initial commit of ebook 33514HEADmain

9 files changed, 7095 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/33514-8.txt b/33514-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cb66aab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33514-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2149 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Organic
+Evolution, by Carl Von Nägeli
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Organic Evolution
+
+Author: Carl Von Nägeli
+
+Release Date: August 23, 2010 [EBook #33514]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                                   A
+                        MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL
+                               THEORY OF
+                           ORGANIC EVOLUTION
+
+                                  BY
+                            CARL VON NÄGELI
+
+
+                            SECOND EDITION
+
+
+                                CHICAGO
+                     THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.
+                                 1914
+
+
+
+                            COPYRIGHT, 1898
+                   BY THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.
+                                CHICAGO
+
+
+
+
+                            PREFATORY NOTE.
+
+
+Mr. V. A. Clark, as a student in horticulture in the University
+of Vermont, first undertook a critical examination of Nägeli's
+_Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Evolution_ as a part of his regular
+junior work. After a half year's study and the preparation of a short
+thesis, Mr. Clark had become so far intimate with Nägeli's work as to
+make it seem best for him to continue the study through his senior year.
+This study involved extended translations from the text, including
+Nägeli's _Summary_, which, considering its difficult accessibility
+to American students, has been chosen for publication. The work has
+been done chiefly by Mr. Clark, but has all been under my immediate
+supervision, and I have given the whole matter a final restudy and
+revision. Those who have had any experience with similar work will know
+how impossible it is that all mistakes should have been avoided, and it
+would be a kindness to the translators if readers would point out any
+defects, in order that they may be corrected.
+
+                                                        F. A. WAUGH.
+
+University of Vermont,
+    July 1, 1898.
+
+
+
+
+                       A MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL
+                           THEORY OF ORGANIC
+                              EVOLUTION.
+
+
+
+
+                               SUMMARY.
+
+
+In this summary I shall in general pursue a course the reverse of that
+which my main work follows.[A] I shall proceed from the primitive,
+unorganized condition of matter and endeavor to show how organized
+micellar substance has arisen in it, and how, from this micellar
+substance, organisms with their manifold properties have arisen.
+Since such a synthesis of organisms out of known forms of matter and
+force is still far removed from a conclusion strictly in accord with
+physical law, the process becomes comprehensible and obvious only by
+exact knowledge of the discussion that has preceded. Although the
+synthetic method reveals more clearly the weaknesses of the theory
+than do analytic investigations, yet I considered it helpful to
+make this presentation in order to give a clearer idea of the
+mechanico-physiological theory, and at the same time to test its
+worth.
+
+    [A] See Appendix, Translators' Notes.
+
+
+1. FORMATION OF UNORGANIZED BODIES (CRYSTALS).
+
+When separated and promiscuously moving molecules of any substance in
+solution or in a melted condition pass into the solid form by reason of
+removal of the causes of separation and motion (warmth or solvent), they
+arrange themselves into solid masses impermeable to liquids. These
+minute bodies grow by accretion, and when molecular forces are permitted
+to act undisturbed, assume the regular outer form and inner structure of
+crystals. The number of crystals, their size, changes of form and
+growth, all depend on external conditions.
+
+
+2. FORMATION OF LIVING ORGANIZED (MICELLAR) BODIES.
+
+Certain organic compounds, among them albumen, are neither soluble,
+despite their great affinity for water, nor are they fusible, and hence
+are produced in the micellar form. These compounds are formed in water,
+where the molecules that arise immediately adjoining each other arrange
+themselves into incipient crystals, or micellę. Only such of the
+molecules as are formed subsequently and come in contact with a micella
+contribute to its increase in size, while the others, on account of
+their insolubility, produce new micellę. For this reason the micellę
+remain so small that they are invisible, even with the microscope.
+
+On account of their great affinity for water the micellę surround
+themselves with a thick film of it. The attraction of these micellę for
+matter of their own kind is felt outside this film. Hence the micellę
+with their films unite themselves into solid masses permeated with
+water, unless other forces overcome attraction and re-establish a
+micellar solution (as in albumen, glue, gum), where the slightly moving
+micellę show a tendency to cling together in chain-like and other
+aggregations. Very often there are found, especially in albumen, half
+liquid modifications intermediate in fluidity between the solid masses
+and the micellar solution.
+
+The internal and external constitution of micellar bodies depends
+essentially on the size, form and dynamic nature of their micellę, since
+these efficients condition the original arrangement of the micellę and
+the insertion in proper order of those formed later. External conditions
+have slight influence on structure, and affect outer form chiefly in so
+far as they can mechanically hinder free development.
+
+The micellę of albumen or plasma are susceptible of the greatest
+diversity of form, size and chemical composition, since they originate
+from unlike mixtures of various albumen compounds, and besides are mixed
+with various organic and inorganic substances. For this reason the
+plasma behaves, both chemically and physically, in many unlike ways, and
+in consequence of the variable relation of the micellę to water, the
+plasma shows all degrees of micellar solution up to quite solid masses.
+
+
+3. SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. LIFE. GROWTH.
+
+If molecular forces are so combined in an inorganic substratum that
+spontaneous formation of albumen takes place, then by the combination of
+the micellę the primordial plasma masses of spontaneous generation are
+given. Within these plasma masses the production of albumen goes on more
+easily under the influence of their molecular forces than in the liquid
+without. Hence the compounds present in the organic substratum and
+capable of forming albumen enter preferably into the masses of plasma,
+and by intussusception of micellę of albumen, cause growth. Here life
+exists in its simplest form. (See page 47.)
+
+Spontaneous generation presupposes the origin of plasma-micellę from
+molecules, and hence cannot be brought about by solutions of albumens or
+peptones, since these are micellar solutions. Life presupposes the
+intussusception of plasma-micellę; hence it ceases as soon as the
+arrangement of micellę is so far disordered by injurious influences that
+that process of growth becomes impossible.
+
+The resulting organism must be perfectly simple, a mass of plasma with
+micellę as yet unarranged, because any organization without a preceding
+organizing activity is inconceivable. For this reason known organisms
+cannot have orginated spontaneously; a kingdom of simpler beings must
+have preceded them (_Probien_--the sub-organic kingdom).
+
+The growth of the masses of plasma continues as long as the conditions
+of nutrition are favorable. If these become unfavorable, a resting
+period (latent life) or partial or total death occurs, according to
+circumstances (as lack of nutritive material, lowering of temperature,
+comparative exsiccation). The growth of plants and animals is nothing
+else than the continuation of the growth begun in the primordial plasma.
+This growth still continues wherever the primordial plasma exists.
+
+
+4. PARTIAL DEATH OF THE INDIVIDUAL: REPRODUCTION.
+
+Since the primordial masses of plasma continue to attract nutritive
+materials indefinitely and apply them to growth, the nutritive materials
+are used up in one place and another and the substance which is no
+longer nourished is in great measure disintegrated. A general condition
+of equilibrium now sets in, in which the viable plasma masses continue
+to gain just as much in growth as there is dead plasma broken down and
+changed back into the original nutritive materials.
+
+In the primordial condition this balancing process is irregular and
+accidental and remains so even later in many of the lowest organisms.
+Little by little it becomes phylogenetically more regular by individuals
+attaining to a more definite size and term of life, while only the germs
+detached from them remain viable. This phenomenon known as reproduction
+has a double origin.
+
+_A._ The portions of primordial plasma that grow to a more considerable
+size as soft, half-liquid masses break up by the mechanical action of
+external circumstances into smaller portions of indefinite number and
+size. This typifies irregular and accidental reproduction of the lowest
+order.
+
+In the offspring of the primordial plasma division becomes gradually
+more and more regular as a result of the increasing organization of the
+substance, and especially as a result of the formation of an envelope
+about it, till finally in the microscopically small masses, which are
+now called cells, division into two parts always appears, after these
+masses have grown to perhaps double their original size. After division
+the two halves separate from each other and represent independent
+individuals.
+
+In the further course of phylogeny the division of the cells into two
+parts takes place regularly. But the cells remain united to each other
+and form multicellular individuals, which increase by cell division and
+which at times in the lowest stages are divided at regular intervals
+into smaller individuals, perhaps even at last into single cells, but
+from which there are periodically given off cells that develop as germ
+cells into new multicellular individuals.
+
+_B._ Another phenomenon which appears in the primordial plasma or its
+immediate offspring is the death of the greater part of the plasma under
+certain unfavorable conditions of nutrition, while the smaller part
+continues to be nourished at its expense and in that case remains viable
+during the dormant period.
+
+In the offspring this phenomenon gradually becomes free cell formation,
+which takes place before the resting stage or before the death of many
+unicellular and multicellular organisms, and which forms germ cells from
+a part of the contents of the parent cells.
+
+The formation of germ cells by cell division (_A_), or by free cell
+formation (_B_) is reproduction of the organism. The germ cells are the
+elements in which the life and growth of the parental individual are
+continued.
+
+
+5. MORPHOLOGY OF THE IDIOPLASM IN GENERAL.
+
+The larger part of the unarranged, soft and homogenous primordial
+plasma, which grows by intussusception, becomes watery soma-plasm, with
+unarranged and easily movable micellę. The smaller part is converted in
+the course of phylogeny into idioplasm, in which at certain favorable
+points the micellę that are being stored up under the influence of
+molecular forces arrange themselves into groups by similar orientations,
+and hence form bodies of less water content and greater solidity. Each
+body of idioplasm consists originally of only one group of micellę,
+which, however, necessarily breaks up with increasing additions into
+several groups. On account of the dynamic influence of the groups of
+micellę upon their own growth, they become in part more distinct and
+more definitely separated, in part again differentiated by new irregular
+intussusception. This phylogenetic process is continued indefinitely,
+by which the combination of forces produces a new configuration, and
+conversely, by which a new configuration produces a new combination of
+forces, so that the body of idioplasm merely takes on a continually
+increasing complexity of configuration by the action of the internal
+forces--that is, by the molecular forces of the micellę of the albumen
+under the influence of which growth proceeds. This constitutes the
+_automatic perfecting process_ or progression of the idioplasm, and
+entropy of organic matter. (See p. 47.)
+
+The above described phylogenetic perfecting process of the idoplasm,
+which operates through internal causes, is scarcely affected by
+differences of nutrition and by climatic conditions influencing
+nutrition. On the other hand all those external forces which act as
+stimuli during a long period of time in an unvarying manner have a very
+noticeable influence on the intussusception of micellę in the idioplasm
+and on the molecular processes going on among the micellę. The action of
+stimuli determines the particular structure of the groups of micellę
+added under the direction of the perfecting process. Thus the
+configuration of the idioplasm becomes continually more and more complex
+and at the same time assumes a local adaptation corresponding to
+external conditions. This constitutes adaptation of the idioplasm.
+
+
+6. FUNCTION OF THE IDIOPLASM IN GENERAL.
+
+The unarranged micellę of the albumen of the spontaneously generated
+plasma are as yet in no way superior to the unorganized condition from
+which they have arisen, except in this that under the influence of their
+molecular forces the formation of similar new albumen micellę follows
+more easily. But as by the further action of molecular forces
+idioplasmic bodies are formed with groups of smilarly oriented micellę,
+the molecular forces of these micellę amount by summation to molar
+forces and thereby new chemical processes are introduced; plastic
+products are formed from plasmic and non-plasmic materials, and molar
+movements are introduced. And since idioplasmic bodies are formed under
+the influence of external stimuli, their plastic products always appear
+with a definite character of adaptation to environment.
+
+Then, as the idioplasmic body becomes continually more complex in the
+further course of phylogeny, and consists of a greater number of groups
+of micellę differing from each other, the organisms become more complex
+and differentiate into a greater number of parts, because each group of
+micellę of the idioplasm produces its specific effect with regard to
+inner structure, outer form, and function.
+
+
+7. DETERMINANTS: THEIR ORIGIN AND DISAPPEARANCE.
+
+Since a particular cluster or group of micellę of the idioplasm produces
+a particular phenomenon in the organism, the former is designated as the
+determinant (_Anlage_, see p. 49) of the latter. Thus the organism must
+contain at least as many determinants in its idioplasm as there are
+different phenomena in its inheritable ontogeny; and if new phenomena
+appear in it, new clusters of micellę must previously have been
+introduced into the idioplasm, or the orientation and arrangement of
+clusters already present must have been changed. The formation of such a
+determinant, whether it concerns the perfecting of the organism or its
+adaptation to environment, always proceeds very slowly, and as a rule
+has no effect before its completion. Hence along with perfected
+determinants the idioplasm always contains growing and incomplete
+determinants.
+
+If a phylogenetic line comes under the influence of other external
+conditions and other external stimuli than those which have hitherto
+acted upon it, a new and corresponding arrangement of the micellę
+appears phylogenetically in the idioplasm. At the same time the other
+adaptation determinants remain either undisturbed, or the new
+determinant is formed at the expense of related determinants which are
+already present and which may at last entirely vanish. Hence along with
+growing and complete determinants the idioplasm always contains likewise
+weakened and vanishing determinants. From the fact that a phylogenetic
+race is thrown repeatedly among different external conditions, it may at
+last unite in its idioplasm a large number of developing, mature, and
+vanishing adaptation determinants. This number is noticeably increased
+if in consequence of interbreeding a fusion of related idioplasms take
+place.
+
+
+8. DEFINITE NOTIONS WITH REGARD TO THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE IDIOPLASM.
+
+Since in the phylogenetic development of the plasma the thicker
+idioplasm is differentiated from the more fluid soma-plasm (§ 5), the
+former has the tendency by nature to assume a reticular arrangement. The
+strands of this network consist, in conformity with their origin, of
+parallel rows of micellę extending lengthwise. These rows of micellę
+are combined into more or less complex arrangements, so that the cross
+section of the strand represents the configuration of the idioplasm.[B]
+
+    [B] Nägeli makes his idioplasm ramify throughout the organism in
+    unbroken continuity, much like a system of nerves in the higher
+    animals. This idea with Nägeli was purely speculative. It was
+    known that the protoplasm is in connection throughout the
+    organism, but it has been proved more recently that only the
+    somatic protoplasm is thus connected. The part in which the
+    essential nature of the organism is contained is localized
+    in the nucleus and hence might properly be designated as
+    nucleoplasm, as Weismann suggests. If the idioplasm is
+    localized in the nucleus, it cannot be continuous throughout
+    the system, as Nägeli assumes. But this objection applies only
+    to a detail of the theory and does not affect the fundamental
+    conception,--that of a portion of the protoplasm which is
+    differentiated from the rest and represents a definite molecular
+    structure which determines the specific nature of the
+    organism.--_Trans._
+
+Each ontogeny (individual) begins in a minute germ cell, in which a
+small quantity of idioplasm is contained. In the cell divisions, by
+which the organism grows, the idioplasm divides into as many parts as
+there are single cells, while it continually increases in quantity in a
+corresponding degree. The ontogenetic increase of the idioplasm takes
+place by length growth of the strands--that is, by intercalation of
+micellę in each row of cells of the strands, which thereby grow in
+length without changing the configuration of the cross section.[C]
+Accordingly, each strand of idioplasm contains all the determinants that
+the particular individual has inherited in the germ cell, and each cell
+of the organism is idioplasmatically qualified to become the germ cell
+of a new individual. Whether this qualification may be realized depends
+upon the nature of the soma-plasm. In the lower plants this power
+belongs to each individual cell; in the higher plants many cells have
+lost it; in the animal kingdom it is possessed in general only by cells
+normally set apart as asexual or sexual reproductive cells.
+
+    [C] Hence, according to Nägeli, every cell of the organism has
+    idioplasm of identical structure. This at once suggests the
+    objection, how can the idioplasm, for instance, of a pollen
+    grain be the same as that of a leaf? Identical idioplasms should
+    always produce identical structures. Nägeli attempts to explain
+    this difficulty by attributing the different results to
+    different "conditions of tension and movement," i.e., a
+    dynamical difference between the idioplasms of the different
+    parts of the organism. (_Abstammungslehre_, p. 53.)
+
+    This idea of differences of structure being due to dynamic
+    rather than to material causes plays a considerable part in
+    Nägeli's theory, but is the point on which he speaks with least
+    certainty--in fact with a noticeable hesitation. He does not
+    clearly explain the phrase "conditions of tension and movement,"
+    nor does he give a convincing explanation of the known phenomena
+    as results of the action of dynamic influence.
+
+    Nägeli is not the only one who posits dynamic rather than
+    material differences as to the basis of diversities of
+    structure. More recently, Cope has built up a system of
+    evolution founded largely on this idea.--_Trans._
+
+The continued phylogenetic formation of the threads of idioplasm takes
+place by growth in the cross section, which contains the sum of all the
+determinants and changes in general only when new rows of micellę are
+intercalated. But the rows of micellę of the idioplasm join closely to
+each other, according to their thickness, so that only rarely new rows
+can enter, and then only at those definite places where the cohesion is
+less strong and hence is overcome. The cohesion varies irregularly
+because the configuration of the cross section, conformably to its
+origin, is never regular; the disruptive tensions are brought about by
+the unequal growth in length of the individual rows of micellę. Dynamic
+influences have a decisive effect upon cohesion and disruptive tensions.
+The groups of micellę of the configuration already obtained exercise
+these dynamic influences upon each other; and these dynamic influences
+can be modified by stimuli from without.
+
+The idioplasm continually alters its configuration with its growth in
+successive ontogenies, but comparatively very slowly, so that it makes a
+minute advance from the germ of one generation to the germ of the next.
+The summation of these increments of advance through a whole line of
+evolution represents the race history of an organism, since the latter
+is connected only by its idioplasm in unbroken continuity with the
+micellar beginning of its race.
+
+
+9. DEFINITE NOTIONS REGARDING THE FUNCTION OF THE IDIOPLASM.
+
+A plasmic substance causes definite chemical and physical changes only
+when it is present in a certain condition of motion. The peculiar agency
+which the idioplasm has in each ontogenetic stage of development and in
+each part of the organism depends on the activity of a definite group of
+micellę in the cross section of the strand or of a complex of such
+groups, while this local stimulus controls the chemical and physical
+processes by dynamic influence and by transmission of a specific mode of
+motion, even to a microscopically small distance.
+
+The effective stimulus in a plasmic substance is dependent on its own
+nature and the influence which it receives from without. Which group of
+micellę in the idioplasm receives the stimulus depends on the
+configuration, on the preceding stimuli and on the position in the
+individual organism in which the idioplasm is found. The determinants
+have arisen one after another during the whole period of evolution from
+the primordial cell. The configuration of the idioplasm is a character
+of phylogeny and the determinants in it have by nature the tendency to
+develop in the order in which they were formed. Further, since the
+ontogeny begins as a unicellular organism with the formation of a germ
+cell, that determinant of the idioplasm comes first to development,
+which has developed in the unicellular ancestor. Just so the succeeding
+stages of ontogeny depend for the time being on the development of the
+determinants having their origin in the corresponding stage of
+phylogeny. Both causes acting together--the phylogenetic configuration
+of the idioplasm and the successive morphological stages of development
+of the individual conditioned on it--necessarily result in the ontogeny
+being the repetition of the phylogeny.
+
+If the whole remaining line of idioplasmic determinants in an ontogeny
+has reached development, the development of the germ-forming
+determinants finally follows as well from the configuration of the
+idioplasm as from the nature of the organism. The individual is capable
+of reproduction and the new ontogenies begin in the reproductive cells.
+
+
+10. TRANSMISSION OF IDIOPLASMIC DETERMINANTS IN LOCAL VARIATION AND IN
+FECUNDATION.
