of the pelvis. If the rupture is in that + part of the bladder which is uncovered by the peritoneum, the + extravasated urine may be cut down upon and let out with good prospect + of success; but if the rupture is in the upper or hinder part of the + bladder the urine is let loose into the general peritoneal cavity and + sets up peritonitis, which is more than likely to prove fatal. If the + surgeon knows that the bladder is ruptured he should operate at once + in order to provide escape for the urine, and also to sew up the rent. + If the possibility of the bladder being ruptured be even suspected, + the surgeon should pass a catheter. Perhaps he draws off an ounce or + two of blood-stained urine. This makes him doubly suspicious, so he + injects into the bladder five, eight or ten ounces of warm boracic + lotion, and, leaving it there for a few minutes, he measures the + amount which he is able afterwards to withdraw; if he finds that a + certain amount is lost he is assured that a leakage has taken place + and he at once proceeds to operate. If only the diagnosis is made + promptly, and the operation is at once undertaken, the outlook is not + unfavourable. A generation or so back nearly all the cases of rupture + of bladder ended fatally. + + _Villous disease_ of the bladder is innocent; that is to say, it does + not spread to the neighbouring structures or implicate the lymphatic + glands. The villi are slender, branched, filamentous processes which, + springing from the floor of the bladder, float in the urine like + seaweed. They are freely supplied with blood-vessels, so that when a + piece of a villus is broken off there is likely to be blood in the + urine. Indeed, painless haemorrhage is one of the characteristic + features of the disease, and when fragments of the "seaweed" are found + in the urine the diagnosis is clear. If the bladder is opened from the + front, as already described, the villi may be nipped off by special + forceps and the disease permanently cured. + + _Malignant disease_ of the bladder is almost always the warty form of + cancer known as epithelioma. It springs as a sessile growth from the + mucous membrane of the floor near the opening of one of the ureters, + and, worrying the sensory nerves, causes irritability of the bladder + and incontinence of urine. In due course septic germs reach the + bladder, either from the urethra, the bowel, the kidneys or the + blood-stream, and cystitis sets in. When ulceration has taken place, + blood occurs in the urine, and the patient--generally beyond middle + age--suffers dull or lancinating pains. Eventually the rectum may also + be involved and the distress becomes extreme. The presence of the + growth may be determined by sounding the bladder, by the cystoscope, + and by the finger in the rectum. If the growth invades the outlet, + retention of urine may occur, and the surgeon may be compelled to open + the bladder from the front of the abdomen. In cases where operation is + out of the question, washing the bladder with hot boracic lotion may + give great relief. The treatment of cancer of the bladder by operation + is, as a rule, unsatisfactory, because of the close proximity of the + growth to the ureters and to the rectum. If, however, the disease were + recognized early and had not invaded the neighbouring structures, and + if it were upon the upper or the anterior part of the bladder, its + removal might be hopefully undertaken. + + _Hypertrophy and Dilatation._--When there is long-continued + obstruction to the flow of urine, as in stricture of the urethra, or + enlargement of the prostate, the bladder-wall becomes much thickened, + the muscular fibres increasing both in size and number; the condition + is known as "hypertrophy." Hypertrophy may be accompanied by + dilatation of the bladder, a condition which the bladder may assume + when the voiding of its contents is interfered with for a length of + time. + + _Paralysis_ of the bladder is a want of contractile power in the + muscular fibres of the bladder-wall. It may result from injuries + whereby the spinal cord is lacerated or pressed upon, so that the + micturition centre, which is situated in the lumbar region, is thrown + out of working order. The result may be either retention or + incontinence of urine; sometimes there is at first retention, which + later is followed by incontinence. Paralysis is also met with in + certain nervous diseases, as in locomotor ataxia, and in various + cerebral lesions, as in apoplexy. + + _Atony_ of the bladder is a paresis or partial paralysis. It is due to + a want of tone in the muscular fibres, and is frequently the result of + over-distension of the bladder, such as may occur in cases of + enlargement of the prostate. The patient is unable to empty the + bladder, and the condition of atony gets increasingly worse. + + In both paralysis and atony the indication is carefully to prevent + over-distension by the urine being retained too long, and at the same + time to treat by appropriate means the cause which has produced or is + keeping up the condition. + + _Incontinence of urine_ may occur in the adult or in the child, but is + due to widely different causes in the two cases. In the child it may + be simply a bad habit, the child not having been properly trained; but + more frequently there is a want of control in the micturition-centre, + so that the child passes its water unwittingly, especially during the + night. In adults it is not so much a condition of incontinence in the + sense of water being passed against the will, but is a suggestion that + the bladder is already full, the water which passes being the overflow + from a too full reservoir. It is usually caused by an obstruction + external to the bladder, e.g. enlarged prostate or stricture of the + urethra; a calculus may produce the condition. In the child an attempt + must be made to improve the tone of the micturition-centre by the use + of belladonna or strychnine internally, and of a blister or faradism + externally over the lumbar region, and every effort should be made to + train the child to pass water at stated times and regular intervals. + In the adult the cause which produces the over-distension must be + removed if possible; but, as a rule, the patient has to be provided + with a catheter, which he can pass before the bladder has filled to + overflowing. A soft flexible catheter should be given in preference to + a rigid or semi-rigid one. The best form is the red-rubber catheter, + and he should be taught the need of keeping it absolutely clean. In + the case of children incontinence of urine means irritability; in + adults it means overflow. + + The condition termed by Sir James Paget _stammering micturition_ is + analogous to speech stammering, and occurs in those who are nervous + and easily put out. It would seem to be due to the sphincter of the + bladder not relaxing synchronously with the contraction of the + detrusor, and is sometimes caused by external irritation, such as + preputial adhesions. Occasionally not a drop of urine can be passed, + or a little passes and then a sudden stoppage occurs; the more the + patient strains the worse he becomes, until at last there is complete + retention of urine. The trouble can sometimes be cured by the removal + of irritating causes, and in these cases, as well as in those in which + no such cause can be discovered, care should be taken to avoid those + difficulties which have given rise to the patient's worst failures. If + at any time he should fail to perform the act of micturition, he ought + not to strain, but should quietly wait for a little before making any + further effort. Regularity in the times of making water is also of + much importance. + + _Retention of urine_ may occur in paralysis of the bladder, or in + conditions where the patient is suffering from an illness which blunts + the nervous sensibility, such as apoplexy, concussion of the brain, + or typhoid fever. It is, however, more commonly due to obstruction + anterior to the bladder, as in stricture of the urethra or enlargement + of the prostate. The distended bladder can be felt as a rounded + swelling above the pubes, and perhaps reaching to the level of the + navel. Percussion over it gives a dull note. When the bladder is + distended, it is necessary to evacuate it as soon as possible. If + there is no obstruction to the flow of urine, the retention being due + to atony or paralysis, a soft catheter is passed and the water drawn + off. But when there is an obstruction which cannot be overcome, + aspiration has to be resorted to, the needle of the aspirator being + pushed through the abdominal wall into the bladder. The point of + puncture in the abdominal wall is in the middle line a few inches + above the symphysis pubis. The bladder may be emptied in this way very + many times in the same person with only good result. + + +_Diseases of Prostate Gland._ + +The prostate gland may become acutely inflamed as the result of the +backward extension of gonorrhoeal inflammation of the urethra; it may +also be attacked by the germs of ordinary suppuration as well as by the +bacilli of tuberculosis. A sudden enlargement of a large gland lying +against the outlets of the bladder and the bowel renders micturition +difficult, painful or impossible, and interferes with defaecation. +Pressure of the seat of the chair upon the perineum also causes +distress, so the man sits sideways and on the edge of the seat. If +abscess forms, it should be incised from the perineum; if allowed to run +its course it may burst into the bladder, the urethra or the rectum, and +set up serious complication. The treatment of prostatitis (inflammation +of the prostate) consists in rest in bed, sitz-baths and fomentations. +If retention of urine takes place a soft catheter must be passed. In the +early stage of an acute attack a dozen leeches upon the perineum may do +good. The bowels must be kept freely open, and from time to time, as the +pain demands, a morphia suppository may be introduced into the bowel. + + _Chronic prostatitis_ is a legacy from a recent or long-past attack of + gonorrhoea. The enlargement gives rise to a feeling of weight and + fulness in the perineum, irritability of the bladder, and a gleety + urethral discharge. Manual examination reveals the presence of a + large, hard mass in front of the bladder, and in the mass there can + often be felt softish or tender areas which seem to threaten abscess. + On urine being passed into a glass, a cloudiness is seen, and material + like pieces of vermicelli or broken threads may be noticed. These are + the castings from the long tubular glands, and are characteristic of + chronic inflammation of the prostate. The occasional passage of a + large metal bougie, the use of weak lotions of nitrate of silver, the + administration of quinine and iron, and the application of blisters to + the perineum, may be tried as circumstances direct. The patient should + lead a quiet life, free from sexual excitement. Horse-exercise, + cycle-riding, rough games and alcohol should be avoided. + +_Enlargement of the prostate_ exists in a considerable proportion of men +of about sixty years of age and onward. It consists of an uncontrolled +growth of the normal muscular and glandular tissue of the prostate, +interfering with, or absolutely stopping, the outflow of the urine. +Gently pushing the bladder upwards and backwards, it increases the +length of the urethra, so that in order to draw off retained urine the +catheter must be longer than ordinary, but inasmuch as there is no +actual narrowing of the passage it may be of full calibre. The beak +should be well turned up so that it may ride in front of, and surmount, +the median enlargement. Because of the thick, ring-like mass of new +tissue around the outlet of the bladder, there is difficulty in +micturition, and because the muscular bladder wall is now unable to +contract upon all its contents a certain amount of urine is retained. As +the enlarged prostate bulges up in the floor of the bladder, a pouch or +hollow forms behind it, from which the muscular wall is unable to +dislodge the stagnant urine. This keeps up constant irritation, and if +by chance the germs of decomposition find their way thither, cystitis +sets in and the patient's condition becomes serious, not only because of +the risk to which his tired and irritated kidneys are submitted, but +because of the possibility of a phosphatic stone being formed in the +bladder. The seriousness of enlargement of the prostate does not depend +upon the size of the growth so much as upon the inability of the patient +to empty his bladder completely. + + The surgeon forms his estimate of the size of the prostate by rectal + examination. But sometimes a patient has retention of urine from + enlarged prostate, when by this method of manual examination the + amount of increase appears quite unimportant. The explanation is that + the enlargement is chiefly confined to a small piece of the gland + which protrudes like a tongue into the water-way. Robert McGill of + Leeds was the first surgeon to remove by a supra-pubic operation this + tongue-like process of new prostatic growth. Attempts had sometimes + been made to get rid of it by instrumentation through the urethra, but + they had not met with much success. + + When the surgeon has made out the existence of an enlargement of the + prostate, the next thing is to find to what extent this interferes + with the bladder being emptied. To do this, he asks the patient to + pass as much water as he is able, and then with due precautions + introduces a soft catheter and measures the amount of urine which he + thus draws off--half an ounce, an ounce, two ounces, however much it + may be. It is this "residual urine" which causes the annoyance and the + danger of enlarged prostate, and unless arrangements can be made for + its regular withdrawal serious trouble is almost certain to ensue. The + passing of a large catheter may have the effect of so opening up the + water-way that, at any rate for a time, the irritability of the + bladder may cease, in which case the patient may be instructed in the + art of passing a catheter for himself. Or the surgeon may find that in + addition to the regular passing of a large catheter an occasional + washing-out of the bladder with hot boracic lotion is all that is + needed in the way of active treatment. At the same time, however, the + patient is placed upon a plain and wholesome diet with little or no + alcohol, and he is instructed to lead in every respect a regular and + quiet life. To many men with enlarged prostate the passing of an + instrument night and morning is no great hardship, while to others the + idea of leading what is called a "catheter life" appears intolerable, + or, having for a time been patiently carried out, is found not only + severely trying but greatly disappointing. + + In some people the very first passing of a catheter sets up a local + and constitutional disturbance, the bladder being rendered irritable + and intolerant, the temperature going up, and shiverings and + perspirations manifesting themselves. This condition was formerly + called "catheter fever," and was looked upon as something mysterious + and peculiar. It is now generally understood to be the result of + septic inoculation of the interior of the bladder. + + Lastly, in other persons the passing of the catheter is attended with + so much difficulty, distress or bleeding, that something more helpful + and effectual is urgently called for. + +_Operative Treatment._--It has long been known that large tumours of the +uterus sometimes dwindle if the ovaries are removed by operation, and +Professor William White of Philadelphia thought that prostatic growths +might be similarly influenced by the removal of the testicles. Beyond +question considerable improvement has followed this operation in cases +of enlargement of the prostate, especially where the enlargement seemed +to be general, soft and vascular. A similar though perhaps a slower +effect is produced when the duct of the testis, the vas deferens, is +divided on each side of the body. If there is no great urgency about the +case this treatment may well be tried, the bladder being all the while +duly emptied by catheter and washed by irrigation. But if the case is +urgent, there being difficulty or bleeding with the passing of the +catheter, the bladder being excessively irritable and the urine foul, a +more radical measure is needed. The best operation is that upon the +lines laid down by Robert McGill, who opened the bladder through the +anterior abdominal wall and removed that part of the prostate gland +which was blocking the water-way. McGill's operation was improved upon +by Eugene Fuller of New York, who, in 1895, published a full account of +his procedure.[1] Having opened the bladder from the front (as in +supra-pubic lithotomy), he introduced his left index finger into the +rectum and thrust the prostate gland towards the right index finger, +which was then in the bladder. With the nail of that finger, or with the +end of a pair of scissors, he made a rent in the mucous membrane of the +bladder and the capsule of the gland, and then shelled out the mass of +new tissue which had caused the prostatic enlargement. This operation is +called "prostatectomy," which means the removal of the prostate gland. +The prostate gland, however, is not removed, but only a muscular and +glandular mass (adenoma), which, growing within the prostatic capsule, +encircles the urethra and squeezes the original gland tissue out of +existence. Following on the lines of McGill and Fuller, P.J. Freyer has +done excellent work in England towards placing this operation upon a +sound basis. + +Subsequently to the operation the bladder enjoys complete and needful +rest, and the kidneys, which previously were in a condition of perpetual +disturbance, improve in working power. The wound in the bladder and in +the abdominal wall gradually closes; the function of the bladder +returns, and the patient is soon able to go back to his usual occupation +in greatly improved health and vigour. The operation is, necessarily, a +serious one, and the age of the patient, the condition of his bladder, +of his kidneys, and of his blood-vessels, require to be taken into +consideration; still, the operation gives an excellent account of itself +in statistics, and if a practical surgeon advises a patient to accept +its risks his counsel may well be followed. + + _Malignant disease of the prostate_ is distinguished from senile + glandular enlargement by the rapidity of its growth, by the freeness + of the bleeding which is associated with the introduction of a + catheter, and by the marked wasting which the individual undergoes. + Unfortunately, by the time that the cancerous nature of the disease is + definitely recognized, the prospect of relief being afforded by + operation is small. (E. O.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Diseases of the Genito-urinary System_, by Eugene Fuller, M.D. + (London and New York, 1900). + + + + +BLADDER-WORT, the name given to a submerged water plant, _Utricularia +vulgaris_, with finely divided leaves upon which are borne small +bladders provided with trap-door entrances which open only inwards. +Small crustaceans and other aquatic animals push their way into the +bladders and are unable to escape. The products of the decay of the +organisms thus captured are absorbed into the plant by star-shaped hairs +which line the interior of the bladder. In this way the plant is +supplied with nitrogenous food from the animal kingdom. Bladder-wort +bears small, yellow, two-lipped flowers on a stem which rises above the +surface of the water. It is found in pools and ditches in the British +Isles, and is widely distributed in the north temperate zone. The genus +contains about two hundred species in tropical and temperate regions. + +[Illustration: A, Bladder of _Utricularia neglecta_ (after Darwin), +enlarged. B, stellate hairs from interior of bladder of _U. vulgaris_.] + + + + +BLADES, WILLIAM (1824-1890), English printer and bibliographer, was born +at Clapham, London, on the 5th of December 1824. In 1840 he was +apprenticed to his father's printing business in London, being +subsequently taken into partnership. The firm was afterwards known as +Blades, East & Blades. His interest in printing led him to make a study +of the volumes produced by Caxton's press, and of the early history of +printing in England. His _Life and Typography of William Caxton, +England's First Printer_, was published in 1861-1863, and the +conclusions which he set forth were arrived at by a careful examination +of types in the early books, each class of type being traced from its +first use to the time when, spoilt by wear, it passed out of Caxton's +hands. Some 450 volumes from the Caxton Press were thus carefully +compared and classified in chronological order. In 1877 Blades took an +active part in organizing the Caxton celebration, and strongly supported +the foundation of the Library Association. He was a keen collector of +old books, prints and medals. His publications relate chiefly to the +early history of printing, the _Enemies of Books_, his most popular +work, being produced in 1881. He died at Sutton in Surrey on the 27th of +April 1890. + + + + +BLAENAVON, or BLAENAFON, an urban district in the northern parliamentary +division of Monmouthshire, England, 15 m. N. by W. of Newport, on the +Great Western, London & North Western and Rhymney railways. Pop. (1901) +10,869. It lies in the uppermost part of the Afon Lwyd valley, at an +elevation exceeding 1000 ft., in a wild and mountainous district, on the +eastern edge of the great coal and iron mining region of Glamorganshire +and Monmouthshire. There are very extensive iron and steel works, with +blast furnaces and rolling mills in the district, which employ the large +industrial population. + + + + +BLAGOVYESHCHENSK, a town of East Siberia, chief town of the Amur +government, on the left bank of the Amur, near its confluence with the +Zeya in 50 deg. 15' N. lat. and 127 deg. 38' E. long., 610 m. by river +above Khabarovsk. Founded in 1856, the town had, in 1900, 37,368 +inhabitants, and is the seat of the bishop of Amur and Kamchatka. There +are steam flour-mills and ironworks. It is a centre for tea exported to +Russia, cattle brought from Transbaikalia and Mongolia for the Amur, and +for grain. + + + + +BLAIKIE, WILLIAM GARDEN (1820-1899), Scottish divine, was born on the +5th of February 1820, at Aberdeen, where his father had been the first +provost of the reformed corporation. After studying at the Marischal +College, where Alexander Bain and David Masson were among his +contemporaries, he went in 1839 to Edinburgh to complete his theological +course under Thomas Chalmers. In 1842 he was presented to the living of +Drumblade by Lord Kintore, with whose family he was connected. The +Disruption controversy reached its climax immediately afterwards, and +Blaikie, whose sympathies were entirely with Chalmers, was one of the +474 ministers who signed the deed of demission and gave up their +livings. He was Free Church minister at Pilrig, between Edinburgh and +Leith, from 1844 to 1868. Keenly interested in questions of social +reform, his first publication was a pamphlet, which was afterwards +enlarged into a book called _Better Days for Working People_. It +received public commendation from Lord Brougham, and 60,000 copies were +sold. He formed an association for providing better homes for working +people, and the Pilrig Model Buildings were erected. He also undertook +the editorship of the _Free Church Magazine_, and then that of the +_North British Review_, which he carried on until 1863. In 1864 he was +asked to undertake the Scottish editorship of the _Sunday Magazine_, and +for this magazine much of his most characteristic literary work was +done, especially in the editorial notes, then a new feature in magazine +literature. + +In 1868 Blaikie was called to the chair of apologetics and pastoral +theology at New College, Edinburgh. In dealing with the latter subject +he was seen at his very best. He had wide experience, a comprehensive +grasp of facts, abundant sympathy, an extensive knowledge of men, and a +great capacity for teaching. In 1870 he was one of two representatives +chosen from the Free Church of Scotland to attend the united general +assembly of the Presbyterian churches of the United States. He prolonged +his visit to make a thorough acquaintance with American Presbyterianism, +and this, followed by a similar tour in Europe, fitted him to become the +real founder of the Presbyterian Alliance. Much of his strength in the +later years of life was given to this work. In 1892 he was elected to +the chairmanship of the general assembly, the last of the moderators who +had entered the church before the disruption. In 1897 he resigned his +professorship, and died on the 11th of June 1899. + +Blaikie was an ardent philanthropist, and an active and intelligent +temperance reformer, in days when this was far from easy. He raised +L14,000 for the relief of the Waldensian churches. Although he took an +active part in the affairs of his denomination, he was not a mere +ecclesiastic. He had a keen eye for the evidences of spiritual growth or +decline, and emphasized the need of maintaining a high level of +spiritual life. He welcomed Moody to Scotland, and the evangelist made +his headquarters with him during his first visit. His best books are +_The Work of the Ministry--A Manual of Homiletic and Pastoral Theology_ +(1873); _The Books of Samuel_ in the _Expositors' Bible Series_ (2 +vols.); _The Personal Life of David Livingstone_ (1880); _After Fifty +Years_ (1893), an account of the Disruption Movement in the form of +letters of a grandfather; _Thomas Chalmers_ (1896). (D. Mn.) + + + + +BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE (1830-1893), American statesman, was born in +West Brownsville, Pennsylvania, on the 31st of January 1830, of sturdy +Scottish-Irish stock on the side of his father. He was the +great-grandson of Colonel Ephraim Blaine (1741-1804), who during the +War of Independence served in the American army, from 1778 to 1782 as +commissary-general of the Northern Department. With many early evidences +of literary capacity and political aptitude, J.G. Blaine graduated at +Washington College in Washington, Pennsylvania, in 1847, and +subsequently taught successively in the Military Institute, Georgetown, +Kentucky, and in the Institution for the Blind at Philadelphia. During +this period, also, he studied law. Settling in Augusta, Maine, in 1854, +he became editor of the _Kennebec Journal_, and subsequently of the +_Portland Advertiser_. But his editorial work was soon abandoned for a +more active public career. He was elected to the lower house of the +state legislature in 1858, and served four years, the last two as +speaker. He also became chairman of the Republican state committee in +1859, and for more than twenty years personally directed every campaign +of his party. + +In 1862 he was elected to Congress, serving in the House thirteen years +(December 1863 to December 1876), followed by a little over four years +in the Senate. He was chosen speaker of the House in 1869 and served +three terms. The House was the fit arena for his political and +parliamentary ability. He was a ready and powerful debater, full of +resource, and dexterous in controversy. The tempestuous politics of the +war and reconstruction period suited his aggressive nature and +constructive talent. The measures for the rehabilitation of the states +that had seceded from the Union occupied the chief attention of Congress +for several years, and Blaine bore a leading part in framing and +discussing them. The primary question related to the basis of +representation upon which they should be restored to their full rank in +the political system. A powerful section contended that the basis should +be the body of legal voters, on the ground that the South could not then +secure an increment of political power on account of the emancipated +blacks unless these blacks were admitted to political rights. Blaine, on +the other hand, contended that representation should be based on +population instead of voters, as being fairer to the North, where the +ratio of voters varied widely, and he insisted that it should be +safeguarded by security for impartial suffrage. This view prevailed, and +the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution was substantially Blaine's +proposition. In the same spirit he opposed a scheme of military +governments for the southern states, unless associated with a plan by +which, upon the acceptance of prescribed conditions, they could release +themselves from military rule and resume civil government. He was the +first in Congress to oppose the claim, which gained momentary and +widespread favour in 1867, that the public debt, pledged in coin, should +be paid in greenbacks. The protection of naturalized citizens who, on +return to their native land, were subject to prosecution on charges of +disloyalty, enlisted his active interest and support, and the agitation, +in which he was conspicuous, led to the treaty of 1870 between the +United States and Great Britain, which placed adopted and native +citizens on the same footing. + +As the presidential election of 1876 approached, Blaine was clearly the +popular favourite of his party. His chance for securing the nomination, +however, was materially lessened by persistent charges which were +brought against him by the Democrats that as a member of Congress he had +been guilty of corruption in his relations with the Little Rock & Fort +Smith and the Northern Pacific railways.[1] By the majority of +Republicans, at least, he was considered to have cleared himself +completely, and in the Republican national convention he missed by only +twenty-eight votes the nomination for president, being finally beaten by +a combination of the supporters of all the other candidates. Thereupon +he entered the Senate, where his activity was unabated. Currency +legislation was especially prominent. Blaine, who had previously opposed +greenback inflation now resisted depreciated silver coinage. He was the +earnest champion of the advancement of American shipping, and advocated +liberal subsidies, insisting that the policy of protection should be +applied on sea as well as on land. The Republican national convention +of 1880, divided between the two nearly equal forces of Blaine and +General U.S. Grant--John Sherman of Ohio also having a considerable +following--struggled through thirty-six ballots, when the friends of +Blaine, combining with those of Sherman, succeeded in nominating General +James A. Garfield. In the new administration Blaine became secretary of +state, but, owing to the assassination of President Garfield and the +reorganization of the cabinet by President Chester A. Arthur, he held +the office only until December 1881. His brief service was distinguished +by several notable steps. In order to promote the friendly understanding +and co-operation of the nations on the American continents he projected +a Pan-American congress, which, after being arranged for, was frustrated +by his retirement. He also sought to secure a modification of the +Clayton-Bulwer treaty, and in an extended correspondence with the +British government strongly asserted the policy of an exclusive American +control of any isthmian canal which might be built to connect the +Atlantic and Pacific oceans. + +With undiminished hold on the imagination and devotion of his followers +he was nominated for president in 1884. After a heated canvass, in which +he made a series of brilliant speeches, he was beaten by a narrow margin +in New York. By many, including Blaine himself, the defeat was +attributed to the effect of a phrase, "Rum, Romanism and Rebellion," +used by a clergyman, Rev. Samuel D. Burchard (1812-1891), on the 29th of +October 1884, in Blaine's presence, to characterize what, in his +opinion, the Democratic party stood for. The phrase was not Blaine's, +but his opponents made use of it to misrepresent his attitude toward the +Roman Catholics, large numbers of whom are supposed, in consequence, to +have withdrawn their support. Refusing to be a presidential candidate in +1888, he became secretary of state under President Harrison, and resumed +his work which had been interrupted nearly eight years before. The +Pan-American congress, then projected, now met in Washington, and +Blaine, as its master spirit, presided over and guided its deliberation +through its session of five months. Its most important conclusions were +for reciprocity in trade, a continental railway and compulsory +arbitration in international complications. Shaping the tariff +legislation for this policy, Blaine negotiated a large number of +reciprocity treaties which augmented the commerce of his country. He +upheld American rights in Samoa, pursued a vigorous diplomacy with Italy +over the lynching of eleven Italians, all except three of them American +naturalized citizens, in New Orleans on the 14th of May 1891, held a +firm attitude during the strained relations between the United States +and Chile (growing largely out of the killing and wounding of American +sailors of the U.S. ship "Baltimore" by Chileans in Valparaiso on the +16th of October 1891), and carried on with Great Britain a resolute +controversy over the seal fisheries of Bering Sea,--a difference +afterwards settled by arbitration. He resigned on the 4th of June 1892, +on the eve of the meeting of the Republican national convention, wherein +his name was ineffectually used, and he died at Washington, D.C., on the +27th of January 1803. + +During his later years of leisure he wrote _Twenty Years of Congress_ +(1884-1886), a brilliant historical work in two volumes. Of singularly +alert faculties, with a remarkable knowledge of the men and history of +his country, and an extraordinary memory, his masterful talent for +politics and state-craft, together with his captivating manner and +engaging personality, gave him, for nearly two decades, an unrivalled +hold upon the fealty and affection of his party. + + See the _Biography of James G. Blaine_ (Norwich, Conn., 1895) by Mary + Abigail Dodge ("Gail Hamilton"), and, in the "American Statesmen + Series," _James G. Blaine_ (Boston, 1905) by C.E. Stanwood; also Mrs + Blaine's _Letters_ (1908). (C. E. S.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This attack led to a dramatic scene in the House, in which Blaine + fervidly asseverated his denial. + + + + +BLAINVILLE, HENRI MARIE DUCROTAY DE (1777-1850), French naturalist, was +born at Arques, near Dieppe, on the 12th of September 1777. About 1796 +he went to Paris to study painting, but he ultimately devoted himself to +natural history, and attracted the attention of Baron Cuvier, for whom +he occasionally lectured at the College de France and at the Athenaeum. +In 1812 he was aided by Cuvier to obtain the chair of anatomy and +zoology in the Faculty of Sciences at Paris, but subsequently an +estrangement grew up between the two men and ended in open enmity. In +1825 Blainville was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences; and in +1830 he was appointed to succeed J.B. Lamarck in the chair of natural +history at the museum. Two years later, on the death of Cuvier, he +obtained the chair of comparative anatomy, which he continued to occupy +for the space of eighteen years, proving himself no unworthy successor +to his great teacher. He died at Paris on the 1st of May 1850. Besides +many separate memoirs, he was the author of _Prodrome d'une nouvelle +distribution methodique du regne animal_ (1816); _Osteographic ou +description iconographique comparee du squelette, &c._ (1839-1864); +_Faune francaise_ (1821-1830); _Corns de physiologie generale et +comparee_ (1833); _Manuel de malacologie et de conchyliologie_ +(1825-1827); _Histoire des sciences de l'organisme_ (1845). + + + + +BLAIR, FRANCIS PRESTON (1791-1876), American journalist and politician, +was born at Abingdon, Virginia, on the 12th of April 1791. He removed to +Kentucky, graduated at Transylvania University in 1811, took to +journalism, and was a contributor to Amos Kendall's paper, the _Argus_, +at Frankfort. In 1830, having become an ardent follower of Andrew +Jackson, he was made editor of the Washington _Globe_, the recognized +organ of the Jackson party. In this capacity, and as a member of +Jackson's "Kitchen Cabinet," he long exerted a powerful influence; the +_Globe_ was the administration organ until 1841, and the chief +Democratic organ until 1845; Blair ceased to be its editor in 1849. In +1848 he actively supported Martin Van Buren, the Free Soil candidate, +for the presidency, and in 1852 he supported Franklin Pierce, but soon +afterwards helped to organize the new Republican party, and presided at +its preliminary convention at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, in February 1856. +He was influential in securing the nomination of John C. Fremont at the +June convention (1856), and of Abraham Lincoln in 1860. After Lincoln's +re-election in 1864 Blair thought that his former close personal +relations with the Confederate leaders might aid in bringing about a +cessation of hostilities, and with Lincoln's consent went unofficially +to Richmond and induced President Jefferson Davis to appoint +commissioners to confer with representatives of the United States. This +resulted in the futile "Hampton Roads Conference" of the 3rd of February +1865 (see LINCOLN, ABRAHAM). After the Civil War Blair became a +supporter of President Johnson's reconstruction policy, and eventually +rejoined the Democratic party. He died at Silver Spring, Maryland, on +the 18th of October 1876. + +His son, MONTGOMERY BLAIR (1813-1883), politician and lawyer, was born +in Franklin county, Kentucky, on the 10th of May 1813. He graduated at +West Point in 1835, but, after a year's service in the Seminole War, +left the army, studied law, and began practice at St Louis, Missouri. +After serving as United States district attorney (1839-1843), as mayor +of St Louis (1842-1843), and as judge of the court of common pleas +(1843-1849), he removed to Maryland (1852), and devoted himself to law +practice principally in the Federal supreme court. He was United States +solicitor in the court of claims from 1855 until 1858, and was +associated with George T. Curtis as counsel for the plaintiff in the +Dred Scott case in 1857. In 1860 he took an active part in the +presidential campaign in behalf of Lincoln, in whose cabinet he was +postmaster-general from 1861 until September 1864, when he resigned as a +result of the hostility of the Radical Republican faction, who +stipulated that Blair's retirement should follow the withdrawal of +Fremont's name as a candidate for the presidential nomination in that +year. Under his administration such reforms and improvements as the +establishment of free city delivery, the adoption of a money order +system, and the use of railway mail cars were instituted --the last +having been suggested by George B. Armstrong (d. 1871), of Chicago, who +from 1869 until his death was general superintendent of the United +States railway mail service. Differing from the Republican party on the +reconstruction policy, Blair gave his adherence to the Democratic party +after the Civil War. He died at Silver Spring, Maryland, on the 27th of +July 1883. + +Another son, FRANCIS PRESTON BLAIR, jun. (1821-1875), soldier and +political leader, was born at Lexington, Kentucky, on the 19th of +February 1821. After graduating at Princeton in 1841 he practised law in +St Louis, and later served in the Mexican War. He was ardently opposed +to the extension of slavery and supported Martin Van Buren, the Free +Soil candidate for the presidency in 1848. He served from 1852 to 1856 +in the Missouri legislature as a Free Soil Democrat, in 1856 joined the +Republican party, and in 1857-1860 and 1861-1862 was a member of +Congress, where he proved an able debater. Immediately after South +Carolina's secession, Blair, believing that the southern leaders were +planning to carry Missouri into the movement, began active efforts to +prevent it and personally organized and equipped a secret body of 1000 +men to be ready for the emergency. When hostilities became inevitable, +acting in conjunction with Captain (later General) Nathaniel Lyon, he +suddenly transferred the arms in the Federal arsenal at St Louis to +Alton, Illinois, and a few days later (May 10, 1861) surrounded and +captured a force of state guards which had been stationed at Camp +Jackson in the suburbs of St Louis with the intention of seizing the +arsenal. This action gave the Federal cause a decisive initial advantage +in Missouri. Blair was promoted brigadier-general of volunteers in +August 1862 and a major-general in November 1862. In Congress as +chairman of the important military affairs committee his services were +of the greatest value. He commanded a division in the Vicksburg campaign +and in the fighting about Chattanooga, and was one of Sherman's corps +commanders in the final campaigns in Georgia and the Carolinas. In 1866 +like his father and brother he opposed the Congressional reconstruction +policy, and on that issue left the Republican party. In 1868 he was the +Democratic candidate for vice-president on the ticket with Horatio +Seymour. In 1871-1873 he was a United States senator from Missouri. He +died in St Louis, on the 8th of July 1875. + + + + +BLAIR, HUGH (1718-1800), Scottish Presbyterian divine, was born on the +7th of April 1718, at Edinburgh, where his father was a merchant. +Entering the university in 1730 he graduated M.A. in 1739; his thesis, +_De Fundamentis et Obligations Legis Naturae_, contains an outline of +the moral principles afterwards unfolded in his sermons. He was licensed +to preach in 1741, and a few months later the earl of Leven, hearing of +his eloquence, presented him to the parish of Collessie in Fife. In 1743 +he was elected to the second charge of the Canongate church, Edinburgh, +where he ministered until removed to Lady Yester's, one of the city +churches, in 1754. In 1757 the university of St Andrews conferred on him +the degree of D.D., and in the following year he was promoted to the +High Church, Edinburgh, the most important charge in Scotland. In 1759 +he began, under the patronage of Lord Kames, to deliver a course of +lectures on composition, the success of which led to the foundation of a +chair of rhetoric and _belles lettres_ in the Edinburgh University. To +this chair he was appointed in 1762, with a salary of L70 a year. Having +long taken interest in the Celtic poetry of the Highlands, he published +in 1763 a laudatory _Dissertation_ on Macpherson's _Ossian_, the +authenticity of which he maintained. In 1777 the first volume of his +_Sermons_ appeared. It was succeeded by four other volumes, all of which +met with the greatest success. Samuel Johnson praised them warmly, and +they were translated into almost every language of Europe. In 1780 +George III. conferred upon Blair a pension of L200 a year. In 1783 he +retired from his professorship and published his _Lectures on Rhetoric_, +which have been frequently reprinted. He died on the 27th of December +1800. Blair belonged to the "moderate" or latitudinarian party, and his +_Sermons_ have been criticized as wanting in doctrinal definiteness. His +works display little originality, but are written in a flowing and +elaborate style. He is remembered chiefly by the place he fills in the +literature of his time. _Blair's Sermons_ is a typical religious book of +the period that preceded the Anglican revival. + + See J. Hall, _Account of Life and Writings of Hugh Blair_ (1807). + + + + +BLAIR, JAMES (1656-1743), American divine and educationalist, was born +in Scotland, probably at Edinburgh, in 1656. He graduated M.A. at +Edinburgh University in 1673, was beneficed in the Episcopal Church in +Scotland, and for a time was rector of Cranston Parish in the diocese of +Edinburgh. In 1682 he left Scotland for England, and three years later +was sent by the bishop of London, Henry Compton, as a missionary to +Virginia. He soon gained great influence over the colonists both in +ecclesiastical and in civil affairs, and, according to Prof. Moses Coit +Tyler, "probably no other man in the colonial time did so much for the +intellectual life of Virginia." He was the minister of Henrico parish +from 1685 until 1694, of the Jamestown church from 1694 until 1710, and +of Bruton church at Williamsburg from 1710 until his death. From 1689 +until his death he was the commissary of the bishop of London for +Virginia, the highest ecclesiastical position in the colony, his duties +consisting "in visiting the parishes, correcting the lives of the +clergy, and keeping them orderly." In 1693, by the appointment of King +William III., he became a member of the council of Virginia, of which he +was for many years the president. Largely because of charges brought +against them by Blair, Governor Sir Edmund Andros, Lieutenant-governor +Francis Nicholson, and Lieutenant-governor Alexander Spotswood were +removed in 1698, 1705 and 1722 respectively. Blair's greatest service to +the colony was rendered as the founder, and the president from 1693 +until his death, of the College of William and Mary, for which he +himself secured a charter in England. "Thus, James Blair may be called," +says Tyler, "the creator of the healthiest and most extensive +intellectual influence that was felt in the Southern group of colonies +before the Revolution." He died on the 18th of April 1743, and was +buried at Jamestown, Va. He published a collection of 117 discourses +under the title _Our Saviour's Divine Sermon on the Mount_ (4 vols., +1722; second edition, 1732), and, in collaboration with Henry Hartwell +and Edward Chilton, a work entitled _The Present State of Virginia and +the College_ (1727; written in 1693), probably the best account of the +Virginia of that time. + + See Daniel E. Motley's _Life of Commissary James Blair_ (Baltimore, + 1901; series xix. No. 10, of the Johns Hopkins University Studies in + Historical and Political Science), and, for a short sketch and an + estimate, M.C. Tyler's _A History of American Literature, 1607-1765_ + (New York, 1878). + + + + +BLAIR, ROBERT (1699-1746), Scottish poet, eldest son of the Rev. Robert +Blair, one of the king's chaplains, was born at Edinburgh in 1699. He +was educated at Edinburgh University and in Holland, and in 1731 was +appointed to the living of Athelstaneford in East Lothian. He married in +1738 Isabella, daughter of Professor William Law. The possession of a +small fortune gave him leisure for his favourite pursuits, gardening and +the study of English poets. He died at Athelstaneford on the 4th of +February 1746. His only considerable work, _The Grave_ (1743), is a poem +written in blank verse of great vigour and freshness, and is much less +conventional than its gloomy subject might lead one to expect. Its +religious subject no doubt contributed to its great popularity, +especially in Scotland; but the vogue it attained was justified by its +picturesque imagery and occasional felicity of expression. It inspired +William Blake to undertake a series of twelve illustrative designs, +which were engraved by Louis Schiavonetti, and published in 1808. + + See the biographical introduction prefixed to his _Poetical Works_, by + Dr Robert Anderson, in his _Poets of Great Britain_, vol. viii. + (1794.) + + + + +BLAIR ATHOLL (Gaelic _blair_, "a plain"), a village and parish of +Perthshire, Scotland, 35-1/4 m. N.W. of Perth by the Highland railway. +Pop. (1901) 367; of parish, 1722. It is situated at the confluence of +the Tilt and the Garry. The oldest part of Blair Castle, a seat of the +duke of Atholl, dates from 1269; as restored and enlarged in 1869-1872 +from the plans of David Bryce, R.S.A., it is a magnificent example of +the Scottish baronial style. It was occupied by the marquess of Montrose +prior to the battle of Tippermuir in 1644, stormed by the Cromwellians +in 1653, and garrisoned on behalf of James II. in 1689. The Young +Pretender stayed in it in 1743, and the duke of Cumberland in 1746. The +body of Viscount Dundee, conveyed hither from the battlefield of +Killiecrankie, was buried in the church of Old Blair, in which a +monument was erected to his memory in 1889 by the 7th duke of Atholl. +The grounds surrounding the castle are among the most beautiful in the +Highlands. A golf course has been laid down south-east of the village, +between the railway and the Garry, and every September a great display +of Highland games is held. Ben-y-gloe (3671 ft. high), the scene of the +hunt given in 1529 by the earl of Atholl in honour of James V. and the +queen dowager, may be climbed by way of Fender Burn, a left-hand +tributary of the Tilt. The falls of Fender, near the old bridge of Tilt, +are eclipsed by the falls of Bruar, 4 m. west of Blair Atholl, formed by +the Bruar, which, rising in Ben Dearg (3304 ft.), flows into the Garry +after an impetuous course of 10 m. + + + + +BLAIRGOWRIE, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, situated on the +Ericht. Pop. (1901) 3378. It is the terminus of a branch line of the +Caledonian railway from Coupar Angus, from which it is 4-3/4 m. distant, +and is 16 m. N. by E. of Perth by road. The town is entirely modern, and +owes its progress to the water-power supplied by the Ericht for linen +and jute factories. There are also sawmills, breweries and a large +factory for bee appliances. Strawberries, raspberries and other fruits +are largely grown in the neighbourhood. A park was presented to the town +in 1892. On the left bank of the Ericht, opposite Blairgowrie, with +which it is connected by a four-arched bridge, stands the town and +police burgh of Rattray (pop. 2019), where there are flax and jute +mills. Donald Cargill the Covenanter, who was executed at Edinburgh, was +a native of the parish. Four miles west of Blairgowrie, on the coach +road to Dunkeld, lies Loch Clunie, of some interest historically. On a +crannog in the lake are the ruins of a small castle which belonged to +James ("the Admirable") Crichton, and the large mound near the loch was +the site of the castle in which Edward I. lodged on one of his Scottish +expeditions. + + + + +BLAKE, EDWARD (1833- ), Irish-Canadian statesman, eldest son of +William Hume Blake of Cashel Grove, Co. Galway, who settled in Canada in +1832, and there became a distinguished lawyer and chancellor of Ontario, +was born on the 13th of October 1833 at Adelaide in Middlesex county, +Ontario. Educated at Upper Canada College and the university of Toronto, +Blake was called to the bar in 1856 and quickly obtained a good +practice, becoming Q.C. in 1864. In 1867 he was elected member for West +Durham in the Dominion parliament, and for South Bruce in the provincial +legislature, in which he became leader of the Liberal opposition two +years later. On the defeat of John Sandfield Macdonald's government in +1871 Blake became prime minister of Ontario, but resigned this office +the same year in consequence of the abolition of dual representation. He +declined the leadership of the Liberal party in the Dominion parliament, +but, having taken an active part in bringing about the overthrow of Sir +John Macdonald's ministry in 1873, joined the Liberal cabinet of +Alexander Mackenzie, though without portfolio or salary. Impaired health +soon compelled him to resign, and to take the voyage to Europe; on his +return in 1875 he rejoined the cabinet as minister of justice, in which +office it fell to him to take the chief part in framing the constitution +of the supreme court of Canada. Continued ill-health compelled him in +1877 again to seek rest in Europe, having first exchanged the portfolio +of justice for the less exacting office of president of the council. +During his absence the Liberal government was driven from power by the +elections of 1878; and Blake himself, having failed to secure +re-election, was for a short time without a seat in parliament. From +1880 to 1887 he was leader of the opposition, being succeeded on his +resignation of the position in the latter year by Mr (afterwards Sir) +Wilfrid Laurier. In 1892 he became a member of the British House of +Commons as an Irish Nationalist, being elected for South Longford. But +he did not fulfil the expectations which had been formed on the strength +of his colonial reputation; he took no very prominent part in debate, +and gave little evidence of his undoubted oratorical gifts. In 1907 he +retired from public life. In 1858 he had married Margaret, daughter of +Benjamin Cronyn, first bishop of Huron. + + See John Charles Dent, _The Last Forty Years: Canada Since the Union + of 1841_ (2 vols., Toronto, 1881); J.S. Willison, _Sir Wilfrid Laurier + and the Liberal Party_ (2 vols., London, 1904). + + + + +BLAKE, ROBERT (1509-1657), English parliamentarian and admiral, was born +at Bridgwater in Somersetshire. The day of his birth is not known, but +he was baptized on the 27th of September 1599. Blake was the eldest son +of a well-to-do merchant, and received his early education at the +grammar school of Bridgwater. In 1615 he was sent to Oxford, entering at +first St Alban's Hall, but removing afterwards to Wadham College, then +recently founded. He remained at the university till 1625, but failed to +obtain any college preferment. Nothing is known of his life with +certainty for the next fifteen years. An anonymous Dutch writer, in the +_Hollandische Mercurius_ (1652), represents him as saying that he had +lived in Schiedam "for five or six years" in his youth. He doubtless +engaged in trade, and apparently with success. When, after eleven years +of kingship without parliaments, a parliament was summoned to meet in +April 1640, Blake was elected to represent his native borough. This +parliament, named "the Short," was dissolved in three weeks, and the +career of Blake as a politician was suspended. Two years later the +inevitable conflict began. Blake declared for the Parliament, and served +under Sir John Horner. In 1643 he was entrusted with the command of one +of the forts of Bristol. This he stoutly held during the siege of the +town by Prince Rupert, and earned the approval of parliament by refusing +to surrender his post till duly informed of the capitulation. In 1644 he +gained high distinction by the resolute defence of Lyme in Dorsetshire. +The siege was raised on the 23rd of May, and on the 8th of July Blake +took Taunton by surprise, and notwithstanding its imperfect defences and +inadequate supplies, held the town for the Parliament against two sieges +by the Royalists until July 1645, when it was relieved by Fairfax. In +1645 he re-entered parliament as member for Taunton, when the Royalist +Colonel Windham was expelled. + +He adhered to the Parliamentary party after the king's death, and within +a month (February 1649) was appointed, with Colonels Dean and Popham, to +the command of the fleet, under the title of General of the Sea. In +April he was sent in pursuit of Prince Rupert, who with the Royalist +fleet had entered the harbour of Kinsale in Ireland. There he blockaded +the prince for six months; and when the latter, in want of provisions, +and hopeless of relief, succeeded in making his escape with the fleet +and in reaching the Tagus, Blake followed him thither, and again +blockaded him for some months. The king of Portugal refusing permission +for Blake to attack his enemy, the latter made reprisals by falling on +the Portuguese fleet, richly laden, returning from Brazil. He captured +seventeen ships and burnt three, bringing his prizes home without +molestation. After revictualling his fleet, he sailed again, captured a +French man-of-war, and then pursued Prince Rupert, who had been asked to +go away by the Portuguese and had entered the Mediterranean. In November +1650 Blake destroyed the bulk of the Royalist squadron near Cartagena. +The thanks of parliament were voted to Blake, and he received a grant of +L1000. He was continued in his office of admiral and general of the sea; +and in May following he took, in conjunction with Ayscue, the Scilly +Islands. For this service the thanks of parliament were again awarded +him, and he was soon after made a member of the council of state. + +In 1652 war broke out with the Dutch, who had made great preparations +for the conflict. In March the command of the fleet was given to Blake +for nine months; and in the middle of May the Dutch fleet of forty-five +ships, led by their great admiral Tromp, appeared in the Downs. Blake, +who had only twenty ships, sailed to meet them, and the battle took +place off Dover on the 19th of May. The Dutch were defeated in an +engagement of four or five hours, lost two ships, and withdrew under +cover of darkness. Attempts at accommodation were made by the states, +but they failed. Early in July war was formally declared, and in the +same month Blake captured a large part of the Dutch fishery-fleet and +the twelve men-of-war that formed their convoy. On the 28th of September +Blake and Penn again encountered the Dutch fleet, now commanded by De +Ruyter and De Witt, off the Kentish Knock, defeated it, and chased it +for two days. The Dutch took refuge in Goree. A third battle was fought +near the end of November. By this time the ships under Blake's command +had been reduced in number to forty, and nearly the half of these were +useless for want of seamen. Tromp, who had been reinstated in command, +appeared in the Downs, with a fleet of eighty ships besides ten +fireships. Blake, nevertheless, risked a battle off Dungeness, but was +defeated, and withdrew into the Thames. The English fleet having been +refitted, put to sea again in February 1653; and on the 18th Blake, at +the head of eighty ships, encountered Tromp in the Channel. The Dutch +force, according to Clarendon, numbered 100 ships of war, but according +to the official reports of the Dutch, only seventy. The battle was +severe, and continued through three days, the Dutch, however, +retreating, and taking refuge in the shallow waters off the French +coast. In this action Blake was severely wounded. The three English +admirals put to sea again in May; and on the 3rd and 4th of June another +battle was fought near the North Foreland. On the first day Dean and +Monk were repulsed by Tromp; but on the second day the scales were +turned by the arrival of Blake, and the Dutch retreated to the Texel. + +Ill-health now compelled Blake to retire from the service for a time, +and he did not appear again on the seas for about eighteen months; +meanwhile he sat as a member of the Little Parliament (Barebones's). In +November 1654 he was selected by Cromwell to conduct a fleet to the +Mediterranean to exact compensation from the duke of Tuscany, the +knights of Malta, and the piratical states of North Africa, for wrongs +done to English merchants. This mission he executed with his accustomed +spirit and with complete success. Tunis alone dared to resist his +demands, and Tunis paid the penalty of the destruction of its two +fortresses by English guns. In the winter of 1655-1656, war being +declared against Spain, Blake was sent to cruise off Cadiz and the +neighbouring coasts, to intercept the Spanish shipping. One of his +captains captured a part of the Plate fleet in September 1656. In April +1657 Blake, then in very ill health, suffering from dropsy and scurvy, +and anxious to have assistance in his arduous duties, heard that the +Plate fleet lay at anchor in the bay of Santa Cruz, in the island of +Teneriffe. The position was a very strong one, defended by a castle and +several forts with guns. Under the shelter of these lay a fleet of +sixteen ships drawn up in crescent order. Captain Stayner was ordered to +enter the bay and fall on the fleet. This he did. Blake followed him. +Broadsides were poured into the castle and the forts at the same time; +and soon nothing was left but ruined walls and charred fragments of +burnt ships. The wind was blowing hard into the bay; but suddenly, and +fortunately for the heroic Blake, it shifted, and carried him safely out +to sea. "The whole action," says Clarendon, "was so incredible that all +men who knew the place wondered that any sober man, with what courage +soever endowed, would ever have undertaken it; and they could hardly +persuade themselves to believe what they had done; while the Spaniards +comforted themselves with the belief that they were devils and not men +who had destroyed them in such a manner." The English lost one ship and +200 men killed and wounded. The thanks of parliament were voted to +officers and men; and a very costly jewel (diamond ring) was presented +to Blake, "as a testimony," says Cromwell in his letter of 10th June, +"of our own and the parliament's good acceptance of your carriage in +this action." "This was the last action of the brave Blake." + +After again cruising for a time off Cadiz, his health failing more and +more, he was compelled to make homewards before the summer was over. He +died at sea, but within sight of Plymouth, on the 17th of August 1657. +His body was brought to London and embalmed, and after lying in state at +Greenwich House was interred with great pomp and solemnity in +Westminster Abbey. In 1661 Charles II. ordered the exhumation of +Blake's body, with those of the mother and daughter of Cromwell and +several others. They were cast out of the abbey, and were reburied in +the churchyard of St Margaret's. "But that regard," says Johnson, "which +was denied his body has been paid to his better remains, his name and +his memory. Nor has any writer dared to deny him the praise of +intrepidity, honesty, contempt of wealth, and love of his country." +Clarendon bears the following testimony to his excellence as a +commander:--"He was the first man that declined the old track, and made +it apparent that the science might be attained in less time than was +imagined. He was the first man that brought ships to contemn castles on +the shore, which had ever been thought very formidable, but were +discovered by him to make a noise only, and to fright those who could be +rarely hurt by them." + + A life of Blake is included in the work entitled _Lives, English and + Foreign_. Dr Johnson wrote a short life of him, and in 1852 appeared + Hepworth Dixon's fuller narrative, _Robert Blake, Admiral and General + at Sea_. Much new matter for the biography of Blake will be found in + the _Letters and Papers Relating to the First Dutch War_, edited by + S.R. Gardiner for the Navy Records Society (1898-1899.) + + + + +BLAKE, WILLIAM (1757-1827), English poet and painter, was born in +London, on the 28th of November 1757. His father, James Blake, kept a +hosier's shop in Broad Street, Golden Square; and from the scanty +education which the young artist received, it may be judged that the +circumstances of the family were not very prosperous. For the facts of +William Blake's early life the world is indebted to a little book, +called _A Father's Memoirs on a Child_, written by Dr Malkin in 1806. +Here we learn that young Blake quickly developed a taste for design, +which his father appears to have had sufficient intelligence to +recognize and assist by every means in his power. At the age of ten the +boy was sent to a drawing school kept by Henry Pars in the Strand, and +at the same time he was already cultivating his own taste by constant +attendance at the different art sale rooms, where he was known as the +"little connoisseur." Here he began to collect prints after +Michelangelo, and Raphael, Durer and Heemskerk, while at the school in +the Strand he had the opportunity of drawing from the antique. After +four years of this preliminary instruction Blake entered upon another +branch of art study. In 1777 he was apprenticed to James Basire, an +engraver of repute, and with him he remained seven years. His +apprenticeship had an important bearing on Blake's artistic education, +and marks the department of art in which he was made technically +proficient. In 1778, at the end of his apprenticeship, he proceeded to +the school of the Royal Academy, where he continued his early study from +the antique, and had for the first time an opportunity of drawing from +the living model. + +This is in brief all that is known of Blake's artistic education. That +he ever, at the academy or elsewhere, systematically studied painting we +do not know; but that he had already begun the practice of water colour +for himself is ascertained. So far, however, the course of his training +in art schools, and under Basire, was calculated to render him +proficient only as a draughtsman and an engraver. He had learned how to +draw, and he had mastered besides the practical difficulties of +engraving, and with these qualifications he entered upon his career. In +1780 he exhibited a picture in the Royal Academy Exhibition, conjectured +to have been executed in water colours, and he continued to contribute +to the annual exhibitions up to the year 1808. In 1782 he married +Catherine Boucher, the daughter of a market-gardener at Battersea, with +whom he lived always on affectionate terms, and the young couple after +their marriage established themselves in Green Street, Leicester Fields. +Blake had already become acquainted with some of the rising artists of +his time, amongst them Stothard, Flaxman and Fuseli, and he now began to +see something of literary society. At the house of the Rev. Henry +Mathew, in Rathbone Place, he used to recite and sometimes to sing poems +of his own composition, and it was through the influence of this +gentleman, combined with that of Flaxman, that Blake's first volume of +poetry was printed and published in 1783. From this time forward the +artist came before the world in a double capacity. By education as well +as native talent, he was pledged to the life of a painter, and these +_Poetical Sketches_, though they are often no more than the utterances +of a boy, are no less decisive in marking Blake as a future poet. + +For a while the two gifts are exhibited in association. To the close of +his life Blake continued to print and publish, after a manner of his +own, the inventions of his verse illustrated by original designs, but +there is a certain period in his career when the union of the two gifts +is peculiarly close, and when their service to one another is +unquestionable. In 1784 Blake, moving from Green Street, set up in +company with a fellow-pupil, Parker, as print-seller and engraver next +to his father's house in Broad Street, Golden Square, but in 1787 this +partnership was severed, and he established an independent business in +Poland Street. It was from this house, and in 1787, that the _Songs of +Innocence_ were published, a work that must always be remarkable for +beauty both of verse and of design, as well as for the singular method +by which the two were combined and expressed by the artist. Blake became +in fact his own printer and publisher. He engraved upon copper, by a +process devised by himself, both the text of his poems and the +surrounding decorative design, and to the pages printed from the copper +plates an appropriate colouring was afterwards added by hand. The poetic +genius already discernible in the first volume of _Poetical Sketches_ is +here more decisively expressed, and some of the songs in this volume +deserve to take rank with the best things of their kind in our +literature. In an age of enfeebled poetic style, when Wordsworth, with +more weighty apparatus, had as yet scarcely begun his reform of English +versification, Blake, unaided by any contemporary influence, produced a +work of fresh and living beauty; and if the _Songs of Innocence_ +established Blake's claim to the title of poet, the setting in which +they were given to the world proved that he was also something more. For +the full development of his artistic powers we have to wait till a later +date, but here at least he exhibits a just and original understanding of +the sources of decorative beauty. Each page of these poems is a study of +design, full of invention, and often wrought with the utmost delicacy of +workmanship. The artist retained to the end this feeling for decorative +effect; but as time went on, he considerably enlarged the imaginative +scope of his work, and decoration then became the condition rather than +the aim of his labour. + +Notwithstanding the distinct and precious qualities of this volume, it +attracted but slight attention, a fact perhaps not very wonderful, when +the system of publication is taken into account. Blake, however, +proceeded with other work of the same kind. The same year he published +_The Book of Thel_, more decidedly mystic in its poetry, but scarcely +less beautiful as a piece of illumination; _The Marriage of Heaven and +Hell_ followed in 1790; and in 1793 there are added _The Gates of +Paradise_, _The Vision of the Daughters of Albion_, and some other +"Prophetic Books." It becomes abundantly clear on reaching this point in +his career that Blake's utterances cannot be judged by ordinary rules. +The _Songs of Experience_, put forth in 1794 as a companion to the +earlier _Songs of Innocence_, are for the most part intelligible and +coherent, but in these intervening works of prophecy, as they were +called by the author, we get the first public expression of that phase +of his character and of his genius upon which a charge of insanity has +been founded. The question whether Blake was or was not mad seems likely +to remain in dispute, but there can be no doubt whatever that he was at +different periods of his life under the influence of illusions for which +there are no outward facts to account, and that much of what he wrote is +so far wanting in the quality of sanity as to be without a logical +coherence. On the other hand, it is equally clear that no madness +imputed to Blake could equal that which would be involved in the +rejection of his work on this ground. The greatness of Blake's mind is +even better established than its frailty, and in considering the work +that he has left we must remember that it is by the sublimity of his +genius, and not by any mental defect, that he is most clearly +distinguished from his fellows. With the publication of the _Songs of +Experience_ Blake's poetic career, so far at least as ordinary readers +are concerned, may be said to close. A writer of prophecy he continued +for many years, but the works by which he is best known in poetry are +those earlier and simpler efforts, supplemented by a few pieces taken +from various sources, some of which were of later production. But +although Blake the poet ceases in a general sense at this date, Blake +the artist is only just entering upon his career. In the _Songs of +Innocence_ and _Experience_, and even in some of the earlier _Books of +Prophecy_, the two gifts worked together in perfect balance and harmony; +but at this point the supremacy of the artistic faculty asserts itself, +and for the remainder of his life Blake was pre-eminently a designer and +engraver. The labour of poetical composition continues, but the product +passes beyond the range of general comprehension; while, with apparent +inconsistency, the work of the artist gains steadily in strength and +coherence, and never to the last loses its hold upon the understanding. +It may almost be said without exaggeration that his earliest poetic +work, _The Songs of Innocence_, and nearly his latest effort in design, +the illustrations to _The Book of Job_, take rank among the sanest and +most admirable products of his genius. Nor is the fact, astonishing +enough at first sight, quite beyond a possible explanation. As Blake +advanced in his poetic career, he was gradually hindered and finally +overpowered by a tendency that was most serviceable to him in design. +His inclination to substitute a symbol for a conception, to make an +image do duty for an idea, became an insuperable obstacle to literary +success. He endeavoured constantly to treat the intellectual material of +verse as if it could be moulded into sensuous form, with the inevitable +result that as the ideas to be expressed advanced in complexity and +depth of meaning, his poetic gifts became gradually more inadequate to +the task of interpretation. The earlier poems dealing with simpler +themes, and put forward at a time when the bent of the artist's mind was +not strictly determined, do not suffer from this difficulty; the +symbolism then only enriches an idea of no intellectual intricacy; but +when Blake began to concern himself with profounder problems the want of +a more logical understanding of language made itself strikingly +apparent. If his ways of thought and modes of workmanship had not been +developed with an intensity almost morbid, he would probably have been +able to distinguish and keep separate the double functions of art and +literature. As it is, however, he remains as an extreme illustration of +the ascendancy of the artistic faculty. For this tendency to translate +ideas into image, and to find for every thought, however simple or +sublime, a precise and sensuous form, is of the essence of pure artistic +invention. If this be accepted as the dominant bent of Blake's genius, +it is not so wonderful that his work in art should have strengthened in +proportion as his poetic powers waned; but whether the explanation +satisfies all the requirements of the case or not, the fact remains, and +cannot be overlooked by any student of Blake's career. + +In 1796 Blake was actively employed in the work of illustration. +Edwards, a bookseller of New Bond Street, projected a new edition of +Young's _Night Thoughts_, and Blake was chosen to illustrate the work. +It was to have been issued in parts, but for some reason not very clear +the enterprise failed, and only a first part, including forty-three +designs, was given to the world. These designs were engraved by Blake +himself, and they are interesting not only for their own merit but for +the peculiar system by which the illustration has been associated with +the text. It was afterwards discovered that the artist had executed +original designs in water-colour for the whole series, and these +drawings, 537 in number, form one of the most interesting records of +Blake's genius. Gilchrist, the painter's biographer, in commenting upon +the engraved plates, regrets the absence of colour, "the use of which +Blake so well understood, to relieve his simple design and give it +significance," and an examination of the original water-colour drawings +fully supports the justice of his criticism. Soon after the publication +of this work Blake was introduced by Flaxman to the poet Hayley, and in +the year 1801 he accepted the suggestion of the latter, that he should +take up his residence at Felpham in Sussex. The mild and amiable poet +had planned to write a life of Cowper, and for the illustration of this +and other works he sought Blake's help and companionship. The residence +at Felpham continued for three years, partly pleasant and partly irksome +to Blake, but apparently not very profitable to the progress of his art. +One of the annoyances of his stay was a malicious prosecution for +treason set on foot by a common soldier whom Blake had summarily ejected +from his garden; but a more serious drawback was the increasing +irritation which the painter seems to have experienced from association +with Hayley. In 1804 Blake returned to London, to take up his residence +in South Moulton Street, and as the fruit of his residence in Felpham, +he published, in the manner already described, the prophetic books +called the _Jerusalem_, _The Emanation of the Giant Albion_, and +_Milton_. The first of these is a very notable performance in regard to +artistic invention. Many of the designs stand out from the text in +complete independence, and are now and then of the very finest quality. + +In the years 1804-1805 Blake executed a series of designs in +illustration of Robert Blair's _The Grave_, of much beauty and grandeur, +though showing stronger traces of imitation of Italian art than any +earlier production. These designs were purchased from the artist by an +adventurous and unscrupulous publisher, Cromek, for the paltry sum of +L21, and afterwards published in a series of engravings by Schiavonetti. +Despite the ill treatment Blake received in the matter, and the other +evils, including a quarrel with his friend Stothard as to priority of +invention of a design illustrating the Canterbury Pilgrims, which his +association with Cromek involved, the book gained for him a larger +amount of popularity than he at any other time secured. Stothard's +picture of the Canterbury Pilgrims was exhibited in 1807, and in 1809 +Blake, in emulation of his rival's success, having himself painted in +water-colour a picture of the same subject, opened an exhibition, and +drew up a _Descriptive Catalogue_, curious and interesting, and +containing a very valuable criticism of Chaucer. + +The remainder of the artist's life is not outwardly eventful. In 1813 he +formed, through the introduction of George Cumberland of Bristol, a +valuable friendship with John Linnell and other rising water-colour +painters. Amongst the group Blake seems to have found special sympathy +in the society of John Varley, who, himself addicted to astrology, +encouraged Blake to cultivate his gift of inspired vision; and it is +probably to this influence that we are indebted for several curious +drawings made from visions, especially the celebrated "ghost of a flea" +and the very humorous portrait of the builder of the Pyramids. In 1821 +Blake removed to Fountain Court, in the Strand, where he died on the +12th of August 1827. The chief work of these last years was the splendid +series of engraved designs in illustration of the book of Job. Here we +find the highest imaginative qualities of Blake's art united to the +technical means of expression which he best understood. Both the +invention and the engraving are in all ways remarkable, and the series +may fairly be cited in support of a very high estimate of his genius. +None of his works is without the trace of that peculiar artistic +instinct and power which seizes the pictorial element of ideas, simple +or sublime, and translates them into the appropriate language of sense; +but here the double faculty finds the happiest exercise. The grandeur of +the theme is duly reflected in the simple and sublime images of the +artist's design, and in the presence of these plates we are made to feel +the power of the artist over the expressional resources of human form, +as well as his sympathy with the imaginative significance of his +subject. + + A life of Blake, with selections from his works, by Alexander + Gilchrist, was published in 1863 (new edition by W.G. Robertson, + 1906); in 1868 A.C. Swinburne published a critical essay on his + genius, remarkable for a full examination of the Prophetic Books, and + in 1874 William Michael Rossetti published a memoir prefixed to an + edition of the poems. In 1893 appeared _The Works of William Blake_, + edited by E.J. Ellis and W.B. Yeats. But for a long time all the + editors paid too little attention to a correct following of Blake's + own MSS. The text of the poems was finally edited with exemplary care + and thoroughness by John Sampson in his edition of the _Poetical + Works_ (1905), which has rescued Blake from the "improvements" of + previous editors. See also _The Letters of_ ~~ _William Blake, + together with a Life by Frederick Tatham_; edited by A.G.B. Russell + (1906); and Basil de Selincourt, _William Blake_ (1909). + (J. C. C.) + + + + +BLAKELOCK, RALPH ALBERT (1847- ), American painter, was born in New +York, on the 15th of October, 1847. He graduated at the College of the +City of New York in 1867. In art he was self-taught and markedly +original. Until ill-health necessitated the abandonment of his +profession, he was a most prolific worker, his subjects including +pictures of North American Indian life, and landscapes--notably such +canvases as "The Indian Fisherman"; "Ta-wo-koka: or Circle Dance"; +"Silvery Moonlight"; "A Waterfall by Moonlight"; "Solitude"; and +"Moonlight on Long Island Sound." + + + + +BLAKENEY, WILLIAM BLAKENEY, BARON (1672-1761), British soldier, was born +at Mount Blakeney in Limerick in 1672. Destined by his father for +politics, he soon showed a decided preference for a military career, and +at the age of eighteen headed the tenants in defending the Blakeney +estate against the Rapparees. As a volunteer he went to the war in +Flanders, and at the siege of Venlo in 1702 won his commission. He +served as a subaltern throughout Marlborough's campaigns, and is said to +have been the first to drill troops by signal of drum or colour. For +many years after the peace of Utrecht he served unnoticed, and was +sixty-five years of age before he became a colonel. This neglect, which +was said to be due to the hostility of Lord Verney, ceased when the duke +of Richmond was appointed colonel of Blakeney's regiment, and +thenceforward his advance was rapid. Brigadier-general in the Cartagena +expedition of 1741, and major-general a little later, he distinguished +himself by his gallant and successful defence of Stirling Castle against +the Highlanders in 1745. Two years later George II. made him +lieutenant-general and lieutenant-governor of Minorca. The governor of +that island never set foot in it, and Blakeney was left in command for +ten years. + +In 1756 the Seven Years' War was preluded by a swift descent of the +French on Minorca. Fifteen thousand troops under marshal the duc de +Richelieu, escorted by a strong squadron under the marquis de la +Gallisonniere, landed on the island on the 18th of April, and at once +began the siege of Fort St Philip, where Blakeney commanded at most some +5000 soldiers and workmen. The defence, in spite of crumbling walls and +rotted gun platforms, had already lasted a month when a British fleet +under vice-admiral the Hon. John Byng appeared. La Gallisonniere and +Byng fought, on the 20th of May, an indecisive battle, after which the +relieving squadron sailed away and Blakeney was left to his fate. A +second expedition subsequently appeared off Minorca, but it was then too +late, for after a heroic resistance of seventy-one days the old general +had been compelled to surrender the fort to Richelieu (April 18-June 28, +1756). Only the ruined fortifications were the prize of the victors. +Blakeney and his little garrison were transported to Gibraltar with +absolute liberty to serve again. Byng was tried and executed; Blakeney, +on his return to England, found himself the hero of the nation. Rewards +came freely to the veteran. He was made colonel of the Enniskillen +regiment of infantry, knight of the Bath, and Baron Blakeney of Mount +Blakeney in the Irish peerage. A little later Van Most's statue of him +was erected in Dublin, and his popularity continued unabated for the +short remainder of his life. He died on the 20th of September 1761, and +was buried in Westminster Abbey. + + See _Memoirs of General William Blakeney_ (1757). + + + + +BLAKESLEY, JOSEPH WILLIAMS (1808-1885), English divine, was born in +London on the 6th of March 1808, and was educated at St Paul's school, +London, and at Corpus Christi and Trinity Colleges, Cambridge. In 1831 +he was elected a fellow, and in 1839 a tutor of Trinity. In 1833 he took +holy orders, and from 1845 to 1872 held the college living of Ware, +Hertfordshire. Over the signature "Hertfordshire Incumbent" he +contributed a large number of letters to _The Times_ on the leading +social and political subjects of the day, and he also wrote many reviews +of books for that paper. In 1863 he was made a canon of Canterbury, and +in 1872 dean of Lincoln. Dean Blakesley was the author of the first +English _Life of Aristotle_ (1839), an edition of Herodotus (1852-1854) +in the _Bibliotheca Classica_, and _Four Months in Algeria_ (1859). He +died on the 18th of April 1885. + + + + +BLAMIRE, SUSANNA (1747-1794), English poet, daughter of a Cumberland +yeoman, was born at Cardew Hall, near Dalston, in January 1747. Her +mother died while she was a child, and she was brought up by her aunt, a +Mrs Simpson of Thackwood, who sent her niece to the village school at +Raughton Head. Susanna Blamire's earliest poem is "Written in a +Churchyard, on seeing a number of cattle grazing," in imitation of Gray. +She lived an uneventful life among the farmers of the neighbourhood, and +her gaiety and good-humour made her a favourite in rustic society. In +1767 her elder sister Sarah married Colonel Graham of Gartmore. "An +Epistle to her friends at Gartmore" gives a playful description of the +monotonous simplicity of her life. To her Perthshire visits her songs in +the Scottish vernacular are no doubt partly due. Her chief friend was +Catharine Gilpin of Scaleby Castle. The two ladies spent the winters +together in Carlisle, and wrote poems in common. Susanna Blamire died in +Carlisle on the 5th of April 1794. The poems which were not collected +during her lifetime, were first published in 1842 by Henry Lonsdale as +_The Poetical Works of Miss Susanna Blamire, "the Muse of Cumberland,"_ +with a memoir by Mr Patrick Maxwell. Some of her songs rank among the +very best of north-country lyrics. "And ye shall walk in silk attire" +and "What ails this heart o' mine," are well known, and were included in +Johnson's _Scots' Musical Museum_. + + + + +BLANC, (JEAN JOSEPH CHARLES) LOUIS (1811-1882), French politician and +historian, was born on the 29th of October 1811 at Madrid, where his +father held the post of inspector-general of finance under Joseph +Bonaparte. Failing to receive aid from Pozzo di Borgo, his mother's +uncle, Louis Blanc studied law in Paris, living in poverty, and became a +contributor to various journals. In the _Revue du progres_, which he +founded, he published in 1839 his study on _L'Organisation du travail_. +The principles laid down in this famous essay form the key to Louis +Blanc's whole political career. He attributes all the evils that afflict +society to the pressure of competition, whereby the weaker are driven to +the wall. He demanded the equalization of wages, and the merging of +personal interests in the common good--"_a chacun selon ses besoins, de +chacun selon ses facultes_." This was to be effected by the +establishment of "social workshops," a sort of combined co-operative +society and trade-union, where the workmen in each trade were to unite +their efforts for their common benefit. In 1841 he published his +_Histoire de dix ans 1830-1840_, an attack upon the monarchy of July. It +ran through four editions in four years. + +In 1847 he published the two first volumes of his _Histoire de la +Revolution Francaise_. Its publication was interrupted by the revolution +of 1848, when Louis Blanc became a member of the provisional government. +It was on his motion that, on the 25th of February, the government +undertook "to guarantee the existence of the workmen by work"; and +though his demand for the establishment of a ministry of labour was +refused--as beyond the competence of a provisional government--he was +appointed to preside over the government labour commission (_Commission +du Gouvernement pour les travailleurs_) established at the Luxembourg to +inquire into and report on the labour question. On the 10th of May he +renewed, in the National Assembly, his proposal for a ministry of +labour, but the temper of the majority was hostile to socialism, and the +proposal was again rejected. His responsibility for the disastrous +experiment of the national workshops he himself denied in his _Appel aux +honnetes gens_ (Paris, 1849), written in London after his flight; but by +the insurgent mob of the 15th of May and by the victorious Moderates +alike he was regarded as responsible. Between the _sansculottes_, who +tried to force him to place himself at their head, and the national +guards, who maltreated him, he was nearly done to death. Rescued with +difficulty, he escaped with a false passport to Belgium, and thence to +London; in his absence he was condemned by the special tribunal +established at Bourges, _in contumaciam_, to deportation. Against trial +and sentence he alike protested, developing his protest in a series of +articles in the _Nouveau Monde_, a review published in Paris under his +direction. These he afterwards collected and published as _Pages de +l'histoire de la revolution de 1848_ (Brussels, 1850). + +During his stay in England he made use of the unique collection of +materials for the revolutionary period preserved at the British Museum +to complete his _Histoire de la Revolution Francaise_ 12 vols. +(1847-1862). In 1858 he published a reply to Lord Normanby's _A Year of +Revolution in Paris_ (1858), which he developed later into his _Histoire +de la revolution de 1848_ (2 vols., 1870-1880). As far back as 1839 +Louis Blanc had vehemently opposed the idea of a Napoleonic restoration, +predicting that it would be "despotism without glory," "the Empire +without the Emperor." He therefore remained in exile till the fall of +the Second Empire in September 1870, after which he returned to Paris +and served as a private in the national guard. On the 8th of February +1871 he was elected a member of the National Assembly, in which he +maintained that the republic was "the necessary form of national +sovereignty," and voted for the continuation of the war; yet, though a +member of the extreme Left, he was too clear-minded to sympathize with +the Commune, and exerted his influence in vain on the side of +moderation. In 1878 he advocated the abolition of the presidency and the +senate. In January 1879 he introduced into the chamber a proposal for +the amnesty of the Communists, which was carried. This was his last +important act. His declining years were darkened by ill-health and by +the death, in 1876, of his wife (Christina Groh), an Englishwoman whom +he had married in 1865. He died at Cannes on the 6th of December 1882, +and on the 12th of December received a state funeral in the cemetery of +Pere-Lachaise. + +Louis Blanc possessed a picturesque and vivid style, and considerable +power of research; but the fervour with which he expressed his +convictions, while placing him in the first rank of orators, tended to +turn his historical writings into political pamphlets. His political and +social ideas have had a great influence on the development of socialism +in France. His _Discours politiques_ (1847-1881) was published in 1882. +His most important works, besides those already mentioned, are _Lettres +sur l'Angleterre_ (1866-1867), _Dix annees de l'histoire de +l'Angleterre_ (1879-1881), and _Questions d'aujourd'hui et de demain_ +(1873-1884). + + See L. Fiaux, _Louis Blanc_ (1883). + + + + +BLANC, MONT, the culminating point (15,782 ft.) of the mountain range of +the same name, which forms part of the Pennine Alps, and is divided +unequally between France, Italy and Switzerland. The actual highest +summit is wholly French and is the loftiest peak in the Alps, and in +Europe also, if certain peaks in the Caucasus be excluded. At Geneva the +mountain was in former days named the Montagne Maudite, but the present +name seems to have been always used locally. On the north is the valley +of Chamonix, and on the east the head of the valley of Aosta. Among the +great glaciers which stream from the peak the most noteworthy are those +of Bossons and Taconnaz (northern slope) and of Brenva and Miage +(southern slope). The first ascent was made in 1786 by two Chamonix men, +Jacques Balmat and Dr Michel Paccard, and the second in 1787 by Balmat +with two local men. Later in 1787 H.B. de Saussure made the third +ascent, memorable in many respects, and was followed a week later by +Colonel Beaufoy, the first Englishman to gain the top. These ascents +were all made from Chamonix, which is still the usual starting point, +though routes have been forced up the peak from nearly every side, those +on the Italian side being much steeper than that from Chamonix. The +ascent from Chamonix is now frequently made in summer (rarely in winter +also), but, owing to the great height of the mountain, the view is +unsatisfactory, though very extensive (Lyons is visible). There is an +inn at the Grands Mulets (9909 ft.). In 1890 M. Vallot built an +observatory and shelter hut (14,312 ft.) on the Bosses du Dromadaire +(north-west ridge of the mountain), and in 1893 T.J.C. Janssen +constructed an observatory just below the very summit. + + See C. Durier, _Le Mont Blanc_ (4th ed., Paris, 1897); C.E. Mathews, + _The Annals of Mont Blanc_ (London, 1898); P. Gussfeldt, _Der + Montblanc_, (Berlin, 1894, also a French translation, Geneva, 1899); + L. Kurz, _Climbers' Guide to the Chain of Mont Blanc_, section vi. + (London, 1892); L. Kurz and X. Imfeld, _Carte de la chaine du Mont + Blanc_ (1896, new edition 1905). (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +BLANCHARD, SAMUEL LAMAN (1804-1845), British author and journalist, the +son of a painter and glazier, was born at Great Yarmouth on the 15th of +May 1804. He was educated at St Olave's school, Southwark, and then +became clerk to a proctor in Doctors' Commons. At an early age he +developed literary tastes, contributing dramatic sketches to a paper +called _Drama_. For a short time he was a member of a travelling +dramatic company, but subsequently became a proof-reader in London, and +wrote for the _Monthly Magazine_. In 1827 he was made secretary of the +Zoological Society, a post which he held for three years. In 1828 he +published _Lyric Offerings_, dedicated to Charles Lamb. He had a very +varied journalistic experience, editing in succession the _Monthly +Magazine_, the _True Sun_, the _Constitutional_, the _Court Journal_, +the _Courier_, and _George Cruikshank's Omnibus_; and from 1841 till his +death he was connected with the _Examiner_. In 1846 Bulwer-Lytton +collected a number of his prose-essays under the title _Sketches of +Life_, to which a memoir of the author was prefixed. His verse was +collected in 1876 by Blanchard Jerrold. Over-work broke down his +strength, and, unnerved by the death of his wife, he died by his own +hand on the 15th of February 1845. + +His eldest son, SIDNEY LAMAN BLANCHARD, who was the author of _Yesterday +and To-day in India_, died in 1883. + + + + +BLANCHE, JACQUES EMILE (1861- ), French painter, was born in Paris. He +enjoyed an excellent cosmopolitan education, and was brought up at Passy +in a house once belonging to the princesse de Lamballe, which still +retained the atmosphere of 18th-century elegance and refinement and +influenced his taste and work. Although he received some instruction in +painting from Gervex, he may be regarded as self-taught. He acquired a +great reputation as a portrait painter; his art is derived from French +and English sources, refined, sometimes super-elegant, but full of +character. Among his chief works are his portraits of his father, of +Pierre Louys, the Thaulow family, Aubrey Beardsley and Yvette Guilbert. + + + + +BLANCHE OF CASTILE (1188-1252), wife of Louis VIII. of France, third +daughter of Alphonso VIII., king of Castile, and of Eleanor of England, +daughter of Henry II., was born at Valencia. In consequence of a treaty +between Philip Augustus and John of England, she was betrothed to the +former's son, Louis, and was brought to France, in the spring of 1200, +by John's mother Eleanor. On the 22nd of May 1200 the treaty was finally +signed, John ceding with his niece the fiefs of Issoudun and Gracay, +together with those that Andre de Chavigny, lord of Chateauroux, held in +Berry, of the English crown. The marriage was celebrated the next day, +at Portmort on the right bank of the Seine, in John's domains, as those +of Philip lay under an interdict. + +Blanche first displayed her great qualities in 1216, when Louis, who on +the death of John claimed the English crown in her right, invaded +England, only to find a united nation against him. Philip Augustus +refused to help his son, and Blanche was his sole support. The queen +established herself at Calais and organized two fleets, one of which was +commanded by Eustace the Monk, and an army under Robert of Courtenay; +but all her resolution and energy were in vain. Although it would seem +that her masterful temper exercised a sensible influence upon her +husband's gentler character, her role during his reign (1223-1226) is +not well known. Upon his death he left Blanche regent and guardian of +his children. Of her twelve or thirteen children, six had died, and +Louis, the heir--afterwards the sainted Louis IX.,--was but twelve years +old. The situation was critical, for the hard-won domains of the house +of Capet seemed likely to fall to pieces during a minority. Blanche had +to bear the whole burden of affairs alone, to break up a league of the +barons (1226), and to repel the attack of the king of England (1230). +But her energy and firmness overcame all dangers. There was an end to +the calumnies circulated against her, based on the poetical homage +rendered her by Theobald IV., count of Champagne, and the prolonged +stay in Paris of the papal legate, Romano Bonaventura, cardinal of Sant' +Angelo. The nobles were awed by her warlike preparations or won over by +adroit diplomacy, and their league was broken up. St Louis owed his +realm to his mother, but he himself always remained somewhat under the +spell of her imperious personality. After he came of age (1236) her +influence upon him may still be traced. In 1248 she again became regent, +during Louis IX.'s absence on the crusade, a project which she had +strongly opposed. In the disasters which followed she maintained peace, +while draining the land of men and money to aid her son in the East. At +last her strength failed her. She fell ill at Melun in November 1252, +and was taken to Paris, but lived only a few days. She was buried at +Maubuisson. + + Besides the works of Joinville and William of Nangis, see Elie Berger, + "Histoire de Blanche de Castille, reine de France," in _Bibliotheque + des ecoles francaises d'Athenes et de Rome_, vol. lxx. (Paris, 1895); + Le Nain de Tillemont, "Vie de Saint Louis," ed. by J. de Gaulle for + the _Societe de l'histoire de France_ (6 vols., 1847-1851); and Paulin + Paris, "Nouvelles recherches sur les moeurs de la reine Blanche et de + Thibaud," in _Cabinet historique_ (1858). + + + + +BLANCH FEE, or BLANCH HOLDING (from Fr. _blanc_, white), an ancient +tenure in Scottish land law, the duty payable being in silver or white +money in contradistinction to gold. The phrase was afterwards applied to +any holding of which the quit-rent was merely nominal, such as a penny, +a peppercorn, &c. + + + + +BLANDFORD, or BLANDFORD FORUM, a market town, and municipal borough in +the northern parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England, on the +Stour, 19 m. N.W. of Bournemouth by the Somerset & Dorset railway. Pop. +(1901) 3649. The town is ancient, but was almost wholly destroyed by +fire in the 18th century. The church of St Peter and St Paul, a +classical building, was built in 1732. There are a grammar-school +(founded in 1521 at Milton Abbas, transferred to Blandford in 1775), a +Blue Coat school (1729), and other educational charities. Remnants of a +mansion of the 14th century, Damory Court, are seen in a farmhouse, and +an adjoining Perpendicular chapel is used as a barn. There are numerous +early earthworks on the chalk hills in the neighbourhood. The fine +modern mansion of Bryanston, in the park adjoining the town, is the seat +of Lord Portman. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and +12 councillors. Area, 145 acres. + + + + +BLANDRATA, or BIANDRATA, GIORGIO (c. 1515-1588), Italian physician and +polemic, who came of the De Blandrate family, powerful from the early +part of the 13th century, was born at Saluzzo, the youngest son of +Bernardino Blandrata. He graduated in arts and medicine at Montpellier +in 1533, and specialized in the functional and nervous disorders of +women. In 1544 he made his first acquaintance with Transylvania; in 1553 +he was with Alciati in the Grisons; in 1557 he spent a year at Geneva, +in constant intercourse with Calvin, who distrusted him. He attended the +English wife (Jane Stafford) of Count Celso Massimiliano Martinengo, +preacher of the Italian church at Geneva, and fostered anti-trinitarian +opinions in that church. In 1558 he found it expedient to remove to +Poland, where he became a leader of the heretical party at the synods of +Pinczow (1558) and Ksionzh (1560 and 1562). His point was the +suppression of extremes of opinion, on the basis of a confession +literally drawn from Scripture. He obtained the position of court +physician to the queen dowager, the Milanese Bona Sforza. She had been +instrumental in the burning (1539) of Catharine Weygel, at the age of +eighty, for anti-trinitarian opinions; but the writings of Ochino had +altered her views, which were now anti-Catholic. In 1563 Blandrata +transferred his services to the Transylvanian court, where the daughters +of his patroness were married to ruling princes. He revisited Poland +(1576) in the train of Stephen Bathory, whose tolerance permitted the +propagation of heresies; and when (1579) Christopher Bathory introduced +the Jesuits into Transylvania, Blandrata found means of conciliating +them. Throughout his career he was accompanied by his two brothers, +Ludovico and Alphonso, the former being canon of Saluzzo. In +Transylvania, Blandrata co-operated with Francis David (d. 1579), the +anti-trinitarian bishop, but in 1578 two circumstances broke the +connexion. Blandrata was charged with "Italian vice"; David renounced +the worship of Christ. To influence David, Blandrata sent for Faustus +Socinus from Basel. Socinus was David's guest, but the discussion +between them led to no result. At the instance of Blandrata, David was +tried and condemned to prison at Deva (in which he died) on the charge +of innovation. Having amassed a fortune, Blandrata returned to the +communion of Rome. His end is obscure. According to the Jesuit, Jacob +Wujek, he was strangled by a nephew (Giorgio, son of Alphonso) in May +1588. He published a few polemical writings, some in conjunction with +David. + + See Malacarne, _Commentario delle Opere e delle Vicende di G. + Blandrata_ (Padova, 1814); Wallace, _Anti-trinitarian Biography_, vol. + ii. (1850). (A. Go.