+
+The automatic progressive or perfecting transformation of the idioplasm
+is probably active in all stages of development, and proceeds regularly
+in all parts of the organism, because the idioplasm preserves its
+configuration at all times and places during the ontogeny. External
+stimuli impign upon the organism usually at a definite point, but they
+not only effect a local transformation of the idioplasm but also
+reproduce themselves in a dynamic manner in the entire idioplasm, which
+is in unbroken connection throughout the whole individual. The idioplasm
+is thus changed everywhere in the same manner, so that the germ cells
+that are given off at any point feel and inherit the effects of those
+local stimuli.
+
+In the formation of the germ cells in sexual reproduction, the
+idioplasms of both parents must come into contact with each other,
+whereupon there results either a material union and formation of a mixed
+idioplasm or perhaps rather a dynamic action; and through these agencies
+there is produced a remodeled form which is, however, exactly equivalent
+to the combined idioplasms entering into it. Fertilization by diosmose
+of the spermatic substance is impossible.[D]
+
+    [D] This assertion is a direct corollary from the structure of
+    the determinants and the idioplasm. If the idioplasm of the
+    fertilizing cell were to pass through the membrane about the
+    ovum by osmosis, its organized structure would be
+    lost.--_Trans._
+
+In the idioplasm of a germ cell arising from the crossing of unlike
+individuals the micellar rows of the individual determinants have
+sometimes an intermediate constitution and produce characteristics in
+the organism which are intermediate between the characteristics of the
+parents. Sometimes the micellar rows derived from the father and mother
+respectively lie side by side unchanged in the idioplasm of the
+offspring in distinct groupings and may reproduce in the organism their
+respective characteristics side by side, or only one of them may
+develop, while the other remains latent.
+
+On account of the union of both idioplasms as the result of fecundation,
+two sexually mature organisms are the more able to form with each other
+a viable germ cell, the nearer they are genetically related--that is,
+the more nearly the male and female idioplasms correspond in their
+configuration and chemical nature, because in this case the micellar
+arrangements are best suited to each other, and the idioplasm of the new
+fertile germ cell receives its most suitable nourishment from the
+mother. If, however, self-fecundation or the closest in-and-in breeding
+often yields products of less virility and is avoided by nature, this
+is the result of injurious influences which make themselves felt later
+on. This is because incompatibilities may be present in too closely
+related idioplasms and these are sources of weakness in unrestricted
+development. The more complicated is the idioplasm, the oftener this
+occurs, whereas absolute lack of crossing is not detrimental to the
+simplest (asexual) organisms.
+
+
+11. ACTION OF EXTERNAL INFLUENCES.[E]
+
+The environment provides the organism above all with force and matter
+for its life processes. It causes no permanent variation and has only an
+ontogenetic significance, if the limits of the idioplasmic elasticity
+are not exceeded; it maintains the growth and metabolic assimilation of
+the individual, and conditions individual (not hereditary) differences,
+which constitute "nutrition varieties." (See page 30.) These appear as
+the direct results of operating causes.
+
+    [E] In order to explain adaptations Nägeli assumes that external
+    influences, if acting at the same point in a given manner for a
+    long time, may induce slight adaptive variations which are
+    perpetuated and increased. On the important subject of
+    adaptation in general Nägeli is almost diametrically opposed to
+    Darwin and Weismann. Nägeli assigns to the principle of utility
+    a very limited sphere; Weismann regards adaptation as
+    all-powerful. According to Nägeli, the organic world would have
+    become much what it is, if natural selection and adaptation had
+    performed no part in the operations of nature. He aptly says,
+    that natural selection prunes the phylogenetic tree, but does
+    not cause new branches to grow. He allows that the principle of
+    selection is well suited to explain the adaptation of organisms
+    to their environment and the suitableness and physiological
+    peculiarities of their structure, but he asserts that in the
+    definiteness of variation of plants and in their progressive
+    differentiation there is evidence of a higher and controlling
+    perfecting principle.--_Trans._
+
+When the stress of environment exceeds the limits of idioplasmic
+elasticity, its influence brings about permanent variations, which are
+imperceptibly small, it is true, in the single individual, but which,
+when the stimulus is active for a long period of time in the same
+manner, increase to perceptible magnitude. These variations are
+inheritable in the phylogenetic sense and contribute to the formation of
+varieties and species; they always appear as the results of more or less
+secondary reactions which make their appearance with stimuli exerted by
+external causes.
+
+External stimuli exerted on the organism are reproduced in the
+idioplasm. Since the stimulus is discontinued with each change of the
+ontogeny and only the idioplasm persists, permanent variations are
+produced only in the idioplasm by those conditions that produce visible
+transformations in the mature organism.
+
+The phylogenetic action of external stimuli gives the definite character
+of adaptation to the idioplasm as it becomes more complex from inner
+causes and probably these external stimuli have the power to alter this
+impress only as new idioplasm is automatically formed.
+
+If an external cause acts continuously upon a phylogenetic line, the
+corresponding variation of the idioplasm reaches, after a time, a
+maximum, and thus comes to an end, either because the nature of the
+substance permits no new rearrangement or because the stimulus is no
+longer active. The cessation of the stimulus results from a micellar
+rearrangement which indicates the character of the adaptation. If the
+action of the stimulus lasts for only a short time, the incipient
+rearrangement of the idioplasm stops, or proceeds independently on
+account of the impulse received, and the determinant becomes capable of
+development, even after the impulse has long ceased to act.
+
+Since various intervening transpositions follow upon a stimulus in the
+organism, the final result which appears as a reaction may turn out
+variously. The same external causes may, according to the nature of the
+organism and other circumstances, have very unlike variations as a
+result. But the internal rearrangement produces in a definite case very
+definite variations.
+
+On account of the various intermediate steps it is often difficult to
+discover the external cause of a given adaptive variation. In many cases
+we recognize it without difficulty in a definite mechanical process or
+in warmth, light or evaporation. For the most part the stimulus awakens
+in the organism merely a want, which the reaction of the organism
+endeavors to supply. Hence it appears that want or lack alone is able to
+bring about such reactions. Moreover, in the sphere of sex, electric(?)
+attractions and repulsions co-operate between the idioplasmic
+determinants to produce phylogenetic variations.
+
+The adaptations of the fully developed organism, which are the results
+of external influences, consist either only of a specific molecular
+character (irritability), by virtue of which the individual is capable
+of responding to those influences with temporary or permanent phenomena,
+or they consist of finished arrangements. The latter have, in general, a
+double function: either they protect the organism from external
+influences whose results they are, or they place it in a condition to
+apply such environmental influences to their advantage. The
+preponderance of the one or the other led to the development of the
+plant or the animal kingdom. In the one case the primordial plasma
+formed in the cellulose cell wall a stimulus-proof covering. On account
+of this cell membrane being insensible to stimuli, adaptations in the
+plant kingdom were restricted essentially to the spheres of nutrition
+and reproduction. In the other case the irritability and mobility of the
+primordial plasma increased so that it was placed in a condition to
+avoid the irritant or make it serviceable by accommodating itself to it.
+The cells sensible to irritants led in the animal kingdom to the
+formation of organs of sense and the nervous system.
+
+
+12. CONDITIONS OF PHYLOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE DETERMINANTS. ATAVISM.
+
+In the primordial condition, formation and development of the
+determinants coincide, since the plasma constituting the organism
+possesses the capability of growing by intussusception of new micellę
+and of changing this growth through the action of inner and outer
+causes. But as the primordial plasma differentiates into idioplasm and
+soma-plasm, the formation of determinants consists in the transformation
+of the idioplasm, while the development of determinants consists in the
+production of soma-plasm and of non-plasmic substances under the
+influence of the idioplasm.
+
+Only the mature determinant is able to develop, especially if, at the
+same time, a related and heretofore active determinant must be forced
+back into the latent condition. But the determinant of an absolutely new
+form of adaptation, which does not take the place of a preceding one,
+must develop enough before it can become outwardly manifest, for it to
+be possessed of a sufficient amount of molecular energy to render its
+activity possible. For this reason the characteristics of the developed
+organism change abruptly, notwithstanding the fact that the
+transformation of the idioplasm has proceeded very gradually.
+
+The configuration of the idioplasm becomes continually more complex
+through the automatic action of the perfecting process, and by this
+means the organism ascends to higher stages of organization. Hence the
+viable determinants of organization or perfection are always overtaken
+after a certain time by that movement and forced into the latent
+condition. They then become continually weaker, and are at last
+completely destroyed. Only in the first period after their becoming
+latent can such determinants pass again into a developmental condition
+and thus allow the organism to revert to the next preceding stage of
+organization.
+
+Since the configuration of the idioplasm, which becomes more complex
+from internal causes, always assumes a definite character of adaptation
+in consequence of the action of external causes, the adaptation
+determinants capable of development may become more and more weakened
+and at last latent when other external causes produce other adaptation
+determinants. But these determinants may be revived by the renewed
+activity of the former causes, and thus rendered capable of development.
+Hence the organism may show the most various reversions with respect to
+its adaptations. But in such reversions the earlier forms never quite
+return, because in the meanwhile the idioplasm has changed somewhat in
+consequence of its automatic progress, and therefore lends to the
+adaptations which assume the earlier character a somewhat different
+expression.
+
+
+13. ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE DETERMINANTS.
+
+Since the capability of the primordial plasma to grow is the original
+and only vital quality (_Anlage_), the whole ontogeny in this first
+stage consists in the growth of the detached parts to the adult size. In
+the same way the development of the determinants in all the following
+stages is nothing more than the growth of the substance detached as a
+germ cell after the manner of the changes in the character of the
+idioplasm in the course of phylogeny. In this manner all determinants
+may in the lower stages of organization reach development, but in the
+higher stages an increasing number of them must remain latent.
+
+Among the viable determinants there are some that develop
+unconditionally during each ontogenetic period; there are also
+alternative determinants of which one or the other unconditionally
+develops; lastly, there are some that develop only under favorable
+circumstances. Which of two alternative determinants shall develop
+depends sometimes on internal, sometimes on external causes, according
+as the specific determinant has arisen phylogenetically through the
+action of internal or external causes. Climatic and nutritive influences
+especially affect the appearance of indefinitely developing
+determinants. Just so, when a determinant may develop repeatedly (as is
+so common in the plant kingdom) it depends especially on nutrition
+whether the corresponding phenomenon is repeated at intervals of greater
+or less length. A weakened determinant is sometimes temporarily
+developed by the operation of a definite stimulus.
+
+If the integrity of the organism sustains an injury in consequence of
+abnormal interferences, determinants develop exceptionally at unusual
+points. The process is induced by accumulation of nutritive matter and
+by external stimuli under the force of necessity, to which the injured
+organism is sensible.
+
+
+14. ESSENTIAL NATURE OF THE ORGANISM.
+
+The essential nature of a thing is the sum total of its causes and
+effects. Organisms arise from a germ cell which consists of idioplasm
+and in turn they produce like germ cells. Their nature depends also on
+their idioplasm, _i.e._, on the sum total of their idioplasmic
+determinants. Observation of organisms, even in their fullest life
+history, gives us an imperfect and even false conception of their true
+nature. This is because observation reveals only the outer gross
+characters, and even these in a modification dependent upon accidental
+effects of nutrition, and does not reveal the finer characters founded
+in molecular physiology and morphology, and especially the characters
+latent in the idioplasm.
+
+For the examination of idioplasmic differences we are restricted to
+visible characters. Hence a knowledge of the nature of an organism
+presupposes a complete investigation of its characters in their
+succession during the whole ontogeny. The results must, however, be
+tested and completed by comparison with other organisms and by the most
+comprehensive experimental procedure, possible, (as by culture under
+various conditions, and crossing with nearer and more remote relatives).
+The characteristics of nutrition varieties and accidental crosses must
+be separated from specific characteristics by experimental procedure,
+and latent determinants must be brought out by the same means.
+
+
+15. REPRODUCTION, AND RELATION BETWEEN PARENTS AND OFFSPRING.
+
+Reproduction is nothing more than a transition from one generation to
+the next following, mediated by the idioplasm of the germ cell. In
+asexual (monogenic) reproduction there is continuity of the same
+idioplasm. Therefore the parent continues in the offspring its specific
+life, as the stem continues its specific life in the branch. All the
+peculiarities conditioned by the idioplasm remain unchanged in the
+offspring. The latter, as the immediate continuation of the preceding
+ontogeny, starts from the point at which the germ cell left it, so that
+immediately after the germ cell is separated at the close of the
+ontogeny or before, the offspring passes at one time rapidly through
+the whole ontogeny, at another only the remainder or a part of it (the
+latter in alternation of generations and in asexual propagation of
+phanerogams).
+
+In sexual (digenic) reproduction the formation of the germ cell is
+brought about by the union in equal parts of both parental idioplasms.
+The offspring is the organism resulting from the union of the force and
+matter of the parents, and represents in its nature the united
+continuation of their ontogenies. The characteristics of development of
+the child depend however on the viability of the determinants of the
+mingled idioplasms in which a new equilibrium has been formed. Hence if
+the child bears more resemblance to the father or to the mother, it
+follows that some of the inherited determinants develop while the others
+remain latent. If the child has certain visible characteristics more
+marked than either parent, it becomes possible only by the development
+of determinants which had previously been latent. The fact that the
+mother furnishes the germ cell with nutritive plasm and that she
+nourishes it for a considerable time does not increase the number of
+maternal determinants nor their capability of development.
+
+If two corresponding characters, one derived from the father, the other
+from the mother, come into conflict in sexual reproduction, the one or
+the other, or even a third alternative characteristic, which heretofore
+was present as a latent determinant, may develop in the child. But also
+both parental characters may appear at once and in various combinations.
+Whether the development follows in the one way or the other depends on
+the strength of the individual determinants, on the kind of their
+idioplasmic arrangement, and on their agreement with the nature of the
+newly formed idioplasm.
+
+
+16. HEREDITY AND VARIATION.
+
+If heredity and variation are defined according to the true nature of
+organisms, they are only apparent opposites. Since idioplasm alone is
+transmitted from one ontogeny to the next following, the phylogenetic
+development consists solely in the continual progress of the idioplasm
+and the whole genealogical tree from the primordial drop of plasma up to
+the organism of the present day (plant or animal) is, strictly speaking,
+nothing else than an individual consisting of idioplasm, which at each
+ontogeny forms a new individual body, corresponding to its advance.
+
+In this idioplasmic individual the _automatic_ or _perfecting variation_
+is always active, so that the idioplasm of a phylogenetic line always
+grows by propagation of the determinants contained within it, as a tree
+grows larger through its whole duration of life by branching. On the
+other hand the _adaptation variation_ caused by external stimuli is
+present only in those periods of the phylogenetic line in which the
+idioplasm, and together with this the individual, do not possess the
+obtainable maximum of adaptation to their environment for the time
+being. Both of these variations of the idioplasm take place so slowly
+that only after a long series of generations do the new determinants
+become capable of developing and revealing themselves in the
+transmutation of visible characters.
+
+Aside from the phylogenetic variations already named, which take place
+according to the measure of ontogenetic growth, the idioplasm undergoes,
+as a result of crossing, as well as in changes of the ontogeny,
+_gamogenic variations_ which may be designated as stationary, since in
+the mingling of sexually different idioplasms there arise only new
+arrangements of determinants already present, but no new formation of
+determinants takes place. Hence in this way arise also new combinations
+of developmental characteristics.
+
+As a result of external injurious influences, abnormal variations, or
+_pathological variations_, appear in the idioplasm. These consist of
+disturbances of equilibrium, which take place also without new formation
+of determinants. Thereby the determinants already present are caused to
+develop in abnormal relations, and mostly in reversions.
+
+Apart from the inheritable variations of the idioplasm just enumerated,
+and the transformations of visible characters involved in it, the
+soma-plasm and the non-plasmic substances experience, by the influence
+of nutrition and climate, greater or less variations, which constitute
+_nutrition varieties_, and since the idioplasm remains unaffected in
+general, last only so long as the causes which called them forth.[F]
+
+    [F] Nägeli, like Weismann, arrives at the conclusion that
+    acquired characters are not inherited. He was not content,
+    however, to rest the generalization upon purely speculative
+    grounds, but undertook the experimental demonstration. After
+    seventeen years of work by himself and son, especially upon
+    several species of Hieracium, he satisfied himself that his
+    theory was true to the facts. We all know now how far he fell
+    short of settling the question.--_Trans._
+
+If we have in mind the inner nature of the organism, there is, properly
+speaking, no such specific phenomenon as heredity, since the
+phylogenetic line is a continuous idioplasmic individual. In this sense
+heredity is nothing more than the persistence of organized substance in
+a movement in which variations are automatically induced, or the
+necessary transition of one idioplasmic configuration into the next
+following. It is present, not only among plant and animal individuals
+which are ontogenetically separated, but also everywhere within these
+individuals, where individual parts (cells, organs) follow each other in
+time. Hereditary phenomena are those that necessarily pass over to
+following generations, and in general those that are located in the
+idioplasm, since non-idioplasmic substance can be hereditary only
+through a limited number of cell generations.
+
+Variations and heredity are generally estimated, not according to the
+inner nature of the mature individuals, but according to their relation
+in successive generations, since heredity is assumed when the
+ontogenetic characters remain the same, and variation when previously
+latent characters become visible. But these phenomena belong to another
+department of science; they concern the possibility and reality of
+development of the idioplasmic determinants.
+
+
+17. VARIETY, RACE, MODIFICATION.
+
+From the multifarious variations of organisms proceed various categories
+of kinship. _Varieties_ arise by extremely slow changes in the idioplasm
+due to the perfecting process and adaptation. Since these are
+conditioned by the same causes, they follow in all individuals of the
+same variety in uniform manner. Varieties are uniform, entirely constant
+under the most various external conditions, in general cross only with
+difficulty with related varieties, are not varied by accidental crosses,
+and persist through geological periods. Varieties belong to feral nature
+rather than to culture; they can assume all possible modifications
+without injury to their specific characteristics, but can show no
+distinctions of races, for all beginnings of race formation are
+destroyed by free intercrossing. They differ from species only in that
+they are to be designated as more closely related species, or species as
+more remotely related varieties. Every other distinguishing
+characteristic is wanting.
+
+_Races_ arise from gamogenic or pathological variations of the
+idioplasm. In the former case they presuppose crossing between related
+varieties or species, in the latter case an increased sensibility and
+weakening of the idioplasm. Very often both causes co-operate, since
+crossing follows more easily when the idioplasm is weakened by hurtful
+influences and since the irritability and weakening of the idioplasm
+increases if crossing has preceded. Race formation begins in single
+individuals. Among several individuals it begins in various directions
+because the causes are different and hence may display a great
+multiformity. Races are distinguished by more or less abnormal
+characteristics; they arise quickly--often in a single generation--and
+present various degrees of stability. This stability is insured to some
+extent only by the strictest in-and-in breeding. All races disappear
+through crossing, likewise many races that have arisen from pathological
+variations disappear even in sexual reproduction (in self-fecundation).
+Races belong exclusively to cultivation, where they can develop and
+exist protected from free intercrossing.
+
+While varieties and races arise by progressional or stationary variation
+of the idioplasm, _modifications_ are produced by such influences of
+nutrition and climate as act only on the soma-plasm and the non-plasmic
+substances, and hence do not give rise to inheritable characters in the
+organism. Modifications persist only so long as their causes, and under
+other environments immediately pass over into the modifications
+corresponding to them. The transition is completed in the lowest plants
+during a limited number of cell generations; in an individual of the
+higher plants on the same stem during the growth of a single year. Each
+variety and each race appears clothed in a definite modification, and
+can change it within a range peculiar to itself.[A]
+
+    [G] The distinctions which Nägeli here erects are, of course,
+    purely arbitrary, and his definitions are suitable for use only
+    in his own thesis.--_Trans._
+
+
+18. SOCIAL AND INDIVIDUAL ORIGIN OF SPECIES.
+
+The species arises neither from the _nutrition variety_ nor from the
+_race_; it is always a more advanced variety, and hence species
+formation is identical with variety formation. Cause for variation and
+consequently for variety formation is always shown, either when,
+environment remaining the same, the automatic variation of the idioplasm
+has advanced so far that the ontogeny is raised to a higher grade of
+organization and division of labor, or when external stimuli act for a
+sufficiently long time in a manner not in harmony with the previous
+adaptation. Hence various varieties arise easily from a uniform kinship,
+when these are thrown among unlike external influences by local
+separation, because in the separated places on the one hand the
+automatic evolution proceeds with unequal rapidity, and on the other
+hand adaptation takes place unequally.
+
+But in general different varieties arise socially from a uniform
+kinship. This is because the related individuals living together are
+unequally stimulated on account of the great inequality of external
+influences which may exist at the smallest distances; and also because
+with slight individual differences unlike reactions often follow upon
+the same external influences. If identically similar individuals are
+equally inclined to very different reactions toward the same stimulus,
+sometimes the direction of the first variation decides the character of
+the adaptation and therefore the nature of the variety, because the
+variation, when once begun, progresses unswervingly even under somewhat
+different circumstances.[H] Hence divergent variations are found growing
+together in all places, which variations have begun at different though
+neighboring points by transformation of the idioplasm and are soon
+intermingled on account of the easy dissemination of seed.
+
+    [H] It is interesting to compare this statement with Weismann's
+    recent theory of Germinal Selection.--_Trans._
+
+The social formation of varieties is not in general interrupted by
+crossing, a process which governs only the formation of races. It is
+confirmed according to experience by the universally recurring fact that
+several beginnings of the most closely related varieties appear
+together not only in the same region, but even at the same points, while
+the geographical distribution of the more marked varieties and of
+related species offers no conclusion as to their origin, but only as to
+the last great migration of the plant world, because they arose before
+this period, as indeed appears from their distribution.
+
+Just as different varieties arise simultaneously from one kinship at the
+same place, the same variety may arise in places far separated, when the
+analogous external exciting causes occasion an identical transformation
+in the idioplasm. The experimental proof lies in the fact that like
+beginnings of varieties often appear at great distances from each other.
+
+An apparent social origin of varieties is indicated, when, after having
+come together in migration, they first develop the unlike determinants
+which they have gained in various locations. An apparently individual
+origin of the same or different varieties is indicated, when the
+formation of the determinants take place at one and the same place, but
+their development follows only after the kindred has been scattered by
+migration.
+
+
+19. GENERAL RELATION OF THE PHYLOGENETIC LINES IN THE ORGANIC KINGDOMS.
+
+Since the nature of an organism is contained in the sum of its
+idioplasmic determinants alone, the evolution of a phylogeny consists in
+the evolution of the idioplasm. This is perceived from the succession
+of the visible ontogenetic characteristics which in general run parallel
+with it. The idioplasm varies in two ways: (1) by an _automatic
+perfecting process_; (2) by _adaptation to environment_.
+
+By virtue of the _automatic variation_ of the idioplasm the ontogenies
+of a phylogenetic line attain to a continually more complex organization
+and greater differentiation of function. In this differentiation,
+however, only the qualitative differences are of importance;
+quantitative and numerical gradations may be disregarded. The more
+complex admits of more combinations than the simpler; hence if a
+phylogeny reaches a higher stage by automatic evolution it may branch
+into several lines, of which each appears as the continuation of the
+parent stock.
+
+Since _adaptive variations_ depend only on the transmutations of
+environment, an organism may rise to a higher organization and division
+of labor by continually adapting itself to the changed environment. But
+the organism may also change its adaptation while it remains at the same
+stage of organization. And since the adaptive variation is quickly
+perfected as compared with automatic evolution, although extremely
+slowly as compared with the duration of the ontogeny, an organization
+may change its adaptation several times while it remains at the same
+grade of organization and division of labor. Since there are also
+numerous different kinds of adaptation, a phyletic line may divide at
+each point into several adaptive forms, which appear in the taxonomic
+system as species, genera, often even as whole families, while in other
+cases various degrees of organization have appeared in one family.
+
+
+20. LAWS OF EVOLUTION OF THE PLANT KINGDOM.
+
+In the sub-organic kingdom, which precedes the plant and animal
+kingdoms, (see page 5), there are gradually formed from the
+spontaneously generated plasma independent cells with their
+characteristic properties, _i.e._, growth by intussusception of micellę,
+formation of a plasmic cuticle, and a non-plasmic membrane about the
+same, division of the cells, separation of the cells thus formed, and
+free cell formation within the cell contents. These properties are
+inherited from the sub-organic kingdom by the plants and animals which
+follow in the next stage of phylogeny. The evolution of the plant
+kingdom proceeds through the following regular processes, which continue
+to operate through the entire phylogenetic series.
+
+_Law of Phylogenetic Combination._--The simplest of all plants are cells
+of round form, which grow and reproduce themselves by division, budding
+or free cell formation. From the fact that the younger generation of
+cells, instead of separating from each other and growing to independent
+plant individuals, remain united with each other, multicellular plants
+arise from unicellular. The same transformation of the reproductive
+cells into non-separable tissue cells is repeated several times in
+multicellular plants and serves to enlarge the individual. There is
+manifested in this phylogenetic process the tendency of the plant to
+combine in the higher stages into one complex whole those parts which in
+the lower stages tend to be independent. A similar unifying tendency is
+revealed also in those plant members which have arisen by
+differentiation and represent a system only by their being connected at
+certain points. These combine in the higher stages and form ultimately
+continuous tissues.
+
+_Law of Phylogenetic Complication or Ampliation, Differentiation and
+Reduction._--The cells, and, in general, the parts of plants which lie
+near each other in space or follow upon each other in time, are always
+alike in the lower stages. By differentiation they become unlike, so
+that the sum of the functions which at first fall to the lot of all
+parts without distinction now is shared among the individual parts. By
+this means each part can perform its own special function so much the
+better. Differentiation is repeated in the course of the phylogeny,
+since at first all parts of an ontogeny diverge into two or more parts,
+then the parts of these parts divide again, etc. Along with this process
+of division another process is always active, which, as it were,
+prepares the way for the former, namely, ampliation, by virtue of which
+the growth of the whole ontogeny or of single stages of it undergoes a
+quantitative increase, so that an organ acquires a greater number of
+cells, and an individual a greater number of organs. After this increase
+in number of parts in a stage of ontogeny, differentiation follows as
+far as the nature of the functions permits, by the parts most separated
+passing into each other by intermediate gradations. By the further
+phylogenetic process of reduction the intermediate forms are suppressed.
+At last only the extreme products of differentiation lie near each other
+in space or follow upon each other in time; and these products are as
+limited in quantity and number as possible.
+
+Along with the above named phylogenetic processes, which take place by
+the automatic increase of the idioplasm, external influences are always
+active. These lend to the organism at times a local stamp corresponding
+to its environment, and follow the law of adaptation.
+
+
+21. ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS IN RELATION TO PHYLOGENY.
+
+Since the simplest plants are cells and the more complex ones are formed
+from cells, a whole phylogenetic line may be regarded as a series of
+cell generations following one after another. In the lowest forms all
+cell generations are like each other; in all others they show
+differences which become continually greater and more numerous. Thus
+alternation of generations in cells exists, because the successive
+generations become more and more complicated at each succeeding period.
+Among these periods the ontogenetic period or ontogeny embraces all
+generations from one cell to the return of the exactly similar kind of
+cell. In the lowest forms of cell differentiation the cells of
+successive generations are all independent; the ontogenetic period
+consists of a cycle of generations of unicellular plants. Later the cell
+generations of an ontogeny are united by parts into plant individuals;
+the ontogenetic period consists of a cycle of multicellular and
+unicellular, or only of multicellular plant generations. If all the cell
+generations of an ontogenetic period have been united into a single
+individual, the successive plant generations are alike and alternation
+of generations has ceased.
+
+The unlikeness of the generations arises either from inner causes of
+temporary differentiation alone, or by temporary differentiation which
+receives a definite imprint by the change of seasons. But in the latter
+case the characteristic of adaptation is again lost in the course of the
+phylogeny and alternation of generations follows then without regard to
+the season. If the given adaptation is united in the lower plants with
+alternation of generations during the ontogenetic periods, one of the
+unlike plant generations is repeated an indefinite number of times
+(repetitional generation), while the other unlike plant generation
+appears only once and then at the beginning of the resting stage and
+remains latent in the form of a resting spore till the beginning of the
+next period of generation. With this peculiar transition generation,
+which has arisen in the lower stages asexually, and in the following
+higher stages by the union of a male and a female cell, and which hence
+is hermaphrodite, there are generally associated later two other single
+generations--_viz._, a generation preceding and one following the
+hermaphrodite, the former as a sex-producing generation, the other as a
+sex-produced generation.
+
+The phylogenetic significance of the alternation of generations consists
+in its representing a transition stage from the unicellular to the
+simpler multicellular and from the latter to the more complex
+multicellular plants. The plant generations of any phylogenetic stage
+increase by ampliation, become unlike by differentiation in time
+(alternation of generations), and unite in a plant individual, whose
+unlike ontogenetic stages correspond to the unlike plant generations of
+the earlier ancestral series.
+
+
+22. MORPHOLOGY AS THE SCIENCE OF PHYLOGENY.
+
+All organic phenomena belong, according to their causes, to two
+different classes: (1) Those belonging to one group are the results of
+external influences in each ontogeny and are not inherited; they
+represent nutrition varieties, are experimentally demonstrable, and
+constitute the subject matter of experimental physiology. (2) The others
+are inherited and again transmitted; they belong to the physiology of
+the idioplasm. This subject is mainly occupied with the origin of the
+determinants, hence with the formation of varieties and species. It is
+not the subject of experiment, and constitutes the phylogeny or the
+physiology of the formation of determinants. A sub-division of this
+subject is occupied with the development of the determinants already
+present, hence with the formation of races. It is elucidated especially
+by experiments in crossing and may be designated as the physiology of
+the development of the determinants.
+
+The morphological phenomena which find their application in taxonomy,
+belong exclusively to phylogeny. Their ontogenetic history does not
+explain their true significance; this can be known only in a
+phylogenetic way by comparison of one phenomenon with those phenomena
+from which it has arisen in the course of evolution.
+
+
+23. PLANT CLASSIFICATION FROM THE STANDPOINT OF PHYLOGENY.
+
+Spontaneous generation has taken place at all times and in all places,
+in as far as the necessary conditions were concurrently present. (See
+page 47). After spontaneous generation the automatic phylogenetic
+evolution begins and advances constantly. Consequently the phylogenetic
+line rises from time to time to higher stages of organization and
+division of labor, but dies of old age if the automatic perfecting
+process ceases. The phylogenetic lines of organisms now living have
+therefore an unequal age; those of the most highly developed plants and
+animals had their origin in the earliest periods of organic life, those
+of the lowest organisms in the most recent periods. Hence no general
+genetic relation exists among lines now living; only those that are
+nearly related and have reached approximately equal stages of
+organization may be regarded as branches of the same phylogenetic stock.
+A phylogenetic plant system does not exist in fact, but only in figure.
+
+If genetic relation between two races is assumed, either as a reality or
+as a symbol, the degree of relationship is determined in a theoretically
+exact manner by the number and length of the phylogenetic steps which
+are found either between them both or between them and the common
+starting point, according as races belong to the same or collateral
+lines. The fact that two organisms belong to the same line of descent is
+recognized from the ontogeny of the higher including the ontogeny of the
+lower.
+
+Since only a proportionately small number of known forms can appear as
+types of the supposed stages of evolution, only a few phylogenetic
+lines, and these only in a general way, may be established, on account
+of the great incompleteness of the present plant world. Such a line
+proceeds from the green filamentous algę through the liverworts to the
+vascular plants. Among the phanerogams, apparently so numerously
+represented, only phylogenetic series of individual organs can be
+ascertained, but no phylogenetic series of families. A phylogenetic
+system of phanerogams is not to be hazarded in the roughest outline.
+Even the relative rank of the two chief divisions of the angiosperms,
+the monocotyledons and dicotyledons, is a matter of question, as also
+which family in each of these divisions is to be considered the most
+perfect.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+TRANSLATORS' NOTES.
+
+
+_The Mechanico-physiological Theory of Evolution_,
+(_Mechanisch-Physiologische Theorie der Abstammungslehre_),
+by Carl von Nägeli, was published in Munich and Leipsic in 1884 in a
+large octavo volume of 822 pages, including two large appendices. The
+_Abstammungslehre_ proper, including the summary, occupies 552 pages,
+and constitutes, in its way, one of the most important contributions to
+theoretical biology. It is difficult to understand how a work of so much
+consequence should have received such comparatively small notice in this
+country, especially as Nägeli's theories seemed calculated by nature to
+appeal much more strongly to American students than do, for instance,
+those of Weismann, who has been studied ten times as much as Nägeli.
+This is doubtless due, in part, to the fact that we have had no English
+translation of Nägeli's work, a circumstance much to be regretted.
+
+The foregoing translation of the summary from _Abstammungslehre_
+goes but a small way toward making Nägeli's theories accessible to
+English-reading students, but it will, at least, be better than nothing.
+The work covers a great range of subjects, all, however, having a
+certain relationship to each other. In the main part of the book the
+discussion is presented in the following order: (1) Idioplasm as bearer
+of the inheritable determinants; (2) Spontaneous generation; (3) Causes
+of variation; (4) Determinants and visible characters, in which the
+origin and function of the determinants is presented; (5) Variety, race,
+"nutrition variety," heredity and variation; (6) Criticism of the
+Darwinian theory of natural selection, in which the author urges seven
+objections to that theory; (7) Laws of evolution of the plant kingdom;
+(8) Alternation of generations from the standpoint of phylogeny; (9)
+Morphology and classification as phylogenetic sciences; (10) A
+comprehensive summary of the whole work, a translation of which is
+given in the foregoing pages.
+
+In the first part of the work Nägeli sets forth his micellar theory of
+the structure of organized bodies. This is one of his most important
+contributions to science. Until recent years it has been the only theory
+given in botanical text-books. At the present time its only competitor
+is Strasburger's lamellar theory, and even this has not superseded
+Nägeli's work to any great degree.
+
+The reader who may not be familiar with the micellar theory will find
+the general idea from the following brief sketch adapted from Vines's
+_Plant Physiology_:
+
+    "Nägeli's micellar theory was developed from his study of
+    organized bodies, especially of cell walls and starch grains.
+    From the behavior of organized substance toward water absorbed
+    by it, he concluded that water does not penetrate into the
+    micellę, but only among them, thus merely separating them more
+    from each other. He reasoned that if water should penetrate into
+    the micella, its structure would be disintegrated. Hence he
+    argued that organized bodies consist of solid micellę, which,
+    with their respective films of water, are held together by: (1)
+    The attraction of the micellę for each other, which varies
+    inversely as the square of the distance. (2) The attraction of
+    the micellę for water, which varies inversely as some higher
+    power of the distance. (3) The force which holds together the
+    ultimate chemical molecules of which each micella consists.
+
+    "Since the swelling up of organized bodies does not take place
+    equally in all three dimensions of space, and on account of
+    their double refraction, Nägeli inferred that in form the
+    micellę are crystals, probably parallelopipedal, with
+    rectangular or rhomboidal bases."
+
+The law that "bodies attract each other with a force which varies
+inversely as the square of the distance," has been proven only in its
+application to the heavenly bodies. Nägeli has applied this law to
+molecules, unsupported, however, by any evidence other than that of
+analogy. On the other hand, there is evidence that molecules do not
+invariably act according to this law.
+
+Spontaneous generation (p. 4) was an important item in Nägeli's
+doctrine, and might almost be said to be fundamental to it, although it
+is not really necessary to the internal perfecting principle, which may
+be regarded as the chief feature of the Mechanico-Physiological Theory.
+Up to 1865 Nägeli believed in the spontaneous origin of many fungi, and
+thought that it could be demonstrated. He was obliged to abandon the
+experimental evidence, but to the close of his life held the views of
+abiogenesis presented in the accompanying translation.
+
+The characteristic and most interesting feature of the
+Mechanico-Physiological Theory is certainly Nägeli's conception of an
+automatic perfecting principle (_Autonome Vervollkommnung_). This
+conception may be briefly outlined as follows:
+
+1. The essential part of the reproductive plasm, termed idioplasm, since
+it divides and passes over from generation to generation, in higher as
+well as in lower organisms, has a continuous or "immortal" existence.[I]
+
+    [I] Nägeli's idioplasm corresponds in many respects, though by
+    no means in all, to Weismann's germ-plasm. Weismann's idea of
+    continuity or "immortality," which has been so widely noticed,
+    is set forth with equal clearness, though with less emphasis, by
+    Nägeli.
+
+2. During this continuous life the idioplasm goes through a development
+of its own, just as an individual organism goes through a certain cycle
+of development during its individual life. This development consists in
+a constantly increasing complexity of structure and differentiation of
+function.
+
+3. This development is automatic, resulting from internal forces or
+movements, (_Vervollkommnungs-bewegungen_).
+
+4. As a result of the increasing complexity of structure in the
+idioplasm the entire organism, which in each generation rearises
+therefrom, becomes, from generation to generation, more and more complex
+with greater and greater differentiation of function. Thus the
+progression of the idioplasm controls the phylogeny of the race. It
+marks out the course of evolution.
+
+5. Since, according to Nägeli, new life with new idioplasms, may arise
+wherever and whenever the necessary conditions combine, the present
+organic world is not made up from branchings of a single original
+idioplasm, but each race or group may have its own specific idioplasm;
+and, since this has its own characteristic structure and its own
+specific internal perfecting forces, it passes through its own peculiar
+evolution, carrying with it its own depending race of organisms.
+
+The fact that animals and plants at the present time show such various
+degrees of organization is also accounted for on the last supposition,
+for those of lowlier organization are merely of more recent origin and
+have not progressed so far in idioplasmic development.
+
+This automatic perfecting principle has been the mark of much criticism.
+Some have confounded it with the mystical _nisus formativus_, or
+formative principle of preceding theorists. But, as Weismann remarks,
+Nägeli's phyletic force is conceived as a thoroughly scientific
+mechanical principle. Nägeli has simply made application in the organic
+world of the principle of entropy, as stated in the mechanical theory of
+heat. Nägeli himself also compares his internal perfecting principle to
+mechanical inertia. He says, "the force of evolution once started in a
+given direction, tends to continue in the same direction. This
+constitutes the law of inertia in the organic world."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Two other matters remain to be noticed. The first of these is Nägeli's
+use of the German word _Anlage_. We have been unable to give a perfectly
+satisfactory translation of this word in its technical meaning. We have
+received some comfort, though but little help, from the experience of
+the translators of similar works. Selmar Schoenland, in translating from
+Weismann, renders it variously as "germ," "germ of structure," "germ (of
+Nägeli)," "germ of Nägeli," "Nägeli's preformed germ of structure,"
+"preformed germs," "tendency." Another translator renders the word as
+"constitutional element." The translation, "determinant," which we have
+selected is an appropriation of an analogous but not absolutely
+identical technical term from Weismann's _Germinal Selection_. The use
+of the word in this connection is open to the objection that it has
+previously been used technically for a somewhat different idea by
+another author. M. C. Potter, in his translation of Warming's
+_Systematic Botany_, following Dr. E. L. Mark, renders the word _Anlage_
+as "fundament." Dr. H. C. Porter, in his translation of the _Bonn
+Text-Book of Botany_, renders the same word as "rudiment."