*) + + + + +BLANE, SIR GILBERT (1740-1834), Scottish physician, was born at +Blanefield, Ayrshire, on the 29th of August 1749. He was educated at +Edinburgh university, and shortly after his removal to London became +private physician to Lord Rodney, whom he accompanied to the West Indies +in 1779. He did much to improve the health of the fleet by attention to +the diet of the sailors and by enforcing due sanitary precautions, and +it was largely through him that in 1795 the use of lime-juice was made +obligatory throughout the navy as a preventive of scurvy. Enjoying a +number of court and hospital appointments he built up a good practice +for himself in London, and the government constantly consulted him on +questions of public hygiene. He was made a baronet in 1812 in reward for +the services he rendered in connexion with the return of the Walcheren +expedition. He died in London on the 26th of June 1834. Among his works +were _Observations on the Diseases of Seamen_ (1795) and _Elements of +Medical Logic_ (1819). + + + + +BLANFORD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1832-1905), English geologist and naturalist, +was born in London on the 7th of October 1832. He was educated in +private schools in Brighton and Paris, and with a view to the adoption +of a mercantile career spent two years in a business house at Civita +Vecchia. On returning to England in 1851 he was induced to enter the +newly established Royal School of Mines, which his younger brother Henry +F. Blanford (1834-1893), afterwards head of the Indian Meteorological +Department, had already joined; he then spent a year in the mining +school at Freiburg, and towards the close of 1854 both he and his +brother obtained posts on the Geological Survey of India. In that +service he remained for twenty-seven years, retiring in 1882. He was +engaged in various parts of India, in the Raniganj coalfield, in Bombay, +and in the coalfield near Talchir, where boulders considered to have +been ice-borne were found in the Talchir strata--a remarkable discovery +confirmed by subsequent observations of other geologists in equivalent +strata elsewhere. His attention was given not only to geology but to +zoology, and especially to the land-mollusca and to the vertebrates. In +1866 he was attached to the Abyssinian expedition, accompanying the army +to Magdala and back; and in 1871-1872 he was appointed a member of the +Persian Boundary Commission. The best use was made of the exceptional +opportunities of studying the natural history of those countries. For +his many contributions to geological science Dr Blanford was in 1883 +awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London; and for +his labours on the zoology and geology of British India he received in +1901 a royal medal from the Royal Society. He had been elected F.R.S. in +1874, and was chosen president of the Geological Society in 1888. He was +created C.I.E. in 1904. He died in London on the 23rd of June 1905. His +principal publications were: _Observations on the Geology and Zoology of +Abyssinia_ (1870), and _Manual of the Geology of India_, with H.B. +Medlicott (1879). + + Biography, with bibliography and portrait, in _Geological Magazine_, + January 1905. + + + + +BLANK (from the Fr. _blanc_, white), a word used in various senses based +on that of "left white," i.e. requiring something to be filled in; thus +a "blank cheque" is one which requires the amount to be inserted, an +insurance policy in blank, where the name of the beneficiary is lacking, +"blank verse" (_q.v_.) verse without rhyme, "blank cartridge" that +contains only powder and no ball or shot. The word is also used, as a +substantive, for a ticket in a lottery or sweepstake which does not +carry a number or the name of a horse running or for an unstamped metal +disc in coining. + + + + +BLANKENBERGHE, a seaside watering-place on the North Sea in the province +of West Flanders, Belgium, 12 m. N.E. of Ostend, and about 9 m. N.W. of +Bruges, with which it is connected by railway. It is more bracing than +Ostend, and has a fine parade over a mile in length. During the season, +which extends from June to September, it receives a large number of +visitors, probably over 60,000 altogether, from Germany as well as from +Belgium. There is a small fishing port as well as a considerable +fishing-fleet. Two miles north of this place along the dunes is +Zeebrugge, the point at which the new ship-canal from Bruges enters the +North Sea. Fixed population (1904) 5925. + + + + +BLANKENBURG. (1) A town and health resort of Germany, in the duchy of +Brunswick, at the N. foot of the Harz Mountains, 12 m. by rail S.W. from +Halberstadt. Pop. (1901) 10,173. It has been in large part rebuilt since +a fire in 1836, and possesses a castle, with various collections, a +museum of antiquities, an old town hall and churches. There are +pine-needle baths and a hospital for nervous diseases. Gardening is a +speciality. In the vicinity is a cliff or ridge of rock called +Teufelsmauer (Devil's wall), from which fine views are obtained across +the plain and into the deep gorges of the Harz Mountains. + +(2) Another BLANKENBURG, also a health-resort, is situated in +Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Thuringia, at the confluence of the rivers Rinne +and Schwarza, and at the entrance of the Schwarzatal. Its environs are +charming, and to the north of it, on an eminence, rise the fine ruins of +the castle of Greifenstein, built by the German king Henry I., and from +1275 to 1583 the seat of a cadet branch of the counts of Schwarzburg. + + + + +BLANKETEERS, the nickname given to some 5000 operatives who on the 10th +of March 1817 met in St Peter's Field, near Manchester, to march to +London, each carrying blankets or rugs. Their object was to see the +prince regent and lay their grievances before him. The Habeas Corpus Act +was suspended, and the leaders were seized and imprisoned. The bulk of +the demonstration yielded at once. The few stragglers who persisted in +the march were intercepted by troops, and treated with considerable +severity. Eventually the spokesmen had an interview with the ministers, +and some reforms were the result. + + + + +BLANK VERSE, the unrhymed measure of iambic decasyllable in five beats +which is usually adopted in English epic and dramatic poetry. The +epithet is due to the absence of the rhyme which the ear expects at the +end of successive lines. The decasyllabic line occurs for the first time +in a Provencal poem of the 10th century, but in the earliest instances +preserved it is already constructed with such regularity as to suggest +that it was no new invention. It was certainly being used almost +simultaneously in the north of France. Chaucer employed it in his +_Compleynte to Pitie_ about 1370. In all the literatures of western +Europe it became generally used, but always with rhyme. In the beginning +of the 16th century, however, certain Italian poets made the experiment +of writing decasyllabics without rhyme. The tragedy of _Sophonisba_ +(1515) of G.G. Trissino (1478-1550) was the earliest work completed in +this form; it was followed in 1525 by the didactic poem _Le Api_ (The +Bees), of Giovanni Rucellai (1475-1525), who announced his intention of +writing _"Con verso Etrusco dalle rime sciolto,"_ in consequence of +which expression this kind of metre was called _versi sciolti_ or blank +verse. In a very short time this form was largely adopted in Italian +dramatic poetry, and the comedies of Ariosto, the _Aminta_ of Tasso and +the _Pastor Fido_ of Guarini are composed in it. The iambic blank verse +of Italy was, however, mainly hendecasyllabic, not decasyllabic, and +under French influences the habit of rhyme soon returned. + +Before the close of Trissino's life, however, his invention had been +introduced into another literature, where it was destined to enjoy a +longer and more glorious existence. Towards the close of the reign of +Henry VIII., Henry Howard, earl of Surrey, translated two books of the +_Aeneid_ into English rhymeless verse, "drawing" them "into a strange +metre." Surrey's blank verse is stiff and timid, permitting itself no +divergence from the exact iambic movement:-- + + "Who can express the slaughter of that night, + Or tell the number of the corpses slain, + Or can in tears bewail them worthily? + The ancient famous city falleth down, + That many years did hold such seignory." + +Surrey soon found an imitator in Nicholas Grimoald, and in 1562 blank +verse was first applied to English dramatic poetry in the _Gorboduc_ of +Sackville and Norton. In 1576, in the _Steel Glass_ of Gascoigne, it was +first used for satire, and by the year 1585 it had come into almost +universal use for theatrical purposes. In Lyly's _The Woman in the Moon_ +and Peek's _Arraignment of Paris_ (both of 1584) we find blank verse +struggling with rhymed verse and successfully holding its own. The +earliest play written entirely in blank verse is supposed to be _The +Misfortunes of Arthur_ (1587) of Thomas Hughes. Marlowe now immediately +followed, with the magnificent movement of his _Tamburlaine_ (1589), +which was mocked by satirical critics as "the swelling bombast of +bragging blank verse" (Nash) and "the spacious volubility of a drumming +decasyllable" (Greene), but which introduced a great new music into +English poetry, in such "mighty lines" as + + "Still climbing after knowledge infinite, + And always moving as the restless spheres," + +or:-- + + "See where Christ's blood streams in the firmament!" + +Except, however, when he is stirred by a particularly vivid emotion, the +blank verse of Marlowe continues to be monotonous and uniform. It still +depends too exclusively on a counting of syllables. But Shakespeare, +after having returned to rhyme in his earliest dramas, particularly in +_The Two Gentlemen of Verona_, adopted blank verse conclusively about +the time that the career of Marlowe was closing, and he carried it to +the greatest perfection in variety, suppleness and fulness. He released +it from the excessive bondage that it had hitherto endured; as Robert +Bridges has said, "Shakespeare, whose early verse may be described as +syllabic, gradually came to write a verse dependent on stress." In +comparison with that of his predecessors and successors, the blank verse +of Shakespeare is essentially regular, and his prosody marks the +admirable mean between the stiffness of his dramatic forerunners and the +laxity of those who followed him. Most of Shakespeare's lines conform to +the normal type of the decasyllable, and the rest are accounted for by +familiar and rational rules of variation. The ease and fluidity of his +prosody were abused by his successors, particularly by Beaumont and +Fletcher, who employed the soft feminine ending to excess; in Massinger +dramatic blank verse came too near to prose, and in Heywood and Shirley +it was relaxed to the point of losing all nervous vigour. + +The later dramatists gradually abandoned that rigorous difference which +should always be preserved between the cadence of verse and prose, and +the example of Ford, who endeavoured to revive the old severity of blank +verse, was not followed. But just as the form was sinking into dramatic +desuetude, it took new life in the direction of epic, and found its +noblest proficient in the person of John Milton. The most intricate and +therefore the most interesting blank verse which has been written is +that of Milton in the great poems of his later life. He reduced the +elisions, which had been frequent in the Elizabethan poets, to law; he +admitted an extraordinary variety in the number of stresses; he +deliberately inverted the rhythm in order to produce particular effects; +and he multiplied at will the caesurae or breaks in a line. Such verses +as + + "Arraying with reflected purple and gold-- + Shoots invisible virtue even to the deep-- + Universal reproach, far worse to bear-- + Me, me only, just object of his ire"-- + +are not mistaken in rhythm, nor to be scanned by forcing them to obey +the conventional stress. They are instances, and _Paradise Lost_ is +full of such, of Milton's exquisite art in ringing changes upon the +metrical type of ten syllables, five stresses and a rising rhythm, so as +to make the whole texture of the verse respond to his poetical thought. +Writing many years later in _Paradise Regained_ and in _Samson +Agonistes_, Milton retained his system of blank verse in its general +characteristics, but he treated it with increased dryness and with a +certain harshness of effect. It is certainly in his biblical drama that +blank verse has been pushed to its most artificial and technical +perfection, and it is there that Milton's theories are to be studied +best; yet it must be confessed that learning excludes beauty in some of +the very audacious irregularities which he here permits himself in +_Samson Agonistes_. Such lines as + + "Made arms ridiculous, useless the forgery-- + My griefs not only pain me as a lingering disease-- + Drunk with idolatry, drunk with wine-- + Justly, yet despair not of his final pardon"-- + +are constructed with perfect comprehension of metrical law, yet they +differ so much from the normal structure of blank verse that they need +to be explained, and to imitate them would be perilous. A persistent +weakness in the third foot has ever been the snare of English blank +verse, and it is this element of monotony and dulness which Milton is +ceaselessly endeavouring to obviate by his wonderful inversions, +elisions and breaks. + +After the Restoration, and after a brief period of experiment with +rhymed plays, the dramatists returned to the use of blank verse, and in +the hands of Otway, Lee and Dryden, it recovered much of its +magnificence. In the 18th century, Thomson and others made use of a very +regular and somewhat monotonous form of blank verse for descriptive and +didactic poems, of which the _Night Thoughts_ of Young is, from a +metrical point of view, the most interesting. With these poets the form +is little open to licence, while inversions and breaks are avoided as +much as possible. Since the 18th century, blank verse has been subjected +to constant revision in the hands of Wordsworth, Coleridge, Shelley, +Keats, Tennyson, the Brownings and Swinburne, but no radical changes, of +a nature unknown to Shakespeare and Milton, have been introduced into +it. + + See J.A. Symonds, _Blank Verse_ (1895); Walter Thomas, _Le Decasyllabe + romain et sa fortune en Europe_ (1904); Robert Bridges _Milton's + Prosody_ (1894); Ed. Guest, _A History of English Rhythms_ (1882); J. + Mothere, _Les Theories du vers hereoique anglais_ (1886); J. Schipper, + _Englische Metrik_ (1881-1888). (E. G.) + + + + +BLANQUI, JEROME ADOLPHE (1798-1854), French economist, was born at Nice +on the 21st of November 1798. Beginning life as a schoolmaster in Paris, +he was attracted to the study of economics by the lectures of J.B. Say, +whose pupil and assistant he became. Upon the recommendation of Say he +was in 1825 appointed professor of industrial economy and of history at +the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. In 1833 he succeeded Say as +professor of political economy at the same institution, and in 1838 was +elected a member of the Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. In +1838 appeared his most important work, _Histoire de l'economie politique +en Europe, depuis les anciens jusqu'a nos jours_. He was indefatigable +in research, and for the purposes of his economic inquiries travelled +over almost the whole of Europe and visited Algeria and the East. He +contributed much to our knowledge of the conditions of the +working-classes, especially in France. Other works of Blanqui were _De +la situation economique et morale de l'Espagne en 1846; Resume de +l'histoire du commerce et de l'industrie_ (1826); _Precis elementaire +d'economie politique_ (1826); _Les Classes ouvrieres en France_ (1848). + + + + +BLANQUI, LOUIS AUGUSTE (1805-1881), French publicist, was born on the +8th of February 1805 at Puget-Theniers, where his father, Jean Dominique +Blanqui, was at that time sub-prefect. He studied both law and medicine, +but found his real vocation in politics, and at once constituted himself +a champion of the most advanced opinions. He took an active part in the +revolution of July 1830, and continuing to maintain the doctrine of +republicanism during the reign of Louis Philippe, was condemned to +repeated terms of imprisonment. Implicated in the armed outbreak of the +Societe des Saisons, of which he was a leading spirit, he was in the +following year, 1840, condemned to death, a sentence that was afterwards +commuted to imprisonment for life. He was released by the revolution of +1848, only to resume his attacks on existing institutions. The +revolution, he declared, was a mere change of name. The violence of the +_Societe republicaine centrale_, which was founded by Blanqui to demand +a modification of the government, brought him into conflict with the +more moderate Republicans, and in 1849 he was condemned to ten years' +imprisonment. In 1865, while serving a further term of imprisonment +under the Empire, he contrived to escape, and henceforth continued his +propaganda against the government from abroad, until the general amnesty +of 1869 enabled him to return to France. Blanqui's leaning towards +violent measures was illustrated in 1870 by two unsuccessful armed +demonstrations: one on the 12th of January at the funeral of Victor +Noir, the journalist shot by Pierre Bonaparte; the other on the 14th of +August, when he led an attempt to seize some guns at a barrack. Upon the +fall of the Empire, through the revolution of the 4th of September, +Blanqui established the club and journal _La patrie en danger_. He was +one of the band that for a moment seized the reins of power on the 31st +of October, and for his share in that outbreak he was again condemned to +death on the 17th of March of the following year. A few days afterwards +the insurrection which established the Commune broke out, and Blanqui +was elected a member of the insurgent government, but his detention in +prison prevented him from taking an active part. Nevertheless he was in +1872 condemned along with the other members of the Commune to +transportation; but on account of his broken health this sentence was +commuted to one of imprisonment. In 1879 he was elected a deputy for +Bordeaux; although the election was pronounced invalid, Blanqui was set +at liberty, and at once resumed his work of agitation. At the end of +1880, after a speech at a revolutionary meeting in Paris, he was struck +down by apoplexy, and expired on the 1st of January 1881. Blanqui's +uncompromising communism, and his determination to enforce it by +violence, necessarily brought him into conflict with every French +government, and half his life was spent in prison. Besides his +innumerable contributions to journalism, he published an astronomical +work entitled _L'Eternite par les astres_ (1872), and after his death +his writings on economic and social questions were collected under the +title of _Critique sociale_ (1885). + + A biography by G. Geffroy, _L'Enferme_ (1897), is highly coloured and + decidedly partisan. + + + + +BLANTYRE, the chief town of the Nyasaland protectorate, British Central +Africa. It is situated about 3000 ft. above the sea in the Shire +Highlands 300 m. by river and rail N.N.W. of the Chinde mouth of the +Zambezi. Pop. about 6000 natives and 100 whites. It is the headquarters +of the principal trading firms and missionary societies in the +protectorate. It is also a station on the African trans-continental +telegraph line. The chief building is the Church of Scotland church, a +fine red brick building, a mixture of Norman and Byzantine styles, with +lofty turrets and white domes. It stands in a large open space and is +approached by an avenue of cypresses and eucalyptus. The church was +built entirely by native labour. Blantyre was founded in 1876 by +Scottish missionaries, and is named after the birthplace of David +Livingstone. + + + + +BLANTYRE (Gaelic, "the warm retreat"), a parish of Lanarkshire, +Scotland. Pop. (1901) 14,145. The parish lies a few miles south-east of +Glasgow, and contains High Blantyre (pop. 2521), Blantyre Works (or Low +Blantyre), Stonefield and several villages. The whole district is rich +in coal, the mining of which is extensively carried on. Blantyre Works +(pop. 1683) was the birthplace of David Livingstone (1813-1873) and his +brother Charles (1821-1873), who as lads were both employed as piecers +in a local cotton-mill. The scanty remains of Blantyre Priory, founded +towards the close of the 13th century, stand on the left bank of the +Clyde, almost opposite the beautiful ruins of Bothwell Castle. High +Blantyre and Blantyre Works are connected with Glasgow by the Caledonian +railway. Stonefield (pop. 7288), the most populous place in the parish, +entirely occupied with mining, lies between High Blantyre and Blantyre +Works, Calderwood Castle on Rotten Calder Water, near High Blantyre, is +situated amid picturesque scenery. + + + + +BLARNEY, a small town of Co. Cork, Ireland, in the mid parliamentary +division, 5 m. N.W. of the city of Cork on the Cork & Muskerry light +railway. Pop. (1901) 928. There is a large manufacture of tweed. The +name "blarney" has passed into the language to denote a peculiar kind of +persuasive eloquence, alleged to be characteristic of the natives of +Ireland. The "Blarney Stone," the kissing of which is said to confer +this faculty, is pointed out within the castle. The origin of this +belief is not known. The castle, built c. 1446 by Cormac McCarthy, was +of immense strength, and parts of its walls are as much as 18 ft. thick. +To its founder is traced by some the origin of the term "blarney," since +he delayed by persuasion and promises the surrender of the castle to the +lord president. Richard Millikin's song, "The Groves of Blarney" (c. +1798), contributed to the fame of the castle, which is also bound up +with the civil history of the county and the War of the Great Rebellion. + + + + +BLASHFIELD, EDWIN HOWLAND (1848- ), American artist, was born on the +15th of December 1848 in New York City. He was a pupil of Bonnat in +Paris, and became (1888) a member of the National Academy of Design in +New York. For some years a genre painter, he later turned to decorative +work, marked by rare delicacy and beauty of colouring. He painted mural +decorations for a dome in the manufacturers' building at the Chicago +Exposition of 1893; for the dome of the Congressional library, +Washington; for the capitol at St Paul, Minnesota; for the Baltimore +court-house; in New York City for the Appellate court house, the grand +ball-room of the Waldorf-Astoria hotel, the Lawyers' club, and the +residences of W.K. Vanderbilt and Collis P. Huntington; and in +Philadelphia for the residence of George W. Drexel. With his wife he +wrote _Italian Cities_ (1900) and edited Vasari's _Lives of the +Painters_ (1896), and was well known as a lecturer and writer on art. He +became president of the Society of Mural Painters, and of the Society of +American Artists. + + + + +BLASIUS (or BLAISE), SAINT, bishop of Sebaste or Sivas in Asia Minor, +martyred under Diocletian on the 3rd of February 316. The Roman Catholic +Church holds his festival on the 3rd of February, the Orthodox Eastern +Church on the 11th. His flesh is said to have been torn with +woolcombers' irons before he was beheaded, and this seems to be the only +reason why he has always been regarded as the patron saint of +woolcombers. In pre-Reformation England St Blaise was a very popular +saint, and the council of Oxford in 1222 forbade all work on his +festival. Owing to a miracle which he is alleged to have worked on a +child suffering from a throat affection, who was brought to him on his +way to execution, St Blaise's aid has always been held potent in throat +and lung diseases. The woolcombers of England still celebrate St +Blaise's day with a procession and general festivities. He forms one of +a group of fourteen (i.e. twice seven) saints, who for their help in +time of need have been associated as objects of particularly devoted +worship in Roman Catholic Germany since the middle of the 15th century. + + See William Hone, _Every Day Book_, i. 210. + + + + +BLASPHEMY (through the Fr. from Gr. [Greek: blasphaemia], profane +language, slander, probably derived from root of [Greek: blaptein], to +injure, and [Greek: phaemae], speech), literally, defamation or evil +speaking, but more peculiarly restricted to an indignity offered to the +Deity by words or writing. By the Mosaic law death by stoning was the +punishment for blasphemy (Lev. xxiv. 16). The 77th Novel of Justinian +assigned death as the penalty, as did also the Capitularies. The common +law of England treats blasphemy as an indictable offence. All +blasphemies against God, as denying His being, or providence, all +contumelious reproaches of Jesus Christ, all profane scoffing at the +Holy Scriptures, or exposing any part thereof to contempt or ridicule, +are punishable by the temporal courts with fine, imprisonment and also +infamous corporal punishment. An act of Edward VI. (1547; repealed 1553 +and revived 1558) enacts that persons reviling the sacrament of the +Lord's Supper, by contemptuous words or otherwise, shall suffer +imprisonment. Persons denying the Trinity were deprived of the benefit +of the Act of Toleration by an act of 1688. An act of 1697-1698, +commonly called the Blasphemy Act, enacts that if any person, educated +in or having made profession of the Christian religion, should by +writing, preaching, teaching or advised speaking, deny any one of the +Persons of the Holy Trinity to be God, or should assert or maintain that +there are more gods than one, or should deny the Christian religion to +be true, or the Holy Scriptures to be of divine authority, he should, +upon the first offence, be rendered incapable of holding any office or +place of trust, and for the second incapable of bringing any action, of +being guardian or executor, or of taking a legacy or deed of gift, and +should suffer three years' imprisonment without bail. It has been held +that a person offending under the statute is also indictable at common +law (_Rex_ v. _Carlisle_, 1819, where Mr Justice Best remarks, "In the +age of toleration, when that statute passed, neither churchmen nor +sectarians wished to protect in their infidelity those who disbelieved +the Holy Scriptures"). An act of 1812-1813 excepts from these enactments +"persons denying as therein mentioned respecting the Holy Trinity," but +otherwise the common and the statute law on the subject remain as +stated. In the case of _Rex_ v. _Woolston_ (1728) the court declared +that they would not suffer it to be debated whether to write against +Christianity in _general_ was not an offence punishable in the temporal +courts at common law, but they did not intend to include disputes +between learned men on _particular_ controverted points. + +The law against blasphemy has practically ceased to be put in active +operation. In 1841 Edward Moxon was found guilty of the publication of a +blasphemous libel (Shelley's _Queen Mab_), the prosecution having been +instituted by Henry Hetherington, who had previously been condemned to +four months' imprisonment for a similar offence, and wished to test the +law under which he was punished. In the case of _Cowan_ v. _Milbourn_ +(1867) the defendant had broken his contract to let a lecture-room to +the plaintiff, on discovering that the intended lectures were to +maintain that "the character of Christ is defective, and his teaching +misleading, and that the Bible is no more inspired than any other book," +and the court of exchequer held that the publication of such doctrine +was blasphemy, and the contract therefore illegal. On that occasion the +court reaffirmed the dictum of Chief Justice Hale, that Christianity is +part of the laws of England. The commissioners on criminal law (sixth +report) remark that "although the law forbids _all_ denial of the being +and providence of God or the Christian religion, it is only when +irreligion assumes the form of an insult to God and man that the +interference of the criminal law has taken place." In England the last +prominent prosecution for blasphemy was the case of _R._ v. _Ramsey & +Foote_, 1883, 48 L.T. 739, when the editor, publisher and printer of the +_Freethinker_ were sentenced to imprisonment; but police court +proceedings were taken as late as 1908 against an obscure Hyde Park +orator who had become a public nuisance. + +Profane cursing and swearing is made punishable by the Profane Oaths Act +1745, which directs the offender to be brought before a justice of the +peace, and fined five shillings, two shillings or one shilling, +according as he is a gentleman, below the rank of gentleman, or a common +labourer, soldier, &c. + +By the law of Scotland, as it originally stood, the punishment of +blasphemy was death, but by an act of 1825, amended in 1837, blasphemy +was made punishable by fine or imprisonment or both. + +In France, blasphemy (which included, also, speaking against the Holy +Virgin and the saints, denying one's faith, or speaking with impiety of +holy things) was from very early times punished with great severity. The +punishment was death in various forms, burning alive, mutilation, +torture or corporal punishment. In the United States the common law of +England was largely followed, and in most of the states, also, statutes +were enacted against the offence, but, as in England, the law is +practically never put in force. In Germany, the punishment for +blasphemy is imprisonment varying from one day to three years, according +to the gravity of the offence. To constitute the offence, the blasphemy +must be uttered in public, be offensive in character, and have wounded +the religious susceptibilities of some other person. In Austria, whoever +commits blasphemy by speech or writing is liable to imprisonment for any +term from six months up to ten years, according to the seriousness of +the offence. + + + + +BLASS, FRIEDRICH (1843-1907), German classical scholar, was born on the +22nd of January 1843 at Osnabruck. After studying at Gottingen and Bonn +from 1860 to 1863, he lectured at several gymnasia and at the university +of Konigsberg. In 1876 he was appointed extraordinary professor of +classical philology at Kiel, and ordinary professor in 1881. In 1892 he +accepted a professorship at Halle, where he died on the 5th of March +1907. He frequently visited England, and was intimately acquainted with +leading British scholars. He received an honorary degree from Dublin +University in 1892, and his readiness to place the results of his +labours at the disposal of others, together with the courtesy and +kindliness of his disposition, won the respect of all who knew him. +Blass is chiefly known for his works in connexion with the study of +Greek oratory: _Die griechische Beredsamkeit von Alexander bis auf +Augustus_ (1865); _Die attische Beredsamkeit_ (1868-1880; 2nd ed., +1887-1898), his greatest work; editions for the Teubner series of +Andocides (1880), Antiphon (1881), Hypereides (1881, 1894), Demosthenes +(Dindorf's ed., 1885), Isocrates (1886), Dinarchus (1888), Demosthenes +(Rehdantz' ed., 1893), Aeschines (1896), Lycurgus, _Leocrates_ (1902); +_Die Rhythmen der attischen Kunstprosa_ (1901); _Die Rhythmen der +asianischen und romischen Kunstprosa_ (1905). Among his other works are +editions of Eudoxus of Cnidus (1887), the [Greek: Athaenaion politeia] +(4th ed., 1903), a work of great importance, and Bacchylides (3rd. ed., +1904); _Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Griechisch_ (1902; Eng. trans, +by H. St John Thackeray, 1905); _Hermeneutik und Kritik and +Palaographie, Buchwesen, und Handschriftenkunde_ (vol. i. of Muller's +_Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft_, 1891); _Uber die +Aussprache des Griechischen_ (1888; Eng. trans, by W.J. Purton, 1890); +_Die Interpolationen in der Odyssee_ (1904); contributions to Collitz's +_Sammlung der griechischen Dialektinschriften_; editions of the texts of +certain portions of the New Testament (Gospels and _Acts_). His last +work was an edition of the _Choephori_ (1906). + + See notices in the _Academy_, March 16, 1907 (J.P. Mahaffy); + _Classical Review_, May 1907 (J.E. Sandys), which contains also a + review of _Die Rhythmen der asianischen und romischen Kunstprosa_. + + + + +BLASTING, the process of rending or breaking apart a solid body, such as +rock, by exploding within it or in contact with it some explosive +substance. The explosion is accompanied by the sudden development of gas +at a high temperature and under a tension sufficiently great to overcome +the resistance of the enclosing body, which is thus shattered and +disintegrated. Before the introduction of explosives, rock was +laboriously excavated by hammer and chisel, or by the ancient process of +"fire-setting," i.e. building a fire against the rock, which, on +cooling, splits and flakes off. To hasten disintegration, water was +often applied to the heated rock, the loosened portion being afterwards +removed by pick or hammer and wedge. In modern times blasting has become +a necessity for the excavation of rock and other hard material, as in +open surface cuts, quarrying, tunnelling, shaft-sinking and mining +operations in general. + +For blasting, a hole is generally drilled to receive the charge of +explosive. The depth and diameter of the hole and the quantity of +explosive used are all variable, depending on the character of the rock +and of the explosive, the shape of the mass to be blasted, the presence +or absence of cracks or fissures, and the position of the hole with +respect to the free surface of the rock. The shock of a blast produces +impulsive waves acting radially in all directions, the force being +greatest at the centre of explosion and varying inversely as the square +of the distance from the charge. This is evidenced by the observed +facts. Immediately surrounding the explosive, the rock is often finely +splintered and crushed. Beyond this is a zone in which it is completely +broken and displaced or projected, leaving an enveloping mass of more +or less ragged fractured rock only partially loosened. Lastly, the +diminishing waves produce vibrations which are transmitted to +considerable distances. Theoretically, if a charge of explosive be fired +in a solid material of perfectly homogeneous texture and at a proper +distance from the free surface, a conical mass will be blown out to the +full depth of the drill hole, leaving a funnel-shaped cavity. No rock, +however, is of uniform mineralogical and physical character, so that in +practice there is only a rough approximation to the conical crater, even +under the most favourable conditions. Generally, the shape of the mass +blasted out is extremely irregular, because of the variable texture of +the rock and the presence of cracks, fissures and cleavage planes. The +ultimate or resultant useful effect of the explosion of a confined +charge is in the direction where the least resistance is presented. In +the actual work of rock excavation it is only by trial, or by deductions +based on experience, that the behaviour of a given rock can be +determined and the quantity of explosive required properly proportioned. + +Blasting, as usually carried on, comprises several operations: (1) +drilling holes in the rock to be blasted; (2) placing in the hole the +charge of explosive, with its fuze; (3) tamping the charge, i.e. +compacting it and filling the remainder of the hole with some suitable +material for preventing the charge from blowing out without breaking the +ground; (4) igniting or detonating the charge; (5) clearing away the +broken material. The holes for blasting are made either by hand, with +hammer and drill or jumper, or by machine drill, the latter being driven +by steam, compressed air, or electricity, or, in rare cases, by +hydraulic power. Drill holes ordinarily vary in diameter from 1 to 3 +in., and in depth from a few inches up to 15 or 20 ft. or more. The +deeper holes are made only in surface excavation of rock, the shallower, +to a maximum depth of say 12 ft., being suitable for tunnelling and +mining operations. + + _Hand Drilling_.--The work is either "single-hand" or "double-hand." + In single-hand drilling, the miner wields the hammer with one hand, + and with the other holds the drill or "bit," rotating it slightly + after every blow in order to keep the hole round and prevent the drill + from sticking fast; in double-hand work, one man strikes, while the + other holds and rotates the drill. For large and deep holes, two + hammermen are sometimes employed. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Sledge-hammer.] + + A miner's drill is a steel bar, occasionally round but generally of + octagonal cross-section, one end of which is forged out to a cutting + edge (fig. 1). The edge of the drill is made either straight, like + that of a chisel, or with a convex curve, the latter shape being best + for very hard rock. For hard rock the cutting edge should be rather + thicker and blunter, and therefore stronger, than for soft rock. + Drills are made of high-grade steel, as they must be tempered + accurately and uniformly. The diameter of drill steel for hand work is + usually from 3/4 to 1 in., and the length of cutting edge, or gauge, + of the drill is always greater than the diameter of the shank, in the + proportion of from 7.4 to 4.3. Holes over 10 or 12 in. deep generally + require the use of a set of drills of different lengths and depending + in number on the depth required. The shortest drill, for starting the + hole, has the widest cutting edge, the edges of the others being + successively narrower and graduated to follow each other properly, as + drill after drill is dulled in deepening the hole. Thus the hole + decreases in diameter as it is made deeper. The miner's hammer (fig. + 2) ranges in weight from 3-1/2 to 4-1/2 lb. for single-hand drilling, + up to 8 or 10 lb. for double-hand. If the hole is directed downward, a + little water is poured into it at intervals, to keep the cutting edge + of the drill cool and make a thin mud of the cuttings. From time to + time the hole is cleaned out by the "scraper" or "spoon," a long + slender iron bar, forged in the shape of a hollow semi-cylinder, with + one end flattened and turned over at right angles. If the hole is + directed steeply upward and the rock is dry, the cuttings will run out + continuously during the drilling; otherwise the scraper is necessary, + or a small pipe with a plunger like a syringe is used for washing out + the cuttings. The "jumper" is a long steel bar, with cutting edges on + one or both ends, which is alternately raised and dropped in the hole + by one or two men. In rock work the jumper is rarely used except for + holes directed steeply downward, though for coal or soft shale or + slate it may be employed for drilling holes horizontally or upward. + Other tools used in connexion with rock-drilling are the pick and gad. + + Holes drilled by hand usually vary in depth from say 18 to 36 in., + according to the nature of the rock and purpose of the work, though + deeper holes are often made. For soft rock, single-hand drilling is + from 20 to 30% cheaper than double-hand, but this difference does not + hold good for the harder rocks. For these double-hand drilling is + preferable, and may even be essential, to secure a reasonable speed of + work. + + [Illustration: Fig. 3.--Ingersoll-Sergeant Mining Drill.] + + _Machine Drills._--The introduction of machine drills in the latter + part of the 19th century exerted an important influence on the work of + rock excavation in general, and specially on the art of mining. By + their use many great tunnels and other works involving rock excavation + under adverse conditions have been rapidly and successfully carried + out. Before the invention of machine drills such work progressed + slowly and with difficulty. Nearly all machine drills are of the + reciprocating or percussive type, in which the drill bit is firmly + clamped to the piston rod and delivers a rapid succession of strong + blows on the bottom of the hole. The ordinary compressed air drill + (which may, for surface work, be operated also by steam) may be taken + as an illustration. The piston works in a cylinder, provided with a + valve motion somewhat similar to that of a steam-engine, together with + an automatic device for producing the necessary rotation of the piston + and drill bit. While at work the machine is mounted on a heavy tripod + (fig. 3); or, if underground, sometimes on an iron column or bar, + firmly wedged in position between the roof and floor, or side walls, + of the tunnel or mine working. As the hole is deepened, the entire + drill head is gradually fed forward on its support by a screw feed, a + succession of longer and longer drill bits being used as required. + + Among the numerous types and makes of percussion drill may be named + the following:--Adelaide, Climax, Darlington, Dubois-Francois, + Ferroux, Froelich, Hirnant, Ingersoll, Jeffrey, Leyner, McKiernan, + Rand, Schram, Sergeant, Sullivan and Wood. + + [Illustration: Figs. 4 and 5.--Darlington's Rock Drill.] + + One of the simplest of the machine drills is the Darlington (figs. 4 + and 5): a is the cylinder; b, piston rod; c, bit; d, d, air inlets, + either being used according to the position of the drill while at + work; h, piston; j, rifle-bar for rotating piston and bit; k, ratchet + attached to j; l, brass nut, screwed into h, and in which j works; f, + chuck for holding drill-bit; n, air port communicating between ends of + cylinder, front and back of piston; o, exhaust port. This machine has + no valve. From its construction, the compressed air (or steam) is + always acting on the annular shoulder round the forward end of the + piston. The piston is thereby forced back on the in-stroke until the + port n is uncovered. This admits the compressed air to the rear end of + the cylinder, and as the area of this end of the piston is much + greater than that of the shoulder on the other end, the piston is + driven forward and strikes its blow. When it has advanced far enough + to cover the exhaust port o, the air behind the piston is exhausted, + and, under the constant inward pressure noted above, the stroke is + reversed. The rotation of piston and bit is caused by the rifle-bar j. + On the outward stroke, j, with its ratchet k, is free to turn under a + couple of pawls and springs, and consequently the piston delivers its + blow without rotation. On the inward stroke the ratchet is held fast + by the pawls, and the piston and bit are forced to rotate through a + small part of a revolution. The cylinder is fed forward with respect + to the shell r, by rotating the handle p, which works a long screw-bar + engaging with a nut on the under side of the cylinder. The shell r is + bolted to the clamp s, which in turn is mounted on the hollow column + or bar g, or on a tripod, according to the character of the work. By + means of the adjustable clamp s, the machine can be set for drilling a + hole in any desired direction. The drill makes from 400 to 800 strokes + per minute. + + The "New Ingersoll" drill, which may be taken as an example of the + numerous machines in which valves are used, is shown in section in + fig. 6. The steam or compressed air is distributed through the ports + alternately to the ends of the cylinder, by the reciprocations of a + spool-valve working in a chest mounted on the cylinder. The movements + of this valve are caused by the strokes of the main piston, which, by + means of the wide annular groove around the middle of the piston, + alternately open and close the spool-valve exhaust ports. Fig. 3 shows + the Ingersoll "Light Mining drill," as mounted on a tripod, and in + position for drilling a hole vertically downward. In the Leyner drill + the drill-bit is not connected to the piston, but is struck a quick + succession of blows by the latter. An important feature of this + machine is the provision for directing a stream of water into the hole + for clearing out the cuttings. For this purpose the shank of the + drill-bit is perforated longitudinally, the water being supplied under + pressure from a small tank, to which compressed air is led. + + A rock drill of entirely different design, the Brandt, has been + successfully used in Europe for driving railway tunnels. It is + operated by hydraulic power, the pressure water being supplied by a + pump. The hollow drill-bit, which has a serrated cutting edge, is + forced under heavy pressure against the bottom of the hole, and is + rotated slowly--at six to eight revolutions per minute--by a pair of + small hydraulic cylinders, thus grinding and crushing the rock instead + of chipping it. The bottom of the hole is kept clean and the drill-bit + cooled by a stream of water passing down through its hollow shank. On + account of its size and weight, this machine is not suitable for mine + work. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--New Ingersoll Drill.] + + Most of the machine drills are made in a number of sizes, from 2 in. + up to 5 in. diameter of cylinder, the larger sizes being capable of + drilling holes 5 in. diameter and 30 ft. deep. They range in weight + from say 95 to 690 lb. for the drill head (unmounted), the tripods + weighing from 40 to 260 lb., exclusive of the weights placed for + stability on the tripod legs (fig. 3). The sizes in most common use + for mining are from 2-1/2 in. to 3-1/8 in. diameter of cylinder. In + rock of average hardness the best drills make from 4 to 7.5 linear ft. + of hole per hour. For use in narrow veins, or other confined workings + underground, several extremely small and light compressed air drills + have been introduced, as, for example, the Franke and Wonder, the + first of which weighs complete only 16 lb., and the second 18 lb. + These drills are held in the hands of the miner in the required + position, and strike a rapid succession of light blows. A large number + of mechanical drills operated by hand power have been invented. Some + imitate hand-drilling in the mode of delivering the blow; in others + the drill-bit is caused to reciprocate by means of combinations of + crank and spring. None of these machines is entirely satisfactory, and + but few are in use. + + Among percussion rock-drills operated by electricity are the Bladray, + Box, Durkee, Marvin and Siemens-Halske. The Marvin drill works with a + solenoid; most of the others have crank and spring movements for + producing the reciprocations of the piston. Power is furnished by a + small electric motor, either mounted on the machine itself, as with + the Box drill, or more often standing on the ground and transmitting + its power through a flexible shaft. Although rather frequently used, + electric percussion drills cannot yet be considered entirely + successful, at least for mine service, in competition with compressed + air machines. Another type of electric drill, however, has been + successfully used in collieries, viz. rotary auger drills, mounted on + light columns and driven through gearing by diminutive motors. These + are intended for boring in coal, slate or other similar soft material. + Hand augers resembling a carpenter's brace and bit are also often used + in collieries. + + Whatever may be the method of drilling, after the hole has been + completed to the depth required, it is finally cleaned out by a + scraper or swab; or, when compressed air drills are used, by a jet of + air directed into the hole by a short piece of pipe connected through + a flexible hose with the compressed air supply pipe. The hole is then + ready for the charge. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + _Location and Arrangement of Holes._--For hand drilling in mining the + position of the holes is determined largely by the character and shape + of the face of rock to be blasted. The miner observes the joints and + cracks of the rock, placing the holes to take advantage of them and so + obtain the best result from the blast. In driving a tunnel or drift, + as in figs. 7 and 8, the rock joints can be made of material + assistance by beginning with hole No. 1 and following in succession by + Nos. 2, 3 and 4. Frequently the ore, or vein matter, is separated from + the wall-rock by a thin, soft layer of clay (D, D, fig. 8). This would + act almost as a free face, and the first holes of the round would be + directed at an angle towards it, for blasting out a wedge; after which + the positions of the other holes would be chosen. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.] + + When machine drills are employed, less attention is given to natural + cracks or joints, chiefly because when the drill is once set up + several holes at different angles can be drilled in succession by + merely swinging the cylinder of the machine into a new position with + respect to its mounting. According to one method, the holes are placed + with some degree of symmetry, in roughly concentric rings, as shown by + figs. 9 and 10. The centre holes are blasted first, and are followed + by the others in one or more volleys as indicated by the dotted lines. + Another method is the "centre cut," in which the holes are drilled in + parallel rows on each side of the centre line of the tunnel, drift or + shaft. Those in the two rows nearest the middle are directed towards + each other, and enclose a prism of rock, which is first blasted put by + heavy charges, after which the rows of side holes will break with + relatively light charges. + + _Explosives._--A great variety of explosives are in use for blasting + purposes. Up to 1864, gunpowder was the only available explosive, but + in that year Alfred Nobel first applied nitroglycerin for blasting, + and in 1867 invented dynamite. This name was originally applied to his + mixture of nitroglycerin with kieselguhr, but now includes also other + mechanical mixtures or chemical compounds which develop a high + explosive force as compared with gunpowder. Besides these there are + the so-called flameless or safety explosives, used in collieries where + inflammable gases are given off from the coal. + + Gunpowder, or black powder, is seldom used for rock-blasting, except + in quarrying building-stone, where slow explosives of relatively low + power are desirable to avoid shattering the stone, and in such + collieries as do not require the use of safety explosives. Gunpowder + is exploded by deflagration, by means of a fuze, and exerts a + comparatively slow and rending force. The high explosives, on the + other hand, are exploded by detonation, through the agency of a fuze + and fulminating cap, exerting a quick, shattering, rather than a + rending force. Dynamites and flameless explosives are made in a + variety of strengths, and are packed in waterproofed cartridges of + different sizes. The grades of dynamite most commonly employed contain + from 35 to 60% of nitroglycerin; the stronger are used for tough rock + or deep holes, or for holes unfavourably placed in narrow mine + workings, as sometimes in shaft-sinking or tunnelling. When of good + quality high explosives are safer to handle than gunpowder, as they + cannot be ignited by sparks and are not so easily exploded. The + ordinary dynamites used in mining are about four times as powerful as + gunpowder. + + Nitroglycerin in its liquid form is now rarely used for blasting, + partly because its full strength is not often necessary but chiefly + because of the difficulty and danger of transporting, handling and + charging it. If employed at all, it is charged in thin tinned plate + cases or rubber-cloth cartridges. + + _Blasting with Black Powder._--The powder is coarse-grained, usually + from 1/8 to 3/16 in. in size, and is charged in paper cartridges, 8 to + 10 in. long and of a proper diameter to fit loosely in the drill hole. + A piece of fuze, long enough to reach a little beyond the mouth of the + hole, is inserted in the cartridge and tied fast. For wet holes + paraffined paper is used, the miner waterproofing the joints with + grease. When more than one cartridge is required for the blast, that + which has the fuze attached is usually charged last. The cartridges + are carefully rammed down by a wooden tamping bar and the remainder of + the hole filled with tamping. This consists of finely broken rock, dry + clay or other comminuted material, carefully compacted by the tamping + bar on top of the charge. The fuze is a cord, having in the centre a + core of gunpowder, enclosed in several layers of linen or hemp + waterproofed covering. It is ignited by the miner's candle or lamp, or + by a candle end so placed at the mouth of the hole that the flame must + burn its way through the fuze covering. As the fuze burns slowly, at + the rate of 2 or 3 ft. per minute, the miner uses a sufficient length + to allow him to reach a place of safety. + + For blasting in coal, "squibs" instead of fuzes are often used. A + squib is simply a tiny paper rocket, about 1/8 in. diameter by 3 in. + long, containing fine gunpowder and having a sulphur slow-match at one + end. It is fired into the charge through a channel in the tamping. + This channel may be formed by a piece of 1/4 in. gas pipe, tamped in + the hole and reaching the charge; or a "needle," a long taper iron + rod, is laid longitudinally in the hole, with its point entering the + charge, and after the tamping is finished, by carefully withdrawing + the needle a little channel is left, through which the squib is fired. + In this connexion it may be noted that for breaking ground in gassy + collieries several substitutes for explosives have been used to a + limited extent, e.g. plugs of dry wood driven tightly into a row of + drill holes, and which on being wetted swell and split the coal; + quicklime cartridges, which expand powerfully on the application of + water; simple wedges, driven by hammer into the drill holes; multiple + wedges, inserted in the holes and operated by hydraulic pressure from + a small hand force-pump. + + _Blasting with High Explosives._--High explosives are fired either by + ordinary fuze and detonating cap or by electric fuze. Detonating caps + of ordinary strength contain 10 to 15 grains of fulminating mixture. + The cap is crimped tight on the end of the fuze, embedded in the + cartridge, and on being exploded by fire from the fuze detonates the + charge. The number of cartridges charged depends on the depth of hole, + the length of the line of least resistance, and the toughness and + other characteristics of the rock. Each cartridge should be solidly + tamped, and, to avoid waste spaces in the hole, which would reduce the + effect of the blast, it is customary to split the paper covering + lengthwise with a knife. This allows the dynamite to spread under the + pressure of the tamping bar. The cap is often placed in the cartridge + preceding the last one charged, but it is better to insert it last, in + a piece of cartridge called a "primer." Though the dynamites are not + exploded by sparks, they should nevertheless always be handled + carefully. It is not so essential to fill the hole completely and so + thoroughly to compact the tamping, as in charging black powder, + because of the greater rapidity and shattering force of the explosion + of dynamite; tamping, however, should never be omitted, as it + increases the efficiency of the blast. In exploding dynamite, strong + caps, containing say 15 grains of fulminating powder, produce the best + results. Weaker caps are not economical, as they do not produce + complete detonation of the dynamite. This is specially true if the + weather be cold. Dynamite then becomes less sensitive, and the + cartridges should be gently warmed before charging, to a temperature + of not more than 80 deg. F. Poisonous fumes are often produced by the + explosion of the nitroglycerin compounds. These are probably largely + due to incomplete detonation, by which part of the nitroglycerin is + vaporized or merely burned. This is most likely to occur when the + dynamite is chilled, or of poor quality, or when the cap is too weak. + There is generally but little inconvenience from the fumes, except in + confined underground workings, where ventilation is imperfect. + + Like nitroglycerin, the common dynamites freeze at a temperature of + from 42 deg. to 46 deg. F. They are then comparatively safe, and so + far as possible should be transported in the frozen state. At very low + temperatures dynamite again becomes somewhat sensitive to shock. When + it is frozen at ordinary temperatures even the strongest detonating + caps fail to develop the full force. In thawing dynamite, care must be + exercised. The fact that a small quantity will often burn quietly has + led to the dangerously mistaken notion that mere heating will not + cause explosion. It is chiefly a question of temperature. If the + quantity ignited by flame be large enough to heat the entire mass to + the detonating point (say 360 deg. F.) before all is consumed, an + explosion will result. Furthermore, dynamite, when even moderately + heated, becomes extremely sensitive to shocks. There are several + accepted modes of thawing dynamite: (1) In a water bath, the + cartridges being placed in a vessel surrounded on the sides and bottom + by warm water contained in a larger enclosing vessel. The warm water + may be renewed from time to time, or the water bath placed over a + candle or small lamp, _not_ on a stove. (2) In two vessels, similar to + the above, with the space between them occupied by air, provided the + heat applied can be definitely limited, as by using a candle. (3) When + large quantities of dynamite are used a supply may be kept on shelves + in a wooden room or chamber, warmed by a stove, or by a coil of pipe + heated by exhaust steam from an engine. Live steam should not be used, + as the heat might become excessive. Thawing should always take place + slowly, never before an open fire or by direct contact with a stove or + steam pipes and care must be taken that the heat does not rise high + enough to cause sweating or exudation of liquid nitroglycerin from the + cartridges, which would be a source of danger. + + For the storage of explosives at mines, &c., proper magazines must be + provided, situated in a safe place, not too near other buildings, and + preferably of light though fireproof construction. Masonry magazines, + though safer from some points of view, may be the cause of greater + damage in event of an explosion, because the brick or stones act as + projectiles. Isolated and abandoned mine workings, if dry, are + sometimes used as magazines. + + [Illustration: FIG 11. Electrical Fuze.] + + Firing blasts by electricity has a wide application for both surface + and underground work. An electrical fuze (fig. 11) consists of a pair + of fine, insulated copper wires, several feet long and about 1/40 of + an inch in diameter, with their bare ends inserted in a detonating + cap. For firing, the fuze wires are joined to long leading wires, + connected with some source of electric current. By joining the fuze + wires in series or in groups, any number of holes may be fired + simultaneously, according to the current available. A round of holes + fired in this way, as for driving tunnels, sinking shafts, or in large + surface excavations, produces better results, both in economy of + explosive and effect of the blast, than when the holes are fired + singly or in succession. Also, the miners are enabled to prepare for + the blast with more care and deliberation, and then to reach a place + of safety before the current is transmitted. Another advantage is that + there is no danger of a hole "hanging fire," which sometimes causes + accidents in using ordinary fuzes. + + Hanging fire may be due to a cut, broken or damaged powder fuze, which + may smoulder for some time before communicating fire to the charge. + "Miss-fires," which also are of not infrequent occurrence with both + ordinary and electric fuzes, are cases where explosion from any cause + fails to take place. After waiting a sufficient length of time before + approaching the charged hole, the miner carefully removes the tamping + down to within a few inches of the explosives and inserts and fires + another cartridge, the concussion usually detonating the entire + charge. Sometimes another hole is drilled near the one which has + missed. No attempt to remove the old charge should ever be made. + + High tension electricity, generated by a frictional machine, provided + with a condenser, was formerly much used for blasting. The bare ends + of the fuze wires in the detonating cap are placed say 1/8 in. apart, + leaving a gap across which a spark is discharged, passing through a + priming charge of some sensitive composition. The priming is not only + combustible but also a conductor of electricity, such as an intimate + mixture of potassium chlorate with copper sulphide and phosphide. By + the combustion of the priming the fulminate mixture in the cap is + detonated. As these fuzes are more apt to deteriorate when exposed to + dampness than fuzes for low-tension current, and the generating + machine is rather clumsy and fragile, low-tension current is more + generally employed. It may be generated by a small, portable dynamo, + operated by hand, or may be derived from a battery or from any + convenient electric circuit. The ends of the fuze wires in the + detonating cap are connected by a fine platinum filament (fig. 11), + embedded in a guncotton priming on top of the fulminating mixture, and + explosion results from the heat generated by the resistance opposed to + the passage of the current through the filament. Blasting machines are + made in several sizes, the smaller ones being capable of firing + simultaneously from ten to twenty holes. The fuzes must obviously be + of uniform electrical resistance, to ensure that all the connected + charges will explode simultaneously. The premature explosion of any + one of the fuzes would break the circuit. + + In the actual operations of blasting, definite rules for the + proportioning of the charges are rarely observed, and although the + blasts made by a skilful miner seldom fail to do their work, it is a + common fault that too much, rather than too little, explosive is used. + The high explosives are specially liable to be wasted, probably + through lack of appreciation of their power as compared with that of + black powder. Among the indications of excessive charges are the + production of much finely broken rock or of crushed and splintered + rock around the bottom of the hole, and excessive displacement or + projection of the rock broken by the blast. In beginning any new piece + of work, such waste may be avoided or reduced by making trial shots + with different charges and depths of hole, and noting the results; + also by letting contracts under which the workmen pay for the + explosive. In surface rock excavation the location and determination + of the depth of the holes and the quantity of explosive used, are + occasionally put in charge of one or more skilled men, who direct the + work and are responsible for the results obtained. + + Blasting in surface excavations and quarries is sometimes done on an + immense scale--called "mammoth blasting." Shafts are sunk, or tunnels + driven, in the mass of rock to be blasted, and, connected with them, a + number of chambers are excavated to receive the charges of explosive. + The preparation for such blasts may occupy months, and many tons of + gunpowder or dynamite are at times exploded simultaneously, breaking + or dislodging thousands, or even hundreds of thousands, of tons of + rock. This method is adopted for getting stone cheaply, as for + building macadamized roads, dams and breakwaters, obtaining limestone + for blast furnace flux, and occasionally in excavating large railway + cuttings. It is also applied in submarine blasting for the removal of + reefs obstructing navigation, and sometimes for loosening extensive + banks of partly cemented gold-bearing gravel, preparatory to washing + by hydraulic mining. + + AUTHORITIES.--For further information on drilling and blasting + see:--Callon, _Lectures on Mining_ (1876), vol. i. chs. v. and vi.; + Foster, _Text-book of Ore and Stone Mining_, (1900), ch. iv.; Hughes, + _Text-book of Coal Mining_ (1901), ch. iii.; H.S. Drinker, + _Tunnelling, Explosive Compounds and Rock Drills_ (1878); M.C. + Ihlseng, _Manual of Mining_ (1905), pp. 596-696; Kohler, _Der + Bergbaukunde_ (1897), pp. 104-208; Daw, _The Blasting of Rock_ (1898); + Prelini, _Earth and Rock Excavation_ (1905), chs. v., vi. and vii.; + Gillette, _The Excavation of Rock_ (1904); Guttmann, _Blasting_ + (1892); Spon's _Dictionary of Engineering_, art. "Boring and + Blasting"; Eissler, _Modern High Explosives_ (1893), pts. ii. and + iii.; Walke, _Lectures on Explosives_ (1897), chs. xix.-xxii. Also: + _Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng._ (London), vol. lxxxv. p. 264; _Trans. Inst. + Min. Eng._ (England), vols. xiv., xv. and xvi. (arts, by W. Maurice), + vol. xxvi. pp. 322, 348, vol. xxiv. p. 526 and vol. xxv. p. 108; + _Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng._, vol. xxvii. p. 530; _Trans. Amer. Inst. + Min. Eng._, vol. xviii. p. 370, vol. xxix p. 405 and vol. xxxiv. p. + 871; _South Wales Inst. Eng._ (1888); _Jour. Ass. Eng. Socs._, vol. + vii. p. 58; _Jour. Chem. Met. and Mining Soc. of South Africa_, August + 1905; _School of Mines Quarterly_, N.Y., vol. ix. p. 308; _Colliery + Guardian_, April 15, 1898, and February 6, 1903; _Mines and Minerals_, + February 1905, p. 348, January 1906, p. 259, and April 1906, p. 393; + _Eng. and Mining Jour._, April 19, 1902, p. 552; _The Engineer_, + February 24, 1905; _Elec. Rev._, June 9, 1899; _Eng. News_, vol. + xxxii. p. 249, and August 3, 1905; _Gluckauf_, September 28, 1901, and + July 5, 1902; _Osterr. Zeitschr. f. Berg- u. Huttenwesen_, May 18, 25, + 1901, April 18, 1903 and November, 18, 1905; _Annales des mines_, vol. + xviii. pp. 217-248. (R. P.*) + + + + +BLAUBEUREN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttemberg, 12 m. W. +of Ulm, with which it is connected by railway. Pop. (1900) 3114. It is +romantically situated in a wild and deep valley of the Swabian Alps at +an altitude of 1600 ft. and is partly surrounded by ancient walls. Of +the three churches (two Evangelical and one Roman Catholic) the most +remarkable is the abbey church (_Klosterkirche_), a late Gothic building +dating from 1465-1496, the choir of which contains beautiful 15th +century carved choir-stalls and a fine high altar with a triptych +(1496). The choir only is used for service (Protestant), the nave being +used as a gymnasium. The town church (_Stadtkirche_) also has a fine +altar with triptych. The Benedictine abbey, founded in 1095, was used +after the Reformation as a school, and is now an Evangelical theological +seminary. There are two hospitals in the town. + + + + +BLAVATSKY, HELENA PETROVNA (1831-1891), Russian theosophist, was born at +Ekaterinoslav, on the 31st of July (O.S.) 1831, the daughter of Colonel +Peter Hahn, a member of a Mecklenburg family, settled in Russia. She +married in her seventeenth year a man very much her senior, Nicephore +Blavatsky, a Russian official in Caucasia, from whom she was separated +after a few months; in later days, when seeking to invest herself with a +halo of virginity, she described the marriage as a nominal one. During +the next twenty years Mme Blavatsky appears to have travelled widely in +Canada, Texas, Mexico and India, with two attempts on Tibet. In one of +these she seems to have crossed the frontier alone in disguise, been +lost in the desert, and, after many adventures, been conducted back by a +party of horsemen. The years from 1848 to 1858 were alluded to +subsequently as "the veiled period" of her life, and she spoke vaguely +of a seven years' sojourn in "Little and Great Tibet," or preferably of +a "Himalayan retreat." In 1858 she revisited Russia, where she created a +sensation as a spiritualistic medium. About 1870 she acquired +prominence among the spiritualists of the United States, where she +lived for six years, becoming a naturalized citizen. Her leisure was +occupied with the study of occult and kabbalistic literature, to which +she soon added that of the sacred writings of India, through the medium +of translations. In 1875 she conceived the plan of combining the +spiritualistic "control" with the Buddhistic legends about Tibetan +sages. Henceforth she determined to exclude all control save that of two +Tibetan adepts or "mahatmas." The mahatmas exhibited their "astral +bodies" to her, "precipitated" messages which reached her from the +confines of Tibet in an instant of time, supplied her with sound +doctrine, and incited her to perform tricks for the conversion of +sceptics. At New York, on the 17th of November 1875, with the aid of +Colonel Henry S. Olcott, she founded the "Theosophical Society" with the +object of (1) forming a universal brotherhood of man, (2) studying and +making known the ancient religions, philosophies and sciences, (3) +investigating the laws of nature and developing the divine powers latent +in man. The Brahmanic and Buddhistic literature supplied the society +with its terminology, and its doctrines were a curious amalgam of +Egyptian, kabbalistic, occultist, Indian and modern spiritualistic ideas +and formulas. Mme Blavatsky's principal books were _Isis Unveiled_ (New +York, 1877), _The Secret Doctrine, the Synthesis of Science, Religion +and Philosophy_ (1888), _The Key to Theosophy_ (1891). The two first of +these are a mosaic of unacknowledged quotations from such books as +K.R.H. Mackenzie's _Royal Masonic Encyclopaedia_, C.W. King's +_Gnostics_, Zeller's _Plato_, the works on magic by Dunlop, E. Salverte, +Joseph Ennemoser, and Des Mousseaux, and the mystical writings of +Eliphas Levi (L.A. Constant). _A Glossary of Theosophical Terms_ +(1890-1892) was compiled for the benefit of her disciples. But the +appearance of Home's _Lights and Shadows of Spiritualism_ (1877) had a +prejudicial effect upon the propaganda, and Heliona P. Blavatsky (as she +began to style herself) retired to India. Thence she contributed some +clever papers, "From the Caves and Jungles of Hindostan" (published +separately in English, London, 1892) to the _Russky Vyestnik_. Defeated +in her object of obtaining employment in the Russian secret service, she +resumed her efforts to gain converts to theosophy. For this purpose the +exhibition of "physical phenomena" was found necessary. Her jugglery was +cleverly conceived, but on three occasions was exposed in the most +conclusive manner. Nevertheless, her cleverness, volubility, energy and +will-power enabled her to maintain her ground, and when she died on the +8th of May 1891 (White Lotus Day), at the theosophical headquarters in +the Avenue Road, London, she was the acknowledged head of a community +numbering not far short of 100,000, with journalistic organs in London, +Paris, New York and Madras. + + Much information respecting her will be found in V.S. Solovyov's + _Modern Priestess of Isis_, translated by Walter Leaf (1895), in + Arthur Lillie's _Madame Blavatsky and Her Theosophy_ (1895), and in + the report made to the Society for Psychical Research by the Cambridge + graduate despatched to investigate her doings in India. See also the + article THEOSOPHY. + + + + +BLAYDES, FREDERICK HENRY MARVELL (1818-1908), English classical scholar, +was born at Hampton Court Green, on the 29th of September 1818, being a +collateral descendant of Andrew Marvell, the satirist and friend of +Milton. He was educated at St Peter's school, York, and Christ Church, +Oxford. He was Hertford scholar in 1838, took a second class in literae +humaniores in 1840, and was subsequently elected to a studentship at +Christ Church. In 1842 he took orders, and from 1843 to 1886 was vicar +of Harringworth in Northamptonshire. During a long life he devoted +himself almost entirely to the study of the Greek dramatists. His +editions and philological papers are remarkable for bold conjectural +emendations of corrupt (and other) passages. His distinction was +recognized by his being made an honorary LL.D. of Dublin, Ph.D. of the +university of Buda Pest and a fellow of the royal society of letters at +Athens. He died at Southsea on the 7th of September 1908. + + His works include:--Aristophanes: _Comedies and Fragments_, with + critical notes and commentary (1880-1893); _Clouds, Knights, Frogs, + Wasps_ (1873-1878); _Opera Omnia_, with critical notes (1886); + Sophocles; _Oedipus Coloneus, Oedipus Tyrannus_ and _Antigone_ (in + the Bibliotheca Classica, 1859); _Philoctetes_ (1870), _Trachiniae_ + (1871), _Electra_ (1873), _Ajax_ (1875), _Antigone_ (1005); Aeschylus: + _Agamemnon_ (1898), _Choephori_ (1899), _Eumenides_ (1900), + _Adversaria Critica in Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta_ (1890); _in + Tragicorum Graec. Frag._ (1894), _in Aeschylum_ (1895), _in Varios + Poetas Graecos et Latinos_ (1898), _in Aristophanem_ (1899), _in + Sophoclem_ (1899), _in Euripidem_ (1901), _in Herodotum_ (1901); + _Analecta Comica Graeca_ (1905); _Analecta Tragica Graeca_ (1906). + + + + +BLAYDON, an urban district in the Chester-le-Street parliamentary +division of Durham, England, on the Tyne, 4 m. W. of Newcastle by a +branch of the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1881) 10,687; (1901) 19,617. +The chief industries are coal-mining, iron-founding, pipe, fire-brick, +chemical manure and bottle manufactures. In the vicinity is the +beautiful old mansion of Stella, and below it Stellaheugh, to which the +victorious Scottish army crossed from Newburn on the Northumberland bank +in 1640, after which they occupied Newcastle. + + + + +BLAYE-ET-STE LUCE, a town of south-western France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Gironde, on the right bank of the +Gironde (here over 2 m. wide), 35 m. N. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906) +of the town, 3423; of the commune, 4890. The town has a citadel built by +Vauban on a rock beside the river, and embracing in its enceinte ruins +of an old Gothic chateau. The latter contains the tomb of Caribert, king +of Toulouse, and son of Clotaire II. Blaye is also defended by the Fort +Pate on an island in the river and the Fort Medoc on its left bank, both +of the 17th century. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has +tribunals of first instance and of commerce and a communal college. It +has a small river-port, and carries on trade in wine, brandy, grain, +fruit and timber. The industries include the building of small vessels, +distilling, flour-milling, and the manufacture of oil and candles. Fine +red wine is produced in the district. + +In ancient times Blaye (_Blavia_) was a port of the Santones. Tradition +states that the hero Roland was buried in its basilica, which was on the +site of the citadel. It was early an important stronghold which played +an important part in the wars against the English and the Religious +Wars. The duchess of Berry was imprisoned in its fortress in 1832-1833. + + + + +BLAZE (A.-S. _blaese_, a torch), a fire or bright flame; more nearly +akin to the Ger. _blass_, pale or shining white, is the use of the word +for the white mark on the face of a horse or cow, and the American use +for a mark made on a tree by cutting off a piece of the bark. The word +"to blaze," in the sense of to noise abroad, comes from the A.-S. +_blaesan_, to blow, cf. the Ger. _blasen_; in sense, if not in origin, +it is confused with "blazon" in heraldry. + + + + +BLAZON, a heraldic shield, a coat of arms properly "described" according +to the rules of heraldry, hence a proper heraldic description of such a +coat. The O. Fr. _blason_ seems originally to have meant simply a shield +as a means of defence and not a shield-shaped surface for the display of +armorial bearings, but this is difficult to reconcile with the generally +accepted derivation from the Ger. _blasen_, to blow, proclaim, English +"blaze," to noise abroad, to declare. In the 16th century the heraldic +term, and "blaze" and "blazon" in the sense of proclaim, had much +influence on each other. + + + + +BLEACHING, the process of whitening or depriving objects of colour, an +operation incessantly in activity in nature by the influence of light, +air and moisture. The art of bleaching, of which we have here to treat, +consists in inducing the rapid operation of whitening agencies, and as +an industry it is mostly directed to cotton, linen, silk, wool and other +textile fibres, but it is also applied to the whitening of paper-pulp, +bees'-wax and some oils and other substances. The term bleaching is +derived from the A.-S. _blaecan_, to bleach, or to fade, from which also +comes the cognate German word _bleichen_, to whiten or render pale. +Bleachers, down to the end of the 18th century, were known in England as +"whitsters," a name obviously derived from the nature of their calling. + +The operation of bleaching must from its very nature be of the same +antiquity as the work of washing textures of linen, cotton or other +vegetable fibres. Clothing repeatedly washed, and exposed in the open +air to dry, gradually assumes a whiter and whiter hue, and our ancestors +cannot have failed to notice and take advantage of this fact. Scarcely +anything is known with certainty of the art of bleaching as practised by +the nations of antiquity. Egypt in early ages was the great centre of +textile manufactures, and her white and coloured linens were in high +repute among contemporary nations. As a uniformly well-bleached basis is +necessary for the production of a satisfactory dye on cloth, it may be +assumed that the Egyptians were fairly proficient in bleaching, and that +still more so were the Phoenicians with their brilliant and famous +purple dyes. We learn, from Pliny, that different plants, and likewise +the ashes of plants, which no doubt contained alkali, were employed as +detergents. He mentions particularly the _Struthium_ as much used for +bleaching in Greece, a plant which has been identified by some with +_Gypsophila Struthium_. But as it does not appear from John Sibthorp's +_Flora Graeca_, edited by Sir James Smith, that this species is a native +of Greece, Dr Sibthorp's conjecture that the _Struthium_ of the ancients +was the _Saponaria officinalis_, a plant common in Greece, is certainly +more probable. + +In modern times, down to the middle of the 18th century, the Dutch +possessed almost a monopoly of the bleaching trade although we find +mention of bleach-works at Southwark near London as early as the middle +of the 17th century. It was customary to send all the brown linen, then +largely manufactured in Scotland, to Holland to be bleached. It was sent +away in the month of March, and not returned till the end of October, +being thus out of the hands of the merchant more than half a year. + +The Dutch mode of bleaching, which was mostly conducted in the +neighbourhood of Haarlem, was to steep the linen first in a waste lye, +and then for about a week in a potash lye poured over it boiling hot. +The cloth being taken out of this lye and washed, was next put into +wooden vessels containing buttermilk, in which it lay under a pressure +for five or six days. After this it was spread upon the grass, and kept +wet for several months, exposed to the sunshine of summer. + +In 1728 James Adair from Belfast proposed to the Scottish Board of +Manufactures to establish a bleachfield in Galloway; this proposal the +board approved of, and in the same year resolved to devote L2000 as +premiums for the establishment of bleachfields throughout the country. +In 1732 a method of bleaching with kelp, introduced by R. Holden, also +from Ireland, was submitted to the board; and with their assistance +Holden established a bleachfield for prosecuting his process at +Pitkerro, near Dundee. + +The bleaching process, as at that time performed, was very tedious, +occupying a complete summer. It consisted in steeping the cloth in +alkaline lyes for several days, washing it clean, and spreading it upon +the grass for some weeks. The steeping in alkaline lyes, called +_bucking_, and the bleaching on the grass, called _crofting_, were +repeated alternately for five or six times. The cloth was then steeped +for some days in sour milk, washed clean and crofted. These processes +were repeated, diminishing every time the strength of the alkaline lye, +till the linen had acquired the requisite whiteness. + +For the first improvement in this tedious process, which was faithfully +copied from the Dutch bleachfields, manufacturers were indebted to Dr +Francis Home of Edinburgh, to whom the Board of Trustees paid L100 for +his experiments in bleaching. He proposed to substitute water acidulated +with sulphuric acid for the sour milk previously employed, a suggestion +made in consequence of the new mode of preparing sulphuric acid, +contrived some time before by Dr John Roebuck, which reduced the price +of that acid to less than one-third of what it had formerly been. When +this change was first adopted by the bleachers, there was the same +outcry against its corrosive effects as arose when chlorine was +substituted for crofting. A great advantage was found to result from the +use of sulphuric acid, which was that a souring with sulphuric acid +required at the longest only twenty-four hours, and often not more than +twelve; whereas, when sour milk was employed, six weeks, or even two +months, were requisite, according to the state of the weather. In +consequence of this improvement, the process of bleaching was shortened +from eight months to four, which enabled the merchant to dispose of his +goods so much the sooner, and consequently to trade with less capital. + +No further modification of consequence was introduced in the art till +the year 1787, when a most important change was initiated by the use of +chlorine (q.v.), an element which had been discovered by C.W. Scheele in +Sweden about thirteen years before. The discovery that this gas +possesses the property of destroying vegetable colours, led Berthollet +to suspect that it might be introduced with advantage into the art of +bleaching, and that it would enable practical bleachers greatly to +shorten their processes. In a paper on chlorine or oxygenated muriatic +acid, read before the Academy of Sciences at Paris in April 1785, and +published in the _Journal de Physique_ for May of the same year (vol. +xxvi. p. 325), he mentions that he had tried the effect of the gas in +bleaching cloth, and found that it answered perfectly. This idea is +still further developed in a paper on the same substance, published in +the _Journal de Physique_ for 1786. In 1786 he exhibited the experiment +to James Watt, who, immediately upon his return to England, commenced a +practical examination of the subject, and was accordingly the person who +first introduced the new method of bleaching into Great Britain. We find +from Watt's own testimony that chlorine was practically employed in the +bleachfield of his father-in-law, Mr Macgregor, in the neighbourhood of +Glasgow, in March 1787. Shortly thereafter the method was introduced at +Aberdeen by Messrs Gordon, Barron & Co., on information received from De +Saussure through Professor Patrick Copland of Aberdeen. Thomas Henry of +Manchester was the first to bleach with chlorine in the Lancashire +district, and to his independent investigations several of the early +improvements in the application of the material were due. + +In these early experiments, the bleacher had to make his own chlorine +and the goods were bleached either by exposing them in chambers to the +action of the gas or by steeping them in its aqueous solution. If we +consider the inconveniences which must have arisen in working with such +a pungent substance as free chlorine, with its detrimental effect on the +health of the work-people, it will be readily understood that the +process did not at first meet with any great amount of success. The +first important improvement was the introduction in 1792 of _eau de +Javel_, which was prepared at the Javel works near Paris by absorbing +chlorine in a solution of potash (1 part) in water (8 parts) until +effervescence began. The greatest impetus to the bleaching industry was, +however, given by the introduction in 1799 of chloride of lime, or +bleaching-powder, by Charles Tennant of Glasgow, whereby the bleacher +was supplied with a reagent in solid form which contained up to +one-third of its weight of available chlorine. Latterly frequent +attempts have been made to replace bleaching-powder by hypochlorite of +soda, which is prepared by the bleacher as required, by the electrolytic +decomposition of a solution of common salt in specially constructed +cells, but up to the present this mode of procedure has met with only a +limited success (see ALKALI MANUFACTURE). + + +_Bleaching of Cotton._ + +Cotton is bleached in the raw state, as yarn and in the piece. In the +raw state, and as yarn, the only impurities present are those which are +naturally contained in the fibres and which include cotton wax, fatty +acids, pectic substances, colouring matters, albuminoids and mineral +matter, amounting in all to some 5% of the weight of the material. Both +in the raw state and in the manufactured condition cotton also contains +small black particles which adhere firmly to the material and are +technically known as "motes." These consist of fragments of the cotton +seed husk, which cannot be completely removed by mechanical means. The +bleaching of cotton pieces is more complicated, since the bleacher is +called upon to remove the sizing materials with which the manufacturer +strengthens the warp before weaving (see below). + +In principle, the bleaching of cotton is a comparatively simple process +in which three main operations are involved, viz. (1) boiling with an +alkali; (2) bleaching the organic colouring matters by means of a +hypochlorite or some other oxidizing agent; (3) souring, i.e. treating +with weak hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. For loose cotton and yarn +these three operations are sufficient, but for piece goods a larger +number of operations is usually necessary in order to obtain a +satisfactory result. + + _Loose Cotton._--The bleaching of loose or raw cotton previous to + spinning is only carried out to a very limited extent, and consists + essentially in first steeping the material in a warm solution of soda + for some hours, after which it is washed and treated with a solution + of bleaching powder or sodium hypochlorite. It is then again washed, + soured with weak sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, and ultimately washed + free from acid. Careful treatment is necessary in order to avoid any + undue matting of the fibres, while any drastic treatment, such as + heating with caustic soda and soap, as used for other cotton + materials, cannot be employed, since the natural wax would thereby be + removed, and this would detract from the spinning qualities of the + fibre. In case the cotton is not intended to be spun, but is to serve + for cotton wool or for the manufacture of gun cotton, more drastic + treatment can be employed, and is, in fact, desirable. Thus, cotton + waste is first extracted with petroleum spirit or some other suitable + solvent, in order to remove any mineral oil or grease which may be + present. It is then boiled with dilute caustic soda and resin soap, + washed, bleached white with bleaching-powder, washed, soured and + finally washed free from acid. In these operations, a certain amount + of matting is unavoidable, and it is consequently necessary to open + out the material after drying, in scutchers. + + _Cotton Yarn._--Cotton yarn is bleached in the form of cops, hanks or + warps. In principle the processes employed are the same in each case, + but the machinery necessarily differs. Most yarn is bleached in the + hank, and it will suffice to give an account of this process only. The + sequence of operations is the same as in the bleaching of cotton + waste, and these can be conducted for small lots in an ordinary + rectangular wooden vat as used in dyeing, in which the yarn is + suspended in the liquor from poles which rest with their ends on the + two longer sides of the vat. For bleaching yarn in bulk, however, this + mode of procedure would involve so much manual labour that the process + would become too expensive. It is, therefore, mainly with the object + of economy that machinery has been introduced, by means of which large + quantities can be dealt with at a time. + + The first operation, viz. that of boiling in alkali, is carried out in + a "kier," a large, egg-ended, upright cylindrical vessel, constructed + of boiler-plate and capable of treating from one to three tons of yarn + at a time. In construction, the kiers used for yarn bleaching are + similar in construction to those used for pieces (see below). The yarn + to be bleached is evenly packed in the kier, and is then boiled by + means of steam with the alkaline lye (3-4% of soda ash or 2% caustic + soda on the weight of the cotton being usually employed) for periods + varying from six to twelve hours. It is essential that a thorough + circulation of the liquor should be maintained during the boiling, and + this is effected either by means of a steam injector, or in other + ways. As a rule low pressure kiers (working up to 10 lb. pressure) are + employed for yarn bleaching, though some bleachers prefer to use high + pressure kiers for the purpose. + + When the boiling has continued for the requisite time (6-8 hours), the + steam is shut off, and the kier liquor blown off, when the yarn is + washed in the kier by filling the latter with water and then running + off, this operation being repeated two or three times. The hanks are + now transferred to a stone cistern provided with a false bottom, from + beneath which a pipe connects the cistern with a well situated below + the floor line. The well contains a solution of bleaching-powder, + usually of 2 deg. Tw. strength, and this is drawn up by means of a + centrifugal brass pump and showered over the top of the goods through + a perforated wooden tray, passing then by gravitation through the + goods back into the well. The circulation is maintained for one and a + half to two hours, when the yarn will be found to be white. The + bleaching-powder solution is now allowed to drain off, and water is + circulated through the cistern to wash out what bleaching powder + remains in the goods. The souring is next carried out either in the + same or in a separate cistern by circulating hydrochloric or sulphuric + acid of 2 deg. Tw. for about half an hour. This is also allowed to + drain, and the yarn is thoroughly washed to remove all acid, when it + is taken out and wrung or hydroextracted. At this stage the yarn may + be dyed in light or bright shades without further treatment, but if it + is to be sold as white yarn, it is blued. The blueing may either be + effected by dyeing or tinting with a colouring matter like Victoria + blue 4R or acid violet, or by treatment in wash stocks with a + suspension of ultramarine in weak soap until the colour is uniformly + distributed throughout the material. The yarn is now straightened out + and dried. + + The bleaching of cotton yarn is a very straightforward process, and it + is very seldom that either complications or faults arise, providing + that reasonable care and supervision are exercised. + + The _raison d'etre_ of the various operations is comparatively simple. + The effect of boiling with alkali is to remove the pectic acid, the + fatty acids, part of the cotton wax and the bulk of the colouring + matter, while the albuminoids are destroyed and the motes swelled up. + If soap be used along with the alkali, the whole of the wax is removed + by emulsification. In the operation of bleaching proper, the calcium + hypochlorite of the chloride of lime through coming into contact with + the carbonic acid of the atmosphere suffers decomposition according to + the equation, Ca(OCl)2 + CO2 + H2O -> CaCO3 + 2HOCl, and the + hypochlorous acid thus liberated destroys the colouring matter still + remaining from the first operation, by oxidation. At the same time the + motes which were swelled up by the alkali are broken up into small + fragments and are thus removed. In the operation of souring, the lime + which has been deposited on the fibres during the treatment with + bleaching powder is dissolved, while at the same time any other + metallic oxides (iron, copper, &c.) are removed. + + _Cotton Pieces._--By far the largest bulk of cotton is bleached in the + piece, as it can be more conveniently and more economically dealt with + in this form than in any other. Though similar in principle to yarn + bleaching, the process of piece bleaching is somewhat more complex + because the pieces contain in addition to the natural impurities of + the cotton a considerable amount of foreign matter in the form of size + which has been incorporated with the warp before weaving, with the + object of strengthening it. This size consists essentially of starch + (farina), with additions of tallow, zinc chloride, and occasionally + other substances such as paraffin wax, magnesium chloride, soap, &c., + all of which must be removed if a perfect bleach is to result. + Besides, mineral oil stains from the machinery of the weaving-shed are + of common occurrence in piece goods. + + Cotton pieces are bleached either for whites, for prints or for dyed + goods. The processes employed for these different classes vary but + slightly and only in detail. The most drastic bleach is that required + for goods which are subsequently to be printed. For dyed goods, the + main object is not so much to obtain a perfect white as to remove any + impurities which might interfere with the dyeing, while avoiding the + formation of any oxycellulose. In bleaching for whites ("market + bleaching") it is essential that the white should be as perfect as + possible, and such goods are consequently invariably blued after + bleaching. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Section of a Dash-wheel.] + + For small lots (1-20 pieces) the bleaching can be conducted on very + simple machinery. Thus many small piece dyers conduct the whole of + their bleaching on the jigger, a simple form of dyeing machine on + which most cotton piece goods are dyed (see DYEING). For muslins, + laces and other very light fabrics, which will not stand rough + handling, the operations are conducted mainly by hand, washing being + effected in the dash-wheel (fig. 1), which consists of a cylindrical + box, revolving on its axis. It has four divisions, as shown by the + dotted lines, and an opening into each division. A number of pieces + are put into each, abundance of water is admitted behind, and the + knocking of the pieces as they alternately dash from one side of the + division to the other during the revolution of the wheel effects the + washing. The process lasts from four to six minutes. + + For velveteens, corduroys, heavy drills, pocketings and other fabrics + in which creasing has to be avoided as much as possible, the so-called + "open bleach" is resorted to, which differs from the ordinary process + chiefly in that the goods are treated throughout at full width. + + The great bulk of cotton pieces is bleached in rope form, i.e. + stitched together end to end and laterally collapsed, so that they + will pass through a ring of 4 to 5 in. in diameter. + + The first operation which the goods undergo on arriving in the + grey-room of the bleachworks is that of stamping with tar or some + other indelible material in order that they may be identified after + passing through the whole process. They are then stitched together end + to end by means of special sewing machines, the stitch being of such a + nature (chain stitch) that the thread can be ripped out at one pull at + the end of the operations. + + _Singeing._--In the condition in which the pieces leave the loom and + come into the hands of the bleacher, the surface of the fabric is seen + to be covered with a _nap_ of projecting fibres which gives it a downy + appearance. For some classes of goods this is not a disadvantage, but + in the majority of cases, especially for prints where a clean surface + is essential, the nap is removed before bleaching. This is usually + effected by running the pieces at full width over a couple of arched + copper plates heated to a full red heat by direct fire. An arrangement + of the kind is shown in fig. 2, in which the singe-plates, a and b, + are mounted over the flues of a coal fire. The plate b is most highly + heated, a being at the end of the flue farthest removed from the + fire. The cloth enters over a rail A, and in passing over the plate a + is thoroughly dried and prepared for the singeing it receives when it + comes to the highly-heated plate b. A block d, carrying two rails in + the space between the plates, can be raised or lowered so as to + increase or lessen the pressure of the cloth against the plates, or, + if necessary, to lift it quite free of contact with them. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Section of Singe-stove.] + + The pieces on leaving the singeing machine are passed either through a + water trough or through a steam box with the object of extinguishing + sparks, and are then plaited down. The speed at which the pieces + travel over the singe plates is necessarily considerable and varies + with different classes of material.[1] + + In lieu of plates, a cast-iron cylinder is sometimes employed ("roller + singeing"), the heating being effected by causing the flame of the + fire to be drawn through the roller, which is carried on two small + rollers at each end and revolves slowly in the reverse direction to + that followed by the piece, thus exposing continuously a freshly + heated surface and avoiding uneven cooling. + + For figured pieces which have an uneven surface, it is obvious that + plate or roller singeing would only affect the portions which project + most, leaving the rest untouched. For such goods, "gas singeing" is + employed, which consists in running the pieces over a non-luminous gas + flame, the breadth of which slightly exceeds that of the piece, or in + drawing the flame right through the piece.[2] The construction of an + ordinary gas singeing apparatus is seen in section in fig. 3. Coal gas + mixed with air is sent under pressure through pipe a into the burners + b, b, where the mixture burns with an intense heat. The cloth travels + in the direction of the arrows, and in passing over the small nap + rollers c comes into contact with the flame four times in succession + before leaving the machine. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Gas Singeing Apparatus.] + + Gas singeing is also used for plain goods, and being cleaner and under + better control has largely replaced plate singeing. + + At this stage the goods which have been browned on the surface by + singeing are ready for the bleaching operations. A great many + innovations have been introduced in recent years in the bleaching of + calico, but although it is generally admitted that in point of view of + time and economy many of these processes offer considerable + advantages, the old process, in which a lime boil precedes the other + operations, is still the one which is most largely employed by + bleachers in England. In this, the sequence of operations is the + following-- + + _Grey Washing._--This operation (which is sometimes omitted) simply + consists in running the pieces through an ordinary washing machine (as + shown in fig. 5) through water in order to wet them out. On leaving + the machine they are piled in a heap and left over night, when + fermentation sets in, which results in the starch being to a large + extent hydrolysed and rendered soluble in water. + + _Lime Boil._--In this operation, which is also known as _bowking_ + (Ger. _beuchen_), the pieces are first run through milk of lime + contained in an ordinary washing machine and of such a strength that + they take up about 4% of their weight of lime (CaO). They are then run + over winches and guided through smooth porcelain rings ("pot-eyes") + into the kier, where they are evenly packed by boys who enter the + vessel through the manhole at the top. It is of the greatest + importance that the goods should be evenly packed, for, if channels or + loosely-packed places are left, the liquor circulating through the + kier, when boiling is subsequently in progress, will follow the line + of least resistance, and the result is an uneven treatment. Of the + numerous forms of kier in use, the injector kier is the one most + generally adopted. This consists of an egg-ended cylindrical vessel + constructed of stout boiler plate and shown in sectional elevation in + fig. 4. The kier is from 10 to 12 ft. in height and from 6 to 7 ft. in + diameter, and stands on three iron legs riveted to the sides, but not + shown in the figure. The bottom exit pipe E is covered with a + shield-shaped false bottom of boiler plate, or (and this is more + usual) the whole bottom of the kier is covered with large rounded + stones from the river bed, the object in either case being simply to + provide space for the accumulation of liquor and to prevent the pipe E + being blocked. The cloth is evenly packed up to within about 3 to 4 + ft. of the manholes M, when lime water is run in through the liquor + pipe until the level of the liquid reaches within about 2 ft. of the + top of the goods. The manholes are now closed, and steam is turned on + at the injector J by opening the valve v. The effect of this is to + suck the liquor through E, and to force it up through pipe P into the + top of the kier, where it dashes against the umbrella-shaped shield U + and is distributed over the pieces, through which it percolates, until + on arriving at E it is again carried to the top of the kier, a + continuous circulation being thus effected. As the circulation + proceeds, the steam condensing in the liquor rapidly heats the latter + to the boil, and as soon as, in the opinion of the foreman, all air + has been expelled, the blow-through tap is closed and the boiling is + continued for periods varying from six to twelve hours under 20-60 lb. + pressure. Steam is now turned off, and by opening the valve V the + liquor, which is of a dark-brown colour, is forced out by the pressure + of the steam it contains. + + [Illustration: FIG 4.--High Pressure Blow-through Kier.] + + The pieces are now run through a continuous washing machine, which is + provided with a plentiful supply of water. The machine, which is shown + in fig. 5, consists essentially of a wooden vat, over which there is a + pair of heavy wooden (sycamore) bowls or squeezers. The pieces enter + the machine at each end, as indicated by the arrows, and pass rapidly + through the bowls down to the bottom of the vat over a loose roller, + thence between the first pair of guide pegs through the bowls again, + and travel thus in a spiral direction until they arrive at the middle + of the machine, when they leave at the side opposite to that on which + they entered. The same type of machine is used for liming, chemicking, + and souring. + + The next operation is the "grey sour," in which the goods are run + through a washing machine containing hydrochloric acid of 2 deg. Tw. + strength, with the object of dissolving out the lime which the goods + retain in considerable quantity after the lime boil. The goods are + then well washed, and are now boiled again in the ash bowking kier, + which is similar in construction to the lime kier, with soda ash (3%) + and a solution of rosin (1-1/2%) in caustic soda (1-1/4%) for eight to + ten hours. For white bleaching the rosin soap is omitted, soda ash + alone being employed. + + [Illustration: FIG 5.--Roller Washing Machine.] + + The pieces are now washed free from alkali and the bleaching proper or + "chemicking" follows. This operation may be effected in various ways, + but the most efficient is to run the goods in a washing machine + through bleaching powder solution at 1/2 deg.-1 deg. Tw., and allow + them to lie loosely piled over night, or in some cases for a longer + period. They are now washed, run through dilute sulphuric or + hydrochloric acid at 2 deg. Tw. ("white sour") and washed again. + Should the white not appear satisfactory at this stage (and this is + usually the case with very heavy or dense materials), they are boiled + again in soda ash, chemicked with bleaching powder at 1/8 deg. Tw. or + even weaker, soured and washed. It is of the utmost importance that + the final washing should be as thorough as possible, in order to + completely remove the acid, for if only small quantities of the latter + are left in the goods, they are liable to become tender in the + subsequent drying, through formation of hydrocellulose. + + The modern processes of bleaching cotton pieces differ from the one + described above, chiefly in that the lime boil is entirely dispensed + with, its place being taken by a treatment in the kier with caustic + soda (or a mixture of caustic soda and soda ash) and resin soap. The + best known and probably the most widely practised of these processes + is one which was worked out by the late M. Horace Koechlin in + conjunction with Sir William Mather, and this differs from the old + process not only in the sequence of the operations but also in the + construction of the kier. This consists of a horizontal egg-ended + cylinder, and is shown in transverse and longitudinal sections in + figs. 6 and 7. One of the ends E constitutes a door which can be + raised or lowered by means of the power-driven chain C. The goods to + be bleached are packed in wagons W outside the kier, and when filled + these are pushed home into the kier, so that the pipes p fit with + their flanges on to the fixed pipes at the bottom of the kier. The + heating is effected by means of steam pipes at the lowest extremity of + the kier, while the circulation of the liquor is brought about by + means of the centrifugal pump P, which draws the liquor through the + pipes p from beneath the false bottoms of the wagons and showers it + over distributors D on to the goods. By this mode of working a + considerable economy is effected in point of time, as the kier can be + worked almost continuously; for as soon as one lot of goods has been + boiled, the wagons are run out and two freshly-packed wagons take + their place. The following is the sequence of operations:--The goods + are first steeped over night in dilute sulphuric acid, after which + they are washed and run through old kier liquor from a previous + operation. They are then packed evenly in the wagons which are pushed + into the kier, and, the door having been closed, they are boiled for + about eight hours at 7-15 lb. pressure with a liquor containing soda + ash, caustic soda, resin soap and a small quantity of sulphite of + soda. The rest of the operations (chemicking, souring and washing) are + the same as in the old process. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--The Mather Kier, cross section.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--The Mather Kier, longitudinal section.] + + A somewhat different principle is involved in the Thies-Herzig + process. In this the kier is vertical, and the circulation of the + liquor is effected by means of a centrifugal or other form of pump, + while the heating of the liquor is brought about outside the kier in a + separate vessel between the pump and the kier by means of indirect + steam. The sequence of operations is similar to that adopted in the + Mather-Koechlin process, differing chiefly from the latter in the + first operation, which consists in running the goods, after singeing, + through very dilute boiling sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, containing + in either case a small proportion of hydrofluoric acid, and then + running them through a steam box, the whole operation lasting from + twenty to sixty seconds. + + Bleached by any of the above processes, the cloth is next passed over + a mechanical contrivance known as a "scutcher," which opens it out + from the rope form to its full breadth, and is then dried on a + continuous drying machine. Fig. 8 shows the appearance and + construction of an improved form of the horizontal drying machine, + which is in more common use for piece goods than the vertical form. + The machine consists essentially of a series of copper or tinned iron + cylinders, which are geared together so as to run at a uniform speed. + Steam at 10-15 lb. pressure is admitted through the journalled + bearings at one side of the machine, and the condensed water is forced + out continuously through the bearings at the other side. The pieces + pass in the direction of the arrow (fig. 9) over a scrimp rail or + expanding roller round the first cylinder, then in a zigzag direction + over all succeeding cylinders, and ultimately leave the machine dry, + being mechanically plaited down at the other end. + + If the bleaching process has been properly conducted, the pieces + should not only show a uniform pure white colour, but their strength + should remain unimpaired. Careful experiments conducted by the late + Mr. Charles O'Neill showed in fact that carefully bleached cotton may + actually be stronger than in the unbleached condition, and this result + has since been corroborated by others. Excessive blueing, which is + frequently resorted to in order to cover the defects of imperfect + bleaching, can readily be detected by washing a sample of the material + in water, or, better still, in water containing a little ammonia, and + then comparing with the original. The formation of oxycellulose during + the bleaching process may either take place in boiling under pressure + with lime or caustic soda in consequence of the presence of air in the + kier, or through excessive action of bleaching powder, which may + either result from the latter not being properly dissolved or being + used too strong. Its detection may be effected by dyeing a sample of + the bleached cotton in a cold, very dilute solution of methylene blue + for about ten minutes, when any portions of the fabric in which the + cellulose has been converted into oxycellulose will assume a darker + colour than the rest. The depth of the colour is at the same time an + indication of the extent to which such conversion has taken place. + Most bleached cotton contains some oxycellulose, but as long as the + formation has not proceeded far enough to cause tendering, its + presence is of no importance in white goods. If, on the other hand, + the cotton has to be subsequently dyed with direct cotton colours (see + DYEING), the presence of oxycellulose may result in uneven dyeing. + Tendering of the pieces, due to insufficient washing after the final + souring operation, is a common defect in bleached goods. As a rule the + free acid can be detected by extracting the tendered material with + distilled water and adding to the extract a drop of methyl orange + solution, when the latter will turn pink if free acid be present. + Other defects which may occur in bleached goods are iron stains, + mineral oil stains, and defects due to the addition of paraffin wax in + the size. + + +_Bleaching of Linen._ + +The bleaching of linen is a much more complicated and tedious process +than the bleaching of cotton. This is due in part to the fact that in +linen the impurities amount to 20% or more of the weight of the fibre, +whereas in cotton they do not usually exceed 5%. Furthermore these +impurities, which include colouring matter, intracellular substances and +a peculiar wax known as "flax wax," are more difficult to attack than +those which are present in cotton, and the difficulty is still further +enhanced in the case of piece goods owing to their dense or impervious +character. + +Till towards the end of the 18th century the bleaching of linen both in +the north of Ireland and in Scotland was accomplished by bowking in +cows' dung and souring with sour milk, the pieces being exposed to light +on the grass between these operations for prolonged periods. +Subsequently potash and later on soda was substituted for the cows' +dung, while sour milk was replaced by sulphuric acid. This "natural +bleach" is still in use in Holland, a higher price being paid for linen +bleached in this way than for the same material bleached with the aid of +bleaching powder. In the year 1744 Dr. James Ferguson of Belfast +received a premium of L300 from the Irish Linen Board for the +application of lime in the bleaching of linen. Notwithstanding this +reward, the use of lime in the bleaching of linen was for a long time +afterwards forbidden in Ireland under statutory penalties, and so late +as 1815 Mr Barklie, a respectable linen bleacher of Linen Vale, near +Keady, was "prosecuted for using lime in the whitening of linens in his +bleachyard." + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Mather & Platt's Horizontal Drying Machine.] + +The methods at present employed for the bleaching of linen are, except +in one or two unimportant particulars, the same as were used in the +middle of the 19th century. In principle they resemble those used in +cotton bleaching, but require to be frequently repeated, while an +additional operation, which is a relic of the old-fashioned process, +viz. that of "grassing" or "crofting," is still essential for the +production of the finest whites. Considerably more care has to be +exercised in linen bleaching than is the case with cotton, and the +process consequently necessitates a greater amount of manual labour. The +practical result of this is that whereas cotton pieces can be bleached +and finished in less than a week, linen pieces require at least six +weeks. Many attempts have naturally been made to shorten and cheapen the +process, but without success. The use of stronger reagents and more +drastic treatment, which would at first suggest itself, incurs the risk +of injury to the fibre, not so much in respect to actual tendering as to +the destruction of its characteristic gloss, while if too drastic a +treatment is employed at the beginning the colouring matter is liable to +become set in the fibre, and it is then almost impossible to remove it. +Among the many modern improvements which have been suggested, mention +may be made of the use of hypochlorite of soda in place of bleaching +powder, the use of oil in the first treatment in alkali (Cross & +Parkes), while de Keukelaere suggests the use of sodium sulphide for +this purpose. With the object of dispensing with the operation of +grassing, which besides necessitating much manual labour is subject to +the influences of the atmospheric conditions, Siemens & Halske of Berlin +have suggested exposure of the goods in a chamber to the action of +electrolytically prepared ozone. Jardin seeks to achieve the same object +by steeping the linen in dilute nitric acid. + +Since the qualities of linen which are submitted to the bleacher vary +considerably, and the mode of treatment has to be varied accordingly, it +is not possible to give more than a bare outline of linen bleaching. + + Linen is bleached in the yarn and in the piece. Whenever one of the + operations is repeated, the strength of the reagent is successively + diminished. In yarn-bleaching the sequence of the operations is about + as follows:--(1) Boil in kier with soda ash. (2) Reel in bleaching + powder. This operation, which is peculiar to linen bleaching, consists + in suspending the hanks from a square roller into bleaching powder + solution contained in a shallow stone trough. The roller revolves + slowly, so that the hanks, while passing continuously through the + bleaching powder, are for the greater part of the time being exposed + to the air. (3) Sour in sulphuric acid. (4) Scald in soda ash. (The + term "scalding" means boiling in a kier.) (5) Reel in bleaching + powder. (6) Sour in sulphuric acid. (7) Scald in soda ash. (8) Dip, + i.e. steep in bleaching powder. (9) Sour in sulphuric acid. (10) Scald + in soda ash. (11) Dip in bleaching powder. (12) Sour in sulphuric + acid. For a full white, two more operations are usually required, viz. + (13) scald in soda ash, and (14) dip in bleaching powder. Washing + intervenes between all these operations. + + Pieces are not stamped as in the case of cotton, but thread-marked by + hand with cotton dyed Turkey red. They are then sewn together end to + end, and subjected to the following operations:-- + + Boil with lime in kier. + + The pieces are now separated and made up into bundles (except in the + case of very light linens, which may pass through the whole of the + operations in rope form) and soured with sulphuric acid. + + First lye boil with soda ash and caustic soda. + + Second lye boil. For some classes of goods no less than six lye boils + may be required. + + Grass between lye boils (according to their number). + + Rub with rubbing boards. This is also a speciality in linen bleaching, + and consists of a mechanical treatment with soft soap, the object of + which is to remove black stains in the yarn. + + Bleach with hypochlorite of soda. + + Scald. The two latter treatments are repeated three to five times, + each series constituting a "turn." Grassing intervenes between each + turn, and in some instances the pieces are rubbed before the last soda + boil. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Diagram showing the Horizontal Drying Machine + threaded with Cloth.] + + The pieces are next steeped in large vessels (kiers) in weak + hypochlorite of soda, and then in weak sulphuric acid, these + treatments being repeated several times. + + Ultimately the goods are mill-washed, blued with smalt and dried. + + +_Bleaching of other Vegetable Textile Fabrics._ + +_Hemp_ may be bleached by a process similar to that used for linen, but +this is seldom done owing to the expense entailed. _China grass_ is +bleached like cotton. _Jute_ contains in its raw state a considerable +amount of colouring matter and intracellular substance. Since the +individual fibres are very short, the complete removal of the latter +would be attended by a disintegration of the material. Although it is +possible to bleach jute white, this is seldom if ever carried out on a +large scale owing to the great expense involved. A half-bleach on jute +is obtained by steeping the goods alternately in bleaching powder (or +hypochlorite of soda) and sulphuric acid, washing intervening. For a +cream these treatments are repeated. + + +_Bleaching of Straw._ + +In the Luton district, straw is bleached principally in the form of +plait, in which form it is imported. The bleaching is effected by +steeping the straw for periods varying from twelve hours to several days +in fairly strong alkaline peroxide of hydrogen. The number of baths +depends upon the quality of straw and the degree of whiteness required. +Good whites are thus obtained, and no further process would be necessary +if the hats had not subsequently to be "blocked" or pressed at a high +temperature which brings about a deterioration of the colour. After +bleaching with peroxide and drying, the straw consequently undergoes a +further process of sulphuring, i.e. exposure to gaseous sulphurous acid. +Panama hats are bleached after making up, but in this case only peroxide +of hydrogen is used and a very lengthy treatment entailing sometimes +fourteen days' steeping is required. + + +_Bleaching of Wool._ + +In the condition in which it is delivered to the manufacturers wool is +generally a very impure article, even if it has been washed on the +sheep's back before shearing. The impurities which it contains consist +in the main of the natural grease (in reality a kind of wax) exuded from +the skin of the sheep and technically known as the "yolk," the dried-up +perspiration from the body of the sheep; technically called "suint," and +dust, dirt, burrs, &c., which mechanically adhere to the sticky surfaces +of the fibres. In this condition wool is quite unfit for any +manufacturing purposes and must be cleansed before any mechanical +operations can be commenced. Formerly the washing was effected in stale +urine, which owed its detergent properties mainly to the presence of +ammonium carbonate. The stale urine or _lant_ was diluted with four to +five times its bulk of water, and in this liquor, heated to 40 deg.-50 +deg. C., the washing was effected. + +At the present day this method has been entirely abandoned, the washing +or "scouring" being effected with soap, assisted by ammonia, potash, +soda or silicate of soda. The finest qualities of wool are washed with +soft soap and potash, while for inferior qualities, cheaper detergents +are employed. The operation is in principle perfectly simple, the wool +being submerged in the warm soap solution, where it is moved about with +forks and then taken out and allowed to drain. A second treatment in +weaker soap serves to complete the process. In dealing with large +quantities, wool-washing machines are employed, which consist +essentially of long cast-iron troughs which contain the soap solution. +The wool to be washed is fed in at one end of the machine and is slowly +propelled to the other end by means of a system of mechanically-driven +forks or rakes. As it passes from the machine, it is squeezed through a +pair of rollers. Three such machines are usually required for efficient +washing, the first containing the strongest and the third the weakest +soap. + +The washing of wool is in the main a mechanical process, in which the +water dissolves out the suint while the soap emulsifies the yolk and +thus removes it from the fibre. The attendant earthy impurities pass +mechanically into the surrounding liquid and are swilled away. + +In some works the wool is washed first with water alone, the aqueous +extract thus obtained being evaporated to dryness and the residue +calcined. A very good quality of potash is thus obtained as a +by-product. In many works in Yorkshire and elsewhere, the dirty soap +liquors obtained in wool-washing are not allowed to run to waste, but +are run into tanks and there treated with sulphuric acid. The effect of +this treatment is to decompose the soap, and the fatty acids along with +the wool-grease rise as a magma to the surface. The purified product is +known in the trade as "Yorkshire grease." + +Attempts have been made from time to time to extract the natural grease +from wool by means of organic solvents, such as carbon bisulphide, +carbon tetrachloride, petroleum spirit, &c., but have not met with much +success. + +Worsted yarn spun on the English system, as well as woollen yarn and +fabrics made from them, contain oil which has been incorporated with the +wool to facilitate the spinning. This oil must be got rid of previous to +bleaching, and this is effected by scouring in warm soap with or without +the assistance of alkalis. + + The actual bleaching of wool may be effected in two ways, viz. by + treating the material either with sulphurous acid or with hydrogen + peroxide. Sulphurous acid may either be applied in the gaseous form or + in solution as bisulphite of soda. In working by the first method, + which is technically known as "stoving," the scoured yarn is wetted in + very weak soap containing a small amount of blue colouring matter, + wrung or hydro-extracted and then suspended in a chamber or stove. + Sulphur contained in a vessel on the floor of the chamber is now + lighted, and the door having been closed, is allowed to burn itself + out. The goods are left thus exposed to the sulphur dioxide overnight, + when they are taken out and washed in water. For piece goods a + somewhat different arrangement is employed, the pieces passing through + a slit into a chamber supplied with sulphur dioxide, then slowly up + and down over a large number of rollers and ultimately emerging again + at the same slit. Wool may also be bleached by steeping in a fairly + strong solution of bisulphite of soda and then washing well in water. + Wool bleached with sulphurous acid or bisulphite is readily affected + by alkalis, the natural yellow colour returning on washing with soap + or soda. A more permanent bleach is obtained by steeping the wool in + hydrogen peroxide (of 12 volumes strength), let down with about three + times its bulk of water and rendered slightly alkaline with ammonia or + silicate of soda. Black or brown wools cannot be bleached white, but + when treated with peroxide they assume a golden colour, a change which + is frequently desired in human hair. + + +_Bleaching of Silk._ + +In raw silk, the fibre proper is uniformly coated with a proteid +substance known as _silk-gum, silk-glue_ or _sericine_ which amounts to +19-25% of the weight of the material, and it is only after the removal +of this coating that the characteristic properties of the fibre become +apparent. This is effected by the process of "discharging" or +"boiling-off," which consists in suspending the hanks of raw silk over +poles or sticks in a vat containing a strong hot soap solution (30% of +soap on the weight of the silk). The liquor is kept just below boiling +point for two or three hours, the hanks being turned from time to time. +During the process, the sericine at first swells up considerably, the +fibres becoming slippery, but as the operation proceeds it passes into +solution. It is important that only soft water should be used for +boiling-off since calcareous impurities are liable to mar the lustre of +the silk. + +The silk is now rinsed in weak soda solution and wrung. In this +condition it is suitable for being dyed, but if it is to be bleached, +the hanks are tied up loosely with smooth tape, put into coarse linen +bags to prevent the silk becoming entangled, and boiled again in soap +solution which is half as strong as that used in the first operation. +The hanks are now taken out, rinsed in a weak soda solution, washed in +water and wrung. + +The actual bleaching of silk is usually effected by stoving as in the +case of wool, with this difference, that the operation is repeated +several times and blueing or tinting with other colours is effected +after bleaching. Silk may also be bleached with peroxide of hydrogen, +but this method is only used for certain qualities of spun silk and for +tussore. + + _Ornamental feathers_ are best bleached by steeping in peroxide of + hydrogen, rendered slightly alkaline by the addition of ammonia. The + same treatment is applied to the bleaching of _ivory_. If peroxide of + hydrogen could be prepared at a moderate cost, it would doubtless find + a much more extensive application in bleaching, since it combines + efficiency with safety, and gives good results with both vegetable and + animal substances. (E. K.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Besides being used for cotton goods, plate singeing is also + employed for certain classes of worsted goods (alpacas, bunting, + &c.), and for most union goods (cotton warp and worsted weft). + + [2] A machine working on this principle has been constructed by F. + Binder, and the makers of the machine (Messrs Mather & Platt, Ltd.) + claim that it does better service than the machines constructed on + the older principle. + + + + +BLEAK, or BLICK (_Alburnus lucidus_), a small fish of the Cyprinid +family, allied to the bream and the minnow, but with a more elongate +body, resembling a sardine. It is found in European streams, and is +caught by anglers, being also a favourite in aquariums. The well-known +and important industry of "Essence Orientale" and artificial pearls, +carried on in France and Germany with the crystalline silvery colouring +matter of the bleak, was introduced from China about the middle of the +17th century. + + + + +BLEEK, FRIEDRICH (1793-1859), German Biblical scholar, was born on the +4th of July 1793, at Ahrensbok, in Holstein, a village near Lubeck. His +father sent him in his sixteenth year to the gymnasium at Lubeck, where +he became so much interested in ancient languages that he abandoned his +idea of a legal career and resolved to devote himself to the study of +theology. After spending some time at the university of Kiel, he went to +Berlin, where, from 1814 to 1817, he studied under De Wette, Neander and +Schleiermacher. So highly were his merits appreciated by his +professors--Schleiermacher was accustomed to say that he possessed a +special _charisma_ for the science of "Introduction"--that in 1818 after +he had passed the examinations for entering the ministry he was recalled +to Berlin as _Repetent_ or tutorial fellow in theology, a temporary post +which the theological faculty had obtained for him. Besides discharging +his duties in the theological seminary, he published two dissertations +in Schleiermacher's and G.C.F. Lucke's _Journal_(1819-1820,1822), one on +the origin and composition of the Sibylline Oracles "Uber die Entstehung +und Zusammensetzung der Sibyllinischen Orakel," and another on the +authorship and design of the Book of Daniel, "Uber Verfasser und Zweck +des Buches Daniel." These articles attracted much attention, and were +distinguished by those qualities of solid learning, thorough +investigation and candour of judgment which characterized all his +writings. Bleek's merits as a rising scholar were recognized by the +minister of public instruction, who continued his stipend as _Repetent_ +for a third year, and promised further advancement in due time. But the +attitude of the political authority underwent a change. De Wette was +dismissed from his professorship in 1819, and Bleek, a favourite pupil, +incurred the suspicion of the government as an extreme democrat. Not +only was his stipend as _Repetent_ discontinued, but his nomination to +the office of professor extraordinarius, which had already been signed +by the minister Karl Altenstein, was withheld. At length it was found +that Bleek had been confounded with a certain Baueleven Blech, and in +1823 he received the appointment. + +During the six years that Bleek remained at Berlin, he twice declined a +call to the office of professor ordinarius of theology, once to +Greifswald and once to Konigsberg. In 1829, however, he was induced to +accept Lucke's chair in the recently-founded university of Bonn, and +entered upon his duties there in the summer of the same year. For thirty +years he laboured with ever-increasing success, due not to any +attractions of manner or to the enunciation of novel or bizarre +opinions, but to the soundness of his investigations, the impartiality +of his judgments, and the clearness of his method. In 1843 he was raised +to the office of consistorial councillor, and was selected by the +university to hold the office of rector, a distinction which has not +since been conferred upon any theologian of the Reformed Church. He died +suddenly of apoplexy on the 27th of February 1859. + +Bleek's works belong entirely to the departments of Biblical criticism +and exegesis. His views on questions of Old Testament criticism were +"advanced" in his own day; for on all the disputed points concerning the +unity and authorship of the books of the Old Covenant he was opposed to +received opinion. But with respect to the New Testament his position was +conservative. An opponent of the Tubingen school, his defence of the +genuineness and authenticity of the gospel of St. John is among the +ablest that have been written; and although on some minor points his +views did not altogether coincide with those of the traditional school, +his critical labours on the New Testament must nevertheless be regarded +as among the most important contributions to the maintenance of orthodox +opinions. His greatest work, his commentary on the epistle to the +Hebrews (_Brief an die Hebraer erlautert durch Einleitung, Ubersetzung, +und fortlaufenden Commentar_, in three parts, 1828, 1836 and 1840) won +the highest praise from men like De Wette and Fr. Delitzsch. This work +was abridged by Bleek for his college lectures, and was published in +that condensed form in 1868. In 1846 he published his contributions to +the criticism of the gospels (_Beitrage zur Evangelien Kritik_, pt. i.), +which contained his defence of St John's gospel, and arose out of a +review of J.H.A. Ebrard's _Wissenschaftliche Kritik der Evangelischen +Geschichte_ (1842). + + After his death were published:--(1) His _Introduction to the Old + Testament_ (_Einleitung in das Alte Testament_), (3rd ed., 1869); Eng. + trans. by G.H. Venables (from 2nd ed., 1869); in 1878 a new edition + (the 4th) appeared under the editorship of J. Wellhausen, who made + extensive alterations and additions; (2) his _Introduction to the New + Testament_ (3rd ed., W. Mangold, 1875), Eng. trans. (from 2nd German + ed.) by William Urwick (1869, 1870); (3) his _Exposition of the First + Three Gospels_ (_Synoptische Erklarung der drei ersten Evangelien_), + by H. Holtzmann (1862); (4) his _Lectures on the Apocalypse_ + (_Vorlesungen uber die Apokalypse_), (Eng. trans. 1875). Besides these + there has also appeared a small volume containing _Lectures on + Colossians, Philemon and Ephesians_ (Berlin, 1865). Bleek also + contributed many articles to the _Studien und Kritiken_. For further + information as to Bleek's life and writings, see Kamphausen's article + in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_; Frederic Lichtenberger's + _Histoire des idees religieuses en Allemagne_, vol. iii.; Diestel's + _Geschichte des Allen Testamentes_ (1869); and T.K. Cheyne's _Founders + of Old Testament Criticism_ (1893). + + + + +BLEEK, WILHELM HEINRICH IMMANUEL (1827-1875), German philologist, son of +Friedrich Bleek, was born in 1827 at Berlin. He studied first at Bonn +and afterwards at Berlin, where his attention was directed towards the +philological peculiarities of the South African languages. In his +doctor's dissertation (Bonn, 1851), _De nominum generibus linguarum +Africae Australis_, he endeavoured to show that the Hottentot language +was of North African descent. In 1854 his health prevented him +accompanying Dr W.B. Baikie in the expedition to the Niger; but in the +following year he accompanied Bishop Colenso to Natal, and was enabled +to prosecute his researches into the language and customs of the +Kaffirs. Towards the close of 1856 he settled at Cape Town, and in 1857 +was appointed interpreter by Sir George Grey. In 1859 he was compelled +by ill health to visit Europe, and on his return in the following year +he was made librarian of the valuable collection of books presented to +the colony by Sir George Grey. In 1869 he visited England, where the +value of his services was recognized by a pension from the civil list. +He died at Cape Town on the 17th of August 1875. His works, which are of +considerable importance for African and Australian philology, consist of +the _Vocabulary of the Mozambique Language_ (London, 1856); _Handbook of +African, Australian and Polynesian Philology_ (Cape Town and London, 3 +vols., 1858-1863); _Comparative Grammar of, the South African Languages_ +(vol. i., London, 1869); _Reynard the Fox in South Africa, or Hottentot +Fables and Tales_ (London, 1864); _Origin of Language_ (London, 1869). + + + + +BLENDE, or SPHALERITE, a naturally occurring zinc sulphide, ZnS, and an +important ore of zinc. The name blende was used by G. Agricola in 1546, +and is from the German _blenden_, to blind, or deceive, because the +mineral resembles lead ore in appearance but contains no lead, and was +consequently often rejected as worthless. Sphalerite, introduced by E.F. +Glocker in 1847, has the same meaning ([Greek: sphaleros], deceptive), +and so have the miners' terms "mock ore," "false lead," and "blackjack." +The term "blende" was at one time used in a generic sense, and as such +enters into the construction of several old names of German origin; the +species under consideration is therefore sometimes distinguished as +zinc-blende. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1. ] + +Crystals of blende belong to that subclass of the cubic system in which +there are six planes of symmetry parallel to the faces of the rhombic +dodecahedron and none parallel to the cubic faces; in other words, the +crystals are cubic with inclined hemihedrism, and have no centre of +symmetry. The fundamental form is the tetrahedron. Fig. 1 shows a +combination of two tetrahedra, in which the four faces of one +tetrahedron are larger than the four faces of the other: further, the +two sets of faces differ in surface characters, those of one set being +dull and striated, whilst those of the other set are bright and smooth. +A common form, shown in fig. 2, is a combination of the rhombic +dodecahedron with a three-faced tetrahedron y (311); the six faces +meeting in each triad axis are often rounded together into low conical +forms. The crystals are frequently twinned, the twin-axis coinciding +with a triad axis; a rhombic dodecahedron so twinned (fig. 3) has no +re-entrant angles. An important character of blende is the perfect +dodecahedral cleavage, there being six directions of cleavage parallel +to the faces of the rhombic dodecahedron, and angles between which are +60 deg. + +When chemically pure, which is rarely the case, blende is colourless and +transparent; usually, however, the mineral is yellow, brown or black, +and often opaque, the depth of colour and degree of transparency +depending on the amount of iron present. The streak, or colour of the +powder, is brownish or light yellow, rarely white. The lustre is +resinous to adamantine, and the index of refraction high (2.369 for +sodium light). The substance is usually optically isotropic, though +sometimes it exhibits anomalous double refraction; fibrous zinc sulphide +which is doubly refracting is to be referred to the hexagonal species +wurtzite. The specific gravity is 4.0, and the hardness 4. Crystals +exhibit pyroelectrical characters, since they possess four uniterminal +triad axes of symmetry. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +Crystals of blende are of very common occurrence, but owing to twinning +and distortion and curvature of the faces, they are often rather complex +and difficult to decipher. For this reason the mineral is not always +readily recognized by inspection, though the perfect dodecahedral +cleavage, the adamantine lustre, and the brown streak are characters +which may be relied upon. The mineral is also frequently found massive, +with a coarse or fine granular structure and a crystalline fracture; +sometimes it occurs as a soft, white, amorphous deposit resembling +artificially precipitated zinc sulphide. A compact variety of a pale +liver-brown colour and forming concentric layers with a reniform surface +is known in Germany as _Schalenblende_ or _Leberblende_. + +A few varieties of blende are distinguished by special names, these +varieties depending on differences in colour and chemical composition. A +pure white blende from Franklin in New Jersey is known as cleiophane; +snow-white crystals are also found at Nordmark in Vermland, Sweden. +Black blende containing ferrous sulphide, in amounts up to 15 or 20% +isomorphously replacing zinc sulphide, is known as marmatite (from +Marmato near Guayabal in Colombia, South America) and christophite (from +St Christophe mine at Breitenbrunn near Eibenstock in Saxony). +Transparent blende of a red or reddish-brown colour, such as that found +near Holywell in Flintshire, is known as "ruby-blende" or "ruby-zinc." +Pribramite is the name given to a cadmiferous blende from Pribram in +Bohemia. Other varieties contain small amounts of mercury, tin, +manganese or thallium. The elements gallium and indium were discovered +in blende. + +Blende occurs in metalliferous veins, often in association with galena, +also with chalcopyrite, barytes, fluorspar, &c. In ore-deposits +containing both lead and zinc, such as those filling cavities in the +limestones of the north of England and of Missouri, the galena is +usually found in the upper part of the deposit, the blende not being +reached until the deeper parts are worked. Blende is also found +sporadically in sedimentary rocks; for example, in nodules of +clay-ironstone in the Coal Measures, in the cement-doggers of the Lias, +and in the casts of fossil shells. It has occasionally been found on the +old timbers of mines. In these cases the zinc sulphide has probably +arisen from the reduction of sulphate by organic matter. + +Localities for fine crystallized specimens are numerous. Mention may be +made of the brilliant black crystals from Alston Moor in Cumberland, St +Agnes in Cornwall and Derbyshire. Yellow crystals are found at +Kapnik-Banya, near Nagy-Banya in Hungary. Transparent yellow cleavage +masses of large size occur in limestone in the zinc mines at Picos de +Europa in the province of Santander, Spain. Beautiful isolated +tetrahedra of transparent yellow blende are found in the snow-white +crystalline dolomite of the Binnenthal in the Valais, Switzerland. + (L. J. S.) + + + + +BLENHEIM (Ger. _Blindheim_), a village of Bavaria, Germany, in the +district of Swabia, on the left bank of the Danube, 30 m. N.E. from Ulm +by rail, a few miles below Hochstadt. Pop. 700. It was the scene of the +defeat of the French and Bavarians under Marshals Tallard and Marsin, on +the 13th of August 1704, by the English and the Austrians under the duke +of Marlborough and Prince Eugene. In consideration of his military +services and especially his decisive victory, a princely mansion was +erected by parliament for the duke of Marlborough near Woodstock in +Oxfordshire, England, and was named Blenheim Palace after this place. + +The battle of Blenheim is also called Hochstadt, but the title accepted +in England has the advantage that it distinguishes this battle from that +won on the same ground a year previously, by the elector of Bavaria over +the imperial general Styrum (9-20 September 1703), and from the fighting +between the Austrians under Krag and the French under Moreau in June +1800 (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS). The ground between the hills and +the marshy valley of the Danube forms a defile through which the main +road from Donauworth led to Ulm; parallel streams divide the narrow +plain into strips. On one of these streams, the Nebel, the French and +Bavarians (somewhat superior in numbers) took up their position facing +eastward, their right flank resting on the Danube, their left in the +under-features of the hilly ground, and their front covered by the +Nebel, on which were the villages of Oberglau, Unterglau and Blenheim. +The imperialist army of Eugene and the allies under Marlborough (52,000 +strong) encamped 5 m. to the eastward along another stream, their flanks +similarly protected. On the 2nd-13th of August 1704 Eugene and +Marlborough set their forces in motion towards the hostile camps; +several streams had to be crossed on the march, and it was seven o'clock +(five hours after moving off) when the British of Marlborough's left +wing, next the Danube, deployed opposite Blenheim, which Tallard +thereupon garrisoned with a large force of his best infantry, aided by a +battery of 24-pounder guns. The French and Bavarians were taken somewhat +by surprise, and were arrayed in two separate armies, each with its +cavalry on the wings and its foot in the centre. Thus the centre of the +combined forces consisted of the cavalry of Marsin's right and of +Tallard's left. + +Here was the only good ground for mounted troops, and Marlborough +followed Tallard's example when forming up to attack, but it resulted +from the dispositions of the French marshal that this weak point of +junction of his two armies was exactly that at which decisive action was +to be expected. Tallard therefore had a few horse on his right between +the Danube and Blenheim, a mass of infantry in his centre at Blenheim +itself, and a long line of cavalry supported by a few battalions forming +his left wing in the plain, and connecting with the right of Marsin's +army. This army was similarly drawn up. The cavalry right wing was in +the open, the French infantry near Oberglau, which was strongly held, +the Bavarian infantry next on the left, and finally the Bavarian cavalry +with a force of foot on the extreme left in the hills. The elector of +Bavaria commanded his own troops in person. Marlborough and Eugene on +their part were to attack respectively Tallard and Marsin. The right +wing under Eugene had to make a difficult march over broken ground +before it could form up for battle, and Marlborough waited, with his +army in order of battle between Unterglau and Blenheim, until his +colleague should be ready. At 12.30 the battle opened. Lord Cutts, with +a detachment of Marlborough's left wing, attacked Blenheim with the +utmost fury. A third of the leading brigade (British) was killed and +wounded in the vain attempt to break through the strong defences of the +village, and some French squadrons charged upon it as it retired; a +colour was captured in the _melee_, but a Hessian brigade in second line +drove back the cavalry and retook the colour. After the repulse of these +squadrons, in which some British cavalry from the centre took part, +Cutts again moved forward. The second attack, though pressed even more +fiercely, fared no better than the first, and the losses were heavier +than before. The duke then ordered Cutts to observe the enemy in +Blenheim, and concentrated all his attention on the centre. Here, +between Unterglau and Blenheim, preparations were being made, under +cover of artillery, for the crossing of the Nebel, and farther up-stream +a corps was sent to attack Oberglau. This attack failed completely, and +it was not until Marlborough himself, with fresh battalions, drove the +French back into Oberglau that the allies were free to cross the Nebel. + +In the meanwhile the first line of Marlborough's infantry had crossed +lower down, and the first line of cavalry, following them across, had +been somewhat severely handled by Tallard's cavalry. The squadrons under +the Prussian general Bothmar, however, made a dashing charge, and +achieved considerable temporary success. Eugene was now closely engaged +with the elector of Bavaria, and both sides were losing heavily. But +Eugene carried out his holding attack successfully. Marsin dared not +reinforce Tallard to any extent, and the duke was preparing for the +grand attack. His whole force, except the detachment of Cutts, was now +across the Nebel, and he had formed it in several lines with the cavalry +in front. Marlborough himself led the cavalry; the French squadrons +received the attack at the halt, and were soon broken. Marsin's right +swung back towards its own army. Those squadrons of Tallard's left which +retained their order fell back towards the Danube, and a great gap was +opened in the centre of the defence, through which the victorious +squadrons poured. Wheeling to their left the pursuers drove hundreds of +fugitives into the Danube, and Eugene was now pressing the army of +Marsin towards Marlborough, who re-formed and faced northward to cut off +its retreat. Tallard was already a prisoner, but in the dusk and +confusion Marsin slipped through between the duke and Eugene. General +Churchill, Marlborough's brother, had meanwhile surrounded the French +garrison of Blenheim; and after one or two attempts to break out, +twenty-four battalions of infantry and four regiments of dragoons, many +of them the finest of the French army, surrendered. + +The losses of the allies are stated at 4500 killed and 7500 wounded +(British 670 killed and 1500 wounded). Of the French and Bavarians +11,000 men, 100 guns and 200 colours and standards were taken; besides +the killed and wounded, the numbers of which vere large but +uncertain--many were drowned in the Danube. Marsin's army, though it +lost heavily, was drawn off in good order; Tallard's was almost +annihilated. + + + + +BLENNERHASSETT, HARMAN (1765-1831), Irish-American lawyer, son of an +Irish country gentleman of English stock settled in Co. Kerry, was born +on the 8th of October 1765. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, +and in 1790 was called to the Irish bar. After living for several years +on the continent, he married in 1796 his niece, Margaret Agnew, daughter +of Robert Agnew, the lieutenant-governor of the Isle of Man. Ostracised +by their families for this step the couple decided to settle in America, +where Blennerhassett in 1798 bought an island in the Ohio river about 2 +m. below Parkersburg, West Virginia. Here in 1805 he received a visit +from Aaron Burr (q.v.), in whose conspiracy he became interested, +furnishing liberal funds for its support, and offering the use of his +island as a rendezvous for the gathering of arms and supplies and the +training of volunteers. When the conspiracy collapsed, the mansion and +island were occupied and plundered by the Virginia militia. +Blennerhassett fled, was twice arrested and remained a prisoner until +after Burr's release. The island was then abandoned, and Blennerhassett +was in turn a cotton planter in Mississippi, and a lawyer (1819-1822) in +Montreal, Canada. After returning to Ireland, he died in the island of +Guernsey on the 2nd of February 1831. His wife, who had considerable +literary talent and who published _The Deserted Isle_ (1822) and _The +Widow of the Rock and Other Poems_ (1824), returned to the United States +in 1840, and died soon afterward in New York City while attempting to +obtain through Congress payment for property destroyed on the island. + + See William H. Safford, _Life of Harman Blennerhassett_ (Cincinnati, + 1853); W.H. Safford (editor), _The Blennerhassett Papers_ (Cincinnati, + 1864); and "The True Story of Harman Blennerhassett," by Therese + Blennerhassett-Adams, in the _Century Magazine_ for July 1901, vol. + lxii. + + + + +BLERA (mod. _Bieda_), an ancient Etruscan town on the Via Clodia, about +32 m. N.N.W. of Rome. It was of little importance, and is only mentioned +by geographers and in inscriptions. It is situated on a long, narrow +tongue of rock at the junction of two deep glens. Some remains of the +town walls still exist, and also two ancient bridges, both belonging to +the Via Clodia, and many tombs hewn in the rock--small chambers +imitating the architectural forms of houses, with beams and rafters +represented in relief. See G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of +Etruria_, i. 207. There was another Blera in Apulia, on the road from +Venusia to Tarentum. + + + + +BLESSINGTON, MARGUERITE, COUNTESS OF (1789-1849), Irish novelist and +miscellaneous writer, daughter of Edmund Power, a small landowner, was +born near Clonmel, Co. Tipperary, Ireland, on the 1st of September 1789. +Her childhood was made unhappy by her father's character and +poverty,--and her early womanhood wretched by her compulsory marriage at +the age of fifteen to a Captain Maurice St Leger Farmer, whose drunken +habits brought him at last as a debtor to the king's bench prison, +where, in October 1817, he died. His wife had left him some time before, +and in February 1818 she married Charles John Gardiner, earl of +Blessington. Of rare beauty, charm and wit, she was no less +distinguished for her generosity and for the extravagant tastes which +she shared with her husband, which resulted in encumbering his estates +with a load of debt. In the autumn of 1822 they went abroad, spent four +months of the next year at Genoa in close intimacy with Byron, and +remained on the continent till Lord Blessington's death in May 1829. +Some time before this they had been joined by Count D'Orsay, who in 1827 +married Lady Harriet Gardiner, Lord Blessington's only daughter by a +former wife. D'Orsay, who had soon separated from his wife, now +accompanied Lady Blessington to England and lived with her till her +death. Their home, first at Seamore Place, and afterwards Gore House, +Kensington, became a centre of attraction for whatever was distinguished +in literature, learning, art, science and fashion. After her husband's +death she supplemented her diminished income by contributing to various +periodicals as well as by writing novels. She was for some years editor +of _The Book of Beauty_ and _The Keepsake_, popular annuals of the day. +In 1834 she published her _Conversations with Lord Byron_. Her _Idler in +Italy_ (1839-1840), and _Idler in France_ (1841) were popular for their +personal gossip and anecdote, descriptions of nature and sentiment. +Early in 1849, Count D'Orsay left Gore House to escape his creditors; +the furniture and decorations were sold, and Lady Blessington joined the +count in Paris, where she died on the 4th of June 1849. + + Her _Literary Life and Correspondence_ (3 vols.), edited by R.R. + Madden, appeared in 1855. Her portrait was painted in 1808 by Sir + Thomas Lawrence. + + + + +BLIDA, a town of Algeria, in the department of Algiers, 32 m. by railway +S.W. from Algiers, on the line to Oran. Pop. (1906) 16,866. It lies +surrounded with orchards and gardens, 630 ft. above the sea, at the base +of the Little Atlas, on the southern edge of the fertile plain of the +Metija, and the right bank of the Wad-el-Kebir affluent of the Chiffa. +The abundant water of this stream provides power for large corn mills +and several factories, and also supplies the town, with its numerous +fountains and irrigated gardens. Blida is surrounded by a wall of +considerable extent, pierced by six gates, and is further defended by +Fort Mimieh, crowning a steep hill on the left bank of the river. The +present town, French in character, has well-built modern streets with +many arcades, and numbers among its buildings several mosques and +churches, extensive barracks and a large military hospital. The +principal square, the place d'Armes, is surrounded by arcaded houses and +shaded by trees. The centre of a fertile district, and a post on one of +the main routes in the country, Blida has a flourishing trade, chiefly +in oranges and flour. The orange groves contain over 50,000 trees, and +in April the air for miles round is laden with the scent of the orange +blossoms. In the public gardens is a group of magnificent olive trees. +The products of the neighbouring cork trees and cedar groves are a +source of revenue to the town. In the vicinity are the villages of +Joinville and Montpensier, which owe their origin to military camps +established by Marshal Valee in 1838; and on the road to Medea are the +tombs of the marabout Mahommed-el-Kebir, who died in 1580, and his two +sons. + +Blida, _i.e. boleida_, diminutive of the Arab word _belad_, city, +occupies the site of a military station in the time of the Romans, but +the present town appears to date from the 16th century. A mosque was +built by order of Khair-ed-din Barbarossa, and under the Turks the town +was of some importance. In 1825 it was nearly destroyed by an +earthquake, but was speedily rebuilt on a site about a mile distant from +the ruins. It was not till 1838 that it was finally held by the French, +though they had been in possession for a short time eight years before. +In April 1906 it was chosen as the place of detention of Behanzin, the +ex-king of Dahomey, who died in December of that year. + +Blida is the chief town of a commune of the same name, having (1906) a +population of 33,332. + + + + +BLIGH, WILLIAM (1754-1817), English admiral, was born of a good Cornish +family in 1754. He accompanied Captain Cook in his second expedition +(1772-1774) as sailing-master of the "Resolution." During the voyage, +the bread-fruit, already known to Dampier, was found by them at +Otaheite; and after seeing service under Lord Howe and elsewhere, +"Bread-fruit Bligh," as he was nicknamed, was despatched at the end of +1787 to the Pacific in command of H.M.S. "Bounty," for the purpose of +introducing it into the West Indies from the South Sea Islands. Bligh +sailed from Otaheite, after remaining there about six months; but, when +near the Friendly Islands, a mutiny (April 28, 1789) broke out on board +the "Bounty," headed by Fletcher Christian, the master's mate, and +Bligh, with eighteen others, was set adrift in the launch. The mutineers +themselves settled on Pitcairn Island (q.v.), but some of them were +afterwards captured, brought to England and in three cases executed. +This mutiny, which forms the subject of Byron's Island, did not arise so +much from tyranny on the part of Bligh as from attachments contracted +between the seamen and the women of Otaheite. After suffering severely +from hunger, thirst and storms, Bligh and his companions landed at Timor +in the East Indies, having performed a voyage of about 4000 m. in an +open boat. Bligh returned to England in 1790, and he was soon afterwards +appointed to the "Providence," in which he effected the purpose of his +former appointment by introducing the bread-fruit tree into the West +India Islands. He showed great courage at the mutiny of the Nore in +1797, and in the same year took part in the battle of Camperdown, where +Admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch under De Winter. In 1801 he commanded +the "Glatton" (54) at the battle of Copenhagen, and received the +personal commendations of Nelson. In 1805 he was appointed "captain +general and governor of New South Wales." As he made himself intensely +unpopular by the harsh exercise of authority, he was deposed in January +1808 by a mutiny headed by Major George Johnston of the 102nd foot, and +was imprisoned by the mutineers till 1810. He returned to England in +1811, was promoted to rear-admiral in that year, and to vice-admiral in +1814. Major Johnston was tried by court martial at Chelsea in 1811, and +was dismissed the service. Bligh, who was an active, persevering and +courageous officer, died in London in 1817. + + + + +BLIND, MATHILDE (1841-1896), English author, was born at Mannheim on the +21st of March 1841. Her father was a banker named Cohen, but she took +the name of Blind after her step-father, the political writer, Karl +Blind (1826-1907), one of the exiled leaders of the Baden insurrection +in 1848-1849, and an ardent supporter of the various 19th-century +movements for the freedom and autonomy of struggling nationalities. The +family was compelled to take refuge in England, where Mathilde devoted +herself to literature and to the higher education of women. She produced +also three long poems, "The Prophecy of St Oran" (1881), "The Heather on +Fire" (1886), an indignant protest against the evictions in the +Highlands, and "The Ascent of Man" (1888), which was to be the epic of +the theory of evolution. She wrote biographies of George Eliot (1883) +and Madame Roland (1886), and translated D.F. Strauss's _The Old Faith +and the New_ (1873-1874) and the _Memoirs of Marie Bashkirtseff_ (1890). +She died on the 26th of November 1896, bequeathing her property to +Newnham College, Cambridge. + + A complete edition of her poems was edited by Mr Arthur Symons in + 1900, with a biographical introduction by Dr Richard Garnett. + + + + +BLIND HOOKEY, a game of chance, played with a full pack of cards. The +deal, which is an advantage, is decided as at whist, the cards being +shuffled and cut as at whist. The dealer gives a parcel of cards to each +player including himself. Each player puts the amount of his stake on +his cards, which he must not look at. The dealer has to take all bets. +He then turns up his parcel, exposing the bottom card. Each player in +turn does the same, winning or losing according as his cards are higher +or lower than the dealer's. Ties pay the dealer. The cards rank as at +whist. The suits are of no importance, the cards taking precedence +according to their face-value. + + + + +BLINDING, a form of punishment anciently common in many lands, being +inflicted on thieves, adulterers, perjurers and other criminals. The +inhabitants of Apollonia (Illyria) are said to have inflicted this +penalty on their "watch" when found asleep at their posts. It was +resorted to by the Roman emperors in their persecutions of the +Christians. The method of destroying the sight varied. Sometimes a +mixture of lime and vinegar, or barely scalding vinegar alone, was +poured into the eyes. Sometimes a rope was twisted round the victim's +head till the eyes started out of their sockets. In the middle ages the +punishment seems to have been changed from total blindness to a +permanent injury to the eyes, amounting, however, almost to blindness, +produced by holding a red-hot iron dish or basin before the face. Under +the forest laws of the Norman kings of England blinding was a common +penalty. Shakespeare makes King John order his nephew Arthur's eyes to +be burnt out. + + + + +BLINDMAN'S-BUFF (from an O. Fr. word, _buffe_, a blow, especially a blow +on the cheek), a game in which one player is blindfolded and made to +catch and identify one of the others, who in sport push him about and +"buffet" him. + + + + +BLINDNESS, the condition of being blind (a common Teutonic word), i.e. +devoid of sight (see also VISION; and EYE: _Diseases_). The data +furnished in various countries by the census of 1901 showed generally a +decrease in blindness, due to the progress in medical science, use of +antiseptics, better sanitation, control of infectious diseases, and +better protection in shops and factories. Blindness is much more common +in hot countries than in temperate and cold regions, but Finland and +Iceland are exceptions to the general rule.[1] In hot countries the eyes +are affected by the glaring sunlight, the dust and the dryness of the +air. From statistics in Italy, France and Belgium, localities on the +coast seem to have more blind persons than those at a distance from the +sea. + +The following table gives the number of blind persons as reported in the +census of each country. Unless otherwise stated, it refers to the +statistics of 1900. + + +----------------------------------+--------+----------------+ + | | Total | Number | + | Country. | Number.| per Million | + | | | of Population. | + +----------------------------------+--------+----------------+ + | Austria | 14,582 | 540 | + | Belgium | 3448 | 487 | + | Canada | 3279 | 610 | + | Denmark | 1047 | 427 | + | England | 25,317 | 778 | + | France | 27,174 | 698 | + | Finland[2] | 3229 | 1191 | + | Germany | 34,334 | 609 | + | Hungary | 19,377 | 1006 | + | Ireland | 4263 | 954 | + | Italy | 38,160 | 1175 | + | Holland (1890) | 2114 | 414 | + | Norway | 1879 | 838 | + | Portugal | 5650 | 1040 | + | Sweden | 3413 | 664 | + | Switzerland (1895) | 2107 | 722 | + | Scotland | 3253 | 727 | + | Spain (1877) | 24,608 | 1006 | + | Russia | . . | about 2000 | + | United States (corrected census) | 85,662 | 1125 | + +----------------------------------+--------+----------------+ + + +CAUSES AND PREVENTION + +There are many cases of complete or partial blindness which might have +been prevented, and a knowledge of the best methods of prevention and +cure should be spread as widely as possible. Magnus, Bremer, Steffen and +Rossler are of opinion that 40% of the cases of blindness might have +been prevented. Hayes gives 33.35% as positively avoidable, 38.75% +possibly avoidable, and 46.27% as a conservative estimate. Cohn regards +blindness as certainly preventable in 33%, as probably preventable in +43%, and as quite unpreventable in only 24%. If we take the lowest of +these figures, and assume that 400 out of every 1000 blind persons might +have been saved from such a calamity, we realize the importance of +preventative measures. For the physiology and pathology of the eye +generally, see VISION and EYE. + + + Ophthalmia. + +The great majority of these cases are due to infantile purulent +ophthalmia. This arises from inoculation of the eyes with hurtful +material at time of birth. If the contagious discharges are allowed to +remain, violent inflammation is set up which usually ends in the loss of +sight. It depends on the presence of a microbe, and the effective +application of a weak solution of nitrate of silver is curative, if made +in a proper manner at an early period of the case. In Germany, midwives +are expressly prohibited by law from treating any affection of the eyes +or eyelids of infants, however slight. On the appearance of the first +symptoms, they are required to represent to the parents, or others in +charge, that medical assistance is urgently needed, or, if necessary, +they are themselves to report to the local authorities and the district +doctor. Neglect of these regulations entails liability to punishment. +Eleven of the United States of America have enacted laws requiring that, +if one or both eyes of an infant should become inflamed, swollen or +reddened at any time within two weeks of its birth, it shall be the duty +of the midwife or nurse having charge of such infant to report in +writing within six hours, to the health officer or some legally +qualified physician, the fact that such inflammation, swelling or +redness exists. The penalty for failure to comply is fine or +imprisonment. + +The following weighty words, from a paper prepared by Dr Park Lewis, of +Buffalo, N.Y., for the American Medical Association, show that laws are +not sufficient to prevent evil, unless supported by strong public +sentiment:-- + + "When an enlightened, civilized and progressive nation quietly and + passively, year after year, permits a multitude of its people + unnecessarily to become blind, and more especially when one-quarter + of these are infants, the reason for such a startling condition of + affairs demands explanation. That such is the fact, practically all + reliable ophthalmologists agree. + + "From a summary of carefully tabulated statistics it has been + demonstrated that at least four-tenths of all existing blindness might + have been avoided had proper preventative or curative measures been + employed, while one-quarter of this, or one-tenth of the whole, is due + to _ophthalmia neonatorum_, an infectious, preventable and almost + absolutely curable disease. Perhaps this statement will take on a new + meaning when it is added that there are in the state of New York alone + more than 6000, and in the United States more than 50,000 blind + people; of these 600 in the one state, and 5000 in the country, would + have been saved from lives of darkness and unhappiness, in having lost + all the joys that come through sight, and of more or less complete + dependence--for no individual can be as self-sufficient without as + with eyes--if a simple, safe and easily applied precautionary measure + had been taken at the right time and in the right way to prevent this + affliction. The following three vital facts are not questioned, but + are universally accepted by those qualified to know:-- + + "1. The ophthalmia of infancy is an infectious germ disease. + + "2. By the instillation of a silver salt in the eyes of a new-born + infant the disease is prevented from developing in all but an + exceedingly small number of the cases in which it would otherwise have + appeared. + + "3. In practically all those few exceptional cases the disease is + absolutely curable, if like treatment is employed at a sufficiently + early period. + + "Since these facts are no longer subjects of discussion, but are + universally accepted by all educated medical men, the natural inquiry + follows: Why, as a common-sense proposition, are not these simple, + harmless, preventive measures invariably employed, and why, in + consequence of this neglect, does a nation sit quietly and + indifferently by, making no attempt to prevent this enormous and + needless waste of human eyes? + + "The reasons are three-fold, and lie--first, with the medical + profession; second, with the lay public; third, with the state. + + "For the education of its blind children annually New York alone pays + _per capita_ at least $350, and a yearly gross sum amounting to much + more than $100,000. If, as sometimes happens, the blind citizen is a + dependent throughout a long life, the cost of maintenance is not less + than $10,000, and the mere cost in money will be multiplied many times + in that a productive factor, by reason of blindness, has been removed + from the community. + + "If, therefore, as an economic proposition, it were realized how + vitally it concerns the state that not one child shall needlessly + become blind, thereby increasing the public financial burden, there is + no doubt that early and effective measures would be instituted to + protect the state from this unnecessary and extravagant expenditure of + public funds. + + "Eleven states have passed legislative enactments requiring that the + midwife shall report each case to the proper health authority, and + affixing a penalty for the failure to do so. As has been intimated, + however, it is not by any means always under the ministration of + midwives that these cases occur, and, like all laws behind which is + not a strong and well-informed public sentiment, this law is rarely + enforced. A more effective method must be devised. Every physician + having to do with the parturient woman, every obstetrician, every + midwife, must be frequently and constantly advised of the dangers and + possibilities of this disease, the necessity of prevention, and the + value of early and correct treatment. They must then have placed in + their hands, ready for instant use, a safe and efficient preparation, + issued by the health authorities as a guarantee as to its quality and + efficiency. + + "An important step was taken in this direction when a resolution was + passed by the House of Delegates at the annual meeting of the New York + State Medical Society, requesting the various health officers of the + state to include _ophthalmia neonatorum_ among contagious diseases + which must be reported to the local boards of health. + + "The second essential, in order that the cause of infantile ophthalmia + be abolished, is that a solution of the necessary silver salt be + prepared under the authority of somebody capable of inspiring + universal confidence, and that it be distributed by the health + department of every state gratuitously to every obstetrician, + physician or midwife qualified to care for the parturient woman. The + nature of the solution, together with the character of the descriptive + card which should accompany it, should be determined by a committee, + chosen by the president of the American Medical Association, which + should have among its members at least one representative + ophthalmologist, one obstetrician and one sanitarian. The conclusions + of this committee should be reported back to the House of Delegates, + so that the preparation and its text should carry with it, on the + great authority of this association, the assurance that the solution + is entirely safe and necessary, and that its use should invariably be + part of the toilet of every new-born child. The solution, probably + silver nitrate, could be put up either by the state itself or by some + trustworthy pharmacist, at an insignificant cost; its purity and + sterility should be vouched for by the board of health of the state. + It should be enclosed in specially prepared receptacles, each + containing a special quantity, and so arranged that it may be used + drop by drop. These, properly enclosed, accompanied by a brief lucid + explanation of the danger of the disease, the necessity of this + germicide, the method of its employment, and the right subsequent care + of the eyes, should be sent to the obstetrician on the receipt of each + birth certificate. + + "I have said that responsibility for the indifference that is annually + resulting in such frightful disaster lies primarily with the state, + the public and the medical profession. + + "The state is already aroused to the necessity of taking effective + measures to wipe out this controllable plague. Bills have been + introduced in the legislature of Massachusetts and of New York, + providing for the appointment of commissions for the blind, one of + whose duties will be to study the causes of unnecessary blindness and + to suggest preventative measures." + + + Trachoma. + +One of the most common diseases of the eye is trachoma, often called +"granular lids," because the inner surface of the lid seems to be +covered with little granulations. The disease sometimes lasts for years +without causing blindness, though it gives rise to great irritation. It +is generally attended by a discharge, which is highly contagious, +producing the same disease if it gets into other eyes. Want of +cleanliness is one of the most important factors in the propagation of +trachoma, hence its great prevalence in Oriental countries. Trachoma is +very prevalent in Egypt, where those suffering from total or partial +blindness are said to amount to 10% of the population. During Napoleon's +Egyptian campaign, nearly every soldier, out of an army of 32,000 men, +was affected. During the following twenty years the disease spread +through almost all European armies. In the Belgian army, there was one +trachomatous soldier out of every five, and up to 1834 no less than 4000 +soldiers had lost both eyes and 10,000 one eye. It is a disease which is +very common in workhouse schools, orphan asylums and similar +establishments. Unlike ophthalmia of new-born children, it is difficult +to cure, and a total separation of the diseased from the healthy +children should be effected. + + + Sympathetic inflammation. + +About one-half of those who are blinded by injuries lose the second eye +by sympathetic ophthalmia. It is a constant source of danger to those +who retain an eye blinded by injury. Blindness from this cause can be +prevented by the removal of the injured eye, but unfortunately the +proposal often meets with opposition from the patient. + + + Glaucoma. + +Glaucoma is a disease which almost invariably leads to total blindness; +but in most cases it can be arrested by a simple operation if the case +is seen sufficiently early. + + + Short-sight. + +Myopia, or "short-sight," makes itself apparent in children between the +ages of seven and nine. Neglect of a year or two may do serious +mischief. Short-sight, when not inherited, is produced by looking +intently and continuously at near objects. Children should be encouraged +to describe objects at a distance, with which they are unacquainted, and +parents should choose out-door occupations and amusements for children +who show a tendency to shortsightedness. + +A report was issued in 1906, by the school board of Glasgow, as to an +investigation by Dr H. Wright Thomas, ophthalmic surgeon, regarding the +eyesight of school children, which includes the following passage. Dr +Wright Thomas states that the teachers tested the visual acuteness of +52,493 children, and found 18,565, or 35%, to be below what is regarded +as the normal standard. He examined the 18,565 defectives by +retinoscopy, and found that 11,209, or 21% of the whole, had ocular +defects. The proportion of these cases was highest in the poor and +closely-built districts and in old schools, and was lowest in the +better-class schools and those near the outskirts of the city. Defective +vision, apart from ocular defect, seems to be due partly to want of +training of the eyes for distant objects and partly to exhaustion of the +eyes, which is easily induced when work is carried on in bad light, or +the nutrition of the children is defective from bad feeding and +unhealthy surroundings. Regarding training of the eyes for distant +objects, much might be done in the infant department by the total +abolition of sewing, which is definitely hurtful to such young eyes, and +the substitution of competitive games involving the recognition of +small objects at a distance of 20 ft. or more. An annual testing by the +teachers, followed by medical inspection of the children found +defective, would soon cause all existing defects to be corrected, and +would lead to the detection of those which develop during school life. + + +HISTORY OF INSTITUTIONS + +Although there is a record of a hospital established by St Basil at +Caesarea, Cappadocia, in the 4th century, a refuge by the hermit St +Lymnee (d. c. 455) at Syr, Syria, in the 5th century, and an institution +by St Bertrand, bishop of Le Mans, in the 7th century, the first public +effort to benefit the blind was the founding of a hospital at Paris, in +1260, by Louis IX., for 300 blind persons. The common legend is that he +founded it as an asylum for 300 of his soldiers who had become blinded +in the crusade in Egypt, but the statutes of the founder are preserved, +and no mention is made of crusaders. This Hospice des Quinze-Vingts, +increased by subsequent additions to its funds, still assists the adult +blind of France. The pensioners are divided into two classes--those who +are inmates of the hospital (300), and those who receive pensions in the +form of out-door relief. All appointments to inmates or pensions are +vested in the minister of the Interior, and applicants must be of French +nationality, totally blind and not less than forty years of age. + +From the time of St Louis to the 18th century, there are records of +isolated cases of blind persons who were educated, and of efforts to +devise tangible apparatus to assist them. + +Girolamo Cardan, the 16th-century Italian physician, conceived the idea +that the blind could be taught to read and write by means of touch. +About 1517 Francesco Lucas in Spain, and Rampazetto in Italy, made use +of large letters cut in wood for instructing the blind. In 1646 a book, +on the condition of the blind, was written by an Italian, and published +in Italian and French, under the title of _L'Aveugle afflige et +console_. In 1670 a book was written on the instruction of the blind by +Lana Terzi, the Jesuit. In 1676 Jacques Bernoulli, the Swiss savant, +taught a blind girl to read, but the means of her instruction were not +made known. In 1749 D. Diderot wrote his _Lettre sur les aveugles a +l'usage de ceux qui voient_, to show how far the intellectual and moral +nature of man is modified by blindness. Dr S.G. Howe, who many years +after translated and printed the "Letter" in embossed type, +characterizes it as abounding with errors of fact and inference, but +also with beauties and suggestions. The heterodox speculations contained +in his "Letter on the Blind" caused Diderot to be imprisoned three +months in the Bastille. He was released because his services were +required for the forthcoming _Encyclopaedia_. Rousseau visited Diderot +in prison, and is reported to have suggested a system of embossed +printing. J. Locke, G.W. Leibnitz, Molineau and others discussed the +effect of blindness on the human mind. In Germany, Weissembourg had used +signs in relief and taught Mlle Paradis. + +Prior to the 18th century, blind beggars existed in such numbers that +they struggled for standing room in positions favourable for asking +alms. Their very affliction led to their being used as spectacles for +the amusement of the populace. The degraded state of the masses of the +blind in France attracted the attention of Valentin Hauy. In 1771, at +the annual fair of St Ovid, in Paris, an innkeeper had a group of blind +men attired in a ridiculous manner, decorated with peacock tails, asses' +ears, and pasteboard spectacles without glasses, in which condition they +gave a burlesque concert, for the profit of their employer. This sad +scene was repeated day after day, and greeted with loud laughter by the +gaping crowds. Among those who gazed at this outrage to humanity was the +philanthropist Valentin Hauy, who left the disgraceful scene full of +sorrow. "Yes," he said to himself, "I will substitute truth for this +mocking parody. I will make the blind to read, and they shall be enabled +to execute harmonious music." Hauy collected all the information he +could gain respecting the blind, and began teaching a blind boy who had +gained his living by begging at a church door. Encouraged by the +success of his pupil, Hauy collected other blind persons, and in 1785 +founded in Paris the first school for the blind (the Institution +Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles), and commenced the first printing in +raised characters. In 1786, before Louis XVI. and his court at +Versailles, he exhibited the attainments of his pupils in reading, +writing, arithmetic, geography and music, and in the same year published +an account of his methods, entitled _Essai sur l'education des +aveugles_. As the novelty wore off, contributions almost came to an end, +and the Blind School must have ceased to exist, had it not been taken, +in 1791, under the protection of the state. + +The emperor of Russia, and later the dowager empress, having learned of +Hauy's work, invited him to visit St Petersburg for the purpose of +establishing a similar institution in the Russian capital. On his +journey Hauy was invited by the king of Prussia to Charlottenburg. He +took part in the deliberations of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, and +as a result a school was founded there. + +Edward Rushton, a blind man, was the projector of the first institution +for the blind in England--the School for the Indigent Blind, Liverpool. +In 1790 Rushton suggested to the literary and philosophical society of +which he was a member, the establishment of a benefit club for the +indigent blind. The idea was communicated to his friend, J. Christie, a +blind musician, and the latter thought the scheme should also include +the instruction of young blind persons. They circulated letters amongst +individuals who would be likely to give their assistance, and the Rev. +Henry Dannett warmly advocated the undertaking. It was mainly due to his +co-operation and zeal that Messrs Rushton and Christie's plan was +carried out, and the Liverpool asylum was opened in 1791. Thomas +Blacklock of Edinburgh, a blind poet and scholar, translated Hauy's work +on the _Education of the Blind_. He interested Mr David Millar, a blind +gentleman, the Rev. David Johnston and others in the subject, and after +Blacklock's death the Edinburgh Asylum for the Relief of the Indigent +and Industrious Blind was established (1793). Institutions were +established in the United Kingdom in the following order:-- + + School for the Indigent Blind, Liverpool 1791 + Royal Blind Asylum, Edinburgh 1793 + Bristol Asylum 1793 + School for the Indigent Blind Southwark (now + removed to Leatherhead) 1799 + Norwich Asylum and School 1805 + Richmond Asylum, Dublin 1810 + Aberdeen Asylum 1812 + Molyneux Asylum, Dublin 1815 + Glasgow Asylum and School 1827 + Belfast School 1831 + Wilberforce School, York 1833 + Limerick Asylum 1834 + London Society for Teaching the Blind to Read, St + John's Wood, N. 1838 + Royal Victoria School for the Blind, + Newcastle-on-Tyne 1838 + West of England Institute for the Blind, Exeter 1838 + Henshaw's Blind Asylum, Manchester 1839 + County and City of Cork Asylum 1840 + Catholic Asylum, Liverpool 1841 + Brighton Asylum 1842 + Midland Institute for the Blind, Nottingham 1843 + General Institute for the Blind, Birmingham 1848 + Macan Asylum, Armagh 1854 + St Joseph's Asylum, Dublin 1858 + St Mary's Asylum, Dublin 1858 + Institute for the Blind, Devonport 1860 + South Devon and Cornwall Institute for the Blind, + Plymouth 1860 + School for the Blind, Southsea 1864 + Institute for the Blind, Dundee 1865 + South Wales Institute for the Blind, Swansea 1865 + School for the Blind, Leeds 1866 + College for the Sons of Gentlemen, Worcester 1866 + Northern Counties Institute for the Blind, Inverness 1866 + Royal Normal College and Academy of Music for the + Blind, Upper Norwood 1872 + School for the Blind, Sheffield 1879 + Barclay Home and School for Blind Girls, Brighton 1893 + Homes for Blind Children, Preston 1895 + North Stafford School, Stoke-on-Trent 1897 + + +Many of the early institutions were asylums, and to the present day +schools for the blind are regarded by the public as asylums rather than +as educational establishments. With nearly all these schools workshops +were connected. In 1856 Miss Gilbert, the blind daughter of the bishop +of Chichester, established a workshop in Berners Street, London, and +since that date workshops have been started in many of the provincial +towns. + +After the beginning of the 19th century, institutions for the blind were +established in various parts of Europe. The institution at Vienna was +founded in 1804 by Dr W. Klein, a blind man, and he remained at its head +for fifty years. That of Berlin was established in 1806, Amsterdam, +Prague and Dresden in 1808, Copenhagen in 1811. There are more than 150 +on the European continent, most of them receiving aid from the +government, and being under government supervision. + +The first school for the blind in the United States was founded in +Boston, Mass., chiefly through the efforts of Dr John D. Fisher, a young +physician who visited the French school. It was incorporated in 1829, +and in honour of T.H. Perkins (1764-1854) who gave his mansion to the +institution was named the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts Asylum +(now School) for the Blind. Aid was granted by the state from the +beginning. In 1831 Dr Samuel G. Howe (q.v.) was appointed director, +and held that position for nearly forty-four years; being succeeded by +his son-in-law Michael Anagnos (d. 1906), who established a kindergarten +for the blind at Jamaica Plain, in connexion with the Perkins +Institution. Dr Howe was interested in many charitable and sociological +movements, but his life-work was on behalf of the blind. One of his most +notable achievements was the education of Laura Bridgman (q.v.) who +was deaf, dumb and blind, and this has since led to the education of +Helen Keller and other blind deaf-mutes. The New York Institution was +incorporated in 1831, and the Pennsylvania Institution was founded at +Philadelphia by the Society of Friends in 1833. The Ohio was founded at +Columbus in 1837, Virginia at Staunton in 1839, Kentucky at Louisville +in 1842, Tennessee at Nashville in 1844, and now every state in the +Union makes provision for the education of the blind. + + +STATISTICS + + England and Wales. + +In England and Wales the total number of persons returned in 1901 as +afflicted with blindness was 25,317, being in the proportion of 778 per +million living, or 1 blind person in every 1285 of the population. The +following table shows that the proportion of blind persons to population +has diminished at each successive enumeration since 1851, in which year +particulars of those afflicted in this manner were ascertained for the +first time. It will, however, be noted that, although the decrease in +the proportion of blind in the latest intercensal period was still +considerable, yet the rate of decrease which had obtained between 1871 +and 1891 was not maintained.-- + + +------+-----------+-------------------+-------------------+ + | Year.| Number of | Blind per Million | Persons Living to | + | | Blind. | of the Population | one Blind Person. | + +------+-----------+-------------------+-------------------+ + | 1851 | 18,306 | 1021 | 979 | + | 1861 | 19,352 | 964 | 1037 | + | 1871 | 21,590 | 951 | 1052 | + | 1881 | 22,832 | 879 | 1138 | + | 1891 | 23,467 | 809 | 1236 | + | 1901 | 25,317 | 778 | 1285 | + +------+-----------+-------------------+-------------------+ + +The following table, which gives the proportions of blind per million +living at the earlier age-groups, shows that in the decennium 1891-1901, +as also in recent previous intercensal periods, there was a decrease in +the proportion of blind children in England and Wales generally; it thus +lends support to the contention, in the _General Report_ for 1891, that +the decrease was due either to the lesser prevalence, or to the more +efficient treatment, of purulent ophthalmia and other infantile maladies +which may result in blindness. + + +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Age-Period. | 1851 | 1861 | 1871 | 1881 | 1891 | 1901 | + +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Under 5 years | 198 | 196 | 185 | 166 | 155 | 129 | + | 5-10 | 297 | 256 | 259 | 288 | 188 | 192 | + | 10-15 | 365 | 366 | 359 | " | 290 | 323 | + | 15-20 | 416 | 415 | 404 | 388 | 370 | 239 | + | 20-25 | 481 | 443 | 451 | 422 | 385 | 359 | + +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + | Total under 25 | 339 | 322 | 317 | 298 | 269 | 261 | + +----------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+ + +In 1886 a royal commission on the blind, deaf and dumb was appointed by +the government, and, after taking much valuable evidence, issued an +exhaustive and instructive report. Following on the practical +recommendations submitted by this commission, the Elementary Education +(Blind and Deaf Children) Act 1893, was passed, under which the +education of the blind became for the first time compulsory. In terms of +this statute, the school authorities were made responsible for the +provision of suitable elementary education for blind children up to +sixteen years of age, and grants of L3, 3s. for elementary subjects, and +of L2, 2s. for industrial training, were contributed by the state +towards the cost of educating children in schools certified as efficient +within the meaning of the Elementary Education Act 1876. The principal +aim of the Education Act of 1893 was to supply education in some useful +profession or trade which will enable the blind to earn their livelihood +and to become useful citizens; but the weak spot was that no provision +was made therein for the completion of their education and industrial +training after the age of sixteen. + +In England and Wales, in 1907, there were twenty-four resident schools +and forty-three workshops for the blind. In many of the large towns, day +classes for the education of blind children have been established by +local education authorities. There are forty-six home teaching +societies, who send teachers to visit the blind in their homes, to teach +adults who wish to learn to read, to act as colporteurs, to lend and +exchange useful books, and to act as Scripture readers to those who are +aged and infirm. All the home teaching societies for the blind and many +public libraries lend embossed books. The public library at Oxford has +nearly 400 volumes of classical works for the use of university +students. + +A society was instituted in 1847 by Dr W. Moon for stereotyping and +embossing the Scriptures and other books in "Moon" type. The type has +been adapted to over 400 languages and dialects. After Dr Moon's death +in 1884 the work was carried on by his daughter, Miss Adelaide Moon, and +the books are much used by the adult blind. + +In 1868 Dr T.R. Armitage, being aware of the great improvements which +had been made in the education of the blind in other countries, founded +the British and Foreign Blind Association. This association was formed +for the purpose of promoting the education and employment of the blind, +by ascertaining what had been done in these respects in various +countries, by endeavouring to supply deficiencies where these were found +to exist, and by attempting to bring about greater harmony of action +between the different existing schools and institutions. It gave a new +impetus to the education and training of the blind in the United +Kingdom. At that time their education was in a state of chaos. The +Bible, or a great part of it, had been printed in five different +systems. The founders took as an axiom that the relative merits of the +various methods of education through the sense of touch should be +decided by those and those only who have to rely on this sense. The +council, who were all totally or partially blind, spent two years in +comparing the different systems of embossed print. In 1869 and 1870 Dr +Armitage corresponded with Dr J.R. Russ in regard to the New York Point. +No trouble was spared to arrive at a right conclusion. The Braille +system was finally adopted, and the association at once became a centre +for supplying frames for writing Braille, printed books, maps, music and +other educational apparatus for the blind. All books printed by the +association are printed from stereotyped plates embossed by blind +copyists. About 3000 separate works, varying in length from 1 to 12 +volumes, have been copied by hand to meet the requirements of public +libraries and individuals. About 700 ladies, who give their services, +make the first Braille copy of these books, and they are recopied by +blind scribes, chiefly women and girls, who are paid for their work. + +The National Lending library, London, was founded in 1882. It has over +5500 volumes in Braille and other types. Books are forwarded to all +parts of the United Kingdom. + +There are fourteen magazines published in embossed type in the United +Kingdom. + +There are thirty-six pension societies--the principal are +Hetherington's, Day's, the Clothworkers', the Cordwainers', the National +Blind Relief Society, Royal Blind Pension Society and Indigent Blind +Visiting Society. + +The Gardner Trust administers the income of L300,000 left by Henry +Gardner in 1879. The income is used for instructing the blind in the +profession of music, in suitable trades, handicrafts and professions +other than music, for pensions, and free grants to institutions and +individuals for special purposes. + + + Scotland. + + According to the census of 1901, Scotland had 3253 (or 727 per + million) blind persons, as against 2797 in 1891, but in a paper read + at the conference in Edinburgh, 1906, the superintendent of the + Glasgow Mission to the Out-door Blind stated that there were 758 + employed or being educated in institutions, and 3238 known as + "out-door blind," making a total of 3996. There are in Scotland ten + missions, so distributed as to cover the whole country, and regular + visits are made as far north as the Orkney and Shetland Islands. In + carrying on the work, there are twenty-four paid missionaries or + teachers and a large number of voluntary helpers. These societies + originated in a desire to teach the blind to read in their own homes, + and to provide them with the Scriptures and other religious books, but + the social, intellectual and temporal needs of the blind also receive + a large share of attention. These teachers afford the best means of + circulating embossed literature, therefore the library committee of + the Glasgow corporation has agreed to purchase books and place them in + the mission library instead of in the public library. As the + institutions provide for only a small number of the blind, strenuous + efforts are made by the committee and teachers of missions to find + some employment for the many adults who come under their care. + + In Glasgow, a ladies' auxiliary furnishes work for 150 knitters, and + takes the responsibility of disposing of their work. In Scotland there + are five schools for the young blind, and in connexion with each is a + workshop for adults. In Edinburgh the school is at West Craigmillar, + and the workshop in the city, but both are under the same board of + directors. + + + Ireland. + + According to the census of 1901, there were 4253 totally blind persons + in Ireland, a proportion of 954 per million, as against 1135 in 1891. + Of these, 2430 were over 60 years of age and 11 over 100. These + figures do not include the partially blind, who numbered 1217. The + fact that so many aged blind persons are to be found in Ireland is + doubtless due to an ophthalmic epidemic which occurred during the + Irish famine. There are twelve institutions, a home mission and home + teaching society; nine of these institutions are asylums, that system + having been largely adopted in Ireland. The scarcity of manufacturing + industries, except in a few northern counties, entails a lack of work + suited to the blind. The Elementary Education Act (Blind and Deaf) + does not extend to Ireland. + + The following table gives the number of blind in age-groups in 1901:-- + + +---------------+---------+----------------+---------+ + | Age-Period. | Number. | Age-Period. | Number. | + +---------------+---------+----------------+---------+ + | Under 5 years | 10 | 50-55 | 392 | + | 5-10 | 38 | 55-60 | 314 | + | 10-15 | 64 | 60-65 | 617 | + | 15-20 | 73 | 65-70 | 382 | + | 20-25 | 95 | 70-75 | 540 | + | 25-30 | 116 | 75-80 | 306 | + | 30-35 | 146 | 80-85 | 372 | + | 35-40 | 146 | 85-90 | 118 | + | 40-45 | 205 | 95 and upwards | 95 | + | 45-50 | 224 | | | + +---------------+---------+----------------+---------+ + + + British Colonies. + + In the Dominion of Canada, South Africa, the states of the Australian + Commonwealth and New Zealand, provision is made by the government for + the education of the young blind, and in some cases for training the + adults in handicrafts. Embossed literature is carried free of expense, + and on the Victorian railways no charge is made for the guide who + accompanies a blind person. + + The following were the census returns for 1901:-- + + Victoria 1082 Tasmania 173 + New South Wales 884 New Zealand 274 (1891) + South Australia 315 Natal 68 + Queensland 209 Cape Colony 2802 (1904) + West Australia 121 Canada 3279 + + In Australia there are institutions for the blind at Melbourne, + Sydney, Adelaide, Brighton, Brisbane and Maylands near Perth. In New + Zealand the institution is at Auckland. + + In Cape Colony between 1875 and 1891, there was an extraordinary + increase in blindness, but between 1891 and 1904 the rate per 10,000 + has decreased 23.78%. There is an institution at Worcester for + deaf-mutes and blind, founded in 1881. It is supported by a government + grant, fees and subscription. + + Schools for the blind were established by the Dominion government at + Brantford, Ontario (1871), and Halifax, Nova Scotia (1867). + + In Montreal there are two private institutions, the M'Kay Institute + for Protestant Deaf-Mutes and Blind, and a school for Roman Catholic + children under the charge of the Sisters of Charity. + + + United States. + +In the United States the education of the blind is not regarded as a +charity, but forms part of the educational system of the country, and is +carried on at the public expense. According to the _Annual Report_ of +the Commissioner of Education for 1908, there were 40 state schools, +with 4340 pupils. The value of apparatus, grounds and buildings was +$9,201,161. For salaries and other expenditure, the aggregate was +$1,460,732. The United States government appropriates $10,000 annually +for printing embossed books, which are distributed among the different +state schools for the blind. Beside these state schools, there are +workshops for the blind subsidized by the state government or the +municipality. Commissions composed of able men have recently been +appointed in several of the states to take charge of the affairs of the +blind from infancy to old age. The exhaustive summary of the 12th census +enables these commissions to communicate with every blind person in +their respective states. + +At the 12th census a change was made in the plan for securing the +returns, and the work of the enumerators was restricted to a brief +preliminary return, showing only the name, sex, age, post office +address, and nature of the existing defects in all persons alleged to be +blind or deaf. Dr Alexander Graham Bell, of Washington, D.C., was +appointed expert special agent of the census office for the preparation +of a report on the deaf and blind. He was empowered to conduct in his +own name a correspondence relating to this branch of the census inquiry. +A circular containing eighteen questions was addressed to every blind +person given in the census, and from the data contained in the replies +the following tables (I., II., III., IV.) have been compiled. + +TABLE I.--_The Blind, by Degree of Blindness and Sex._ + + +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+ + | | The | The | The | + | Sex. | Blind. | Totally | Partially | + | | | Blind. | Blind. | + +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+ + | Number-- | | | | + | Total | 64,763 | 35,645 | 29,118 | + | Male | 37,054 | 20,144 | 16,190 | + | Female | 27,709 | 15,501 | 12,208 | + +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+ + | Per cent distribution-- | | | | + | Total | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | + | Male | 57.2 | 56.5 | 58.1 | + | Female | 42.8 | 43.5 | 41.9 | + | | | | | + | Number per 1,000,000 | | | | + | population of same sex-- | | | | + | Both sexes | 852 | 469 | 383 | + | Male | 955 | 519 | 436 | + | Female | 745 | 417 | 328 | + +----------------------------+--------+---------+-----------+ + +TABLE II.--_The Blind, by Degree of Blindness, Age-Periods, Colour and +Nativity._ + + +--------------------------+----------+----------------------------+----------+ + | | | White. | | + | Degree of Blindness and | All +--------+---------+---------+ Coloured.