+
+In general the word Anlage means beginning, plan, disposition to
+anything, and hence involves the ideas of origin, organization and
+tendency. Sanders defines the word in one of its meanings as: "The act
+of planning or beginning anything; the act of laying the foundation of
+any work intended to be carried on toward completion, in order that from
+the beginning made, a definite thing may be developed or may develop
+itself"; (_i.e._, to determine, in the sense of limiting to a particular
+purpose or direction, hence determinant). "Also, the thing begun or
+planned, considered as the basis and germ of the further development of
+that which has already originated."
+
+In its restricted use as applied to organisms it would mean "germ," in
+the sense of embryonic starting point. More specifically, it is a
+portion of plastic, organized substance, functioning as an individual
+and containing potentially an elemental organ plus a formative power. In
+Nägeli's own words, "There exists an essential difference between the
+substance of a mature organism which does not possess the capability of
+further development, and the substance of an egg, which does possess
+this capability. By virtue of this difference the egg-substance is
+characterized as the _Anlage_, or germ of the mature organism. All
+characteristics of the adult condition are potentially contained in the
+ovum."
+
+Nägeli was not the first to assume the existence of a unit of
+organization intermediate between the molecule and the cell. E. B.
+Wilson, in his _The Cell in Inheritance and Development_, states the
+case as follows:
+
+    "That the cell consists of more elementary units of
+    organization, is indicated by _a priori_ evidence so cogent as
+    to have driven many of the foremost leaders of biological
+    thought into the belief that such units must exist, whether or
+    not the microscope reveals them to view. The modern conception
+    of ultra-cellular units, ranking between the molecule and the
+    cell, was first definitely suggested by Brücke in 1861.
+
+    "This idea of ultra-cellular units is common to most
+    morphologists and physiologists. We are compelled by the most
+    stringent evidence to admit that the ultimate basis of living
+    matter is not a single chemical substance, but a mixture of many
+    substances that are self-perpetuating without their loss of
+    specific character."[J]
+
+    [J] For a fuller discussion of the notion of these hypothetical
+    units of organic existence, see Weismann's Germinal Selection,
+    (Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago, 1896), especially the foot
+    note, page 230.
+
+Nägeli's _Laws of Evolution_ are also worth special notice. As stated in
+the body of _Abstammungslehre_ they are as follows:
+
+1. Asexual reproductive cells which arise by division, remain united and
+become tissue cells.
+
+2. Asexual reproductive cells which arise by budding, instead of
+separating, become cell branches or branched cell threads.
+
+3. Reproductive cells which arise by free cell formation become bodies
+which form a part of the cell contents.
+
+4. Parts of a plant which arise by differentiation lie side by side and
+form a body of web-like or tissue-like structure.
+
+5. A definite and previously limited growth continues, or a definite
+formation of parts of an ontogeny which has previously been present but
+once, is repeated. (Ampliation.)
+
+6. The parts of an ontogeny become dissimilar, since the functions which
+were previously united become differentiated and since new dissimilar
+functions are produced in the various parts. This differentiation is
+either one of space between the parts of the ontogeny that appear near
+each other, or one of time between those that are derived from each
+other.
+
+7. Parts which have become dissimilar by differentiation undergo a
+reduction, in which the intermediate forms are suppressed and at last
+only the qualitatively dissimilar forms with qualitatively dissimilar
+functions remain.
+
+8. The environment in which plants live operates in different ways,
+directly as a stimulus or indirectly as a felt necessity and by this
+means lends to their forms and activities a definite expression of time
+and place, and thus brings about different adaptations. These become
+permanent through heredity, but are again gradually lost if other
+adaptations supersede them.
+
+Laws 1 to 4 may be expressed as one--the law of combination: Similar
+parts that are wholly or partly separated have the tendency to unite
+more and more completely and intimately into one continuous tissue.
+
+The laws of ampliation (5), differentiation (6), and reduction (7), may
+be summarized in one as follows: While increasing in size the similar
+parts of an ontogeny become internally dissimilar and the dissimilarity
+increases as the transition forms of the dissimilar parts vanish. Hence
+only the extreme forms remain.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It may also interest the reader to know that Nägeli was the first to
+propose the general theory of cell formation as accepted at the present
+day.
+
+
+
+
+    BRIEF STATEMENT OF THE WORK OF THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
+
+
+If one asked for a brief description of the work of the Open Court
+Company, one would probably get the answer that the Company publishes
+books and articles on Science, Religion, and Philosophy. That is not
+quite exact; for that describes the ideal to which the Open Court
+Company is continually striving rather than the actual work it is doing.
+The ideal is Religion on a firm basis of Science, a Science of
+Philosophy, and a Philosophy of Science: the only path which can lead to
+this great ideal synthesis is the detailed and careful study of
+sciences, religions, and philosophies.
+
+It was this ideal that prompted the late Mr. Edward Carl Hegeler of La
+Salle, Illinois, in the United States of America, to found a Company to
+publish books with the object of establishing ethics and religion upon a
+scientific basis. Such ideals are as old as philosophy itself. Among
+modern philosophies, that founded by Comte tried, probably in the most
+explicit fashion of all, to found a religion on the basis of positive
+science; and at one time it appeared likely to have a lasting success.
+But it is now quite plain that no philosophy which hopes to be permanent
+can neglect history or put itself into uncritical opposition to the
+systems that have for centuries expressed some of the dearest and
+highest aspirations of mankind. It is unprejudiced and fearless
+historical and critical investigation--non-sectarian in the widest
+sense--in both religion, science, and philosophy, that must go before
+any satisfactory synthesis. This is a great part of the work of the Open
+Court Company.
+
+Let us consider what non-sectarianism means. We cannot, for example,
+isolate a single domain of science in a particular country and at a
+particular time--say, mechanics in England in the eighteenth
+century--and hope to make of it a thoroughly complete object of study.
+In natural science, for example, we make conventional divisions simply
+with the object of saving labor when dealing with the huge mass of
+material that experience offers. But the narrowest specialist knows that
+all workers in science, religion, and philosophy seek the Truth; and
+that the Truth is bounded neither by space nor by time nor by man-made
+divisions. A man may rightly conclude that he stands little chance of
+finding out very much of the Truth, and so he may voluntarily limit his
+view to a certain roughly defined domain of facts and thoughts, and
+become, for example, what is called a "biologist," a "physicist," a
+"higher critic," or, if he thinks that he may discover rather more of
+the Truth, a "philosopher."
+
+And let us carry a clear understanding of a lofty aim into religion as
+well. It is our duty, as rational beings, to be non-sectarian. It is not
+a merit to allow ignorance to blind us to the glimpses of Truth that we
+sometimes get from prophets, poets, and priests of other religions and
+other philosophies than our own. If we think that there is more truth or
+sacredness in our own, let us use every means to make this sacredness or
+this truth appear evident to others. But, in justice, let us also
+fearlessly discuss other religions and philosophies, and discover their
+greater merits, if any, as compared with our own. If, after careful
+investigation, we arrive at the belief in the truth or falsehood of
+anything in these religions or philosophies, let us state our grounds
+for believing so in the fullest possible way. Only by so doing can we
+fulfil the duties of being true to ourselves and helpful to others.
+
+Sometimes the work of a critic is said to be "merely destructive." This
+idea rests on a most harmful misunderstanding. Criticism consists not
+only in the pointing out of error, but in the pointing out of truth as
+well. Error is simply a psychological condition of blindness to the
+truth; and the discovery of errors committed by other people or
+ourselves is not--as many superficial people like to say--the pulling
+down of a structure already raised, unless an error can be called a
+structure which is built out of the fictions of our imagination which
+have no objective existence. Criticism often enables us to discover more
+of the Truth, and nobody can do more than _discover_ Truth: nobody
+_creates_ Truth, any more than Columbus created America.
+
+Nowadays all intelligent men and women agree that all knowledge must be
+subjected to criticism, and the best men and women act on these beliefs.
+The books and magazines published by the Open Court Company are intended
+to help these men and women.
+
+We will dwell a little longer on the subject of religion, because it is
+in religion that the majority of us have the one region of ideals above
+our bodily needs. It is rare, though of course not unknown, that Science
+or Philosophy satisfies the spiritual needs--the purest of human
+cravings. Nowadays, most of us realize that an anti-scientific attitude
+of religion is impossible. If there were an opposition between "science"
+and "religion," there would be no question as to which side would be
+victorious. More particularly during the last seventy years, "religion,"
+conscious of the opposition which a rather crude doctrine which was
+called "science" had towards it, has been gradually, and often somewhat
+ludicrously, trying to bring itself more into conformity with that
+"science." The result is painful to the student of human nature; though
+it has its amusing sides, just as had the militant denial, on the part
+of those who were "on the side of the angels" about fifty years ago, of
+certain deductions from facts. What is called a "conflict between
+religion and science" always has ended in a victory for "science" and an
+agnosticism which ousted religion. And thus many see that it is
+desirable that the matured results of science should enter into the
+fabric of our religious convictions. For the realization of this
+purpose, the Open Court Company publishes two periodicals, _The Monist_,
+a quarterly magazine devoted to the philosophy of science, and _The Open
+Court_, an illustrated monthly devoted to the science of religion and
+the religion of science. In addition, the Open Court Company publishes
+books that directly or indirectly advance its aim--books on Philosophy,
+which, in contrast with the old metaphysicism, lay the foundations of a
+philosophy of science; books on the history of philosophies; books on
+mathematics and other lines of thought which are indispensable for a
+rational and scientific conception of the world; books that have a
+bearing on the doctrine of Evolution; books on the history of Religions,
+especially on the development of Christianity and on Higher Criticism;
+and books on Comparative Religion, on Psychology, on Education, and on
+Ethics. Above all, in all the works careful, sympathetic, and scholarly
+criticism is aimed at. Criticism is the joint result of love of Truth
+and independence of thought; rightly understood, it is not only a
+preliminary to a work of synthesis, but it is part of synthesis itself.
+No synthesis, in fact, is more than a discovery of Truth: from past
+history we know that syntheses have often blinded men to the Truth,
+though that was naturally not their intention.
+
+On the subject of independence of thought it may be proper shortly to
+refer to the work of Dr. Paul Carus, who has been, since the end of
+1887, closely associated with the Open Court Company and its
+publications. Only two things need be said here. In the first place, it
+was owing to the need he felt for keeping his independence of thought
+that he resigned a post in Germany and came, first to England and then
+to America. In the second place, his views, which are also, broadly
+speaking, the views for which the Open Court Company works, may be
+characterized both as monism and positivism, though his philosophy
+differs considerably from Hęckel's monism, which is practically
+materialism, and even more so from the French positivism of Comte and
+from agnosticism, its English equivalent. In his philosophy, _form_
+plays the most important part. Form is the significant feature of both
+objective existence and subjective thought. Matter and energy only
+denote reality, but form characterizes quality. Science traces form, and
+the nature of all things, the human character included, is constituted
+by form. In the formal sciences again, that which is the core of their
+usefulness as general propositions is the character of _anyness_, the
+use of which justifies the method of generalization. Here lies the root
+of the kinship of Dr. Carus's philosophy with modern logic, and allows
+him to reconstruct the old artistic and religious ideas upon a new and
+modern ground. In this sense, he himself has characterized his
+philosophy as a _philosophy of form_.
+
+
+
+
+                    A Partial List of Books in the
+                      OPEN COURT SCIENCE SERIES
+
+
+                         PROBLEMS OF SCIENCE
+                         BY FEDERIGO ENRIQUES
+
+    Authorized translation by Katherine Royce, with an introduction
+    by Josiah Royce. =Pp. 375. Price, $2.50.=
+
+"The end for which we ought to strive today is a scientific education,
+which shall enable the workers in any field whatsoever to understand
+better how the object of their own research is subordinated to more
+general problems."
+
+The author is professor of projective geometry and geometric drawing in
+the University of Bologna, and is one of the most conspicuous of
+contemporary Italian scientists.
+
+
+The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution                 By E. D. Cope
+
+    =Illustrated. Cloth, $2.00 net=
+
+
+The Soul of Man                                          By Paul Carus
+
+    An investigation of the facts of physiological and experimental
+    psychology. =Illustrated. Cloth, $1.50 net; paper, 85c.=
+
+
+Plant Breeding                                        By Hugo De Vries
+
+    Comments on the experiments of Nilsson and Burbank.
+    =Illustrated. Cloth, gilt, $1.50 net=
+
+
+The Rise of Man                                          By Paul Carus
+
+    A sketch of the human race. =Illustrated. Boards, cloth back,
+    75c net=
+
+
+Species and Varieties, Their Origin and Mutation      By Hugo De Vries
+
+    Edited by D. T. MacDougal. =Price, $5.00 net=
+
+
+The Mutation Theory                                   By Hugo De Vries
+
+    Experiments and observations on the origin of species in the
+    vegetable kingdom. (2 vols.) Translated by Prof. A. B. Farmer
+    and A. D. Darbishire. =Numerous illustrations, colored plates.
+    Cloth, per volume $4.00 net.=
+
+
+Intracellular Pangenesis                              By Hugo De Vries
+
+    Including a paper on fertilization and hybridization. Translated
+    from the German by C. Stuart Gager. =Cloth, $3.00 net.=
+
+
+On Memory and the Specific Energies of the Nervous     By Ewald Hering
+System
+
+    New edition, including "The Theory of Nerve Activity."
+    =Price, $1.00; paper, 30c.=
+
+
+Psychology of the Nervous System                         By Paul Carus
+
+    An extract from the author's larger work, "The Soul of Man."
+    =Price, 30c.=
+
+
+The Psychology of Reasoning                            By Alfred Binet
+
+    Translated by Adam Gowan Whyte. =Cloth, 75c net=
+
+
+Has the Psychological Laboratory Proved Helpful?       By L. M. Billia
+
+    Translated from the French by Lydia G. Robinson. =Pp. 16. Paper,
+    15c net.=
+
+
+A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of
+Organic Evolution                                   By Carl von Nageli
+
+    Summary. =30c.=
+
+
+Experiments on the Generation of Insects             By Francesco Redi
+
+    Translated from the Italian edition of 1688 by Mab Bigelow.
+    =Illustrated. Cloth, $2.00 net=
+
+
+Science and Faith, or Man as an Animal, and Man
+as a Member of Society, with a Discussion on
+Animal Societies                                      By Paul Topinard
+
+    Translated by T. J. McCormack. =Price, $1.50 net=
+
+
+A First Book in Organic Evolution                  By D. Kerfoot Shute
+
+    Written especially for the use of students. =Illustrated, seven
+    colored plates, 2d ed. Cloth, $1.25; paper, 60c net=
+
+
+On Germinal Selection as a Source of Definite
+Variation                                           By August Weismann
+
+    Translated by T. J. McCormack. =Paper, 30c=
+
+
+Popular Scientific Lectures                              By Ernst Mach
+
+    Translated by T. J. McCormack. =Illustrated. $1.50 net; paper,
+    60c net=
+
+
+Contributions to the Analysis of the Sensations          By Ernst Mach
+
+    Translated by C. M. Williams. =Price, $1.25 net=
+
+
+Space and Geometry in the Light of Physiological,
+Psychological and Physical Inquiry                       By Ernst Mach
+
+    Translated by T. J. McCormack. =Cloth, gilt top, $1.00 net=
+
+
+The History and the Root of the Principle
+of the Conservation of Energy                            By Ernst Mach
+
+    Translated by Philip E. B. Jourdain. =Cloth, $1.25 net=
+
+
+On the Inheritance of Acquired Characters           By Eugenio Rignano
+
+    Translated by Basil C. H. Harvey. With an appendix "On the
+    Mnemonic Origin and Nature of Affective Tendencies." =Cloth,
+    $3.00 net=
+
+
+Darwin and After Darwin                           By George J. Romanes
+
+    An exposition of the Darwinian theory and a discussion of
+    post-Darwinian Questions. =Three volumes, $4.00 net.=
+
+    Part I. The Darwinian Theory. =Cloth, $2.00.=
+
+    Part II. Post-Darwinian Questions: Heredity and Utility. =Cloth,
+    $1.50.=
+
+    Part III. Post-Darwinian Questions: Isolation and Physiological
+    Selection. =Cloth, $1.00.=
+
+
+An Examination of Weismannism                     By George J. Romanes
+
+    =Cloth, $1.00 net; paper, 40c net.=
+
+
+                        Send for complete list.
+
+                       OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.
+                   (Scientific and Educational Books)
+                          122 S. Michigan Ave.
+                                Chicago
+
+
+
+
+                          TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+
+1. Passages in italics are surrounded by _underscores_ and the ones in
+bold are indicated by =bold=.
+
+2. Footnotes have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the end
+of the paragraph referring to it.
+
+3. Other than that, printer's inconsistencies in spelling, punctuation,
+and ligature usage have been retained.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of
+Organic Evolution, by Carl Von Nägeli
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL ***
+
+***** This file should be named 33514-8.txt or 33514-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/5/1/33514/
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/33514-8.zip b/33514-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5bc5341
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33514-8.zip
diff --git a/33514-h.zip b/33514-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11e107e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33514-h.zip
diff --git a/33514-h/33514-h.htm b/33514-h/33514-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4df3d07
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33514-h/33514-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,2781 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Organic Evolution, by Carl Von Nägeli.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+    p {  margin-top: .75em;
+         text-align: justify;
+         margin-bottom: .75em;
+         }
+    h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {
+         text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+         clear: both;
+         }
+    hr { width: 33%;
+	 margin-top: 2em;
+	 margin-bottom: 2em;
+         margin-left: auto;
+         margin-right: auto;
+         clear: both;
+       }
+
+    body{margin-left: 10%;
+         margin-right: 10%;
+        }
+
+    .pagenum  { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
+            /*  visibility: hidden;  */
+                position: absolute;
+                left: 92%;
+                font-size: smaller;
+                text-align: right;
+              } /* page numbers */
+
+    .blockquot{margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;}
+
+    .center   {text-align: center;}
+    .smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
+
+    .footnotes        {border: dashed 1px;}
+    .footnote         {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
+    .footnote .label  {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;}
+    .fnanchor         {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;}
+
+    p.author {text-align: right; margin-right: 2em;}
+    .alignleft {float: left; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1.1em;}
+    .alignright {float: right; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1.1em;}
+
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Organic
+Evolution, by Carl Von Nägeli
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Organic Evolution
+
+Author: Carl Von Nägeli
+
+Release Date: August 23, 2010 [EBook #33514]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<h4>A</h4>
+<h2>MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL</h2>
+<h5>THEORY OF</h5>
+<h1>ORGANIC EVOLUTION<br /><br /></h1>
+
+<h4><small>BY</small><br />
+<big>CARL VON N&Auml;GELI</big><br /><br /></h4>
+
+<h4>SECOND EDITION<br /><br /></h4>
+
+<h4>CHICAGO<br />
+THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.<br />
+1914</h4>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1898</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">By</span> THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.<br />
+CHICAGO</h5>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>PREFATORY NOTE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Mr. V. A. Clark, as a student in horticulture in
+the University of Vermont, first undertook a critical
+examination of N&auml;geli's <i>Mechanico-Physiological
+Theory of Evolution</i> as a part of his regular junior
+work. After a half year's study and the preparation
+of a short thesis, Mr. Clark had become so far
+intimate with N&auml;geli's work as to make it seem
+best for him to continue the study through his
+senior year. This study involved extended translations
+from the text, including N&auml;geli's <i>Summary</i>,
+which, considering its difficult accessibility to American
+students, has been chosen for publication. The
+work has been done chiefly by Mr. Clark, but has
+all been under my immediate supervision, and I
+have given the whole matter a final restudy and
+revision. Those who have had any experience with
+similar work will know how impossible it is that all
+mistakes should have been avoided, and it would be
+a kindness to the translators if readers would point
+out any defects, in order that they may be corrected.</p>
+
+<p class="author">F. A. WAUGH.</p>
+
+<p>University of Vermont,<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp; July 1, 1898.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 1 ]</span></p>
+<h2>A MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL<br />
+THEORY OF ORGANIC<br />
+EVOLUTION.</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+<h3>SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In this summary I shall in general pursue a
+course the reverse of that which my main work
+follows.<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a>
+I shall proceed from the primitive, unorganized
+condition of matter and endeavor to show
+how organized micellar substance has arisen in it,
+and how, from this micellar substance, organisms
+with their manifold properties have arisen. Since
+such a synthesis of organisms out of known forms
+of matter and force is still far removed from a
+conclusion strictly in accord with physical law, the
+process becomes comprehensible and obvious only
+by exact knowledge of the discussion that has
+preceded. Although the synthetic method reveals
+more clearly the weaknesses of the theory than do
+analytic investigations, yet I considered it helpful
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 2 ]</span>
+to make this presentation in order to give a clearer
+idea of the mechanico-physiological theory, and at
+the same time to test its worth.</p>
+
+
+<h4>1. FORMATION OF UNORGANIZED BODIES (CRYSTALS).</h4>
+
+<p>When separated and promiscuously moving molecules
+of any substance in solution or in a melted
+condition pass into the solid form by reason of
+removal of the causes of separation and motion
+(warmth or solvent), they arrange themselves into
+solid masses impermeable to liquids. These minute
+bodies grow by accretion, and when molecular
+forces are permitted to act undisturbed, assume the
+regular outer form and inner structure of crystals.