| + | Age-Period. | Classes. | Total. | Native. | Foreign-| | + | | | | | born. | | + +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+ + | Number-- | | | | | | + | The blind | 64,763 | 56,535 | 45,479 | 10,694 | 8228 | + | Under 20 years | 8,308 | 7,252 | 6,937 | 231 | 1056 | + | 20 years and over | 56,165 | 49,067 | 38,388 | 10,420 | 7098 | + | Age unknown | 290 | 216 | 154 | 43 | 74 | + +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+ + | The totally blind | 35,645 | 30,359 | 23,636 | 6,511 | 5286 | + | Under 20 years | 4,123 | 3,543 | 3,377 | 129 | 580 | + | 20 years and over | 31,363 | 26,704 | 20,179 | 6,636 | 4639 | + | Age unknown | 159 | 112 | 80 | 19 | 27 | + +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+ + | The partially blind | 29,118 | 26,176 | 21,843 | 4,183 | 2942 | + | Under 20 years | 4,185 | 3,709 | 3,560 | 102 | 476 | + | 20 years and over | 24,802 | 22,363 | 18,209 | 4,057 | 2439 | + | Age unknown | 131 | 104 | 74 | 24 | 27 | + +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+ + | Number per 1,000,000 | | | | | | + | population of same age--| | | | | | + | The blind | 852 | 846 | 804 | 1,047 | 896 | + | Under 20 years | 247 | 250 | 248 | 215 | 229 | + | 20 years and over | 1,334 | 1,305 | 1,348 | 1,143 | 1574 | + +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+ + | The totally blind | 469 | 454 | 418 | 637 | 576 | + | Under 20 years | 123 | 122 | 121 | 120 | 126 | + | 20 years and over | 745 | 710 | 708 | 698 | 1033 | + +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+ + | The partially blind | 383 | 392 | 386 | 410 | 320 | + | Under 20 years | 124 | 128 | 127 | 95 | 103 | + | 20 years and over | 589 | 595 | 639 | 445 | 541 | + +--------------------------+----------+--------+---------+---------+----------+ + + The enumerators reported a total of 101,123 persons alleged to be + blind as defined in the instructions contained in the schedules, but + this number was greatly reduced as a result of the correspondence + directly with the individuals, 8842 reporting that the alleged defect + did not exist, and 6544 that they were blind only in one eye but were + able to see with the other, and hence did not come within the scope of + the inquiry. No replies were received in 19,884 cases in which + personal schedules were sent, although repeated inquiries were made; + consequently these cases were dropped. In 380 cases the personal + schedules returned were too incomplete for use, and in 75 cases + duplication was discovered. The number of cases remaining for + statistical treatment, after making the eliminations and corrections, + was 64,763, representing 35,645 totally blind, and 29,118 partially + blind. This number, however, can be considered only as the minimum, as + an unknown proportion of the blind were not located by the + enumerators, and doubtless a considerable proportion of the 19,884 + persons who failed to return the personal schedules should be included + in the total. + + "Blindness, either total or partial, is so largely a defect of the + aged, and occurs with so much greater frequency as the age advances + and the population diminishes, that in any comparison of the + proportion of the blind in the general population of different + classes, such as native and foreign-born whites, or white and + coloured, the age distribution of the population of each class should + be constantly borne in mind. The differences in this respect account + for many of the differences in the gross ratios, and it is only when + ratios are compared for classes of population of identical ages that + their relative liability to blindness can be properly inferred." + + Table II. shows the classification, by degree of blindness, of the + blind under twenty years of age, twenty years of age and over, and of + unknown age, with respect to colour and nativity, with the number at + the specified ages per million of population in the same age-group. + + The relationship or consanguinity of parents of the 64,763 blind was + reported in 56,507 cases, in 2527 (or 4.5%) of which the parents were + related as cousins. + + In 57,726 cases the inquiry as to the existence of blind relatives was + answered; 10,967 (or 19%) of this number reported that they had blind + relatives. + + Of the 2527 blind persons whose parents were cousins, 993 (or 39.3%) + had blind relatives,--844 having blind brothers, sisters or ancestors, + and 149 having blind collateral relatives or descendants. + + Of the 53,980 blind whose parents were not related, 9490 (or 17.6%) + had blind relatives, 7395 having blind brothers, sisters or ancestors, + and 2095 having blind collateral relatives or descendants. + + It was found that, of the 2527 blind whose parents were cousins, 632 + (or 25%) were congenitally blind, of whom 350 (or 55.4%) had also + blind relatives of the classes specified; while, among the 53,980 + whose parents were not so related, the number of congenitally blind + was 3666 (or but 6.8%), of whom only 1023 (or 27.9%) had blind + relatives. + + + France. + + In 1883 the number of blind in France was estimated at 32,056, the + total population of the country being 38,000,000; 2548 of the blind + were under, and 29,508 above, 21 years of age; of the former 857 were + receiving instruction in 21 schools supported by the state, by the + city of Paris, by some of the departments, and by some religious + bodies. The four Parisian institutions are the Institution Nationale + des Jeunes Aveugles, the Ecole Braille (founded in 1883), the + Etablissement des Soeurs Aveugles de St Paul (founded in 1852), and + that of the Freres de Saint Jean de Dieu (founded in 1875). + + TABLE III.--_The Blind, by Degree of Blindness and Age-Periods._ + + +--------------------------+----------+----------+-----------+ + | | The | The | The | + | Age-Period. | Blind. | Totally | Partially | + | | | Blind. | Blind. | + +--------------------------+----------+----------+-----------+ + | Number-- | | | | + | All Ages | 64,763 | 35,645 | 29,118 | + | Under 10 years | 2,307 | 1,262 | 1,045 | + | 10-19 years | 6,001 | 2,861 | 3,140 | + | 20-29 " | 4,861 | 2,851 | 2,010 | + | 30-39 " | 5,024 | 3,077 | 1,947 | + | 40-49 " | 6,504 | 3,778 | 2,726 | + | 50-59 " | 8,530 | 4,791 | 3,739 | + | 60-69 " | 10,507 | 5,835 | 4,672 | + | 70-79 " | 11,421 | 6,132 | 5,289 | + | 80-89 " | 7,490 | 3,885 | 3,605 | + | 90-99 " | 1,596 | 851 | 745 | + | 100 years and over | 232 | 163 | 69 | + | Age unknown | 290 | 159 | 131 | + | Number per 1,000,000 | | | | + | population of same age--| | | | + | All ages | 852 | 469 | 383 | + | Under 10 years | 128 | 70 | 58 | + | 10-19 years | 384 | 183 | 201 | + | 20-29 " | 351 | 206 | 145 | + | 30-39 " | 478 | 293 | 185 | + | 40-49 " | 845 | 491 | 354 | + | 50-59 " | 1,655 | 930 | 725 | + | 60-69 " | 3,396 | 1,886 | 1,510 | + | 70-79 " | 8,136 | 4,368 | 3,768 | + | 80-89 " | 22,022 | 11,423 | 10,599 | + | 90-99 " | 52,746 | 28,125 | 24,621 | + | 100 years and over | 66,210 | 46,518 | 19,692 | + | Age unknown | 1,446 | 793 | 653 | + +--------------------------+----------+----------+-----------+ + + + Germany. + + The number of the blind in Germany was about 39,000, or 870 per + million in 1885. The number of institutions was 28, nearly all being + educational, with a total of 2139 pupils. All these institutions, + except two which are supported entirely by private munificence, are + largely assisted by the state, the communes or the provinces. + Seventeen of them derive their entire requirements from the state, so + that they are quite independent of private charity, while the + remainder are only supplemented from public funds so far as the + private contributions fall short of the expenses. + + + Saxony system. + + The following extracts were made from an official communication from + Hofrath Buttner, director of the institution for the blind in Dresden, + to the royal commission, concerning the care and supervision + (_Fursorge_) of the blind after their discharge from the + institution:-- + + "When twenty years of age, the blind are usually discharged from the + institution. Long experience has taught us that the care and + supervision of the blind after their discharge from the institution + are quite as important as their education and training in the + institution. It would, in our opinion, be unjust to remove them from + their sad surroundings, educate and accustom them to higher wants, and + then allow them to sink backward into their former miserable way of + life. After much deliberation it was decided to remain in connexion + with the discharged blind, to visit them in their places of abode, to + learn their wants, to study the difficulties which they experienced in + supporting themselves independently, and, as far as possible, to + remove their grievances. Director Georgi began this work in 1843. + Director Reinhard continued it from 1867 to 1879, and the present + director has followed the same path. With the knowledge of these + difficulties the _Fursorge_ (care) for discharged blind steadily + advanced, and has won the confidence of the Saxon people. It was + decided that, on the discharge of the blind person, the director + should select a trustworthy person, residing in his future place of + abode, to give him advice and practical help, to protect him from + imposition, and to keep up communication with the director. If this + guardian is unable to advise or help, he then writes to the director, + who, if necessary, comes to the place, and this is all the easier as + he travels free on all railways in Saxony. The result of these visits, + as well as all communications from the guardian, the letters from the + blind person, and every document relating to him, are entered in a + register kept at the institution. These guardians are respectable, + benevolent, practical men, capable of procuring custom for their + wards. But there was no doubt that, in spite of these arrangements, + the discharged blind were unable to support themselves without the + assistance of capital, whether in money or outfit. The blind man can + do as good work as the man who can see; but as a rule he does not work + so quickly, and if the man who is not blind has to use every exertion + to support himself and his family, the blind man to do the same + requires some special help, without which he will either not be able + to compete, or will have to lead a life of great privation. + + "The first difficulty when a blind pupil is starting in life is to + provide himself with the necessary tools and material. These the + institution supplies to him, and continues through life to afford him + moral and material help; and by this means the greater part of the + blind are enabled to save money for sickness and old age. Those who + cannot return to their relations cannot at once meet all their + expenses, and the weak and old need special help. A part of the money + for their board and lodging is paid for those who have to be settled + in other places on account of the death or untrustworthiness of their + relatives. + + "The fund for the discharged blind is administered by the director of + the institution. The number of those assisted amounts at present to + about 400, who live respectably in all parts of Saxony, are almost + self-supporting, and feel themselves free men. For, just as a son does + not feel galled by a gift from his father, so they are not ashamed to + receive assistance from their second paternal home, the institution." + + + Holland. + + The number of the blind in Holland, according to the census of the 1st + of December 1869, was 1593, or one in every 2247 of the general + population. The Protestants and Roman Catholics were about equally + balanced. No cognizance was taken of the blind in the census of 1879. + There is only one blind institution, that of Amsterdam, with 60 + pupils, with a preparatory school at Benuchem (with 20 pupils) and an + asylum for adults with 52 inmates (unmarried). Besides these, there + are workshops at Amsterdam, Rotterdam, the Hague, Utrecht and + Middelburg. + + + Denmark. + + According to the census of 1870, there were in Denmark 1249 blind (577 + males and 672 females), or one blind for every 1428 persons. One + institution has been established by government, i.e. the Royal + Institution for the Blind, at Copenhagen; 100 children, aged 10 and + upwards, are here educated. There is a preparatory school for blind + children under 10 years of age, and an asylum for blind females, most + of whom are former pupils of the royal school. An association for + promoting the self-dependence of the blind assists not only former + pupils of the school but every blind man or woman willing and able to + work. + + TABLE IV.--_The Blind, by Consanguinity of Parents, Degree of + Blindness, and Blind Relatives of Other Classes._ + + +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+ + | | | | |No Blind | | + | | | |Collateral|Relatives| | + | Consanguinity | | Blind |Relatives |or Rela- | Not | + | of Parents. | Total. | Brothers,| or De- |tives by |Stated.| + | | |Sisters or|scendants |Marriage | | + | | |Ancestors.| alone, | alone, | | + | | | | Blind. | Blind. | | + +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+ + |All Classes-- | | | | | | + | The blind | 64,763 | 8629 | 2338 | 46,759 | 7037 | + | Totally blind | 35,645 | 4378 | 1215 | 25,349 | 3703 | + | Partially blind | 29,118 | 4251 | 1123 | 20,410 | 3334 | + +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+ + |Parents cousins-- | | | | | | + | The blind | 2,527 | 844 | 149 | 1,456 | 78 | + | Totally blind | 1,291 | 435 | 78 | 739 | 39 | + | Partially blind | 1,236 | 409 | 71 | 717 | 39 | + +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+ + |Parents not cousins--| | | | | | + | The blind | 53,980 | 7395 | 2095 | 43,368 | 1122 | + | Totally blind | 29,892 | 3720 | 1090 | 24,541 | 541 | + | Partially blind | 24,088 | 3675 | 1005 | 18,827 | 581 | + +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+ + |Consanguinity of par-| | | | | | + | ents not stated-- | | | | | | + | The blind | 8,256 | 390 | 94 | 1,935 | 5837 | + | Totally blind | 4,462 | 223 | 47 | 1,069 | 3123 | + | Partially blind | 3,794 | 167 | 47 | 866 | 2714 | + +---------------------+--------+----------+----------+---------+-------+ + + + Sweden. + + The number of blind persons in Sweden, according to the census of + December 1880, was 3723, being at the rate of one blind person for + every 1226 of the general population. At the beginning of the year + 1879, the instruction of the blind in Sweden was completely separated + from that of the deaf and dumb, on the grounds that it hindered the + intellectual development of the blind--a conclusion which experience + shows to be tolerably correct. Since July 1888 the Royal Institution + of the Blind has obtained a new building at Tomteboda, near Stockholm. + + + Norway. + + The law of the 8th of July 1881, concerning the instruction of + abnormal children, has imposed on the state the duty of establishing a + sufficient number of schools for the blind in Norway as well as for + the other abnormal children. All the blind of the country, from 9 + years of age until the age of 21, are compelled to be educated, with a + maximum of 8 years of instruction for each pupil. + + + Finland. + + The census of 1873 showed that in Finland there were 7959 blind in a + total population of about 2,000,000 inhabitants, the proportion + reaching the very high figure of one for every 251 of the total + population. Nevertheless there were only 160 of school age. For these + there are two institutions, one at Helsingfors where the instruction + is given in the Swedish language, and where there are about 12 pupils, + and another at Kuopio, where the instruction is given in the Finnish + language, and where the pupils number about 30. + + + Austria. + + According to information received from the I.R. Central Commission for + Statistics, the number of blind in the provinces represented in the + Austrian Reichsrath amounted to 15,582 in the year 1884. Of these, + 2345 were children up to 15 years of age, namely 433 below 5, 779 from + 5 to 10, and 1113 from 10 to 15 years. The total number of + institutions for blind children in Austria amounts to 8. The blind + children of school age who are not placed in special institutions are + compulsorily taught in the public general free schools, as far as + practicable. The number of blind in the whole dominion of the crown of + St Stephen was 208,391. + + + Italy. + + The number of blind persons in Italy was 21,718, according to the + census of 1881, and those of school age were estimated to form 25% of + the whole, or about 5429 in number. But no special cognizance of the + blind is taken in the government census. There are 20 institutions, + schools and workshops for the blind. + + + Russia. + + Statistics with regard to the number and condition of the blind in the + Russian empire are of a very limited character, and it is only of late + years that any attempt has been made to draw up any accurate returns + with regard to them. The total number of the blind throughout the + empire is generally reckoned at from 160,000 to 200,000, thus making + 1600 to 2000 per million inhabitants. In Russia there are 21 + institutions for the support of the blind. + + + Egypt + + "In Egypt the blind are very numerous in comparison with other + countries, and although no exact statistics are at present obtainable + on this point, it is computed that the proportion is at least one + totally blind person to every 50 of the population. This is + principally the result of acute ophthalmia occurring in infancy, and + it is fostered by the superstitious observance which prevents the + mothers from washing their children from the time of birth until they + are two years old, at which late date only they are weaned. There is + also a great deal of infection carelessly and ignorantly conveyed + direct from eye to eye, by means of unwashed fingers, and this is + accountable for the occurrence of much more eye-disease than any that + may be caused by the proverbial flies. The only employment followed by + the blind, both Mahommedan and Coptic (or native Christian), and that + only to a limited extent, is recitation aloud--the former repeating + portions of the Koran at funerals, and the latter chanting the + church-ritual in their services; the blind girls and women are without + occupation. Practically no education is given to the blind as a class, + and anything which they learn has to be acquired orally by frequent + repetition. The blind were not always so completely neglected, as the + native ecclesiastical authorities (Wakf) gave an annual grant of L2000 + for the continued maintenance of a school for the blind and the deaf + and dumb in Cairo, which taught about 80 day-pupils; the latter years + of the school were passed under the ministry of education, and it was + ultimately discontinued. Such a condition of affairs appealed to Dr + T.R. Armitage, and explains his motive in trying to establish some + proper means for affording the blind in Egypt the necessary scholastic + instruction and other training. In Egypt, as in other countries, it is + occasionally very difficult, and takes some time, to start any + enterprise such as this on a satisfactory and practical footing, and + it was left for Mrs T.R. Armitage to be the means of successfully + carrying out her husband's wishes in this particular. In 1900 Mrs + Armitage asked Dr Kenneth Scott to prepare a scheme for the education + and welfare of the blind in Egypt, on lines suggested to her. This, + through the British and Foreign Blind Association, was submitted to + Queen Victoria, who graciously commanded it to be sent, through the + foreign office, to the khedive, who in mark of approbation and + encouragement generously gave a handsome donation towards its + realization. The Institution for the Blind was established at Zeitoun, + Cairo, early in the year 1901, through funds provided by Mrs T.R. + Armitage. The object of the institution, which is wholly unsectarian + in character, is to educate and train the blind mentally and + physically and in industrial occupations, and at the same time to + improve their moral standard, so that eventually they may become in + great measure, or even completely, self-supporting." (Dr Kenneth + Scott.) + + + India. + + India has a large proportion of blind inhabitants, ranging from one in + 600 in some provinces, to one in 400 in others, with a total of more + than half a million. Until recently, little had been done in the way + of organized effort to educate them, though many of the missionaries + had helped individual cases. At Amritsar a large and well-organized + work for the blind has been carried on for many years. This school has + now been moved to Rajpur, and helps 70 blind women and children. In + 1903 a government school and hospital were established at Bombay as a + memorial to Queen Victoria. Reading, writing, arithmetic, tailoring, + typewriting, carpentering, lathe-work and carpet-weaving are taught. + There are small schools at Parantij, Calcutta, Palancottah, Calicut, + Coorg, Chota-Nagpur, and at Moulmein in Burma. The memorial to Queen + Victoria in Ceylon took the form of work for the blind. J. Knowles, + with the help of L. Garthwaite of the Indian Civil Service, devised a + scheme of oriental Braille, which has been adopted by the British and + Foreign Bible Society for the production of the Scriptures in Eastern + languages. + + + China. + + Blindness is very prevalent in China, and to eye-diseases, neglect and + dirt, must be added leprosy and smallpox as causes. Blind beggars may + be seen on every highway, clamouring for alms. As in India their + pitiful condition attracted the attention of the missionaries. W.H. + Murray, a Scottish missionary in Peking, made a simple and ingenious + adaptation of the Braille symbols to the complicated system of Chinese + printing, in which over 4000 characters are required. It was necessary + to represent at least 408 sounds, and each one was given a + corresponding Braille number. When a pupil reads the number he knows + instantly the sound for which it stands. A school for the blind was + established at Peking, and the version of the Scriptures printed at + Peking can be read in all the provinces where the Northern Mandarin + dialect is spoken (see Miss Gordon Cumming, _The Inventor of the + Numeral Type for China_). A Braille code has recently been arranged + for Mandarin, based on a system of initials and finals, by Miss + Garland of the China Inland Mission. At Foochow there is a large + school for boys and girls in connexion with the Church Missionary + Society. At Ningpo, Amoy, Canton and Fukien work for the blind is + carried on by the missionaries. + + + Japan. + + The blind in Japan have long been trained in massage, acupuncture and + music, and until recently, with few exceptions, none but the blind + engaged in these occupations. From three to five years are required to + become proficient in massage, but a blind person is then able to + support himself. In Yokohama, with a population of half a million, + there are 1000 men and women engaged in massage, and all but about 100 + of these are blind. In 1878 a school for the blind and deaf-mutes was + established in Kyoto, and soon after one in Tokyo. Japan has four + schools for the blind, and seven combined schools for the blind and + deaf-mutes. + + + Palestine. + + As in other Eastern countries, blindness is very prevalent in + Palestine. Ophthalmic hospitals and medical attendance are now + available in the larger towns, and the missionary schools have done + much to inculcate habits of cleanliness, therefore there is a slight + decrease in the number of the blind. The home and school for blind + girls in Jerusalem is the outcome of a day school opened in 1896 by an + American missionary. There is also a small school at Urfa under the + auspices of the American mission in that town. + + +EDUCATION + + Early training. + +As more sensations are received through the eye than through any other +organ, the mind of a blind child is vacant, and the training should +begin early or the mind will degenerate. Indirectly the loss of sight +results in inaction. If no one encourages a blind child to move, he will +sit quietly in a corner, and when he leaves his seat will move timidly +about. This want of activity produces bad physical effects, and further +delays mental growth. The blind are often injured, some of them ruined +for life, through the ignorance and mistaken kindness of their friends +during early childhood. They should be taught to walk, to go up and down +stairs, to wash, dress and feed themselves. + +They should be carefully taught correct postures and attitudes, and to +avoid making grimaces. They should be told the requirements of social +conventions which a seeing child learns through watching his elders. +They have no consciousness that their habits are disagreeable, and the +earlier unsightly mannerisms are corrected the better. It is a fallacy +to suppose that the other senses of the blind are naturally sharper than +those of the seeing. It is only when the senses of hearing and touch +have been cultivated that they partially replace sight, and such +cultivation can begin with very young children. + +Blind children have a stronger claim upon the public for education than +other children, because they start at a disadvantage in life, they carry +a burden in their infirmity, they come mostly of poor parents, and +without special instruction and training they are almost certain to +become a public charge during life. + +Public authorities should adopt the most efficient plan for preparing +blind children to become active, independent men and women, rather than +consider the cheapest and easiest method of educating them. We cannot +afford to give the blind an education that is not the best of its kind +in the trade or profession they will have to follow. There are many +seeing persons with little education who are useful citizens and +successful in various industries, but an uneducated blind person is +helpless, and must become dependent. + +The surroundings of the blind do not favour the development of activity, +self-reliance and independence. Parents and friends find it easier to +attend to the wants and requirements of their blind children than to +teach them to be self-helpful in the common acts of everyday life. A +mistaken kindness leads the friends to guard every movement and prevent +physical exertion. As a rule, the vitality of the blind is much below +the average vitality of seeing persons, and any system of education +which does not recognize and overcome this defect will be a failure. It +is the lack of energy and determination, not the want of sight, that +causes so many failures among the blind. + + + Physical training. + +A practical system of education, which has for its object to make the +blind independent and self-sustaining, must be based upon a +comprehensive course of physical development. A blind man who has +received mechanical training, general education, or musical instruction, +without physical development, is like an engine provided with everything +necessary except motive power. + +Schools for the blind should be provided with well-equipped gymnasia, +and the physical training should include various kinds of mass and +apparatus work. Large and suitable playgrounds are also essential. +Besides a free space where they can run and play, it should have a +supply of swings, tilts, jumping-boards, stilts, chars-a-bancs, +skittle-alleys, &c. Any game that allows of sides being taken adds +greatly to the enjoyment, and is a powerful incentive to play. The +pupils should be encouraged to enter into various competitions, as +walking, running, jumping, leap-frog, sack-racing, shot-pitching, +tug-of-war, &c. Cycling, rowing, swimming and roller-skating are not +only beneficial but most enjoyable. + + + Mental training. + +The subjects in the school curriculum should be varied according to the +age and capacity of the pupils, but those which cultivate the powers of +observation and the perceptive faculties should have a first place. +Object lessons or nature study should have a large share of attention. +Few people realize that a blind child knows nothing of the size, shape +and appearance of common objects that lie beyond the reach of his arm. +When he has once been shown how to learn their characteristics, he will +go on acquiring a knowledge of his surroundings unaided by a teacher. +Again, a careful drill in mental arithmetic, combining accuracy with +rapidity, is essential. A good command of English should be cultivated +by frequent exercises in composition, and by committing to memory +passages of standard prose and poetry. In his secondary course, the +choice of subjects must depend upon his future career. Above all, +stimulate a love of good reading. + + + Early manual training. + +From the earliest years manual dexterity should be cultivated by +kindergarten work, modelling, sewing, knitting and sloyd. Blind children +who have not had the advantage of this early handwork find much more +difficulty when they begin a regular course in technical training. Early +manual training cultivates the perceptive faculties, gives activity to +the body, and prepares the hands and finger for pianoforte-playing, +pianoforte-tuning and handicrafts. + + + Choice of occupation + +Besides a good general education, the blind must have careful and +detailed training in some handicraft, or thorough preparation for some +profession. The trades and professions open to them are few, and if they +fail in one of these they cannot turn quickly to some other line of work. +Those who have charge of their education should avail themselves of the +knowledge that has been gained in all countries, in order to decide +wisely in regard to the trade or occupation for which each pupil should +be prepared. It may be some kind of handicraft, pianoforte-tuning, +school-teaching, or the profession of music; the talent and ability of +each child should be carefully considered before finally deciding his +future occupation. The failure to give the blind a practical education +often means dependence through life. + + + Pianoforte-tuning. + +Pianoforte-tuning as an employment for the blind originated in Paris. +About 1830 Claud Montal and a blind fellow-pupil attempted to tune a +piano. The seeing tuner in charge of the school pianos complained to the +director, and they were forbidden to touch the works, but the two +friends procured an old piano and continued their efforts. Finally, the +director, convinced of their skill, gave them charge of all the school +pianos, and classes were soon started for the other pupils. When Montal +left the institution he encountered great prejudice, but his skill in +tuning became known to the professors of the Conservatoire, and his work +rapidly increased and success was assured. Montal afterwards established +a manufactory, and remained at its head for many years. Tuning is an +excellent employment for the blind, and one in which they have certain +advantages. The seeing who excel in the business go through a long +apprenticeship, and one must give the blind even more careful +preparation. They must work a number of hours daily, under suitable +tuition, for several years. After a careful examination by an expert +pianoforte-tuning authority, every duly qualified tuner should be +furnished with an official certificate of proficiency, and tuners who +cannot take the required examinations ought not to be allowed to impose +upon the public. + + + Musical training. + +Music in its various branches, when properly taught, is the best and +most lucrative employment for the blind. To become successful in the +profession, it is necessary for the blind to have opportunities of +instruction, practice, study, and hearing music equal to those afforded +the seeing, with whom they will have to compete in the open market. If +the blind musician is to rise above mediocrity, systematic musical +instruction in childhood is indispensable, and good instruction will +avail little unless the practice is under constant and judicious +supervision. The musical instruction, in its several branches of +harmony, pianoforte, organ and vocal culture, must be addressed to the +mind, not merely to the ear. This is the only possible method by which +musical training can be made of practical use to the blind. The blind +music teacher or organist must have a well-disciplined mind, capable of +analysing and dealing with music from an intellectual point of view. If +the mental faculties have not been developed and thoroughly disciplined, +the blind musician, however well he may play or sing, will be a failure +as a teacher. The musical instruction must be more thorough, more +analytical, more comprehensive, than corresponding instruction given to +seeing persons. In 1871 Dr Armitage published a book on the education +and employment of the blind, in which he stated that of the blind +musicians trained in the United Kingdom not more than one-half per cent +were able to support themselves, whereas of those trained in the Paris +school 30% supported themselves fully, and 30% partially, by the +profession of music. + + + Royal Normal College. + +To provide a better education and improve the musical training of the +blind, the Royal Normal College was established in 1872.[3] Its object +was to afford the young blind a thorough general and musical education, +to qualify them to earn a living by various intellectual pursuits, +especially as organists, pianists, teachers and pianoforte-tuners. From +the first, the founders of the college maintained that the blind could +only be made self-sustaining by increasing their intelligence, bodily +activity and dexterity, by inculcating business habits, by arousing +their self-respect, and by creating in their minds a belief in the +possibility of future self-maintenance. A kindergarten department was +opened in 1881. In July 1896 Queen's Scholarship examinations were held +at the Royal Normal College, for the first time, for blind students, and +the institution recognized by the Education Department as a training +college for blind school-teachers. + + + Educational needs. + +From the first day a pupil enters school until he finishes his course of +training, care must be taken to implant business habits. Blind children +are allowed to be idle and helpless at home; they do not learn to +appreciate the value of time, and in after years this is one of the most +difficult lessons to inculcate. Having drifted through childhood, they +are content to drift through life. The important habits of punctuality, +regularity and precision should be cultivated in all the arrangements +and requirements. A great effort should be made to lift the blind from +pauperism. As soon as pupils enter a school, all semblance of pauper +origin should be removed. They must be inspired with a desire for +independence and a belief in its possibility. In the public mind +blindness has been so long and closely associated with dependence and +pauperism that schools for the blind, even the most progressive, have +been regarded hitherto as asylums rather than educational +establishments. A sad mistake in the training of the blind is the lack +of an earnest effort to improve their social condition. The fact that +their education has been left to charity has helped to keep them in the +ranks of dependents. + +The question of day-classes versus boarding-schools has been much +discussed. It is claimed by some that a blind child gains more +independence if kept at home and educated in a school with the seeing. +This theory is not verified by practical experience. At home its +blindness makes the child an exception, and often it takes little or no +part in the active duties of everyday life. Again, in a class of seeing +children the blind member is treated as an exception. The memory is +cultivated at the expense of the other faculties, and the facility with +which it recites in certain subjects causes it to make a false estimate +of its attainments. The fundamental principles in different branches are +imperfectly understood, from the failure to follow the illustrations of +the teacher. In the playgrounds, a few irrepressibles join in active +games, but most of the blind children prefer a quiet corner. + +For the sake of economy, schools for deaf-mutes and the blind are +sometimes united. As the requirements of the two classes are entirely +separate and distinct, the union is undesirable, whether for general +education or industrial training. The plan was tried in America, but has +been given up in most of the states. To meet the difficulty of proper +classification with small numbers, blind boys and girls are taught in +the same classes. The acquaintances then made lead to intimacy in later +years and foster intermarriage among the blind. Intermarriage among the +blind is a calamity, both for them and for their children; some who +might have been successful business men are to-day begging in the +streets in consequence of intermarriage. + +In every school or class there will be a certain number of young blind +children who, from neglect, want of food, or other causes, are feeble in +body and defective in intellect; such children are a great burden in any +class or school, and require special treatment and instruction. +Educational authorities should unite and have one or two schools in a +healthful locality for mentally defective blind children. + +More and more, in educational work for the seeing, there is a tendency +to specialize, and thus enable each student to have the best possible +instruction in the subjects that bear most directly on his future +calling. To prepare the blind for self-maintenance, there should be an +equally careful study of the ability of each child. + +A scheme of education which has for its object to make the blind a +self-sustaining class should include: kindergarten schools for children +from 5 to 8 years of age; preparatory schools from 8 to 11; intermediate +schools from 11 to 14. At 14 an intelligent opinion can be formed in +regard to the future career of the pupils. They will fall naturally into +the following categories:--(a) A certain number will succeed better in +handicraft than in any other calling, and should be drafted into a +suitable mechanical school. (b) A few will have special gifts for +general business, and should be educated accordingly. (c) A few will +have the ability and ambition to prepare for the university, and the +special college should afford them the most thorough preparation for the +university examinations. (d) Some will have the necessary talent, +combined with the requisite character and industry, to succeed in the +musical profession; in addition to a liberal education, these should +have musical instruction, equal to that given to the seeing, in the best +schools of music. (e) Some may achieve excellent success as +pianoforte-tuners, and in a pianoforte-tuning school strict business +habits should be cultivated, and the same attention to work required as +is demanded of seeing workmen in well-regulated pianoforte factories. + +The United Kingdom stands almost alone in allowing the education of the +blind to depend upon charity. In the United States, each state +government not only makes liberal provision for the education and +training of the blind, but most of them provide grounds, buildings and a +complete equipment in all departments. Although it costs much more _per +capita_, from L40 to L60 per annum, the blind are as amply provided with +the means of education as the seeing. The government of the United +States appropriates $10,000 per annum for printing embossed books for +the blind. Most of the European countries and the English colonies +provide by taxation for the education of the blind. + + +TYPES + +The earliest authentic records of tangible letters for the blind +describe a plan of engraving the letters upon blocks of wood, the +invention of Francesco Lucas, a Spaniard, who dedicated it to Philip II. +of Spain in the 16th century. In 1640 Pierre Moreau, a writing-master in +Paris, cast a movable leaden type for the use of the blind, but being +without means to carry out his plan, abandoned it. Pins inserted in +cushions were next tried, and large wooden letters. After these came a +contrivance of Du Puiseaux, a blind man, who had metal letters cast and +set them in a small frame with a handle. Whilst these experiments were +going on in France, attempts had also been made in Germany. R. +Weissembourg (a resident of Mannheim), who lost his sight when about +seven years of age, made use of letters cut in cardboard, and afterwards +pricked maps in the same material. By this method he taught Mlle +Paradis, the talented blind musician and the friend of Valentin Hauy. + +To Hauy belongs the honour of being the first to emboss paper as a means +of reading for the blind; his books were embossed in large and small +italics, from movable type set by his pupils. The following is an +account of the origin of his discovery. Hauy's first pupil was Francois +Lesueur, a blind boy whom he found begging at the porch door of St +Germain des Pres. While Lesueur was sorting the papers on his teacher's +desk, he came across a card strongly indented by the types in the press. +The blind lad showed his master he could decipher several letters on the +card. Immediately Hauy traced with the handle of his pen some signs on +paper. The boy read them, and the result was printing in relief, the +greatest of Hauy's discoveries. In 1821 Lady Elizabeth Lowther brought +embossed books and types from Paris, and with the types her son, Sir +Charles Lowther, Bart., printed for his own use the Gospel of St +Matthew. The work of Hauy was taken up by Mr Gall of Edinburgh, Mr +Alston of Glasgow, Dr Howe of Boston, Mr Friedlander of Philadelphia, +and others. In 1827 James Gall of Edinburgh embossed some elementary +works, and published the Gospel of St John in 1834. His plan was to use +the common English letter and replace curves by angles. + +In 1832 the Edinburgh Society of Arts offered a gold medal for the best +method of printing for the blind, and it was awarded to Dr Edmond Fry of +London, whose alphabet consisted of ordinary capital letters without +their small strokes. In 1836 the Rev. W. Taylor of York and John Alston +in Glasgow began to print with Fry's type. Mr Alston's appeal for a +printing fund met with a hearty response, and a grant of L400 was made +by the treasury; in 1838 he completed the New Testament, and at the end +of 1840 the whole Bible was published in embossed print. In 1833 +printing for the blind was commenced in the United States at Boston and +Philadelphia. Dr S.G. Howe in Boston used small English letters without +capitals, angles being employed instead of curves, while J.R. +Friedlander in Philadelphia used only Roman capitals. About 1838 T.M. +Lucas of Bristol, a shorthand writer, and J.H. Frere of Blackheath, each +introduced an alphabet of simpler forms, and based their systems on +stenography. In 1847 Dr Moon of Brighton brought out a system which +partially retains the outline of the Roman letters. This type is easily +read by the adult blind, and is still much used by the home teaching +societies. The preceding methods are all known as line types, but the +one which is now in general use is a point type. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Moon Alphabet.] + +In the early part of the 19th century Captain Charles Barbier, a French +officer, substituted embossed dots for embossed lines. The slate for +writing was also invented by him. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. + +Apparatus for writing Braille. + +Braille Alphabet. The black dots represent the raised points of the sign +in their position in relation to the group of six.] + +Barbier arranged a table of speech sounds, consisting of six lines with +six sounds in each line. His rectangular cell contained two vertical +rows of six points each. The number of points in the left-hand row +indicates in which horizontal line, and that in the right-hand row in +which vertical line, of the printed table the speech sound is to be +found. + +Louis Braille, a pupil and afterwards a professor of the Institution +Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles, Paris, studied all the various methods in +which arbitrary characters were used. Barbier's letter, although it gave +a large number of combinations, was too long to be covered by the finger +in reading, and Louis Braille reduced the number of dots. In 1834 +Braille perfected his system. Dr Armitage considered it was the greatest +advance that had ever been made in the education of the blind. + +The Braille alphabet consists of varying combinations of six dots in an +oblong, of which the vertical side contains three, and the horizontal +two dots. + + . . + . . + . . + +There are 63 possible combinations of these six dots, and after the +letters of the alphabet have been supplied, the remaining signs are used +for punctuation, contractions, &c. + + "For writing, a ruler is used, consisting of a metal bed either + grooved or marked by groups of little pits, each group consisting of + six; over this bed is fitted a brass guide, punched with oblong holes + whose vertical diameter is three-tenths of an inch, while the + horizontal diameter is two-tenths. The pits are arranged in two + parallel lines, and the guide is hinged on the bed in such a way that + when the two are locked together the openings in the guide correspond + exactly to the pits in the bed. The brass guide has a double row of + openings, which enables the writer to write two lines; when these are + written, he shifts his guide downwards until two little pins, which + project from the under surface at its ends, drop into corresponding + holes of a wooden board; then two more lines are written, and this + operation is repeated until the bottom of the page is reached. The + paper is introduced between the frame and the metal bed. The + instrument for writing is a blunt awl, which carries a little cap of + paper before it into the grooves or pits of the bed, thereby producing + a series of little pits in the paper on the side next the writer. When + taken out and turned over, little prominences are felt, corresponding + to the pits on the other side. The reading is performed from left to + right, consequently the writing is from right to left; but this + reversal presents no practical difficulty as soon as the pupil had + caught the idea that in reading and writing alike he has to go + _forwards_. + + "The first ten letters, from 'a' to 'j,' are formed in the upper and + middle grooves; the next ten, from 'k' to 't,' are formed by adding + one lower back dot to each letter of the first series; the third row + is formed from the first by adding two lower dots to each letter; the + fourth row, similarly, by adding one lower front dot. + + "The first ten letters, when preceded by the prefix for numbers, stand + for the nine numbers and the cipher. The same signs, written in the + lower and middle grooves, instead of the upper and middle, serve for + punctuation. The seven last letters of each series stand for the seven + musical notes--the first series representing quavers, the second + minims, the third semibreves, the fourth crotchets. Rests, + accidentals, and every other sign used in music can be readily and + clearly expressed without having recourse to the staff of five lines + which forms the basis of ordinary musical notation, and which, though + it has been reproduced tor the blind, can only be considered as + serving to give them an idea of the method employed by the seeing, and + cannot, of course, be written. By means of this dotted system, a blind + man is able to keep memoranda or accounts, write his own music, emboss + his own books from dictation, and carry on correspondence." + +The Braille system for literature and music was brought into general use +in England by Dr T.R. Armitage. Through his wise, untiring zeal and +noble generosity, every blind man, woman and child throughout the +English-speaking world can now obtain not only the best literature, but +the best music. + +In America there are two modifications of the point type, known as New +York point and American braille. In each of these the most frequently +recurring letters are represented by the least number of dots. + +The original Braille is used by the institutions for the blind in the +British empire, European countries, Mexico, Brazil and Egypt. + + +APPLIANCES FOR EDUCATIONAL WORK + +The apparatus for writing point alphabets has already been described. +Frank H. Hall, former superintendent of the School for the Blind, +Jacksonville, Ill., U.S.A., has invented a Braille typewriter and +stereotype maker; the latter embosses metal plates from which any number +of copies can be printed. An automatic Braille-writer has been brought +out in Germany, and William B. Wait (principal of the Institution for +the Blind in New York City) has invented a machine for writing New York +point. These machines are expensive, but A. Wayne of Birmingham has +brought out a cheap and effective Braille-writer. H. Stainsby, secretary +of the Birmingham institution, and Wayne have invented a machine for +writing Braille shorthand. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Arithmetic Board, Pin and Characters. A, Shape +of opening in the board for pin; B and C, pin.] + +Many boards have been constructed to enable the blind to work +arithmetical problems. The one which is most used was invented by the +Rev. W. Taylor. The board has star-shaped openings in which a square pin +fits in eight different positions. The pin has on one end a plain ridge +and on the other a notched ridge; sixteen characters can be formed with +the two ends. The board is also used for algebra, another set of type +furnishing the algebraic symbols. + +Books are prepared with raised geometrical diagrams; figures can be +formed with bent wires on cushions, or on paper with a toothed wheel +attached to one end of a pair of compasses. + +Geography is studied by means of relief maps, manufactured in wood or +paper. The physical maps and globes prepared for seeing children are +used also for the blind. + +Chiefly owing to the unremitting energy and liberality of Dr T.R. +Armitage, in connexion with the British and Foreign Blind Association, +all school appliances for the blind have been greatly improved and +cheapened. + + +EMPLOYMENT + +Reference has been made to the fact that music in its various branches +furnishes the best and most lucrative employment for the blind. But +those who have not the ability, or are too old to be trained for music +or some other profession, must depend upon handicrafts for their +support. The principal ones taught in the various institutions are the +making of baskets, brushes, mats, sacks, ships' fenders, brooms and +mattresses, upholstery, wire-work, chair-caning, wood-chopping, &c. +Females are taught to make fancy baskets and brushes, chair-caning, +knitting, netting, weaving, sewing--hand and machine--crocheting, &c. It +is difficult to find employment for blind girls. It is hoped that +typewriting and massage will prove remunerative. + +The blind, whether educated for the church, trained as teachers, +musicians, pianoforte-tuners, or for any other trade or occupation, +generally require assistance at the outset. They need help in finding +suitable employment, recommendations for establishing a connexion, +pecuniary assistance in providing outfits of books, tools, instruments, +&c., help in the selection and purchase of the best materials at the +lowest wholesale rates, in the sale of their manufactured goods in the +best markets, and if overtaken by reverses, judicious and timely help +towards a fresh start. Every institution should keep in touch with its +old pupils. The superintendent who carefully studies the successes and +failures of his pupils when they go into the world, will more wisely +direct the work and energies of his present and future students. + +Within recent years great improvements have been made in some of the +progressive workshops for the blind. At the conference in London in 1902 +Mr T. Stoddart gave the following information in regard to the work in +Glasgow:--"We are building very extensive additions to our workshops, +which will enable us to accommodate 600 blind people. We mean to employ +the most up-to-date methods, and are introducing electric power to drive +the machinery and light the workshops. We have to do with the average +blind adult recently deprived of sight after he has attained an age of +from 25 to 40 or even 50 years. In Glasgow we have developed an industry +eminently suitable for the employment of the blind, namely, the +manufacture of new and the remaking of old bedding. There are industries +which are purely local, where certain articles of manufacture largely +used in one district are useless, or nearly so, in another; but the +field in which this industry may be promoted is practically without +limit. It is perhaps the employment _par excellence_ for the blind, and +among other advantages it has the following to recommend it: employment +is provided for the blind of both sexes and of all ages; there is no +accumulation nor deterioration of stock; it yields an excellent profit, +and its use is universal. We have been pushing this industry for years, +our annual turnover in this particular department having exceeded L7000, +and as we find it so suited to the capabilities of all grades of blind +people, it is our intention to provide facilities for doing a turnover +of three times that amount. Instead of the thirty sewing-machines which +we have at present running by power, we hope to employ 100 blind women. +At cork-fender-making, also an industry of the most suitable kind, we +are at present employing about thirty workers. It is also our intention +to greatly develop and extend our mat-making department." + +In the United States many blind persons are engaged in agricultural +pursuits, and some are very successful in commercial pursuits. When a +man loses his sight in adult life, if he can possibly follow the +business in which he has previously been engaged, it is the best course +for him. In the present day, work in manufactories is subdivided to such +an extent that often some one portion can be done by a blind person; but +it needs the interest of some enthusiastic believer in the capabilities +of the blind to persuade the seeing manager that blind people can be +safely employed in factories. + +In England, at the time of the royal commission of 1889, upwards of 8000 +blind persons, above the age of 21, were in receipt of relief from the +guardians, of whom no less than 3278 were resident in workhouses or +workhouse infirmaries. The census returns for 1901 indicate that the +number at that time was equally large. It would certainly be more +economical to establish workshops where the able-bodied adult blind can +be trained in some handicraft and employed. + +The papers read at the various conferences show that, even under the +most favourable circumstances, some are not able to earn enough for +their support; nevertheless, employment improves their condition; there +is no greater calamity than to live a life of compulsory idleness in +total darkness. The cry of the blind is not alms but work. One of the +workshops in western America has adopted the motto, "Independence +through Industry," and it should be the aim of every civilized country +to hasten the time when blindness and pauperism shall no longer be +synonymous terms. + + +BIOGRAPHY + +It may be interesting, in conclusion, to mention some of the names of +prominent blind people in history:-- + + Timoleon (c. 410-336 B.C.), a Greek general. + + Aufidius, a Roman senator. + + Bela II. (d. 1141), king of Hungary. + + John, king of Bohemia (1296-1346), killed in the battle of Crecy. + + John Zizca (c. 1376-1424), Bohemian general. + + Basil III. (d. 1462), prince of Moscow. + + Shah Alam (d. 1806), the last of the Great Moguls. + + Diodorus, the instructor of Cicero. + + Didymus of Alexandria (c. 308-395), mathematician, theologian and + linguist. + + Nicase of Malines (d. 1492), professor of law in the university of + Cologne. The degree of doctor of divinity was conferred on him by the + university of Louvain, and the pope granted a dispensation suspending + the law of the Church, that he might be ordained as a priest. + + Ludovico Scapinelli (b. 1585), professor at the universities of + Bologna, Modena and Pisa. + + James Schegkius (d. 1587), professor of philosophy and medicine at + Tubingen. + + Franciscus Salinas, professor of music at the university of Salamanca, + in the 16th century. + + Nicholas Bacon (16th century), doctor of laws in the university of + Brussels. + + Count de Pagan of Avignon (b. 1604), mathematician of note. + + John Milton (1608-1674), the poet. + + Rev. Richard Lucas (1648-1715), prebendary of Westminster. + + Nicholas Saunderson (q.v.; 1682-1739). + + John Stanley (1713-1786), Mus. Bac. Oxon., was born in London in 1713. + At seven he began to study music, and made such rapid progress that he + was appointed organist of All-Hallows, Bread Street, at the age of + eleven. He graduated as Mus. Bac. at Oxford when sixteen, and was + organist of the Temple church at the age of twenty-one. He composed a + number of cantatas, and after the death of Handel he superintended the + performance of Handel's oratorios at Covent Garden. He received the + degree of doctor of music, and was master of the king's band. + + Leonard Euler (1707-1783), the celebrated mathematician and + astronomer. + + John Metcalf (b. 1717), road-builder and contractor. + + Sir John Fielding (d. 1780), eminent lawyer and magistrate. + + Thomas Blacklock (q.v.; 1721-1791), Scottish scholar and poet. + + Francois Huber (1750-1831), Swiss naturalist, noted for his + observations on bees. + + Edward Rushton (b. 1756). At six years of age he entered the Liverpool + free grammar school, and at eleven shipped for his first voyage in a + West India merchantman. On a later voyage he was shipwrecked, and owed + his life to the self-sacrifice of a negro. Rushton and the black man + swam for their lives to a floating cask; the negro reached it first, + saw Rushton about to sink, pushed the cask to the failing lad, and + struck out for the shore, but never reached it. This incident made + Rushton an enthusiastic champion through life of the cause of the + negro. During a voyage to Dominica malignant ophthalmia broke out + among the slave cargo, and Rushton caught the disease by attending + them in the hold when all others refused help. This attack deprived + him of sight, and cut short a promising nautical career at the age of + nineteen. He struggled bravely against difficulties, and besides + entering successfully into various literary engagements, maintained + himself and family as a bookseller. A volume of his poems containing a + memoir was published in 1824. + + Marie Therese von Paradis (b. 1759), the daughter of an imperial + councillor in Vienna. She was a godchild of the empress Marie Therese, + and as her parents possessed rank and wealth, no expense was spared in + her education. Weissembourg, a blind man, was her tutor, and she + learned to spell with letters cut out of pasteboard, and read words + pricked upon cards with pins. She studied the piano with Richter (of + Holland) and Kozeluch. She was a highly esteemed pianist, and Mozart + wrote a concerto for her; she also attained considerable skill on the + organ, in singing and in composition. She made a concert tour of + Europe, visiting the principal courts and everywhere achieving great + success. She remained four months in England, under the patronage of + the queen. On her return to Vienna, through Paris, she met Valentin + Hauy. Towards the close of her life she devoted herself to teaching + singing and the pianoforte with great success. + + James Holman (q.v.; 1786-1857), traveller. + + William H. Prescott (q.v.; 1796-1859), the American historian. + + Several early 19th-century musicians held situations as organists in + London; among them Grenville, Scott, Lockhart, Mather, Stiles and + Warne. + + Louis Braille (1809-1852). In 1819 he went to the school for the blind + in Paris. He became proficient on the organ, and held a post in one of + the Paris churches. While a professor at the Institution Nationale des + Jeunes Aveugles, he perfected his system of point writing. + + Alexander Rodenbach, Belgian statesman. When a member of the chamber + of deputies, in 1836, he introduced and succeeded in establishing by + law the right of blind and deaf-mute children to an education. + + Dr William Moon (1818-1894), the inventor of the type for the blind + which bears his name. + + Rev. W.H. Milburn, D.D. (1823-1903), the American chaplain, known in + the United States as "The Blind Man Eloquent." He often travelled from + thirty to fifty thousand miles a year, speaking and preaching every + day. He was three times chaplain of the House of Representatives, and + in 1893 was chosen to the chaplaincy of the senate. + + Dr T.R. Armitage (b. 1824). After spending his youth on the continent, + he became a medical student, first at King's College, and afterwards + at Paris and Vienna. His career promised to be a brilliant one, but at + the age of thirty-six failing sight caused him to abandon his + profession. For the rest of his life he devoted his time and fortune + to the interests of the blind. He reorganized the Indigent Blind + Visiting Society, endowed its Samaritan fund, founded the British and + Foreign Blind Association, and, in conjunction with the late duke of + Westminster and others, founded the Royal Normal College. + + Elizabeth Gilbert (b. 1826), daughter of the bishop of Chichester. She + lost her sight at the age of three. She was educated at home, and took + her full share of household duties and cares and pleasures. When she + was twenty-seven, she began to consider the condition of the poor + blind of London. She saw some one must befriend those who had been + taught trades, some one who could supply material, give employment or + dispose of the articles manufactured. In 1854 her scheme was started, + and work was given to six men in their own homes, but the number soon + increased. In 1856 a committee was formed, a house converted into a + factory, and the Association for Promoting the General Welfare of the + Blind was founded. + + Rev. George Matheson, D.D. (b. 1842), preacher and writer of the + Church of Scotland. The degree of D.D. was conferred on him by the + university of Edinburgh in 1879, and he was appointed Baird Lecturer + in 1881, and St Giles' Lecturer in 1882. + + Henry Fawcett (1833-1884), professor of political economy at + Cambridge, and postmaster-general. + + W.H. Churchman of Pennsylvania, who was instrumental in establishing + the schools for the blind in Tennessee, Indiana and Wisconsin. + + H.L. Hall, founder of the workshops and home for the blind in + Philadelphia; by his energetic management he raised the standard of + work for the adult blind throughout America. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See also W.H. Levy, _Blindness and the Blind_ (1872); + J. Wilson, _Biography of the Blind_ (1838); Dr T.R. Armitage, + Education and Employment of the Blind (2nd ed., 1882); R.H. Blair, + _Education of the Blind_ (1868); M. Anagnos, _Education of the Blind_ + (1882); H.J. Wilson, _Institutions, Societies and Classes for the + Blind in England and Wales_ (1907); Guillie, _Instruction and + Amusements of the Blind_ (1819); Dr W. Moon, _Light for the Blind_ + (1875); R. Meldrum, _Light on Dark Paths_ (2nd ed., 1891); Dr H. Roth, + _Prevention of Blindness_ (1885), and his _Physical Education of the + Blind_ (1885); _Report of Royal Commission_ (1889); Gavin Douglas, + _Remarkable Blind Persons_ (1829); John Bird, _Social Pathology_ + (1862); M. de la Sizeranne, _The Blind in Useful Avocations_ (Paris, + 1881), _True Mission of Smaller Schools_ (Paris, 1884), _The Blind in + France_ (Paris, 1885), _Two Years' Study and Work for the Blind_ + (Paris, 1890), and _The Blind as seen by a Blind Man_ [translated by + Dr Park Lewis] (Paris, 1893); Dr Emile Javal, _The Blind Man's World_ + [translated by Ernest Thomson] (Paris, 1904); Prof. A. Mell, + _Encyklopadisches Handbuch des Blindenwesens_ (Vienna, 1899). + (F. J. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] There are no late returns for Iceland, but the last available + statistics gave 3400 per million. A paper written in 1903 on + blindness in Egypt stated that 1 in every 50 of the population was + blind. + + [2] Previous returns from Finland have shown a much larger number of + blind persons, but these statistics were supplied by the British + consul in St Petersburg from the last census. + + [3] Its principal (responsible, with Dr Armitage, the duke of + Westminster and others, for its foundation) was Sir F.J. Campbell, + LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.S.A., himself a blind man, who, born in Tennessee, + U.S.A., in 1832, and educated at the Nashville school, and afterwards + in music at Leipzig and Berlin, had from 1858 to 1869 been associated + with Dr Howe at the Perkins Institution, Boston. He was knighted in + 1909. + + + + +BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON (1833- ), American merchant and politician, +was born at Fall River, Massachusetts, on the 26th of January 1833. He +was educated in his native city and in New Orleans, where he early +entered his step-father's counting-house. Returning to Massachusetts in +1849, he became a clerk and subsequently a junior partner in a prominent +Boston commercial house. Later he removed to New York City to establish +a branch of the firm. In 1881 he organized and became president of +Bliss, Fabyan & Company, one of the largest wholesale dry-goods houses +in the country. A consistent advocate of the protective tariff, he was +one of the organizers, and for many years president, of the American +Protective Tariff League. In politics an active Republican, he was +chairman of the Republican state committee in 1887 and 1888, and +contributed much to the success of the Harrison ticket in New York in +the latter year. He was treasurer of the Republican national committee +from 1892 to 1904, and was secretary of the interior in President +McKinley's cabinet from 1897 to 1899. + + + + +BLISTER (a word found in many forms in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. +_Blase_; it is ultimately connected with the same root as in "blow," cf. +"bladder"), a small vesicle filled with serous fluid raised on the skin +by a burn, by rubbing on a hard surface, as on the hand in rowing, or by +other injury; the term is also used of a similar condition of the skin +caused artificially, as a counter-irritant in cases of inflammation, by +the application of mustard, of various kinds of fly (see CANTHARIDES) +and of other vesicatories. Similar small swellings, filled with fluid or +air, on plants and on the surface of steel or paint, &c., are also +called "blisters." + + + + +BLIZZARD (origin probably onomatopoeic, cf. "blast," "bluster"), a +furious wind driving fine particles of choking, blinding snow whirling +in icy clouds. The conditions to which the name was originally given +occur with the northerly winds in rear of the cyclones crossing the +eastern states of America during winter. + + + + +BLOCK, MARK ELIEZER (c. 1723-1799), German naturalist, was born at +Ansbach, of poor Jewish parents, about 1723. After taking his degree as +doctor at Frankfort-on-Oder he established himself as a physician at +Berlin. His first scientific work of importance was an essay on +intestinal worms, which gained a prize from the Academy of Copenhagen, +but he is best known by his important work on fishes (see ICHTHYOLOGY). +Bloch was fifty-six when he began to write on ichthyological subjects. +To begin at his time of life a work in which he intended not only to +give full descriptions of the species known to him from specimens or +drawings, but also to illustrate each species in a style truly +magnificent for his time, was an undertaking the execution of which most +men would have despaired of. Yet he accomplished not only this task, but +even more than he at first contemplated. He died at Carlsbad on the 6th +of August 1799. + + + + +BLOCK, MAURICE (1816-1901), French statistician, was born in Berlin of +Jewish parents on the 18th of February 1816. He studied at Bonn and +Giessen, but settled in Paris, becoming naturalized there. In 1844 he +entered the French ministry of agriculture, becoming in 1852 one of the +heads of the statistical department. He retired in 1862, and thenceforth +devoted himself entirely to statistical studies, which have gained for +him a wide reputation. He was elected a member of the Academie des +Sciences Morales et Politiques in 1880. He died in Paris on the 9th of +January 1901. His principal works are: _Dictionnaire de l'administration +francaise_ (1856); _Statistique de la France_ (1860); _Dictionnaire +general de la politique_ (1862); _L'Europe polilique et sociale_ (1869); +_Traite theorique et pratique de statistique_ (1878); Les Progres de +l'economie politique depuis Adam Smith_ (1890); he also edited from 1856 +_L'Annuaire de l'economie politique et de la statistique_, and wrote in +German _Die Bevolkerung des franzosischen Kaiserreichs_ (1861); Die +Bevolkerung Spaniens und Portugals_ (1861); and _Die Machtstellung der +europaischen Staaten_ (1862). + + + + +BLOCK (from the Fr. _bloc_, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. +_Block_, obstruction, cf. "baulk"), a piece of wood. The word is used in +various senses, e.g. the block upon which people were beheaded, the +block or mould upon which a hat is shaped, a pulley-block, a +printing-block, &c. From the sense of a solid mass comes the expression, +a "block" of houses, i.e. a rectangular space covered with houses and +bounded by four streets. From the sense of "obstruction" comes a "block" +in traffic, a block in any proceedings, and the block system of +signalling on railways. + + + + +BLOCKADE (Fr. _blocus_, Ger. _Blokade_), a term used in maritime +warfare. Originally a blockade by sea was probably nothing more than the +equivalent in maritime warfare of a blockade or siege on land in which +the army investing the blockaded or besieged place is in actual physical +possession of a zone through which it can prevent and forbid ingress and +egress. An attempt to cross such a zone without the consent of the +investing army would be an act of hostility against the besiegers. A +maritime blockade, when it formed part of a siege, would obviously also +be a close blockade, being part of the military cordon drawn round the +besieged place. Even from the first, however, differences would begin to +grow up in the conditions arising out of the operations on land and on +sea. Thus whereas conveying merchandise across military lines would be a +deliberate act of hostility against the investing force, a neutral ship +which had sailed in ignorance of the blockade for the blockaded place +might in good faith cross the blockade line without committing a hostile +act against the investing force. With the development of recognition of +neutral rights the involuntary character of the breach would be taken +into account, and notice to neutral states and to approaching vessels +would come into use. With the employment in warfare of larger vessels in +the place of the more numerous small ones of an earlier age, notice, +moreover, would tend to take the place of _de facto_ investment, and at +a time when communication between governments was still slow and +precarious, such notice would sometimes be given as a possible measure +of belligerent tactics before the blockade could be actually carried +out. Out of these circumstances grew up the abuse of "paper blockades." + +The climax was reached in the "Continental Blockade" decreed by Napoleon +in 1806, which continued till it was abolished by international +agreement in 1812. This blockade forbade all countries under French +dominion or allied with France to have any communication with Great +Britain. Great Britain replied in 1807 by a similar measure. The first +nation to protest against these fictitious blockades was the United +States. Already in 1800 John Marshall, secretary of state, wrote to the +American minister in Great Britain pointing out objections which have +since been universally admitted. In the following interesting passage he +said:-- + + "Ports not effectually blockaded by a force capable of completely + investing them have yet been declared in a state of blockade.... If + the effectiveness of the blockade be dispensed with, then every port + of the belligerent powers may at all times be declared in that state, + and the commerce of neutrals be thereby subjected to universal + capture. But if this principle be strictly adhered to, the capacity to + blockade will be limited by the naval force of the belligerent and, in + consequence, the mischief to neutral commerce cannot be very + extensive. It is, therefore, of the last importance to neutrals that + this principle be maintained unimpaired. I observe that you have + pressed this reasoning on the British minister, who replies that an + occasional absence of a fleet from a blockaded port ought not to + change the state of the place. Whatever force this observation may be + entitled to, where that occasional absence has been produced by an + accident, as a storm, which for a moment blows off a fleet and forces + it from its station, which station it immediately resumes, I am + persuaded that where a part of the fleet is applied, though only for a + time, to other objects or comes into port, the very principle + requiring an effective blockade, which is that the mischief can only + be coextensive with the naval force of the belligerent, requires that + during such temporary absence the commerce to the neutrals to the + place should be free."[1] + + Again in 1803 James Madison wrote to the then American minister in + London:-- + + "The law of nations requires to constitute a blockade that there + should be the presence and position of a force rendering access to the + prohibited place manifestly difficult and dangerous."[2] + +In 1826 and 1827 Great Britain as well as the United States asserted +that blockades in order to be binding must be effective. This became +gradually the recognized view, and when in 1856 the powers represented +at the congress of Paris inserted in the declaration there adopted that +"blockades in order to be binding must be effective, that is to say, +maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access to the coast +of an enemy," they were merely enunciating a rule which neutral states +had already become too powerful to allow belligerents to disregard. + +Blockade is universally admitted to be a belligerent right to which +under international law neutrals are obliged to submit. It is now also +universally admitted that the above-quoted rule of the Declaration of +Paris forms part of international law, independently of the declaration. +Being, however, exclusively a belligerent right, it cannot be exercised +except by a belligerent force. Even a _de facto_ belligerent has the +right to institute a blockade binding on neutrals if it has the means of +making it effective, though the force opposed to it may treat the _de +facto_ belligerent as rebels. + +It is also admitted that, being exclusively a belligerent right, it +cannot be exercised in time of peace, but there has been some +inconsistency in practice (see PACIFIC BLOCKADE) which will probably +lead governments, in order to avoid protests of neutral powers against +belligerent rights being exercised in mere coercive proceedings, to +exercise all the rights of belligerents and carry on _de facto_ war to +entitle them to use violence against neutral infringers. This was done +in the case of the blockade of Venezuela by Great Britain, Germany and +Italy in 1902-1903. + +The points upon which controversy still arises are as to what +constitutes an "effective" blockade and what a sufficient notice of +blockade to warrant the penalties of violation, viz. confiscation of the +ship and of the cargo unless the evidence demonstrates the innocence of +the cargo owners. A blockade to be effective must be maintained by a +sufficient force to prevent the entrance of neutral vessels into the +blockaded port or ports, and it must be duly proclaimed. Subject to +these principles being complied with, "the question of the legitimacy +and effectiveness of a blockade is one of fact to be determined in each +case upon the evidence presented" (Thomas F. Bayard, American secretary +of state, to Messrs Kamer & Co., 19th of February 1889). The British +manual of naval prize law sums up the cases in which a blockade, validly +instituted, ceases to be effectively maintained, as follows:--(1) If the +blockading force abandons its position, unless the abandonment be merely +temporary or caused by stress of weather, or (2) if it be driven away by +the enemy, or (3) if it be negligent in its duties, or (4) if it be +partial in the execution of its duties towards one ship rather than +another, or towards the ships of one nation rather than those of +another. These cases, however, are based on decisions of the British +admiralty court and cannot be relied on absolutely as a statement of +international law. + +As regards notice the following American instructions vere given to +blockading officers in June 1898:-- + + "Neutral vessels are entitled to notification of a blockade before + they can be made prize for its attempted violation. The character of + this notification is not material. It may be actual, as by a vessel of + the blockading force, or _constructive, as by a proclamation of the + government maintaining the blockade, or by common notoriety_. If a + neutral vessel can be shown to have had notice of the blockade in any + way, she is good prize, and should be sent in for adjudication; but + should formal notice not have been given, _the rule of constructive + knowledge arising from notoriety_ should be construed in a manner + liberal to the neutral. + + "Vessels appearing before a blockaded port, having sailed without + notification, are entitled to actual notice by a blockading vessel. + They should be boarded by an officer, who should enter in the ship's + log the fact of such notice, such entry to include the name of the + blockading vessel giving notice, the extent of the blockade, the date + and place, verified by his official signature. The vessel is then to + be set free; and should she again attempt to enter the same or any + other blockaded port as to which she has had notice, she is good + prize. Should it appear from a vessel's clearance that she sailed + after notice of blockade had been communicated to the country of her + port of departure, or _after the fact of blockade had, by a fair + presumption, become commonly known_ at that port, she should be sent + in as a prize." + +The passages in italics are not in accordance with the views held by +other states, which do not recognize the binding character of a +diplomatic notification or of constructive notice from notoriety. + +The subject was brought up at the second Hague Conference (1907). The +Italian and Mexican delegations submitted projects, but after a +declaration by the British delegate in charge of the subject (Sir E. +Satow) that blockade not having been included in the Russian programme, +his government had given him no instructions upon it, the subject, at +his suggestion, was dropped. A _Voeu_, however, was adopted in favour of +formulating rules on all branches of the laws and customs of naval war, +and a convention was agreed to for the establishment of an international +Prize Court (see PRIZE). Under Art. 7 of the latter convention the Court +was to apply the "rules of international law," and in their absence the +"general principles of justice and equity." As soon as possible after +the close of the second Hague Conference the British government took +steps to call a special conference of the maritime powers, which sat +from December 4, 1908 to February 26, 1909. Among the subjects dealt +with was Blockade, the rules relating to which are as follow:-- + + Art. 1. A blockade must not extend beyond the ports and coasts + belonging to or occupied by the enemy. + + Art. 2. In accordance with the Declaration of Paris of 1856, a + blockade, in order to be binding, must be effective--that is to say, + it must be maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access + to the enemy coastline. + + Art. 3. The question whether a blockade is effective is a question of + fact. + + Art. 4. A blockade is not regarded as raised if the blockading force + is temporarily withdrawn on account of stress of weather. + + Art. 5. A blockade must be applied impartially to the ships of all + nations. + + Art. 6. The commander of a blockading force may give permission to a + warship to enter, and subsequently to leave, a blockaded port. + + Art. 7. In circumstances of distress, acknowledged by an officer of + the blockading force, a neutral vessel may enter a place under + blockade and subsequently leave it, provided that she has neither + discharged nor shipped any cargo there. + + Art. 8. A blockade, in order to be binding, must be declared in + accordance with Article 9, and notified in accordance with Articles 11 + and 16. + + Art. 9. A declaration of blockade is made either by the blockading + power or by the naval authorities acting in its name. It specifies (1) + the date when the blockade begins; (2) the geographical limits of the + coastline under blockade; (3) the period within which neutral vessels + may come out. + + Art. 10. If the operations of the blockading power, or of the naval + authorities acting in its name, do not tally with the particulars, + which, in accordance with Article 9 (1) and (2), must be inserted in + the declaration of blockade, the declaration is void, and a new + declaration is necessary in order to make the blockade operative. + + Art. 11. A declaration of blockade is notified: (1) to neutral powers, + by the blockading power by means of a communication addressed to the + governments direct, or to their representatives accredited to it; (2) + to the local authorities, by the officer commanding the blockading + force. The local authorities will, in turn, inform the foreign + consular officers at the port or on the coastline under blockade as + soon as possible. + + Art. 12. The rules as to declaration and notification of blockade + apply to cases where the limits of a blockade are extended, or where a + blockade is re-established after having been raised. + + Art. 13. The voluntary raising of a blockade, as also any restriction + in the limits of a blockade, must be notified in the manner prescribed + by Article 11. + + Art. 14. The liability of a neutral vessel to capture for breach of + blockade is contingent on her knowledge, actual or presumptive, of the + blockade. + + Art. 15. Failing proof to the contrary, knowledge of the blockade is + presumed if the vessel left a neutral port subsequently to the + notification of the blockade to the power to which such port belongs, + provided that such notification was made in sufficient time. + + Art. 16. If a vessel approaching a blockaded port has no knowledge, + actual or presumptive, of the blockade, the notification must be made + to the vessel itself by an officer of one of the ships of the + blockading force. This notification should be entered in the vessel's + logbook, and must state the day and hour, and the geographical + position of the vessel at the time. If through the negligence of the + officer commanding the blockading force no declaration of blockade has + been notified to the local authorities, or if in the declaration, as + notified, no period has been mentioned within which neutral vessels + may come out, a neutral vessel coming out of the blockaded port must + be allowed to pass free. + + Art. 17. Neutral vessels may not be captured for breach of blockade + except within the area of operations of the warships detailed to + render the blockade effective. + + Art. 18. The blockading forces must not bar access to neutral ports or + coasts. + + Art. 19. Whatever may be the ulterior destination of a vessel or of + her cargo, she cannot be captured for breach of blockade, if, at the + moment, she is on her way to a non-blockaded port. + + Art. 20. A vessel which has broken blockade outwards, or which has + attempted to break blockade inwards, is liable to capture so long as + she is pursued by a ship of the blockading force. If the pursuit is + abandoned, or if the blockade is raised, her capture can no longer be + effected. + + Art. 21. A vessel found guilty of breach of blockade is liable to + condemnation. The cargo is also condemned, unless it is proved that at + the time of the shipment of the goods the shipper neither knew nor + could have known of the intention to break the blockade. (T. Ba.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] John Marshall, secretary of state, to Rufus King, minister to + England, 20th of September 1800, Am. State Papers, Class I, For. Rel. + II, No. 181, J.B. Moore, _Digest of International Law_, vii. 788. + + [2] James Madison, secretary of state, to Mr Thornton, 27th of + October 1803, 14 MS. Dom. Let. 215. Moore, _Digest of International + Law_, vii. 789. + + + + +BLOCKHOUSE, in fortification, a small roofed work serving as a fortified +post for a small garrison. The word, common since 1500, is of uncertain +origin, and was applied to what is now called a _fort d'arret_, a +detached fort blocking the access to a landing, channel, pass, bridge or +defile. The modern blockhouse is a building, sometimes of two storeys, +which is loopholed on all sides, and not infrequently, in the case of +two-storey blockhouses, provided with a _machicoulis_ gallery. +Blockhouses are built of wood, brick, stone, corrugated iron or any +material available. During the South African War (1899-1902) they were +often sent from England to the front in ready-made sections. + + + + +BLOEMAERT, ABRAHAM (1564-1651), Dutch painter and engraver, was born at +Gorinchem, the son of an architect. He was first a pupil of Gerrit +Splinter (pupil of Frans Floris) and of Joos de Beer, at Utrecht. He +then spent three years in Paris, studying under several masters, and on +his return to his native country received further training from +Hieronymus Francken. In 1591 he went to Amsterdam, and four years later +settled finally at Utrecht, where he became dean of the Gild of St Luke. +He excelled more as a colourist than as a draughtsman, was extremely +productive, and painted and etched historical and allegorical pictures, +landscapes, still-life, animal pictures and flower pieces. Among his +pupils are his four sons, Hendrick, Frederick, Cornelis and Adriaan (all +of whom achieved considerable reputation as painters or engravers), the +two Honthorsts and Jacob G. Cuyp. + + + + +BLOEMEN, JAN FRANS VAN (1662-1740), Flemish painter, was born at +Antwerp, and studied and lived in Italy. At Rome he was styled Orizonte, +on account of his painting of distance in his landscapes, which are +reminiscent of Gaspard Poussin and much admired. His brothers Pieter +(1657-1719), styled Standaart (from his military pictures), and Norbert +(1670-1746), were also well-known painters. + + + + +BLOEMFONTEIN, capital of the Orange Free State, in 29 deg. 8' S., 26 +deg. 18' E. It is situated on the open veld, surrounded by a few low +kopjes, 4518 ft. above the sea, 105 m. by rail E. by S. of Kimberley, +750 N.E. by E. of Cape Town, 450 N. by E. of Port Elizabeth, and 257 +S.W. of Johannesburg. + +Bloemfontein is a very pleasant town, regularly laid out with streets +running at right angles and a large central market square. Many of the +houses are surrounded by large wooded gardens. Through the town runs the +Bloemspruit. After a disastrous flood in 1904 the course of this spring +was straightened and six stone bridges placed across it. There are +several fine public buildings, mostly built of red brick and a +fine-grained white stone quarried in the neighbourhood. The Raadzaal, a +building in the Renaissance style, faces Market Square. Formerly the +meeting-place of the Orange Free State Raad, it is now the seat of the +provincial council. In front of the old Raadzaal (used as law courts) is +a statue of President Brand. In Douglas Street is an unpretentious +building used in turn as a church, a raadzaal, a court-house and a +museum. In it was signed (1854) the convention which recognized the +independence of the Free State Boers (see ORANGE FREE STATE: _History_). +Among the churches the most important, architecturally, are the Dutch +Reformed, a building with two spires, and the Anglican cathedral, which +has a fine interior. The chief educational establishment is Grey +University College, built 1906-1908 at a cost of L125,000. It stands in +grounds of 300 acres, a mile and a half from the town. In the town is +the original Grey College, founded in 1856 by Sir George Grey, when +governor of Cape Colony. The post and telegraph office in Market Square +is one of the finest buildings in the town. The public library is housed +in a handsome building in Warden Street. Opposite it is the new national +museum. + +Bloemfontein possesses few manufactures, but is the trading centre of +the province. Having a dry healthy climate, it is a favourite +residential town and a resort for invalids, being recommended especially +for pulmonary disease. The mean maximum temperature is 76.7 deg. Fahr., +the mean minimum 45.8 deg.; the mean annual rainfall about 24 in. There +is an excellent water-supply, obtained partly from Bloemspruit, but +principally from the Modder river at Sanna's Post, 22 m. to the east, +and from reservoirs at Moches Dam and Magdepoort. + +The population in 1904 was 33,883, of whom, including the garrison of +3487, 15,501 were white, compared with a white population of 2077 in +1890. The coloured inhabitants are mostly Bechuana and Basuto. Most of +the whites are of British origin, and English is the common language of +all, including the Dutch. + +The _spruit_ or spring which gives its name to the town was called after +one of the emigrant farmers, Jan Bloem. The town dates from 1846, in +which year Major H.D. Warden, then British resident north of the Orange, +selected the site as the seat of his administration. When in 1854 +independence was conferred on the country the town was chosen by the +Boers as the seat of government. It became noted for the intelligence of +its citizens, and for the educational advantages it offered at the time +when education among the Boers was thought of very lightly. In 1892 the +railway connecting it with Cape Town and Johannesburg was completed. +During the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 it was occupied by the British +under Lord Roberts without resistance (13th of March 1900), fourteen +days after the surrender of General Cronje at Paardeberg. In Market +Square on the 28th of the following May the annexation of the Orange +Free State to the British dominions was proclaimed. In 1907 the first +session of the first parliament elected under the constitution granting +the colony self-government was held in Bloemfontein. In 1910 when the +colony became a province of the Union of South Africa under its old +designation of Orange Free State, Bloemfontein was chosen as the seat of +the Supreme Court of South Africa. Its growth as a business centre after +the close of the war in 1902 was very marked. The rateable value +increased from L709,000 in 1901 to L2,400,000 in 1905. + + + + +BLOET, ROBERT (d. 1123), English bishop, was chancellor to William I. +and Rufus. From the latter he received the see of Lincoln (1093) in +succession to Remigius. His private character was indifferent; but he +administered his see with skill and prudence, built largely, and kept a +magnificent household, which served as a training-school even for the +sons of nobles. Bloet was active in assisting Henry I. during the +rebellion of 1102, and became that monarch's justiciar. Latterly, +however, he fell out of favour, and, although he had been very rich, was +impoverished by the fines which the king extorted from him. Perhaps his +wealth was his chief offence in the king's eyes; for he was in +attendance on Henry when seized with his last illness. He was the patron +of the chronicler Henry of Huntingdon, whom he advanced to an +archdeaconry. + + Henry of Huntingdon and W. Malmesbury (_De Gestis Pontificum_) are + original authorities. See E.A. Freeman's _William Rufus_; Sir James + Ramsay, _The Foundations of England_, vol. ii. (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +BLOIS, LOUIS DE (1506-1566), Flemish mystical writer, generally known +under the name of BLOSIUS, was born in October 1506 at the chateau of +Donstienne, near Liege, of an illustrious family to which several +crowned heads were allied. He was educated at the court of the +Netherlands with the future emperor Charles V. of Germany, who remained +to the last his staunch friend. At the age of fourteen he received the +Benedictine habit in the monastery of Liessics in Hainaut, of which he +became abbot in 1530. Charles V. pressed in vain upon him the +archbishopric of Cambrai, but Blosius studiously exerted himself in the +reform of his monastery and in the composition of devotional works. He +died at his monastery on the 7th of January 1566. + +Blosius's works, which were written in Latin, have been translated into +almost every European language, and have appealed not only to Roman +Catholics, but to many English laymen of note, such as W.E. Gladstone +and Lord Coleridge. The best editions of his collected works are the +first edition by J. Frojus (Louvain, 1568), and the Cologne reprints +(1572, 1587). His best-known works are:--the _Institutio Spiritualis_ +(Eng. trans., _A Book of Spiritual Instruction_, London, 1900); +_Consolatio Pusillanimium_ (Eng. trans., _Comfort for the +Faint-Hearted_, London, 1903); _Sacellum Animae Fidelis_ (Eng. trans., +_The Sanctuary of the Faithful Soul_, London, 1905); all these three +works were translated and edited by Father Bertrand Wilberforce, O.P., +and have been reprinted several times; and especially _Speculum +Monachorum_ (French trans. by Felicite de Lamennais, Paris, 1809; Eng. +trans., Paris, 1676; re-edited by Lord Coleridge, London, 1871, 1872, +and inserted in "Paternoster" series, 1901). + + See Georges de Blois, _Louis de Blois, un Benedictin au XVI^eme + siecle_ (Paris, 1875), Eng. trans. by Lady Lovat (London, 1878, &c.). + + + + +BLOIS, a town of central France, capital of the department of +Loir-et-Cher, 35 m. S.W. of Orleans, on the Orleans railway between that +city and Tours. Pop. (1906) 18,457. Situated in a thickly-wooded +district on the right bank of the Loire, it covers the summits and +slopes of two eminences between which runs the principal thoroughfare of +the town named after the philosopher Denis Papin. A bridge of the 18th +century from which it presents the appearance of an amphitheatre, unites +Blois with the suburb of Vienne on the left bank of the river. The +streets of the higher and older part of the town are narrow and +tortuous, and in places so steep that means of ascent is provided by +flights of steps. The famous chateau of the family of Orleans (see +ARCHITECTURE: _Renaissance Architecture in France_), a fine example of +Renaissance architecture, stands on the more westerly of the two hills. +It consists of three main wings, and a fourth and smaller wing, and is +built round a courtyard. The most interesting portion is the north-west +wing, which was erected by Francis I., and contains the room where +Henry, duke of Guise, was assassinated by order of Henry III. The +striking feature of the interior facade is the celebrated spiral +staircase tower, the bays of which, with their beautifully sculptured +balustrades, project into the courtyard (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate VIII. +fig. 84). The north-east wing, in which is the entrance to the castle, +was built by Louis XII. and is called after him; it contains +picture-galleries and a museum. Opposite is the Gaston wing, erected by +Gaston, duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIII., which contains a +majestic domed staircase. In the north corner of the courtyard is the +Salle des Etats, which, together with the donjon in the west corner, +survives from the 13th century. Of the churches of Blois, the cathedral +of St Louis, a building of the end of the 17th century, but in Gothic +style, is surpassed in interest by St Nicolas, once the church of the +abbey of St Laumer, and dating from the 12th and 13th centuries. The +picturesqueness of the town is enhanced by many old mansions, the chief +of which is the Renaissance Hotel d'Alluye, and by numerous fountains, +among which that named after Louis XII. is of very graceful design. The +prefecture, the law court, the corn-market and the fine stud-buildings +are among the chief modern buildings. + +Blois is the seat of a bishop, a prefect, and a court of assizes. It +has a tribunal of first instance, a tribunal of commerce, a board of +trade arbitration, a branch of the Bank of France, a communal college +and training-colleges. The town is a market for the agricultural and +pastoral regions of Beauce and Sologne, and has a considerable trade in +grain, the wines of the Loire valley, and in horses and other +live-stock. It manufactures boots and shoes, biscuits, chocolate, +upholstering materials, furniture, machinery and earthenware, and has +vinegar-works, breweries, leather-works and foundries. + +Though of ancient origin, Blois is first distinctly mentioned by Gregory +of Tours in the 6th century, and was not of any importance till the 9th +century, when it became the seat of a powerful countship (see below). In +1196 Count Louis granted privileges to the townsmen; the commune, which +survived throughout the middle ages, probably dated from this time. The +counts of the Chatillon line resided at Blois more often than their +predecessors, and the oldest parts of the chateau (13th century) were +built by them. In 1429 Joan of Arc made Blois her base of operations for +the relief of Orleans. After his captivity in England, Charles of +Orleans in 1440 took up his residence in the chateau, where in 1462 his +son, afterwards Louis XII., was born. In the 16th century Blois was +often the resort of the French court. Its inhabitants included many +Calvinists, and it was in 1562 and 1567 the scene of struggles between +them and the supporters of the Roman church. In 1576 and 1588 Henry +III., king of France, chose Blois as the meeting-place of the +states-general, and in the latter year he brought about the murders of +Henry, duke of Guise, and his brother, Louis, archbishop of Reims and +cardinal, in the chateau, where their deaths were shortly followed by +that of the queen-mother, Catherine de' Medici. From 1617 to 1619 Marie +de' Medici, wife of King Henry IV., exiled from the court, lived at the +chateau, which was soon afterwards given by Louis XIII. to his brother +Gaston, duke of Orleans, who lived there till his death in 1660. The +bishopric dates from the end of the 17th century. In 1814 Blois was for +a short time the seat of the regency of Marie Louise, wife of Napoleon +I. + + See L. de la Saussaye, _Blois et ses environs_ (1873); _Histoire du + chateau de Blois_ (1873); L. Bergevin et A. Dupre, _Histoire de Blois_ + (1847). + + + + +BLOIS, COUNTSHIP OF. From 865 to about 940 the countship of Blois was +one of those which were held in fee by the margrave of Neustria, Robert +the Strong, and by his successors, the abbot Hugh, Odo (or Eudes), +Robert II. and Hugh the Great. It then passed, about 940 and for nearly +three centuries, to a new family of counts, whose chiefs, at first +vassals of the dukes of France, Hugh the Great and Hugh Capet, became in +987, by the accession of the Capetian dynasty to the throne of France, +the direct vassals of the crown. These new counts were orjginally very +powerful. With the countship of Blois they united, from 940 to 1044, +that of Touraine, and from about 950 to 1218, and afterwards from 1269 +to 1286, the countship of Chartres remained in their possession. + +The counts of Blois of the house of the Theobalds (Thibauds) began with +Theobald I., the Cheat, who became count about 940. He was succeeded by +his son, Odo (Eudes) I., about 975. Theobald II., eldest son of Odo I., +became count in 996, and was succeeded by Odo II., younger son of Odo +I., about 1005. Odo II. was one of the most warlike barons of his time. +With the already considerable domains which he held from his ancestors, +he united the heritage of his kinsman, Stephen I., count of Troyes. In +1033 he disputed the crown of Burgundy with the emperor, Conrad the +Salic, and perished in 1037 while fighting in Lorraine. He was succeeded +in 1037 by his eldest son, Theobald III., who was defeated by the +Angevins in 1044, and was forced to give up the town of Tours and its +dependencies to the count of Anjou. In 1089 Stephen Henry, eldest son of +Theobald III., became count. He took part in the first crusade, fell +into the hands of the Saracens, and died in captivity; he married Adela, +daughter of William I., king of England. In 1102 Stephen Henry was +succeeded by his son, Theobald IV. the Great, who united the countship +of Troyes with his domains in 1128. In 1135, on the death of his +maternal uncle, Henry I., king of England, he was called to Normandy by +the barons of the duchy, but soon renounced his claims on learning that +his younger brother, Stephen, had just been proclaimed king of England. +In 1152 Theobald V. the Good, second son of Theobald IV., became count; +he died in 1191 in Syria, at the siege of Acre. His son Louis succeeded +in 1191, took part in the fourth crusade, and after the taking of +Constantinople was rewarded with the duchy of Nicaea. He was killed at +the battle of Adrianople in 1205, in which year he was succeeded by his +son, Theobald VI. the Young, who died childless. In 1218 the countship +passed to Margaret, eldest daughter of Theobald V., and to Walter +(Gautier) of Avesnes, her third husband. + +The Chatillon branch of the counts of Blois began in 1230 with Mary of +Avesnes, daughter of Margaret of