+The number of crystals, their size, changes of form
+and growth, all depend on external conditions.</p>
+
+
+<h4>2. FORMATION OF LIVING ORGANIZED (MICELLAR) BODIES.</h4>
+
+<p>Certain organic compounds, among them albumen,
+are neither soluble, despite their great affinity
+for water, nor are they fusible, and hence are produced
+in the micellar form. These compounds are
+formed in water, where the molecules that arise
+immediately adjoining each other arrange themselves
+into incipient crystals, or micell&aelig;. Only such
+of the molecules as are formed subsequently and
+come in contact with a micella contribute to its
+increase in size, while the others, on account of
+their insolubility, produce new micell&aelig;. For this
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 3 ]</span>
+reason the micell&aelig; remain so small that they are
+invisible, even with the microscope.</p>
+
+<p>On account of their great affinity for water the
+micell&aelig; surround themselves with a thick film
+of it. The attraction of these micell&aelig; for matter of
+their own kind is felt outside this film. Hence the
+micell&aelig; with their films unite themselves into solid
+masses permeated with water, unless other forces
+overcome attraction and re-establish a micellar
+solution (as in albumen, glue, gum), where the
+slightly moving micell&aelig; show a tendency to cling
+together in chain-like and other aggregations. Very
+often there are found, especially in albumen, half
+liquid modifications intermediate in fluidity between
+the solid masses and the micellar solution.</p>
+
+<p>The internal and external constitution of micellar
+bodies depends essentially on the size, form and
+dynamic nature of their micell&aelig;, since these efficients
+condition the original arrangement of the
+micell&aelig; and the insertion in proper order of those
+formed later. External conditions have slight influence
+on structure, and affect outer form chiefly in
+so far as they can mechanically hinder free development.</p>
+
+<p>The micell&aelig; of albumen or plasma are susceptible
+of the greatest diversity of form, size and chemical
+composition, since they originate from unlike mixtures
+of various albumen compounds, and besides
+are mixed with various organic and inorganic
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 4 ]</span>
+substances. For this reason the plasma behaves, both
+chemically and physically, in many unlike ways,
+and in consequence of the variable relation of the
+micell&aelig; to water, the plasma shows all degrees of
+micellar solution up to quite solid masses.</p>
+
+
+<h4>3. SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. LIFE. GROWTH.</h4>
+
+<p>If molecular forces are so combined in an inorganic
+substratum that spontaneous formation of
+albumen takes place, then by the combination of
+the micell&aelig; the primordial plasma masses of spontaneous
+generation are given. Within these plasma
+masses the production of albumen goes on more
+easily under the influence of their molecular forces
+than in the liquid without. Hence the compounds
+present in the organic substratum and capable of
+forming albumen enter preferably into the masses
+of plasma, and by intussusception of micell&aelig; of
+albumen, cause growth. Here life exists in its
+simplest form. (See page 47.)</p>
+
+<p>Spontaneous generation presupposes the origin
+of plasma-micell&aelig; from molecules, and hence cannot
+be brought about by solutions of albumens or peptones,
+since these are micellar solutions. Life presupposes
+the intussusception of plasma-micell&aelig;;
+hence it ceases as soon as the arrangement of micell&aelig;
+is so far disordered by injurious influences that
+that process of growth becomes impossible.</p>
+
+<p>The resulting organism must be perfectly simple,
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 5 ]</span>
+a mass of plasma with micell&aelig; as yet unarranged,
+because any organization without a preceding organizing
+activity is inconceivable. For this reason
+known organisms cannot have orginated spontaneously;
+a kingdom of simpler beings must have
+preceded them (<i>Probien</i>&mdash;the sub-organic kingdom).</p>
+
+<p>The growth of the masses of plasma continues as
+long as the conditions of nutrition are favorable.
+If these become unfavorable, a resting period (latent
+life) or partial or total death occurs, according to
+circumstances (as lack of nutritive material, lowering
+of temperature, comparative exsiccation). The
+growth of plants and animals is nothing else than
+the continuation of the growth begun in the primordial
+plasma. This growth still continues wherever
+the primordial plasma exists.</p>
+
+
+<h4>4. PARTIAL DEATH OF THE INDIVIDUAL: REPRODUCTION.</h4>
+
+<p>Since the primordial masses of plasma continue
+to attract nutritive materials indefinitely and apply
+them to growth, the nutritive materials are used up
+in one place and another and the substance which is
+no longer nourished is in great measure disintegrated.
+A general condition of equilibrium now
+sets in, in which the viable plasma masses continue
+to gain just as much in growth as there is dead
+plasma broken down and changed back into the
+original nutritive materials.<span class='pagenum'>[ 6 ]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the primordial condition this balancing process
+is irregular and accidental and remains so even later
+in many of the lowest organisms. Little by little
+it becomes phylogenetically more regular by individuals
+attaining to a more definite size and term of
+life, while only the germs detached from them
+remain viable. This phenomenon known as reproduction
+has a double origin.</p>
+
+<p><i>A.</i> The portions of primordial plasma that grow
+to a more considerable size as soft, half-liquid
+masses break up by the mechanical action of external
+circumstances into smaller portions of indefinite
+number and size. This typifies irregular and accidental
+reproduction of the lowest order.</p>
+
+<p>In the offspring of the primordial plasma division
+becomes gradually more and more regular as a
+result of the increasing organization of the substance,
+and especially as a result of the formation of
+an envelope about it, till finally in the microscopically
+small masses, which are now called cells,
+division into two parts always appears, after these
+masses have grown to perhaps double their original
+size. After division the two halves separate from
+each other and represent independent individuals.</p>
+
+<p>In the further course of phylogeny the division
+of the cells into two parts takes place regularly.
+But the cells remain united to each other and form
+multicellular individuals, which increase by cell
+division and which at times in the lowest stages are
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 7 ]</span>
+divided at regular intervals into smaller individuals,
+perhaps even at last into single cells, but from which
+there are periodically given off cells that develop as
+germ cells into new multicellular individuals.</p>
+
+<p><i>B.</i> Another phenomenon which appears in the
+primordial plasma or its immediate offspring is the
+death of the greater part of the plasma under certain
+unfavorable conditions of nutrition, while the
+smaller part continues to be nourished at its expense
+and in that case remains viable during the dormant
+period.</p>
+
+<p>In the offspring this phenomenon gradually
+becomes free cell formation, which takes place
+before the resting stage or before the death of
+many unicellular and multicellular organisms, and
+which forms germ cells from a part of the contents
+of the parent cells.</p>
+
+<p>The formation of germ cells by cell division (<i>A</i>),
+or by free cell formation (<i>B</i>) is reproduction of the
+organism. The germ cells are the elements in which
+the life and growth of the parental individual are
+continued.</p>
+
+
+<h4>5. MORPHOLOGY OF THE IDIOPLASM IN GENERAL.</h4>
+
+<p>The larger part of the unarranged, soft and homogenous
+primordial plasma, which grows by intussusception,
+becomes watery soma-plasm, with
+unarranged and easily movable micell&aelig;. The
+smaller part is converted in the course of phylogeny
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 8 ]</span>
+into idioplasm, in which at certain favorable points
+the micell&aelig; that are being stored up under the influence
+of molecular forces arrange themselves into
+groups by similar orientations, and hence form
+bodies of less water content and greater solidity.
+Each body of idioplasm consists originally of only
+one group of micell&aelig;, which, however, necessarily
+breaks up with increasing additions into several
+groups. On account of the dynamic influence of the
+groups of micell&aelig; upon their own growth, they
+become in part more distinct and more definitely
+separated, in part again differentiated by new
+irregular intussusception. This phylogenetic process
+is continued indefinitely, by which the combination
+of forces produces a new configuration, and
+conversely, by which a new configuration produces
+a new combination of forces, so that the body of
+idioplasm merely takes on a continually increasing
+complexity of configuration by the action of the
+internal forces&mdash;that is, by the molecular forces of
+the micell&aelig; of the albumen under the influence of
+which growth proceeds. This constitutes the <i>automatic
+perfecting process</i> or progression of the idioplasm,
+and entropy of organic matter. (See p. 47.)</p>
+
+<p>The above described phylogenetic perfecting
+process of the idoplasm, which operates through
+internal causes, is scarcely affected by differences of
+nutrition and by climatic conditions influencing
+nutrition. On the other hand all those external
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 9 ]</span>
+forces which act as stimuli during a long period of
+time in an unvarying manner have a very noticeable
+influence on the intussusception of micell&aelig; in the
+idioplasm and on the molecular processes going on
+among the micell&aelig;. The action of stimuli determines
+the particular structure of the groups of
+micell&aelig; added under the direction of the perfecting
+process. Thus the configuration of the idioplasm
+becomes continually more and more complex and
+at the same time assumes a local adaptation corresponding
+to external conditions. This constitutes
+adaptation of the idioplasm.</p>
+
+
+<h4>6. FUNCTION OF THE IDIOPLASM IN GENERAL.</h4>
+
+<p>The unarranged micell&aelig; of the albumen of the
+spontaneously generated plasma are as yet in no
+way superior to the unorganized condition from
+which they have arisen, except in this that under
+the influence of their molecular forces the formation
+of similar new albumen micell&aelig; follows more
+easily. But as by the further action of molecular
+forces idioplasmic bodies are formed with groups of
+smilarly oriented micell&aelig;, the molecular forces of
+these micell&aelig; amount by summation to molar forces
+and thereby new chemical processes are introduced;
+plastic products are formed from plasmic and non-plasmic
+materials, and molar movements are introduced.
+And since idioplasmic bodies are formed
+under the influence of external stimuli, their plastic
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 10 ]</span>
+products always appear with a definite character of
+adaptation to environment.</p>
+
+<p>Then, as the idioplasmic body becomes continually
+more complex in the further course of phylogeny,
+and consists of a greater number of groups of
+micell&aelig; differing from each other, the organisms
+become more complex and differentiate into a greater
+number of parts, because each group of micell&aelig; of
+the idioplasm produces its specific effect with regard
+to inner structure, outer form, and function.</p>
+
+
+<h4>7. DETERMINANTS: THEIR ORIGIN AND DISAPPEARANCE.</h4>
+
+<p>Since a particular cluster or group of micell&aelig; of
+the idioplasm produces a particular phenomenon in
+the organism, the former is designated as the determinant
+(<i>Anlage</i>, see p. 49) of the latter. Thus the
+organism must contain at least as many determinants
+in its idioplasm as there are different phenomena
+in its inheritable ontogeny; and if new phenomena
+appear in it, new clusters of micell&aelig; must previously
+have been introduced into the idioplasm, or
+the orientation and arrangement of clusters already
+present must have been changed. The formation
+of such a determinant, whether it concerns the perfecting
+of the organism or its adaptation to environment,
+always proceeds very slowly, and as a rule
+has no effect before its completion. Hence along
+with perfected determinants the idioplasm always
+contains growing and incomplete determinants.<span class='pagenum'>[ 11 ]</span></p>
+
+<p>If a phylogenetic line comes under the influence
+of other external conditions and other external
+stimuli than those which have hitherto acted upon
+it, a new and corresponding arrangement of the
+micell&aelig; appears phylogenetically in the idioplasm.
+At the same time the other adaptation determinants
+remain either undisturbed, or the new determinant
+is formed at the expense of related determinants
+which are already present and which may
+at last entirely vanish. Hence along with growing
+and complete determinants the idioplasm always
+contains likewise weakened and vanishing determinants.
+From the fact that a phylogenetic race is
+thrown repeatedly among different external conditions,
+it may at last unite in its idioplasm a large
+number of developing, mature, and vanishing
+adaptation determinants. This number is noticeably
+increased if in consequence of interbreeding a
+fusion of related idioplasms take place.</p>
+
+
+<h4>8. DEFINITE NOTIONS WITH REGARD TO THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE IDIOPLASM.</h4>
+
+<p>Since in the phylogenetic development of the
+plasma the thicker idioplasm is differentiated from
+the more fluid soma-plasm (&sect; 5), the former has
+the tendency by nature to assume a reticular arrangement.
+The strands of this network consist, in conformity
+with their origin, of parallel rows of micell&aelig;
+extending lengthwise. These rows of micell&aelig; are
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 12 ]</span>
+combined into more or less complex arrangements,
+so that the cross section of the strand represents
+the configuration of the idioplasm.<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></p>
+
+<p>Each ontogeny (individual) begins in a minute
+germ cell, in which a small quantity of idioplasm is
+contained. In the cell divisions, by which the
+organism grows, the idioplasm divides into as many
+parts as there are single cells, while it continually
+increases in quantity in a corresponding degree.
+The ontogenetic increase of the idioplasm takes
+place by length growth of the strands&mdash;that is, by
+intercalation of micell&aelig; in each row of cells of the
+strands, which thereby grow in length without
+changing the configuration of the cross section.<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a>
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 13 ]</span>
+Accordingly, each strand of idioplasm contains all
+the determinants that the particular individual has
+inherited in the germ cell, and each cell of the
+organism is idioplasmatically qualified to become
+the germ cell of a new individual. Whether this
+qualification may be realized depends upon the
+nature of the soma-plasm. In the lower plants this
+power belongs to each individual cell; in the higher
+plants many cells have lost it; in the animal kingdom
+it is possessed in general only by cells normally
+set apart as asexual or sexual reproductive
+cells.</p>
+
+<p>The continued phylogenetic formation of the
+threads of idioplasm takes place by growth in the
+cross section, which contains the sum of all the
+determinants and changes in general only when new
+rows of micell&aelig; are intercalated. But the rows of
+micell&aelig; of the idioplasm join closely to each other,
+according to their thickness, so that only rarely new
+rows can enter, and then only at those definite
+places where the cohesion is less strong and hence
+is overcome. The cohesion varies irregularly because
+the configuration of the cross section, conformably
+to its origin, is never regular; the disruptive tensions
+are brought about by the unequal growth in
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 14 ]</span>
+length of the individual rows of micell&aelig;. Dynamic
+influences have a decisive effect upon cohesion and
+disruptive tensions. The groups of micell&aelig; of the
+configuration already obtained exercise these dynamic
+influences upon each other; and these dynamic
+influences can be modified by stimuli from without.</p>
+
+<p>The idioplasm continually alters its configuration
+with its growth in successive ontogenies, but comparatively
+very slowly, so that it makes a minute
+advance from the germ of one generation to the
+germ of the next. The summation of these increments
+of advance through a whole line of evolution
+represents the race history of an organism, since the
+latter is connected only by its idioplasm in unbroken
+continuity with the micellar beginning of its race.</p>
+
+
+<h4>9. DEFINITE NOTIONS REGARDING THE FUNCTION OF THE IDIOPLASM.</h4>
+
+<p>A plasmic substance causes definite chemical and
+physical changes only when it is present in a certain
+condition of motion. The peculiar agency which
+the idioplasm has in each ontogenetic stage of
+development and in each part of the organism
+depends on the activity of a definite group of micell&aelig;
+in the cross section of the strand or of a complex
+of such groups, while this local stimulus controls the
+chemical and physical processes by dynamic influence
+and by transmission of a specific mode of
+motion, even to a microscopically small distance.<span class='pagenum'>[ 15 ]</span></p>
+
+<p>The effective stimulus in a plasmic substance is
+dependent on its own nature and the influence which
+it receives from without. Which group of micell&aelig;
+in the idioplasm receives the stimulus depends on
+the configuration, on the preceding stimuli and on
+the position in the individual organism in which the
+idioplasm is found. The determinants have arisen
+one after another during the whole period of evolution
+from the primordial cell. The configuration
+of the idioplasm is a character of phylogeny and the
+determinants in it have by nature the tendency to
+develop in the order in which they were formed.
+Further, since the ontogeny begins as a unicellular
+organism with the formation of a germ cell, that
+determinant of the idioplasm comes first to development,
+which has developed in the unicellular ancestor.
+Just so the succeeding stages of ontogeny
+depend for the time being on the development of the
+determinants having their origin in the corresponding
+stage of phylogeny. Both causes acting together&mdash;the
+phylogenetic configuration of the idioplasm
+and the successive morphological stages of
+development of the individual conditioned on it&mdash;necessarily
+result in the ontogeny being the repetition
+of the phylogeny.</p>
+
+<p>If the whole remaining line of idioplasmic
+determinants in an ontogeny has reached development,
+the development of the germ-forming determinants
+finally follows as well from the configuration
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 16 ]</span>
+of the idioplasm as from the nature of the organism.
+The individual is capable of reproduction and
+the new ontogenies begin in the reproductive cells.</p>
+
+
+<h4>10. TRANSMISSION OF IDIOPLASMIC DETERMINANTS IN LOCAL VARIATION AND IN FECUNDATION.</h4>
+
+<p>The automatic progressive or perfecting transformation
+of the idioplasm is probably active in all
+stages of development, and proceeds regularly in
+all parts of the organism, because the idioplasm
+preserves its configuration at all times and places
+during the ontogeny. External stimuli impign
+upon the organism usually at a definite point, but
+they not only effect a local transformation of the
+idioplasm but also reproduce themselves in a dynamic
+manner in the entire idioplasm, which is in
+unbroken connection throughout the whole individual.
+The idioplasm is thus changed everywhere in
+the same manner, so that the germ cells that are
+given off at any point feel and inherit the effects of
+those local stimuli.</p>
+
+<p>In the formation of the germ cells in sexual
+reproduction, the idioplasms of both parents must
+come into contact with each other, whereupon there
+results either a material union and formation of a
+mixed idioplasm or perhaps rather a dynamic action;
+and through these agencies there is produced a
+remodeled form which is, however, exactly equivalent
+to the combined idioplasms entering into it.