Blois and her husband, Hugh of +Chatillon, count of St Pol. In 1241 her brother, John of Chatillon, +became count of Blois, and was succeeded in 1279 by his daughter, Joan +of Chatillon, who married Peter, count of Alencon, fifth son of Louis +IX., king of France. In 1286 Joan sold the countship of Chartres to the +king of France. Hugh of Chatillon, her first-cousin, became count of +Blois in 1293, and was succeeded by his son, Guy I., in 1307. In 1342 +Louis II., eldest son of Guy I., died at the battle of Crecy, and his +brother, Charles of Blois, disputed the duchy of Brittany with John of +Montfort. Louis III., eldest son of Louis II., became count in 1346, and +was succeeded by John II., second son of Louis II., in 1372. In 1381 Guy +II., brother of Louis III. and John II., succeeded in 1381, but died +childless. Overwhelmed with debt, he had sold the countship of Blois to +Louis I., duke of Orleans, brother of King Charles VI., who took +possession of it in 1397. + +In 1498 the countship of Blois was united with the crown by the +accession of King Louis XII., grandson and second successor of Louis I., +duke of Orleans. + + See Bernier, _Histoire de Blois_ (1682); La Saussaye, _Histoire de la + ville de Blois_ (1846). (A. Lo.) + + + + +BLOMEFIELD, FRANCIS (1705-1752), English topographer of the county of +Norfolk, was born at Fersfield, Norfolk, on the 23rd of July 1705. On +leaving Cambridge in 1727 he was ordained, becoming in 1729 rector of +Hargham, Norfolk, and immediately afterwards rector of Fersfield, his +father's family living. In 1733 he mooted the idea of a history of +Norfolk, for which he had begun collecting material at the age of +fifteen, and shortly afterwards, while collecting further information +for his book, discovered some of the famous _Paston Letters_. By 1736 he +was ready to put some of the results of his researches into type. At the +end of 1739 the first volume of the _History of Norfolk_ was completed. +It was printed at the author's own press, bought specially for the +purpose. The second volume was ready in 1745. There is little doubt that +in compiling his book Blomefield had frequent recourse to the existing +historical collections of Le Neve, Kirkpatrick and Tanner, his own work +being to a large extent one of expansion and addition. To Le Neve in +particular a large share of the credit is due. When half-way through his +third volume, Blomefield, who had come up to London in connexion with a +special piece of research, caught smallpox, of which he died on the 16th +of January 1752. The remainder of his work was published posthumously, +and the whole eleven volumes were republished in London between 1805 and +1810. + + + + +BLOMFIELD, SIR ARTHUR WILLIAM (1829-1899), English architect, son of +Bishop C.J. Blomfield, was born on the 6th of March 1829, and educated +at Rugby and Trinity, Cambridge. He was then articled as an architect to +P.C. Hardwick, and subsequently obtained a large practice on his own +account. He became president of the Architectural Association in 1861, +and a fellow (1867) and vice-president (1886) of the Royal Institute of +British Architects. In 1887 he became architect to the Bank of England, +and designed the law courts branch in Fleet Street, and he was +associated with A.E. Street in the building of the law courts. In 1889 +he was knighted. He died on the 30th of October 1899. He was twice +married, and brought up two sons, Charles J. Blomfield and Arthur Conran +Blomfield, to his own profession, of which they became distinguished +representatives. Among the numerous churches which Sir Arthur Blomfield +designed, his work at St Saviour's, Southwark, is a notable example of +his use of revived Gothic, and he was highly regarded as a restorer. + + + + +BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES (1786-1857), English divine, was born on the +29th of May 1786 at Bury St Edmunds. He was educated at the local +grammar school and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he gained the +Browne medals for Latin and Greek odes, and carried off the Craven +scholarship. In 1808 he graduated as third wrangler and first medallist, +and in the following year was elected to a fellowship at Trinity +College. The first-fruits of his scholarship was an edition of the +_Prometheus_ of Aeschylus in 1810; this was followed by editions of the +_Septem contra Thebas, Persae, Choephorae_, and _Agamemnon_, of +Callimachus, and of the fragments of Sappho, Sophron and Alcaeus. +Blomfield, however, soon ceased to devote himself entirely to +scholarship. He had been ordained in 1810, and held in quick succession +the livings of Chesterford, Quarrington, Dunton, Great and Little +Chesterford, and Tuddenham. In 1817 he was appointed private chaplain to +Wm. Howley, bishop of London. In 1819 he was nominated to the rich +living of St Botolph's, Bishopsgate, and in 1822 he became archdeacon of +Colchester. Two years later he was raised to the bishopric of Chester +where he carried through many much-needed reforms. In 1828 he was +translated to the bishopric of London, which he held for twenty-eight +years. During this period his energy and zeal did much to extend the +influence of the church. He was one of the best debaters in the House of +Lords, took a leading position in the action for church reform which +culminated in the ecclesiastical commission, and did much for the +extension of the colonial episcopate; and his genial and kindly nature +made him an invaluable mediator in the controversies arising out of the +tractarian movement. His health at last gave way, and in 1856 he was +permitted to resign his bishopric, retaining Fulham Palace as his +residence, with a pension of L6000 per annum. He died on the 5th of +August 1857. His published works, exclusive of those above mentioned, +consist of charges, sermons, lectures and pamphlets, and of a _Manual of +Private and Family Prayers_. He was a frequent contributor to the +quarterly reviews, chiefly on classical subjects. + + See _Memoirs of Charles James Blomfield, D.D., Bishop of London, with + Selections from his Correspondence_, edited by his son, Alfred + Blomfield (1863); G.E. Biber, _Bishop Blomfield and his Times_ (1857). + + + + +BLOMFIELD, EDWARD VALENTINE (1788-1816), English classical scholar, +brother of Bishop C.J. Blomfield, was born at Bury St Edmunds on the +14th of February 1788. Going to Caius College, Cambridge, he was +thirteenth wrangler in 1811, obtained several of the classical prizes of +the university, and became a fellow and lecturer at Emmanuel College. In +1813 he travelled in Germany and made the acquaintance of some of the +great scholars of Germany. On his return, he published in the _Museum +Criticum_ (No. ii.) an interesting paper on "The Present State of +Classical Literature in Germany." Blomfield is chiefly known by his +translation of Matthiae's _Greek Grammar_ (1819), which was prepared for +the press by his brother. He died on the 9th of October 1816, his early +death depriving Cambridge of one who seemed destined to take a high +place amongst her most brilliant classical scholars. + + See "Memoir of Edward Valentine Blomfield," by Bishop Monk, in _Museum + Criticum_, No. vii. + + + + +BLONDEL, DAVID (1591-1655), French Protestant clergyman, was born at +Chalons-sur-Marne in 1591, and died on the 6th of April 1655. In 1650 he +succeeded G.J. Vossius in the professorship of history at Amsterdam. His +works were very numerous; in some of them he showed a remarkable +critical faculty, as in his dissertation on Pope Joan (1647, 1657), in +which he came to the conclusion, now universally accepted, that the +whole story is a mere myth. Considerable Protestant indignation was +excited against him on account of this book. + + + + +BLONDEL, JACQUES FRANCOIS (1705-1774), French architect, began life as +an architectural engraver, but developed into an architect of +considerable distinction, if of no great originality. As architect to +Louis XV. from 1755 he necessarily did much in the rococo manner, +although it would seem that he conformed to fashion rather than to +artistic conviction. He was among the earliest founders of schools of +architecture in France, and for this he was distinguished by the +Academy; but he is now best remembered by his voluminous work +_L'Architecture francaise_, in which he was the continuator of Marot. +The book is a precious collection of views of famous buildings, many of +which have disappeared or been remodelled. + + + + +BLONDIN (1824-1897), French tight-rope walker and acrobat, was born at +St Omer, France, on the 28th of February 1824. His real name was Jean +Francois Gravelet. When five years old he was sent to the Ecole de +Gymnase at Lyons and, after six months' training as an acrobat, made his +first public appearance as "The Little Wonder." His superior skill and +grace as well as the originality of the settings of his acts, made him a +popular favourite. He especially owed his celebrity and fortune to his +idea of crossing Niagara Falls on a tight-rope, 1100 ft. long, 160 ft. +above the water. This he accomplished, first in 1859, a number of times, +always with different theatric variations: blindfold, in a sack, +trundling a wheelbarrow, on stilts, carrying a man on his back, sitting +down midway while he made and ate an omelette. In 1861 Blondin first +appeared in London, at the Crystal Palace, turning somersaults on stilts +on a rope stretched across the central transept, 170 ft. from the +ground. In 1862 he again gave a series of performances at the Crystal +Palace, and elsewhere in England, and on the continent. After a period +of retirement he reappeared in 1880, his final performance being given +at Belfast in 1896. He died at Ealing, London, on the 19th of February +1897. + + + + +BLOOD, the circulating fluid in the veins and arteries of animals. The +word itself is common to Teutonic languages; the O. Eng. is _blod_, cf. +Gothic _bloth_, Dutch _bloed_, Ger. _Blut_. It is probably ultimately +connected with the root which appears in "blow," "bloom," meaning +flourishing or vigorous. The Gr. word for blood, [Greek: aima], appears +as a prefix _haemo-_ in many compound words. As that on which the life +depends, as the supposed seat of the passions and emotions, and as that +part which a child is believed chiefly to inherit from its parents, the +word "blood" is used in many figurative and transferred senses; thus "to +have his blood," "to fire the blood," "cold blood," "blood-royal," +"half" or "whole blood," &c. The expression "blue blood" is from the +Spanish _sangre azul._ The nobles of Castile claimed to be free from all +admixture with the darker blood of Moors or Jews, a proof being supposed +to lie in the blue veins that showed in their fairer skins. The common +English expletive "bloody," used as an adjective or adverb, has been +given many fanciful origins; it has been supposed to be a contraction of +"by our Lady," or an adaptation of the oath common during the 17th +century, "'sblood," a contraction of "God's blood." The exact origin of +the expression is not quite clear, but it is certainly merely an +application of the adjective formed from "blood." The _New English +Dictionary_ suggests that it refers to the use of "blood" for a young +rowdy of aristocratic birth, which was common at the end of the 17th +century, and later became synonymous with "dandy," "buck," &c.; "bloody +drunk" meant therefore "drunk as a blood," "drunk as a lord." The +expression came into common colloquial use as a mere intensive, and was +so used till the middle of the 18th century. There can be little doubt +that the use of the word has been considerably affected by the idea of +blood as the vital principle, and therefore something strong, vigorous, +and parallel as an intensive epithet with such expressions as +"thundering," "awfully" and the like. + + +ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY + +In all living organisms, except the most minute, only a minimum number +of cells can come into immediate contact with the general world, whence +is to be drawn the food supply for the whole organism. Hence those +cells--and they are by far the most numerous--which do not lie on the +food-absorbing surface, must gain their nutriment by some indirect +means. Further, each living cell produces waste products whose +accumulation would speedily prove injurious to the cell, hence they must +be constantly removed from its immediate neighbourhood and indeed from +the organism as a whole. In this instance again, only a few cells can +lie on a surface whence such materials can be directly discharged to the +exterior. Hence the main number of the cells of the organism must depend +upon some mechanism by which the waste products can be carried away from +them to that group of cells whose duty it is to modify them, or +discharge them from the body. These two ends are attained by the aid of +a circulating fluid, a fluid which is constantly flowing past every cell +of the body. From it the cells extract the food materials they require +for their sustenance, and into it they discharge the waste materials +resulting from their activity. This circulating medium is the blood. + +Whilst undoubtedly the two functions of this circulating fluid above +given are the more prominent, there are yet others of great importance. +For instance, it is known that many tissues as a result of their activity +produce certain chemical substances which are of essential importance to +the life of other tissue cells. These substances--_internal secretions_ +as they are termed--are carried to the second tissue by the blood stream. +Again, many instances are known in which two distant tissues communicate +with one another by means of chemical messengers, bodies termed +_hormones_ ([Greek: ormaein], to stir up), which are produced by one +group of cells, and sent to the other group to excite them to activity. +Here, also, the path by which such messengers travel is the blood stream. +A further and most important manner in which the circulating fluid is +utilized in the life of an animal is seen in the way in which it is +employed in protecting the body should it be invaded by micro-organisms. + +Hence it is clear that the blood is of the most vital importance to the +healthy life of the body. But the fact that it is present as a +circulating medium exposes the animal to a great danger, viz. that it +may be lost should any vessel carrying it become ruptured. This is +constantly liable to happen, but to minimize as far as possible any such +loss, the blood is endowed with the peculiar property of _clotting_, +i.e. of setting to a solid or stiff jelly by means of which the orifices +of the torn vessels become plugged and the bleeding stayed. + +The performance of these essential functions depends upon the +maintenance of a continuous flow past all tissue cells, and this is +attained by the circulatory mechanism, consisting of a central pump, the +heart, and a system of ramifying tubes, the arteries, through which the +blood is forced from the heart to every tissue (see VASCULAR SYSTEM). A +second set of tubes, the veins, collects the blood and returns it to the +heart. In many invertebrates the circulating fluid is actually poured +into the tissue spaces from the open terminals of the arteries. From +these spaces it is in turn drained away by the veins. Such a system is +termed a _haemolymph system_ and the circulating fluid the haemolymph. +Here the essential point gained is that the fluid is brought into direct +contact with the tissue cells. In all vertebrates, the ends of the +arteries are united to the commencements of the veins by a plexus of +extremely minute tubes, the capillaries, consequently the blood is +always retained within closed tubes and never comes into contact with +the tissue cells. It is while passing through the capillaries that the +blood performs its work; here the blood stream is at its slowest and is +brought nearest to the tissue cell, only being separated from it by the +extremely thin wall of the capillary and by an equally thin layer of +fluid. Through this narrow barrier the interchanges between cell and +blood take place. + +The advantage gained in the vertebrate animal by retaining the blood in +a closed system of tubes lies in the great diminution of resistance to +the flow of blood, and the consequent great increase in rate of flow +past the tissue cells. Hence any food stuffs which can travel quickly +through the capillary wall to the tissue cell outside can be supplied in +proportionately greater quantity within a given time, without requiring +any very great increase in the concentration of that substance in the +blood. Conversely, any highly diffusible substance may be withdrawn +from the tissues by the blood at a similarly increased pace. These +conditions are more peculiarly of importance for the supply of oxygen +and the removal of carbonic acid-especially for the former, because the +amount of it which can be carried by the blood is small. But as the rate +at which a tissue lives, _i.e_. its activity, depends upon the rate of +its chemical reactions, and as these are fundamentally oxidative, the +more rapidly oxygen is carried to a tissue the more rapidly it can live, +and the greater the amount of work it can perform within a given time. +The rate of supply is of much less importance in the case of the other +food substances because they are far more soluble in water, so that the +supply in sufficient quantity can easily be met by a relatively slow +blood flow. Hence we find that the gradual evolution of the animal +kingdom goes hand in hand with the gradual development of a greater +oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and an increase in the rate of its +flow. + +In the groundwork of a tissue are a number of spaces--the _tissue +spaces_. They are filled with fluid and intercommunicate freely, finally +connecting with a number of fine tubes, the lymphatics, through which +excess of fluid or any solid particles present are drained away. The +contained fluid acts as an intermediary between the blood and the cell; +from it, the cell takes its various food stuffs, these having in the +first instance been derived from the blood, and into it the cell +discharges its waste products. On the course of the lymphatics a number +of typical structures, the lymphatic glands, are placed, and the lymph +has to pass through these structures where any deleterious products are +retained, and the fluid thus purified is drained away by further +lymphatics and finally returned to the blood. Thus there is a second +stream of fluid from the tissues, but one vastly slower than that of the +blood. The flow is too slow for it to act as the vehicle for the removal +of those waste products (carbonic acid, &c.) which must of necessity be +removed quickly. These must be removed by the blood. The same is true +for the main number of other waste products, which, however, being of +small molecular size are readily absorbed into the blood stream. + +But in addition to fluid, the tissue spaces may at times be found to +contain solid matter in the form of particles, which may represent the +debris of destroyed cells, or which are, as is quite commonly the case, +micro-organisms. Apparently such material cannot be removed from a +tissue by absorption into the blood stream--indeed in the case of living +organisms such an absorption would in many instances rapidly prove +fatal, and special provision is made to prevent such an accident. These, +therefore, are made to travel along the lymphatic channels, and so, +before gaining access to the blood stream and thus to the body +generally, have to run the gauntlet of the protective mechanism provided +by the lymphatic glands, where in the major number of cases they are +readily destroyed. + +Hence we see that first and foremost we have to regard the blood as a +food-carrier to all the cells of the body; in the second place as the +vehicle carrying away most if not all the waste products; in a third +direction, it is acting as a means for transmitting chemical substances +manufactured in one tissue to distant cells of the body for whose +nutrition or excitation they may be essential; and in addition to these +important functions there is yet another whose value it is almost +impossible to overestimate, for it plays the essential role in rendering +the animal immune to the attacks of invading organisms. The question of +immunity is discussed elsewhere, and it is sufficient merely to indicate +the chief means by which the blood subserves this essential protective +mechanism. Should living organisms find their way into the surface cells +or within the tissue spaces, the body fights them in a number of ways, +(1) It may produce one or more chemical substances capable of +neutralizing the toxic material produced by the organism. (2) It may +produce chemical substances which act as poisons to the micro-organism, +either paralysing it or actually killing it. Or (3) the organism may be +attacked and taken up into the body of wandering cells, _e.g_. certain +of the leucocytes, and then digested by them. Such cells are therefore +called phagocytes ([Greek: Phagein], to eat). Thus, by its power of +reacting in these ways the body has become capable of withstanding the +attacks of many different varieties of micro-organisms, of both animal +and vegetable origin. + +_General Properties._--Blood is an opaque, viscid liquid of bright red +colour possessing a distinct and characteristic odour, especially when +warm. Its opacity is due to the presence of a very large number of solid +particles, the blood corpuscles, having a higher refractive index than +that of the liquid in which they float. The specific gravity in man +averages about 1.055. The specific gravity of the liquid portion, the +plasma (Gr. [Greek: plasma], something formed or moulded, [Greek: +plassein], to mould), is about 1.027, whilst that of the corpuscles +amounts to 1.088. To litmus it reacts as a weak alkali. + +_Blood Plasma._--The plasma is a solution in water of a varied number of +substances, and as a solvent it confers on the blood its power of acting +as a carrier of food stuffs and waste products. One important food +substance, oxygen, is, however, only partly carried in solution, being +mainly combined with haemoglobin in the red corpuscles. The food stuffs +carried by the plasma are proteins, carbohydrates, salts and water. The +main waste products dissolved in it are ammonium carbonate, urea, +urates, xanthin bases, creatin and small amounts of other nitrogenous +bodies, carbonic acid as carbonates, other carbon compounds such as +cholesterin, lecithin and a number of other substances. Thus, if we take +mammalian blood as a type, the plasma would have the following +approximate composition:-- + + In 1000 grms. plasma-- + Water 901.51 + Substances not vaporizing at 120 deg. C.-- + Fibrin 8.06 + Other proteins and organic substances 81.92 + Inorganic substances-- + Chlorine 3.536 + Sulphuric acid 0.129 + Phosphoric acid 0.145 + Potassium 0.314 + Sodium 3.410 + Calcium 0.298 + Magnesium 0.218 + Oxygen 0.455 + ----- 8.505 + ----- 98.49 + ------- + 1000.00 + +_Proteins._--The proteins of the blood plasma belong to the two classes +of the albumins and the globulins. The globulins present are named +fibrinogen and serum-globulin; as its name implies, the chief +physiological property of fibrinogen is that it can give rise to fibrin, +the solid substance formed when blood clots. It possesses the typical +properties of a globulin, i.e. it coagulates on heating (in this +instance at a temperature of 56 deg.C.), and is precipitated by half +saturating its solution with ammonium sulphate. It differs from other +globulins in that it is less soluble. It is only present in very small +quantities, 0.4%. The other globulin, serum-globulin, is not coagulated +until 75 deg.C. is reached, and we now know that it is in reality a +mixture of several proteins, but so far these have not been completely +separated from one another and obtained in a pure form. On dialysing a +solution of serum-globulin a part is precipitated, and this portion has +been termed the eu-globulin fraction, the remainder being known, in +contradistinction, as the pseudo-globulin. Again, on diluting a solution +and adding a small amount of acetic acid a precipitate is formed which +in some respects differs from the remainder of the globulin present. +Whether in these two instances we are dealing with approximately pure +substances is extremely doubtful. A further important point in connexion +with the chemistry of the globulins is that dextrose may be found among +their decomposition products, i.e. that a part of it, or possibly the +whole, possesses a glucoside character. + +Serum-albumin gives all the typical colour and precipitation reactions +of the albumins. If plasma be weakly acidified with sulphuric acid, then +treated with crystals of ammonium sulphate until a slight precipitate +forms, filtered and the filtrate allowed to evaporate very slowly, +typical crystals of serum-albumin may form. According to many it is a +uniform and specific substance, but others hold the view that it +consists of at least three distinct substances, as shown by the fact +that if a solution be gradually heated coagulation will occur at three +different temperatures, viz. at 73 deg., 77 deg. and 84 deg. C. On the +other hand the close agreement between different analyses of even the +amorphous preparations points to there being but one serum-albumin. + +When blood clots two new proteins make their appearance in the fluid +part of the blood, or serum, as it is now called. The first of these is +fibrin ferment (for its origin see section on _Clotting_ below). The +other, fibrinoglobulin, possesses all the typical characteristics of the +globulins and coagulates at 64 deg. C. + +_Carbohydrates._--Three several carbohydrates are described as occurring +in plasma, viz. glycogen, animal gum and dextrose. If glycogen is +present in solution in the plasma it is there in very small quantities +only, and has probably arisen from the destruction of the white blood +corpuscles, since some leucocytes undoubtedly contain glycogen. A small +amount of carbohydrate having the formula for starch and yielding a +reducing sugar on hydrolysis with acid has also been described. The +constant carbohydrate constituent of plasma, however, is dextrose. This +is present to the approximate amount of 0.15% in arterial blood. The +amount may be much greater in the blood of the portal vein during +carbohydrate absorption, and according to some observers there is less +in venous than in arterial blood, but the difference is small and falls +within the error of observation. The statement that when no absorption +is taking place the blood of the hepatic vein is richer in dextrose than +that of the portal vein (Bernard) is denied by Pavy. + +_Fats._--Plasma or serum is as a rule quite clear, but after a meal rich +in fats it may become quite milky owing to the presence of neutral fats +in a very fine state of subdivision. This suspended fat rapidly +disappears from the blood after fat absorption has ceased. To some +extent it varies in composition with that of the fat absorbed, but +usually consists of the glycerides of the common fatty acids--palmitic, +stearic and oleic. In addition, there is a small amount of fatty acid in +solution in the plasma. As to the form in which this occurs there is +some uncertainty. It is possibly present as a soap or even as a neutral +fat, since a little can be dissolved in plasma, the solvent substance +being probably protein or cholesterin. Fatty acids also appear to be +present to some extent combined with cholesterin forming cholesterin +esters (about 0.06%). + +_Other Organic Compounds._--In addition to the substances above +described, belonging to the three main classes of food stuffs, there are +still other organic bodies present in plasma in small amounts, which for +convenience we may classify as non-nitrogenous and nitrogenous. Among +the former may be mentioned lactic acid, glycerin, a lipochrome, and +probably many other substances of a similar type whose separation has +not yet been effected. + +The non-protein nitrogenous constituents consist of the following: +ammonia as carbonate or carbamate (0.2 to 0.6%), urea (0.02 to 0.05%), +creatine, creatinine, uric acid, xanthine, hypoxanthine and occasionally +hippuric acid. Three ferments are also described as being present: (1) a +glycolytic ferment exerting an action upon dextrose; (2) a lipase or +fat-splitting ferment; and (3) a diastase capable of converting starch +into sugar. + +_Salts._--The saline constituents of plasma comprise chlorides, +phosphates, carbonates and possibly sulphates, of sodium, potassium, +calcium and magnesium. The most abundant metal is sodium and the most +abundant acid is hydrochloric. These two are present in sufficient +amount to form about 0.65% of sodium chloride. The phosphate is present +to about 0.02%. Sulphuric acid is always present if the blood has been +calcined for the purposes of the analysis, and may then be present to +about 0.013%. This is, however, probably produced during the destruction +of the protein, since it has been shown that no sulphate can be removed +from normal plasma by dialysis. The amount of potassium present (0.03%) +is less than one-tenth of that of the sodium, and the quantities of +calcium and magnesium are even less. + +_Formed Elements._--When viewed under the microscope the main number of +these are seen to be small yellow bodies of very uniform size, size and +shape varying, however, in different animals. When observed in bulk they +have a red colour, their presence in fact giving the typical colour to +blood. These are the _red blood corpuscles_ or _erythrocytes_ (Gr. +[Greek: erythros], red). Mingled with them in the blood are a smaller +number of corpuscles which possess no colour and have therefore been +called _white blood corpuscles_ or _leucocytes_ (Gr. [Greek: leukos], +white). Lastly, there are present a large number of small lens-shaped +structures, less in number than the red corpuscles, and much more +difficult to distinguish. These are known as _blood platelets_. + +_Red Corpuscles._--These are present in very large numbers and, under +normal conditions, all possess exactly the same appearance. With rare +exceptions their shape is that of a biconcave disk with bevelled edges, +the size varying somewhat in different animals, as is seen in the +following table which gives their diameters:-- + + Man 0.0075 mm. + Dog 0.0073 mm. + Rabbit 0.0069 mm. + Cat 0.0065 mm. + Goat 0.0041 mm. + +The coloured corpuscles of amphibia as well as of nearly all vertebrates +below mammals are biconvex and elliptical. The following are the +dimensions of some of the more common:-- + + Pigeon 0.0147 mm. long by 0.0065 mm. wide. + Frog 0.0223 " " 0.0157 " " + Newt 0.0293 " " 0.0195 " " + Proteus 0.0580 " " 0.0350 " " + Amphiuma 0.0770 " " 0.0460 " " + +Their number also varies as follows:-- + + Man 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 per cub. mm. + Goat 9,000,000 to 10,000,000 " " + Sheep 13,000,000 to 14,000,000 " " + Birds 1,000,000 to 4,000,000 " " + Fish 250,000 to 2,000,000 " " + Frog 500,000 per cub. mm. + Proteus 36,000 " " + +In mammals they are apparently homogeneous in structure, have no +nucleus, but possess a thin envelope. Their specific gravity is +distinctly higher than that of the plasma (1.088), so that if clotting +has been prevented, blood on standing yields a large deposit which may +form as much as half the total volume of the blood. + +_Chemical Composition._--On destruction the red corpuscles yield two +chief proteins, haemoglobin and a nucleo-protein, and a number of other +substances similar to those usually obtained on the break-down of any +cellular tissue, such for instance as lecithin, cholesterin and +inorganic salts. The most important protein is the haemoglobin. To it +the corpuscle owes its distinctive property of acting as an oxygen +carrier, for it possesses the power of combining chemically with oxygen +and of yielding up that same oxygen whenever there is a decrease in the +concentration of the oxygen in the solvent. Thus in a given solution of +haemoglobin the amount of it which is combined with oxygen depends +absolutely on the oxygen concentration. The greatest dissociation of +oxyhaemoglobin occurs as the oxygen tension falls from about 40 to 20 +mm. of mercury. That the oxygen forms a definite compound with the +haemoglobin is proved by the fact that haemoglobin thoroughly saturated +with oxygen (oxyhaemoglobin) has a definite absorption spectrum showing +two bands between the D and E lines, whilst haemoglobin from which the +oxygen has been completely removed only gives one band between those +lines. In association with this, oxyhaemoglobin has a typical bright red +colour, whereas haemoglobin is dark purple. A further striking +characteristic of haemoglobin is that it contains iron in its molecule. +The amount present, though small bears a perfectly definite quantitative +relation to the amount of oxygen with which the haemoglobin is capable +of combining (two atoms of oxygen to one of iron). One gram of +haemoglobin crystals can combine with 1.34 cc. of oxygen. On destruction +with an acid or alkali, haemoglobin yields a pigment portion, haematin, +and a protein portion, globin, the latter belonging to the group of the +histones (Gr. [Greek: istos], web, tissue). In this cleavage the iron +is found in the pigment. By the use of a strong acid, it may be made to +yield iron-free pigment, the remainder of the molecule being much +further decomposed. + +_Destruction and Formation._--In the performance of their work the +corpuscles gradually deteriorate. They are then destroyed, chiefly in +the liver, but whether the whole of this process is effected by the +liver alone is not decided. It is proved, however, that the destruction +of the haemoglobin is entirely effected there. It was for a long time +considered to be one of the functions of the spleen to examine the red +corpuscles and to destroy or in some way to mark those no longer fitted +for the performance of their work. It is proved that the destruction of +the haemoglobin is entirely effected in the liver, since both the main +cleavage products may be traced to this organ, which discharges the +pigmentary portion as the bile pigment, but retains the iron-protein +moiety at any rate for a time. The amount of bile pigment eliminated +during the day indicates that the destruction must be considerable, and +since the number of corpuscles does not vary there must be an equivalent +formation of new ones. This takes place in the red bone-marrow, where +special cells are provided for their continuous production. In embryonic +life their formation is effected in another way. Certain mesodermic +cells, resembling those of the connective tissue, collect masses of +haemoglobin, and from these elaborate red blood corpuscles which thus +come to lie in the fluid part of the cell. By a canalization of the +branches of these cells which unite with branches of other cells the +precursors of the blood capillaries are formed. + +_White Blood Corpuscles._--These constitute the second important group +of formed elements in the blood, and number about 12,000 to 20,000 per +cubic mm. They are typical wandering cells carried to all parts of the +body by the blood stream, but often leave that stream and gain the +tissue spaces by passing through the capillary wall. They exist in many +varieties and were first classified according as, under the microscope, +they presented a granular appearance or appeared clear. The cells were +also distinguished from one another according as they possessed fine or +coarse granules. The granules are confined to the protoplasm of the +cell, and it has been shown that they differ chemically, because their +staining properties vary. Thus, some granules select an acid stain, and +the cells containing them are then designated _acidophile_ or +_eosinophile_;[1] other granules select a basic stain and are called +_basophile_, while yet others prefer a neutral stain (_neutrophile_). + +In human blood the following varieties of leucocytes may be +distinguished:-- + +1. _The Polymorphonuclear Cell._--This possesses a nucleus of very +complicated outline and a fair amount of protoplasm filled with numbers +of fine granules which stain with eosin. They vary in size but are +usually about 0.01 mm. in diameter. They are highly amoeboid and +phagocytic, and form about 70% of the total number of leucocytes. + +2. _The Coarsely Granular Eosinophile Cell._--These large cells contain +a number of well-defined granules which stain deeply with acid dyes. The +nucleus is crescentic. The cells amount to about 2% of the total number +of leucocytes, though the proportion varies considerably. They are +actively amoeboid. + +3. _The Lymphocyte._--This is the smallest leucocyte, being only about +0.0065 mm. in diameter. It has a large spherical nucleus with a small +rim of clear protoplasm surrounding it. It forms from 15 to 40% of the +number of leucocytes, and is less markedly amoeboid than the other +varieties. + +4. _The Hyaline_ (Gr. [Greek: hualinos], glassy, crystalline, [Greek: +ualos], glass) _cell or macrocyte_ (Gr. [Greek: makros], long or +large).--This is a cell similar to the last with a spherical, oval or +indented nucleus, but it has much more protoplasm. It constitutes about +4% of all the leucocytes and is highly amoeboid and phagocytic. + +5. _The Basophile Cell_.--This possesses a spherical nucleus and the +protoplasm contains a small number of granules staining deeply with +basic dyes. It is rarely found in the blood of adults except in certain +diseases. + +_Functions._--These cells act as scavengers or as destroyers of living +organisms that may have gained access to the tissue spaces. They play an +important part in the chemical processes underlying the phenomena of +immunity, and some at least are of importance in starting the process of +clotting. + +They are constantly suffering destruction in the performance of their +work. Many, too, are lost to the body by their passage through the +different mucous surfaces. Their origin is still obscure in many points. +The lymphocytes are derived from lymphoid tissue, wherever it exists in +the different parts of the body. The polymorphonuclear and eosinophile +cells are derived from the bone-marrow, each by division of specific +mother cells located in that tissue. The macrocyte is believed by many +to represent a further stage in the development of the lymphocyte. Their +rate of formation may be influenced by a variety of conditions--for +instance, they are found to vary in number according to the diet and +also, to a considerable extent, in disease. + +_Platelets._--The platelets or thrombocytes (Gr. [Greek: thrombos], +clot) are the third class of formed elements occurring in mammalian +blood. There are still, however, many observers who consider that +platelets are not present in the normal circulating blood, but only make +their appearance after it has been shed or otherwise injured. They are +minute lens-shaped structures, and may amount to as many as 800,000 per +cubic mm. Under certain conditions, examination has shown that they are +protoplasmic and amoeboid, and that each one contains a central body of +different staining properties from the remainder of the structure. This +has been regarded by some as a nucleus. On being brought into contact +with a foreign surface they adhere to it firmly, very rapidly passing +through a number of phases resulting ultimately in the formation of +granular debris. In shed blood they tend to collect into groups, and +during clotting, fibrin filaments may be observed to shoot out from +these clumps. + +_Variations in the Blood of different Animals._--If we contrast the +blood of different animals of the vertebrate class we find striking +differences both in microscopic appearances and in chemical properties. +In the first place, the corpuscles vary in amount and in kind. Thus, +whilst in a mammal the corpuscles form 40 to 50% of the total volume of +the blood, in the lower vertebrates the volume is much less, e.g. in +frogs as low as 25% and in fishes even lower. The deficiency is chiefly +in the red corpuscles, the ratio of white to red increasing as we +examine the blood from animals lower in the scale. The corpuscles +themselves are also found to vary, especially the red ones. In the +mammal they are biconcave disks with bevelled edges, they do not contain +a nucleus so that they are not cells. In the bird they are larger, +ellipsoidal in shape and have a large nucleus in the centre of the cell. +In reptiles and amphibia the red corpuscles are also nucleated, but the +_stroma_ portion containing the haemoglobin is arranged in a thickened +annular part encircling the nucleus. When seen from the flat they are +oval in section. In fishes the corpuscles show very much the same +structure. A further very significant difference to be observed between +the bloods of different vertebrates is in the amount of haemoglobin they +contain; thus in the lower classes, fishes and amphibia, not only is the +number of red corpuscles small but the amount of haemoglobin each +corpuscle contains is relatively low. The concentration of the +haemoglobin in the corpuscles attains its maximum in the mammal and the +bird. Since the haemoglobin is practically the same from whatever animal +it is obtained and can only combine with the same amount of oxygen, the +oxygen-capacity of the blood of any vertebrate is in direct proportion +to the amount of haemoglobin it contains. Therefore we see that as we +ascend the scale in the vertebrate series the oxygen-carrying capacity +of the blood rises. This increase was a natural preliminary condition +for the progress of evolution. In order that a more active animal might +be developed the main essential was that the chemical processes of the +cell should be carried out more rapidly, and as these processes are +fundamentally oxidative, increased activity entails an increased rate +of supply of oxygen. This latter has been brought about in the animal +kingdom in two ways, first by an increase in the concentration of the +haemoglobin of the blood effected by an increase both in the number of +corpuscles and in the amount of haemoglobin contained in each, and +secondly by an increase in the rate at which the blood has been made to +pass through the tissues. In the lower vertebrates the blood pressure is +low and the haemoglobin content of the blood is low, consequently both +rate of blood-flow and oxygen-content are low. In contrast with this, in +higher vertebrates the blood pressure is high and the haemoglobin +content of the blood is high, consequently both rate of blood-flow and +oxygen-content are high. We must associate with this important step in +evolution the means employed for the more rapid absorption of oxygen and +for its increased rate of discharge to the tissues, the most important +features of which are a diminution in the size of the corpuscle and the +attainment of its peculiar shape, both resulting in the production of a +relatively enormous corpuscular surface in a unit volume of blood. + +Variations are also found in the white corpuscles as well as in the red, +but these differences are not so striking and lie chiefly in unimportant +details of structure of individual cells. Enormous variations are to be +found in different species of mammals, but the cells generally conform +to the types of secreting cells or phagocytes. + +The platelets also differ in the different species. In the frog, for +instance, many are spindle-shaped and contain a nucleus-like structure. +Birds' blood is stated to contain no platelets. The variations in number +of these bodies have not been satisfactorily ascertained on account of +the difficulties involved in any attempt to preserve them and to render +them visible under the microscope. + +Differences are also found in the chemical composition of the plasma. +The chief variation is in the amount of protein present, which attains +its maximum concentration in birds and mammals, while in reptiles, +amphibia and fishes it is much less. The bloods of the latter two +classes are much more watery than that of the mammal. Moreover, it has +been proved that there are specific differences in the chemical nature +of the various proteins present even between different varieties of +mammals. Thus the ratio of the globulin fraction to the albumin fraction +may vary considerably, and again, one or other of the proteins may be +quite specific for the animal from which it is derived. + +_Clotting._--If a sample of blood be withdrawn from an animal, within a +short time it undergoes a series of changes and becomes converted into a +stiff jelly. It is said to _clot_. If the process is watched it is seen +to start first from the surfaces where it is in contact with any foreign +body; thence it extends through the blood until the whole mass sets +solid. A short time elapses before this process commences--a time +dependent upon two chief conditions, viz. the temperature at which the +blood is kept and the extent of foreign surface with which it is brought +into contact. Thus in a mammal the blood clots most quickly at a +temperature a little above body temperature, while if the blood be +cooled quickly the clotting is considerably delayed and in the case of +some animals altogether prevented. For example, human blood kept at body +temperature clots in three minutes, while if allowed to cool to room +temperature the first sign of clotting may not make its appearance until +eight minutes after its removal from the body. The process of clotting +is also considerably accelerated by making the blood flow in a thin +stream over a wide surface. The full completion of the process occupies +some time if the blood be kept quiet, but ultimately the whole mass of +the blood becomes converted into a solid. At this stage the containing +vessel may be inverted without any drop of fluid escaping. A short time +after this stage has been reached drops of a yellow fluid appear upon +the surface and, increasing in size and number, run together to form a +layer of fluid separated from the clot. This fluid is termed _serum_; +its appearance is due to the contraction of the clot, which thus +squeezes out the fluid from between its solid constituents. Contraction +continues for about twenty-four hours, at the end of which time a large +quantity (one-third or more of the total volume) of serum may have been +separated. The clot contracts uniformly, thus preserving throughout the +same general shape as that of the vessel in which the blood has been +collected. Finally the clot swims freely in the serum which it has +expressed. + +The cause of the clot formation has been found to be the precipitation +of a solid from the liquid plasma of the blood. This solid is in the +form of very minute threads and hence is termed _fibrin_. The threads +traverse the mass of blood in every possible direction, interlacing and +thus confining in their meshes all the solid elements of the blood. Soon +after their deposition they begin to contract, and as the meshwork they +form is very minute they carry with them all the corpuscles of the +blood. These with the fibrin form the shrunken clot. + +If the rate at which blood clots be retarded either by cooling or by +some other process the corpuscles may have time to settle, partially or +completely, in which case distinct layers may form. The lowermost of +these contains chiefly the red corpuscles, the second layer may be grey +owing to the high percentage of leucocytes present, while a third, +marked by opalescence only, may be very rich in platelets. Above these a +clear layer of fluid may be found. This is _plasma_. The formation of +these layers depends solely upon the rate of sedimentation of these +elements, the rate depending partly upon differences in specific +gravity, and partly upon the tendency the corpuscles have to run into +clumps. Horse's blood offers one of the best instances of the clumping +of red corpuscles, and in this animal sedimentation of the red +corpuscles is most rapid. + +If now such a sedimented blood is allowed to clot the process is found +to start in the middle two layers, i.e. in those containing the white +corpuscles and platelets. From these layers it spreads through the rest +of the liquid, being most retarded, however, in the red corpuscle layer, +and particularly so if the sedimentation has been very complete. Not +only does the clotting process start from the layers containing the +leucocytes and platelets, but in them it also proceeds more quickly. +These observations clearly indicate that the clotting process is +initiated by some change starting from these elements. + +The object of the clotting of the blood is quite clear. It is to +prevent, as far as possible, any loss of blood when there is an injury +to an animal's vessels. The shed blood becomes converted into a solid, +and this, extending into the interior of the ruptured vessel, forms a +plug and thus arrests the bleeding. It is found that clotting is +especially accelerated whenever the blood touches a foreign tissue, for +instance, the outer layers of a torn blood-vessel wall, muscle tissue, +&c., i.e. in exactly those conditions in which rapid clotting becomes +of the greatest importance. Yet another very pregnant fact in connexion +with clotting is that if an animal be bled rapidly and the blood +collected in successive samples it is found that those collected last +clot most quickly. Hence the more excessive the haemorrhage in any case, +the greater becomes the onset of the natural cure for the bleeding, viz. +clotting. + +When we begin to inquire into the nature of clotting we have to +determine in the first place whence the fibrin is derived. It has long +been known that two chemical substances at least are requisite for its +production. Thus certain fluids are known, e.g. some samples of +hydrocele or pericardial fluid, which will not clot spontaneously, but +will clot rapidly when a small quantity of serum or of an old blood-clot +is added to it. The constituent substance which is present in the +first-named fluids is known as fibrinogen, and that present in the serum +or the clot is known as fibrin-ferment or _thrombin_. + +Fibrinogen is present in living blood dissolved in the plasma; it is +also present in such fluids as hydrocele or pericardial effusions, +which, though capable of clotting, do not clot spontaneously. Thrombin, +on the other hand, does not exist in living blood, but only makes its +appearance there after blood is shed. It is not yet certain what is the +nature of the final reaction between fibrinogen and thrombin. The +possibilities are, that thrombin may act--(1) by acting upon fibrinogen, +which it in some way converts into fibrin, (2) by uniting with +fibrinogen to form fibrin, or (3) by yielding part of itself to the +fibrinogen which thus becomes converted into fibrin. The experimental +study of the rate of fibrin formation, when different strengths of +thrombin solutions are allowed to act upon a fibrinogen solution, leads +us to the probable conclusion that the first of these three +possibilities is the correct one, and that thrombin therefore exerts a +true ferment action upon fibrinogen. It is known that in the reaction, +in addition to the formation of fibrin, yet another protein makes its +appearance. This is known as fibrinoglobulin, and apparently it arises +from the fibrinogen, so that the change would be one of cleavage into +fibrin and fibrinoglobulin. It is very noteworthy that although the +amount of fibrin formed during the clotting appears very bulky, yet the +actual weight is extremely small, not more than 0.4 grms. from 100 cc. +of blood. + +Having ascertained that the clotting is due to the action of thrombin +upon fibrinogen, we now see that the next step to be explained is the +origin of thrombin. It has been shown that the final step in its +formation consists in the combination of another substance, termed +prothrombin, with calcium. Any soluble calcium salt is found to be +effective in this respect, and conversely the removal of soluble calcium +(e.g. by sodium oxalate) will prevent the formation of thrombin and +therefore of clotting. + +In the next place it can be proved that prothrombin does not exist as +such in circulating blood, so that the problem becomes an inquiry as to +the origin of prothrombin. Experiment has shown that in its turn +prothrombin arises from yet another precursor, which is named +thrombogen, and that thrombogen also is not to be found in circulating +blood but only makes its appearance after the blood is shed. The +conversion of thrombogen into prothrombin has been proved to be due to +the action of a second ferment which has been named thrombokinase, and +this latter is again absent from living blood. Hence the question +arises, whence are derived thrombogen and thrombokinase? In the study of +this question it has been found that if the blood of birds be collected +direct from an artery through a perfectly clean cannula into a clean and +dust-free glass vessel, it does not clot spontaneously. The plasma +collected from such blood is found to contain thrombogen but no +thrombokinase. A somewhat similar plasma may be prepared from a mammal's +blood by collecting samples of blood from an artery into vessels which +have been thoroughly coated with paraffin, though in this instance +thrombogen may be absent as well as thrombokinase. If plasma containing +thrombogen but no thrombokinase be treated with a saline extract of any +tissues it will soon clot. The saline extract contains thrombokinase. +This ferment can therefore be derived from most tissues, including also +the white blood corpuscles and the platelets. Thrombogen is produced +from the leucocytes, but it is not yet certain whether it is also formed +from the platelets. The discovery of the origin of the thrombokinase +from tissue cells explains a fact that has long been known, namely, that +if in collecting blood, it is allowed to flow over cut tissues, clotting +is most markedly accelerated. The fact that birds' blood if very +carefully collected will not clot spontaneously tends to prove that +thrombokinase is not derived from the leucocytes, and makes probable its +origin from the platelets, for it is known that birds' blood apparently +does not contain platelets, at any rate in the form in which they are +found in mammalian blood. When examining the general properties of +platelets, attention was drawn to the remarkably rapid manner in which +they undergo change on coming into contact with a foreign surface. It is +apparently the actual contact which initiates these changes, changes +which are fundamentally chemical in character, resulting in the +production of thrombokinase and possibly also of thrombogen. + +Thus as our knowledge at present stands the following statement gives a +recapitulated account of the changes which constitute the many phases of +clotting. When blood escapes from a blood-vessel it comes into contact +with a foreign surface, either a tissue or the damaged walls of the cut +vessel. Very speedily this contact results in the discharge of +thrombogen and thrombokinase, the former from the white blood corpuscles +and also possibly from the platelets, the latter from the platelets or +from the tissue with which the blood comes in contact. The interaction +of these two bodies next results in the formation of prothrombin, which, +combining with the calcium of any soluble lime salt present, forms +thrombin or fibrin-ferment. The last step in the change is the action of +thrombin upon fibrinogen to form fibrin, and the clot is complete. + +The intrinsic value to the animal of these changes is quite plain. The +power of clotting and thus stopping haemorrhage is of essential +importance, and yet this clotting must not occur within the living +blood-vessels, or it would speedily result in death. That the tissues +should be able to accelerate the process is of very obvious value. That +the inner lining of the blood-vessels does not act as a foreign tissue +is possibly due to the extreme smoothness of their surface. + +Further, an animal must always be exposed to a possible danger in the +absorption of some thrombin from a mass of clotted blood still retained +within the body, and we know that if a quantity of active ferment be +injected into the blood-stream intravascular clotting does result. Under +all usual conditions this is obviated, the protective mechanism being of +a twofold character. First, it is found that thrombin becomes converted +very quickly into an inactive modification. Serum, for instance, very +quickly loses its power of inducing clotting in fibrinogen solutions. +Secondly, the body has been found to possess the power of making a +substance, antithrombin, which can combine with thrombin forming a +substance which is quite inactive as far as clotting is concerned. +Finally, there is evidence that normal blood contains a small quantity +of this substance, antithrombin, and that under certain conditions the +amount present may be enormously increased. (T. G. Br.) + + +_Pathology of the Blood._ + +The changes in the blood in disease are probably as numerous and varied +as the diseases which attack the body, for the blood is not only the +medium of respiration, but also of nutrition, of defence against +organisms and of many other functions, none of which can be affected +without corresponding alterations occurring in the circulating fluid. +The immense majority of these changes are, however, so subtle that they +escape detection by our present methods. But in certain directions, +notably in regard to the relations with micro-organisms, changes in the +blood-plasma can be made out, though they are not associated in all +cases with changes in the formed elements which float in it, nor with +any obvious microscopical or chemical alterations. + + + Immunity. + +The phenomena of immunity to the attacks of bacteria or their toxins, of +agglutinative action, of opsonic action, of the precipitin tests, and of +haemolysis, are all largely dependent on the inherent or acquired +characters of the blood serum. It is a commonplace that different people +vary in their susceptibility to the attacks of different organisms, and +different species of animals also vary greatly. This "natural immunity" +is due partly to the power possessed by the leucocytes or white blood +corpuscles of taking into their bodies and digesting or holding in an +inert state organisms which reach the blood--phagocytosis,--partly to +certain bodies in the blood serum which have a bactericidal action, or +whose presence enables the phagocytes to deal more easily with the +organisms. This natural immunity can be heightened when it exists, or an +artificial immunity can be produced in various ways. Doses of organisms +or their toxins can be injected on one or several occasions, and +provided that the lethal dose be not reached, in most cases an increased +power of resistance is produced. The organisms may be injected alive in +a virulent condition, or with their virulence lessened by heat or cold, +by antiseptics, by cultivation in the presence of oxygen, or by passage +through other animals, or they may first be killed, or their toxins +alone injected. The method chosen in each case depends on the organism +dealt with. The result of this treatment is that in the animal treated +protective substances appear in the serum, and these substances can be +transferred to the serum of another animal or of man; in other words the +active immunity of the experimental animal can be translated into the +passive immunity of man. According to the nature of the substances +injected into the former, its serum may be antitoxic, if it has been +immunized against any particular toxin, or antibacterial, if against an +organism. Familiar examples of these are, of the former diphtheria +antitoxin, of the latter anti-plague and anti-typhoid sera. An antitoxin +exerts its effects by actual combination with the respective toxin, the +combination being inert. It is probable that the ultimate source of the +antitoxin is to be found in the living cells of the tissues and that it +passes from them into the blood. The action of an antibacterial serum +depends on the presence in it of a substance known as "immune-body," +which has a special affinity and power of combining with the bacterium +used. In order that it may exert this power it requires the presence of +a substance normally present in the serum known as "complement." The +development of these "anti-bodies," though it has been studied mainly in +connexion with bacteria and their toxins, is not confined to their +action, but can be demonstrated in regard to many other substances, such +as ferments, tissue cells, red corpuscles, &c. In some animals, for +example, the blood serum has the power of dissolving the red corpuscles +of an animal of different species; e.g. the guinea-pig's serum is +"haemolytic" to the red corpuscles of the ox. This haemolytic power +(haemolysis) can be increased by repeated injections of red corpuscles +from the other animal, in this case also, as in the bacterial case, by +the production and action of immune-body and complement. The antiserum +produced in the case of the red corpuscles may sometimes, if injected +into the first animal, whose red corpuscles were used, cause extensive +destruction of its red corpuscles, with haemoglobinuria, and sometimes a +fatal result. + +Opsonic action depends on the presence of a substance, the "opsonin," in +the serum of an immunized animal, which makes the organism in question +more easily taken up by the phagocytes (leucocytes) of the blood. The +opsonin becomes fixed to the organisms. It is present to a certain +extent in normal serum, but can be greatly increased by the process of +immunization; and the "opsonic index," or relation between the number of +organisms taken up by leucocytes when treated with the serum of a +healthy person or "control," and with the serum of a person affected +with any bacterial disease and under treatment by immunization, is +regarded by some as representing the degree of immunity produced. + +Agglutinative action is evidence of the presence in a serum of a +somewhat similar set of substances, known as "agglutinins." When a +portion of an antiserum is added to an emulsion of the corresponding +organism, the organisms, if they are motile, cease to move, and in any +case become gathered together into clumps. In all probability several +different bodies are concerned in this process. This reaction, in its +practical applications at least, may be regarded as a reaction of +infection rather than of immunization as ordinarily understood, for it +is found that the blood serum of patients suffering from typhoid, Malta +fever, cholera, and many other bacterial diseases, agglutinates the +corresponding organisms. This fact has come to be of great importance in +diagnosis. + +The precipitin test depends on a somewhat analogous reaction. If the +serum of an animal be injected repeatedly into another animal of +different species, a "precipitin" appears in the serum of the animal +treated, which causes a precipitate when added to the serum of the first +animal. The special importance of this fact is that it can be utilized +as a method of distinguishing between human blood and that of animals, +which is often of importance in medical jurisprudence. + +In this summary the facts adduced are practically all biological, and +are due to the extraordinary activity with which the study of +bacteriology (q.v.) has been pursued in recent years. The chemistry of +the blood has not hitherto been found to give information of clinical or +diagnostic importance, and nothing need here be added to what is said +above on the physiology of the blood. Enough has been said, however, to +show the extraordinary complexity of the apparently simple blood serum. + +The methods at present employed in examining the blood clinically are: +the enumeration of the red and white corpuscles per cubic millimetre; +the estimation of the percentage of haemoglobin and of the specific +gravity of the blood; the microscopic examination of freshly-drawn blood +and of blood films made upon cover-glasses, fixed and stained. In +special cases the alkalinity and the rapidity of coagulation may be +ascertained, or the blood may be examined bacteriologically. We have no +universally accepted means of estimating, during life, the total amount +of blood in the body, though the method of J.S. Haldane and J. Lorrain +Smith, in which the total oxygen capacity of the blood is estimated, and +its total volume worked out from that datum, has seemed to promise +important results (_Journ. of Physiol_. vol. xxv. p. 331, 1900). After +death the amount of blood sometimes seems to be increased, and +sometimes, as in "pernicious anaemia," it is certainly diminished. But +the high counts of red corpuscles which are occasionally reported as +evidence of plethora or increase of the total blood are really only +indications of concentration of the fluid except in certain rare cases. +It is necessary, therefore, in examining blood diseases, to confine +ourselves to the study of the blood-unit, which is always taken as the +cubic millimetre, without reference to the number of units in the body. + + + Anaemia. + +_Anaemia_ is often used as a generic term for all blood diseases, for in +almost all of them the haemoglobin is diminished, either as a result of +diminution in the number of the red corpuscles in which it is contained, +or because the individual red corpuscles contain a smaller amount of +haemoglobin than the normal. As haemoglobin is the medium of respiratory +interchange, its diminution causes obvious symptoms, which are much more +easily appreciated by the patient than those caused by alterations in +the plasma or the leucocytes. It is customary to divide anaemias into +"primary" and "secondary": the primary are those for which no adequate +cause has as yet been discovered; the secondary, those whose cause is +known. Among the former are usually included chlorosis, pernicious +anaemia, and sometimes the leucocythaemias; among the latter, the +anaemias due to such agencies as malignant disease, malaria, chronic +metallic poisoning, chronic haemorrhage, tubercle, Bright's disease, +infective processes, intestinal parasites, &c. As our knowledge +advances, however, this distinction will probably be given up, for the +causes of several of the primary anaemias have been discovered. For +example, the anaemia due to _bothriocephalus_, an intestinal parasite, +is clinically indistinguishable from the other forms of pernicious +anaemia with which it used to be included, and leucocythaemia has been +declared by Lowit, though probably erroneously, to be due to a blood +parasite closely related to that of malaria. In all these conditions +there is a considerable similarity in the symptoms produced and in the +pathological anatomy. The general symptoms are pallor of the skin and +mucous membranes, weakness and lassitude, shortness of breath, +palpitation, a tendency to fainting, and usually also gastro-intestinal +disturbance, headache and neuralgia. The heart is often dilated, and on +auscultation the systolic murmurs associated with that condition are +heard. In fatal cases the internal organs are found to be pale, and very +often their cells contain an excessive amount of fat. In many anaemias +there is a special tendency to haemorrhage. Most of the above symptoms +and organic changes are directly due to diminished respiratory +interchange from the loss of haemoglobin, and to its effect on the +various organs involved. The diagnosis depends ultimately in all cases +upon the examination of the blood. + +Though the relative proportions of the leucocytes are probably +continually undergoing change even in health, especially as the result +of taking food, the number of red corpuscles remains much more constant. +Through the agency of some unknown mechanism, the supply of fresh red +corpuscles from the bone-marrow keeps pace with the destruction of +effete corpuscles, and in health each corpuscle contains a definite and +constant amount of haemoglobin. The disturbance of this arrangement in +anaemia may be due to loss or to increased destruction of corpuscles, to +the supply of a smaller number of new ones, to a diminution of the +amount of haemoglobin in the individual new corpuscles, or to a +combination of these causes. It is most easy to illustrate this by +describing what happens after a haemorrhage. If this is small, the loss +is replaced by the fully-formed corpuscles held in reserve in the +marrow, and there is no disturbance. If it is larger, the amount of +fluid lost is first made up by fluid drawn from the tissues, so that the +number of corpuscles is apparently diminished by dilution of the blood; +the erythroblasts, or formative red corpuscles, of the bone-marrow are +stimulated to proliferation, and new corpuscles are quickly thrown into +the circulation. These are apt, however, to be small and to contain a +subnormal amount of haemoglobin, and it is only after some time that +they are destroyed and their place taken by normal corpuscles. If the +loss has been very great, nucleated red corpuscles may even be carried +into the blood-stream. The blood possesses a great power of recovery, if +time be given it, because the organ (bone-marrow) which forms so many of +its elements never, in health, works at high pressure. Only a part of +the marrow, the so-called red marrow, is normally occupied by +erythroblastic tissue, the rest of the medullary cavity of the bones +being taken up by fat. If any long-continued demand for red corpuscles +is made, the fat is absorbed, and its place gradually taken by red +marrow. This compensatory change is found in all chronic anaemias, no +matter what their cause may be, except in some rare cases in which the +marrow does not react. + +It is often very difficult, especially in "secondary" anaemias, to say +which of the above processes is mainly at work. In acute anaemias, such +as those associated with septicaemia, there is no doubt that blood +destruction plays the principal part. But if the cause of anaemia is a +chronic one, a gastric cancer, for instance, though there may possibly +be an increased amount of destruction of corpuscles in some cases, and +though there is often loss by haemorrhage, the cancer interferes with +nutrition, the blood is impoverished and does not nourish the +erythroblasts in the marrow sufficiently, and the new corpuscles which +are turned out are few and poor in haemoglobin. In chronic anaemias, +regeneration always goes on side by side with destruction, and it is +important to remember that the state of the blood in these conditions +gives the measure, not of the amount of destruction which is taking +place so much as of the amount of regeneration of which the organism is +capable. The evidence of destruction has often to be sought for in other +organs, or in secretions or excretions. + +Of the so-called primary anaemias the most common is _chlorosis_, an +anaemia which occurs only in the female sex, between the ages of fifteen +and twenty-five as a rule. Its symptoms are those caused by a diminution +of haemoglobin, and though it is never directly fatal, and is extremely +amenable to treatment with iron preparations, its subjects very +frequently suffer from relapses at varying intervals after the first +attack. Its causation is probably complex. Bad hygienic conditions, +over-fatigue, want of proper food, especially of the iron-containing +proteids of meat, the strain put upon the blood and blood-forming organs +by the accession of puberty and the occurrence of menstruation, all +probably play a part in it. It has also been suggested that internal +secretions may be concerned in stimulating the bone-marrow, and that in +the female sex in particular the genital organs may act in this way. +Imperfect assumption of function by these organs at puberty, caused +perhaps by some of the above-mentioned conditions, might lead to +sluggishness in the bone-marrow, and to the supply to the blood of the +poorly-formed corpuscles deficient in haemoglobin which are +characteristic of the disease. Chlorosis is the type of anaemias from +imperfect blood-formation. Lorrain Smith has produced evidence to show +that the total amount of haemoglobin in the body is not diminished in +this disease, but that the blood-plasma is greatly increased in amount, +so that the haemoglobin is diluted and the amount in each blood-unit +greatly lessened. + +_Pernicious anaemia_ is a rarer disease than chlorosis, occurs usually +later in life, and is distributed nearly equally between the two sexes. +But it is of great importance because of its almost uniformly fatal +termination, though its downward course is generally broken by +temporary improvement on one or more occasions. The symptoms are those +of a progressive anaemia, in which gastro-intestinal disturbance usually +plays a large part, and nervous symptoms are common, and they become at +last much more severe than those of any secondary anaemia. The patient +may die in the first attack, but more usually, when things seem to be at +their worst, improvement sets in, either spontaneously or as the result +of treatment, and the patient slowly regains apparent health. This +remission may be followed by a relapse, that again by a remission, and +so on, but as a rule the disease is fatal within, at the outside, two or +three years. + +The prime cause of the disease is not known. It seems probable indeed +that the causal factors are numerous. Severe malarial infection, +syphilis, pregnancy, chronic gastro-intestinal disease, chronic +gas-poisoning, are all, in different cases, known to have been causally +associated with it, and it is probable that a congenital weakness of the +bone-marrow has often to do with its production, as in many cases a +family or hereditary history of the disease can be obtained. The +condition is now regarded as a chronic toxaemia, partly because of the +clinical symptoms and pathological appearances, partly because analogous +conditions can be produced experimentally by such poisons as saponin and +toluylendiamin, and partly because of the facts of _bothriocephalus_ +anaemia. The site of production of the toxin, or toxins, for it is +possible that several may have the same effect on the blood, is possibly +not always the same, but must often be the alimentary canal, as +_bothriocephalus_ anaemia proves. Not all persons affected with this +intestinal tapeworm contract the disease, but only those in whose +intestines the worm is dead and decomposing or sometimes only "sick." +The expulsion of the worm puts an end to the absorption of the toxin and +the patients recover. No adequate explanation of the formation of the +toxin in the immense majority of the cases, in which there is no +tapeworm, has yet been given. It is certain that no organism as yet +known is concerned. + +This toxaemia affects the marrow and through it the blood, the +gastro-intestinal apparatus and the nervous system, especially the +spinal cord, in different proportions in different cases. The effect +upon the marrow is to alter the type of red corpuscle formation, causing +a reversion to the embryonic condition, in which the nucleated red +corpuscles are large (megaloblasts), and the corpuscles in the blood +formed from them are also large, are apparently ill suited to the needs +of the adult, and easily break down, as the deposits of iron in the +liver, spleen, kidneys and marrow prove. Whether this reversion is due +to an exhaustion of the normal process or to an inhibition of it is not +definitely known. The result is that the circulating red corpuscles are +enormously diminished; it is usual to find 1,000,000 or less in the +cubic millimetre instead of the normal 5,000,000. Though the haemoglobin +is of course absolutely diminished, it is always, in severe cases, +present in relatively higher percentage than the red corpuscles, because +the average red corpuscle is larger and contains more haemoglobin than +the normal. The large nucleated red corpuscles (megaloblasts) with which +the marrow is crowded, often appear in the blood. + +Other anaemias, such as those known as _lymphadenoma_, or Hodgkin's +disease, _splenic anaemia_, _chloroma_, _leucanaemia_ and the _anaemia +pseudo-leucaemica_ of children, need not be described here, as they are +either rare or their occurrence or nature is still too much under +discussion. + + + Leucocytosis. + +The number and nature of the leucocytes in the blood bears no constant +or necessary relation to the number or condition of the red corpuscles, +and their variations depend on entirely different conditions. The number +in the cubic millimetre is usually about 7000, but may vary in health +from 5000 to 10,000. A diminution in their number is known as +_leucopenia_, and is found in starvation, in some infective diseases, as +for example in typhoid fever, in malaria and Malta fever, and in +pernicious anaemia. An increase is very much more frequent, and is known +as _leucocytosis_, though in this term is usually connoted a relative +increase in the proportion of the polymorphonuclear neutrophile +leucocytes. Leucocytosis occurs under a great variety of conditions, +normally to a slight extent during digestion, during pregnancy, and +after violent exercise, and abnormally after haemorrhage, in the course +of inflammations and many infective diseases, in malignant disease, in +such toxic states as uraemia, and after the ingestion of nuclein and +other substances. It does not occur in some infective diseases, the most +important of which are typhoid fever, malaria, influenza, measles and +uncomplicated tuberculosis. In all cases where it is sufficiently severe +and long continued, the reserve space in the bone-marrow is filled up by +the active proliferation of the leucocytes normally found there, and is +used as a nursery for the leucocytes required in the blood. In many +cases leucocytosis is known to be associated with the defence of the +organism from injurious influences, and its amount depends on the +relation between the severity of the attack and the power of resistance. +There may be an increase in the proportions present in the blood of +lymphocytes (_lymphocytosis_), and of eosinophile cells +(_eosinophilia_). This latter change is associated specially with some +forms of asthma, with certain skin diseases, and with the presence of +animal parasites in the body, such as ankylostoma and filaria. + + + Leucaemia. + +The disease in which the number of leucocytes in the blood is greatest +is _leucocythaemia_ or leucaemia. There are two main forms of this +disease, in both of which there are anaemia, enlargement of the spleen +and lymphatic glands, or of either of them, leucocytic hypertrophy of +the bone-marrow, and deposits of leucocytes in the liver, kidney and +other organs. The difference lies in the kind of leucocytes present in +excess in the blood, blood-forming organs and deposits in the tissues. +In the one form these are lymphocytes, which are found in health mainly +in the marrow, the blood itself, the lymph glands and in the lymphatic +tissue round the alimentary canal; in the other they are the kinds of +leucocytes normally found in the bone-marrow-myelocytes, neutrophile, +basophile and eosinophile, and polymorphonuclear cells, also +neutrophile, basophile and eosinophile. The clinical course of the two +forms may differ. The first, known as lymphatic leucaemia or +_lymphaemia_, may be acute, and prove fatal in a few weeks or even days +with rapidly advancing anaemia, or may be chronic and last for one or +two years or longer. The second, known as spleno-myelogenous leucaemia +or _myelaemia_, is almost always chronic, and may last for several +years. Recovery does not take place, though remissions may occur. The +use of the X-rays has been found to influence the course of this disease +very favourably. The most recent view of the pathology of the disease is +that it is due to an overgrowth of the bone-marrow leucocytes, analogous +in some respects to tumour growth and caused by the removal of some +controlling mechanism rather than by stimulation. The anaemia +accompanying the disease is due partly to the leucocyte overgrowth, +which takes up the space in the marrow belonging of right to red +corpuscle formation and interferes with it. (G. L. G.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The suffix _-phile_, Greek [Greek: philein], to love, prefer, is + in scientific terminology frequently applied to substances that + exhibit such preference for particular stains or reagents, the names + of which form the first part of the word. + + + + +BLOOD-LETTING. There are certain morbid conditions when a patient may +obtain marked relief from the abstraction of a certain amount of blood, +from three or four ounces up to twenty or even thirty in extreme cases. +This may be effected by venesection, or the application of leeches, or +more rarely by cupping (q.v.). Unfortunately, in years gone by, +blood-letting was used to such excess, as a cure for almost every known +disease, that public opinion is now extremely opposed to it. In certain +pathological conditions, however, it brings relief and saves life when +no other means would act with sufficient promptness to take its place. + +Venesection, in which the blood is usually withdrawn from the +median-basilic vein of the arm, has the disadvantage that it can only be +performed by the medical man, and that the patient's friends are +generally very much opposed to the idea. But the public are not nearly +so prejudiced against the use of leeches; and as the nurse in charge can +be instructed to use these if occasion arises, this is the form of +blood-letting usually practised to-day. From one to twelve leeches are +applied at the time, the average leech withdrawing some two drachms of +blood. Should this prove insufficient, as much again can be abstracted +by the immediate application of hot fomentations to the wounds. They +should always be applied over some bony prominence, that pressure may be +effectively used to stop the haemorrhage afterwards. They should never +be placed over superficial veins, or where there is much loose +subcutaneous tissue. If, as is often the case, there is any difficulty +in making them bite, the skin should be pricked at the desired spot with +the point of a sterilized needle, and the leech will then attach itself +without further trouble. Also they must be left to fall off of their own +accord, the nurse never dragging them forcibly off. If cold and pressure +fail to stop the subsequent haemorrhage, a little powdered alum or other +styptic may be inserted in the wound. The following are the main +indications for their use, though in some cases they are better replaced +by venesection, (1) For stagnation of blood on the right side of the +heart with constant dyspnoea, cyanosis, &c. In acute lung disease, the +sudden obstruction to the passage of blood through the lungs throws such +an increased strain on the right ventricle that it may dilate to the +verge of paralysis; but by lessening the total volume of blood, the +heart's work is lightened for a time, and the danger at the moment tided +over. This is a condition frequently met with in the early stages of +acute pneumonia, pleurisy and bronchitis, when the obstruction is in the +lungs, the heart being normal. But the same result is also met with as a +result of failure of compensation with back pressure in certain forms of +heart disease (q.v.). (2) To lower arterial tension. In the early stages +of cerebral haemorrhage (before coma has supervened), when the heart is +working vigorously and the tension of the pulse is high, a timely +venesection may lead to arrest of the haemorrhage by lowering the blood +pressure and so giving the blood in the ruptured vessel an opportunity +to coagulate. (3) In various convulsive attacks, as in acute uraemia. + + + + +BLOOD-MONEY, colloquially, the reward for betraying a criminal to +justice. More strictly it is used of the money-penalty paid in old days +by a murderer to the kinsfolk of his victim. These fines completely +protected the offender from the vengeance of the injured family. The +system was common among the Scandinavian and Teutonic races previous to +the introduction of Christianity, and a scale of payments, graduated +according to the heinousness of the crime, was fixed by laws, which +further settled who could exact the blood-money, and who were entitled +to share it. Homicide was not the only crime thus expiable: blood-money +could be exacted for all crimes of violence. Some acts, such as killing +any one in a church or while asleep, or within the precincts of the +royal palace, were "bot-less"; and the death penalty was inflicted. Such +a criminal was outlawed, and his enemies could kill him wherever they +found him. + + + + +BLOODSTONE, the popular name of the mineral heliotrope, which is a +variety of dark green chalcedony or plasma, with bright red spots, +splashes and streaks. The green colour is due to a chloritic mineral; +the red to haematite. Some coarse kinds are opaque, resembling in this +respect jasper, and some writers have sought to restrict the name +"bloodstone" to green jasper, with red markings, thus making heliotrope +a translucent and bloodstone an opaque stone, but, though convenient, +such a distinction is not generally recognized. A good deal of +bloodstone comes from India, where it occurs in the Deccan traps, and is +cut and polished at Cambay. The stone is used for seals, knife-handles +and various trivial ornaments. Bloodstone is not very widely +distributed, but is found in the basaltic rocks of the Isle of Rum in +the west of Scotland, and in a few other localities. Haematite (Gr. +[Greek: aima], blood), or native peroxide of iron, is also sometimes +called "bloodstone." + + + + +BLOOM (from A.S. _bloma_, a flower), the blossom of flowering plants, or +the powdery film on the skin of fresh-picked fruit; hence applied to the +surface of newly-minted coins or to a cloudy appearance on the varnish +of painting due to moisture; also, in metallurgy, a term used of the +rough billets of iron and steel, which have undergone a preliminary +hammering or rolling, and are ready for further working. + + + + +BLOOMER, AMELIA JENKS (1818-1894), American dress-reformer and women's +rights advocate, was born at Homer, New York, on the 27th of May 1818. +After her marriage in 1840 she established a periodical called _The +Lily_, which had some success. In 1849 she took up the idea--previously +originated by Mrs Elizabeth Smith Miller--of a reform in woman's dress, +and the wearing of a short skirt, with loose trousers, gathered round +the ankles. The name of "bloomers" gradually became popularly attached +to any divided-skirt or knickerbocker dress for women. Until her death +on the 30th of December 1894 Mrs Bloomer took a prominent part in the +temperance campaign and in that for woman's suffrage. + + + + +BLOOMFIELD, MAURICE (1855- ), American Sanskrit scholar, was born on +the 23rd of February 1855, in Bielitz, Austrian Silesia. He went to the +United States in 1867, and ten years later graduated from Furman +University, Greenville, South Carolina. He then studied Sanskrit at +Yale, under W.D. Whitney, and at Johns Hopkins, to which university he +returned as associate professor in 1881 after a stay of two years in +Berlin and Leipzig, and soon afterwards was promoted professor of +Sanskrit and comparative philology. His papers in the _American Journal +of Philology_ number a few in comparative linguistics, such as those on +assimilation and adaptation in congeneric classes of words, and many +valuable "Contributions to the Interpretation of the Vedas," and he is +best known as a student of the Vedas. He translated, for Max-Muller's +_Sacred Books of the East_, the Hymns of the Atharva-Veda (1897); +contributed to the Buhler-Kielhorn _Grundriss der indo-arischen +Philologie und Altertumskunde_ the section "The Atharva-Veda and the +Gopatha Brahmana" (1899); was first to edit the Kaucika-Sutra (1890), +and in 1907 published, in the Harvard Oriental series, _A Vedic +Concordance_. In 1905 he published _Cerberus, the Dog of Hades_, a study +in comparative mythology. + + + + +BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT (1766-1823), English poet, was born of humble parents +at the village of Honington, Suffolk, on the 3rd of December 1766. He +was apprenticed at the age of eleven to a farmer, but he was too small +and frail for field labour, and four years later he came to London to +work for a shoemaker. The poem that made his reputation, _The Farmer's +Boy_, was written in a garret in Bell Alley. The manuscript, declined by +several publishers, fell into the hands of Capell Lofft, who arranged +for its publication with woodcuts by Bewick in 1800. The success of the +poem was remarkable, over 25,000 copies being sold in the next two +years. His reputation was increased by the appearance of his _Rural +Tales_ (1802), _News from the Farm_ (1804), _Wild Flowers_ (1806) and +_The Banks of the Wye_ (1811). Influential friends attempted to provide +for Bloomfield, but ill-health and possibly faults of temperament +prevented the success of these efforts, and the poet died in poverty at +Shefford, Bedfordshire, on the 19th of August 1823. His _Remains in +Poetry and Verse_ appeared in 1824. + + + + +BLOOMFIELD, a town of Essex county, New Jersey, U.S.A., about 12 m. W. +of New York, and directly adjoining the city of Newark on the N. Pop. +(1900) 9668, of whom 2267 were foreign-born; (1905, state census) +11,668; (1910), 15,070. Area, 5.42 sq. m. Bloomfield is served by the +Erie, and the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railways, and by several +electric lines connecting with Newark, Montclair, Orange, East Orange +and other neighbouring places. It is a residential suburb of Newark and +New York, is the seat of a German theological school (Presbyterian, +1869) and has the Jarvie Memorial library (1902). There is a Central +Green, and in 1908 land was acquired for another park. Among the town's +manufactures are silk and woollen goods, paper, electric elevators, +electric lamps, rubber goods, safety pins, hats, cream separators, +brushes and novelties. The value of the town's factory products +increased from $3,370,924 in 1900 to $4,645,483 in 1905, or 37.8%. First +settled about 1670-1675 by the Dutch and by New Englanders from the +Newark colony, Bloomfield was long a part of Newark, the principal +settlement at first being known as Wardsesson. In 1796 it was named +Bloomfield in honour of General Joseph Bloomfield (1753-1823), who +served (1775-1778) in the War of American Independence, reaching the +rank of major, was governor of New Jersey in 1801-1802 and 1803-1812, +brigadier-general in the United States army during the War of 1812, and +a Democratic representative in Congress from 1817 to 1821. The township +of Bloomfield was incorporated in 1812. From it were subsequently set +off Belleville (1839), Montclair (1868) and Glen Ridge (1895). + + + + +BLOOMINGTON, a city and the county-seat of McLean county, Illinois, +U.S.A., in the central part of the state, about 125 m. S.W. of Chicago. +Pop. (1890) 20,484; (1900) 23,286, of whom 3611 were foreign-born, there +being a large German element; (1910 census) 25,768. The city is served +by the Chicago & Alton, the Illinois Central, the Cleveland, Chicago, +Cincinnati & St Louis, and the Lake Erie & Western railways, and by +electric inter-urban lines. Bloomington is the seat of the Illinois +Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal, co-educational, founded in +1850), which comprises a college of liberal arts, an academy, a college +of law, a college of music and a school of oratory, and in 1907 had 1350 +students. In the town of NORMAL (pop. in 1900, 3795), 2 m. north of +Bloomington, are the Illinois State Normal University (opened at +Bloomington in 1857 and removed to its present site in 1860), one of the +first normal schools in the Middle West, and the state soldiers' +orphans' home (1869). Bloomington has a public library, and Franklin and +Miller parks; among its principal buildings are the court house, built +of marble, and the Y.M.C.A. building. Among the manufacturing +establishments are foundries and machine shops, including the large +shops of the Chicago & Alton railway, slaughtering and meat-packing +establishments, flour and grist mills, printing and publishing +establishments, a caramel factory and lumber factories. The value of the +city's factory products increased from $3,011,899 in 1900 to $5,777,000 +in 1905, or 91.8%. There are valuable coal mines in and near the city, +and the city is situated in a fine farming region. Bloomington derives +its name from Blooming Grove, a small forest which was crossed by the +trails leading from the Galena lead mines to Southern Illinois, from +Lake Michigan to St Louis, and from the Eastern to the far Western +states. The first settlement was made in 1822, but the town was not +formally founded until 1831, when it became the county-seat of McLean +county. The first city charter was obtained in 1850, and in 1857 the +public school system was established. In 1856 Bloomington was the +meeting place of a state convention called by the Illinois editors who +were opposed to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill (see DECATUR). This was the +first convention of the Republican party in Illinois; among the +delegates were Abraham Lincoln, Richard Yates, John M. Palmer and Owen +Lovejoy. The city has been the residence of a number of prominent men, +including David Davis (1815-1886), an associate justice of the United +States Supreme Court in 1862-1877, a member of the United States Senate +in 1877-1883, and president _pro tempore_ of the Senate in 1881-1883; +Governor John M. Hamilton (1847-1905), Governor Joseph W. Fifer (b. +1840); and Adlai Ewing Stevenson (b. 1835), a Democratic representative +in Congress in 1875-1877 and 1879-1881, and vice-president of the United +States in 1893-1897. Bloomington's prosperity increased after 1867, when +coal was first successfully mined in the vicinity. + + In the _Transactions_ of the Illinois State Historical Society for + 1905 may be found a paper, "The Bloomington Convention of 1856 and + Those Who Participated in it." + + + + +BLOOMINGTON, a city and the county-seat of Monroe county, Indiana, +U.S.A., about 45 m. S. by W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 4018; (1900) +6460, including 396 negroes; (1910) 8838. It is served by the Chicago, +Indianapolis & Louisville and the Indianapolis Southern (Illinois +Central) railways. Bloomington is the seat of the Indiana University +(co-educational since 1868), established as a state seminary in 1820, +and as Indiana College in 1828, and chartered as the State university in +1838; in 1907-1908 it had 80 instructors, 2051 students, and a library +of 65,000 volumes; its school of law was established in 1842, suspended +in 1877 and re-established in 1889; its school of medicine was +established in 1903; but most of the medical course is given in +Indianapolis; a graduate school was organized in 1904; and a summer +school (or summer term of eleven weeks) was first held in 1905. Dr +David Starr Jordan was the first president of the university in +1885-1891, when it was thoroughly reorganized and its curriculum put on +the basis of major subjects and departments. The university's biological +station is on Winona Lake, Kosciusko county. Among the manufactures of +Bloomington are furniture and wooden ware. There are valuable limestone +quarries in the vicinity. The city was first settled about 1818. + + + + +BLOOMSBURG, a town and the county-seat of Columbia county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on Fishing Creek, 2 m. from its confluence with the Susquehanna, +and about 40 m. S.W. of Wilkes-Barre. Pop. (1890) 4635; (1900) 6170 (213 +foreign-born); (1910) 7413. It is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna & +Western, the Philadelphia & Reading, and the Bloomsburg & Sullivan and +the Susquehanna, Bloomsburg & Berwick railways (the last two only 30 m. +and 39 m. long respectively); and is connected with Berwick, Catawissa +and Danville by electric lines. The town is built on a bluff commanding +extensive views. Among the manufactures of Bloomsburg are railway cars, +carriages, silk and woollen goods, furniture, carpets, wire-drawing +machines and gun carriages. Iron ore was formerly obtained from the +neighbouring hills. The town is the seat of a state normal school, +established as such in 1869. Bloomsburg was laid out as a town in 1802, +became the county-seat in 1846, and was incorporated in 1870. + + + + +BLOUNT, CHARLES (1654-1693), English author, was born at Upper Holloway +on the 27th of April 1654. His father, Sir Henry Blount (1602-1682), was +the author of a _Voyage to the Levant_, describing his own travels. He +gave his son a careful education, and is said to have helped him in his +_Anima Mundi; or An Historical Narration of the Opinions of the Antients +concerning Man's Soul after his Life, according to unenlightened Nature_ +(1679), which gave great offence by the sceptical views expressed in it. +It was suppressed by order of the bishop of London, and even burnt by +some over-zealous official, but a re-issue was permitted. Blount was an +admirer of Hobbes, and published his "Last Sayings" (1679), a pamphlet +consisting of extracts from _The Leviathan. Great is Diana of the +Ephesians, or the Original of Idolatry, together with the Political +Institution of the Gentiles' Sacrifices_ (1680) attracted severe +criticism on the ground that in deprecating the evils of priestcraft +Blount was attacking Christianity itself. His best-known book, _The Two +First Books of Philostratus concerning the Life of Apollonius +Tyaneus_ ... (1680), is said to have been prohibited in 1693, chiefly on +account of the notes, which are stated by Bayle (note, _s.v. +Apollonius_) to have been taken mainly from a MS. of Lord Herbert of +Cherbury. Blount contributed materially to the removal of the +restrictions on the freedom of the press, with two pamphlets (1693) by +"Philopatris," mainly derived from Milton's _Areopagitica_. He also laid +a successful trap for the censor, Edmund Bohun. Under the name of +"Junius Brutus" he wrote a pamphlet entitled "King William and Queen +Mary Conquerors." The title-page set forth the theory of the justice of +title by conquest, which Blount knew to be agreeable to Bohun. It was +duly licensed, but was ordered by the House of Commons to be burnt by +the common hangman, as being diametrically opposed to the attitude of +William's government on the subject. These proceedings showed the +futility of the censorship, and hastened its overthrow. + +Blount had fallen in love with his deceased wife's sister, and, in +despair of overcoming her scruples as to the legality of such a +marriage, shot himself in the head. He survived for some time, refusing +help except from his sister-in-law. Alexander Pope asserted (_Epilogue +to the Satires_, Note, i. 124) that he wounded himself in the arm, +pretending to kill himself, and that the result was fatal contrary to +his expectations. He died in August 1693. + + Shortly before his death a collection of his pamphlets and private + papers was printed with a preface by Charles Gildon, under the title + of the _Oracles of Reason_. His _Miscellaneous Works_ (1695) is a + fuller edition by the same editor. + + + + +BLOUNT (or BLUNT), EDWARD (b. 1565?), the printer, in conjunction with +Isaac Jaggard, of _Mr William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories and +Tragedies. Published according to the true Originall Copies_ (_1623_), +usually known as the first folio of Shakespeare. It was produced under +the direction of John Heming (d. 1630) and Henry Condell (d. 1627), both +of whom had been Shakespeare's colleagues at the Globe theatre, but as +Blount combined the functions of printer and editor on other occasions, +it is fair to conjecture that he to some extent edited the first folio. +The Stationers' _Register_ states that he was the son of Ralph Blount or +Blunt, merchant tailor of London, and apprenticed himself in 1578 for +ten years to William Ponsonby, a stationer. He became a freeman of the +Stationers' Company in 1588. Among the most important of his +publications are Giovanni Florio's Italian-English dictionary and his +translation of Montaigne, Marlowe's _Hero and Leander_, and the _Sixe +Court Comedies_ of John Lyly. He himself translated _Ars Aulica, or the +Courtier's Arte_ (1607) from the Italian of Lorenzo Ducci, and +_Christian Policie_ (1632) from the Spanish of Juan de Santa Maria. + + + + +BLOUNT, THOMAS (1618-1679), English antiquarian, was the son of one +Myles Blount, of Orleton in Herefordshire. He was born at Bordesley, +Worcestershire. Few details of his life are known. It appears that he +was called to the bar at the Inner Temple, but, being a zealous Roman +Catholic, his religion interfered considerably with the practice of his +profession. Retiring to his estate at Orleton, he devoted himself to the +study of the law as an amateur, and also read widely in other branches +of knowledge. He died at Orleton on the 26th of December 1679. His +principal works are _Glossographia; or, a dictionary interpreting the +hard words of whatsoever language, now used in our refined English +tongue_ (1656, reprinted in 1707), which went through several editions +and remains most amusing and instructive reading; _Nomolexicon: a law +dictionary interpreting such difficult and, obscure words and terms as +are found either in our common or statute, ancient or modern lawes_ +(1670; third edition, with additions by W. Nelson, 1717); and _Fragmenta +Antiquitatis: Ancient Tenures of land, and jocular customs of some +mannors_ (1679; enlarged by J. Beckwith and republished, with additions +by H.M. Beckwith, in 1815; again revised and enlarged by W.C. Hazlitt, +1874). Blount's _Boscobel_ (1651), giving an account of Charles II.'s +preservation after Worcester, with the addition of the king's own +account dictated to Pepys, has been edited with a bibliography by C.G. +Thomas (1894). + + + + +BLOUNT, SIR THOMAS POPE (1649-1697), English author, eldest son of Sir +Henry Blount and brother of Charles Blount (q.v.), was born at Upper +Holloway on the 12th of September 1649. He succeeded to the estate of +Tittenhanger on his mother's death in 1678, and in the following year +was created a baronet. He represented the borough of St Albans in the +two last parliaments of Charles II. and was knight of the shire from the +revolution till his death. He married Jane, daughter of Sir Henry +Caesar, by whom he had five sons and nine daughters. He died at +Tittenhanger on the 30th of June 1697. His _Censura celebrorum authorum +sive tractatus in quo varia virorum doctorum de clarissimis cujusque +seculi scriptoribus judicia traduntur_ (1690) was originally compiled +for Blount's own use, and is a dictionary in chronological order of what +various eminent writers have said about one another. This necessarily +involved enormous labour in Blount's time. It was published at Geneva in +1694 with all the quotations from modern languages translated into +Latin, and again in 1710. His other works are _A Natural History, +containing many not common observations extracted out of the best modern +writers_ (1693), _De re poetica, or remarks upon Poetry, with Characters +and Censures of the most considerable Poets_ ... (1694), and _Essays on +Several Occasions_ (1692). It is on this last work that his claims to be +regarded as an original writer rest. The essays deal with the perversion +of learning, a comparison between the ancients and the moderns (to the +advantage of the latter), the education of children, and kindred topics. +In the third edition (1697) he added an eighth essay, on religion, in +which he deprecated the multiplication of ceremonies. He displays +throughout a hatred of pedantry and convention, which makes his book +still interesting. + + See A. Kippis, _Biographia Britannica_ (1780), vol. ii. For an account + of Blount's family see Robert Clutterbuck. _History and Antiquities of + the County of Hertford_ (1815), vol. i. pp. 207-212. + + + + +BLOUNT, WILLIAM (1749-1800), American politician, was born in Bertie +county, North Carolina, on the 26th of March 1749. He was a member of +the Continental Congress in 1783-1784 and again in 1786-1787, of the +constitutional convention at Philadelphia in 1787, and of the state +convention which ratified the Federal constitution for North Carolina in +1789. From 1790 until 1796 he was, by President Washington's +appointment, governor of the "Territory South of the Ohio River," +created out of land ceded to the national government by North Carolina +in 1789. He was also during this period the superintendent of Indian +affairs for this part of the country. In 1791 he laid out Knoxville +(Tennessee) as the seat of government. He presided over the +constitutional convention of Tennessee in 1796, and, on the state being +admitted to the Union, became one of its first representatives in the +United States Senate. In 1797 his connexion became known with a scheme, +since called "Blount's Conspiracy," which provided for the co-operation +of the American frontiersmen, assisted by Indians, and an English force, +in the seizure on behalf of Great Britain of the Floridas and Louisiana, +then owned by Spain, with which power England was then at war. As this +scheme, if carried out, involved the corrupting of two officials of the +United States, an Indian agent and an interpreter, a breach of the +neutrality of the United States, and the breach of Article V. of the +treaty of San Lorenzo el Real (signed on the 27th of October 1795) +between the United States and Spain, by which each power agreed not to +incite the Indians to attack the other, Blount was impeached by the +House of Representatives on the 7th of July 1797, and on the following +day was formally expelled from the Senate for "having been guilty of +high misdemeanor, entirely inconsistent with his public trust and duty +as a senator." On the 29th of January 1798 articles of impeachment were +adopted by the House of Representatives. On the 14th of January 1799, +however, the Senate, sitting as a court of impeachment, decided that it +had no jurisdiction, Blount not then being a member of the Senate, and, +in the Senate's opinion, not having been, even as a member, a civil +officer of the United States, within the meaning of the constitution. +The case is significant as being the first case of impeachment brought +before the United States Senate. "In a legal point of view, all that the +case decides is that a senator of the United States who has been +expelled from his seat is not after such expulsion subject to +impeachment" (Francis Wharton, _State Trials_). In effect, however, it +also decided that a member of Congress was not in the meaning of the +constitution a civil officer of the United States and therefore could +not be impeached. The "conspiracy" was disavowed by the British +government, which, however, seems to have secretly favoured it. Blount +was enthusiastically supported by his constituents, and upon his return +to Tennessee was made a member and the presiding officer of the state +senate. He died at Knoxville on the 21st of March 1800. + + For a defence of Blount, see General Marcus J. Wright's _Account of + the Life and Services of William Blount_ (Washington, D.C., 1884). + + + + +BLOUSE, a word (taken from the French) used for any loosely fitting +bodice belted at the waist. In France it meant originally the loose +upper garment of linen or cotton, generally blue, worn by French workmen +to preserve their clothing, and, by transference, the workman himself. + + + + +BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708), English musical composer, was born in 1648, +probably at North Collingham in Nottinghamshire. He became a chorister +of the chapel royal, and distinguished himself by his proficiency in +music; he composed several anthems at an unusually early age, including +_Lord, Thou hast been our refuge; Lord, rebuke me not_; and the +so-called "club anthem," _I will always give thanks_, the last in +collaboration with Pelham Humphrey and William Turner, either in honour +of a victory over the Dutch in 1665, or--more probably--simply to +commemorate the friendly intercourse of the three choristers. To this +time also belongs the composition of a two-part setting of Herrick's +_Goe, perjur'd man_, written at the request of Charles II. to imitate +Carissimi's _Dite, o cieli_. In 1669 Blow became organist of Westminster +Abbey. In 1673 he was made a gentleman of the chapel royal, and in the +September of this year he was married to Elizabeth Braddock, who died in +childbirth ten years later. Blow, who by the year 1678 was a doctor of +music, was named in 1685 one of the private musicians of James II. +Between 1680 and 1687 he wrote the only stage composition by him of +which any record survives, the _Masque for the Entertainment of the +King: Venus and Adonis_. In this Mary Davies played the part of Venus, +and her daughter by Charles II., Lady Mary Tudor, appeared as Cupid. In +1687 he became master of the choir of St Paul's church; in 1695 he was +elected organist of St Margaret's, Westminster, and is said to have +resumed his post as organist of Westminster Abbey, from which in 1680 he +had retired or been dismissed to make way for Purcell. In 1699 he was +appointed to the newly created post of composer to the chapel royal. +Fourteen services and more than a hundred anthems by Blow are extant. In +addition to his purely ecclesiastical music Blow wrote _Great sir, the +joy of all our hearts_, an ode for New Year's day 1681-1682; similar +compositions for 1683, 1686, 1687, 1688, 1689, 1693 (?), 1694 and 1700; +odes, &c., for the celebration of St Cecilia's day for 1684, 1691, 1695 +and 1700; for the coronation of James II. two anthems, _Behold, O God, +our Defender_, and _God spake sometimes in visions_; some harpsichord +pieces for the second part of Playford's _Musick's Handmaid_ (1869); +_Epicedium for Queen Mary_ (1695); _Ode on the Death of Purcell_ (1696). +In 1700 he published his Amphion Anglicus, a collection of pieces of +music for one, two, three and four voices, with a figured-bass +accompaniment. A famous page in Burney's _History of Music_ is devoted +to illustrations of "Dr Blow's Crudities," most of which only show the +meritorious if immature efforts in expression characteristic of English +music at the time, while some of them (where Burney says "Here we are +lost") are really excellent. Blow died on the 1st of October 1708 at his +house in Broad Sanctuary, and was buried in the north aisle of +Westminster Abbey. + + + + +BLOW-GUN, a weapon consisting of a long tube, through which, by blowing +with the mouth, arrows or other missiles can be shot accurately to a +considerable distance. Blow-guns are used both in warefare and the chase +by the South American Indian tribes inhabiting the region between the +Amazon and Orinoco rivers, and by the Dyaks of Borneo. In the 18th +century they were also known to certain North American Indians, +especially the Choctaws and Cherokees of the lower Mississippi. Captain +Bossu, in his _Travels through Louisiana_ (1756), says of the Choctaws: +"They are very expert in shooting with an instrument made of reeds about +7 ft. long, into which they put a little arrow feathered with the wool +of the thistle (wild cotton?)." The blow-guns of the South American +Indians differ in style and workmanship. That of the Macusis of Guiana, +called _pucuna_, is the most perfect. It is made of two tubes, the inner +of which, called _oorah_, is a light reed 1/2 in. in diameter which +often grows to a length of 15 ft. without a joint. This is enclosed, for +protection and solidity, in an outer tube of a variety of palm +(_Iriartella setigera_). The mouth-piece is made of a circlet of +silk-grass, and the farther end is feruled with a kind of nut, forming a +sight. A rear open sight is formed of two teeth of a small rodent. The +length of the _pucuna_ is about 11 ft. and its weight 1-1/2 lb. The +arrows, which are from 12 to 18 in. long and very slender, are made of +ribs of the cocorite palm-leaf. They are usually feathered with a tuft +of wild cotton, but some have in place of the cotton a thin strip of +bark curled into a cone, which, when the shooter blows into the +_pucuna_, expands and completely fills the tube, thus avoiding windage. +Another kind of arrow is furnished with fibres of bark fixed along the +shaft, imparting a rotary motion to the missile, a primitive example of +the theory of the rifle. The arrows used in Peru are only a few inches +long and as thin as fine knitting-needles. All South American blow-gun +arrows are steeped in poison. The natives shoot very accurately with the +_pucuna_ at distances up to 50 or 60 yds. + +The blow-gun of the Borneo Dyaks, called _sumpitan_, is from 6 to 7 ft. +long and made of ironwood. The bore, of 1/2 in., is made with a long +pointed piece of iron. At the muzzle a small iron hook is affixed, to +serve as a sight, as well as a spear-head like a bayonet and for the +same purpose. The arrows used with the _sumpitan_ are about 10 in. long, +pointed with fish-teeth, and feathered with pith. They are also +envenomed with poison. + +Poisoned arrows are also used by the natives of the Philippine island of +Mindanao, whose blow-pipes, from 3 to 4 ft. long and made of bamboo, are +often richly ornamented and even jewelled. + +The principle of the blow-gun is, of course, the same as that of the +common "pea-shooter." + + See _Sport with Rod and Gun in American Woods and Waters_, by A.M. + Mayer, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1884); _Wanderings in South America_, &c., + by Charles Waterton (London, 1828); _The Head Hunters of Borneo_, by + Carl Bock (London, 1881). + + + + +BLOWITZ, HENRI GEORGES STEPHAN ADOLPHE DE (1825-1903), Anglo-French +journalist, was born, according to the account given in his memoirs, at +his father's chateau in Bohemia on the 28th of December 1825. At the age +of fifteen he left home, and travelled over Europe for some years in +company with a young professor of philology, acquiring a thorough +knowledge of French, German and Italian and a mixed general education. +The finances of his family becoming straitened, young Blowitz was on the +point of starting to seek his fortune in America, when he became +acquainted in Paris with M. de Falloux, minister of public instruction, +who appointed him professor of foreign languages at the Tours Lycee, +whence, after some years, he was transferred to the Marseilles Lycee. +After marrying in 1859 he resigned his professorship, but remained at +Marseilles, devoting himself to literature and politics. In 1869 +information which he supplied to a legitimist newspaper at Marseilles +with regard to the candidature of M. de Lesseps as deputy for that city +led to a demand for his expulsion from France. He was, however, allowed +to remain, but had to retire to the country. In 1870 his predictions of +the approaching fall of the Empire caused the demand for his expulsion +to be renewed. While his case was under discussion the battle of Sedan +was fought, and Blowitz effectually ingratiated himself with the +authorities by applying for naturalization as a French subject. Once +naturalized, he returned to Marseilles, where he was fortunately able to +render considerable service to Thiers, who subsequently employed him in +collecting information at Versailles, and when this work was finished +offered him the French consulship at Riga. Blowitz was on the point of +accepting this post when Laurence Oliphant, then Paris correspondent of +_The Times_, for which Blowitz had already done some occasional work, +asked him to act as his regular assistant for a time, Frederick Hardman, +the other Paris correspondent of _The Times_, being absent. Blowitz +accepted the offer, and when, later on, Oliphant was succeeded by +Hardman he remained as assistant correspondent. In 1873 Hardman died, +and Blowitz became chief Paris correspondent to _The Times_. In this +capacity he soon became famous in the world of journalism and diplomacy. +In 1875 the duc de Decazcs, then French foreign minister, showed Blowitz +a confidential despatch from the French ambassador in Berlin (in which +the latter warned his government that Germany was contemplating an +attack on France), and requested the correspondent to expose the German +designs in _The Times_. The publication of the facts effectually aroused +European public opinion, and any such intention was immediately +thwarted. Blowitz's most sensational journalistic feat was achieved in +1878, when his enterprise enabled _The Times_ to publish the whole text +of the treaty of Berlin at the actual moment that the treaty was being +signed in Germany. In 1877 and again in 1888 Blowitz rendered +considerable service to the French government by his exposure of +internal designs upon the Republic. He died on the 18th of January 1903. + + _My Memoirs_, by H.S. de Blowitz, was published in 1903. + + + + +BLOWPIPE, in the arts and chemistry, a tube for directing a jet of air +into a fire or into the flame of a lamp or gas jet, for the purpose of +producing a high temperature by accelerating the combustion. The +blowpipe has been in common use from the earliest times for soldering +metals and working glass, but its introduction into systematic chemical +analysis is to be ascribed to A.F. Cronstedt, and not to Anton Swab, as +has been maintained (see J. Landauer, _Ber_. 26, p. 898). The first work +on this application of the blowpipe was by G. v. Engestrom, and was +published in 1770 as an appendix to a treatise on mineralogy. Its +application has been variously improved at the hands of T.O. Bergman, +J.G. Gahn, J.J. Berzelius, C.F. Plattner and others, but more especially +by the two last-named chemists. + +The simplest and oldest form of blowpipe is a conical brass tube, about +7 in. in length, curved at the small end into a right angle, and +terminating in a small round orifice, which is applied to the flame, +while the larger end is applied to the mouth. Where the blast has to be +kept up for only a few seconds, this instrument is quite serviceable, +but in longer chemical operations inconvenience arises from the +condensation of moisture exhaled by the lungs in the tube. Hence most +blowpipes are now made with a cavity for retaining the moisture. +Cronstedt placed a bulb in the centre of his blowpipe. Dr Joseph Black's +instrument consists of a conical tube of tin plate, with a small brass +tube, supporting the nozzle, inserted near the wider end, and a +mouth-piece at the narrow end. + +The sizes of orifice recommended by Plattner are 0.4 and 0.5 mm. A +trumpet mouth-piece is recommended from the support it gives to the +cheeks when inflated. The mode of blowing is peculiar, and requires some +practice; an uninterrupted blast is kept up by the muscular action of +the cheeks, while the ordinary respiration goes on through the nostrils. + +If the flame of a candle or lamp be closely examined, it will be seen to +consist of four parts--(a) a deep blue ring at the base, (b) a dark cone +in the centre, (c) a luminous portion round this, and (d) an exterior +pale blue envelope (see FLAME). In blowpipe work only two of these four +parts are made use of, viz. the pale envelope, for oxidation, and the +luminous portion, for reduction. To obtain a good _oxidizing flame_, the +blowpipe is held with its nozzle inserted in the edge of the flame close +over the level of the wick, and blown into gently and evenly. A conical +jet is thus produced, consisting of an inner cone, with an outer one +commencing near its apex--the former, corresponding to (a) in the free +flame, blue and well defined; the latter corresponding to (d), pale blue +and vague. The heat is greatest just beyond the point of the inner cone, +combustion being there most complete. Oxidation is better effected (if a +very high temperature be not required) the farther the substance is from +the apex of the inner cone, for the air has thus freer access. To obtain +a good _reducing flame_ (in which the combustible matter, very hot, but +not yet burned, is disposed to take oxygen from any compound containing +it), the nozzle, with smaller orifice, should just touch the flame at a +point higher above the wick, and a somewhat weaker current of air should +be blown. The flame then appears as a long, narrow, luminous cone, the +end being enveloped by a dimly visible portion of flame corresponding to +that which surrounds the free flame, while there is also a dark nucleus +about the wick. The substance to be reduced is brought into the luminous +portion, where the reducing power is strongest. + +Various materials are used as supports for substances in the blowpipe +flame; the principal are charcoal, platinum and glass or porcelain. +Charcoal is valuable for its infusibility and low conductivity for heat +(allowing substances to be strongly heated upon it), and for its +powerful reducing properties; so that it is chiefly employed in testing +the fusibility of minerals and in reduction. The best kind of charcoal +is that of close-grained pine or alder; it is cut in short prisms, +having a flat smooth surface at right angles to the rings of growth. In +this a shallow hole is made for receiving the substance to be held in +the flame. Gas-carbon is sometimes used, since it is more permanent in +the flame than wood charcoal. _Platinum_ is employed in oxidizing +processes, and in the fusion of substances with fluxes; also in +observing the colouring effect of substances on the blowpipe flame +(which effect is apt to be somewhat masked by charcoal). Most commonly +it is used in the form of wire, with a small bend or loop at the end. + +The mouth blowpipe is unsuitable for the production of a large flame, +and cannot be used for any lengthy operations; hence recourse must be +made to types in which the air-blast is occasioned by mechanical means. +The laboratory form in common use consists of a bellows worked by either +hand or foot, and a special type of gas burner formed of two concentric +tubes, one conveying the blast, the other the gas; the supply of air and +gas being regulated by stopcocks. The _hot blast blowpipe_ of T. +Fletcher, in which the blast is heated by passing through a copper coil +heated by a separate burner, is only of service when a pointed flame of +a fairly high temperature is required. Blowpipes in which oxygen is used +as the blast have been manufactured by Fletcher, Russell & Co., and have +proved of great service in conducting fusions which require a +temperature above that yielded by the air-blowpipe. + + For the applications of the blowpipe in chemical analysis see + CHEMISTRY: _Analytical_. + + + + +BLUCHER, GEBHARD LEBERECHT VON (1742-1819), Prussian general field +marshal, prince of Wahlstadt in Silesia, was born at Rostock on the 16th +of December 1742. In his fourteenth year he entered the service of +Sweden, and in the Pomeranian campaign of 1760 he was taken prisoner by +the Prussians. He was persuaded by his captors to enter the Prussian +service. He took part in the later battles of the Seven Years' War, and +as a hussar officer gained much experience of light cavalry work. In +peace, however, his ardent spirit led him into excesses of all kinds, +and being passed over for promotion he sent in his resignation, to which +Frederick replied, "Captain Blucher can take himself to the devil" +(1773). He now settled down to farming, and in fifteen years he had +acquired an honourable independence. But he was unable to return to the +army until after the death of Frederick the Great. He was then +reinstated as major in his old regiment, the Red Hussars. He took part +in the expedition to Holland in 1787, and in the following year became +lieutenant-colonel. In 1789 he received the order _pour le merite_, and +in 1794 he became colonel of the Red Hussars. In 1793 and 1794 he +distinguished himself in cavalry actions against the French, and for his +success at Kirrweiler he was made a major-general. In 1801 he was +promoted lieutenant-general. + +He was one of the leaders of the war party in Prussia in 1805-1806, and +served as a cavalry general in the disastrous campaign of the latter +year. At Auerstadt Blucher repeatedly charged at the head of the +Prussian cavalry, but without success. In the retreat of the broken +armies he commanded the rearguard of Prince Hohenlohe's corps, and upon +the capitulation of the main body of Prenzlau he carried off a remnant +of the Prussian army to the northward, and in the neighbourhood of +Lubeck he fought a series of combats, which, however, ended in his being +forced to surrender at Ratkau (November 7, 1806). His adversaries +testified in his capitulation that it was caused by "want of provisions +and ammunition." He was soon exchanged for General Victor, and was +actively employed in Pomerania, at Berlin, and at Konigsberg until the +conclusion of the war. After the war, Blucher was looked upon as the +natural leader of the patriot party, with which he was in close touch +during the period of Napoleonic domination. His hopes of an alliance +with Austria in the war of 1809 were disappointed. In this year he was +made general of cavalry. In 1812 he expressed himself so openly on the +alliance of Russia with France that he was recalled from his military +governorship of Pomerania and virtually banished from the court. + +When at last the Napoleonic domination was ended by the outbreak of the +War of Liberation in 1813, Blucher of course was at once placed in high +command, and he was present at Lutzen and Bautzen. During the armistice +he worked at the organization of the Prussian forces, and when the war +was resumed Blucher became commander-in-chief of the Army of Silesia, +with Gneisenau and Muffling as his principal staff officers, and 40,000 +Prussians and 50,000 Russians under his control. The autumn campaign of +1813 will be found described in the article NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS, and it +will here be sufficient to say that the most conspicuous military +quality displayed by Blucher was his unrelenting energy. The +irresolution and divergence of interests usual in allied armies found in +him a restless opponent, and the knowledge that if he could not induce +others to co-operate he was prepared to attempt the task in hand by +himself often caused other generals to follow his lead. He defeated +Marshal Macdonald at the Katzbach, and by his victory over Marmont at +Mockern led the way to the decisive overthrow of Napoleon at Leipzig, +which place was stormed by Blucher's own army on the evening of the last +day of the battle. On the day of Mockern (October 16, 1813) Blucher was +made a general field marshal, and after the victory he pursued the +routed French with his accustomed energy. In the winter of 1813-1814 +Blucher, with his chief staff officers, was mainly instrumental in +inducing the allied sovereigns to carry the war into France itself. The +combat of Brienne and the battle of La Rothiere were the chief incidents +of the first stage of the celebrated campaign of 1814, and they were +quickly followed by the victories of Napoleon over Blucher at +Champaubert, Vauxchamps and Montmirail. But the courage of the Prussian +leader was undiminished, and his great victory of Laon (March 9 to 10) +practically decided the fate of the campaign. After this Blucher infused +some of his own energy into the operations of Prince Schwarzenberg's +Army of Bohemia, and at last this army and the Army of Silesia marched +in one body direct upon Paris. The victory of Montmartre, the entry of +the allies into the French capital, and the overthrow of the First +Empire were the direct consequences. Blucher was disposed to make a +severe retaliation upon Paris for the calamities that Prussia had +suffered from the armies of France had not the allied commanders +intervened to prevent it. Blowing up the bridge of Jena was said to be +one of his contemplated acts. On the 3rd of June 1814 he was made prince +of Wahlstadt (in Silesia on the Katzbach battlefield), and soon +afterwards he paid a visit to England, being received everywhere with +the greatest enthusiasm. + +After the peace he retired to Silesia, but the return of Napoleon soon +called him to further service. He was put in command of the Army of the +Lower Rhine with General Gneisenau as his chief of staff (see WATERLOO +CAMPAIGN). In the campaign of 1815 the Prussians sustained a very severe +defeat at the outset at Ligny (June 16), in the course of which the old +field marshal was ridden over by cavalry charges, his life being saved +only by the devotion of his aide-de-camp, Count Nostitz. He was unable +to resume command for some hours, and Gneisenau drew off the defeated +army. The relations of the Prussian and the English headquarters were at +this time very complicated, and it is uncertain whether Blucher himself +was responsible for the daring resolution to march to Wellington's +assistance. This was in fact done, and after an incredibly severe march +Blucher's army intervened with decisive and crushing effect in the +battle of Waterloo. The great victory was converted into a success +absolutely decisive of the war by the relentless pursuit of the +Prussians, and the allies re-entered Paris on the 7th of July. Prince +Blucher remained in the French capital for some months, but his age and +infirmities compelled him to retire to his Silesian residence at +Krieblowitz, where he died on the 12th of September 1819, aged +seventy-seven. He retained to the end of his life that wildness of +character and proneness to excesses which had caused his dismissal from +the army in his youth, but however they may be regarded, these faults +sprang always from the ardent and vivid temperament which made Blucher a +dashing leader of horse. The qualities which made him a great general +were his patriotism and the hatred of French domination which inspired +every success of the War of Liberation. He was twice married, and had, +by his first marriage, two sons and a daughter. Statues were erected to +his memory at Berlin, Breslau and Rostock. + + Of the various lives of Prince Blucher, that by Varnhagen von Ense + (1827) is the most important. His war diaries of 1793-1794, together + with a memoir (written in 1805) on the subject of a national army, + were edited by Golz and Ribbentrop (Campagne Journal 1793-4 von _Gl. + Lt. v. Blucher_). + + + + +BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages), the name of +a colour, used in many colloquial phrases. From the fact of various +parties, political and other, having adopted the colour blue as their +badge, various classes of people have come to be known as "blue" or +"blues"; thus "true blue" meant originally a staunch Presbyterian, the +Covenanters having adopted blue as their colour as opposed to red, the +royal colour; similarly, in the navy, there was in the 18th century a +"Blue Squadron," Nelson being at one time "Rear-Admiral of the Blue"; +again, in 1690, the Royal Horse Guards were called the "Blues" from +their blue uniforms, or, from their leader, the earl of Oxford, the +"Oxford Blues"; also, from the blue ribbon worn by the knights of the +Garter comes the use of the phrase as the highest mark of distinction +that can be worn, especially applied on the turf to the winning of the +Derby. The "blue Peter" is a rectangular blue flag, with a white square +in the centre, hoisted at the top of the foremast as a signal that a +vessel is about to leave port. At Oxford and Cambridge a man who +represents his university in certain athletic sports is called a "blue" +from the "colours" he is then entitled to wear, dark blue for Oxford and +light blue for Cambridge. + + + + +BLUEBEARD, the monster of Charles Perrault's tale of _Barbe Bleue_, who +murdered his wives and hid their bodies in a locked room. Perrault's +tale was first printed in his _Histoires et contes du temps passe_ +(1697). The essentials of the story--Bluebeard's prohibition to his wife +to open a certain door during his absence, her disobedience, her +discovery of a gruesome secret, and her timely rescue from death--are to +be found in other folklore stories, none of which, however, has attained +the fame of _Bluebeard_. A close parallel exists in an Esthonian legend +of a husband who had already killed eleven wives, and was prevented from +killing the twelfth, who had opened a secret room, by a gooseherd, the +friend of her childhood. In "The Feather Bird" of Grimm's _Hausmarchen_, +three sisters are the victims, the third being rescued by her brothers. +Bluebeard, though Perrault does not state the number of his crimes, is +generally credited with the murder of seven wives. His history belongs +to the common stock of folklore, and has even been ingeniously fitted +with a mythical interpretation. In France the Bluebeard legend has its +local habitation in Brittany, but whether the existing traditions +connecting him with Gilles de Rais (q.v.) or Comorre the Cursed, a +Breton chief of the 6th century, were anterior to Perrault's time, we +have no means of determining. The identification of Bluebeard with +Gilles de Rais, the _bete d'extermination_ of Michelet's forcible +language, persists locally in the neighbourhood of the various castles +of the baron, especially at Machecoul and Tiffauges, the chief scenes of +his infamous crimes. Gilles de Rais, however, had only one wife, who +survived him, and his victims were in the majority of cases young boys. +The traditional connexion may arise simply from the not improbable +association of two monstrous tales. The less widespread identification +of Bluebeard with Comorre is supported by a series of frescoes dating +only a few years later than the publication of Perrault's story, in a +chapel at St Nicolas de Bieuzy dedicated to St Tryphine, in which the +tale of Bluebeard is depicted as the story of the saint, who in history +was the wife of Comorre. Comorre or Conomor had his original +headquarters at Carhaix, in Finistere. He extended his authority by +marriage with the widow of Iona, chief of Domnonia, and attempted the +life of his stepson Judwal, who fled to the Frankish court. About 547 or +548 he obtained in marriage, through the intercession of St Gildas, +Tryphine, daughter of Weroc, count of Vannes. The pair lived in peace at +Castel Finans for some time, but Comorre, disappointed in his ambitions +in the Vannetais, presently threatened Tryphine. She took flight, but +her husband found her hiding in a wood, when he gave her a wound on the +skull and left her for dead. She was tended and restored to health by St +Gildas, and after the birth of her son retired to a convent of her own +foundation. Eventually Comorre was defeated and slain by Judwal. In +legend St Tryphine was decapitated and miraculously restored to life by +Gildas. Alain Bouchard (_Grandes croniques_, Nantes, 1531) asserts that +Comorre had already put several wives to death before he married +Tryphine. In the _Legendes bretonnes_ of the count d'Amezeuil the +church legend becomes a charming fairy tale. + + See also E.A. Vizetclly, _Bluebeard_ (1902); E. Sidney Hartland, "The + Forbidden Chamber," in _Folklore_, vol. iii. (1885); and the editions + of the _Contes_ of Charles Perrault (q.v.). Cf. A. France, _Les Sept + Femmes de Barbe Bleue_ (1909). + + + + +BLUE-BOOK, the general name given to the reports and other documents +printed by order of the parliament of the United Kingdom, so called from +their being usually covered with blue paper, though some are bound in +drab and others have white covers. The printing of its proceedings was +first adopted by the House of Commons in 1681, and in 1836 was commenced +the practice of selling parliamentary papers to the public. All notices +of questions, resolutions, votes and proceedings in both Houses of +Parliament are issued each day during the session; other publications +include the various papers issued by the different government +departments, the reports of committees and commissions of inquiry, +public bills, as well as returns, correspondence, &c., specially ordered +to be printed by either house. The papers of each session are so +arranged as to admit of being bound up in regular order, and are well +indexed. The terms upon which blue-books, single papers, &c., are issued +to the general public are one halfpenny per sheet of four pages, but for +an annual subscription of L20 all the parliamentary publications of the +year may be obtained; but subscriptions can be arranged so that almost +any particular class of publication can be obtained--for example, the +daily votes and proceedings can be obtained for an annual subscription +of L3, the House of Lords papers for L10, or the House of Commons papers +for L15. Any publication can also be purchased separately. + +Most foreign countries have a distinctive colour for the binding of +their official publications. That of the United Slates varies, but +foreign diplomatic correspondence is bound in red. The United States +government publications are not only on sale (as a rule) but are widely +supplied gratis, with the result that important publications soon get +out of print, and it is difficult to obtain access to many valuable +reports or other information, except at a public library. German +official publications are bound in white; French, in yellow; Austrian, +in red; Portuguese, in white; Italian, in green; Spanish, in red; +Mexican, in green; Japanese, in grey; Chinese, in yellow. + + + + +BLUESTOCKING, a derisive name for a literary woman. The term originated +in or about 1750, when Mrs Elizabeth Montagu (q.v.) made a determined +effort to introduce into society a healthier and more intellectual tone, +by holding assemblies at which literary conversation and discussions +were to take the place of cards and gossip. Most of those attending were +conspicuous by the plainness of their dress, and a Mr Benjamin +Stillingfleet specially caused comment by always wearing blue or worsted +stockings instead of the usual black silk. It was in special reference +to him that Mrs Montagu's friends were called the Bluestocking Society +or Club, and the women frequenting her house in Hill Street came to be +known as the "Bluestocking Ladies" or simply "bluestockings." As an +alternative explanation, the origin of the name is attributed to Mrs +Montagu's deliberate adoption of blue stockings (in which fashion she +was followed by all her women friends) as the badge of the society she +wished to form. She is said to have obtained the idea from Paris, where +in the 17th century there was a revival of a social reunion in 1590 on +the lines of that formed in 1400 at Venice, the ladies and men of which +wore blue stockings. The term had been applied in England as early as +1653 to the Little Parliament, in allusion to the puritanically plain +and coarse dress of the members. + + + + +BLUFF (a word of uncertain origin; possibly connected with an obsolete +Dutch word, _blaf_, broad), an adjective used of a ship, meaning broad +and nearly vertical in the bows; similarly, of a cliff or shore, +presenting a bold and nearly perpendicular front; of a person, +good-natured and frank, with a rough or abrupt manner. Another word +"bluff," perhaps connected with German _verbluffen_, to baffle, meant +originally a horse's blinker, the corresponding verb meaning to +blindfold: it survives as a term in such games as poker, where "to +bluff" means to bet heavily on a hand so as to make an opponent believe +it to be stronger than it is; hence such phrases as "the game of bluff," +"a policy of bluff." + + + + +BLUM, ROBERT FREDERICK (1857-1903), American artist, was born in +Cincinnati, Ohio, on the 9th of July 1857. He was employed for a time in +a lithographic shop, and studied at the McMicken Art School of Design in +Cincinnati, and at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts in +Philadelphia, but he was practically self-taught, and early showed great +and original talent. He settled in New York in 1879, and his first +published sketches--of Japanese jugglers--appeared in _St Nicholas_. His +most important work is a large frieze in the Mendelssohn Music Hall, New +York, "Music and the Dance" (1895). His pen-and-ink work for the Century +magazine attracted wide attention, as did his illustrations for Sir +Edwin Arnold's _Japonica_. In the country and art of Japan he had been +interested for many years. "A Daughter of Japan," drawn by Blum and W.J. +Baer, was the cover of _Scribner's Magazine_ for May 1893, and was one +of the earliest pieces of colour-printing for an American magazine. In +_Scribner's_ for 1893 appeared also his "Artist's Letters from Japan." +He was an admirer of Fortuny, whose methods somewhat influenced his +work. Blum's Venetian pictures, such as "A Bright Day at Venice" (1882), +had lively charm and beauty. He died on the 8th of June 1903 in New York +City. He was a member of the National Academy of Design, being elected +after his exhibition in 1892 of "The Ameya"; and was president of the +Painters in Pastel. Although an excellent draughtsman and etcher, it was +as a colourist that he chiefly excelled. + + + + +BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1752-1840), German physiologist and +anthropologist, was born at Gotha on the 11th of May 1752. After +studying medicine at Jena, he graduated doctor at Gottingen in 1775, and +was appointed extraordinary professor of medicine in 1776 and ordinary +professor in 1778. He died at Gottingen on the 22nd of January 1840. He +was the author of _Institutiones Physiologicae_ (1787), and of a +_Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie_ (1804), both of which were very +popular and went through many editions, but he is best known for his +work in connexion with anthropology, of which science he has been justly +called the founder. He was the first to show the value of comparative +anatomy in the study of man's history, and his craniometrical researches +justified his division of the human race into several great varieties or +families, of which he enumerated five--the Caucasian or white race, the +Mongolian or yellow, the Malayan or brown race, the Negro or black race, +and the American or red race. This classification has been very +generally received, and most later schemes have been modifications of +it. His most important anthropological work was his description of sixty +human crania published originally in _fasciculi_ under the title +_Collectionis suae craniorum diversarum gentium illustratae decades_ +(Gottingen, 1790-1828). + + + + +BLUMENTHAL, LEONHARD, COUNT VON (1810-1900), Prussian field marshal, son +of Captain Ludwig von Blumenthal (killed in 1813 at the battle of +Dennewitz), was born at Schwedt-on-Oder on the 30th of July 1810. +Educated at the military schools of Culm and Berlin, he entered the +Guards as 2nd lieutenant in 1827. After serving in the Rhine provinces, +he joined the topographical division of the general staff in 1846. As +lieutenant of the 31st foot he took part in 1848 in the suppression of +the Berlin riots, and in 1849 was promoted captain on the general staff. +The same year he served on the staff of General von Bonin in the +Schleswig-Holstein campaign, and so distinguished himself, particularly +at Fredericia, that he was appointed chief of the staff of the +Schleswig-Holstein army. In 1850 he was general staff officer of the +mobile division under von Tietzen in Hesse-Cassel. He was sent on a +mission to England in that year (4th class of Red Eagle), and on several +subsequent occasions. Having attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, he +was appointed personal adjutant to Prince Frederick Charles in 1859. In +1860 he became colonel of the 31st, and later of the 71st, regiment. He +was chief of the staff of the III. army corps when, on the outbreak of +the Danish War of 1864, he was nominated chief of the general staff of +the army against Denmark, and displayed so much ability, particularly at +Duppel and the passage to Alsen island, that he was promoted +major-general and given the order _pour le merite_. In the war of 1866 +Blumenthal occupied the post of chief of the general staff to the crown +prince of Prussia, commanding the 2nd army. It was upon this army that +the brunt of the fighting fell, and at Koniggratz it decided the +fortunes of the day. Blumenthal's own part in these battles and in the +campaign generally was most conspicuous. On the field of Koniggratz the +crown prince said to his chief of staff, "I know to whom I owe the +conduct of my army," and Blumenthal soon received promotion to +lieutenant-general and the oak-leaf of the order _pour le merite_. He +was also made a knight of the Hohenzollern Order. From 1866 to 1870 he +commanded the 14th division at Dusseldorf. In the Franco-German War of +1870-71 he was chief of staff of the 3rd army under the crown prince. +Blumenthal's soldierly qualities and talent were never more conspicuous +than in the critical days preceding the battle of Sedan, and his +services in the war have been considered as scarcely less valuable and +important than those of Moltke himself. In 1871 Blumenthal represented +Germany at the British manoeuvres at Chobham, and was given the command +of the IV. army corps at Magdeburg. In 1873 he became a general of +infantry, and ten years later he was made a count. In 1888 he was made a +general field marshal, after which he was in command of the 4th and 3rd +army inspections. He retired in 1896, and died at Quellendorf near +Kothen on the 21st of December 1900. + + Blumenthal's diary of 1866 and 1870-1871 has been edited by his son, + Count Albrecht von Blumenthal (_Tagebuch des G.F.M. von Blumenthal_), + 1902; an English translation (_Journals of Count von Blumenthal_) was + published in 1903. + + + + +BLUNDERBUSS (a corruption of the Dutch _donder_, thunder, and the Dutch +_bus_; cf. Ger. _Buchse_, a box or tube, hence a thunder-box or gun), an +obsolete muzzle-loading firearm with a bell-shaped muzzle. Its calibre +was large so that it could contain many balls or slugs, and it was +intended to be fired at a short range, so that some of the charge was +sure to take effect. The word is also used by analogy to describe a +blundering and random person or talker. + + + + +BLUNT, JOHN HENRY (1823-1884), English divine, was born at Chelsea in +1823, and before going to the university of Durham in 1850 was for some +years engaged in business as a manufacturing chemist. He was ordained in +1852 and took his M.A. degree in 1855, publishing in the same year a +work on _The Atonement_. He held in succession several preferments, +among them the vicarage of Kennington near Oxford (1868), which he +vacated in 1873 for the crown living of Beverston in Gloucestershire. He +had already gained some reputation as an industrious theologian, and had +published among other works an annotated edition of the Prayer Book +(1867), a _History of the English Reformation_ (1868), and a _Book of +Church Law_ (1872), as well as a useful _Dictionary of Doctrinal and +Historical Theology_ (1870). The continuation of these labours was seen +in a _Dictionary of Sects and Heresies_ (1874), an _Annotated Bible_ (3 +vols., 1878-1879), and a _Cyclopaedia of Religion_ (1884), and received +recognition in the shape of the D.D. degree bestowed on him in 1882. He +died in London on the 11th of April 1884. + + + + +BLUNT, JOHN JAMES (1794-1855), English divine, was born at +Newcastle-under-Lyme in Staffordshire, and educated at St John's +College, Cambridge, where he took his degree as fifteenth wrangler and +obtained a fellowship (1816). He was appointed a Wort's travelling +bachelor 1818, and spent some time in Italy and Sicily, afterwards +publishing an account of his journey. He proceeded M.A. in 1819, B.D. +1826, and was Hulsean Lecturer in 1831-1832 while holding a curacy in +Shropshire. In 1834 he became rector of Great Oakley in Essex, and in +1839 was appointed Lady Margaret professor of divinity at Cambridge. In +1854 he declined the see of Salisbury, and he died on the 18th of June +1855. His chief book was _Undesigned Coincidences in the Writings both +of the Old and New Testaments_ (1833; fuller edition, 1847). Some of +his writings, among them the _History of the Christian Church during the +First Three Centuries_ and the lectures _On the Right Use of the Early +Fathers_, were published posthumously. + + A short memoir of him appeared in 1856 from the hand of William + Selwyn, his successor in the divinity professorship. + + + + +BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN (1840- ), English poet and publicist, was born +on the 17th of August 1840 at Petworth House, Sussex, the son of Francis +Scawen Blunt, who served in the Peninsular War and was wounded at +Corunna. He was educated at Stonyhurst and Oscott, and entered the +diplomatic service in 1858, serving successively at Athens, Madrid, +Paris and Lisbon. In 1867 he was sent to South America, and on his +return to England retired from the service on his marriage with Lady +Anne Noel, daughter of the earl of Lovelace and a grand-daughter of the +poet Byron. In 1872 he succeeded, by the death of his elder brother, to +the estate of Crabbet Park, Sussex, where he established a famous stud +for the breeding of Arab horses. Mr and Lady Anne Blunt travelled +repeatedly in northern Africa, Asia Minor and Arabia, two of their +expeditions being described in Lady Anne's _Bedouins of the Euphrates_ +(2 vols., 1879) and _A Pilgrimage to Nejd_ (2 vols., 1881). Mr Blunt +became known as an ardent sympathizer with Mahommedan aspirations, and +in his _Future of Islam_ (1888) he directed attention to the forces +which afterwards produced the movements of Pan-Islamism and Mahdism. He +was a violent opponent of the English policy in the Sudan, and in _The +Wind and the Whirlwind_ (in verse, 1883) prophesied its downfall. He +supported the national party in Egypt, and took a prominent part in the +defence of Arabi Pasha. _Ideas about India_ (1885) was the result of two +visits to that country, the second in 1883-1884. In 1885 and 1886 he +stood unsuccessfully for parliament as a Home Ruler; and in 1887 he was +arrested in Ireland while presiding over a political meeting in +connexion with the agitation on Lord Clanricarde's estate, and was +imprisoned for two months in Kilmainham. His best-known volume of verse, +_Love Sonnets of Proteus_ (1880), is a revelation of his real merits as +an emotional poet. _The Poetry of Wilfrid Blunt_ (1888), selected and +edited by W.E. Henley and Mr George Wyndham, includes these sonnets, +together with "Worth Forest, a Pastoral," "Griselda" (described as a +"society novel in rhymed verse"), translations from the Arabic, and +poems which had appeared in other volumes. + + + + +BLUNTSCHLI, JOHANN KASPAR (1808-1881), Swiss jurist and politician, was +born at Zurich on the 7th of March 1808, the son of a soap and candle +manufacturer. From school he passed into the _Politische Institut_ (a +seminary of law and political science) in his native town, and +proceeding thence to the universities of Berlin and Bonn, took the +degree of _doctor juris_ in the latter in 1829. Returning to Zurich in +1830, he threw himself with ardour into the political strife which was +at the time unsettling all the cantons of the Confederation, and in this +year published _Uber die Verfassung der Stadt Zurich_ (On the +Constitution of the City of Zurich). This was followed by _Das Volk und +der Souveran_ (1830), a work in which, while pleading for constitutional +government, he showed his bitter repugnance of the growing Swiss +radicalism. Elected in 1837 a member of the Grosser Rath (Great +Council), he became the champion of the moderate conservative party. +Fascinated by the metaphysical views of the philosopher Friedrich Rohmer +(1814-1856), a man who attracted little other attention, he endeavoured +in _Psychologische Studien uber Staat und Kirche_ (1844) to apply them +to political science generally, and in particular as a panacea for the +constitutional troubles of Switzerland. Bluntschli, shortly before his +death, remarked, "I have gained renown as a jurist, but my greatest +desert is to have comprehended Rohmer." This philosophical essay, +however, coupled with his uncompromising attitude towards both +radicalism and ultramontanism, brought him many enemies, and rendered +his continuance in the council, of which he had been elected president, +impossible. He resigned his seat, and on the overthrow of the Sonderbund +in 1847, perceiving that all hope of power for his party was lost, took +leave of Switzerland with the pamphlet _Stimme eines Schweizers uber +die Bundesreform_ (1847), and settled at Munich, where he became +professor of constitutional law in 1848. + +At Munich he devoted himself with energy to the special work of his +chair, and, resisting the temptation to identify himself with politics, +published _Allgemeines Staatsrecht_ (1851-1852); _Lehre vom modernen +Staat_ (1875-1876); and, in conjunction with Karl Ludwig Theodor Brater +(1819-1869), _Deutsches Staats-worterbuch_ (II vols., 1857-1870: +abridged by Edgar Loening in 3 vols., 1869-1875). Meanwhile he had +assiduously worked at his code for the canton of Zurich, +_Privatrechtliches Gesetzbuch fur den Kanton Zurich_ (4 vols., +1854-1856), a work which was much praised at the time, and which, +particularly the section devoted to contracts, served as a model for +codes both in Switzerland and other countries. In 1861 Bluntschli +received a call to Heidelberg as professor of constitutional law +(Staatsrecht), where he again entered the political arena, endeavouring +in his _Geschichte des allgemeinen Staatsrechts und der Politik_ (1864) +"to stimulate," as he said, "the political consciousness of the German +people, to cleanse it of prejudices and to further it intellectually." +In his new home, Baden, he devoted his energies and political influence, +during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, towards keeping the country +neutral. From this time Bluntschli became active in the field of +international law, and his fame as a jurist belongs rather to this +province than to that of constitutional law. His _Das moderne +Kriegsrecht_ (1866); _Das moderns Volkerrecht_ (1868), and _Das +Beuterecht im Krieg_ (1878) are likely to remain invaluable text-books +in this branch of the science of jurisprudence. He also wrote a pamphlet +on the "Alabama" case. + +Bluntschli was one of the founders, at Ghent in 1873, of the Institute +of International Law, and was the representative of the German emperor +at the conference on the international laws of war at Brussels. During +the latter years of his life he took a lively interest in the +_Protestantenverein_, a society formed to combat reactionary and +ultramontane views of theology. He died suddenly at Karlsruhe on the +21st of October 1881. His library was acquired by Johns Hopkins +University at Baltimore, U.S.A. + +Among his works, other than those before mentioned, may be cited +_Deutsches Privatrecht_ (1853-1854); _Deutsche Staatslehre fur +Gebildete_ (1874); and _Deutsche Staatslehre und die heutige +Staatenwelt_ (1880). + + For notices of Bluntschli's life and works see his interesting + autobiography, _Denkwurdiges aus meinem Leben_ (1884); von + Holtzendorff, _Bluntschli und seine Verdienste um die + Staatswissenschaften_ (1882); Brockhaus, _Konversations-Lexicon_ + (1901); and a biography by Meyer von Kronau, in _Allgemeine deutsche + Biographie_. + + + + +BLYTH, a market town and seaport of Northumberland, England, in the +parliamentary borough of Morpeth, 9 m. E.S.E. of that town, at the mouth +of the river Blyth, on a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of +urban district (1901) 5472. This is the port for a considerable +coal-mining district, and its harbour, on the south side of the river, +is provided with mechanical appliances for shipping coal. There are five +dry docks, and upwards of 1-1/2 m. of quayage. Timber is largely +imported. Some shipbuilding and the manufacture of rope, sails and +ship-fittings are carried on, and the fisheries are valuable. Blyth is +also in considerable favour as a watering-place; there are a pleasant +park, a pier, protecting the harbour, about 1 m. in length, and a sandy +beach affording sea-bathing. The river Blyth rises near the village of +Kirkheaton, and has an easterly course of about 25 m. through a deep, +well-wooded and picturesque valley. + + + + +B'NAI B'RITH (or SONS OF THE COVENANT), INDEPENDENT ORDER OF, a Jewish +fraternal society. It was founded at New York in 1843 by a number of +German Jews, headed by Henry Jones, and is the oldest as well as the +largest of the Jewish fraternal organizations. Its membership in 1908 +was 35,870, its 481 lodges and 10 grand lodges being distributed over +the United States, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Rumania, Egypt and +Palestine. Its objects are to promote a high morality among Jews, +regardless of differences as to dogma and ceremonial customs, and +especially to inculcate the supreme virtues of charity and brotherly +love. Political and religious discussions were from the first excluded +from the debates of the order. In 1851 the first grand lodge was +established at New York; in 1856, the number of district lodges having +increased, the supreme authority was vested in a central body consisting +of one member from each lodge; and by the present constitution, adopted +in 1868, this authority is vested in a president elected for five years, +an executive committee and court of appeals (elected as before). The +first lodge in Germany was instituted at Berlin in 1883. A large number +of charitable and other public institutions have been established in the +United States and elsewhere by the order, of which may be mentioned the +large orphan asylum in Cleveland, the home for the aged and infirm at +Yonkers, N.Y., the National Jewish hospital for consumptives at Denver, +and the Maimonides library in New York City. The B'nai B'rith society +has also co-operated largely with other Jewish philanthropic +organizations in succouring distressed Israelites throughout the world. + + See the _Jewish Encyclopaedia_ (1902), s.v. + + + + +BOA, a name formerly applied to all large serpents which, devoid of +poison fangs, kill their prey by constriction; but now confined to that +subfamily of the _Boidae_ which are devoid of teeth in the praemaxilla +and are without supraorbital bones. The others are known as pythons +(q.v.). The true boas comprise some forty species; most of them are +American, but the genus _Eryx_ inhabits North Africa, Greece and +south-western Asia; the genus _Enygrus_ ranges from New Guinea to the +Fiji; _Casarea dussumieri_ is restricted to Round Island, near +Mauritius; and two species of _Boa_ and one of _Corallus_ represent this +subfamily in Madagascar, while all the other boas live in America, +chiefly in tropical parts. All _Boidae_ possess vestiges of pelvis and +hind limbs, appearing externally as claw-like spurs on each side of the +vent, but they are so small that they are practically without function +in climbing. The usually short tail is prehensile. + +One of the commonest species of the genus _Boa_ is the _Boa +constrictor_, which has a wide range from tropical Mexico to Brazil. The +head is covered with small scales, only one of the preoculars being +enlarged. The general colour is a delicate pale brown, with about a +dozen and a half darker cross-bars, which are often connected by a still +darker dorso-lateral streak, enclosing large oval spots. On each side is +a series of large dark brown spots with light centres. On the tail the +markings become bolder, brick red with black and yellow. The under parts +are yellowish with black dots. This species rarely reaches a length of +more than 10 ft. It climbs well, prefers open forest in the +neighbourhood of water, is often found in plantations where it retires +into a hole in the ground, and lives chiefly on birds and small mammals. +Like most true boas, it is of a very gentle disposition and easily +domesticates itself in the palm or reed thatched huts of the natives, +where it hunts the rats during the night. + +The term "boa" is applied by analogy to a long article of women's dress +wound round the neck. + + + + +BOABDIL (a corruption of the name Abu Abdullah), the last Moorish king +of Granada, called _el chico_, the little, and also _el zogoybi_, the +unfortunate. A son of Muley Abu'l Hassan, king of Granada, he was +proclaimed king in 1482 in place of his father, who was driven from the +land. Boabdil soon after sought to gain prestige by invading Castile. He +was taken prisoner at Lucena in 1483, and only obtained his freedom by +consenting to hold Granada as a tributary kingdom under Ferdinand and +Isabella, king and queen of Castile and Aragon. The next few years were +consumed in struggles with his father and his uncle Abdullah ez Zagal. +In 1491 Boabdil was summoned by Ferdinand and Isabella to surrender the +city of Granada, and on his refusal it was besieged by the Castilians. +Eventually, in January 1492, Granada was surrendered, and the king spent +some time on the lands which he was allowed to hold in Andalusia. +Subsequently he crossed to Africa, and is said to have been killed in +battle fighting for his kinsman, the ruler of Fez. The spot from which +Boabdil looked for the last time on Granada is still shown, and is known +as "the last sigh of the Moor" (_el ultimo suspire del Moro_). + + See J.A. Conde, _Dominacion de los Arabes en Espana_ (Paris, 1840), + translated into English by Mrs J. Foster (London, 1854-1855); + Washington Irving, _The Alhambra_ (New York, ed. 1880). + + + + +BOADICEA, strictly BOUDICCA, a British queen in the time of the emperor +Nero. Her husband Prasutagus ruled the Iceni (in what is now Norfolk) as +an autonomous prince under Roman suzerainty. On his death (A.D. 61) +without male heir, his dominions were annexed, and the annexation was +carried out brutally. He had by his will divided his private wealth +between his two daughters and Nero, trusting thereby to win imperial +favour for his family. Instead, his wife was scourged (doubtless for +resisting the annexation), his daughters outraged, his chief tribesmen +plundered. The proud, fierce queen and her people rose, and not alone. +With them rose half Britain, enraged, for other causes, at Roman rule. +Roman taxation and conscription lay heavy on the province; in addition, +the Roman government had just revoked financial concessions made a few +years earlier, and L. Annaeus Seneca, who combined the parts of a +moralist and a money-lender, had abruptly recalled large loans made from +his private wealth to British chiefs. A favourable chance for revolt was +provided by the absence of the governor-general, Suetonius Paulinus, and +most of his troops in North Wales and Anglesey. All south-east Britain +joined the movement. Paulinus rushed back without waiting for his +troops, but he could do nothing alone. The Britons burnt the Roman +municipalities of Verulam and Colchester, the mart of London, and +several military posts, massacred "over 70,000" Romans and Britons +friendly to Rome, and almost annihilated the Ninth Legion marching from +Lincoln to the rescue. At last Paulinus, who seems to have rejoined his +army, met the Britons in the field. The site of the battle is unknown. +One writer has put it at Chester; others at London, where King's Cross +had once a narrow escape of being christened Boadicea's Cross, and +actually for many years bore the name of Battle Bridge, in supposed +reference to this battle. Probably, however, it was on Watling Street, +between London and Chester. In a desperate soldiers' battle Rome +regained the province. Boadicea took poison; thousands of Britons fell +in the fight or were hunted down in the ensuing guerrilla. Finally, Rome +adopted a kindlier policy, and Britain became quiet. But the scantiness +of Romano-British remains in Norfolk may be due to the severity with +which the Iceni were crushed. + + See Tacitus, _Annals_, xiv.; _Agric_. xv.; Dio lxii. The name Boudicca + seems to mean in Celtic much the same as Victoria. (F. J. H.) + + + + +BOAR (O. Eng. _bar_; the word is found only in W. Ger. languages, cf. +Dutch _beer_, Ger. _Eber_), the name given to the un-castrated male of +the domestic pig (q.v.), and to some wild species of the family _Suidae_ +(see SWINE). The European wild boar (_Sus scrofa_) is distributed over +Europe, northern Africa, and central and northern Asia. It has long been +extinct in the British Isles, where it once abounded, but traces have +been found of its survival in Chartley Forest, Staffordshire, in an +entry of 1683 in an account-book of the steward of the manor, and it +possibly remained till much later in the more remote parts of Scotland +and Ireland (J.E. Harting, _Extinct British Animals_, 1880). The wild +boar is still found in Europe, in marshy woodland districts where there +is plenty of cover, and it is fairly plentiful in Spain, Austria, Russia +and Germany, particularly in the Black Forest. + +From the earliest times, owing to its great strength, speed, and +ferocity when at bay, the boar has been one of the favourite beasts of +the chase. Under the old forest laws of England it was one of the +"beasts of the forest," and, as such, under the Norman kings the +unprivileged killing of it was punishable by death or the loss of a +member. It was hunted in England and in Europe on foot and on horseback +with dogs, while the weapon of attack was always the spear. In Europe +the wild boar is still hunted with dogs, but the spear, except when used +in emergencies and for giving the _coup de grace_, has been given up for +the gun. It is also shot in great forest drives in Austria, Germany and +Russia. The Indian wild boar (_Sus cristatus_) is slightly taller than +_Sus scrofa_, standing some 30 to 40 in. at the shoulder. It is found +throughout India, Ceylon and Burma. Here the horse and spear are still +used, and the sport is one of the most popular in India. (See +PIG-STICKING.) + +The boar is one of the four heraldic beasts of venery, and was the +cognizance of Richard III., king of England. As an article of food the +boar's head was long considered a special delicacy, and its serving was +attended with much ceremonial. At Queen's College, Oxford, the dish is +still brought on Christmas day in procession to the high-table, +accompanied by the singing of a carol. + + + + +BOARD (O. Eng. _bord_), a plank or long narrow piece of timber. The word +comes into various compounds to describe boards used for special +purposes, or objects like boards (drawing-board, ironing-board, +sounding-board, chess-board, cardboard, back-board, notice-board, +scoring-board). The phrase "to keep one's name on the boards," at +Cambridge University, signifies to remain a member of a college; at +Oxford it is "on the books." In bookbinding, pasteboard covers are +called boards. Board was early used of a table, hence such phrases as +"bed and board," "board and lodging"; or of a gaming-table, as in the +phrase "to sweep the board," meaning to pocket all the stakes, hence, +figuratively, to carry all before one. The same meaning leads to "Board +of Trade," "Local Government Board," &c. + +From the meaning of border or side, and especially ship's side, comes +"sea-board," meaning sea-coast, and the phrases "aboard" (Fr. _abord_), +"over-board," "by the board"; similarly "weather-board," the side of a +ship which is to windward; "larboard and starboard" (the former of +uncertain origin, Mid. Eng. _laddeboard_ or _latheboard_; the latter +meaning "steering side," O. Eng. _steorbord_, the rudder of early ships +working over the steering side), signifying (to one standing at the +stern and looking forward) the left and right sides of the ship +respectively. + + + + +BOARDING-HOUSE, a private house in which the proprietor provides board +and lodging for paying guests. The position of a guest in a +boarding-house differs in English law, to some extent, on the one hand +from that of a lodger in the ordinary sense of the term, and on the +other from that of a guest in an inn. Unlike the lodger, he frequently +has not the exclusive occupation of particular rooms. Unlike the guest +in an inn, his landlord has no lien upon his property for rent or any +other debt due in respect of his board (_Thompson v. Lacy_, 1820, 3 B. +and Ald. 283). The landlord is under an obligation to take reasonable +care for the safety of property brought by a guest into his house, and +is liable for damages in case of breach of this obligation (_Scarborough +v. Cosgrove_, 1905, 2 K.B. 803). Again, unlike the innkeeper, a +boarding-house keeper does not hold himself out as ready to receive all +travellers for whom he has accommodation, for which they are ready to +pay, and of course he is entitled to get rid of any guest on giving +reasonable notice (see _Lamond v. Richard_, 1897, I Q.B. 541, 548). What +is reasonable notice depends on the terms of the contract; and, subject +thereto, the course of payment of rent is a material circumstance (see +LANDLORD AND TENANT). Apparently the same implied warranty of fitness +for habitation at the commencement of the tenancy which exists in the +case of furnished lodgings (see LODGER AND LODGINGS) exists also in the +case of boarding-houses; and the guest in a boarding-house, like a +lodger, is entitled to all the usual and necessary conveniences of a +dwelling-house. + +The law of the United States is similar to English law. + +Under the French Code Civil, claims for subsistence furnished to a +debtor and his family during the last year of his life by boarding-house +keepers (_maitres de pension_) are privileged over the generality of +moveables, the privilege being exerciseable after legal expenses, +funeral expenses, the expenses of the last illness, and the wages of +servants for the year elapsed and what is due for the current year (art. +2101 (5)). Keepers of taverns (_aubergistes_) and hotels (_hoteliers_) +are responsible for the goods of their guests--the committal of which to +their custody is regarded as a deposit of necessity (_depot +necessaire_). They are liable for the loss of such goods by theft, +whether by servants or strangers, but not where the loss is due to +_force majeure_ (arts. 1952-1954). Their liability for money and bearer +securities not actually deposited is limited to 1000 francs (law of 18th +of April 1889). These provisions are reproduced in substance in the +Civil Codes of Quebec (arts. 1814, 1815, 1994, 2006) and of St Lucia +(art. 1889). In Quebec, boarding-house keepers have a lien on the goods +of their guests for the value or price of any food or accommodation +furnished to them, and have also a right to sell their baggage and other +property, if the amount remains unpaid for three months, under +conditions similar to those imposed on innkeepers in England (art. 1816 +A; and see INNS AND INNKEEPERS); also in the Civil Code of St Lucia +(arts. 1578, 1714, 1715) (A. W. R.) + + + + +BOARDING-OUT SYSTEM, in the English poor law, the boarding-out of orphan +or deserted children with suitable foster-parents. The practice was +first authorized in 1868, though for many years previously it had been +carried out by some boards of guardians on their own initiative. +Boarding-out is governed by two orders of the Local Government Board, +issued in 1889. The first permits guardians to board-out children within +their own union, except in the metropolis. The second governs the +boarding-out of children in localities outside the union. The sum +payable to the foster-parents is not to exceed 4s. per week for each +child. The system has been much discussed by authorities on the +administration of the poor law. It has been objected that few +working-men with an average-sized family can afford to devote such an +amount for the maintenance of each child, and that, therefore, +boarded-out children are better off than the children of the independent +(Fawcett, _Pauperism_). Working-class guardians, also, do not favour the +system, being suspicious as to the disinterestedness of the +foster-parents. On the other hand, it is argued that from the economic +and educational point of view much better results are obtained by +boarding-out children; they are given a natural life, and when they grow +up they are without effort merged in the general population (Mackay, +_Hist. Eng. Poor Law_). See also POOR LAW. + +The "boarding-out" of lunatics is, in Scotland, a regular part of the +lunacy administration. It has also been successfully adopted in Belgium. +(See INSANITY.) + + + + +BOARDMAN, GEORGE DANA (1801-1831), American Baptist missionary, was born +at Livermore, Me., and educated at Waterville College and Andover +Theological Seminary. In 1825 he went to India as a missionary, and in +1827 to Burma, where his promising work among the Karens was cut short +by his early death. His widow married another well-known Burmese +missionary, Adoniram Judson. + +His son, GEORGE DANA BOARDMAN, the younger (1828-1903), made the voyage +from Burma to America alone when six years of age. He graduated in 1852 +at Brown University, and from the Newton Theological Institution in +1855. He held Baptist pastorates at Rochester (1856-1864), and at +Philadelphia, and was president of the American Baptist Missionary +Union, 1880-1884. At Philadelphia he is said to have taken his +congregation through every verse of the New Testament in 643 Wednesday +evening lectures, which occupied nearly eighteen years, and afterwards +to have begun on the Old Testament in similar fashion. Among his +published works are _Studies in the Model Prayer_ (1879), and +_Epiphanies of the Risen Lord_ (1879). + + + + +BOASE, HENRY SAMUEL (1799-1883), English geologist, the eldest son of +Henry Boase (1763-1827), banker, of Madron, Cornwall, was born in London +on the 2nd of September 1799. Educated partly at Tiverton +grammar-school, and partly at Dublin, where he studied chemistry, he +afterwards proceeded to Edinburgh and took the degree of M.D. in 1821. +He then settled for some years as a medical practitioner at Penzance; +there geology engaged his particular attention, and he became secretary +of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall. The results of his +observations were embodied in his _Treatise on Primary Geology_ (1834), +a work of considerable merit in regard to the older crystalline and +igneous rocks and the subject of mineral veins. In 1837 he removed to +London, where he remained for about a year, being elected F.R.S. In 1838 +he became partner in a firm of bleachers at Dundee. He retired in 1871, +and died on the 5th of May 1883. + + + + +BOAT (O. Eng. _bat_; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. +_boot_, Fr. _bateau_, Ital. _battello_ presents great difficulties; +Celtic forms are from O. Eng.), a comparatively small open craft for +conveyance on water, usually propelled by some form of oar or sail. + +The origin of the word "boat" is probably to be looked for in the A.S. +_bat_ = a stem, a stick, a piece of wood. If this be so, the term in its +inception referred to the material of which the primitive vessel was +constructed, and in this respect may well be contrasted with the word +"ship," of which the primary idea was the _process_ by which the +material was fashioned and adapted for the use of man. + +We may assume that primitive man, in his earliest efforts to achieve the +feat of conveying himself and his belongings by water, succeeded in +doing so--(1) by fastening together a quantity of material of sufficient +buoyancy to float and carry him above the level of the water; (2) by +scooping out a fallen tree so as to obtain buoyancy enough for the same +purpose. In these two processes is to be found the genesis of both boat +and ship, of which, though often used as convertible terms, the former +is generally restricted to the smaller type of vessel such as is dealt +with in this article. For the larger type the reader is referred to +SHIP. + +Great must have been the triumph of the man who first discovered that +the rushes or the trunks he had managed to tie together would, propelled +by a stick or a branch (cf. _ramus_ and _remus_) used as pole or paddle, +convey him safely across the river or lake, which had hitherto been his +barrier. But use multiplies wants, discovers deficiencies, suggests +improvements. Man soon found out that he wanted to go faster than the +raft would move, that the water washed over and up through it, and this +need of speed, and of dry carrying power, which we find operative +throughout the history of the boat down to the present day, drove him to +devise other modes of flotation as well as to try to improve his first +invention. + +The invention of the hollowed trunk, of the "dug-out" (monoxylon), +however it came about, whenever and wherever it came into comparison +with the raft, must have superseded the latter for some purposes, though +not by any means for all. It was superior to the raft in speed, and was, +to a certain extent, water-tight. On the other hand it was inferior in +carrying power and stability. But the two types once conceived had come +to stay, and to them severally, or to attempts to combine the useful +properties of both, may be traced all the varieties of vessel to which +the name of boat may be applied. + +The development of the raft is admirably illustrated in the description, +given us by Homer in the Odyssey, of the construction by the hero +Ulysses of a vessel of the kind. Floating timber is cut down and +carefully shaped and planed with axe and adze, and the timbers are then +exactly fitted face to face and compacted with trenails and dowels, just +as the flat floor of a lump or lighter might be fashioned and fitted +nowadays. A platform is raised upon the floor and a bulwark of osiers +contrived to keep out the wash of the waves (cf. _infra_, Malay boats). +It seems as if the poet, who was intimately acquainted with the sea ways +of his time, intended to convey the idea of progress in construction, as +illustrated by the technical skill of his hero, and the use of the +various tools with which he supplies him. + +On the other hand the dug-out had its limitations. The largest tree that +could be thrown and scooped out afforded but a narrow space for carrying +goods, and presented problems as to stability which must have been very +difficult to solve. The shaping of bow and stern, the bulging out of the +sides, the flattening of the bottom, the invention of a keel piece, the +attempt to raise the sides by building up with planks, all led on +towards the idea of constructing a boat properly so called, or perhaps +to the invention of the canoe, which in some ways may be regarded as the +intermediate stage between dug-out and boat. + +Meanwhile the raft had undergone improvements such as those which Homer +indicates. It had arrived at a floor composed of timbers squared and +shaped. It had risen to a platform, the prototype of a deck. It was but +a step to build up the sides and turn up the ends, and at this point we +reach the genesis of ark and punt, of sanpan and junk, or, in other +words, of all the many varieties of flat-bottomed craft. + +When once we have reached the point at which the improvements in the +construction of the raft and dug-out bring them, as it were, within +sight of each other, we can enter upon the history of the development of +boats properly so called, which, in accordance with the uses and the +circumstances that dictated their build, may be said to be descended +from the raft or the dug-out, or from the attempt to combine the +respective advantages of the two original types. + +Uses and circumstances are infinite in variety and have produced an +infinite variety of boats. But we may safely say that in all cases the +need to be satisfied, the nature of the material available, and the +character of the difficulties to be overcome have governed the reason +and tested the reasonableness of the architecture of the craft in use. + +It is not proposed in this article to enter at any length into the +details of the construction of boats, but it is desirable, for the sake +of clearness, to indicate certain broad distinctions in the method of +building, which, though they run back into the far past, in some form or +other survive and are in use at the present day. + +The tying of trunks together to form a raft is still not unknown in the +lumber trade of the Danube or of North America, nor was it in early days +confined to the raft. It extended to many boats properly so called, even +to many of those built by the Vikings of old. It may still be seen in +the Madras surf boats, and in those constructed out of driftwood by the +inhabitants of Easter Island in the south Pacific. Virgil, who was an +archaeologist, represents Charon's boat on the Styx as of this +construction, and notes the defect, which still survives, in the craft +of the kind when loaded-- + + "Gemuit sub pondere cymba + Sutilis, et multam accepit rimosa paludem!" + _Aen._ vi. 303. + +Next to the raft, and to be counted in direct descent from it, comes the +whole class of flat-bottomed boats including punts and lighters. As soon +as the method of constructing a solid floor, with trenails and dowels, +had been discovered, the method of converting it into a water-tight box +was pursued, sides were attached plank fashion, with strong knees to +stiffen them, and cross pieces to _yoke_ or _key_ (cf. [Greek: zugon, +klaeis]) them together. These thwarts once fixed naturally suggested +seats for those that plied the paddle or the oar. The ends of the vessel +were shaped into bow or stern, either turned up, or with the side +planking convergent in stem or stern post, or joined together fore and +aft by bulkheads fitted in, while interstices were made water-tight by +caulking, and by smearing with bitumen or some resinous material. + +The evolution of the boat as distinct from the punt, or flat-bottomed +type, and following the configuration of the dug-out in its length and +rounded bottom, must have taxed the inventive art and skill of +constructors much more severely than that of the raft. It is possible +that the coracle or the canoe may have suggested the construction of a +framework of sufficient stiffness to carry a water-tight wooden skin, +such as would successfully resist the pressure of wind and water. And in +this regard two methods were open to the builder, both of which have +survived to the present day: (1) the construction first of the shell of +the boat, into which the stiffening ribs and cross ties were +subsequently fitted; (2) the construction first of a framework of +requisite size and shape, on to which the outer skin of the boat was +subsequently attached. + +Further, besides the primitive mode of tying the parts together, two +main types of build must be noticed, in accordance with which a boat is +said to be either carvel-built or clinker-built. (1) A boat is +carvel-built when the planks are laid edge to edge so that they present +a smooth surface without. (2) A boat is clinker-built when each plank is +laid on so as to overlap the one below it, thus presenting a series of +ledges running longitudinally. + +The former method is said to be of Mediterranean, or perhaps of Eastern +origin. The latter was probably invented by the old Scandinavian +builders, and from them handed down through the fishing boats of the +northern nations to our own time. + + + Ancient boats. + +The accounts of vessels used by the Egyptians and Phoenicians generally +refer to larger craft which naturally fall under the head of SHIP +(q.v.). The Nile boats, however, described by Herodotus (ii. 60), +built of acacia wood, were no doubt of various sizes, some of them quite +small, but all following the same type of construction, built up brick +fashion, the blocks being fastened internally to long poles secured by +cross pieces, and the interstices caulked with papyrus. The ends rose +high above the water, and to prevent hogging were often attached by a +truss running longitudinally over crutches from stem to stern. + +The Assyrian and Babylonian vessels described by Herodotus (i. 194), +built up of twigs and boughs, and covered with skins smeared with +bitumen, were really more like huge coracles and hardly deserve the name +of boats. + +The use of boats by the Greeks and Romans is attested by the frequent +reference to them in Greek and Latin literature, though, as regards such +small craft, the details given are hardly enough to form the basis of an +accurate classification. + +We hear of small boats attendant on a fleet ([Greek: kelaetion], Thuc. +i. 53), and of similar craft employed in piracy (Thuc. iv. 9), and in +one case of a sculling boat, or pair oar ([Greek: akation amphaerikon], +Thuc. iv. 67), which was carted up and down between the town of Megara +and the sea, being used for the purpose of marauding at night. We are +also familiar with the passage in the Acts (xxvii.) where in the storm +they had hard work "to come by the boat"; which same boat the sailors +afterwards "let down into the sea, under colour as though they would +have cast anchors out of the foreship," and would have escaped to land +in her themselves, leaving the passengers to drown, if the centurion and +soldiers acting upon St Paul's advice had not cut off the ropes of the +boat and let her fall off. + +There can be little doubt that boat races were in vogue among the Greeks +(see Prof. Gardner, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, ii. 91 ff.), and +probably formed part of the Panathenaic and Isthmian festivals. It is, +however, difficult to prove that small boats took part in these races, +though it is not unlikely that they may have done so. The testimony of +the coins, such as it is, points to galleys, and the descriptive term +([Greek: neon amilla]) leads to the same conclusion. + +It is hardly possible now to define the differences which separated +[Greek: akatos], [Greek: akation], from [Greek: kelaes], [Greek: +kelaetion], or from [Greek: lembos] or [Greek: karabos]. They seem all +to have been rowing boats, probably carvel-built, some with keels +(_acatii modo carinata_, Plin. ix. 19), and to have varied in size, some +being simply sculling boats, and others running up to as many as thirty +oars. + +Similarly in Latin authors we have frequent mention of boats +accompanying ships of war. Of this there is a well-known instance in the +account of Caesar's invasion of Britain (_B.G._ iv. 26), when the boats +of the fleet, and the pinnaces, were filled with soldiers and sent to +assist the Legionaries who were being fiercely attacked as they waded on +to the shore. There is also an instance in the civil war, which is a +prototype of a modern attack of torpedo boats upon men of war, when +Antonius manned the pinnaces of his large ships to the number of sixty, +and with them attacked and defeated an imprudent squadron of Quadriremes +(_B.C._ iii. 24). The class of boats so frequently mentioned as +_actuariae_ seems to have contained craft of all sizes, and to have been +used for all purposes, whether as pleasure boats or as despatch vessels, +or for piracy. In fact the term was employed vaguely just as we speak of +craft in general. + +The _lembus_, which is often referred to in Livy and Polybius, seems to +have been of Illyrian origin, with fine lines and sharp bows. The class +contained boats of various sizes and with a variable number of oars +(biremis, Livy xxiv. 40, sexdecim, Livy xxxiv. 35); and it is +interesting to note the origin in this case, as the invention of the +light Liburnian galleys, which won the battle of Actium, and altered the +whole system of naval construction, came from the same seaboard. + +Besides these, the piratical _myoparones_ (see Cic. _In Verrem_), and +the poetical _phaselus_, deserve mention, but here again we are met with +the difficulty of distinguishing boats from ships. There is also an +interesting notice in Tacitus (_Hist_. iii. 47) of boats hastily +constructed by the natives of the northern coast of Asia Minor, which he +describes as of broad beam with narrow sides (probably meaning that the +sides "tumbled home"), joined together without any fastenings of brass +or iron. In a sea-way the sides were raised with planks added till they +were cased in as with a roof, whence their name _camarae_, and so they +rolled about in the waves, having prow and stern alike and convertible +rowlocks, so that it was a matter of indifference and equally safe, or +perhaps unsafe, whichever way they rowed. + +Similar vessels were constructed by Germanicus in his north German +campaign (_Ann_. ii. 6) and by the Suiones (_Ger_. 44). These also had +stem and stern alike, and remind us of the old Norse construction, being +rowed either way, having the oars loose in the rowlock, and not, as was +usual in the south, attached by a thong to the thowl pin. + +Lastly, as a class of boat directly descended from the raft, we may +notice the flat-bottomed boats or punts or lighters which plied on the +Tiber as ferry-boats, or carrying goods, which were called _codicariae_ +from _caudex_, the old word for a plank. + +It is difficult to trace any order of development in the construction of +boats during the Byzantine period, or the middle ages. Sea-going vessels +according to their size carried one or more boats, some of them small +boats with two or four oars, others boats of a larger size fitted with +masts and sail as well as with oars. We find _lembus_ and _phaselus_ as +generic names in the earlier period, but the indications as to size and +character are vague and variable. The same may be said of the _batelli, +coquets, chaloupes, chalans, gattes_, &c., of which, in almost endless +number and variety, the nautical erudition of M. Jal has collected the +names in his monumental works, _Archeologie navale_ and the _Glossaire +nautique_. + +It is clear, however, that in many instances the names, originally +applied to boats properly so called, gradually attached themselves to +larger vessels, as in the case of _chaloupe_ and others, a fact which +leads to the conclusion that the type of build followed originally in +smaller vessels was often developed on a larger scale, according as it +was found useful and convenient, while the name remained the same. Many +of these types still survive and may be found in the Eastern seas, or in +the Mediterranean or in the northern waters, each of which has its own +peculiarities of build and rig. + + + Existing types. + +It would be impossible within our limits to do justice to the number and +variety of existing types in sea-going boats, and for more detailed +information concerning them the reader would do well to consult _Mast +and Sail in Europe and Asia_, by H. Warington Smyth, an excellent and +exhaustive work, from which much of the information which follows +regarding them has been derived. + +In the Eastern seas the Chinese _sanpan_ is ubiquitous. Originally a +small raft of three timbers with fore end upturned, it grew into a boat +in very early times, and has given its name to a very large class of +vessels. With flat bottom, and considerable width in proportion to its +length, the normal sanpan runs out into two tails astern, the timbers +rounding up, and the end being built in like a bulkhead, with room for +the rudder to work between it and the transom which connects the two +projecting upper timbers of the stern. Some of them are as much as 30 +ft. in length and 8 to 10 ft. in beam. They are good carriers and +speedy under sail. + +The Chinese in all probability were the earliest of all peoples to solve +the chief problems of boat building, and after their own fashion to work +out the art of navigation, which for them has now been set and unchanged +for thousands of years. They appear to have used the lee-board and +centre-board in junks and sanpans, and to have extended their trade to +India and even beyond, centuries before anything like maritime +enterprise is heard of in the north of Europe. + +As regards the practice of long boat racing on rivers or tidal waters +the Chinese are easily antecedent in time to the rest of the world. On +great festivals in certain places the Dragon boat race forms part of the +ceremony. The Dragon boats are just over 73 ft. long, with 4 ft. beam, +and depth 21 in. The rowing or paddling space is about 63 ft. and the +number of thwarts 27, thus giving exactly the same number of rowers as +that of the Zygites in the Greek trireme. The two extremities of the +boat are much cambered and rise to about 2 ft. above the water. At about +15 ft. from each end the single plank gives place to three, so as to +offer a concave surface to the water. The paddle blade is spade-like in +form and about 6-1/2 in. broad. + +Both in Siam and Burma there is a very large river population, and boat +racing is on festival days a common amusement. The typical craft, +however, is the Duck-boat, which in the shape of hull is in direct +contrast to the dug-out form, and primarily intended for sailing. It is +interesting to note that the Siamese method of slinging and using +quarter rudders is the oldest used by men in sailing craft, being in +fact the earliest development from the simple paddle rudder, which has +in all ages been the first method of steering boats. The king of Siam's +state barge, we are told, is steered by long paddles, precisely in the +same way as is figured in the case of the Egyptian boats of the 3rd +dynasty (6000 B.C.). On the other hand the slung quarter rudders are the +same in fashion as those used by Roman and Greek merchantmen, by +Norsemen and Anglo-Saxons, and by medieval seamen down to about the 14th +century. + +The Malays have generally the credit of being expert boat-builders, but +the local conditions are not such as to favour the construction of a +good type of boat. "Small displacement, hollow lines, V-shaped sections, +shallow draught and lack of beam" result in want of stability and +weatherliness. But it is among them that the ancient process of dug-out +building still survives and flourishes, preserving all the primitive and +ingenious methods of hollowing the tree trunk, of forcing its sides +outwards, and in many cases building them up with added planks, so that +from the dug-out a regular boat is formed, with increased though limited +carrying power, increased though still hardly sufficient stability. + +To ensure this last very necessary quality many devices and contrivances +are resorted to. + +In some cases (just as Ulysses is described as doing by Homer, _Od_. v. +256) the boatman fastens bundles of reeds or of bamboos all along the +sides of his boat. These being very buoyant not only act as a defence +against the wash of the waves, but are sufficient to keep the boat +afloat in any sea. + +But the most characteristic device is the outrigger, a piece of floating +wood sharpened at both ends, which is fixed parallel to the longer axis +of the boat, at a distance of two or three beams, by two or more poles +laid at right angles to it. This, while not interfering materially with +the speed of the boat, acts as a counterpoise to any pressure on it +which would tend, owing to its lack of stability, to upset it, and makes +it possible for the long narrow dug-out to face even the open sea. It is +remarkable that this invention, which must have been seen by the +Egyptians and Phoenicians in very early times, was not introduced by +them into the Mediterranean. Possibly this was owing to the lack of +large timber suitable for dug-outs, and the consequent evolution by them +of boat from raft, with sufficient beam to rely upon for stability. + +On the other hand in the boats of India the influence of Egyptian and +Arab types of build is apparent, and the dinghy of the Hugli is cited +as being in form strangely like the ancient Egyptian model still +preserved in the Ghizeh museum. Coming westward the dominant type of +build is that of the Arab _dhow_, the boat class of which has all the +characteristics of the larger vessel developed from it, plenty of beam, +overhanging stem and transom stern. The planking of the shell over the +wooden frame has a double thickness which conduces to dryness and +durability in the craft. + +On the Nile it is interesting to find the _naggar_ preserving, in its +construction out of blocks of acacia wood pinned together, the old-world +fashion of building described by Herodotus. The _gaiassa_ and _dahabiah_ +are too large to be classed as boats, but they and their smaller sisters +follow the Arab type in build and rig. + +It is noteworthy that nothing apparently of the ancient Egyptian or +classical methods of build survives in the Mediterranean, while the +records of the development of boat-building in the middle ages are +meagre and confusing. The best illustrations of ancient methods of +construction, and of ancient seamanship, are to be found, if anywhere, +in the East, that conservative storehouse of types and fashions, to +which they were either communicated, or from which they were borrowed, +by Egyptians or Phoenicians, from whom they were afterwards copied by +Greeks and Romans. + +In the Mediterranean the chief characteristics of the types belonging to +it are "carvel-build, high bow, round stern and deep rudder hung on +stern post outside the vessel." + +In the eastern basin the long-bowed wide-sterned _caique_ of the +Bosporus is perhaps the type of boat best known, but both Greek and +Italian waters abound with an unnumbered variety of boats of "beautiful +lines and great carrying power." In the Adriatic, the Venetian gondola, +and the light craft generally, are of the type developed from the raft, +flat-bottomed, and capable of navigating shallow waters with minimum of +draught and maximum of load. + +In the western basin the majority of the smaller vessels are of the +sharp-sterned build. Upon the boats of the _felucca_ class, long vessels +with easy lines and low free-board, suitable for rowing as well as +sailing, the influence of the long galley of the middle ages was +apparent. In Genoese waters at the beginning of the 19th century there +were single-decked rowing vessels, which preserved the name of galley, +and were said to be the descendants of the Liburnians that defeated the +many-banked vessels of Antonius at Actium. But the introduction of steam +vessels has already relegated into obscurity these memorials of the +past. + +Along the Riviera and the Spanish coast a type of boat is noticeable +which is peculiar for the inward curve of both stem and stern from a +keel which has considerable camber, enabling them to be beached in a +heavy surf. + +On the Douro, in Portugal, it is said that the boats which may be seen +laden with casks of wine, trailing behind them an enormously long +steering paddle, are of Phoenician ancestry, and that the curious signs, +which many of them have painted on the cross board over the cabin, are +of Semitic origin though now undecipherable. + +Coming to the northern waters, as with men, so with boats, we meet with +a totally different type. Instead of the smooth exterior of the +carvel-build, we have the more rugged form of clinker-built craft with +great beam, and raking sterns and stems, and a wide flare forward. In +the most northern waters the strakes of the sea-going boats are wide and +of considerable thickness, of oak or fir, often compacted with wooden +trenails, strong and fit to do battle with the rough seas and rough +usage which they have to endure. + +In most of these the origin of form and character is to be sought for in +the old Viking vessels or long _keeles_ of the 5th century A.D., with +curved and elevated stem and stern posts, and without decks or, at the +most, half decked. + +In the Baltic and the North Sea most of the fishing boats follow this +type, with, however, considerable variety in details. It is noticeable +that here also, as in other parts of the world, and at other times, the +pressing demand for speed and carrying power has increased the size in +almost all classes of boats till they pass into the category of ships. +At the same time the carvel-build is becoming more common, while, in the +struggle for life, steam and motor power are threatening to obliterate +the old types of rowing and sailing boats altogether. + +Next to the Norse skiff and its descendants, perhaps the oldest type of +boat in northern waters is to be found in Holland, where the conditions +of navigation have hardly altered for centuries. It is to the Dutch that +we chiefly owe the original of our pleasure craft, but, though we have +developed these enormously, the Dutch boats have remained pretty much +the same. The clinker-build and the wide rounded bow are now very much +of the same character as they are represented in the old pictures of the +17th and 18th centuries. + +The development of boat-building in the British Isles during the 19th +century has been unceasing and would need a treatise to itself to do it +justice. The expansion of the fishing industry and the pressure of +competition have stimulated constant improvement in the craft engaged, +and here also are observable the same tendencies to substitute carvel, +though it is more expensive, for clinker build, and to increase the +length and size of the boats, and the gradual supersession of sail and +oar by steam power. Under these influences we hear of the _fifie_ and +the _skaffie_ classes, old favourites in northern waters, being +superseded by the more modern _Zulu_, which is supposed to unite the +good qualities of both; and these in turn running to such a size as to +take them outside the category of boats. But even in the case of smaller +boats the _Zulu_ model is widely followed, so that they have actually +been imported to the Irish coast for the use of the crofter fishermen in +the congested districts. + +For the Shetland _sexern_ and the broad boats of the Orkneys, and the +_nabbies_ of the west coast of Scotland, the curious will do well to +refer to H. Warington Smyth's most excellent account. + +On the eastern coast of England the influence of the Dutch type of build +is manifest in many of the flat-bottomed and mostly round-ended craft, +such as the Yorkshire _Billyboy_, and partly in the _coble_, which +latter is interesting as built for launching off beaches against heavy +seas, and as containing relics of Norse influence, though in the main of +Dutch origin. + +The life-boats of the eastern coast are in themselves an admirable class +of boat, with fine lines, great length, and shallow draught, wonderful +in their daring work in foul weather and heavy seas, in which as a rule +their services are required. Here, however, as in the fishing boats, the +size is increasing, and steam is appropriating to itself the provinces +of the sail and the oar. + +The wherry of the Norfolk Broads has a type of its own, and is often +fitted out as a pleasure boat. It is safe and comfortable for inland +waters, but not the sort of boat to live in a sea-way in anything but +good weather. + +The Thames and its estuary rejoice in a great variety of boats, of which +the old _Peter_ boat (so called after the legend of the foundation of +the abbey on Thorney Island) preserved a very ancient type of build, +shorter and broader than the old Thames pleasure wherry. But these and +the old _hatch_ boat have now almost disappeared. Possibly survivors may +still be seen on the upper part of the tidal river. Round the English +coast from the mouth of the Thames southwards the conditions of landing +and of hauling up boats above high-water mark affect the type, demanding +strong clinker-build and stout timbers. Hence there is a strong family +resemblance in most of the short boats in use from the North Foreland +round to Brighton. Among these are the life-boats of Deal and the other +Channel ports, which have done and are still doing heroic work in saving +life from wrecks upon the Goodwins and the other dangerous shoals that +beset the narrowing sleeve of the English Channel. + +Farther down, along the southern coast, and to the west, where harbours +are more frequent, a finer and deeper class of boats, chiefly of +carvel-build, is to be found. The Cornish ports are the home of a great +boat-building industry, and from them a large number of the finest +fishing boats in the world are turned out annually. Most of them are +built with stem and stern alike, with full and bold quarters, and ample +floor. + +It is not possible here to enumerate, much less to describe in detail, +the variety of types in sea-going boats which have been elaborated in +England and in America. For this purpose reference should be made to the +list of works given at the end of the article. + +The following is a list of the boats at present used in the royal navy. +They have all of them a deep fore foot, and with the exception of the +whalers and Berthon boats, upright stems and transom sterns. The whalers +have a raking stem and a sharp stern, and a certain amount of sheer in +the bows. + + Length. Beam. Depth. + Feet. Ft. In. Ft. In. + 1a. Dinghy. Freeboard about 9 in. + Weight 3 cwt. 2 qr. Between + thwarts 2 ft. 9 in. Elm. 13-1/2 4' 8" 2' 2" + 1b. Skiff dinghy for torpedo boats. + Freeboard about 9 in. Carry about + ten men in moderate weather. + Between thwarts 2 ft. 7-1/2 in. + Weight 3 cwt. 4 lb. Yellow pine. 16 4' 6" 1' 10" + 2a. Whaler for destroyers. 