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 17 ]</span>
+Fertilization by diosmose of the spermatic substance
+is impossible.<a name="FNanchor_D_4" id="FNanchor_D_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_D_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the idioplasm of a germ cell arising from the
+crossing of unlike individuals the micellar rows of
+the individual determinants have sometimes an
+intermediate constitution and produce characteristics
+in the organism which are intermediate
+between the characteristics of the parents. Sometimes
+the micellar rows derived from the father and
+mother respectively lie side by side unchanged in
+the idioplasm of the offspring in distinct groupings
+and may reproduce in the organism their respective
+characteristics side by side, or only one of them
+may develop, while the other remains latent.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the union of both idioplasms as the
+result of fecundation, two sexually mature organisms
+are the more able to form with each other a
+viable germ cell, the nearer they are genetically
+related&mdash;that is, the more nearly the male and
+female idioplasms correspond in their configuration
+and chemical nature, because in this case the micellar
+arrangements are best suited to each other,
+and the idioplasm of the new fertile germ cell receives
+its most suitable nourishment from the
+mother. If, however, self-fecundation or the
+closest in-and-in breeding often yields products of
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 18 ]</span>
+less virility and is avoided by nature, this is the
+result of injurious influences which make themselves
+felt later on. This is because incompatibilities may
+be present in too closely related idioplasms and
+these are sources of weakness in unrestricted development.
+The more complicated is the idioplasm, the
+oftener this occurs, whereas absolute lack of crossing
+is not detrimental to the simplest (asexual)
+organisms.</p>
+
+
+<h4>11. ACTION OF EXTERNAL INFLUENCES.<a name="FNanchor_E_5" id="FNanchor_E_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_E_5" class="fnanchor">[E]</a></h4>
+
+<p>The environment provides the organism above
+all with force and matter for its life processes. It
+causes no permanent variation and has only an
+ontogenetic significance, if the limits of the idioplasmic
+elasticity are not exceeded; it maintains the
+growth and metabolic assimilation of the individual,
+and conditions individual (not hereditary) differences,
+which constitute "nutrition varieties." (See
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 19 ]</span>
+page 30.) These appear as the direct results of
+operating causes.</p>
+
+<p>When the stress of environment exceeds the
+limits of idioplasmic elasticity, its influence brings
+about permanent variations, which are imperceptibly
+small, it is true, in the single individual, but
+which, when the stimulus is active for a long period
+of time in the same manner, increase to perceptible
+magnitude. These variations are inheritable in
+the phylogenetic sense and contribute to the formation
+of varieties and species; they always appear
+as the results of more or less secondary reactions
+which make their appearance with stimuli exerted
+by external causes.</p>
+
+<p>External stimuli exerted on the organism are
+reproduced in the idioplasm. Since the stimulus
+is discontinued with each change of the ontogeny
+and only the idioplasm persists, permanent variations
+are produced only in the idioplasm by those
+conditions that produce visible transformations in
+the mature organism.</p>
+
+<p>The phylogenetic action of external stimuli gives
+the definite character of adaptation to the idioplasm
+as it becomes more complex from inner causes and
+probably these external stimuli have the power to
+alter this impress only as new idioplasm is automatically
+formed.</p>
+
+<p>If an external cause acts continuously upon a
+phylogenetic line, the corresponding variation of the
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 20 ]</span>
+idioplasm reaches, after a time, a maximum, and thus
+comes to an end, either because the nature of the
+substance permits no new rearrangement or because
+the stimulus is no longer active. The cessation of
+the stimulus results from a micellar rearrangement
+which indicates the character of the adaptation. If
+the action of the stimulus lasts for only a short time,
+the incipient rearrangement of the idioplasm stops,
+or proceeds independently on account of the impulse
+received, and the determinant becomes capable of
+development, even after the impulse has long ceased
+to act.</p>
+
+<p>Since various intervening transpositions follow
+upon a stimulus in the organism, the final result
+which appears as a reaction may turn out variously.
+The same external causes may, according to the
+nature of the organism and other circumstances,
+have very unlike variations as a result. But the
+internal rearrangement produces in a definite case
+very definite variations.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the various intermediate steps it
+is often difficult to discover the external cause of a
+given adaptive variation. In many cases we recognize
+it without difficulty in a definite mechanical
+process or in warmth, light or evaporation. For
+the most part the stimulus awakens in the organism
+merely a want, which the reaction of the organism
+endeavors to supply. Hence it appears that want
+or lack alone is able to bring about such reactions.
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 21 ]</span>
+Moreover, in the sphere of sex, electric(?) attractions
+and repulsions co-operate between the idioplasmic
+determinants to produce phylogenetic variations.</p>
+
+<p>The adaptations of the fully developed organism,
+which are the results of external influences, consist
+either only of a specific molecular character
+(irritability), by virtue of which the individual is
+capable of responding to those influences with temporary
+or permanent phenomena, or they consist of
+finished arrangements. The latter have, in general,
+a double function: either they protect the organism
+from external influences whose results they are, or
+they place it in a condition to apply such environmental
+influences to their advantage. The preponderance
+of the one or the other led to the development
+of the plant or the animal kingdom. In the
+one case the primordial plasma formed in the cellulose
+cell wall a stimulus-proof covering. On account
+of this cell membrane being insensible to stimuli,
+adaptations in the plant kingdom were restricted
+essentially to the spheres of nutrition and reproduction.
+In the other case the irritability and mobility
+of the primordial plasma increased so that it was
+placed in a condition to avoid the irritant or make it
+serviceable by accommodating itself to it. The
+cells sensible to irritants led in the animal kingdom
+to the formation of organs of sense and the nervous
+system.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 22 ]</span></p>
+
+<h4>12. CONDITIONS OF PHYLOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE DETERMINANTS. ATAVISM.</h4>
+
+<p>In the primordial condition, formation and development
+of the determinants coincide, since the
+plasma constituting the organism possesses the capability
+of growing by intussusception of new micell&aelig;
+and of changing this growth through the action of
+inner and outer causes. But as the primordial
+plasma differentiates into idioplasm and soma-plasm,
+the formation of determinants consists in the transformation
+of the idioplasm, while the development of
+determinants consists in the production of soma-plasm
+and of non-plasmic substances under the influence
+of the idioplasm.</p>
+
+<p>Only the mature determinant is able to develop,
+especially if, at the same time, a related and heretofore
+active determinant must be forced back into
+the latent condition. But the determinant of an
+absolutely new form of adaptation, which does not
+take the place of a preceding one, must develop
+enough before it can become outwardly manifest,
+for it to be possessed of a sufficient amount of molecular
+energy to render its activity possible. For
+this reason the characteristics of the developed organism
+change abruptly, notwithstanding the fact that
+the transformation of the idioplasm has proceeded
+very gradually.</p>
+
+<p>The configuration of the idioplasm becomes continually
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 23 ]</span>
+more complex through the automatic action
+of the perfecting process, and by this means the
+organism ascends to higher stages of organization.
+Hence the viable determinants of organization or
+perfection are always overtaken after a certain time
+by that movement and forced into the latent condition.
+They then become continually weaker, and
+are at last completely destroyed. Only in the first
+period after their becoming latent can such determinants
+pass again into a developmental condition
+and thus allow the organism to revert to the next
+preceding stage of organization.</p>
+
+<p>Since the configuration of the idioplasm, which
+becomes more complex from internal causes, always
+assumes a definite character of adaptation in consequence
+of the action of external causes, the adaptation
+determinants capable of development may become
+more and more weakened and at last latent
+when other external causes produce other adaptation
+determinants. But these determinants may be
+revived by the renewed activity of the former causes,
+and thus rendered capable of development. Hence
+the organism may show the most various reversions
+with respect to its adaptations. But in such reversions
+the earlier forms never quite return, because
+in the meanwhile the idioplasm has changed somewhat
+in consequence of its automatic progress, and
+therefore lends to the adaptations which assume the
+earlier character a somewhat different expression.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 24 ]</span></p>
+
+<h4>13. ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE DETERMINANTS.</h4>
+
+<p>Since the capability of the primordial plasma to
+grow is the original and only vital quality (<i>Anlage</i>),
+the whole ontogeny in this first stage consists in the
+growth of the detached parts to the adult size. In
+the same way the development of the determinants
+in all the following stages is nothing more than the
+growth of the substance detached as a germ cell
+after the manner of the changes in the character of
+the idioplasm in the course of phylogeny. In this
+manner all determinants may in the lower stages of
+organization reach development, but in the higher
+stages an increasing number of them must remain
+latent.</p>
+
+<p>Among the viable determinants there are some
+that develop unconditionally during each ontogenetic
+period; there are also alternative determinants of
+which one or the other unconditionally develops;
+lastly, there are some that develop only under favorable
+circumstances. Which of two alternative
+determinants shall develop depends sometimes on
+internal, sometimes on external causes, according
+as the specific determinant has arisen phylogenetically
+through the action of internal or external causes.
+Climatic and nutritive influences especially affect
+the appearance of indefinitely developing determinants.
+Just so, when a determinant may develop
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 25 ]</span>
+repeatedly (as is so common in the plant kingdom) it
+depends especially on nutrition whether the corresponding
+phenomenon is repeated at intervals of
+greater or less length. A weakened determinant is
+sometimes temporarily developed by the operation
+of a definite stimulus.</p>
+
+<p>If the integrity of the organism sustains an injury
+in consequence of abnormal interferences, determinants
+develop exceptionally at unusual points. The
+process is induced by accumulation of nutritive
+matter and by external stimuli under the force of
+necessity, to which the injured organism is sensible.</p>
+
+
+<h4>14. ESSENTIAL NATURE OF THE ORGANISM.</h4>
+
+<p>The essential nature of a thing is the sum total
+of its causes and effects. Organisms arise from a
+germ cell which consists of idioplasm and in turn
+they produce like germ cells. Their nature depends
+also on their idioplasm, <i>i.e.</i>, on the sum total of their
+idioplasmic determinants. Observation of organisms,
+even in their fullest life history, gives us an
+imperfect and even false conception of their true
+nature. This is because observation reveals only
+the outer gross characters, and even these in a
+modification dependent upon accidental effects of
+nutrition, and does not reveal the finer characters
+founded in molecular physiology and morphology,
+and especially the characters latent in the idioplasm.</p>
+
+<p>For the examination of idioplasmic differences
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 26 ]</span>
+we are restricted to visible characters. Hence a
+knowledge of the nature of an organism presupposes
+a complete investigation of its characters in
+their succession during the whole ontogeny. The
+results must, however, be tested and completed by
+comparison with other organisms and by the most
+comprehensive experimental procedure, possible, (as
+by culture under various conditions, and crossing
+with nearer and more remote relatives). The characteristics
+of nutrition varieties and accidental
+crosses must be separated from specific characteristics
+by experimental procedure, and latent determinants
+must be brought out by the same means.</p>
+
+
+<h4>15. REPRODUCTION, AND RELATION BETWEEN PARENTS AND OFFSPRING.</h4>
+
+<p>Reproduction is nothing more than a transition
+from one generation to the next following, mediated
+by the idioplasm of the germ cell. In asexual
+(monogenic) reproduction there is continuity of the
+same idioplasm. Therefore the parent continues in
+the offspring its specific life, as the stem continues
+its specific life in the branch. All the peculiarities
+conditioned by the idioplasm remain unchanged in
+the offspring. The latter, as the immediate continuation
+of the preceding ontogeny, starts from the
+point at which the germ cell left it, so that immediately
+after the germ cell is separated at the close of
+the ontogeny or before, the offspring passes at one
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 27 ]</span>
+time rapidly through the whole ontogeny, at another
+only the remainder or a part of it (the latter in alternation
+of generations and in asexual propagation of
+phanerogams).</p>
+
+<p>In sexual (digenic) reproduction the formation
+of the germ cell is brought about by the union
+in equal parts of both parental idioplasms.
+The offspring is the organism resulting from the
+union of the force and matter of the parents, and
+represents in its nature the united continuation of
+their ontogenies. The characteristics of development
+of the child depend however on the viability
+of the determinants of the mingled idioplasms in
+which a new equilibrium has been formed. Hence
+if the child bears more resemblance to the father or
+to the mother, it follows that some of the inherited
+determinants develop while the others remain latent.
+If the child has certain visible characteristics more
+marked than either parent, it becomes possible only
+by the development of determinants which had previously
+been latent. The fact that the mother furnishes
+the germ cell with nutritive plasm and that
+she nourishes it for a considerable time does not
+increase the number of maternal determinants nor
+their capability of development.</p>
+
+<p>If two corresponding characters, one derived from
+the father, the other from the mother, come into
+conflict in sexual reproduction, the one or the other,
+or even a third alternative characteristic, which heretofore
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 28 ]</span>
+was present as a latent determinant, may
+develop in the child. But also both parental characters
+may appear at once and in various combinations.
+Whether the development follows in the
+one way or the other depends on the strength of
+the individual determinants, on the kind of their
+idioplasmic arrangement, and on their agreement
+with the nature of the newly formed idioplasm.</p>
+
+
+<h4>16. HEREDITY AND VARIATION.</h4>
+
+<p>If heredity and variation are defined according
+to the true nature of organisms, they are only apparent
+opposites. Since idioplasm alone is transmitted
+from one ontogeny to the next following, the
+phylogenetic development consists solely in the continual
+progress of the idioplasm and the whole genealogical
+tree from the primordial drop of plasma
+up to the organism of the present day (plant or
+animal) is, strictly speaking, nothing else than an
+individual consisting of idioplasm, which at each
+ontogeny forms a new individual body, corresponding
+to its advance.</p>
+
+<p>In this idioplasmic individual the <i>automatic</i> or
+<i>perfecting variation</i> is always active, so that the
+idioplasm of a phylogenetic line always grows by
+propagation of the determinants contained within
+it, as a tree grows larger through its whole duration
+of life by branching. On the other hand the <i>adaptation
+variation</i> caused by external stimuli is present
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 29 ]</span>
+only in those periods of the phylogenetic line
+in which the idioplasm, and together with this the
+individual, do not possess the obtainable maximum
+of adaptation to their environment for the time
+being. Both of these variations of the idioplasm
+take place so slowly that only after a long series of
+generations do the new determinants become capable
+of developing and revealing themselves in the
+transmutation of visible characters.</p>
+
+<p>Aside from the phylogenetic variations already
+named, which take place according to the measure
+of ontogenetic growth, the idioplasm undergoes, as
+a result of crossing, as well as in changes of the
+ontogeny, <i>gamogenic variations</i> which may be
+designated as stationary, since in the mingling of
+sexually different idioplasms there arise only new
+arrangements of determinants already present, but
+no new formation of determinants takes place.
+Hence in this way arise also new combinations of
+developmental characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of external injurious influences,
+abnormal variations, or <i>pathological variations</i>,
+appear in the idioplasm. These consist of disturbances
+of equilibrium, which take place also without
+new formation of determinants. Thereby the
+determinants already present are caused to develop
+in abnormal relations, and mostly in reversions.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the inheritable variations of the idioplasm
+just enumerated, and the transformations of
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 30 ]</span>
+visible characters involved in it, the soma-plasm and
+the non-plasmic substances experience, by the influence
+of nutrition and climate, greater or less variations,
+which constitute <i>nutrition varieties</i>, and since
+the idioplasm remains unaffected in general, last
+only so long as the causes which called them forth.<a name="FNanchor_F_6" id="FNanchor_F_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_F_6" class="fnanchor">[F]</a></p>
+
+<p>If we have in mind the inner nature of the organism,
+there is, properly speaking, no such specific
+phenomenon as heredity, since the phylogenetic line
+is a continuous idioplasmic individual. In this sense
+heredity is nothing more than the persistence of
+organized substance in a movement in which variations
+are automatically induced, or the necessary
+transition of one idioplasmic configuration into the
+next following. It is present, not only among plant
+and animal individuals which are ontogenetically
+separated, but also everywhere within these individuals,
+where individual parts (cells, organs) follow
+each other in time. Hereditary phenomena are
+those that necessarily pass over to following generations,
+and in general those that are located in the
+idioplasm, since non-idioplasmic substance can be
+hereditary only through a limited number of cell
+generations.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 31 ]</span></p>
+<p>Variations and heredity are generally estimated,
+not according to the inner nature of the mature
+individuals, but according to their relation in successive
+generations, since heredity is assumed when
+the ontogenetic characters remain the same, and
+variation when previously latent characters become
+visible. But these phenomena belong to another
+department of science; they concern the possibility
+and reality of development of the idioplasmic determinants.</p>
+
+
+<h4>17. VARIETY, RACE, MODIFICATION.</h4>
+
+<p>From the multifarious variations of organisms
+proceed various categories of kinship. <i>Varieties</i>
+arise by extremely slow changes in the idioplasm
+due to the perfecting process and adaptation. Since
+these are conditioned by the same causes, they follow
+in all individuals of the same variety in uniform
+manner. Varieties are uniform, entirely constant
+under the most various external conditions, in general
+cross only with difficulty with related varieties,
+are not varied by accidental crosses, and persist
+through geological periods. Varieties belong to
+feral nature rather than to culture; they can assume
+all possible modifications without injury to their
+specific characteristics, but can show no distinctions
+of races, for all beginnings of race formation are
+destroyed by free intercrossing. They differ from
+species only in that they are to be designated as
+more closely related species, or species as more
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 32 ]</span>
+remotely related varieties. Every other distinguishing
+characteristic is wanting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Races</i> arise from gamogenic or pathological
+variations of the idioplasm. In the former case they
+presuppose crossing between related varieties or
+species, in the latter case an increased sensibility
+and weakening of the idioplasm. Very often both
+causes co-operate, since crossing follows more easily
+when the idioplasm is weakened by hurtful influences
+and since the irritability and weakening of
+the idioplasm increases if crossing has preceded.
+Race formation begins in single individuals. Among
+several individuals it begins in various directions
+because the causes are different and hence may display
+a great multiformity. Races are distinguished
+by more or less abnormal characteristics; they arise
+quickly&mdash;often in a single generation&mdash;and present
+various degrees of stability. This stability is insured
+to some extent only by the strictest in-and-in breeding.
+All races disappear through crossing, likewise
+many races that have arisen from pathological
+variations disappear even in sexual reproduction
+(in self-fecundation). Races belong exclusively to
+cultivation, where they can develop and exist protected
+from free intercrossing.</p>
+
+<p>While varieties and races arise by progressional
+or stationary variation of the idioplasm, <i>modifications</i>
+are produced by such influences of nutrition
+and climate as act only on the soma-plasm and the
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 33 ]</span>
+non-plasmic substances, and hence do not give rise
+to inheritable characters in the organism. Modifications
+persist only so long as their causes, and
+under other environments immediately pass over
+into the modifications corresponding to them. The
+transition is completed in the lowest plants during
+a limited number of cell generations; in an individual
+of the higher plants on the same stem during the
+growth of a single year. Each variety and each
+race appears clothed in a definite modification, and
+can change it within a range peculiar to itself.<a name="FNanchor_G_7" id="FNanchor_G_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_G_7" class="fnanchor">[G]</a></p>
+
+
+<h4>18. SOCIAL AND INDIVIDUAL ORIGIN OF SPECIES.</h4>
+
+<p>The species arises neither from the <i>nutrition
+variety</i> nor from the <i>race</i>; it is always a more
+advanced variety, and hence species formation is
+identical with variety formation. Cause for variation
+and consequently for variety formation is always
+shown, either when, environment remaining the
+same, the automatic variation of the idioplasm has
+advanced so far that the ontogeny is raised to a
+higher grade of organization and division of labor,
+or when external stimuli act for a sufficiently long
+time in a manner not in harmony with the previous
+adaptation. Hence various varieties arise easily
+from a uniform kinship, when these are thrown
+among unlike external influences by local separation,
+because in the separated places on the one
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 34 ]</span>
+hand the automatic evolution proceeds with unequal
+rapidity, and on the other hand adaptation takes
+place unequally.</p>
+
+<p>But in general different varieties arise socially
+from a uniform kinship. This is because the related
+individuals living together are unequally stimulated
+on account of the great inequality of external influences
+which may exist at the smallest distances; and
+also because with slight individual differences unlike
+reactions often follow upon the same external influences.