5 in. sheer. + Yellow pine. 25 5' 6" 2' + 2b. Whaler. Between thwarts 2 ft. 10 in. + Freeboard about 12 in. Weight, + 8 cwt. Strakes No. 13. Lap + 3/4 in. Elm. 27 5' 6" 2' 2" + (All have bilge strakes with hand-holes.) + 3. Gig. Between thwarts 2 ft. 9-1/2 in. + Weight 8 cwt. 2 qr. 15 lb. 13 + Strakes. Elm. 30 5' 6" 2' 2" + 4. Cutter. Between thwarts 3 ft. 1 in. + To carry 49 men. Carvel built. 30 8' 1" 2' 8-1/2" + 5. Pinnace. Between thwarts 3 ft. + Carvel-built. Elm. 36 10' 2" 3' 5" + 6. Launch. Between thwarts 3 ft. 1 in. + To carry 140 men. Double skin + diagonal. Teak. 42 11' 6" 4' 6" + 7. Berthon collapsible boats weighing + 7 cwt. for destroyers. + +With the exception of the larger classes, viz. cutters, pinnaces and +launches, the V-shape of bottom is still preserved, which does not tend +to stability, and it is difficult to see why the smaller classes have +not followed the improvement made in their larger sisters. + + + Pleasure boats and racing. + +Though the number and variety of sea-going boats is of much greater +importance, no account of boats in general would be complete without +reference to the development of pleasure craft upon rivers and inland +waters, especially in England, during the past century. There is a +legend, dating from Saxon times, which tells of King Edgar the Peaceable +being rowed on the Dee from his palace in Chester to the church of St +John, by eight kings, himself the ninth, steering this ancient 8-oar; +but not much is heard of rowing in England until 1453, when John Norman, +lord mayor of London, set the example of going by water to Westminster, +which, we are told, made him popular with the watermen of his day, as in +consequence the use of pleasure boats by the citizens became common. +Thus it was that the old Thames pleasure wherry, with its high bows and +low sharp stern and V-shaped section, and the old skiff came into vogue, +both of which have now given way to boats, mostly of clinker-build, but +with rounder bottoms and greater depth, safer and more comfortable to +row in. + +In 1715 Thomas Doggett (q.v.) founded a race which is still rowed in +peculiar sculling boats, straked, and with sides flaring up to the sill +of the rowlock. Strutt tells us of a regatta in 1775 in which watermen +contended in pair-oared boats or skiffs. + +At the beginning of the 19th century numerous rowing clubs flourished on +the upper tidal waters of the Thames, and we hear of four-oared races +from Westminster to Putney, and from Putney to Kew, in what we should +now consider large and heavy boats, clinker-built, with bluff entry. + +Longer boats, 8-oars, and 10-oars, seem to have been existent at the end +of the 18th century. Eton certainly had one 10-oar, and three 8-oars, +and two 6-oars, before 1811. The record of 8-oar races at Oxford begins +in 1815, at Cambridge in 1827. Pair-oar and sculling races in lighter +boats seem to have come in soon after 1820, and the first Oxford and +Cambridge eight-oared race was rowed in 1829, in which year also Eton +and Westminster contended at Putney. + +Henley regatta was founded in 1839, and since that date the building of +racing boats, eights, fours, pairs, and sculling boats, has made great +progress. The products of the present time are such, in lightness of +build and swiftness of propulsion, as would have been thought impossible +between 1810 and 1830. + +In the middle of the 19th century the long boats in use were mostly +clinker-built with a keel. At Oxford the torpids were rowed, as now, in +clinker-built craft, but the summer races were rowed in carvel-built +boats, which also had a keel. + +In 1855 the first keelless 8-oar made its appearance at Henley, built by +Mat Taylor for the Royal Chester Rowing Club. The new type was +constructed on moulds, bottom upwards, a cedar skin bent and fitted on +to the moulds, and the ribs built in after the boat had been turned +over. + +In 1857 Oxford rowed in a similar boat at Putney, 55 ft. long, 25 in. +beam. From that time the keelless racing boat has held its own, fours +and pairs and sculling boats all following suit. But with the +introduction of sliding seats racing eights have developed in length to +63 ft. or more, with considerable camber, and a beam of 23-24 in. There +are, however, still advocates of the shorter type with broader beam, and +it is noticeable that the Belgian boat that won the Grand Challenge at +Henley in 1906 did not exceed 60 ft. The boat in which Oxford won the +University race in 1901 was 56 ft. long with 27 in. of beam. + +In sculling boats the acceptance of the Australian type of build has led +to the construction of a much shorter boat with broader beam than that +which was in vogue twenty years ago. The same tendency has not shown +itself so pronouncedly in pair oars, but will no doubt be manifest in +time as the build improves. In fact we may expect the controversy +between long and short racing boats, and the proper method of propelling +them respectively, to be carried a step farther. The tendency, with the +long slide, and long type of boat, is to try to avoid "pinch" by +adopting the scullers' method of easy beginning, and strong drive with +the legs, and sharp finish to follow, but it remains to be seen whether +superior pace is not to be obtained in a shorter boat by sharp beginning +at a reasonable angle to the boat's side, and a continuous drive right +out to the finish of the stroke. + +Appended is a list of pleasure boats in use (1909) on the Thames, with +their measurements (in feet and inches). + + Class of Boat. Length. Beam. Depth. + + Racing eight 56' to 63' 23" to 27" 9" to 10" + Clinker eight 56' to 60' 24" to 27" 9" to 10" + Clinker four 38' to 42' 23" to 24" 8" to 9" + Tub fours 30' to 32' 3'8"-3'10" 13" from keel to + top of stem + Outrigger pair 30' to 34' 14" to 16" 7" to 8" + Outrigger sculls 25' to 30' 10" to 13" 5-1/2" to 6" + Coaching gigs 26' to 28' 3' to 3'4" 10-1/2" to 14" + Skiffs (Thames) 24' to 26' 3'9" to 4' 12" + Skiffs (Eton) 27' 2'3" 9-1/2" + Gigs (pleasure) 24' to 36' 4' 15" to 16" + Randans 27' to 30' 4' to 4'6" 13" from keel to + top of stem + Whiffs 20' to 23' 1'4" to 1'6" 6" from keel to + top of stem + Whiff Gigs 19' to 20' 2'8" to 2'10" 12" over all + Punts racers 30' to 34' 1'3" to 1'6" 6" to 7" + " semi racers 28' to 30' 2' 9" to 10-1/2" + " pleasure 26' to 28' 2'9" to 3' 12" to 13" + + AUTHORITIES.--For ancient boats: _Dict. Ant._, "Navis"; C. Torr, + _Ancient Ships_; Smith, _Voyage and Shipwreck of St Paul_; Graser, _De + re navali_; Breusing, _Die Nautik der Alten_; Contre-amiral Serre, _La + Marine des anciens_; Jules Var, _L'Art nautique dans l'antiquite_. + Medieval: Jal, _Archeologie navale_, and _Glossaire nautique_; Marquis + de Folin, _Bateaux et navires, progres de la construction navale_; + W.S. Lindsay, _History of Merchant Shipping and Ancient Commerce_. + Modern: H. Warington Smyth, _Mast and Sail in Europe and Asia_; Dixon + Kempe, _Manual of Yacht and Boat Sailing_; H.C. Folkhard, _The Sailing + Boat_; F.G. Aflato, _The Sea Fishing Industry of England and Wales_; + R.C. Leslie, _Old Sea Wings_, &c. (E. Wa.) + + + + +BOATSWAIN (pronounced "bo'sun"; derived from "boat" and "swain," a +servant), the warrant officer of the navy who in sailing-ships had +particular charge of the boats, sails, rigging, colours, anchors and +cordage. He superintended the rigging of the ship in dock, and it was +his duty to summon the crew to work by a whistle. The office still +remains, though with functions modified by the introduction of steam. In +a merchant ship the boatswain is the foreman of the crew and is +sometimes also third or fourth mate. + + + + +BOBBILI, a town of British India, in the Vizagapatam district of Madras, +70 m. north of Vizagapatam town. Pop. (1901) 17,387. It is the residence +of a raja of old family, whose estate covers an area of 227 sq. m.; +estimated income, L40,000; permanent land revenue, L9000. + +The attack on the fort at Bobbili made by General Bussy in 1756 is one +of the most memorable episodes in Indian history. There was a constant +feud between the chief of Bobbili and the raja of Vizianagram; and when +Bussy marched to restore order the raja persuaded him that the fault lay +with the chief of Bobbili and joined the French with 11,000 men against +his rival. In spite of the fact that the French field-pieces at once +made practicable breaches in the mud walls of the fort, the defenders +held out with desperate valour. Two assaults were repulsed after hours +of hand-to-hand fighting; and when, after a fresh bombardment, the +garrison saw that their case was hopeless, they killed their women and +children, and only succumbed at last to a third assault because every +man of them was either killed or mortally wounded. An old man, however, +crept out of a hut with a child, whom he presented to Bussy as the son +of the dead chief. Three nights later four followers of the chief of +Bobbili crept into the tent of the raja of Vizianagram and stabbed him +to death. The child, Chinna Ranga Rao, was invested by Bussy with his +father's estate, but during his minority it was seized by his uncle. +After a temporary arrangement of terms with the raja of Vizianagram the +old feud broke out again, and the Bobbili chief was forced to take +refuge in the nizam's country. In 1794, however, on the break-up of the +Vizianagram estate, Chinna Ranga Rao was restored by the British, and in +1801 a permanent settlement was made with his son. The title of raja was +recognized as hereditary in the family; that of maharaja was conferred +as a personal distinction on Sir Venkataswetachalapati Ranga Rao, +K.C.I.E., the adopted great-great-grandson of Chinna Ranga Rao. + + For the siege see _Imp. Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908), s.v. + "Bobbili Estate." + + + + +BOBBIO, a town and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of +Pavia, 32-1/2 m. S.W. of Piacenza by road. Pop. (1901) 4848. Its most +important building is the church dedicated to St Columban, who became +first abbot of Bobbio in 595 or 612, and died there in 615. It was +erected in Lombard style in the 11th or 12th century (to which period +the campanile belongs) and restored in the 13th. The cathedral is also +interesting. Bobbio was especially famous for the manuscripts which +belonged to the monastery of St Columban, and are now dispersed, the +greater part being in the Vatican library at Rome, and others at Milan +and Turin. The cathedral archives contain documents of the 10th and 11th +centuries. + + See M. Stokes, _Six Months in the Apennines_ (London, 1892), 154 seq.; + C. Cipolla, in _L'Arte_ (1904), 241. + + + + +BOBER, a river of Germany, the most considerable of the left bank +tributaries of the Oder; it rises at an altitude of 2440 ft., on the +northern (Silesian) side of the Riesengebirge. In its upper course it +traverses a higher plateau, whence, after passing the town of Landeshut, +it descends through a narrow and fertile valley to Kupferberg. Here its +romantic middle course begins, and after dashing through a deep ravine +between the towns of Hirschberg and Lowenberg, it gains the plain. In +its lower course it meanders through pleasant pastures, bogland and pine +forests in succession, receives the waters of various mountain streams, +passes close by Bunzlau and through Sagan, and finally, after a course +of 160 m., joins the Oder at Crossen. Swollen by the melting of the +winter snows and by heavy rains in the mountains, it is frequently a +torrent, and is thus, except in the last few miles, unnavigable for +either boats or rafts. + + + + +BOBRUISK, a town and formerly a first-class fortress of Russia, in the +government of Minsk, and 100 m. by rail S.E. of the town of Minsk, in 53 +deg. 15' N. lat. and 28 deg. 52' E. long., on the right bank of the +Berezina river, and on the railway from Libau and Vilna to +Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1860) 23,761; (1897) 35,177, of whom one-half were +Jews. In the reign of Alexander I. there was erected here, at the +confluence of the Bobruiska with the Berezina, nearly a mile from the +town, a fort, which successfully withstood a bombardment by Napoleon in +1812, and was made equal to the best in Europe by the emperor Nicholas +I. It was demolished in 1897, the defences being antiquated. The town +has a military hospital and a departmental college. There are ironworks +and flour-mills; and corn and timber are shipped to Libau. The town was +half burnt down in 1902. + + + + +BOCAGE, MANUEL MARIA BARBOSA DE (1765-1805), Portuguese poet, was a +native of Setubal. His father had held important judicial and +administrative appointments, and his mother, from whom he took his last +surname, was the daughter of a Portuguese vice-admiral of French birth +who had fought at the battle of Matapan. Bocage began to make verses in +infancy, and being somewhat of a prodigy grew up to be flattered, +self-conscious and unstable. At the age of fourteen, he suddenly left +school and joined the 7th infantry regiment; but tiring of garrison life +at Setubal after two years, he decided to enter the navy. He proceeded +to the royal marine academy in Lisbon, but instead of studying he +pursued love adventures, and for the next five years burnt incense on +many altars, while his retentive memory and extraordinary talent for +improvisation gained him a host of admirers and turned his head. The +Brazilian _modinhas_, little rhymed poems sung to a guitar at family +parties, were then in great vogue, and Bocage added to his fame by +writing a number of these, by his skill in extemporizing verses on a +given theme, and by allegorical idyllic pieces, the subjects of which +are similar to those of Watteau's and Boucher's pictures. In 1786 he was +appointed _guardamarinha_ in the Indian navy, and he reached Goa by way +of Brazil in October. There he came into an ignorant society full of +petty intrigue, where his particular talents found no scope to display +themselves; the glamour of the East left him unmoved and the climate +brought on a serious illness. In these circumstances he compared the +heroic traditions of Portugal in Asia, which had induced him to leave +home, with the reality, and wrote his satirical sonnets on "The +Decadence of the Portuguese Empire in Asia," and those addressed to +Affonso de Albuquerque and D. Joao de Castro. The irritation caused by +these satires, together with rivalries in love affairs, made it +advisable for him to leave Goa, and early in 1789 he obtained the post +of lieutenant of the infantry company at Damaun; but he promptly +deserted and made his way to Macao, where he arrived in July-August. +According to a modern tradition much of the _Lusiads_ had been written +there, and Bocage probably travelled to China under the influence of +Camoens, to whose life and misfortunes he loved to compare his own. +Though he escaped the penalty of his desertion, he had no resources and +lived on friends, whose help enabled him to return to Lisbon in the +middle of the following year. + +Once back in Portugal he found his old popularity, and resumed his +vagabond existence. The age was one of reaction against the Pombaline +reforms, and the famous intendant of police, Manique, in his +determination to keep out French revolutionary and atheistic propaganda, +forbade the importation of foreign classics and the discussion of all +liberal ideas. Hence the only vehicle of expression left was satire, +which Bocage employed with an unsparing hand. His poverty compelled him +to eat and sleep with friends like the turbulent friar Jose Agostinho de +Macedo (q.v.), and he soon fell under suspicion with Manique. He became +a member of the New Arcadia, a literary society founded in 1790, under +the name of Elmano Sadino, but left it three years later. Though +including in its ranks most of the poets of the time, the New Arcadia +produced little of real merit, and before long its adherents became +enemies and descended to an angry warfare of words. But Bocage's +reputation among the general public and with foreign travellers grew +year by year. Beckford, the author of _Vathek_, for instance, describes +him as "a pale, limber, odd-looking young man, the queerest but perhaps +the most original of God's poetical creatures. This strange and +versatile character may be said to possess the true wand of enchantment +which at the will of its master either animates or petrifies." In 1797 +enemies of Bocage belonging to the New Arcadia delated him to Manique, +who on the pretext afforded by some anti-religious verses, the _Epistola +a Marilia_, and by his loose life, arrested him when he was about to +flee the country and lodged him in the Limoeiro, where he spent his +thirty-second birthday. His sufferings induced him to a speedy +recantation, and after much importuning of friends, he obtained his +transfer in November from the state prison to that of the Inquisition, +then a mild tribunal, and shortly afterwards recovered his liberty. He +returned to his bohemian life and subsisted by writing empty _Elogios +Dramaticos_ for the theatres, printing volumes of verses and translating +the didactic poems of Delille, Castel and others, some second-rate +French plays and Ovid's _Metamorphoses_. These resources and the help of +brother Freemasons just enabled him to exist, and a purifying influence +came into his life in the shape of a real affection for the two +beautiful daughters of D. Antonio Bersane Leite, which drew from him +verses of true feeling mixed with regrets for the past. He would have +married the younger lady, D. Anna Perpetua (Analia), but excesses had +ruined his health. In 1801 his poetical rivalry with Macedo became more +acute and personal, and ended by drawing from Bocage a stinging +extempore poem, _Pena de Taliao_, which remains a monument to his powers +of invective. In 1804 the malady from which he suffered increased, and +the approach of death inspired some beautiful sonnets, including one +directed to D. Maria (_Marcia_), elder sister of Analia, who visited and +consoled him. He became reconciled to his enemies, and breathed his last +on the 21st of December 1805. His end recalled that of Camoens, for he +expired in poverty on the eve of the French invasion, while the singer +of the _Lusiads_ just failed to see the occupation of Portugal by the +duke of Alva's army. The gulf that divides the life and achievements of +these two poets is accounted for, less by difference of talent and +temperament than by their environment, and it gives an accurate measure +of the decline of Portugal in the two centuries that separate 1580 from +1805. + +To Beckford, Bocage was "a powerful genius," and Link was struck by his +nervous expression, harmonious versification and the fire of his poetry. +He employed every variety of lyric and made his mark in all. His +roundels are good, his epigrams witty, his satires rigorous and +searching, his odes often full of nobility, but his fame must rest on +his sonnets, which almost rival those of Camoens in power, elevation of +thought and tender melancholy, though they lack the latter's scholarly +refinement of phrasing. So dazzled were contemporary critics by his +brilliant and inspired extemporizations that they ignored Bocage's +licentiousness, and overlooked the slightness of his creative output and +the artificial character of most of his poetry. In 1871 a monument was +erected to the poet in the chief square of Setubal, and the centenary of +his death was kept there with much circumstance in 1905. + + The best editions of his collected works are those of I.F. da Silva, + with a biographical and literary study by Rebello da Silva, in 6 vols. + (Lisbon, 1853), and of Dr Theophilo Braga, in 8 vols. (Oporto, + 1875-1876). See also I.F. da Silva _Diccionario Bibliographico + Portuguez_, vol. vi. pp. 45-53, and vol. xvi. pp. 260-264; Dr T. + Braga, _Bocage, sua vida e epoca litteraria_ (Oporto, 1902). A + striking portrait of Bocage by H.J. da Silva was engraved by + Bartolozzi, who spent his last years in Lisbon. (E. Pr.) + + + + +BOCAGE (from O. Fr. _boscage_, Late Lat. _boscum_, a wood), a French +topographical term applied to several regions of France, the commonest +characteristics of which are a granite formation and an undulating or +hilly surface, consisting largely of heath or reclaimed land, and dotted +with clumps of trees. The most important districts designated by the +word are (1) the Bocage of Normandy, which comprises portions of the +departments of Calvados, Manche and Orne; (2) the Bocage of Vendee, +situated in the departments of Vendee, Deux-Sevres, Maine-et-Loire, and +Loire-Inferieure. + + + + +BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI (1313-1375), Italian author, whose _Decameron_ is +one of the classics of literature, was born in 1313, as we know from a +letter of Petrarch, in which that poet, who was born in 1304, calls +himself the senior of his friend by nine years. The place of his birth +is somewhat doubtful--Florence, Paris and Certaldo being all mentioned +by various writers as his native city. Boccaccio undoubtedly calls +himself a Florentine, but this may refer merely to the Florentine +citizenship acquired by his grandfather. The claim of Paris has been +supported by Baldelli and Tiraboschi, mainly on the ground that his +mother was a lady of good family in that city, where she met Boccaccio's +father. There is a good deal in favour of Certaldo, a small town or +castle in the valley of the Elsa, 20 m. from Florence, where the family +had some property, and where the poet spent much of the latter part of +his life. He always signed his name Boccaccio da Certaldo, and named +that town as his birthplace in his own epitaph. Petrarch calls his +friend Certaldese; and Filippo Villani, a contemporary, distinctly says +that Boccaccio was born in Certaldo. + +Boccaccio, an illegitimate son, as is put beyond dispute by the fact +that a special licence had to be obtained when he desired to become a +priest, was brought up with tender care by his father, who seems to have +been a merchant of respectable rank. His elementary education he +received from Giovanni da Strada, an esteemed teacher of grammar in +Florence. But at an early age he was apprenticed to an eminent merchant, +with whom he remained for six years, a time entirely lost to him, if we +may believe his own statement. For from his tenderest years his soul was +attached to that "_alma poesis_," which, on his tombstone, he names as +the task and study of his life. In one of his works he relates that, in +his seventh year, before he had ever seen a book of poetry or learned +the rules of metrical composition, he began to write verse in his +childish fashion, and earned for himself amongst his friends the name of +"the poet." It is uncertain where Boccaccio passed these six years of +bondage; most likely he followed his master to various centres of +commerce in Italy and France. We know at least that he was in Naples and +Paris for some time, and the youthful impressions received in the latter +city, as well as the knowledge of the French language acquired there, +were of considerable influence on his later career. Yielding at last to +his son's immutable aversion to commerce, the elder Boccaccio permitted +him to adopt a course of study somewhat more congenial to the literary +tastes of the young man. He was sent to a celebrated professor of canon +law, at that time an important field of action both to the student and +the practical jurist. According to some accounts--far from authentic, it +is true--this professor was Cino da Pistoia, the friend of Dante, and +himself a celebrated poet and scholar. But, whoever he may have been, +Boccaccio's master was unable to inspire his pupil with scientific +ardour. "Again," Boccaccio says, "I lost nearly six years. And so +nauseous was this study to my mind, that neither the teaching of my +master, nor the authority and command of my father, nor yet the +exertions and reproof of my friends, could make me take to it, for my +love of poetry was invincible." + +About 1333 Boccaccio settled for some years at Naples, apparently sent +there by his father to resume his mercantile pursuits, the canon law +being finally abandoned. The place, it must be confessed, was little +adapted to lead to a practical view of life one in whose heart the love +of poetry was firmly rooted. The court of King Robert of Anjou at Naples +was frequented by many Italian and French men of letters, the great +Petrarch amongst the number. At the latter's public examination in the +noble science of poetry by the king, previous to his receiving the +laurel crown at Rome, Boccaccio was present,--without, however, making +his personal acquaintance at this period. In the atmosphere of this gay +court, enlivened and adorned by the wit of men and the beauty of women, +Boccaccio lived for several years. We can imagine how the tedious duties +of the market and the counting-house became more and more distasteful +to his aspiring nature. We are told that, finding himself by chance on +the supposed grave of Virgil, near Naples, Boccaccio on that sacred spot +took the firm resolution of devoting himself for ever to poetry. But +perhaps another event, which happened some time after, led quite as much +as the first-mentioned occurrence to this decisive turning-point in his +life. On Easter-eve, 1341, in the church of San Lorenzo, Boccaccio saw +for the first time the natural daughter of King Robert, Maria, whom he +immortalized as Fiammetta in the noblest creations of his muse. +Boccaccio's passion on seeing her was instantaneous, and (if we may +accept as genuine the confessions contained in one of her lover's works) +was returned with equal ardour on the part of the lady. But not till +after much delay did she yield to the amorous demands of the poet, in +spite of her honour and her duty as the wife of another. All the +information we have with regard to Maria or Fiammetta is derived from +the works of Boccaccio himself, and owing to several apparently +contradictory statements occurring in these works, the very existence of +the lady has been doubted by commentators, who seem to forget that, +surrounded by the chattering tongues of a court, and watched perhaps by +a jealous husband, Boccaccio had all possible reason to give the +appearance of fictitious incongruity to the effusions of his real +passion. But there seems no more reason to call into question the main +features of the story, or even the identity of the person, than there +would be in the case of Petrarch's Laura or of Dante's Beatrice. It has +been ingeniously pointed out by Baldelli, that the fact of her descent +from King Robert being known only to Maria herself, and through her to +Boccaccio, the latter was the more at liberty to refer to this +circumstance,--the bold expression of the truth serving in this case to +increase the mystery with which the poets of the middle ages loved, or +were obliged, to surround the objects of their praise. From Boccaccio's +_Ameto_ we learn that Maria's mother was, like his own, a French lady, +whose husband, according to Baldelli's ingenious conjecture, was of the +noble house of Aquino, and therefore of the same family with the +celebrated Thomas Aquinas. Maria died, according to his account, long +before her lover, who cherished her memory to the end of his life, as we +see from a sonnet written shortly before his death. + +The first work of Boccaccio, composed by him at Fiammetta's command, was +the prose tale, _Filocopo_, describing the romantic love and adventures +of Florio and Biancafiore, a favourite subject with the knightly +minstrels of France, Italy and Germany. The treatment of the story by +Boccaccio is not remarkable for originality or beauty, and the narrative +is encumbered by classical allusions and allegorical conceits. The style +also cannot be held worthy of the future great master of Italian prose. +Considering, however, that this prose was in its infancy, and that this +was Boccaccio's first attempt at remoulding the unwieldy material at his +disposal, it would be unjust to deny that _Filocopo_ is a highly +interesting work, full of promise and all but articulate power. Another +work, written about the same time by Fiammetta's desire and dedicated to +her, is the _Teseide_, an epic poem, and indeed the first heroic epic in +the Italian language. The name is chosen somewhat inappropriately, as +King Theseus plays a secondary part, and the interest of the story +centres in the two noble knights, Palemone and Arcito, and their wooing +of the beautiful Emelia. The _Teseide_ is of particular interest to the +student of poetry, because it exhibits the first example of the _ottava +rima_, a metre which was adopted by Tasso and Ariosto, and in English by +Byron in _Don Juan_. Another link between Boccaccio's epic and English +literature is formed by the fact of Chaucer having in the _Knight's +Tale_ adopted its main features. + +Boccaccio's poetry has been severely criticized by his countrymen, and +most severely by the author himself. On reading Petrarch's sonnets, +Boccaccio resolved in a fit of despair to burn his own attempts, and +only the kindly encouragement of his great friend prevented the +holocaust. Posterity has justly differed from the author's sweeping +self-criticism. It is true, that compared with Dante's grandeur and +passion, and with Petrarch's absolute mastership of metre and language, +Boccaccio's poetry seems to be somewhat thrown into shade. His verse is +occasionally slip-shod, and particularly his epic poetry lacks what in +modern parlance is called poetic diction,--the quality, that is, which +distinguishes the elevated pathos of the recorder of heroic deeds from +the easy grace of the mere _conteur_. This latter feature, so charmingly +displayed in Boccaccio's prose, has to some extent proved fatal to his +verse. At the same time, his narrative is always fluent and interesting, +and his lyrical pieces, particularly the poetic interludes in the +_Decameron_, abound with charming gallantry, and frequently rise to +lyrical pathos. + +About the year 1341 Boccaccio returned to Florence by command of his +father, who in his old age desired the assistance and company of his +son. Florence, at that time disturbed by civil feuds, and the silent +gloom of his father's house could not but appear in an unfavourable +light to one accustomed to the gay life of the Neapolitan court. But +more than all this, Boccaccio regretted the separation from his beloved +Fiammetta. The thought of her at once embittered and consoled his +loneliness. Three of his works owe their existence to this period. With +all of them Fiammetta is connected; of one of them she alone is the +subject. The first work, called _Ameto_, describes the civilizing +influence of love, which subdues the ferocious manners of the savage +with its gentle power. Fiammetta, although not the heroine of the story, +is amongst the nymphs who with their tales of true love soften the mind +of the huntsman. _Ameto_ is written in prose alternating with verse, +specimens of which form occur in old and middle Latin writings. It is +more probable, however, that Boccaccio adopted it from that sweetest and +purest blossom of medieval French literature, _Aucassin et Nicolette_, +which dates from the 13th century, and was undoubtedly known to him. So +pleased was Boccaccio with the idea embodied in the character of _Ameto_ +that he repeated its essential features in the Cimone of his _Decameron_ +(Day 5th, tale i.). The second work referred to is a poem in fifty +chapters, called _L'amorosa Visione_. It describes a dream in which the +poet, guided by a lady, sees the heroes and lovers of ancient and +medieval times. Boccaccio evidently has tried to imitate the celebrated +_Trionfi_ of Petrarch, but without much success. There is little organic +development in the poem, which reads like the _catalogue raisonne_ of a +picture gallery; but it is remarkable from another point of view. It is +perhaps the most astounding instance in literature of ingenuity wasted +on trifles; even Edgar Poe, had he known Boccaccio's puzzle, must have +confessed himself surpassed. For the whole of the _Amorosa Visione_ is +nothing but an acrostic on a gigantic scale. The poem is written, like +the _Divina Commedia_, in _terza rima_, and the initial letters of all +the triplets throughout the work compose three poems of considerable +length, in the first of which the whole is dedicated to Boccaccio's +lady-love, this time under her real name of Maria. In addition to this, +the initial letters of the first, third, fifth, seventh and ninth lines +of the dedicatory poem form the name of Maria; so that here we have the +acrostic in the second degree. No wonder that thus entrammelled the +poet's thought begins to flag and his language to halt. The third +important work written by Boccaccio during his stay at Florence, or soon +after his return to Naples, is called _L'amorosa Fiammetta_; and +although written in prose, it contains more real poetry than the +elaborate production just referred to. It purports to be Fiammetta's +complaint after her lover, following the call of filial duty, had +deserted her. Bitterly she deplores her fate, and upbraids her lover +with coldness and want of devotion. Jealous fears add to her torture, +not altogether unfounded, if we believe the commentators' assertion that +the heroine of _Ameto_ is in reality the beautiful Lucia, a Florentine +lady loved by Boccaccio. Sadly Fiammetta recalls the moments of former +bliss, the first meeting, the stolen embrace. Her narrative is indeed +our chief source of information for the incidents of this strange +love-story. It has been thought unlikely, and indeed impossible, that +Boccaccio should thus have become the mouthpiece of a real lady's real +passion for himself; but there seems nothing incongruous in the +supposition that after a happy reunion the poet should have heard with +satisfaction, and surrounded with the halo of ideal art, the story of +his lady's sufferings. Moreover, the language is too full of individual +intensity to make the conjecture of an entirely fictitious love affair +intrinsically probable. _L'amorosa Fiammetta_ is a monody of passion +sustained even to the verge of dulness, but strikingly real, and +therefore artistically valuable. + +By the intercession of an influential friend, Boccaccio at last obtained +(in 1344) his father's permission to return to Naples, where in the +meantime Giovanna, grand-daughter of King Robert, had succeeded to the +crown. Being young and beautiful, fond of poetry and of the praise of +poets, she received Boccaccio with all the distinction due to his +literary fame. For many years she remained his faithful friend, and the +poet returned her favour with grateful devotion. Even when the charge of +having instigated, or at least connived at, the murder of her husband +was but too clearly proved against her, Boccaccio was amongst the few +who stood by her, and undertook the hopeless task of clearing her name +from the dreadful stain. It was by her desire, no less than by that of +Fiammetta, that he composed (between 1344 and 1350) most of the stories +of his _Decameron_, which afterwards were collected and placed in the +mouths of the Florentine ladies and gentlemen. During this time he also +composed the _Filostrato_, a narrative poem, the chief interest of +which, for the English reader, lies in its connexion with Chaucer. With +a boldness pardonable only in men of genius, Chaucer adopted the main +features of the plot, and literally translated parts of Boccaccio's +work, without so much as mentioning the name of his Italian source. + +In 1350 Boccaccio returned to Florence, owing to the death of his +father, who had made him guardian to his younger brother Jacopo. He was +received with great distinction, and entered the service of the +Republic, being at various times sent on important missions to the +margrave of Brandenburg, and to the courts of several popes, both in +Avignon and Rome. Boccaccio boasts of the friendly terms on which he had +been with the great potentates of Europe, the emperor and pope amongst +the number. But he was never a politician in the sense that Dante and +Petrarch were. As a man of the world he enjoyed the society of the +great, but his interest in the internal commotions of the Florentine +state seems to have been very slight. Besides, he never liked Florence, +and the expressions used by him regarding his fellow-citizens betray +anything but patriotic prejudice. In a Latin eclogue he applies to them +the term "Batrachos" (frogs), by which, he adds parenthetically--_Ego +intelligo Florentinorum morem; loquacissimi enim sumus, verum in rebus +bellicis nihil valemus._ The only important result of Boccaccio's +diplomatic career was his intimacy with Petrarch. The first acquaintance +of these two great men dates from the year 1350, when Boccaccio, then +just returned to Florence, did all in his power to make the great poet's +short stay in that city agreeable. When in the following year the +Florentines were anxious to draw men of great reputation to their +newly-founded university, it was again Boccaccio who insisted on the +claims of Petrarch to the most distinguished position. He himself +accepted the mission of inviting his friend to Florence, and of +announcing to Petrarch at the same time that the forfeited estates of +his family had been restored to him. In this manner an intimate +friendship grew up between them to be parted only by death. Common +interests and common literary pursuits were the natural basis of their +friendship, and both occupy prominent positions in the early history of +that great intellectual revival commonly called the Renaissance. + +During the 14th century the study of ancient literature was at a low ebb +in Italy. The interest of the lay world was engrossed by political +struggles, and the treasures of classical history and poetry were at the +mercy of monks, too lazy or too ignorant to use, or even to preserve +them. Boccaccio himself told that, on asking to see the library of the +celebrated monastery of Monte Cassino, he was shown into a dusty room +without a door to it. Many of the valuable manuscripts were mutilated; +and his guide told him that the monks were in the habit of tearing +leaves from the codices to turn them into psalters for children, or +amulets for women at the price of four or five _soldi_ apiece. +Boccaccio did all in his power to remove by word and example this +barbarous indifference. He bought or copied with his own hand numerous +valuable manuscripts, and an old writer remarks that if Boccaccio had +been a professional copyist, the amount of his work might astonish us. +His zealous endeavours for the revival of the all but forgotten Greek +language in western Europe are well known. The most celebrated Italian +scholars about the beginning of the 15th century were unable to read the +Greek characters. Boccaccio deplored the ignorance of his age. He took +lessons from Leone Pilato, a learned adventurer of the period, who had +lived a long time in Thessaly and, although born in Calabria, pretended +to be a Greek. By Boccaccio's advice Leone Pilato was appointed +professor of Greek language and literature in the university of +Florence, a position which he held for several years, not without great +and lasting benefit for the revival of classical learning. Boccaccio was +justly proud of having been intimately connected with the foundation of +the first chair of Greek in Italy. But he did not forget, in his +admiration of classic literature, the great poets of his own country. He +never tires in his praise of the sublime Dante, whose works he copied +with his own hand. He conjures his friend Petrarch to study the great +Florentine, and to defend himself against the charges of wilful +ignorance and envy brought against him. A life of Dante, and the +commentaries on the first sixteen cantos of the _Inferno_, bear witness +to Boccaccio's learning and enthusiasm. + +In the chronological enumeration of our author's writings we now come to +his most important work, the _Decameron_, a collection of one hundred +stories, published in their combined form in 1353, although mostly +written at an earlier date. This work marks in a certain sense the rise +of Italian prose. It is true that Dante's _Vita Nuova_ was written +before, but its involved sentences, founded essentially on Latin +constructions, cannot be compared with the infinite suppleness and +precision of Boccaccio's prose. The _Cento Novelle Antiche_, on the +other hand, which also precedes the _Decameron_ in date, can hardly be +said to be written in artistic language according to definite rules of +grammar and style. Boccaccio for the first time speaks a new idiom, +flexible and tender, like the character of the nation, and capable of +rendering all the shades of feeling, from the coarse laugh of cynicism +to the sigh of hopeless love. It is by the name of "Father of Italian +Prose" that Boccaccio ought to be chiefly remembered. + +Like most progressive movements in art and literature, Boccaccio's +remoulding of Italian prose may be described as a "return to nature." It +is indeed the nature of the Italian people itself which has become +articulate in the _Decameron_; here we find southern grace and elegance, +together with that unveiled _naivete_ of impulse which is so striking +and so amiable a quality of the Italian character. The undesirable +complement of the last-mentioned feature, a coarseness and indecency of +conception and expression hardly comprehensible to the northern mind, +also appears in the _Decameron_, particularly where the life and +conversation of the lower classes are the subject of the story. At the +same time, these descriptions of low life are so admirable, and the +character of popular parlance rendered with such humour, as often to +make the frown of moral disgust give way to a smile. + +It is not surprising that a style so concise and yet so pliable so +typical and yet so individual, as that of Boccaccio was of enormous +influence on the further progress of a prose in a manner created by it. +This influence has indeed prevailed down to the present time, to an +extent beneficial upon the whole, although frequently fatal to the +development of individual writers. Novelists like Giovanni Fiorentino or +Franco Sacchetti are completely under the sway of their great model; and +Boccaccio's influence may be discerned equally in the plastic fulness of +Machiavelli and in the pointed satire of Aretino. Without touching upon +the individual merits of Lasca, Bandello and other novelists of the +_cinque-cento_, it may be asserted that none of them created a style +independent of their great predecessor. One cannot indeed but acquiesce +in the authoritative utterance of the Accademia della Crusca, which +holds up the _Decameron_ as the standard and model of Italian prose. +Even the Della Cruscan writers themselves have been unable to deprive +the language wholly of the fresh spontaneity of Boccaccio's manner, +which in modern literature we again admire in Manzoni's _Promessi +sposi_. + +A detailed analysis of a work so well known as the _Decameron_ would be +unnecessary. The description of the plague of Florence preceding the +stories is universally acknowledged to be a masterpiece of epic grandeur +and vividness. It ranks with the paintings of similar calamities by +Thucydides, Defoe and Manzoni. Like Defoe, Boccaccio had to draw largely +on hearsay and his own imagination, it being almost certain that in 1348 +he was at Naples, and therefore no eye-witness of the scenes he +describes. The stories themselves, a hundred in number, range from the +highest pathos to the coarsest licentiousness. A creation like the +patient Griselda, which international literature owes to Boccaccio, +ought to atone for much that is morally and artistically objectionable +in the _Decameron_. It may be said on this head, that his age and his +country were not only deeply immoral, but in addition exceedingly +outspoken. Moreover, his sources were anything but pure. Most of his +improper stories are either anecdotes from real life, or they are taken +from the _fabliaux_ of medieval French poets. On comparing the latter +class of stories (about one-fifth of the whole _Decameron_) with their +French originals, one finds that Boccaccio has never added to, but has +sometimes toned down the revolting ingredients. Notwithstanding this, it +cannot be denied that the artistic value of the _Decameron_ is greatly +impaired by descriptions and expressions, the intentional licentiousness +of which is but imperfectly veiled by an attempt at humour. + +Boccaccio has been accused of plagiarism, particularly by French +critics, who correctly state that the subjects of many stories in the +_Decameron_ are borrowed from their literature. A similar objection +might be raised against Chaucer, Shakespeare, Goethe (in _Faust_), and +indeed most of the master minds of all nations. Power of invention is +not the only nor even the chief criterion of a great poet. He takes his +subjects indiscriminately from his own fancy, or from the consciousness +of his and other nations. Stories float about in the air, known to all +yet realized by few; the poet gathers their _disjecta membra_ into an +organic whole, and this he inspires and calls into life with the breath +of his genius. It is in this sense that Boccaccio is the creator of +those innumerable beautiful types and stories, which have since become +household words amongst civilized nations. No author can equal him in +these contributions to the store of international literature. There are +indeed few great poets who have not in some way become indebted to the +inexhaustible treasure of Boccaccio's creativeness. One of the greatest +masterpieces of German literature, Lessing's _Nathan the Wise_, contains +a story from Boccaccio (_Decameron_, Day 1st, tale iii.), and the list +of English poets who have drawn from the same source comprises, among +many others, the names of Chaucer, Lydgate, Dryden, Keats and Tennyson. + +For ten years Boccaccio continued to reside in Florence, leaving the +city only occasionally on diplomatic missions or on visits to his +friends. His fame in the meantime began to spread far and wide, and his +_Decameron_, in particular, was devoured by the fashionable ladies and +gentlemen of the age. About 1360 he seems to have retired from the +turbulent scenes of Florence to his native Certaldo, the secluded charms +of which he describes with rapture. In the following year took place +that strange turning-point in Boccaccio's career which is generally +described as his conversion. It seems that a Carthusian monk came to him +while at Certaldo charged with a posthumous message from another monk of +the same order, to the effect that if Boccaccio did not at once abandon +his godless ways in life and literature his death would ensue after a +short time. It is also mentioned that the revelation to the friar on his +deathbed of a secret known only to Boccaccio gave additional import to +this alarming information. Boccaccio's impressionable nature was deeply +moved. His life had been far from virtuous; in his writings he had +frequently sinned against the rules of morality, and worse still, he had +attacked with bitter satire the institutions and servants of holy mother +church. Terrified by the approach of immediate death, he resolved to +sell his library, abandon literature, and devote the remainder of his +life to penance and religious exercise. To this effect he wrote to +Petrarch. We possess the poet's answer; it is a masterpiece of writing, +and what is more, a proof of tenderest friendship. The message of the +monk Petrarch is evidently inclined to treat simply as pious fraud, +without, however, actually committing himself to that opinion. "No monk +is required to tell thee of the shortness and precariousness of human +life. Of the advice received accept what is good; abandon worldly cares, +conquer thy passions, and reform thy soul and life of degraded habits. +But do not give up the studies which are the true food of a healthy +mind." Boccaccio seems to have acted on this valuable advice. His later +works, although written in Latin and scientific in character, are by no +means of a religious kind. It seems, however, that his entering the +church in 1362 is connected with the events just related. + +In 1363 Boccaccio went on a visit to Naples to the seneschal Acciajuoli +(the same Florentine who had in 1344 persuaded the elder Boccaccio to +permit his son's return to Naples), who commissioned him to write the +story of his deeds of valour. On his arrival, however, the poet was +treated with shameful neglect, and revenged himself by denying the +possibility of relating any valorous deeds for want of their existence. +This declaration, it must be confessed, came somewhat late, but it was +provoked by a silly attack on the poet himself by one of the seneschal's +indiscreet friends. + +During the next ten years Boccaccio led an unsettled life, residing +chiefly at Florence or Certaldo, but frequently leaving his home on +visits to Petrarch and other friends, and on various diplomatic errands +in the service of the Republic. He seems to have been poor, having spent +large sums in the purchase of books, but his independent spirit rejected +the numerous splendid offers of hospitality made to him by friends and +admirers. During this period he wrote four important Latin works--_De +Genealogia Deorum libri XV._, a compendium of mythological knowledge +full of deep learning; _De Montium, Silvarum, Lacuum, et Marium +nominibus liber_, a treatise on ancient geography; and two historical +books--_De Casibus Virorum et Feminarum Illustrium libri IX._, +interesting to the English reader as the original of John Lydgate's +_Fall of Princes_; and _De Claris Mulieribus_. To the list of his works +ought to be added _Il Ninfale Fiesolano_, a beautiful love-story in +verse, and _Il Corbaccio ossia Il Laberinto d'Amore_, a coarse satire on +a Florentine widow who had jilted the poet, written about 1355, not to +mention many eclogues in Latin and miscellaneous _Rime_ in Italian (the +latter collected by his biographer Count Baldelli in 1802). + +In 1373 we find Boccaccio again settled at Certaldo. Here he was +attacked by a terrible disease which brought him to the verge of death, +and from the consequences of which he never quite recovered. But +sickness could not subdue his intellectual vigour. When the Florentines +established a chair for the explanation of the _Divina Commedia_ in +their university, and offered it to Boccaccio, the senescent poet at +once undertook the arduous duty. He delivered his first lecture on the +23rd of October 1373. The commentary on part of the _Inferno_, already +alluded to, bears witness of his unabated power of intellect. In 1374 +the news of the loss of his dearest friend Petrarch reached Boccaccio, +and from this blow he may be said to have never recovered. Almost his +dying efforts were devoted to the memory of his friend; urgently he +entreated Petrarch's son-in-law to arrange the publication of the +deceased poet's Latin epic _Africa_, a work of which the author had been +far more proud than of his immortal sonnets to Laura. + +In his last will Boccaccio left his library to his father confessor, and +after his decease to the convent of Santo Spirito in Florence. His small +property he bequeathed to his brother Jacopo. His own natural children +had died before him. He himself died on the 21st of December 1375 at +Certaldo, and was buried in the church of SS. Jacopo e Filippo of that +town. On his tombstone was engraved the epitaph composed by himself +shortly before his death. It is calm and dignified, worthy indeed of a +great life with a great purpose. These are the lines:-- + + "Hac sub mole jacent cineres ac ossa Joannis; + Mens sedet ante Deum, meritis ornata laborum + Mortalis vitae. Genitor Boccaccius illi; + Patria Certaldum; studium fuit alma poesis." + + A complete edition of Boccaccio's Italian writings, in 17 vols., was + published by Moutier (Florence, 1834). The life of Boccaccio has been + written by Tiraboschi, Mazzuchelli, Count Baldelli (_Vita di + Boccaccio_, Florence, 1806), and others. In English the best biography + is Edward Hutton (1909.) The first printed edition of the _Decameron_ + is without date, place or printer's name; but it is believed to belong + to the year 1469 or 1470, and to have been printed at Florence. + Besides this, Baldelli mentions eleven editions during the 15th + century. The entire number of editions by far exceeds a hundred. A + curious expurgated edition, authorized by the pope, appeared at + Florence, 1573. Here, however, the grossest indecencies remain, the + chief alteration being the change of the improper personages from + priests and monks into laymen. The best old edition is that of + Florence, 1527. Of modern reprints, that by Forfoni (Florence, 1857) + deserves mention. Manni has written a _Storia del Decamerone_ (1742), + and a German scholar, M. Landau, who published (Vienna, 1869) a + valuable investigation of the sources of the _Decameron_, subsequently + brought out in 1877 a general study of Boccaccio's life and works. An + interesting English translation of the _Decameron_ appeared in 1624, + under the title _The Model of Mirth, Wit, Eloquence and Conversation_. + (F. H.) + + + + +BOCCALINI, TRAJANO (1556-1613), Italian satirist, was born at Loretto in +1556. The son of an architect, he himself adopted that profession, and +it appears that he commenced late in life to apply to literary pursuits. +Pursuing his studies at Rome, he had the honour of teaching Bentivoglio, +and acquired the friendship of the cardinals Gaetano and Borghesi, as +well as of other distinguished personages. By their influence he +obtained various posts, and was even appointed by Gregory XIII. governor +of Benevento in the states of the church. Here, however, he seems to +have acted imprudently, and he was soon recalled to Rome, where he +shortly afterwards composed his most important work, the _Ragguagli di +Parnaso_, in which Apollo is represented as receiving the complaints of +all who present themselves, and distributing justice according to the +merits of each particular case. The book is full of light and fantastic +satire on the actions and writings of his eminent contemporaries, and +some of its happier hits are among the hackneyed felicities of +literature. To escape, it is said, from the hostility of those whom his +shafts had wounded, he returned to Venice, and there, according to the +register in the parochial church of Sta Maria Formosa, died of colic, +accompanied with fever, on the 16th of November 1613. It was asserted, +indeed, by contemporary writers that he had been beaten to death with +sand-bags by a band of Spanish bravadoes, but the story seems without +foundation. At the same time, it is evident from the _Pietra del +Paragone_, which appeared after his death in 1615, that whatever the +feelings of the Spaniards towards him, he cherished against them +feelings of the bitterest hostility. The only government, indeed, which +is exempt from his attacks is that of Venice, a city for which he seems +to have had a special affection. + + The _Ragguagli_, first printed in 1612, has frequently been + republished. The _Pietra_ has been translated into French, German, + English and Latin; the English translator was Henry, earl of Monmouth, + his version being entitled _The Politicke Touchstone_ (London, 1674). + Another posthumous publication of Boccalini was his _Commentarii sopra + Cornelia Tacito_ (Geneva, 1669). Many of his manuscripts are preserved + still unprinted. + + + + +BOCCHERINI, LUIGI (1743-1805), Italian composer, son of an Italian +bass-player, was born at Lucca, and studied at Rome, where he became a +fine 'cellist, and soon began to compose. He returned to Lucca, where +for some years he was prominent as a player, and there he produced two +oratorios and an opera. He toured in Europe, and in 1768 was received in +Paris by Gossec and his circle with great enthusiasm, his instrumental +pieces being highly applauded; and from 1769 to 1785 he held the post of +"composer and virtuoso" to the king of Spain's brother, the infante +Luis, at Madrid. He afterwards became "chamber-composer" to King +Frederick William II. of Prussia, till 1797, when he returned to Spain. +He died at Madrid on the 28th of May 1805. + +As an admirer of Haydn, and a voluminous writer of instrumental music, +chiefly for the violoncello, Boccherini represents the effect of the +rapid progress of a new art on a mind too refined to be led into +crudeness, too inventive and receptive to neglect any of the new +artistic resources within its cognizance, and too superficial to grasp +their real meaning. His mastery of the violoncello, and his advanced +sense of beauty in instrumental tone-colour, must have made even his +earlier works seem to contemporaries at least as novel and mature as any +of those experiments at which Haydn, with eight years more of age and +experience, was labouring in the development of the true new forms. Most +of Boccherini's technical resources proved useless to Haydn, and +resemblances occur only in Haydn's earliest works (e.g. most of the +slow movements of the quartets in _op_. 3 and in some as late as _op_. +17); whichever derived the characteristics of such movements from the +other, the advantage is decidedly with Boccherini. But the progress of +music did not lie in the production of novel beauties of instrumental +tone in a style in which polyphonic organization was either deliberately +abandoned or replaced by a pleasing illusion, while the form in its +larger aspects was a mere inorganic amplification of the old +suite-forms, which presupposed a genuine polyphonic organization as the +vitalizing principle of their otherwise purely decorative nature. The +true tendency of the new sonata forms was to make instrumental music +dramatic in its variety and contrasts, instead of merely decorative. +Haydn from the outset buried himself with the handling of new rhythmic +proportions; and if it is hardly an exaggeration to say that the +surprising beauty of colour in such a specimen of Boccherini's 125 +string-quintets as that in E major (containing the popular minuet) is +perhaps more modern and certainly safer in performance than any special +effect Haydn ever achieved, it is nevertheless true that even this +beauty fails to justify the length and monotony of the work. Where Haydn +uses any fraction of the resources of such a style, the ultimate effect +is in proportion to a purpose of which Boccherini, with all his genuine +admiration of his elder brother in art, could form no conception. +Boccherini's works are, however, still indispensable for violoncellists, +both in their education and their concert repertories; and his position +in musical history is assured as that of the most original and, next to +Tartini, perhaps the greatest writer of music for stringed instruments +in the late Italian amplifications of the older quasi-polyphonic sonata +or suite-form that survived into the beginning of the 19th century in +the works of Nardini. Boccherini may safely be regarded as its last real +master. He was wittily characterized by the contemporary violinist Puppo +as "the wife of Haydn"; which is very true, if man and woman are two +different species; but not as true as e.g. the equally common saying +that "Schubert is the wife of Beethoven," and still less true than that +"Vittoria is the wife of Palestrina." + + His life, with a _Catalogue raisonne_, was published by L. Picquot + (1851). (D. F. T.) + + + + +BOCCHUS, king of Mauretania (about 110 B.C.), and father-in-law of +Jugurtha. In 108 he vacillated between Jugurtha and the Romans, and +joined Jugurtha only on his promising him the third part of his kingdom. +The two kings were twice defeated. Bocchus again made overtures to the +Romans, and after an interview with Sulla, who was Marius's quaestor at +that time, sent ambassadors to Rome. At Rome the hope of an alliance was +encouraged, but on condition that Bocchus showed himself deserving of +it. After further negotiations with Sulla, he finally agreed to send a +message to Jugurtha requesting his presence. Jugurtha fell into the trap +and was given up to Sulla. Bocchus concluded a treaty with the Romans, +and a portion of Numidia was added to his kingdom. Further to conciliate +the Romans and especially Sulla, he sent to the Capitol a group of +Victories guarding a device in gold showing Bocchus handing over +Jugurtha to Sulla. + + See JUGURTHA; also Sallust, _Jugurtha_, 80-120; Plutarch, _Marius_, + 8-32, _Sulla_, 3; A.H.J. Greenidge, _History of Rome_ (London, 1904). + +His son, BOCCHUS, was king of Mauretania, jointly with a younger +brother Bogud. As enemies of the senatorial party, their title was +recognized by Caesar (49 B.C.). During the African war they invaded +Numidia and conquered Cirta, the capital of the kingdom of Juba, who was +thus obliged to abandon the idea of joining Metellus Scipio against +Caesar. At the end of the war, Caesar bestowed upon Bocchus part of the +territory of Massinissa, Juba's ally, which was recovered after Caesar's +murder by Massinissa's son Arabion. Dio Cassius says that Bocchus sent +his sons to support Sextus Pompeius in Spain, while Bogud fought on the +side of Caesar, and there is no doubt that after Caesar's death Bocchus +supported Octavian, and Bogud Antony. During Bogud's absence in Spain, +his brother seized the whole of Numidia, and was confirmed sole ruler by +Octavian. After his death in 33, Numidia was made a Roman province. + + _Bell. Afric._ 25; Dio Cassius xli. 42, xliii. 36, xlviii. 45; Appian, + _Bell. Civ._ ii. 96, iv. 54. + + + + +BOCHART, SAMUEL (1599-1667), French scholar, was born at Rouen on the +30th of May 1599. He was for many years a pastor of a Protestant church +at Caen, and became tutor to Wentworth Dillon, earl of Roscommon. In +1646 he published his _Phaleg_ and _Chanaan_ (Caen, 1646 and 1651), the +two parts of his _Geographia Sacra_. His _Hierozoicon_, which treats of +the animals of Scripture, was printed in London (2 vols., 1663). In 1652 +Christina of Sweden invited him to Stockholm, where he studied the +Arabian manuscripts in the queen's possession. He was accompanied by +Pierre Daniel Huet, afterwards bishop of Avranches. On his return to +Caen he was received into the academy of that city. Bochart was a man of +profound erudition; he possessed a thorough knowledge of the principal +Oriental languages, including Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldaic and Arabic; and +at an advanced age he wished to learn Ethiopic. He was so absorbed in +his favourite study, that he saw Phoenician and nothing but Phoenician +in everything, even in Celtic words, and hence the number of chimerical +etymologies which swarm in his works. He died at Caen on the 16th of May +1667. + + A complete edition of his works was published at Leiden, under the + title of _Sam. Bochart Opera Omnia_ (1675, 2 vols. folio; 4th ed., 3 + vols., 1712). An _Essay on the Life and Writings of Samuel Bochart_, + by W.R. Whittingham, appeared in 1829. + + + + +BOCHOLT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, near +the frontier of Holland, 12 m. by rail north of Wesel. It is a seat of +the cotton industry. Pop. (1900) 21,278. + + + + +BOCHUM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, 11 m. +by rail west from Dortmund. Pop. (1905) 118,000. It is a centre of the +iron and steel industries, producing principally cast steel, cast iron, +iron pipes, wire and wire ropes, and lamps, with tin and zinc works, +coal-mining, factories for carpets, calcium carbide and paper-roofing, +brickworks and breweries. The Bochumer Verein fur Bergbau (mining) und +Gusstahl Fabrication (steel manufacture) is one of the principal trusts +in this industry, founded in 1854. There are a mining and a +metallurgical school. + + + + +BOCKH, PHILIPP AUGUST (1785-1867), German classical scholar and +antiquarian, was born in Karlsruhe on the 24th of November 1785. He was +sent to the gymnasium of his native place, and remained there until he +left for the university of Halle (1803), where he devoted himself to the +study of theology. F.A. Wolf was then creating there an enthusiasm for +classical studies; Bockh fell under the spell, passed from theology to +philology, and became the greatest of all Wolf's scholars. In 1807 he +established himself as privat-docent in the university of Heidelberg and +was shortly afterwards appointed a professor extraordinarius, becoming +professor two years later. In 1811 he removed to the new Berlin +University, having been appointed professor of eloquence and classical +literature. He remained there till his death on the 3rd of August 1867. +He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin in 1814, +and for a long time acted as its secretary. Many of the speeches +contained in his _Kleine Schriften_ were delivered in this latter +capacity. + +Bockh worked out the ideas of Wolf in regard to philology, and +illustrated them by his practice. Discarding the old notion that +philology consisted in a minute acquaintance with words and the exercise +of the critical art, he regarded it as the entire knowledge of +antiquity, historical and philosophical. He divides philology into five +parts: first, an inquiry into public acts, with a knowledge of times and +places, into civil institutions, and also into law; second, an inquiry +into private affairs; third, an exhibition of the religions and arts of +the ancient nations; fourth, a history of all their moral and physical +speculations and beliefs, and of their literatures; and fifth, a +complete explanation of the language. These ideas in regard to philology +Bockh set forth in a Latin oration delivered in 1822 (_Gesammelte kleine +Schriften_, i.). In his speech at the opening of the congress of German +philologists in 1850, he defined philology as the historical +construction of the entire life--therefore, of all forms of culture and +all the productions of a people in its practical and spiritual +tendencies. He allows that such a work is too great for any one man; but +the very infinity of subjects is the stimulus to the pursuit of truth, +and men strive because they have not attained (_ib_. ii.). An account of +Bockh's division of philology will be found in Freund's _Wie studirt man +Philologie?_ + +From 1806 till his death Bockh's literary activity was unceasing. His +principal works were the following:--(1) An edition of Pindar, the first +volume of which (1811) contains the text of the Epinician odes; a +treatise, _De Metris Pindari_, in three books; and _Notae Criticae_: the +second (1819) contains the _Scholia_; and part ii. of volume ii. (1821) +contains a Latin translation, a commentary, the fragments and indices. +It is still the most complete edition of Pindar that we have. But it was +especially the treatise on the metres which placed Bockh in the first +rank of scholars. This treatise forms an epoch in the treatment of the +subject. In it the author threw aside all attempts to determine the +Greek metres by mere subjective standards, pointing out at the same time +the close connexion between the music and the poetry of the Greeks. He +investigated minutely the nature of Greek music as far as it can be +ascertained, as well as all the details regarding Greek musical +instruments; and he explained the statements of the ancient Greek +writers on rhythm. In this manner he laid the foundation for a +scientific treatment of Greek metres. (2) _Die Staatshaushaltung der +Athener_, 1817 (2nd ed. 1851, with a supplementary volume _Urkunden uber +das Seewesen des attischen Staats_; 3rd ed. by Frankel, 1886), +translated into English by Sir George Cornewall Lewis (1828) under the +title of _The Public Economy of Athens_. In it he investigated a subject +of peculiar difficulty with profound learning. He amassed information +from the whole range of Greek literature, carefully appraised the value +of the information given, and shows throughout every portion of it rare +critical ability and insight. A work of a similar kind was his +_Metrologische Untersuchungen uber Gewichte, Munzfusse, und Masse des +Alterthums_ (1838). (3) Bockh's third great work arose out of his +second. In regard to the taxes and revenue of the Athenian state he +derived a great deal of his most trustworthy information from +inscriptions, many of which are given in his book. It was natural, +therefore, that when the Berlin Academy of Sciences projected the plan +of a _Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_, Bockh should be chosen as the +principal editor. This great work (1828-1877) is in four volumes, the +third and fourth volumes being edited by J. Franz, E. Curtius, A. +Kirchhoff and H. Rohl. + +Bockh's activity was continually digressing into widely different +fields. He gained for himself a foremost position amongst the +investigators of ancient chronology, and his name occupies a place by +the side of those of Ideler and Mommsen. His principal works on this +subject were: _Zur Geschichte der Mondcyclen der Hellenen_ (1855); +_Epigraphisch-chronologische Studien_ (1856); _Uber die vierjahrigen +Sonnenkreise der Alten_ (1863), and several papers which he published in +the _Transactions of the Berlin Academy_. Bockh also occupied himself +with philosophy. One of his earliest papers was on the Platonic doctrine +of the world, _De Platonica corporis mundani fabrica_ (1809), followed +by _De Platonico Systemate Caelestium globorum et de vera Indole +Astronomiae Philolaice_ (1810), to which may be added _Manetho und die +Hundsternperiode_ (1845). In opposition to Otto Gruppe (1804-1876), he +denied that Plato affirmed the diurnal rotation of the earth +(_Untersuchungen uber das kosmische System des Platon_, 1852), and when +in opposition to him Grote published his opinions on the subject (Plato +and the Rotation of the Earth) Bockh was ready with his reply. Another +of his earlier papers, and one frequently referred to, was _Commentatio +Academica de simultate quae Platoni cum Xenophonte intercessisse fertur_ +(1811). Other philosophical writings were _Commentatio in Platonis qui +vulgo fertur Minoem_ (1806), and _Philolaos' des Pythagoreers Lehren +nebst den Bruchstucken_ (1819), in which he endeavoured to show the +genuineness of the fragments. + +Besides his edition of Pindar, Bockh published an edition of the +Antigone of Sophocles (1843) with a poetical translation and essays. An +early and important work on the Greek tragedians is his _Graecae +Tragoediae Principum ... num ea quae supersunt et genuina omnia sint et +forma primitiva servata_ (1808). + + The smaller writings of Bockh began to be collected in his lifetime. + Three of the volumes were published before his death, and four after + (_Gesammelte kleine Schriften_, 1858-1874). The first two consist of + orations delivered in the university or academy of Berlin, or on + public occasions. The third, fourth, fifth and sixth contain his + contributions to the _Transactions of the Berlin Academy_, and the + seventh contains his critiques. Bockh's lectures, delivered from + 1809-1865, were published by Bratuschek under the title of + _Encyclopadie und Methodologie der philologischen Wissenschaften_ (2nd + ed, Klussmann, 1886). His philological and scientific theories are set + forth in Elze, _Uber Philologie als System_ (1845), and Reichhardt, + _Die Gliederung der Philologie entwickelt_ (1846). His correspondence + with Ottfried Muller appeared at Leipzig in 1883. See Sachse, + _Erinnerungen an August Bockh_ (1868); Stark, in the _Verhandlungen + der Wurzburger Philologensammlung_ (1868); Max Hoffmann, _August + Bockh_ (1901); and S. Reiter, in _Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische + Altertum_ (1902), p. 436. + + + + +BOCKLIN, ARNOLD (1827-1901), Swiss painter, was born at Basel on the +16th of October 1827. His father, Christian Frederick Bocklin (b. 1802), +was descended from an old family of Schaffhausen, and engaged in the +silk trade. His mother, Ursula Lippe, was a native of the same city. In +1846 he began his studies at the Dusseldorf academy under Schirmer, who +recognized in him a student of exceptional promise, and sent him to +Antwerp and Brussels, where he copied the works of Flemish and Dutch +masters. Bocklin then went to Paris, worked at the Louvre, and painted +several landscapes; his "Landscape and Ruin" reveals at the same time a +strong feeling for nature and a dramatic conception of scenery. After +serving his time in the army he set out for Rome in March 1850, and the +sight of the Eternal City was a fresh stimulus to his mind. So, too, was +the influence of Italian nature and that of the dead pagan world. At +Rome he married (June 20, 1853) Angela Rosa Lorenza Pascucci. In 1856 he +returned to Munich, and remained there four years. He then exhibited the +"Great Park," one of his earliest works, in which he treated ancient +mythology with the stamp of individuality, which was the basis of his +reputation. Of this period, too, are his "Nymph and Satyr," "Heroic +Landscape" (Diana Hunting), both of 1858, and "Sappho" (1859). These +works, which were much discussed, together with Lenbach's +recommendation, gained him his appointment as professor at the Weimar +academy. He held the office for two years, painting the "Venus and +Love," a "Portrait of Lenbach," and a "Saint Catherine." He was again at +Rome from 1862 to 1866, and there gave his fancy and his taste for +violent colour free play in his "Portrait of Mme Bocklin," now in the +Basel gallery, in "An Anchorite in the Wilderness" (1863); a "Roman +Tavern," and "Villa on the Sea-shore" (1864); this last, one of his best +pictures. He returned to Basel in 1866 to finish his frescoes in the +gallery, and to paint, besides several portraits, "The Magdalene with +Christ" (1868); "Anacreon's Muse" (1869); and "A Castle and Warriors" +(1871). His "Portrait of Myself," with Death playing a violin (1873), +was painted after his return again to Munich, where he exhibited his +famous "Battle of the Centaurs" (in the Basel gallery); "Landscape with +Moorish Horsemen" (in the Lucerne gallery); and "A Farm" (1875). From +1876 to 1885 Bocklin was working at Florence, and painted a "Pieta," +"Ulysses and Calypso," "Prometheus," and the "Sacred Grove." From 1886 +to 1892 he settled at Zurich. Of this period are the "Naiads at Play," +"A Sea Idyll," and "War." After 1892 Bocklin resided at San Domenico, +near Florence. An exhibition of his collected works was held at Basel +from the 20th of September to the 24th of October 1897. He died on the +16th of January 1901. + + His life has been written by Henri Mendelssohn. See also F. Hermann, + _Gazette des Beaux Arts_ (Paris, 1893); Max Lehrs, _Arnold Bocklin, + Ein Leitfaden zum Verstandniss seiner Kunst_ (Munich, 1897); W. + Ritter, _Arnold Bocklin_ (Gand, 1895); _Katalog der Bocklin Jubilaums + Ausstellung_ (Basel, 1897). (H. Fr.) + + + + +BOCLAND, BOCKLAND or BOOKLAND (from A.S. _boc_, book), an original mode +of tenure of land, also called charter-land or deed-land. Bocland was +folk-land granted to individuals in private ownership by a document +(charter or book) in writing, with the signatures of the king and +witenagemot; at first it was rarely, if ever, held by laymen, except for +religious purposes. Bocland to a certain extent resembled full ownership +in the modern sense, in that the owner could grant it in his lifetime, +in the same manner as he had received it, by _boc_ or book, and also +dispose of it by will. (See also FOLKLAND.) + + + + +BOCSKAY, STEPHEN [ISTVAN] (1557-1606), prince of Transylvania, the most +eminent member of the ancient Bocskay family, son of Gyorgy Bocskay and +Krisztina Sulyok, was born at Kolozsvar, Hungary. As the chief +councillor of Prince Zsigmond Bathory, he advised his sovereign to +contract an alliance with the emperor instead of holding to the Turk, +and rendered important diplomatic services on frequent missions to +Prague and Vienna. The enmity towards him of the later Bathory princes +of Transylvania, who confiscated his estates, drove him to seek +protection at the imperial court (1599); but the attempts of the emperor +Rudolph II. to deprive Hungary of her constitution and the Protestants +of their religious liberties speedily alienated Bocskay, especially +after the terrible outrages inflicted on the Transylvanians by the +imperial generals Basta and Belgiojoso from 1602 to 1604. Bocskay, to +save the independence of Transylvania, assisted the Turks; and in 1605, +as a reward for his part in driving Basta out of Transylvania, the +Hungarian diet, assembled at Modgyes, elected him prince (1605), on +which occasion the Ottoman sultan sent a special embassy to congratulate +him and a splendid jewelled crown made in Persia. Bocskay refused the +royal dignity, but made skilful use of the Turkish alliance. To save the +Austrian provinces of Hungary, the archduke Matthias, setting aside his +semi-lunatic imperial brother Rudolph, thereupon entered into +negotiations with Bocskay, and ultimately the peace of Vienna was +concluded (June 23, 1606), which guaranteed all the constitutional and +religious rights and privileges of the Hungarians both in Transylvania +and imperial Hungary. Bocskay, at the same time, was acknowledged as +prince of Transylvania by the Austrian court, and the right of the +Transylvanians to elect their own independent princes in future was +officially recognized. The fortress of Tokaj and the counties of Bereg, +Szatmar and Ugocsa were at the same time ceded to Bocskay, with +reversion to Austria if he should die childless. Simultaneously, at +Zsitvatorok, a peace, confirmatory of the peace of Vienna, was concluded +with the Turks. Bocskay survived this signal and unprecedented triumph +only a few months. He is said to have been poisoned (December 29, 1606) +by his chancellor, Mihaly Katay, who was hacked to bits by Bocskay's +adherents in the market-place of Kassa. + + See _Political Correspondence of Stephen Bocskay_ (Hung.), edited by + Karoly Szabo (Budapest, 1882); Jeno Thury, _Stephen Bocskay's + Rebellion_ (Hung.), Budapest, 1899. (R. N. B.) + + + + +BODE, JOHANN ELERT (1747-1826), German astronomer, was born at Hamburg +on the 19th of January 1747. Devoted to astronomy from his earliest +years, he eagerly observed the heavens at a garret window with a +telescope made by himself, and at nineteen began his career with the +publication of a short work on the solar eclipse of the 5th of August +1766. This was followed by an elementary treatise on astronomy entitled +_Anleitung zur Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels_ (1768, 10th ed. 1844), +the success of which led to his being summoned to Berlin in 1772 for the +purpose of computing ephemerides on an improved plan. There resulted the +foundation by him, in 1774, of the well-known _Astronomisches Jahrbuch_, +51 yearly volumes of which he compiled and issued. He became director of +the Berlin observatory in 1786, withdrew from official life in 1825, and +died at Berlin on the 23rd of November 1826. His works were highly +effective in diffusing throughout Germany a taste for astronomy. Besides +those already mentioned he wrote:--_Sammlung astronomischer Tafeln_ (3 +vols., 1776); _Erlauterung der Sternkunde_ (1776, 3rd ed. 1808); +_Uranographia_ (1801), a collection of 20 star-maps accompanied by a +catalogue of 17,240 stars and nebulae. In one of his numerous incidental +essays he propounded, in 1776, a theory of the solar constitution +similar to that developed in 1795 by Sir William Herschel. He gave +currency, moreover, to the empirical rule known as "Bode's Law," which +was actually announced by Johann Daniel Titius of Wittenberg in 1772. It +is expressed by the statement that the proportionate distances of the +several planets from the sun may be represented by adding 4 to each term +of the series; 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, &c. The irregularity will be noticed of +the first term, which should be 1-1/2 instead of 0. (See SOLAR SYSTEM.) + + See J.F. Encke, _Berlin Abhandlungen_ (1827), p. xi.; H.C. Schumacher. + _Astr. Nach._ v. 255, 367 (1827); Poggendorff, _Biog. literarisches + Handworterbuch; Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, iii. 1. + + + + +BODEL, JEHAN (died _c._ 1210), French _trouvere_, was born at Arras in +the second half of the 12th century. Very little is known of his life, +but in 1205 he was about to start for the crusade when he was attacked +by leprosy. In a touching poem called _Le Conge_ (pr. by Meon in +_Recueil de fabliaux et contes_, vol. i.), he bade farewell to his +friends and patrons, and begged for a nomination to a leper hospital. He +wrote _Le Jeu de Saint Nicolas_, one of the earliest miracle plays +preserved in French (printed in Monmerque and Michel's _Theatre francais +du moyen age_, 1839, and for the _Soc. des bibliophiles francais_, +1831); the _Chanson des Saisnes_ (ed. F. Michel 1839), four +_pastourelles_ (printed in K. Bartsch's _Altfranz. Romanzen und +Pastourellen_, Leipzig, 1870); and probably, the eight _fabliaux_ +attributed to an unknown Jean Bedel. The legend of Saint Nicholas had +already formed the subject of the Latin _Ludus Sancti Nicholai_ of +Hilarius. Bodel placed the scene partly on a field of battle in Africa, +where the crusaders perish in a hopeless struggle, and partly in a +tavern. The piece, loosely connected by the miracle of Saint Nicholas +narrated in the prologue, ends with a wholesale conversion of the +African king and his subjects. The dialogue in the tavern scenes is +written in thieves' slang, and is very obscure. The _Chanson des +Saisnes_, Bodel's authorship of which has been called in question, is a +_chanson de geste_ belonging to the period of decadence, and is really a +_roman d'aventures_ based on earlier legends belonging to the +Charlemagne cycle. It relates the wars of Charlemagne against the Saxons +under Guiteclin de Sassoigne (Witikind or Widukind), with the second +revolt of the Saxons and their final submission and conversion. Jehan +Bodel makes no allusion to Ogier the Dane and many other personages of +the Charlemagne cycle, but he mentions the defeat of Roland at +Roncevaux. The romance is based on historical fact, but is overlaid with +romantic detail. It really embraces three distinct legends--those of the +wars against the Saxons, of Charlemagne's rebellious barons, and of +Baudouim and Sebille. The earlier French poems on the subject are lost, +but the substance of them is preserved in the Scandinavian versions of +the Charlemagne cycle (supposed to have been derived from English +sources) known as the _Karlamagnussaga_ (ed. Unger, Christiania, 1860) +and _Keiser Karl Magnus Kronike_ (Romantisk Digtnung, ed. C.J. Brandt, +Copenhagen, 1877). + + See also the article on Jehan Bodel by Paulin Paris in _Hist. litt, de + la France_, xx. pp. 605-638; Gaston Paris, _Histoire poetique de + Charlemagne_ (1865); Leon Gautier, _Les Epopees francaises_ (revised + edition, vol. iii. pp. 650-684), where there is a full analysis of the + _Chanson des Saisnes_ and a bibliography; H. Meyer, in _Ausgaben und + Abhandlungen aus ... der romanischen Philologie_ (Marburg, 1883), pp. + 1-76, where its relation to the rest of the Charlemagne cycle is + discussed. + + + + +BODENBACH (Czech _Podmokly_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 83 m. N.N.E. +of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 10,782, almost exclusively German. It is +situated on the left bank of the Elbe opposite Tetschen, and is an +important railway junction, containing also an Austrian and a Saxon +custom-house. Bodenbach, which in the middle of the 19th century had +only a few hundred inhabitants, has become a very important industrial +centre. Its principal manufactures include cotton and woollen goods, +earthenware and crockery, chemicals, chicory, chocolate, sweetmeats and +preserves, and beer. It has also a very active transit trade. + + + + +BODENSTEDT, FRIEDRICH MARTIN VON (1819-1892), German author, was born at +Peine, in Hanover, on the 22nd of April 1819. He studied in Gottingen, +Munich and Berlin. His career was determined by his engagement in 1841 +as tutor in the family of Prince Gallitzin at Moscow, where he gained a +thorough knowledge of Russian. This led to his appointment in 1844 as +the head of a public school at Tiflis, in Transcaucasia. He took the +opportunity of his proximity to Persia to study Persian literature, and +in 1851 published a volume of original poetry in oriental guise under +the fanciful title, _Die Lieder des Mirza Schaffy_ (English trans. by E. +d'Esterre, 1880). The success of this work can only be compared with +that of Edward FitzGerald's _Omar Khayyam_, produced in somewhat similar +circumstances, but differed from it in being immediate. It has gone +through 160 editions in Germany, and has been translated into almost all +literary languages. Nor is this celebrity undeserved, for although +Bodenstedt does not attain the poetical elevation of FitzGerald, his +view of life is wider, more cheerful and more sane, while the execution +is a model of grace. On his return from the East, Bodenstedt engaged for +a while in journalism, married the daughter of a Hessian officer +(Matilde, the _Edlitam_ of his poems), and was in 1854 appointed +professor of Slavonic at Munich. The rich stores of knowledge which +Bodenstedt brought back from the East were turned to account in two +important books, _Die Volker des Kaukasus und ihre Freiheits-Kampfe +gegen die Russen_ (1848), and _Tausend und ein Tag im Orient_ (1850). +For some time Bodenstedt continued to devote himself to Slavonic +subjects, producing translations of Pushkin, Lermontov, Turgweniev, and +of the poets of the Ukraines, and writing a tragedy on the false +Demetrius, and an epic, _Ada die Lesghierin_, on a Circassian theme. +Finding, probably, this vein exhausted, he exchanged his professorship +in 1858 for one of Early English literature, and published (1858-1860) a +valuable work on the English dramatists contemporary with Shakespeare, +with copious translations. In 1862 he produced a standard translation of +Shakespeare's sonnets, and between 1866 and 1872 published a complete +version of the plays, with the help of many coadjutors. In 1867 he +undertook the direction of the court theatre at Meiningen, and was +ennobled by the duke. After 1873 he lived successively at Altona, Berlin +and Wiesbaden, where he died on the 19th of April 1892. His later works +consist of an autobiography (1888), successful translations from Hafiz +and Omar Khayyam, and lyrics and dramas which added little to his +reputation. + + An edition of his collected works in 12 vols. was published at Berlin + (1866-1869), and his _Erzahlungen und Romane_ at Jena (1871-1872). For + further biographical details, see Bodenstedt's _Erinnerungen aus + meinem Leben_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1888-1890); and G. Schenck, _Friedrich + von Bodenstedt. Ein Dichterleben in seinen Briefen_ (Berlin, 1893). + + + + +BODHI VAMSA, a prose poem in elaborate Sanskritized Pali, composed by +Upatissa in the reign of Mahinda IV. of Ceylon about A.D. 980. It is an +adaptation of a previously existing work in Sinhalese on the same +subject, and describes the bringing of a branch of the celebrated Bo or +Bodhi tree (i.e. Wisdom Tree, under which the Buddha had attained +wisdom) to Ceylon in the 3rd century B.C. The Bodhi Vamsa quotes verses +from the Mahavamsa, but draws a great deal of its material from other +sources; and it has occasionally preserved details of the older +tradition not found in any other sources known to us. + + Edition in Pali for the Pali Text Society by S. Arthur Strong (London, + 1891). + + + + +BODICHON, BARBARA LEIGH SMITH (1827-1891), English educationalist, was +born at Watlington, Norfolk, on the 8th of April 1827, the daughter of +Benjamin Smith (1783-1860), long M.P. for Norwich. She early showed a +force of character and catholicity of sympathy that later won her a +prominent place among philanthropists and social workers. In 1857 she +married an eminent French physician, Dr Eugene Bodichon, and, although +wintering many years in Algiers, continued to lead the movements she had +initiated in behalf of Englishwomen. In 1869 she published her _Brief +Summary of the Laws of England concerning Women_, which had a useful +effect in helping forward the passage of the Married Women's Property +Act. In 1866, co-operating with Miss Emily Davies, she matured a scheme +for the extension of university education to women, and the first small +experiment at Hitchin developed into Girton College, to which Mme +Bodichon gave liberally of her time and money. With all her public +interests she found time for society and her favourite art of painting. +She studied under William H. Hunt, and her water-colours, exhibited at +the Salon, the Academy and elsewhere, showed great originality and +talent, and were admired by Corot and Daubigny. Her London salon +included many of the literary and artistic celebrities of her day; she +was George Eliot's most intimate friend, and, according to her, the +first to recognize the authorship of _Adam Bede_. Her personal +appearance is said to be described in that of Romola. Mme Bodichon died +at Robertsbridge, Sussex, on the 11th of June 1891. + + + + +BODIN, JEAN (1530-1596), French political philosopher, was born at +Angers in 1530. Having studied law at Toulouse and lectured there on +jurisprudence, he settled in Paris as an advocate, but soon applied +himself to literature. In 1555 he published his first work, a +translation of Oppian's _Cynegeticon_ into Latin verse, with a +commentary. The celebrated scholar, Turnebus, complained that some of +his emendations had been appropriated without acknowledgment. In 1588, +in refutation of the views of the seigneur de Malestroit, comptroller of +the mint, who maintained that there had been no rise of prices in France +during the three preceding centuries, he published his _Responsio ad +Paradoxa Malestretti_ (_Reponse aux paradoxes de M. Malestroit_), which +the first time explained in a nearly satisfactory manner the revolution +of prices which took place in the 16th century. Bodin showed a more +rational appreciation than many of his contemporaries of the causes of +this revolution, and the relation of the variations in money to the +market values of wares in general as well as to the wages of labour. He +saw that the amount of money in circulation did not constitute the +wealth of the community, and that the prohibition of the export of the +precious metals was rendered inoperative by the necessities of trade. +This tract, the _Discours sur les causes de l'exterme cherte qui est +aujourdhuy en France_ (1574), and the disquisition on public revenues in +the sixth book of the _Republique_, entitle Bodin to a distinguished +position among the earlier economists. + +His learning, genial disposition, and conversational powers won him the +favor of Henry III. and of his brother, the duc d'Alencon; and he was +appointed king's attorney at Laon in 1576. In this year he married, +performed his most brilliant service to his country, and completed his +greatest literary work. Elected by the _tiers etat_ of Vermandois to +represent it in the states-general of Blois, he contended with skill and +boldness in extremely difficult circumstances for freedom of conscience, +justice and peace. The nobility and clergy favoured the League, and +urged the king to force his subjects to profess the Catholic religion. +When Bodin found he could not prevent this resolution being carried, he +contrived to get inserted in the petition drawn up by the states the +clause "without war," which practically rendered nugatory all its other +clauses. While he thus resisted the clergy and nobility he successfully +opposed the demand of the king to be allowed to alienate the public +lands and royal demesnes, although the chief deputies had been won over +to assent. This lost him the favour of the king, who wanted money on any +terms. In 1581 he acted as secretary to the duc d'Alencon when that +prince came over to England to seek the hand of Queen Elizabeth. Here he +had the pleasure of finding that the _Republique_ was studied at London +and Cambridge, although in a barbarous Latin translation. This +determined him to translate his work into Latin himself (1586). The +latter part of Bodin's life was spent at Laon, which he is said to have +persuaded to declare for the League in 1589, and for Henry IV. five +years afterwards. He died of the plague in 1596, and was buried in the +church of the Carmelites. + +With all his breadth and liberality of mind Bodin was a credulous +believer in witchcraft, the virtues of numbers and the power of the +stars, and in 1580 he published the _Demonomanie des sorciers_, a work +which shows that he was not exempt from the prejudices of the age. +Himself regarded by most of his contemporaries as a sceptic, and by some +as an atheist, he denounced all who dared to disbelieve in sorcery, and +urged the burning of witches and wizards. It might, perhaps, have gone +hard with him if his counsel had been strictly followed, as he confessed +to have had from his thirty-seventh year a friendly demon, who, if +properly invoked, touched his right ear when he purposed doing what was +wrong, and his left when he meditated doing good. + +His chief work, the _Six livres de la Republique_ (Paris, 1576), which +passed through several editions in his lifetime, that of 1583 having as +an appendix _L'Apologie de Rene Herpin_ (Bodin himself), was the first +modern attempt to construct an elaborate system of political science. It +is perhaps the most important work of its kind between Aristotle and +modern writers. Though he was much indebted to Aristotle he used the +material to advantage, adding much from his own experience and +historical knowledge. In harmony with the conditions of his age, he +approved of absolute governments, though at the same time they must, he +thought, be controlled by constitutional laws. He entered into an +elaborate defence of individual property against Plato and More, rather +perhaps because the scheme of his work required the treatment of that +theme than because it was practically urgent in his day, when the +excesses of the Anabaptists had produced a strong feeling against +communistic doctrines. He was under the general influence of the +mercantilist views, and approved of energetic governmental interference +in industrial matters, of high taxes on foreign manufactures and low +duties on raw materials and articles of food, and attached great +importance to a dense population. But he was not a blind follower of the +system; he wished for unlimited freedom of trade in many cases; and he +was in advance of his more eminent contemporary Montaigne in perceiving +that the gain of one nation is not necessarily the loss of another. To +the public finances, which he called "the sinews of the state," he +devoted much attention, and insisted on the duties of the government in +respect to the right adjustment of taxation. In general he deserves the +praise of steadily keeping in view the higher aims and interests of +society in connexion with the regulation and development of its material +life. + +Among his other works are _Oratio de instituenda in republica juventate_ +(1559); _Methodus ad facilem historiarum cognitionem_ (1566); +_Universale Naturae Theatrum_ (1596, French trans. by Fougerolles, +1597), and the _Colloquium Heptaplomeres de abditis rerum sublimium +arcanis_, written in 1588, published first by Guhrauer (1841), and in a +complete form by L. Noack (1857). The last is a philosophy of naturalism +in the form of a conversation between seven learned men--a Jew, a +Mahommedan, a Lutheran, a Zwinglian, a Roman Catholic, an Epicurean and +a Theist. The conclusion to which they are represented as coming is that +they will live together in charity and toleration, and cease from +further disputation as to religion. It is curious that Leibnitz, who +originally regarded the _Colloquium_ as the work of a professed enemy of +Christianity, subsequently described it as a most valuable production +(cf. M. Carriere, _Weltanschauung_, p. 317). + + See H. Baudrillart, _J. Bodin et son temps_ (Paris, 1853); Ad. Franck, + _Reformateurs et publicistes de l'Europe_ (Paris, 1864); N. + Planchenault, _Etudes sur Jean Bodin_ (Angers, 1858); E. de + Barthelemy, _Etude sur J. Bodin_ (Paris, 1876); for the political + philosophy of Bodin, see P. Janet, _Hist. de la science polit._ (3rd + ed., Paris, 1887); Hancke, _B. Studien uber d. Begriff d. + Souveranitat_ (Breslau, 1894), A. Bardoux. _Les Legistes et leur + influence sur la soc. francaise_; Fournol, _Bodin predecesseur de + Montesquieu_ (Paris, 1896); for his political economy, J.K. Ingram, + _Hist. of Pol. Econ._ (London, 1888); for his ethical teaching, A. + Desjardins, _Les Moralistes francais du seizieme siecle_, ch. v.; and + for his historical views, R. Flint's _Philosophy of History in Europe_ + (ed. 1893), pp. 190 foll. + + + + +BODKIN (Early Eng. _boydekin_, a dagger, a word of unknown origin, +possibly connected with the Gaelic _biodag_, a short sword), a small, +needle-like instrument of steel or bone with a flattened knob at one +end, used in needlework. It has one or more slits or eyes, through which +cord, tape or ribbon can be passed, for threading through a hem or +series of loops. The word is also used of a small piercing instrument +for making holes in cloth, &c. + + + + +BODLE or BODDLE (said to be from Bothwell, the name of a mint-master), a +Scottish copper coin worth about one-sixth of an English penny, first +issued under Charles II. It survives in the phrase "not to care a +bodle." + + + + +BODLEY, GEORGE FREDERICK (1827-1907), English architect, was the +youngest son of a physician at Brighton, his elder brother, the Rev. +W.H. Bodley, becoming a well-known Roman Catholic preacher and a +professor at Oscott. He was articled to the famous architect Sir Gilbert +Scott, under whose influence he became imbued with the spirit of the +Gothic revival, and he gradually became known as the chief exponent of +14th-century English Gothic, and the leading ecclesiastical architect in +England. One of his first churches was St Michael and All Angels, +Brighton (1855), and among his principal erections may be mentioned All +Saints, Cambridge; Eton Mission church, Hackney Wick; Clumber church; +Eccleston church; Hoar Cross church; St Augustine's, Pendlebury; Holy +Trinity, Kensington; Chapel Allerton, Leeds; St Faith's, Brentford; +Queen's College chapel, Cambridge; Marlborough College chapel; and +Burton church. His domestic work included the London School Board +offices, the new buildings at Magdalen, Oxford, and Hewell Grange (for +Lord Windsor). From 1872 he had for twenty years the partnership of Mr +T. Garner, who worked with him. He also designed (with his pupil James +Vaughan) the cathedral at Washington, D.C., U.S.A., and cathedrals at +San Francisco and in Tasmania; and when Mr Gilbert Scott's design for +his new Liverpool cathedral was successful in the competition he +collaborated with the young architect in preparing for its erection. +Bodley began contributing to the Royal Academy in 1854, and in 1881 was +elected A.R.A., becoming R.A. in 1902. In addition to being a most +learned master of architecture, he was a beautiful draughtsman, and a +connoisseur in art; he published a volume of poems in 1899; and he was a +designer of wall-papers and chintzes for Watts & Co., of Baker Street, +London; in early life he had been in close alliance with the +Pre-Raphaelites, and he did a great deal, like William Morris, to +improve public taste in domestic decoration and furniture. He died on +the 21st of October 1907, at Water Eaton, Oxford. + + + + +BODLEY, SIR THOMAS (1545-1613), English diplomatist and scholar, founder +of the Bodleian library, Oxford, was born at Exeter on the 2nd of March +1545. During the reign of Queen Mary, his father, John Bodley, being +obliged to leave the kingdom on account of his Protestant principles, +went to live at Geneva. In that university, in which Calvin and Beza +were then teaching divinity, young Bodley studied for a short time. On +the accession of Queen Elizabeth he returned with his father to England, +and soon after entered Magdalen College, Oxford. In 1563 he took his +B.A. degree, and was admitted a fellow of Merton College. In 1565 he +read a Greek lecture in hall, took his M.A. degree the year after, and +read natural philosophy in the public schools. In 1569 he was proctor, +and for some time after was deputy public orator. Quitting Oxford in +1576, he made the tour of Europe; shortly after his return he became +gentleman-usher to Queen Elizabeth; and in 1587, apparently, he married +Ann Ball, a widow lady of considerable fortune, the daughter of a Mr +Carew of Bristol. In 1584 he entered parliament as member for +Portsmouth, and represented St German's in 1586. In 1585 Bodley was +entrusted with a mission to form a league between Frederick II. of +Denmark and certain German princes to assist Henry of Navarre. He was +next despatched on a secret mission to France; and in 1588 he was sent +to the Hague as minister, a post which demanded great diplomatic skill, +for it was in the Netherlands that the power of Spain had to be fought. +The essential difficulties of his mission were complicated by the +intrigues of the queen's ministers at home, and Bodley repeatedly begged +that he might be recalled. He was finally permitted to return to England +in 1596, but finding his preferment obstructed by the jarring interests +of Burleigh and Essex, he retired from public life. He was knighted on +the 18th of April 1604. He is, however, remembered specially as the +founder of the Bodleian at Oxford, practically the earliest public +library in Europe (see LIBRARIES). He determined, he said, "to take his +farewell of state employments and to set up his staff at the library +door in Oxford." In 1598 his offer to restore the old library was +accepted by the university. Bodley not only used his private fortune in +his undertaking, but induced many of his friends to make valuable gifts +of books. In 1611 he began its permanent endowment, and at his death in +London on the 28th of January 1613, the greater part of his fortune was +left to it. He was buried in the choir of Merton College chapel where a +monument of black and white marble was erected to him. + + Sir Thomas wrote his own life to the year 1609, which, with the first + draft of the statutes drawn up for the library, and his letters to the + librarian, Thomas James, was published by Thomas Hearne, under the + title of _Reliquiae Bodleianae, or Authentic Remains of Sir Thomas + Bodley_ (London, 1703, 8vo). + + + + +BODMER, JOHANN JAKOB (1698-1783), Swiss-German author, was born at +Greifensee, near Zurich, on the 19th of July 1698. After first studying +theology and then trying a commercial career, he finally found his +vocation in letters. In 1725 he was appointed professor of Helvetian +history in Zurich, a chair which he held for half a century, and in 1735 +became a member of the "Grosser Rat." He published (1721-1723), in +conjunction with J.J. Breitinger (1701-1774) and several others, _Die +Discourse der Mahlern_, a weekly journal after the model of the +Spectator. Through his prose translation of Milton's Paradise Lost +(1732) and his successful endeavours to make a knowledge of English +literature accessible to Germany, he aroused the hostile criticism of +Gottsched (_q.v_.) and his school, a struggle which ended in the +complete discomfiture of the latter. His most important writings are the +treatises _Von dem Wunderbaren in der Poesie_ (1740) and _Kritische +Betrachtungen uber die poetischen Gemalde der Dichter_ (1741), in which +he pleaded for the freedom of the imagination from the restriction +imposed upon it by French pseudo-classicism. Bodmer's epics _Die +Sundfluth_ (1751) and _Noah_ (1751) are weak imitations of Klopstock's +_Messias_, and his plays are entirely deficient in dramatic qualities. +He did valuable service to German literature by his editions of the +Minnesingers and part of the _Nibelungenlied_. He died at Zurich on the +2nd of January 1783. + + See T.W. Danzel, _Gottsched und seine Zeit_ (Leipzig, 1848); J. + Cruger, _J.C. Gottsched, Bodmer und Breitinger_ (Stuttgart, 1884); F. + Braitmaier, _Geschichte der poetischen Theorie und Kritik von den + Diskursen der Maler bis auf Lessing_ (Leipzig, 1888); _Denkschrift zu + Bodmers 200. Geburtstag_ (Zurich, 1900). + + + + +BODMIN, a market town and municipal borough in the Bodmin parliamentary +division of Cornwall, England, the county town, 30-1/2 m. W.N.W. of +Plymouth, on branches of the Great Western and London & South-Western +railways. Pop. (1901) 5353. It lies between two hills in a short valley +opening westward upon that of the Camel, at the southern extremity of +the high open Bodmin Moor. The large church of St Petrock, mainly +Perpendicular, has earlier portions, and a late Norman font. East of it +there is a ruined Decorated chapel of St Thomas of Canterbury, with a +crypt. A tower of Tudor date, in the cemetery, marks the site of a +chapel of the gild of the Holy Rood. Part of the buildings of a +Franciscan friary, founded _c._ 1240, are incorporated in the +market-house, and the gateway remains in an altered form. At Bodmin are +a prison, with civil and naval departments, the county gaol and asylum, +the headquarters of the constabulary, and those of the duke of +Cornwall's Light Infantry. Cattle, sheep and horse fairs are held, and +there is a considerable agricultural trade. The borough is under a +mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 2797 acres. + +Traces of Roman occupation have been found in the western part of the +parish, belonging to the first century A.D. Possibly tin-mining was +carried on here at that period. The grant of a charter by King Edred to +the prior and canons of Bodmin (Bomine, Bodman, Bodmyn) in respect of +lands in Devonshire appears in an _inspeximus_ of 1252. To its +ecclesiastical associations it owed its importance at the time of the +Domesday survey, when St Petrock held the manor of Bodmin, wherein were +sixty-eight houses and one market. To successive priors, as mesne lords, +it also owed its earliest municipal privileges. King John's charter to +the prior and convent, dated the 17th of July 1199, contained a clause +(subsequently cancelled by Richard II.) by which burgesses were exempt +from being impleaded, touching any tenements in their demesne, except +before the king and his chief justice. Richard of Cornwall, king of the +Romans, confirmed to the burgesses their gild merchant, Edward I. the +pesage of tin, and Edward II. a market for tin and wool. Queen Elizabeth +in 1563 constituted the town a free borough and the burgesses a body +corporate, granting at the same time two fairs and a Saturday market. +There are still held also three other fairs whose origin is uncertain. +An amended charter granted in 1594 remained in force until 1789, when +the corporation became extinct owing to the diminution of the burgesses. +By virtue of a new charter of incorporation granted in 1798 and +remodelled by the act of 1835, the corporation now consists of a mayor, +four aldermen and twelve councillors. The first members for Bodmin were +summoned in 1295. Retaining both its members in 1832, losing one in 1868 +and the other in 1885, it has now become merged in the south-eastern +division of the county. From 1715 to 1837 the assizes were generally +held alternately at Launceston and Bodmin; since 1837 they have been +held at Bodmin only. A court of probate has also been held at Bodmin +since 1773. A festival known as "Bodmin Riding" was formerly celebrated +here on the Sunday and Monday following St Thomas's day (July 7). It is +thought by some to have been instituted in 1177 to celebrate the +recovery of the bones of St Petrock. + + See _Victoria County History, Cornwall_; John Maclean, _Parochial and + Family History of the Deanery of Trigg Minor, Cornwall_ (3 vols., + 1873-1879). + + + + +BODO, a seaport on the north-western coast of Norway, in Nordland _amt_ +(county), lat. 67 deg. 17' N. Pop. (1900) 4827. The rock-bound harbour +admits large vessels, and there is a brisk trade in fish and eider-down. +The neighbouring country has many scenic attractions. Sixty miles inland +(E.) rises the great massif of Sulitelma on the Swedish frontier, with +its copper mines, broad snow-fields and glaciers. The fjords of the +district include the imposing Beierenfjord, the Saltenfjord, and the +Skjerstadfjord, at the narrow mouths of which, between islands, a +remarkable cataract (Saltstrom) is formed at the turn of the tide. On +this fjord is Skjerstad, a large scattered village. + + + + +BODONI, GIAMBATTISTA (1740-1813), Italian printer, was born in 1740 at +Saluzzo in Piedmont, where his father owned a printing establishment. +While yet a boy he began to engrave on wood. He at length went to Rome, +and there became a compositor for the press of the Propaganda. He made +himself acquainted with the Oriental languages, and thus was enabled to +render essential service to the Propaganda press, by restoring and +accurately distributing the types of several Oriental alphabets which +had fallen into disorder. The infante Don Ferdinand, afterwards duke of +Parma, having established, about 1760, a printing-house on the model of +those in Paris, Madrid and Turin, Bodoni was placed at the head of this +establishment, which he soon rendered the first of the kind in Europe. +The beauty of his typography, &c., leaves nothing further to be desired; +but the intrinsic value of his editions is seldom equal to their outward +splendour. His Homer, however, is a truly magnificent work; and, indeed, +his Greek letters are faultless imitations of the best Greek +manuscript. His editions of the Greek, Latin, Italian and French +classics are all highly prized for their typographical elegance, and +some of them are not less remarkable for their accuracy. Bodoni died at +Padua in 1813. In 1818 a magnificent work appeared in two volumes +quarto, entitled _Manuale Tipografico_, containing specimens of the vast +collection of types which had belonged to him. + + See De Lama, _Vita del Cavaliere Giambattista Bodoni_ (1816). + + + + +BODY-SNATCHING, the secret disinterring of dead bodies in churchyards in +order to sell them for the purpose of dissection. Those who practised +body-snatching were frequently called resurrectionists or +resurrection-men. Previous to the passing of the Anatomy Act 1832 (see +ANATOMY: _History_), no licence was required in Great Britain for +opening an anatomical school, and there was no provision for supplying +subjects to students for anatomical purposes. Therefore, though +body-snatching was a misdemeanour at common law, punishable with fine +and imprisonment, it was a sufficiently lucrative business to run the +risk of detection. Body-snatching became so prevalent that it was not +unusual for the relatives and friends of a deceased person to watch the +grave for some time after burial, lest it should be violated. Iron +coffins, too, were frequently used for burial, or the graves were +protected by a framework of iron bars called _mortsafes_, well-preserved +examples of which may still be seen in Greyfriars' churchyard, +Edinburgh. + + For a detailed history of body-snatching, see _The Diary of a + Resurrectionist_, edited by J.B. Bailey (London, 1896), which also + contains a full bibliography and the regulations in force in foreign + countries for the supply of bodies for anatomical purposes. + + + + +BOECE (or BOYCE), HECTOR (c. 1465-c. 1536), Scottish historian, was +born at Dundee about the year 1465, being descended of a family which +for several generations had possessed the barony of Panbride in +Forfarshire. He received his early education at Dundee, and completed +his course of study in the university of Paris, where he took the degree +of B.D. He was appointed regent, or professor, of philosophy in the +college of Montaigu; and there he was a contemporary of Erasmus, who in +two epistles has spoken of him in the highest terms. When William +Elphinstone, bishop of Aberdeen, was laying his plans for the foundation +of the university of Aberdeen (King's College) he made Boece his chief +adviser; and the latter was persuaded, after receipt of the papal bull +erecting the university (1494), to be the first principal. He was in +Aberdeen about 1500 when lectures began in the new buildings, and he +appears to have been well received by the canons of the cathedral, +several of whom he has commemorated as men of learning. It was a part of +his duty as principal to read lectures on divinity. + +The emoluments of his office were poor, but he also enjoyed the income +of a canonry at Aberdeen and of the vicarage of Tullynessle. Under the +date of 14th July 1527, we find a "grant to Maister Hector" of an annual +pension of L50, to be paid by the sheriff of Aberdeen out of the king's +casualties; and on the 26th of July 1529 was issued a "precept for a +lettre to Mr Hector Boys, professor of theology, of a pension of L50 +Scots yearly, until the king promote him to a benefice of 100 marks +Scots of yearly value; the said pension to be paid him by the custumars +of Aberdeen." In 1533 and 1534, one-half of his pension was, however, +paid by the king's treasurer, and the other half by the comptroller; and +as no payment subsequent to that of Whitsuntide 1534 has been traced in +the treasurer's accounts, he is supposed to have obtained the benefice +soon after that period. This benefice was the rectorship of Tyrie. + +In 1528, soon after the publication of his history, Boece received the +degree of D.D. at Aberdeen; and on this occasion the magistrates voted +him a present of a tun of wine when the new wines should arrive, or, +according to his option, the sum of L20 to purchase bonnets. He appears +to have survived till the year 1536; for on the 22nd of November in that +year, the king presented John Garden to the rectory of Tyrie, vacant by +the death of "Mr Hector Boiss." He died at Aberdeen, and was buried +before the high altar at King's College, beside the tomb of his patron +Bishop Elphinstone. + +His earliest publication, _Episcoporum Murthlacensium et Aberdonensium +per Hectorem Boetium Vitae_, was printed at the press of Jodocus Badius +(Paris, 1522). The notices of the early prelates are of little value, +but the portion of the book in which he speaks of Bishop Elphinstone is +of enduring merit. Here we likewise find an account of the foundation +and constitution of the college, together with some notices of its +earliest members. His fame rests chiefly on his _History of Scotland_, +published in 1527 under the title _Scotorum Historiae a prima gentis +origine cum aliarum et rerum et gentium illustratione non vulgari_. This +edition contains seventeen books. Another edition, containing the +eighteenth book and a fragment of the nineteenth, was published by +Ferrerius, who has added an appendix of thirty-five pages (Paris, 1574). + +The composition of the history displays much ability; but Boece's +imagination was, however, stronger than his judgment: of the extent of +the historian's credulity, his narrative exhibits many unequivocal +proofs; and of deliberate invention or distortion of facts not a few, +though the latter are less flagrant and intentional than early +19th-century criticism has assumed. He professed to have obtained from +the monastery of Icolmkill, through the good offices of the earl of +Argyll, and his brother, John Campbell of Lundy, the treasurer, certain +original historians of Scotland, and among the rest Veremundus, of whose +writings not a single vestige is now to be found. In his dedication to +the king he is pleased to state that Veremundus, a Spaniard by birth, +was archdeacon of St Andrews, and that he wrote in Latin a history of +Scotland from the origin of the nation to the reign of Malcolm III., to +whom he inscribed his work. His propensity to the marvellous was at an +early period exposed in the following verses by Leland:-- + + "Hectoris historici tot quot mendacia scripsit + Si vis ut numerem, lector amice, tibi, + Me jubeas etiam fluctus numerare marinos + Et liquidi Stellas connumerare poli." + + Boece's _History of Scotland_ was translated into Scottish prose by + John Bellenden, and into verse by William Stewart. _The Lives of the + Bishops_ was reprinted for the Bannatyne Club, Edin., 1825, in a + limited edition of sixty copies. A commonplace verse-rendering of the + _Life of Bishop Elphinstone_, which was written by Alexander Gardyne + in 1619, remains in MS. There is no modern edition of the history, + though the versions of Bellenden and Stewart have been edited. + + + + +BOEHM, SIR JOSEPH EDGAR, Bart. (1834-1890), British sculptor, was born +of Hungarian parentage on the 4th of July 1834 at Vienna, where his +father was director of the imperial mint. After studying the plastic art +in Italy and at Paris, he worked for a few years as a medallist in his +native city. After a further period of study in England, he was so +successful as an exhibitor at the Exhibition of 1862 that he determined +to abandon the execution of coins and medals, and to give his mind to +portrait busts and statuettes, chiefly equestrian. The colossal statue +of Queen Victoria, executed in marble (1869) for Windsor Castle, and the +monument of the duke of Kent in St George's chapel, were his earliest +great works, and so entirely to the taste of his royal patrons that he +rose rapidly in favour with the court. He was made A.R.A. in 1878, and +produced soon afterwards the statue of Carlyle on the Thames embankment +at Chelsea. In 1881 he was appointed sculptor in ordinary to the queen, +and in the ensuing year became full Academician. On the death of Dean +Stanley, Boehm was commissioned to execute his sarcophagus in +Westminster Abbey, and his achievement, a recumbent statue, has been +pronounced to be one of the best portraits in modern sculpture. Less +successful was his monument to General Gordon in St Paul's cathedral. He +executed the equestrian statue of the duke of Wellington at Hyde Park +Corner, and designed the coinage for the Jubilee of Queen Victoria in +1887. Among his ideal subjects should be noted the "Herdsman and Bull." +He died suddenly in his studio at South Kensington on the 12th of +December 1890. + + + + +BOEHM VON BAWERK, EUGEN (1851- ), Austrian economist and statesman, +was born at Brunn on the 12th of February 1851. Entering the Austrian +department of finance in 1872, he held various posts until 1880, when he +became qualified as a teacher of political economy in the university of +Vienna. The following year, however, he transferred his services to the +university of Innsbruck, where he became professor in 1884. In 1889 he +became councillor in the ministry of finance, and represented the +government in the Lower House on all questions of taxation. In 1895 and +again in 1897-1898 he was minister of finance. In 1899 he was made a +member of the Upper House, and in 1900 again became minister of finance. +One of the leaders of the Austrian school of economists, he has made +notable criticisms on the theory of value in relation to cost as laid +down by the "classical school." His more important works are _Kapital +und Kapitalzins_ (Innsbruck, 1884-1889), in two parts, translated by W. +Smart, viz. _Capital and Interest_ (part i., 1890), and _The Positive +Theory of Capital_ (part ii., 1891); _Karl Marx and the Close of his +System_ (trans. A.M. Macdonald, 1898); _Recent Literature on Interest_ +(trans. W.A. Scott and S. Feilbogen, 1903). + + + + +BOEHME (or BEHMEN), JAKOB (1575-1624), German mystical writer, whose +surname (of which Fechner gives eight German varieties) appears in +English literature as Beem, Behmont, &c., and notably Behmen, was born +at Altseidenberg, in Upper Lusatia, a straggling hamlet among the hills, +some 10 m. S.E. of Gorlitz. His father was a well-to-do peasant, and his +first employment was that of herd boy on the Landskrone, a hill in the +neighbourhood of Gorlitz; the only education he received was at the +town-school of Seidenberg, a mile from his home. Seidenberg, to this +day, is filled with shoemakers, and to a shoemaker Jakob was apprenticed +in his fourteenth year (1589), being judged not robust enough for +husbandry. Ten years later (1599) we find him settled at Gorlitz as +master-shoemaker, and married to Katharina, daughter of Hans +Kuntzschmann, a thriving butcher in the town. After industriously +pursuing his vocation for ten years, he bought (1610) the substantial +house, which still preserves his name, close by the bridge, in the +Neiss-Vorstadt. Two or three years later he gave up business, and did +not resume it as a shoemaker; but for some years before his death he +made and sold woollen gloves, regularly visiting Prague fair for this +purpose. + +Boehme's authorship began in his 37th year (1612) with a treatise, +_Aurora, oder die Morgenrote im Aufgang_, which though unfinished was +surreptitiously copied, and eagerly circulated in MS. by Karl von Ender. +This raised him at once out of his homely sphere, and made him the +centre of a local circle of liberal thinkers, considerably above him in +station and culture. The charge of heresy was, however, soon directed +against him by Gregorius Richter, then pastor primarius of Gorlitz. +Feeling ran so high after Richter's pulpit denunciations, that, in July +1613, the municipal council, fearing a disturbance of the peace, made a +show of examining Boehme, took possession of his fragmentary quarto, and +dismissed the writer with an admonition to meddle no more with such +matters. For five years he obeyed this injunction. But in 1618 began a +second period of authorship; he poured forth, but did not publish, +treatise after treatise, expository and polemical, in the next and the +two following years. In 1622 he composed nothing but a few short pieces +on true repentance, resignation, &c., which, however, devotionally +speaking, are the most precious of all his writings. They were the only +pieces offered to the public in his lifetime and with his permission, a +fact which is evidence of the essentially religious and practical +character of his mind. Their publication at Gorlitz, on New Year's day +1624, under the title of _Der Weg zu Christo_, was the signal for +renewed clerical hostility. Boehme had by this time entered on the third +and most prolific though the shortest period (1623-1624) of his +speculation. His labours at the desk were interrupted in May 1624 by a +summons to Dresden, where his famous "colloquy" with the Upper +Consistorial court was made the occasion of a flattering but transient +ovation on the part of a new circle of admirers. Richter died in August +1624, and Boehme did not long survive his pertinacious foe. Seized with +a fever when away from home, he was with difficulty conveyed to Gorlitz. +His wife was at Dresden on business; and during the first week of his +malady he was nursed by a literary friend. He died, after receiving the +rites of the church, grudgingly administered by the authorities, on +Sunday, the 17th of November. + +Boehme always professed that a direct inward opening or illumination was +the only source of his speculative power. He pretended to no other +revelation. Ecstatic raptures we should not expect, for he was +essentially a Protestant mystic. No "thus saith the Lord" was claimed as +his warrant, after the manner of Antoinette Bourignon, or Ludowick +Muggleton; no spirits or angels held converse with him as with +Swedenborg. It is needless to dwell, in the way either of acceptance or +rejection, on the very few occasions in which his outward life seemed to +him to come into contact with the invisible world. The apparition of the +pail of gold to the herd boy on the Landskrone, the visit of the +mysterious stranger to the young apprentice, the fascination of the +luminous sheen, reflected from a common pewter dish, which first, in +1600, gave an intuitive turn to his meditations, the heavenly music +which filled his ears as he lay dying--none of these matters is +connected organically with the secret of his special power. The +mysteries of which he discoursed were not reported to him: he "beheld" +them. He saw the root of all mysteries, the _Ungrund_ or _Urgrund_, +whence issue all contrasts and discordant principles, hardness and +softness, severity and mildness, sweet and bitter, love and sorrow, +heaven and hell. These he "saw" in their origin; these he attempted to +describe in their issue, and to reconcile in their eternal result. He +saw into the being of God; whence the birth or going forth of the divine +manifestation. Nature lay unveiled to him, he was at home in the heart +of things. "His own book, which he himself was," the microcosm of man, +with his threefold life, was patent to his vision. Such was his own +account of his qualification. If he failed it was in expression; he +confessed himself a poor mouthpiece, though he saw with a sure spiritual +eye. + +It must not be supposed that the form in which Boehme's pneumatic +realism worked itself out in detail was shaped entirely from within. In +his writings we trace the influence of Theophr. Bombast von Hohenheim, +known as Paracelsus (1493-1541), of Kaspar Schwenkfeld (1490-1561), the +first Protestant mystic, and of Valentin Weigel (1533-1588). From the +school of Paracelsus came much of his puzzling phraseology,--his _Turba_ +and _Tinctur_ and so forth,--a phraseology embarrassing to himself as +well as to his readers. His friends plied him with foreign terms, which +he was delighted to receive, interpreting them by an instinct, and using +them often in a corrupted form and always in a sense of his own. Thus +the word _Idea_ called up before him the image of "a very fair, +heavenly, and chaste virgin." The title _Aurora_, by which his earliest +treatise is best known, was furnished by Dr Balthasar Walther. These, +however, were false helps, which only serve to obscure a difficult +study, like the _Flagrat_ and _Lubet_, with which his English translator +veiled Boehme's own honest _Schreck_ and _Lust_. There is danger lest +his crude science and his crude philosophical vocabulary conceal the +fertility of Boehme's ideas and the transcendent greatness of his +religious insight. Few will take the pains to follow him through the +interminable account of his seven _Quellgeister_, which remind us of +Gnosticism; or even of his three first properties of eternal nature, in +which his disciples find Newton's formulae anticipated, and which +certainly bear a marvellous resemblance to the three [Greek: archai] of +Schelling's _Theogonische Natur_. Boehme is always greatest when he +breaks away from his fancies and his trammels, and allows speech to the +voice of his heart. Then he is artless, clear and strong; and no man can +help listening to him, whether he dive deep down with the conviction +"ohne Gift und Grimm kein Leben," or rise with the belief that "the +being of all beings is a wrestling power," or soar with the persuasion +that Love "in its height is as high as God." The mystical poet of +Silesia, Angelus Silesius, discerned where Boehme's truest power lay +when he sang-- + + "Im Wasser lebt der Fisch, die Pflanze in der Erden, + Der Vogel in der Luft, die Sonn' am Firmament, + Der Salamander muss im Feu'r erhalten werden, + Und Gottes Herz ist Jakob Bohme's Element." + +The three periods of Boehme's authorship constitute three distinct +stages in the development of his philosophy. He himself marks a +threefold division of his subject-matter:--1. PHILOSOPHIA, i.e. the +pursuit of the divine _Sophia_, a study of God in himself; this was +attempted in the _Aurora_. 2. ASTROLOGIA, i.e., in the largest sense, +cosmology, the manifestation of the divine in the structure of the world +and of man; hereto belong, with others, _Die drei Principien gottlichen +Wesens; Vom dreifachen Leben der Menschen; Von der Menschwerdung +Christi;, Von der Geburt und Bezeichnung alter Wesen_ (known as +_Signatura Rerum_). 3. THEOLOGIA, i.e., in Scougall's phrase, "the +life of God in the soul of man." Of the speculative writings under this +head the most important are _Von der Gnadenwahl; Mysterium Magnum_ (a +spiritual commentary on Genesis); _Von Christi Testamenten_ (the +Sacraments). + +Although Boehme's philosophy is essentially theological, and his +theology essentially philosophical, one would hardly describe him as a +philosophical theologian; and, indeed, his position is not one in which +either the philosopher or the theologian finds it easy to make himself +completely at home. The philosopher finds no trace in Boehme of a +conception of God which rests its own validity on an accord with the +highest canons of reason or of morals; it is in the actual not in the +ideal that Boehme seeks God, whom he discovers as the spring of natural +powers and forces, rather than as the goal of advancing thought. The +theologian is staggered by a language which breaks the fixed association +of theological phrases, and strangely reversing the usual point of view, +characteristically pictures God as underneath rather than above. Nature +rises out of Him; we sink into Him. The _Ungrund_ of the unmanifested +Godhead is boldly represented in the English translations of Boehme by +the word _Abyss_, in a sense altogether unexplained by its Biblical use. +In the _Theologia Germanica_ this tendency to regard God as the +_substantia_, the underlying ground of all things, is accepted as a +foundation for piety; the same view, when offered in the colder logic of +Spinoza, is sometimes set aside as atheistical. The procession of +spiritual forces and natural phenomena out of the _Ungrund_ is described +by Boehme in terms of a threefold manifestation, commended no doubt by +the constitution of the Christian Trinity, but exhibited in a form +derived from the school of Paracelsus. From Weigel he learned a purely +idealistic explanation of the universe, according to which it is not the +resultant of material forces, but the expression of spiritual +principles. These two explanations were fused in his mind till they +issued forth as equivalent forms of one and the same thought. Further, +Schwenkfeld supplied him with the germs of a transcendental exegesis, +whereby the Christian Scriptures and the dogmata of Lutheran orthodoxy +were opened up in harmony with his new-found views. Thus equipped, +Boehme's own genius did the rest. A primary effort of Boehme's +philosophy is to show how material powers are substantially one with +moral forces. This is the object with which he draws out the dogmatic +scheme which dictates the arrangement of his seven _Quellgeister_. +Translating Boehme's thought out of the uncouth dialect of material +symbols (as to which one doubts sometimes whether he means them as +concrete instances, or as pictorial illustrations, or as a mere _memoria +technica_), we find that Boehme conceives of the correlation of two +triads of forces. Each triad consists of a thesis, an antithesis and a +synthesis; and the two are connected by an important link. In the hidden +life of the Godhead, which is at once _Nichts_ and _Alles_, exists the +original triad, viz. Attraction, Diffusion, and their resultant, the +Agony of the unmanifested Godhead. The transition is made; by an act of +will the divine Spirit comes to Light; and immediately the manifested +life appears in the triad of Love, Expression, and their resultant, +Visible Variety. As the action of contraries and their resultant are +explained the relations of soul, body and spirit; of good, evil and free +will; of the spheres of the angels, of Lucifer, and of this world. It is +a more difficult problem to account on this philosophy for the +introduction of evil. Boehme does not resort to dualism, nor has he the +smallest sympathy with a pantheistic repudiation of the fact of sin. +That the difficulty presses him is clear from the progressive changes +in his attempted solution of the problem. In the _Aurora_ nothing save +good proceeds from the _Ungrund_, though there is good that abides and +good that fall;--Christ and Lucifer. In the second stage of his writing +the antithesis is directly generated as such; good and its contrary are +coincidently given from the one creative source, as factors of life and +movement; while in the third period evil is a direct outcome of the +primary principle of divine manifestation--it is the wrath side of God. +Corresponding to this change we trace a significant variation in the +moral end contemplated by Boehme as the object of this world's life and +history. In the first stage the world is created in remedy of a decline; +in the second, for the adjustment of a balance of forces; in the third, +to exhibit the eternal victory of good over evil, of love over wrath. + + Editions of Boehme's works were published by H. Betke (Amsterdam, + 1675); by J.G. Gichtel (Amsterdam, 1682-1683, 10 vols.); by K.W. + Schiebler (Leipzig, 1831-1847, 7 vols.). Translations of sundry + treatises have been made into Latin (by J.A. Werdenhagen, 1632), Dutch + (complete, by W. v. Bayerland, 1634-1641), and French (by Jean Macle, + c. 1640, and L.C. de Saint-Martin, 1800-1809). Between 1644 and 1662 + all Boehme's works were translated by John Ellistone (d. 1652) and + John Sparrow, assisted by Durand Hotham and Humphrey Blunden, who paid + for the undertaking. At that time regular societies of _Behmenists_, + embracing not only the cultivated but the vulgar, existed in England + and in Holland. They merged into the Quaker movement, holding already + in common with Friends that salvation is nothing short of the very + presence and life of Christ in the believer, and only kept apart by an + objective doctrine of the sacraments which exposed them to the polemic + of Quakers (e.g. J. Anderdon). Muggleton led an anthropomorphic + reaction against them, and between the two currents they were swept + away. The Philadelphian Society at the beginning of the 18th century + consisted of cultured mystics, Jane Lead, Pordage, Francis Lee, + Bromley, &c., who fed upon Boehme. William Law (1686-1761) somewhat + later recurred to the same spring, with the result, however, in those + dry times of bringing his own good sense into question rather than of + reviving the credit of his author. After Law's death the old English + translation was in great part re-edited (4 vols., 1762-1784) as a + tribute to his memory, by George Ward and Thomas Langcake, with plates + from the designs of D.A. Freher (Brit. Mus. Add. MSS. 5767-5794). This + forms what is commonly called Law's translation; to complete it a 5th + vol. (12mo, Dublin, 1820) is needed. + + See also J. Hambetger, _Die Lehre des deutschen Philosophen J. + Boehmes_ (1844); Alb. Peip, _J. Boehme der deutsche Philosoph_ (1860); + von Harless, _J. Boehme und die Alchimisten_ (1870, 2nd ed. 1882). For + Boehme's life see the _Memoirs_ by Abraham von Frankenberg (d. 1652) + and others, trans, by F. Okely (1870); La Motte Fouque, _J. Boehm, ein + biographischer Denkstein_ (1831); H.A. Fechner, _J. Boehme, sein Leben + und seine Schriften_ (1857); H.L. Martensen, _J. Boehme, Theosophiske + Studier_ (Copenhagen, 1881; English trans. 1885); J. Claassen, _J. + Boehme, sein Leben und seine theosophische Werke_ (Gutersloh, 1885); + P. Deussen, _J. Boehme, uber sein Leben und seine Philosophie_ (Kiel, + 1897). + + + + +BOEOTIA, a district of central Greece, stretching from Phocis and Locris +in the W. and N. to Attica and Megaris in the S. between the strait of +Euboea and the Corinthian Gulf. This area, amounting in all to 1100 sq. +m., naturally falls into two main divisions. In the north the basin of +the Cephissus and Lake Copais lies between parallel mountain-walls +continuing eastward the line of Parnassus in the extensive ridge of +Helicon, the "Mountain of the Muses" (5470 ft.) and the east Locrian +range in Mts. Ptoum, Messapium and other smaller peaks. These ranges, +which mostly lie close to the seaboard, form by their projecting spurs a +narrow defile on the Phocian frontier, near the famous battlefield of +Chaeroneia, and shut in Copais closely on the south between Coronea and +Haliartus. The north-east barrier was pierced by underground passages +(_katavothra_) which carried off the overflow from Copais. The southern +portion of the land forms a plateau which slopes to Mt. Cithaeron, the +frontier range between Boeotia and Attica. Within this territory the low +ridge of Teumessus separates the plain of Ismenus and Dirce, commanded +by the citadel of Thebes, from the upland plain of the Asopus, the only +Boeotian river that finds the eastern sea. Though the Boeotian climate +suffered from the exhalations of Copais, which produced a heavy +atmosphere with foggy winters and sultry summers, its rich soil was +suited alike for crops, plantations and pasture; the Copais plain, +though able to turn into marsh when the choking of the _katavothra_ +caused the lake to encroach, being among the most fertile in Greece. +The central position of Boeotia between two seas, the strategic strength +of its frontiers and the ease of communication within its extensive area +were calculated to enhance its political importance. On the other hand +the lack of good harbours hindered its maritime development; and the +Boeotian nation, although it produced great men like Pindar, +Epaminondas, Pelopidas and Plutarch, was proverbially as dull as its +native air. But credit should be given to the people for their splendid +military qualities: both their cavalry and heavy infantry achieved a +glorious record. + +In the mythical days Boeotia played a prominent part. Of the two great +centres of legends, Thebes with its Cadmean population figures as a +military stronghold, and Orchomenus, the home of the Minyae, as an +enterprising commercial city. The latter's prosperity is still attested +by its archaeological remains (notably the "Treasury of Minyas") and the +traces of artificial conduits by which its engineers supplemented the +natural outlets. The "Boeotian" population seems to have entered the +land from the north at a date probably anterior to the Dorian invasion. +With the exception of the Minyae, the original peoples were soon +absorbed by these immigrants, and the Boeotians henceforth appear as a +homogeneous nation. In historical times the leading city of Boeotia was +Thebes, whose central position and military strength made it a suitable +capital. It was the constant ambition of the Thebans to absorb the other +townships into a single state, just as Athens had annexed the Attic +communities. But the outlying cities successfully resisted this policy, +and only allowed the formation of a loose federation which in early +times seems to have possessed a merely religious character. While the +Boeotians, unlike the Arcadians, generally acted as a united whole +against foreign enemies, the constant struggle between the forces of +centralization and disruption perhaps went further than any other cause +to check their development into a really powerful nation. Boeotia hardly +figures in history before the late 6th century. Previous to this its +people is chiefly known as the producer of a type of geometric pottery +similar to the Dipylon ware of Athens. About 519 the resistance of +Plataea to the federating policy of Thebes led to the interference of +Athens on behalf of the former; on this occasion, and again in 507, the +Athenians defeated the Boeotian levy. During the Persian invasion of +480, while some of the cities fought whole-heartedly in the ranks of the +patriots, Thebes assisted the invaders. For a time the presidency of the +Boeotian League was taken away from Thebes, but in 457 the Spartans +reinstated that city as a bulwark against Athenian aggression. Athens +retaliated by a sudden advance upon Boeotia, and after the victory of +Oenophyta brought under its power the whole country excepting the +capital. For ten years the land remained under Athenian control, which +was exercised through the newly installed democracies; but in 447 the +oligarchic majority raised an insurrection, and after a victory at +Coronea regained their freedom and restored the old constitutions. In +the Peloponnesian War the Boeotians, embittered by the early conflicts +round Plataea, fought zealously against Athens. Though slightly +estranged from Sparta after the peace of Nicias, they never abated their +enmity against their neighbours. They rendered good service at Syracuse +and Arginusae; but their greatest achievement was the decisive victory +at Delium over the flower of the Athenian army (424), in which both +their heavy infantry and their cavalry displayed unusual efficiency. + +About this time the Boeotian League comprised eleven groups of sovereign +cities and associated townships, each of which elected one Boeotarch or +minister of war and foreign affairs, contributed sixty delegates to the +federal council at Thebes, and supplied a contingent of about a thousand +foot and a hundred horse to the federal army. A safeguard against undue +encroachment on the part of the central government was provided in the +councils of the individual cities, to which all important questions of +policy had to be submitted for ratification. These local councils, to +which the propertied classes alone were eligible, were subdivided into +four sections, resembling the _prytaneis_ of the Athenian council, which +took it in turns to take previous cognizance of all new measures.[1] + +Boeotia took a prominent part in the war of the Corinthian League +against Sparta, especially at Haliartus and Coronea (395-394). This +change of policy seems due mainly to the national resentment against +foreign interference. Yet disaffection against Thebes was now growing +rife, and Sparta fostered this feeling by stipulating for the complete +independence of all the cities in the peace of Antalcidas (387). In 374 +Pelopidas restored the Theban dominion. Boeotian contingents fought in +all the campaigns of Epaminondas, and in the later wars against Phocis +(356-346); while in the dealings with Philip of Macedon the federal +cities appear merely as the tools of Thebes. The federal constitution +was also brought into accord with the democratic governments now +prevalent throughout the land. The sovereign power was vested in the +popular assembly, which elected the Boeotarchs (between seven and twelve +in number), and sanctioned all laws. After the battle of Chaeroneia, in +which the Boeotian heavy infantry once again distinguished itself, the +land never rose again to prosperity. The destruction of Thebes by +Alexander (335) seems to have paralysed the political energy of the +Boeotians, though it led to an improvement in the federal constitution, +by which each city received an equal vote. Henceforth they never pursued +an independent policy, but followed the lead of protecting powers. +Though the old military training and organization continued, the people +proved unable to defend the frontiers, and the land became more than +ever the "dancing-ground of Ares." Though enrolled for a short time in +the Aetolian League (about 245 B.C.) Boeotia was generally loyal to +Macedonia, and supported its later kings against Rome. In return for the +excesses of the democracies Rome dissolved the league, which, however, +was allowed to revive under Augustus, and merged with the other central +Greek federations in the Achaean synod. The death-blow to the country's +prosperity was given by the devastations during the first Mithradatic +War. + +Save for a short period of prosperity under the Frankish rulers of +Athens (1205-1310), who repaired the _katavothra_ and fostered +agriculture, Boeotia long continued in a state of decay, aggravated by +occasional barbarian incursions. The first step towards the country's +recovery was not until 1895, when the outlets of Copais were again put +into working order. Since then the northern plain has been largely +reclaimed for agriculture, and the natural riches of the whole land are +likely to develop under the influence of the railway to Athens. Boeotia +is at present a Nomos with Livadia (the old Turkish capital) for its +centre; the other surviving townships are quite unimportant. The +population (65,816 in 1907) is largely Albanian. + +AUTHORITIES.--Thuc. iv. 76-101; Xenophon, _Hellenica_, iii.-vii.; +Strabo, pp. 400-412; Pausanias ix.; Theopompus (or Cratippus) in the +_Oxyrhynchus Papyri_, vol. v. (London, 1908), No. 842, col. 12; W.M. +Leake, _Travels in Northern Greece_, chs. xi.-xix. (London, 1835); H.F. +Tozer, _Geography of Greece_ (London, 1873), pp. 233-238; W. Rhys +Roberts, _The Ancient Boeotians_ (Cambridge, 1895); E.A. Freeman. +_Federal Government_ (ed. 1893, London), ch. iv. S 2; B.V. Head, +_Historia Numorum_, pp. 291 sqq. (Oxford, 1887); W. Larfeld, _Sylloge +Inscriptionum Boeoticarum_ (Berlin, 1883). (See also THEBES.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Thucydides (v. 38), in speaking of the "four councils of the + Boeotians," is referring to the plenary bodies in the various states. + + + + +BOER, the Dutch form of the Eng. "boor," in its original signification +of husbandman (Ger. _Bauer_), a name given to the Dutch farmers of South +Africa, and especially to the Dutch population of the Transvaal and +Orange River States. (See SOUTH AFRICA and TRANSVAAL.) + + + + +BOERHAAVE, HERMANN (1668-1738), Dutch physician and man of science, was +born at Voorhout near Leiden on the 31st of December 1668. Entering the +university of Leiden he took his degree in philosophy in 1689, with a +dissertation _De distinctione mentis a corpore_, in which he attacked +the doctrines of Epicurus, Hobbes and Spinoza. He then turned to the +study of medicine, in which he graduated in 1693 at Harderwyck in +Guelderland. In 1701 he was appointed lecturer on the institutes of +medicine at Leiden; in his inaugural discourse, _De commendando +Hippocratis studio_, he recommended to his pupils that great physician +as their model. In 1709 he became professor of botany and medicine, and +in that capacity he did good service, not only to his own university, +but also to botanical science, by his improvements and additions to the +botanic garden of Leiden, and by the publication of numerous works +descriptive of new species of plants. In 1714, when he was appointed +rector of the university, he succeeded Govert Bidloo (1649-1713) in the +chair of practical medicine, and in this capacity he had the merit of +introducing the modern system of clinical instruction. Four years later +he was appointed also to the chair of chemistry. In 1728 he was elected +into the French Academy of Sciences, and two years later into the Royal +Society of London. In 1729 declining health obliged him to resign the +chairs of chemistry and botany; and he died, after a lingering and +painful illness, on the 23rd of September 1738 at Leiden. His genius so +raised the fame of the university of Leiden, especially as a school of +medicine, that it became a resort of strangers from every part of +Europe. All the princes of Europe sent him disciples, who found in this +skilful professor not only an indefatigable teacher, but an affectionate +guardian. When Peter the Great went to Holland in 1715, to instruct +himself in maritime affairs, he also took lessons from Boerhaave. His +reputation was not confined to Europe; a Chinese mandarin wrote him a +letter directed "To the illustrious Boerhaave, physician in Europe," and +it reached him in due course. + +His principal works are--_Institutiones medicae_ (Leiden, 1708); +_Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis morbis_ (Leiden, 1709), on which +his pupil and assistant, Gerard van Swieten (1700-1772) published a +commentary in 5 vols.; and _Elementa chemiae_ (Paris, 1724). + + + + +BOETHUS, a sculptor of the Hellenistic age, a native of Carthage (or +possibly Chalcedon). His date cannot be accurately fixed, but was +probably the 2nd century B.C. He was noted for his representations of +children, in dealing with whom earlier Greek art had not been very +successful; and especially for a group representing a boy struggling +with a goose, of which several copies survive in museums. + + + + +BOETIUS (or BOETHIUS), ANICIUS MANLIUS SEVERINUS (c. A.D. 480-524), +Roman philosopher and statesman, described by Gibbon as "the last of the +Romans whom Cato or Tully could have acknowledged for their countryman." +The historians of the day give us but imperfect records or make +unsatisfactory allusions. Later chroniclers indulged in the fictitious +and the marvellous, and it is almost exclusively from his own books that +trustworthy information can be obtained. There is considerable diversity +among authorities as to his name. One editor of his _De Consolatione_, +Bertius, thinks that he bore the praenomen of Flavius, but there is no +authority for this supposition. His father was Flavius Manlius Boetius, +and it is probable that the Flavius Boetius, the praetorian prefect who +was put to death in A.D. 455 by order of Valentinian III., was his +grandfather, but these facts do not prove that he also had the praenomen +of Flavius. Many of the earlier editions inserted the name of Torquatus, +but it is not found in any of the best manuscripts. The last name is +commonly written Boethius, from the idea that it is connected with the +Greek [Greek: Boaethos]; but the best manuscripts agree in reading +Boetius. + +His boyhood was spent in Rome during the reign of Odoacer. We know +nothing of his early years. A passage in a treatise falsely ascribed to +him (_De Disciplina Scholarium_) and a misinterpretation of a passage in +Cassiodorus led early scholars to suppose that he spent some eighteen +years in Athens pursuing his studies, but there is no foundation for +this opinion. His father, consul in 487, seems to have died soon after; +for Boetius states that, when he was bereaved of his parent, men of the +highest rank took him under their charge (_De Con_. lib. ii. c. 3), +especially the senator Q. Aur. Memmius Symmachus, whose daughter +Rusticiana he married. By her he had two sons, Anicius Manlius Severinus +Boetius and Q. Aurelius Memmius Symmachus. He became a favourite with +Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, who ruled in Rome from 500, and was one of +his intimate friends. Boetius was consul in 510, and his sons, while +still young, held the same honour together (522). Boetius regarded it as +the height of his good fortune when he witnessed his two sons, consuls +at the same time, convoyed from their home to the senate-house amid the +enthusiasm of the masses. On that day, he tells us, while his sons +occupied the curule chairs in the senate-house, he himself had the +honour of pronouncing a panegyric on the monarch. But his good fortune +did not last, and he attributes the calamities that came upon him to the +ill-will which his bold maintenance of justice had caused, and to his +opposition to every oppressive measure. Of this he mentions particular +cases. A famine had begun to rage. The prefect of the praetorium was +determined to satisfy the soldiers, regardless altogether of the +feelings of the provincials. He accordingly issued an edict for a +_coemptio_, that is, an order compelling the provincials to sell their +corn to the government, whether they would or not. This edict would have +utterly ruined Campania. Boetius interfered. The case was brought before +the king, and Boetius succeeded in averting the _coemptio_ from the +Campanians. And he gives as a crowning instance that he exposed himself +to the hatred of the informer Cyprianus by preventing the punishment of +Albinus, a man of consular rank. He mentions in another place that when +at Verona the king was anxious to transfer the accusation of treason +brought against Albinus to the whole senate, he defended the senate at +great risk. In consequence of the ill-will that Boetius had thus roused, +he was accused of treason towards the end of the reign of Theodoric. The +charges were that he had conspired against the king, that he was anxious +to maintain the integrity of the senate, and to restore Rome to liberty, +and that for this purpose he had written to the emperor Justin. Justin +had, no doubt, special reasons for wishing to see an end to the reign of +Theodoric. Justin was orthodox, Theodoric was an Arian. The orthodox +subjects of Theodoric were suspicious of their ruler; and many would +gladly have joined in a plot to displace him. The knowledge of this fact +may have rendered Theodoric suspicious. But Boetius denied the +accusation in unequivocal terms. He did indeed wish the integrity of the +senate. He would fain have desired liberty, but all hope of it was gone. +The letters addressed by him to Justin were forgeries, and he had not +been guilty of any conspiracy. Notwithstanding his innocence he was +condemned and sent to Ticinum (Pavia) where he was thrown into prison. +It was during his confinement in this prison that he wrote his famous +work _De Consolatione Philosophiae_. His goods were confiscated, and +after an imprisonment of considerable duration he was put to death in +524. Procopius relates that Theodoric soon repented of his cruel deed, +and that his death, which took place soon after, was hastened by remorse +for the crime he had committed against his great counsellor. + +Two or three centuries after the death of Boetius writers began to view +his death as a martyrdom. Several Christian books were ascribed to him, +and there was one especially on the Trinity (see below) which was +regarded as proof that he had taken an active part against the heresy of +Theodoric. It was therefore for his orthodoxy that Boetius was put to +death. And these writers delight to paint with minuteness the horrible +tortures to which he was exposed and the marvellous actions which the +saint performed at his death. He was locally regarded as a saint, but he +was not canonized. The brick tower in Pavia in which he was confined +was, and still is, an object of reverence to the country people. +Finally, in the year 996, Otho III. ordered the bones of Boetius to be +taken out of the place in which they had lain hid, and to be placed in +the church of S. Pietro in Ciel d'Oro within a splendid tomb, for which +Gerbert, afterwards Pope Silvester II., wrote an inscription. Thence +they were subsequently removed to a tomb beneath the high altar of the +cathedral. It should be mentioned also that some have given him a +decidedly Christian wife, of the name of Elpis, who wrote hymns, two of +which are still extant (Daniel, _Thes. Hymn._ i. p. 156). This is a pure +supposition inconsistent with chronology, and based only on a +misinterpretation of a passage in the _De Consolatione_. + +The contemporaries of Boetius regarded him as a man of profound +learning. Priscian the grammarian speaks of him as having attained the +summit of honesty and of all sciences. Cassiodorus, _magister +officiorum_ under Theodoric and the intimate acquaintance of the +philosopher, employs language equally strong, and Ennodius, the bishop +of Pavia, knows no bounds for his admiration. Theodoric had a profound +respect for his scientific abilities. He employed him in setting right +the coinage. When he visited Rome with Gunibald, king of the +Burgundians, he took him to Boetius, who showed them, amongst other +mechanical contrivances, a sun-dial and a water-clock. The foreign +monarch was astonished, and, at the request of Theodoric, Boetius had to +prepare others of a similar nature, which were sent as presents to +Gunibald. + +The fame of Boetius increased after his death, and his influence during +the middle ages was exceedingly powerful. His circumstances peculiarly +favoured this influence. He appeared at a time when contempt for +intellectual pursuits had begun to pervade society. In his early years +he was seized with a passionate enthusiasm for Greek literature, and +this continued through life. Even amidst the cares of the consulship he +found time for commenting on the _Categories_ of Aristotle. The idea +laid hold of him of reviving the spirit of his countrymen by imbuing +them with the thoughts of the great Greek writers. He formed the +resolution to translate all the works of Aristotle and all the dialogues +of Plato, and to reconcile the philosophy of Plato with that of +Aristotle. He did not succeed in all that he designed; but he did a +great part of his work. He translated into Latin Aristotle's _Analytica +Priora et Posteriora_, the _Topica_, and _Elenchi Sophistici_; and he +wrote commentaries on Aristotle's _Categories_, on his book +[Greek: peri ermaeneias], also a commentary on the _Isagoge_ of +Porphyrius. These works formed to a large extent the source from which +the middle ages derived their knowledge of Aristotle. (See Stahr, +_Aristoteles bei den Romern_, pp. 196-234.) Boetius wrote also a +commentary on the _Topica_ of Cicero; and he was also the author of +independent works on logic:--_Introductio ad Categoricos Syllogismos_, +in one book; _De Syllogismis Categoricis_, in two books; _De Syllogismis +Hypotheticis_, in two books; _De Divisione_, in one book; _De +Definitione_, in one book; _De Differentiis Topicis_, in four books. + +We see from a statement of Cassiodorus that he furnished manuals for the +quadrivium of the schools of the middle ages (the "quattuor matheseos +disciplinae," as Boetius calls them) on arithmetic, music, geometry and +astronomy. The statement of Cassiodorus that he translated Nicomachus is +rhetorical. Boetius himself tells us in his preface addressed to his +father-in-law Symmachus that he had taken liberties with the text of +Nicomachus, that he had abridged the work when necessary, and that he +had introduced formulae and diagrams of his own where he thought them +useful for bringing out the meaning. His work on music also is not a +translation from Pythagoras, who left no writing behind him. But Boetius +belonged to the school of musical writers who based their science on the +method of Pythagoras. They thought that it was not sufficient to trust +to the ear alone, to determine the principles of music, as did practical +musicians like Aristoxenus, but that along with the ear, physical +experiments should be employed. The work of Boetius is in five books and +is a very complete exposition of the subject. It long remained a +text-book of music in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge. It is +still very valuable as a help in ascertaining the principles of ancient +music, and gives us the opinions of some of the best ancient writers on +the art. The manuscripts of the geometry of Boetius differ widely from +each other. One editor, Godofredus Friedlein, thinks that there are only +two manuscripts which can at all lay claim to contain the work of +Boetius. He published the _Ars Geometriae_, in two books, as given in +these manuscripts; but critics are generally inclined to doubt the +genuineness even of these. Professor Rand, Georgius Ernst and A.P. +McKinlay regard the _Ars_ as certainly inauthentic, while they accept +the _Interpretatio Euclidis_ (see works quoted in bibliography). + +By far the most important and most famous of the works of Boetius is +his book _De Consolatione Philosophiae_. Gibbon justly describes it as +"a golden volume, not unworthy of the leisure of Plato or Tully, but +which claims incomparable merit from the barbarism of the times and the +situation of the author." The high reputation it had in medieval times +is attested by the numerous translations, commentaries and imitations of +it which then appeared. Among others Asser, the instructor of Alfred the +Great, and Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln, commented on it. +Alfred translated it into Anglo-Saxon. Versions of it appeared in +German, French, Italian, Spanish and Greek before the end of the 15th +century. Chaucer translated it into English prose before the year 1382; +and this translation was published by Caxton at Westminster, 1480. +Lydgate followed in the wake of Chaucer. It is said that, after the +invention of printing, amongst others Queen Elizabeth translated it, and +that the work was well known to Shakespeare. It was the basis of the +earliest specimen of Provencal literature. + + This famous work consists of five books. Its form is peculiar, and is + an imitation of a similar work by Marcianus Capella, _De Nuptiis + Philologiae et Mercurii_. It is alternately in prose and verse. The + verse shows great facility of metrical composition, but a considerable + portion of it is transferred from the tragedies of Seneca. The first + book opens with a few verses, in which Boetius describes how his + sorrows had brought him to a premature old age. As he is thus + lamenting, a woman appears to him of dignified mien, whom he + recognizes as his guardian, Philosophy. She, resolving to apply the + remedy for his grief, questions him for that purpose. She finds that + he believes that God rules the world, but does not know what he + himself is; and this absence of self-knowledge is the cause of his + weakness. In the second book Philosophy presents to Boetius Fortune, + who is made to state to him the blessings he has enjoyed, and after + that proceeds to discuss with him the kind of blessings that fortune + can bestow, which are shown to be unsatisfactory and uncertain. In the + third book Philosophy promises to lead him to true happiness, which is + to be found in God alone, for since God is the highest good, and the + highest good is true happiness, God is true happiness. Nor can real + evil exist, for since God is all-powerful, and since he does not wish + evil, evil must be non-existent. In the fourth book Boetius raises the + question, Why, if the governor of the universe is good, do evils + exist, and why is virtue often punished and vice rewarded? Philosophy + proceeds to show that in fact vice is never unpunished nor virtue + unrewarded. From this Philosophy passes into a discussion in regard to + the nature of providence and fate, and shows that every fortune is + good. The fifth and last book takes up the question of man's free will + and God's foreknowledge, and, by an exposition of the nature of God, + attempts to show that these doctrines are not subversive of each + other; and the conclusion is drawn that God remains a foreknowing + spectator of all events, and the ever-present eternity of his vision + agrees with the future quality of our actions, dispensing rewards to + the good and punishments to the wicked. + + Several theological works have been ascribed to Boetius, as has been + already mentioned. The _Consolatio_ affords conclusive proof that the + author was not a practical believer in Christianity. The book contains + expressions such as _daemones_, _angelica virtus_, and _purgatoria + dementia_, which have been thought to be derived from the Christian + faith; but they are used in a heathen sense, and are explained + sufficiently by the circumstance that Boetius was on intimate terms + with Christians. The writer nowhere finds consolation in any Christian + belief, and Christ is never named in the work. It is not impossible, + however, that Boetius may have been brought up a Christian, and that + in his early years he may have written some Christian books. Peiper + thinks that the first three treatises are the productions of the early + years of Boetius. The first, _De Sancta Trinitate_, is addressed to + Symmachus (Domino Patri Symmacho), and the result of the short + discussion, which is of an abstract nature, and deals partly with the + ten categories, is that unity is predicated absolutely, or, in regard + to the substance of the Deity, trinity is predicated relatively. The + second treatise is addressed to John the deacon ("Ad Joannem + Diaconum"), and its subject is "Utrum Pater et Filius et Spiritus + Sanctus de divinitate substantialiter praedicentur." This treatise is + shorter than the first, occupying only two or three pages, and the + conclusion of the argument is the same. The third treatise bears the + title, _Quomodo substantiae in eo quod sint bonae sint cum non sint + substantialia bona_. It contains nothing distinctly Christian, and it + contains nothing of great value; therefore its authorship is a matter + of little consequence. Peiper thinks that, as the best MSS. uniformly + assign these treatises to Boetius, they are to be regarded as his; + that it is probable that Symmachus and John (who afterwards became + Pope) were the men of highest distinction who took charge of him when + he lost his father; and that these treatises are the first-fruits of + his studies, which he dedicates to his guardians and benefactors. He + thinks that the variations in the inscriptions of the fifth treatise + which is not found in the best manuscript, are so great that the name + of Boetius could not have originally been in the title. The fourth + book is also not found in the best manuscript, and two manuscripts + have no inscription. He infers, from these facts, that there is no + sure evidence for the authorship of the fourth and fifth treatises. + The fifth treatise is _Contra Eutychen et Nestorium_. Both Eutyches + and Nestorius are spoken of as living. A council is mentioned, in + which a letter was read, expounding the opinion of the Eutychians for + the first time. The novelty of the opinion is also alluded to. All + these circumstances point to the council of Chalcedon (451). The + treatise was therefore written before the birth of Boetius, if it be + not a forgery; but there is no reason to suppose that the treatise was + not a genuine production of the time to which it professes to belong. + The fourth treatise, _De Fide Catholica_, does not contain any + distinct chronological data; but the tone and opinions of the treatise + produce the impression that it probably belonged to the same period as + the treatise against Eutyches and Nestorius. Several inscriptions + ascribe both these treatises to Boetius. It will be seen from this + statement that Peiper bases his conclusions on grounds far too narrow; + and on the whole it is perhaps more probable that Boetius wrote none + of the four Christian treatises, particularly as they are not ascribed + to him by any of his contemporaries. Three of them express in the + strongest language the orthodox faith of the church in opposition to + the Arian heresy, and these three put in unmistakable language the + procession of the Holy Spirit from both Father and Son. The fourth + argues for the orthodox belief of the two natures and one person of + Christ. When the desire arose that it should be believed that Boetius + perished from his opposition to the heresy of Theodoric, it was + natural to ascribe to him works which were in harmony with this + supposed fact. The works may really have been written by one Boetius, + a bishop of Africa, as Jourdain supposes, or by some Saint Severinus, + as Nitzsch conjectures, and the similarity of name may have aided the + transference of them to the heathen or neutral Boetius. + + Important and, if genuine, decisive evidence upon this point is + afforded by a passage in the _Anecdoton Holderi_, a fragment contained + in a 10th-century MS. (ed. H. Usener, Leipzig, 1877). The fragment + gives an extract from a previously unknown letter of Cassiodorus, the + important words being "Scripsit (i.e. Boetius) librum de sancta + trinitate, et capita quaedam dogmatica, et librum contra Nestorium." + Nitzsch, however, held that this was a copyist's gloss, harmonizing + with the received Boetius legend, which had been transferred to the + text, and did not consider that it outweighed the opposing internal + evidence from _De Cons. Phil._ + + EDITIONS.--The first collected edition of the works of Boetius was + published at Venice in 1492 (Basel, 1570); the last in J.P. Migne's + _Patrologia_, lxiii., lxiv. (Paris, 1847). Of the numerous editions of + the _De Consolatione_ the best are those of Theodorus Obbarius (Jena, + 1843) and R. Peiper (Leipzig, 1871). The first contains prolegomena on + the life and writings of Boetius, on his religion and philosophy, and + on the manuscripts and editions, a critical apparatus, and notes. The + text of the second was based on the fullest collation of MSS. up to + that time, though a considerable number of MSS. still remained to be + collated. In addition to an account of the MSS. used, it gives the + Book of Lupus, "De Metris Boetii," the "Vita Boetii" contained in some + MSS., "Elogia Boetii," and a short list of the commentators, + translators and imitators of the _Consolatio_. It contains also an + account of the metres used by Boetius in the _Consolatio_, and a list + of the passages which he has borrowed from the tragedies of Seneca. + The work also includes the five treatises, four of them Christian, of + which mention has been made above. King Alfred's Anglo-Saxon version + of the _De Consolatione_, with literal English translation, notes and + glossary, was published by S. Fox (1835) and again by W.J. Sedgefield + (1900); that of G. Colville (Colvile, Coldewel, 1556) was republished + by E.B. Bax (1897); translation (mixed prose and verse) by H.R. James + (1897). Queen Elizabeth's "Englishings" was reprinted in 1899; on the + style, see A. Engelbrecht in _Sitzungsber. der Wiener Akad. der + Wissenschaften_ (1902), pp. 15-36. The _De Institutione Arithmetica, + De Institutione Musica_, and the doubtful _Geometria_ (for which see + G. Ernst, _De Geometricis illis quae sub Boethii nomine nobis tradita + sunt quaestiones_, 1903; A.P. McKinlay in _Harvard Classical Studies_, + 1907; M. Cantor, _Geschichte der Mathematik_, i., Leipzig, 1894; G. + Friedlein, _Gerbert, die Geometric des Boethius, und die indischen + Ziffern_, Erlangen, 1861, are edited by G. Friedlein (Leipzig, 1867); + German translation of the _De Musica_, with explanatory notes, by O. + Paul (Leipzig, 1872), and on the sources W. Miekley, _De Boethii libri + de musica primi fontibus_ (Jena, 1899). Commentary on Aristotle's _De + Interpretatione_ [Greek: peri hermaeneias]), ed. C. Meiser (Leipzig, + 1877), and on Porphyry's _Isagoge_, ed. S. Brandt (Vienna, 1906). + + AUTHORITIES.--On Boetius generally, see J.G. Sutterer, _Der letzte + Romer_ (Eichstadt, 1852); H. Usener, _Anecdoton Holderi_ (Leipzig, + 1877); H.F. Stewart, _Boethius: an Essay_ (Edinburgh, 1891); T. + Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, iii. bk. iv. ch. xii. (1896); A. + Ebert, _Allgemeine Geschichte der Litt. des Mittelalters_, i. (1889); + Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng. trans., 1900), + S478: on the date and order of his works, S. Brandt in _Philologus_, + lxii. pp. 141-154, 234-279, and A.P. McKinlay, as above, with refs.: + on his "Songs," H. Huttinger, _Studia in Boetii carmina collata_ + (Regensburg, 1900): on his style, G. Bednarz, _De universo orationis + colore Boethii_ (Breslau, 1883): on his theological attitude and + works, F.A.B. Nitzsch, _Das System des Boethius und die ihm + zugeschriebenen theologischen Schriften_ (Berlin, 1860), and art. in + Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1897); C. Jourdain, _De l'Origine + des traditions sur le christianisme de Boece_ (1861); Gaston Boissier, + "Le Christianisme de Boece," in _Journal des Savants_ (1889), pp. + 449-462; A. Hildebrand, _Boethius und seine Stellung zum Christentume_ + (Regensburg, 1885); G. Schepps, "Zu Pseudo-Boethius de fide + catholica," in _Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Theologie_, xxxviii. + (1895). + + + + +BOG (from Ir. and Gael, _bogach, bog_, soft), a tract of soft, spongy, +water-logged ground, composed of vegetation, chiefly mosses, in various +stages of decomposition. This vegetable matter when partially decomposed +forms the substance known as "peat" (q.v.). When the accumulation of +water is rapidly increased by excessive rainfall, there is a danger of a +"bog-slide," or "bog-burst," which may obliterate the neighbouring +cultivated land with a deposit of the contents of the bog. Destructive +bog-slides have occurred in Ireland, such as that of the Knocknageeha +Bog, Rathmore, Kerry, in 1896, at Castlerea, Roscommon, 1901, and at +Kilmore, Galway, 1909. + +There is a French game of cards called "bog," said to be of Italian +origin, played with a piquet pack on a table with six divisions, one of +which is known by the name of the game and forms the pool. It was +fashionable during the Second Empire. + + + + +BOGATZKY, KARL HEINRICH VON (1690-1774), German hymn-writer, was born at +Jankowe in Lower Silesia on the 7th of September 1690. At first a page +at the ducal court of Saxe-Weissenfels, he next studied law and theology +at Jena and Halle; but ill-health preventing his preferment he settled +at Glancha in Silesia, where he founded an orphanage. After living for a +time at Kostritz, and from 1740 to 1745 at the court of Christian Ernst, +duke of Saxe-Coburg, at Saalfeld, he made his home at the Waisenhaus +(orphanage) at Halle, where he engaged in spiritual work and in +composing hymns and sacred songs, until his death on the 15th of June +1774. Bogatzky's chief works are _Guldenes Schatzkastlein der Kinder +Gottes_ (1718), which has reached more than sixty editions; and _Ubung +der Gottseligkeit in allerlei geistlichen Liedern_ (1750). + + See Bogatzky's autobiography--_Lebenslauf von ihm selbst geschrieben_ + (Halle, 1801; new ed., Berlin, 1872); and Ledderhose, _Das Leben + Bogatzky's_ (Heidelberg, 1846); also Kelly, _C.H. von Bogatzky's Life + and Work_ (London, 1889). + + + + +BOGHAZ KEUI, a small village in Asia Minor, north-west of Yuzgat in the +Angora vilayet, remarkable for the ruins and rock-sculptures in its +vicinity. The ruins are those of a ruling city of the oriental type +which flourished in the pre-Greek period; and they are generally +identified with Pteria (q.v.), a place taken by Croesus after he had +crossed the Halys (Herodotus i. 76). + + + + +BOGIE, a northern English dialect word of unknown origin, applied to a +kind of low truck or "trolly." In railway engineering it is applied to +an under-truck, most frequently with four wheels, which is often +provided at one end of a locomotive or both ends of a carriage. It is +pivoted or swivelled on the main frames, so that it can turn relatively +to the body of the vehicle or engine, and thus it enables the wheels +readily to follow the curves of the line. It has no connexion with the +series of words, such as "bogey" or "bogy," "bogle," "boggle," "bogart" +(in Shakespeare "bug," "bugs and goblins"), which are probably connected +with the Welsh _bwg_, a spectre; hence the verb to "boggle," properly +applied to a horse which shies at supposed spectres, and so meaning to +hesitate, bungle. + + + + +BOGNOR, a seaside resort in the Chichester parliamentary division of +Sussex, England, 66 m. S.S.W. from London by the London, Brighton & +South Coast railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6180. Besides the +parish church there is a Roman Catholic priory and church. The town +possesses a pier and promenade, a theatre, assembly rooms, and numerous +convalescent homes, including an establishment belonging to the Merchant +Taylors' Company. The church of the mother parish of South Bersted is +Norman and Early English, and retains a fresco of the 16th century. + + + + +BOGO, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philippine +Islands, on Bogo Bay at the mouth of the Bulac river, in the north-east +part of the island. Pop. (1903) 14,915. The climate is hot but healthy. +The surrounding country is fertile, producing sugar, Indian corn, and +maguay in abundance; rice, cacao and fruits are also produced. Hats, +baskets, cloths and rope are woven and are exported to a limited extent; +small quantities of copra are also exported. The fisheries are of +considerable local importance. The language is Cebu-Visayan. + + + + +BOGODUKHOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov, 45 m. by +rail N.W. of the city of that name, in 49 deg. 58' N. lat. and 36 deg. +9' E. long., was formerly fortified. Pop. (1860) 10,522; (1897) 11,928. +There seems to have been a settlement on this site as early as 1571. In +1709, at the time of the Russo-Swedish War, Bogodukhov was taken by +Menshikov and the emperor Alexius. It contains a cathedral, built in +1793. Boots, caps and furred gowns are manufactured, and gardening and +tanning are carried on. The trade is principally in grain, cattle and +fish. + + + + +BOGOMILS, the name of an ancient religious community which had its +origin in Bulgaria. It is difficult to ascertain whether the name was +taken from the reputed founder of that sect, a certain pope Bogumil or +Bogomil, or whether he assumed that name after it had been given to the +whole sect. The word is a direct translation into Slavonic of +_Massaliani_, the Syrian name of the sect corresponding to the Greek +Euchites. The Bogomils are identified with the Massaliani in Slavonic +documents of the 13th century. They are also known as _Pavlikeni_, i.e. +Paulicians. It is a complicated task to determine the true character and +the tenets of any ancient sect, considering that almost all the +information that has reached us has come from the opponents. The +heretical literature has to a great extent either perished or been +completely changed; but much has also survived in a modified written +form or through oral tradition. Concerning the Bogomils something can be +gathered from the information collected by Euthymius Zygadenus in the +12th century, and from the polemic _Against the Heretics_ written in +Slavonic by St Kozma during the 10th century. The old Slavonic lists of +forbidden books of the 15th and 16th centuries also give us a clue to +the discovery of this heretical literature and of the means the Bogomils +employed to carry on their propaganda. Much may also be learnt from the +doctrines of the numerous heretical sects which arose in Russia after +the 11th century. + +The Bogomils were without doubt the connecting link between the +so-called heretical sects of the East and those of the West. They were, +moreover, the most active agents in disseminating such teachings in +Russia and among all the nations of Europe. They may have found in some +places a soil already prepared by more ancient tenets which had been +preserved in spite of the persecution of the official Church, and handed +down from the period of primitive Christianity. In the 12th and 13th +centuries the Bogomils were already known in the West as "Bulgari." In +1207 the _Bulgarornm heresis_ is mentioned. In 1223 the Albigenses are +declared to be the local _Bougres_, and at the same period mention is +made of the "Pope of the Albigenses who resided within the confines of +Bulgaria." The Cathars and Patarenes, the Waldenses, the Anabaptists, +and in Russia the Strigolniki, Molokani and Dukhobortsi, have all at +different times been either identified with the Bogomils or closely +connected with them. + +_Doctrine._--From the imperfect and conflicting data which are alone +available one positive result can be gathered, viz. that the Bogomils +were both Adoptionists and Manichaeans. They had accepted the teaching +of Paul of Samosata, though at a later period the name of Paul was +believed to be that of the Apostle; and they were not quite free from +the Dualistic principle of the Gnostics, at a later period too much +identified with the teaching of Mani. They rejected the pneumatic +Christianity of the orthodox churches and did not accept the docetic +teaching of some of the other sects. Taking as our starting-point the +teaching of the heretical sects in Russia, notably those of the 14th +century, which are a direct continuation of the doctrines held by the +Bogomils, we find that they denied the divine birth of Christ, the +personal coexistence of the Son with the Father and Holy Ghost, and the +validity of sacraments and ceremonies. The miracles performed by Jesus +were interpreted in a spiritual sense, not as real material occurrences; +the Church was the interior spiritual church in which all held equal +share. Baptism was only to be practised on grown men and women. The +Bogomils repudiated infant baptism, and considered the baptismal rite to +be of a spiritual character neither by water nor by oil but by +self-abnegation, prayers and chanting of hymns. Carp Strigolnik, who in +the 14th century preached this doctrine in Novgorod, explained that St +Paul had taught that simple-minded men should instruct one another; +therefore they elected their "teachers" from among themselves to be +their spiritual guides, and had no special priests. Prayers were to be +said in private houses, not in separate buildings such as churches. +Ordination was conferred by the congregation and not by any specially +appointed minister. The congregation were the "elect," and each member +could obtain the perfection of Christ and become a Christ or "Chlist." +Marriage was not a sacrament. The Bogomils refused to fast on Mondays +and Fridays. They rejected monachism. They declared Christ to be the Son +of God only through grace like other prophets, and that the bread and +wine of the eucharist were not transformed into flesh and blood; that +the last judgment would be executed by God and not by Jesus; that the +images and the cross were idols and the worship of saints and relics +idolatry. + +These Paulician doctrines have survived in the great Russian sects, and +can be traced back to the teachings and practice of the Bogomils. But in +addition to these doctrines of an adoptionist origin, they held the +Manichaean dualistic conception of the origin of the world. This has +been partly preserved in some of their literary remains, and has taken +deep root in the beliefs and traditions of the Bulgarians and other +nations with whom they had come into close contact. The chief literature +of all the heretical sects throughout the ages has been that of +apocryphal Biblical narratives, and the popes Jeremiah or Bogumil are +directly mentioned as authors of such forbidden books "which no orthodox +dare read." Though these writings are mostly the same in origin as are +known from the older lists of apocryphal books, they underwent in this +case a certain modification at the hands of their Bogomil editors, so as +to be used for the propagation of their own specific doctrines. In its +most simple and attractive form--one at the same time invested with the +authority of the reputed holy author--their account of the creation of +the world and of man; the origin of sin and redemption, the history of +the Cross, and the disputes between body and soul, right and wrong, +heaven and hell, were embodied either in "Historiated Bibles" +(Paleya[1]) or in special dialogues held between Christ and his +disciples, or between renowned Fathers of the Church who expounded these +views in a simple manner adapted to the understanding of the people +(Lucidaria). The Bogomils taught that God had two sons, the elder +Satanail and the younger Michael. The elder son rebelled against the +father and became the evil spirit. After his fall he created the lower +heavens and the earth and tried in vain to create man; in the end he had +to appeal to God for the Spirit. After creation Adam was allowed to till +the ground on condition that he sold himself and his posterity to the +owner of the earth. Then Michael was sent in the form of a man; he +became identified with Jesus, and was "elected" by God after the baptism +in the Jordan. When the Holy Ghost (Michael) appeared in the shape of +the dove, Jesus received power to break the covenant in the form of a +clay tablet (_hierographon_) held by Satanail from Adam. He had now +become the angel Michael in a human form; as such he vanquished +Satanail, and deprived him of the termination _-il_ = God, in which his +power resided. Satanail was thus transformed into Satan. Through his +machinations the crucifixion took place, and Satan was the originator of +the whole Orthodox community with its churches, vestments, ceremonies, +sacraments and fasts, with its monks and priests. This world being the +work of Satan, the perfect must eschew any and every excess of its +pleasure. But the Bogomils did not go as far as to recommend asceticism. +They held the "Lord's Prayer" in high respect as the most potent weapon +against Satan, and had a number of conjurations against "evil spirits." +Each community had its own twelve "apostles," and women could be raised +to the rank of "elect." The Bogomils wore garments like mendicant friars +and were known as keen missionaries, travelling far and wide to +propagate their doctrines. Healing the sick and conjuring the evil +spirit, they traversed different countries and spread their apocryphal +literature along with some of the books of the Old Testament, deeply +influencing the religious spirit of the nations, and preparing them for +the Reformation. They sowed the seeds of a rich religious popular +literature in the East as well as in the West. The Historiated Bible, +the Letter from Heaven, the Wanderings through Heaven and Hell, the +numerous Adam and Cross legends, the religious poems of the "Kaleki +perehozhie" and other similar productions owe their dissemination to a +large extent to the activity of the Bogomils of Bulgaria, and their +successors in other lands. + +_History._--The Bogomil propaganda follows the mountain chains of +central Europe, starting from the Balkans and continuing along the +Carpathian Mountains, the Alps and the Pyrenees, with ramifications +north and south (Germany, England and Spain). In the middle of the 8th +century the emperor Constantine Copronymus settled a number of Armenian +Paulicians in Thracia. These were noted heretics and were persecuted by +the Greek Church with fire and sword. The empress Theodora killed, +drowned or hanged no fewer than 100,000. In the 10th century the emperor +John Zimisces, himself of Armenian origin, transplanted no less than +200,000 Armenian Paulicians to Europe and settled them in the +neighbourhood of Philippopolis, which henceforth became the centre of a +far-reaching propaganda. Settled along the Balkans as a kind of bulwark +against the invading Bulgars, the Armenians on the contrary soon +fraternized with the newcomers, whom they converted to their own views; +even a prince of the Bulgarians adopted their teaching. According to +Slavonic documents the founder of this sect was a certain priest +Bogumil, who "imbibed the Manichaean teaching and flourished at the time +of the Bulgarian emperor Peter" (927-968). According to another source +the founder was called Jeremiah (or there was another priest associated +with him by the name of Jeremiah). The Slavonic sources are unanimous on +the point that his teaching was Manichaean. A Synodikon from the year +1210 adds the names of his pupils or "apostles," Mihail, Todur, Dobri, +Stefan, Vasilie and Peter, all thoroughly Slavonic names. Zealous +missionaries carried their doctrines far and wide. In 1004, scarcely 15 +years after the introduction of Christianity into Russia, we hear of a +priest Adrian teaching the same doctrines as the Bogomils. He was +imprisoned by Leontie, bishop of Kiev. In 1125 the Church in the south +of Russia had to combat another heresiarch named Dmitri. The Church in +Bulgaria also tried to extirpate Bogomilism. The popes in Rome whilst +leading the Crusade against the Albigenses did not forget their +counterpart in the Balkans and recommended the annihilation of the +heretics. + +The Bogomils spread westwards, and settled first in Servia; but at the +end of the 12th century Stephen Nemanya, king of Servia, persecuted them +and expelled them from the country. Large numbers took refuge in Bosnia, +where they were known under the name of Patarenes (q.v.) or Patareni. +From Bosnia their influence extended into Italy (Piedmont). The +Hungarians undertook many crusades against the heretics in Bosnia, but +towards the close of the 15th century the conquest of that country by +the Turks put an end to their persecution. It is alleged that a large +number of the Bosnian Paterenes, and especially the nobles, embraced +Islam (see BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA: _History_). Few or no remnants of +Bogomilism have survived in Bosnia. The Ritual in Slavonic written by +the Bosnian Radoslavov, and published in vol. xv. of the _Starine_ of +the South Slavonic Academy at Agram, shows great resemblance to the +Cathar ritual published by Cunitz, 1853. See F. Racki, "Bogomili i +Paternai" in _Rad_, vols. vii., viii. and x. (Agram, 1870); Dollinger, +_Beitrage zur Ketzergeschichte d. Mittelalters_, 2 vols. (Munich, 1890). + +Under Turkish rule the Bogomils lived unmolested as _Pavlikeni_ in +their ancient stronghold near Philippopolis, and farther northward. In +1650 the Roman Catholic Church gathered them into its fold. No less than +fourteen villages near Nicopolis embraced Catholicism, and a colony of +_Pavlikeni_ in the village of Cioplea near Bucharest followed the +example of their brethren across the Danube. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Euthymius Zygadenus, _Narratio de Bogomilis_, ed. + Gieseler (Gottingen, 1842); J.C. Wolf, _Historia Bogomilorum_ + (Wittenberg, 1712); "Slovo svyatago Kozmyi na eretiki," in Kukuljevic + Sakcinski, _Arkiv zapovyestnicu jugoslavensku_, vol. iv. pp. 69-97 + (Agram, 1859); C.J. Jirecek, _Geschichte d. Bulgaren_, pp. 155, + 174-175 (Prague, 1876); Korolev, "Dogmatichesko-to uchenie na + Bogomil-tie," in _Periodichesko spisanie_, vols. vii.-viii. pp. 75-106 + (Braila, 1873); A. Lombard, _Pauliciens, Bulgares et Bons-hommes_ + (Geneva, 1879); Episcopul Melchisedek, _Lipovenismul_, pp. 265 sqq. + (Bucharest, 1871); B.P. Hasdeu, _Cuvente den batrani_, vol. ii. pp. + 247 sqq. (Bucharest, 1879); F.C. Conybeare, _The Key of Truth_, pp. 73 + sqq. and specially pp. 138 sqq. (Oxford, 1898); M. Gaster, + _Greeko-Slavonic Literature_, pp. 17 sqq. (London, 1887); O. + Dahnhardt, _Natursagen_, vol. i. pp. 38 sqq. (Leipzig and Berlin, + 1907). (M. G.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] These betray their Gnostic (Marcianite) spirit by the anti-Jewish + tone of the oldest MSS. extant, though this prejudice tends to + decrease in later MSS. + + + + +BOGORODSK, a town of central Russia, in the government of Moscow, and 38 +m. by rail E.N.E. of the city of Moscow, on the Klyazma. It has woollen, +cotton and silk mills, chemical factories and dye-works, and is famous +for its gold brocade. Pop. (1897) 11,210. + + + + +BOGOS (BILENS), a pastoral race of mixed Hamitic descent, occupying the +highlands immediately north of Abyssinia, now part of the Italian colony +of Eritrea. They were formerly a self-governing community, though +subject to Abyssinia. The community is divided into two classes, the +_Shumaglieh_ or "elders" and _Tigre_ or "clients." The latter are serfs +of the former, who, however, cannot sell them. The Tigre goes with the +land, and his master must protect him. In blood-money he is worth +another Tigre or ninety-three cows, while an elder's life is valued at +one hundred and fifty-eight cattle or one of his own caste. The eldest +son of a Shumaglieh inherits his father's two-edged sword, white cows, +lands and slaves, but the house goes to the youngest son. Female +chastity is much valued, but women have no rights, inherit nothing, and +are classed with the hyaena, the most despised animal throughout +Abyssinia. The Bogo husband never sees the face or pronounces the name +of his mother-in-law, while it is a crime for a wife to utter her +husband's or father-in-law's name. + + + + +BOGOTA, or SANTA FE DE BOGOTA, the capital of the republic of Colombia, +and of the interior department of Cundinamarca, in 4 deg. 6' N. lat. and +78 deg. 30' W. long. Pop. about 125,000. The city is on the eastern +margin of a large elevated plateau 8563 ft. above sea-level. The plateau +may be described as a great bench or shelf on the western slope of the +oriental Cordilleras, about 70 m. long and 30 m. wide, with a low rim on +its western margin and backed by a high ridge on the east. The plain +forming the plateau is well watered with numerous small lakes and +streams. These several small streams, one of which, the San Francisco, +passes through the city, unite near the south-western extremity of the +plateau and form the Rio Funza, or Bogota, which finally plunges over +the edge at Tequendama in a beautiful, perpendicular fall of about 475 +ft. The city is built upon a sloping plain at the base of two high +mountains La Gaudalupe and Monserrate, upon whose crests stand two +imposing churches. From a broad avenue on the upper side downward to the +west slope the streets, through which run streams of cool, fresh water +from the mountains above. The north and south streets cross these at +right angles, and the blocks thus formed are like great terraces. A +number of handsomely-laid-out plazas, or squares, ornamented with +gardens and statuary, have been preserved; on these face the principal +public buildings and churches. In Plaza Bolivar is a statue of Bolivar +by Pietro Tenerani (1789-1869), a pupil of Canova, and in Plaza +Santander is one of General Francisco de Paula Santander (1792-1840). +Facing on Plaza de la Constitucion are the capitol and cathedral. The +streets are narrow and straight, but as a rule they are clean and well +paved. Owing to the prevalence of earthquakes, private houses are +usually of one storey only, and are built of sun-dried bricks, +white-washed. But few of the public buildings are imposing in +appearance, though good taste in style and decoration are often shown. + +The city occupies an area of about 2-1/2 X 1-1/2 m. It has street cars, +electric light and telephones. Short lines of railway connect it with +Facatativa (24 m.) on the road to Honda, and with Zipaquira, where +extensive salt mines are worked. A line of railway was also under +construction in 1906 to Jirardot, at the head of navigation on the upper +Magdalena. Bogota is an archiepiscopal see, founded in 1561, and is one +of the strongholds of medieval clericalism in South America. It has a +cathedral, rebuilt in 1814, and some 30 other churches, together with +many old conventual buildings now used for secular purposes, their +religious communities having been dissolved by Mosquera and their +revenues devoted in great measure to education. The capitol, which is +occupied by the executive and legislative departments, is an elegant and +spacious building, erected since 1875. The interest which Bogota has +always taken in education, and because of which she has been called the +"Athens of South America," is shown in the number and character of her +institutions of learning--a university, three endowed colleges, a school +of chemistry and mineralogy, a national academy, a military school, a +public library with some 50,000 volumes, a national observatory, a +natural history museum and a botanic garden. The city also possesses a +well-equipped mint, little used in recent years. The plain surrounding +the city is very fertile, and pastures cattle and produces cereals, +vegetables and fruit in abundance. It was the centre of Chibcha +civilization before the Spanish conquest and sustained a large +population. The climate is mild and temperate, the average annual +temperature being about 58 deg. and the rainfall about 43-1/2 in. The +geographical location of the city is unfavourable to any great +development in commerce and manufactures beyond local needs. + +Bogota was founded in 1538 by Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada and was named +Santa Fe de Bogota after his birthplace Santa Fe, and after the southern +capital of the Chibchas, Bacata (or Funza). It was made the capital of +the viceroyalty of Nueva Granada, and soon became one of the centres of +Spanish colonial power and civilization on the South American continent. +In 1811 its citizens revolted against Spanish rule and set up a +government of their own, but in 1816 the city was occupied by Pablo +Morillo (1777-1838), the Spanish general, who subjected it to a ruthless +military government until 1819, when Bolivar's victory at Boyaca +compelled its evacuation. On the creation of the republic of Colombia, +Bogota became its capital, and when that republic was dissolved into its +three constituent parts it remained the capital of Nueva Granada. It has +been the scene of many important events in the chequered history of +Colombia. (A. J. L.) + + + + +BOGRA, or BAGURA, a town and district of British India, in the Rajshahi +division of eastern Bengal and Assam. The town is situated on the right +bank of the river Karatoya. Pop. (1901) 7094. The DISTRICT OF BOGRA, +which was first formed in 1821, lies west of the main channel of the +Brahmaputra. It contains an area of 1359 sq. m. In 1901 the population +(on a reduced area) was 854,533, showing an increase of 11% in the +decade. The district stretches out in a level plain, intersected by +numerous streams and dotted with patches of jungle. The Karatoya river +flows from north to south, dividing it into two portions, possessing +very distinct characteristics. The eastern tract consists of rich +alluvial soil, well watered, and subject to fertilizing inundations, +yielding heavy crops of coarse rice, oil-seeds and jute. The western +portion of the district is high-lying and produces the finer qualities +of rice. The principal rivers are formed by the different channels of +the Brahmaputra, which river here bears the local names of the Konai, +the Daokoba and the Jamuna, the last forming a portion of the eastern +boundary of the district. Its bed is studded with alluvial islands. The +Brahmaputra and its channels, together with three minor streams, the +Bangali, Karatoya and Atrai, afford admirable facilities for commerce, +and render every part of the district accessible to native cargo boats +of large burden. The rivers swarm with fish. The former production of +indigo is extinct, and the industry of silk-spinning is decaying. There +is no town with as many as 10,000 inhabitants, trade being conducted at +riverside marts. Nor are there any metalled roads. Several lines of +railway (the Eastern Bengal, &c.), however, serve the district. + + + + +BOGUE, DAVID (1750-1825), British nonconformist divine, was born in the +parish of Coldingham, Berwickshire. After a course of study in +Edinburgh, he was licensed to preach by the Church of Scotland, but made +his way to London (1721), where he taught in schools at Edmonton, +Hampstead and Camberwell. He then settled as minister of the +Congregational church at Gosport in Hampshire (1777), and to his +pastoral duties added the charge of an institution for preparing men for +the ministry. It was the age of the new-born missionary enterprise, and +Bogue's academy was in a very large measure the seed from which the +London Missionary Society took its growth. Bogue himself would have gone +to India in 1796 but for the opposition of the East India Company. He +also had much to do with founding the British and Foreign Bible Society +and the Religious Tract Society, and in conjunction with James Bennet, +minister at Romsey, wrote a well-known _History of Dissenters_ (3 vols., +1809). Another of his writings was an _Essay on the Divine Authority of +the New Testament_. He died at Brighton on the 25th of October 1825. + + + + +BOGUS (of uncertain origin, possibly connected with the Fr. _bagasse_, +sugar-cane refuse), a slang word, originally used in America of the +apparatus employed in counterfeiting coins, and now generally of any +sham or spurious transaction. + + + + +BOHEA (a word derived from the Wu-i hills in the Fuhkien province of +China, b being substituted for W or V), a kind of black tea (q.v.), or, +in the 18th and early 19th centuries, tea generally, as in Pope's line, +"So past her time 'twixt reading and bohea." Later the name "bohea" has +been applied to an inferior quality of tea grown late in the season. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 4, Slice 1, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 33550.txt or 33550.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/5/5/33550/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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