+If identically similar individuals are equally
+inclined to very different reactions toward the same
+stimulus, sometimes the direction of the first variation
+decides the character of the adaptation and
+therefore the nature of the variety, because the
+variation, when once begun, progresses unswervingly
+even under somewhat different circumstances.<a name="FNanchor_H_8" id="FNanchor_H_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_H_8" class="fnanchor">[H]</a>
+Hence divergent variations are found growing
+together in all places, which variations have begun
+at different though neighboring points by transformation
+of the idioplasm and are soon intermingled
+on account of the easy dissemination of seed.</p>
+
+<p>The social formation of varieties is not in general
+interrupted by crossing, a process which governs
+only the formation of races. It is confirmed according
+to experience by the universally recurring fact
+that several beginnings of the most closely related
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 35 ]</span>
+varieties appear together not only in the same
+region, but even at the same points, while the geographical
+distribution of the more marked varieties
+and of related species offers no conclusion as to their
+origin, but only as to the last great migration of the
+plant world, because they arose before this period,
+as indeed appears from their distribution.</p>
+
+<p>Just as different varieties arise simultaneously
+from one kinship at the same place, the same variety
+may arise in places far separated, when the analogous
+external exciting causes occasion an identical transformation
+in the idioplasm. The experimental proof
+lies in the fact that like beginnings of varieties often
+appear at great distances from each other.</p>
+
+<p>An apparent social origin of varieties is indicated,
+when, after having come together in migration,
+they first develop the unlike determinants which
+they have gained in various locations. An apparently
+individual origin of the same or different
+varieties is indicated, when the formation of the
+determinants take place at one and the same place,
+but their development follows only after the kindred
+has been scattered by migration.</p>
+
+
+<h4>19. GENERAL RELATION OF THE PHYLOGENETIC LINES IN THE ORGANIC KINGDOMS.</h4>
+
+<p>Since the nature of an organism is contained in
+the sum of its idioplasmic determinants alone, the
+evolution of a phylogeny consists in the evolution of
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 36 ]</span>
+the idioplasm. This is perceived from the succession
+of the visible ontogenetic characteristics which
+in general run parallel with it. The idioplasm
+varies in two ways: (1) by an <i>automatic perfecting
+process</i>; (2) by <i>adaptation to environment</i>.</p>
+
+<p>By virtue of the <i>automatic variation</i> of the idioplasm
+the ontogenies of a phylogenetic line attain
+to a continually more complex organization and
+greater differentiation of function. In this differentiation,
+however, only the qualitative differences
+are of importance; quantitative and numerical
+gradations may be disregarded. The more complex
+admits of more combinations than the simpler;
+hence if a phylogeny reaches a higher stage by
+automatic evolution it may branch into several lines,
+of which each appears as the continuation of the
+parent stock.</p>
+
+<p>Since <i>adaptive variations</i> depend only on the
+transmutations of environment, an organism may
+rise to a higher organization and division of labor
+by continually adapting itself to the changed environment.
+But the organism may also change its
+adaptation while it remains at the same stage of
+organization. And since the adaptive variation is
+quickly perfected as compared with automatic evolution,
+although extremely slowly as compared with
+the duration of the ontogeny, an organization may
+change its adaptation several times while it remains
+at the same grade of organization and division of
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 37 ]</span>
+labor. Since there are also numerous different
+kinds of adaptation, a phyletic line may divide at
+each point into several adaptive forms, which appear
+in the taxonomic system as species, genera, often
+even as whole families, while in other cases various
+degrees of organization have appeared in one family.</p>
+
+
+<h4>20. LAWS OF EVOLUTION OF THE PLANT KINGDOM.</h4>
+
+<p>In the sub-organic kingdom, which precedes the
+plant and animal kingdoms, (see page 5), there are
+gradually formed from the spontaneously generated
+plasma independent cells with their characteristic
+properties, <i>i.e.</i>, growth by intussusception of micell&aelig;,
+formation of a plasmic cuticle, and a non-plasmic
+membrane about the same, division of the cells,
+separation of the cells thus formed, and free cell
+formation within the cell contents. These properties
+are inherited from the sub-organic kingdom by
+the plants and animals which follow in the next
+stage of phylogeny. The evolution of the plant
+kingdom proceeds through the following regular
+processes, which continue to operate through the
+entire phylogenetic series.</p>
+
+<p><i>Law of Phylogenetic Combination.</i>&mdash;The simplest
+of all plants are cells of round form, which grow
+and reproduce themselves by division, budding or
+free cell formation. From the fact that the younger
+generation of cells, instead of separating from each
+other and growing to independent plant individuals,
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 38 ]</span>
+remain united with each other, multicellular plants
+arise from unicellular. The same transformation
+of the reproductive cells into non-separable tissue
+cells is repeated several times in multicellular plants
+and serves to enlarge the individual. There is
+manifested in this phylogenetic process the tendency
+of the plant to combine in the higher stages
+into one complex whole those parts which in the
+lower stages tend to be independent. A similar
+unifying tendency is revealed also in those plant
+members which have arisen by differentiation and
+represent a system only by their being connected at
+certain points. These combine in the higher stages
+and form ultimately continuous tissues.</p>
+
+<p><i>Law of Phylogenetic Complication or Ampliation,
+Differentiation and Reduction.</i>&mdash;The cells, and, in
+general, the parts of plants which lie near each other
+in space or follow upon each other in time, are
+always alike in the lower stages. By differentiation
+they become unlike, so that the sum of
+the functions which at first fall to the lot of
+all parts without distinction now is shared among
+the individual parts. By this means each part can
+perform its own special function so much the better.
+Differentiation is repeated in the course of the phylogeny,
+since at first all parts of an ontogeny diverge
+into two or more parts, then the parts of these parts
+divide again, etc. Along with this process of division
+another process is always active, which, as it
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 39 ]</span>
+were, prepares the way for the former, namely,
+ampliation, by virtue of which the growth of the
+whole ontogeny or of single stages of it undergoes a
+quantitative increase, so that an organ acquires a
+greater number of cells, and an individual a greater
+number of organs. After this increase in number of
+parts in a stage of ontogeny, differentiation follows
+as far as the nature of the functions permits, by the
+parts most separated passing into each other by
+intermediate gradations. By the further phylogenetic
+process of reduction the intermediate forms are
+suppressed. At last only the extreme products of
+differentiation lie near each other in space or follow
+upon each other in time; and these products are as
+limited in quantity and number as possible.</p>
+
+<p>Along with the above named phylogenetic processes,
+which take place by the automatic increase
+of the idioplasm, external influences are always
+active. These lend to the organism at times a local
+stamp corresponding to its environment, and follow
+the law of adaptation.</p>
+
+
+<h4>21. ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS IN RELATION TO PHYLOGENY.</h4>
+
+<p>Since the simplest plants are cells and the more
+complex ones are formed from cells, a whole phylogenetic
+line may be regarded as a series of cell
+generations following one after another. In the
+lowest forms all cell generations are like each other;
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 40 ]</span>
+in all others they show differences which become
+continually greater and more numerous. Thus
+alternation of generations in cells exists, because
+the successive generations become more and
+more complicated at each succeeding period.
+Among these periods the ontogenetic period or
+ontogeny embraces all generations from one cell to
+the return of the exactly similar kind of cell. In
+the lowest forms of cell differentiation the cells of
+successive generations are all independent; the
+ontogenetic period consists of a cycle of generations
+of unicellular plants. Later the cell generations of
+an ontogeny are united by parts into plant individuals;
+the ontogenetic period consists of a cycle of
+multicellular and unicellular, or only of multicellular
+plant generations. If all the cell generations of an
+ontogenetic period have been united into a single
+individual, the successive plant generations are alike
+and alternation of generations has ceased.</p>
+
+<p>The unlikeness of the generations arises either
+from inner causes of temporary differentiation
+alone, or by temporary differentiation which receives
+a definite imprint by the change of seasons. But in
+the latter case the characteristic of adaptation is
+again lost in the course of the phylogeny and alternation
+of generations follows then without regard
+to the season. If the given adaptation is united in
+the lower plants with alternation of generations
+during the ontogenetic periods, one of the unlike
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 41 ]</span>
+plant generations is repeated an indefinite number
+of times (repetitional generation), while the other
+unlike plant generation appears only once and then
+at the beginning of the resting stage and remains
+latent in the form of a resting spore till the beginning
+of the next period of generation. With this
+peculiar transition generation, which has arisen in
+the lower stages asexually, and in the following
+higher stages by the union of a male and a female
+cell, and which hence is hermaphrodite, there are
+generally associated later two other single generations&mdash;<i>viz.</i>,
+a generation preceding and one following
+the hermaphrodite, the former as a sex-producing
+generation, the other as a sex-produced generation.</p>
+
+<p>The phylogenetic significance of the alternation
+of generations consists in its representing a transition
+stage from the unicellular to the simpler multicellular
+and from the latter to the more complex
+multicellular plants. The plant generations of any
+phylogenetic stage increase by ampliation, become
+unlike by differentiation in time (alternation of
+generations), and unite in a plant individual, whose
+unlike ontogenetic stages correspond to the unlike
+plant generations of the earlier ancestral series.</p>
+
+
+<h4>22. MORPHOLOGY AS THE SCIENCE OF PHYLOGENY.</h4>
+
+<p>All organic phenomena belong, according to
+their causes, to two different classes: (1) Those
+belonging to one group are the results of external
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 42 ]</span>
+influences in each ontogeny and are not inherited;
+they represent nutrition varieties, are experimentally
+demonstrable, and constitute the subject matter of
+experimental physiology. (2) The others are
+inherited and again transmitted; they belong to the
+physiology of the idioplasm. This subject is mainly
+occupied with the origin of the determinants, hence
+with the formation of varieties and species. It is
+not the subject of experiment, and constitutes the
+phylogeny or the physiology of the formation of
+determinants. A sub-division of this subject is
+occupied with the development of the determinants
+already present, hence with the formation of races.
+It is elucidated especially by experiments in crossing
+and may be designated as the physiology of the
+development of the determinants.</p>
+
+<p>The morphological phenomena which find their
+application in taxonomy, belong exclusively to
+phylogeny. Their ontogenetic history does not
+explain their true significance; this can be known
+only in a phylogenetic way by comparison of one
+phenomenon with those phenomena from which it
+has arisen in the course of evolution.</p>
+
+
+<h4>23. PLANT CLASSIFICATION FROM THE STANDPOINT OF PHYLOGENY.</h4>
+
+<p>Spontaneous generation has taken place at all
+times and in all places, in as far as the necessary
+conditions were concurrently present. (See page 47).
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 43 ]</span>
+After spontaneous generation the automatic phylogenetic
+evolution begins and advances constantly.
+Consequently the phylogenetic line rises from time to
+time to higher stages of organization and division of
+labor, but dies of old age if the automatic perfecting
+process ceases. The phylogenetic lines of organisms
+now living have therefore an unequal age;
+those of the most highly developed plants and animals
+had their origin in the earliest periods of organic
+life, those of the lowest organisms in the most recent
+periods. Hence no general genetic relation exists
+among lines now living; only those that are nearly
+related and have reached approximately equal stages
+of organization may be regarded as branches of the
+same phylogenetic stock. A phylogenetic plant system
+does not exist in fact, but only in figure.</p>
+
+<p>If genetic relation between two races is assumed,
+either as a reality or as a symbol, the degree of
+relationship is determined in a theoretically exact
+manner by the number and length of the phylogenetic
+steps which are found either between them
+both or between them and the common starting
+point, according as races belong to the same or
+collateral lines. The fact that two organisms belong
+to the same line of descent is recognized from the
+ontogeny of the higher including the ontogeny of
+the lower.</p>
+
+<p>Since only a proportionately small number of
+known forms can appear as types of the supposed
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 44 ]</span>
+stages of evolution, only a few phylogenetic lines,
+and these only in a general way, may be established,
+on account of the great incompleteness of the present
+plant world. Such a line proceeds from the
+green filamentous alg&aelig; through the liverworts to the
+vascular plants. Among the phanerogams, apparently
+so numerously represented, only phylogenetic
+series of individual organs can be ascertained, but
+no phylogenetic series of families. A phylogenetic
+system of phanerogams is not to be hazarded in the
+roughest outline. Even the relative rank of the
+two chief divisions of the angiosperms, the monocotyledons
+and dicotyledons, is a matter of question,
+as also which family in each of these divisions is to
+be considered the most perfect.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 45 ]</span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX.</h2>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+<h3>TRANSLATORS' NOTES.</h3>
+
+
+<p><i>The Mechanico-physiological Theory of Evolution</i>,
+(<i>Mechanisch-Physiologische Theorie der Abstammungslehre</i>),
+by Carl von N&auml;geli, was published in
+Munich and Leipsic in 1884 in a large octavo volume
+of 822 pages, including two large appendices.
+The <i>Abstammungslehre</i> proper, including the summary,
+occupies 552 pages, and constitutes, in its way,
+one of the most important contributions to theoretical
+biology. It is difficult to understand how a work
+of so much consequence should have received such
+comparatively small notice in this country, especially
+as N&auml;geli's theories seemed calculated by nature to
+appeal much more strongly to American students
+than do, for instance, those of Weismann, who has
+been studied ten times as much as N&auml;geli. This is
+doubtless due, in part, to the fact that we have had
+no English translation of N&auml;geli's work, a circumstance
+much to be regretted.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing translation of the summary from
+<i>Abstammungslehre</i> goes but a small way toward
+making N&auml;geli's theories accessible to English-reading
+students, but it will, at least, be better than
+nothing. The work covers a great range of subjects,
+all, however, having a certain relationship to
+each other. In the main part of the book the discussion
+is presented in the following order:
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 46 ]</span>
+(1) Idioplasm as bearer of the inheritable determinants;
+(2) Spontaneous generation; (3) Causes of variation;
+(4) Determinants and visible characters, in
+which the origin and function of the determinants
+is presented; (5) Variety, race, "nutrition variety,"
+heredity and variation; (6) Criticism of the Darwinian
+theory of natural selection, in which the
+author urges seven objections to that theory; (7)
+Laws of evolution of the plant kingdom; (8) Alternation
+of generations from the standpoint of phylogeny;
+(9) Morphology and classification as phylogenetic
+sciences; (10) A comprehensive summary of
+the whole work, a translation of which is given in
+the foregoing pages.</p>
+
+<p>In the first part of the work N&auml;geli sets forth his
+micellar theory of the structure of organized bodies.
+This is one of his most important contributions to
+science. Until recent years it has been the only
+theory given in botanical text-books. At the present
+time its only competitor is Strasburger's lamellar
+theory, and even this has not superseded N&auml;geli's
+work to any great degree.</p>
+
+<p>The reader who may not be familiar with the
+micellar theory will find the general idea from the
+following brief sketch adapted from Vines's <i>Plant
+Physiology</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"N&auml;geli's micellar theory was developed from his study of
+organized bodies, especially of cell walls and starch grains.
+From the behavior of organized substance toward water
+absorbed by it, he concluded that water does not penetrate
+into the micell&aelig;, but only among them, thus merely separating
+them more from each other. He reasoned that if water
+should penetrate into the micella, its structure would be
+disintegrated. Hence he argued that organized bodies consist
+of solid micell&aelig;, which, with their respective films of
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 47 ]</span>
+water, are held together by: (1) The attraction of the
+micell&aelig; for each other, which varies inversely as the square
+of the distance. (2) The attraction of the micell&aelig; for water,
+which varies inversely as some higher power of the distance.
+(3) The force which holds together the ultimate chemical
+molecules of which each micella consists.</p>
+
+<p>"Since the swelling up of organized bodies does not take
+place equally in all three dimensions of space, and on account
+of their double refraction, N&auml;geli inferred that in form the
+micell&aelig; are crystals, probably parallelopipedal, with rectangular
+or rhomboidal bases."</p></div>
+
+<p>The law that "bodies attract each other with a
+force which varies inversely as the square of the
+distance," has been proven only in its application
+to the heavenly bodies. N&auml;geli has applied this law
+to molecules, unsupported, however, by any evidence
+other than that of analogy. On the other
+hand, there is evidence that molecules do not invariably
+act according to this law.</p>
+
+<p>Spontaneous generation (p. 4) was an important
+item in N&auml;geli's doctrine, and might almost be said
+to be fundamental to it, although it is not really
+necessary to the internal perfecting principle, which
+may be regarded as the chief feature of the Mechanico-Physiological
+Theory. Up to 1865 N&auml;geli believed
+in the spontaneous origin of many fungi, and thought
+that it could be demonstrated. He was obliged to
+abandon the experimental evidence, but to the close
+of his life held the views of abiogenesis presented
+in the accompanying translation.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristic and most interesting feature
+of the Mechanico-Physiological Theory is certainly
+N&auml;geli's conception of an automatic perfecting principle
+(<i>Autonome Vervollkommnung</i>). This conception
+may be briefly outlined as follows:<span class='pagenum'>[ 48 ]</span></p>
+
+<p>1. The essential part of the reproductive plasm,
+termed idioplasm, since it divides and passes over
+from generation to generation, in higher as well as
+in lower organisms, has a continuous or "immortal"
+existence.<a name="FNanchor_I_9" id="FNanchor_I_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_I_9" class="fnanchor">[I]</a></p>
+
+<p>2. During this continuous life the idioplasm
+goes through a development of its own, just as an
+individual organism goes through a certain cycle of
+development during its individual life. This development
+consists in a constantly increasing complexity
+of structure and differentiation of function.</p>
+
+<p>3. This development is automatic, resulting from
+internal forces or movements, (<i>Vervollkommnungs-bewegungen</i>).</p>
+
+<p>4. As a result of the increasing complexity of
+structure in the idioplasm the entire organism, which
+in each generation rearises therefrom, becomes,
+from generation to generation, more and more complex
+with greater and greater differentiation of
+function. Thus the progression of the idioplasm
+controls the phylogeny of the race. It marks out
+the course of evolution.</p>
+
+<p>5. Since, according to N&auml;geli, new life with new
+idioplasms, may arise wherever and whenever the
+necessary conditions combine, the present organic
+world is not made up from branchings of a single
+original idioplasm, but each race or group may
+have its own specific idioplasm; and, since this has
+its own characteristic structure and its own specific
+internal perfecting forces, it passes through its own
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 49 ]</span>
+peculiar evolution, carrying with it its own depending
+race of organisms.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that animals and plants at the present
+time show such various degrees of organization is
+also accounted for on the last supposition, for those
+of lowlier organization are merely of more recent
+origin and have not progressed so far in idioplasmic
+development.</p>
+
+<p>This automatic perfecting principle has been the
+mark of much criticism. Some have confounded it
+with the mystical <i>nisus formativus</i>, or formative
+principle of preceding theorists. But, as Weismann
+remarks, N&auml;geli's phyletic force is conceived as a
+thoroughly scientific mechanical principle. N&auml;geli
+has simply made application in the organic world
+of the principle of entropy, as stated in the mechanical
+theory of heat. N&auml;geli himself also compares
+his internal perfecting principle to mechanical
+inertia. He says, "the force of evolution once
+started in a given direction, tends to continue in the
+same direction. This constitutes the law of inertia
+in the organic world."</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Two other matters remain to be noticed. The
+first of these is N&auml;geli's use of the German word
+<i>Anlage</i>. We have been unable to give a perfectly
+satisfactory translation of this word in its technical
+meaning. We have received some comfort,
+though but little help, from the experience of the
+translators of similar works. Selmar Schoenland,
+in translating from Weismann, renders it variously
+as "germ," "germ of structure," "germ (of N&auml;geli),"
+"germ of N&auml;geli," "N&auml;geli's preformed germ
+of structure," "preformed germs," "tendency."
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 50 ]</span>
+Another translator renders the word as "constitutional
+element." The translation, "determinant,"
+which we have selected is an appropriation of an
+analogous but not absolutely identical technical term
+from Weismann's <i>Germinal Selection</i>. The use of
+the word in this connection is open to the objection
+that it has previously been used technically for a
+somewhat different idea by another author. M.
+C. Potter, in his translation of Warming's <i>Systematic
+Botany</i>, following Dr. E. L. Mark, renders
+the word <i>Anlage</i> as "fundament." Dr. H. C.
+Porter, in his translation of the <i>Bonn Text-Book of
+Botany</i>, renders the same word as "rudiment."</p>
+
+<p>In general the word Anlage means beginning,
+plan, disposition to anything, and hence involves
+the ideas of origin, organization and tendency.
+Sanders defines the word in one of its meanings as:
+"The act of planning or beginning anything; the
+act of laying the foundation of any work intended
+to be carried on toward completion, in order that
+from the beginning made, a definite thing may be
+developed or may develop itself"; (<i>i.e.</i>, to determine,
+in the sense of limiting to a particular purpose
+or direction, hence determinant). "Also, the
+thing begun or planned, considered as the basis
+and germ of the further development of that which
+has already originated."</p>
+
+<p>In its restricted use as applied to organisms it
+would mean "germ," in the sense of embryonic
+starting point. More specifically, it is a portion of
+plastic, organized substance, functioning as an
+individual and containing potentially an elemental
+organ plus a formative power. In N&auml;geli's own
+words, "There exists an essential difference between
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 51 ]</span>
+the substance of a mature organism which does not
+possess the capability of further development, and
+the substance of an egg, which does possess this
+capability. By virtue of this difference the egg-substance
+is characterized as the <i>Anlage</i>, or germ
+of the mature organism. All characteristics of the
+adult condition are potentially contained in the
+ovum."</p>
+
+<p>N&auml;geli was not the first to assume the existence
+of a unit of organization intermediate between the
+molecule and the cell. E. B. Wilson, in his <i>The
+Cell in Inheritance and Development</i>, states the case
+as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>"That the cell consists of more elementary units of organization,
+is indicated by <i>a priori</i> evidence so cogent as to have
+driven many of the foremost leaders of biological thought into
+the belief that such units must exist, whether or not the
+microscope reveals them to view. The modern conception of
+ultra-cellular units, ranking between the molecule and the
+cell, was first definitely suggested by Br&uuml;cke in 1861.</p>
+
+<p>"This idea of ultra-cellular units is common to most morphologists
+and physiologists. We are compelled by the most
+stringent evidence to admit that the ultimate basis of living
+matter is not a single chemical substance, but a mixture of
+many substances that are self-perpetuating without their loss
+of specific character."<a name="FNanchor_J_10" id="FNanchor_J_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_J_10" class="fnanchor">[J]</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>N&auml;geli's <i>Laws of Evolution</i> are also worth special
+notice. As stated in the body of <i>Abstammungslehre</i>
+they are as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. Asexual reproductive cells which arise by
+division, remain united and become tissue cells.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 52 ]</span></p>
+<p>2. Asexual reproductive cells which arise by
+budding, instead of separating, become cell branches
+or branched cell threads.</p>
+
+<p>3. Reproductive cells which arise by free cell
+formation become bodies which form a part of the
+cell contents.</p>
+
+<p>4. Parts of a plant which arise by differentiation
+lie side by side and form a body of web-like or
+tissue-like structure.</p>
+
+<p>5. A definite and previously limited growth continues,
+or a definite formation of parts of an ontogeny
+which has previously been present but once,
+is repeated. (Ampliation.)</p>
+
+<p>6. The parts of an ontogeny become dissimilar,
+since the functions which were previously united
+become differentiated and since new dissimilar
+functions are produced in the various parts. This
+differentiation is either one of space between the
+parts of the ontogeny that appear near each other, or
+one of time between those that are derived from
+each other.</p>
+
+<p>7. Parts which have become dissimilar by differentiation
+undergo a reduction, in which the intermediate
+forms are suppressed and at last only the
+qualitatively dissimilar forms with qualitatively
+dissimilar functions remain.</p>
+
+<p>8. The environment in which plants live operates
+in different ways, directly as a stimulus or indirectly
+as a felt necessity and by this means lends to their
+forms and activities a definite expression of time
+and place, and thus brings about different adaptations.
+These become permanent through heredity,
+but are again gradually lost if other adaptations
+supersede them.<span class='pagenum'>[ 53 ]</span></p>
+
+<p>Laws 1 to 4 may be expressed as one&mdash;the law of
+combination: Similar parts that are wholly or partly
+separated have the tendency to unite more and more
+completely and intimately into one continuous tissue.</p>
+
+<p>The laws of ampliation (5), differentiation (6),
+and reduction (7), may be summarized in one as
+follows: While increasing in size the similar parts
+of an ontogeny become internally dissimilar and the
+dissimilarity increases as the transition forms of the
+dissimilar parts vanish. Hence only the extreme
+forms remain.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>It may also interest the reader to know that
+N&auml;geli was the first to propose the general theory
+of cell formation as accepted at the present day.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 54 ]</span></p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<h4>FOOTNOTES</h4>
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> See Appendix, Translators' Notes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> N&auml;geli makes his idioplasm ramify throughout the organism in unbroken
+continuity, much like a system of nerves in the higher animals.
+This idea with N&auml;geli was purely speculative. It was known that the protoplasm
+is in connection throughout the organism, but it has been proved
+more recently that only the somatic protoplasm is thus connected. The
+part in which the essential nature of the organism is contained is localized
+in the nucleus and hence might properly be designated as nucleoplasm, as
+Weismann suggests. If the idioplasm is localized in the nucleus, it cannot
+be continuous throughout the system, as N&auml;geli assumes. But this objection
+applies only to a detail of the theory and does not affect the fundamental
+conception,&mdash;that of a portion of the protoplasm which is differentiated
+from the rest and represents a definite molecular structure which determines
+the specific nature of the organism.&mdash;<i>Trans.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> Hence, according to N&auml;geli, every cell of the organism has idioplasm
+of identical structure. This at once suggests the objection, how can the
+idioplasm, for instance, of a pollen grain be the same as that of a leaf?
+Identical idioplasms should always produce identical structures. N&auml;geli
+attempts to explain this difficulty by attributing the different results to different
+"conditions of tension and movement," i.e., a dynamical difference
+between the idioplasms of the different parts of the organism. (<i>Abstammungslehre</i>,
+p. 53.)
+</p><p>
+This idea of differences of structure being due to dynamic rather than
+to material causes plays a considerable part in N&auml;geli's theory, but is the
+point on which he speaks with least certainty&mdash;in fact with a noticeable
+hesitation. He does not clearly explain the phrase "conditions of tension
+and movement," nor does he give a convincing explanation of the known
+phenomena as results of the action of dynamic influence.
+</p><p>
+N&auml;geli is not the only one who posits dynamic rather than material
+differences as to the basis of diversities of structure. More recently, Cope
+has built up a system of evolution founded largely on this idea.&mdash;<i>Trans.</i></p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_D_4" id="Footnote_D_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> This assertion is a direct corollary from the structure of the determinants
+and the idioplasm. If the idioplasm of the fertilizing cell were to
+pass through the membrane about the ovum by osmosis, its organized
+structure would be lost.&mdash;<i>Trans.</i></p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_E_5" id="Footnote_E_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E_5"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> In order to explain adaptations N&auml;geli assumes that external influences,
+if acting at the same point in a given manner for a long time, may
+induce slight adaptive variations which are perpetuated and increased.
+On the important subject of adaptation in general N&auml;geli is almost diametrically
+opposed to Darwin and Weismann. N&auml;geli assigns to the principle of
+utility a very limited sphere; Weismann regards adaptation as all-powerful.
+According to N&auml;geli, the organic world would have become much what it is,
+if natural selection and adaptation had performed no part in the operations
+of nature. He aptly says, that natural selection prunes the phylogenetic
+tree, but does not cause new branches to grow. He allows that the principle
+of selection is well suited to explain the adaptation of organisms to
+their environment and the suitableness and physiological peculiarities of
+their structure, but he asserts that in the definiteness of variation of plants
+and in their progressive differentiation there is evidence of a higher and
+controlling perfecting principle.&mdash;<i>Trans.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_F_6" id="Footnote_F_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_F_6"><span class="label">[F]</span></a> N&auml;geli, like Weismann, arrives at the conclusion that acquired
+characters are not inherited. He was not content, however, to rest the
+generalization upon purely speculative grounds, but undertook the experimental
+demonstration. After seventeen years of work by himself and son,
+especially upon several species of Hieracium, he satisfied himself that his
+theory was true to the facts. We all know now how far he fell short of settling
+the question.&mdash;<i>Trans.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_G_7" id="Footnote_G_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_G_7"><span class="label">[G]</span></a> The distinctions which N&auml;geli here erects are, of course, purely arbitrary,
+and his definitions are suitable for use only in his own thesis.&mdash;<i>Trans.</i></p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_H_8" id="Footnote_H_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_H_8"><span class="label">[H]</span></a> It is interesting to compare this statement with Weismann's recent
+theory of Germinal Selection.&mdash;<i>Trans.</i></p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_I_9" id="Footnote_I_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_I_9"><span class="label">[I]</span></a> N&auml;geli's idioplasm corresponds in many respects, though by no
+means in all, to Weismann's germ-plasm. Weismann's idea of continuity
+or "immortality," which has been so widely noticed, is set forth with equal
+clearness, though with less emphasis, by N&auml;geli.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_J_10" id="Footnote_J_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_J_10"><span class="label">[J]</span></a> For a fuller discussion of the notion of these hypothetical units of
+organic existence, see Weismann's Germinal Selection, (Open Court Publishing
+Co., Chicago, 1896), especially the foot note, page 230.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 55 ]</span></p>
+<h2>BRIEF STATEMENT OF THE WORK OF THE
+OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY</h2>
+
+
+<p>If one asked for a brief description of the work
+of the Open Court Company, one would probably
+get the answer that the Company publishes books
+and articles on Science, Religion, and Philosophy.
+That is not quite exact; for that describes the ideal
+to which the Open Court Company is continually striving
+rather than the actual work it is doing. The ideal
+is Religion on a firm basis of Science, a Science of
+Philosophy, and a Philosophy of Science: the only
+path which can lead to this great ideal synthesis is the
+detailed and careful study of sciences, religions, and
+philosophies.</p>
+
+<p>It was this ideal that prompted the late Mr. Edward
+Carl Hegeler of La Salle, Illinois, in the United States
+of America, to found a Company to publish books with
+the object of establishing ethics and religion upon a
+scientific basis. Such ideals are as old as philosophy
+itself. Among modern philosophies, that founded by
+Comte tried, probably in the most explicit fashion of
+all, to found a religion on the basis of positive science;
+and at one time it appeared likely to have a lasting
+success. But it is now quite plain that no philosophy
+which hopes to be permanent can neglect history or
+put itself into uncritical opposition to the systems that
+have for centuries expressed some of the dearest and
+highest aspirations of mankind. It is unprejudiced
+and fearless historical and critical investigation&mdash;non-sectarian
+in the widest sense&mdash;in both religion, science,
+and philosophy, that must go before any satisfactory
+synthesis. This is a great part of the work of the
+Open Court Company.</p>
+
+<p>Let us consider what non-sectarianism means. We
+cannot, for example, isolate a single domain of science
+in a particular country and at a particular time&mdash;say,
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 56 ]</span>
+mechanics in England in the eighteenth century&mdash;and
+hope to make of it a thoroughly complete object of
+study. In natural science, for example, we make conventional
+divisions simply with the object of saving
+labor when dealing with the huge mass of material
+that experience offers. But the narrowest specialist
+knows that all workers in science, religion, and
+philosophy seek the Truth; and that the Truth is
+bounded neither by space nor by time nor by man-made
+divisions. A man may rightly conclude that
+he stands little chance of finding out very much of
+the Truth, and so he may voluntarily limit his view
+to a certain roughly defined domain of facts and
+thoughts, and become, for example, what is called a
+"biologist," a "physicist," a "higher critic," or, if he
+thinks that he may discover rather more of the Truth,
+a "philosopher."</p>
+
+<p>And let us carry a clear understanding of a lofty
+aim into religion as well. It is our duty, as rational
+beings, to be non-sectarian. It is not a merit to allow
+ignorance to blind us to the glimpses of Truth that we
+sometimes get from prophets, poets, and priests of
+other religions and other philosophies than our own.
+If we think that there is more truth or sacredness in
+our own, let us use every means to make this sacredness
+or this truth appear evident to others. But, in
+justice, let us also fearlessly discuss other religions and
+philosophies, and discover their greater merits, if any,
+as compared with our own. If, after careful investigation,
+we arrive at the belief in the truth or falsehood
+of anything in these religions or philosophies, let us
+state our grounds for believing so in the fullest possible
+way. Only by so doing can we fulfil the duties
+of being true to ourselves and helpful to others.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the work of a critic is said to be
+"merely destructive." This idea rests on a most harmful
+misunderstanding. Criticism consists not only in
+the pointing out of error, but in the pointing out of
+truth as well. Error is simply a psychological condition
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 57 ]</span>
+of blindness to the truth; and the discovery of
+errors committed by other people or ourselves is not&mdash;as
+many superficial people like to say&mdash;the pulling
+down of a structure already raised, unless an error
+can be called a structure which is built out of the
+fictions of our imagination which have no objective existence.
+Criticism often enables us to discover more
+of the Truth, and nobody can do more than <i>discover</i>
+Truth: nobody <i>creates</i> Truth, any more than Columbus
+created America.</p>
+
+<p>Nowadays all intelligent men and women agree that
+all knowledge must be subjected to criticism, and the
+best men and women act on these beliefs. The books
+and magazines published by the Open Court Company
+are intended to help these men and women.</p>
+
+<p>We will dwell a little longer on the subject of religion,
+because it is in religion that the majority of us
+have the one region of ideals above our bodily needs.
+It is rare, though of course not unknown, that Science
+or Philosophy satisfies the spiritual needs&mdash;the purest
+of human cravings. Nowadays, most of us realize
+that an anti-scientific attitude of religion is impossible.
+If there were an opposition between "science"
+and "religion," there would be no question as to which
+side would be victorious. More particularly during
+the last seventy years, "religion," conscious of the
+opposition which a rather crude doctrine which was
+called "science" had towards it, has been gradually,
+and often somewhat ludicrously, trying to bring itself
+more into conformity with that "science." The result
+is painful to the student of human nature; though it
+has its amusing sides, just as had the militant denial,
+on the part of those who were "on the side of the
+angels" about fifty years ago, of certain deductions
+from facts. What is called a "conflict between religion
+and science" always has ended in a victory for
+"science" and an agnosticism which ousted religion.
+And thus many see that it is desirable that the matured
+results of science should enter into the fabric of our
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 58 ]</span>
+religious convictions. For the realization of this purpose,
+the Open Court Company publishes two
+periodicals, <i>The Monist</i>, a quarterly magazine devoted
+to the philosophy of science, and <i>The Open Court</i>, an
+illustrated monthly devoted to the science of religion
+and the religion of science. In addition, the Open
+Court Company publishes books that directly or indirectly
+advance its aim&mdash;books on Philosophy, which,
+in contrast with the old metaphysicism, lay the
+foundations of a philosophy of science; books on the
+history of philosophies; books on mathematics and
+other lines of thought which are indispensable for a
+rational and scientific conception of the world; books
+that have a bearing on the doctrine of Evolution; books
+on the history of Religions, especially on the development
+of Christianity and on Higher Criticism; and
+books on Comparative Religion, on Psychology, on
+Education, and on Ethics. Above all, in all the works
+careful, sympathetic, and scholarly criticism is aimed
+at. Criticism is the joint result of love of Truth and
+independence of thought; rightly understood, it is not
+only a preliminary to a work of synthesis, but it is part
+of synthesis itself. No synthesis, in fact, is more than
+a discovery of Truth: from past history we know that
+syntheses have often blinded men to the Truth, though
+that was naturally not their intention.</p>
+
+<p>On the subject of independence of thought it may
+be proper shortly to refer to the work of Dr. Paul
+Carus, who has been, since the end of 1887, closely
+associated with the Open Court Company and its publications.
+Only two things need be said here. In the
+first place, it was owing to the need he felt for keeping
+his independence of thought that he resigned a
+post in Germany and came, first to England and then
+to America. In the second place, his views, which
+are also, broadly speaking, the views for which the
+Open Court Company works, may be characterized
+both as monism and positivism, though his philosophy
+differs considerably from H&aelig;ckel's monism, which is
+<span class='pagenum'>[ 59 ]</span>
+practically materialism, and even more so from the
+French positivism of Comte and from agnosticism, its
+English equivalent. In his philosophy, <i>form</i> plays the
+most important part. Form is the significant feature
+of both objective existence and subjective thought.
+Matter and energy only denote reality, but form
+characterizes quality. Science traces form, and the
+nature of all things, the human character included, is
+constituted by form. In the formal sciences again,
+that which is the core of their usefulness as general
+propositions is the character of <i>anyness</i>, the use of
+which justifies the method of generalization. Here
+lies the root of the kinship of Dr. Carus's philosophy
+with modern logic, and allows him to reconstruct the
+old artistic and religious ideas upon a new and modern
+ground. In this sense, he himself has characterized
+his philosophy as a <i>philosophy of form</i>.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>A Partial List of Books in the<br />
+OPEN COURT SCIENCE SERIES</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+<h3>PROBLEMS OF SCIENCE<br />
+BY FEDERIGO ENRIQUES</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Authorized translation by Katherine Royce, with an
+introduction by Josiah Royce. <b>Pp. 375. Price, $2.50.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The end for which we ought to strive today is a scientific
+education, which shall enable the workers in any field
+whatsoever to understand better how the object of their
+own research is subordinated to more general problems."</p>
+
+<p>The author is professor of projective geometry and geometric
+drawing in the University of Bologna, and is one of
+the most conspicuous of contemporary Italian scientists.</p>
+
+
+<div id="textbox">
+  <p class="alignleft">The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By E. D. Cope</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>Illustrated. Cloth, $2.00 net</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox1">
+  <p class="alignleft">The Soul of Man</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Paul Carus</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>An investigation of the facts of physiological
+and experimental psychology. <b>Illustrated. Cloth,
+$1.50 net; paper, 85c.</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox2">
+  <p class="alignleft">Plant Breeding</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Hugo De Vries</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Comments on the experiments of Nilsson and
+Burbank. <b>Illustrated. Cloth, gilt, $1.50 net</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox3">
+  <p class="alignleft">The Rise of Man</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Paul Carus</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A sketch of the human race.  <b>Illustrated.
+Boards, cloth back, 75c net</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox4">
+  <p class="alignleft">Species and Varieties, Their Origin and Mutation</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Hugo De Vries</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Edited by D. T. MacDougal. <b>Price, $5.00 net</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox5">
+  <p class="alignleft">The Mutation Theory</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Hugo De Vries</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Experiments and observations on the origin of
+species in the vegetable kingdom. (2 vols.) Translated
+by Prof. A. B. Farmer and A. D. Darbishire.
+<b>Numerous illustrations, colored plates. Cloth, per
+volume $4.00 net.</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox6">
+  <p class="alignleft">Intracellular Pangenesis</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Hugo De Vries</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Including a paper on fertilization and hybridization.
+Translated from the German by C. Stuart
+Gager. <b>Cloth, $3.00 net.</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox7">
+  <p class="alignleft">On Memory and the Specific Energies of the Nervous System</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Ewald Hering</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>New edition, including "The Theory of Nerve
+Activity." <b>Price, $1.00; paper, 30c.</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox8">
+  <p class="alignleft">Psychology of the Nervous System</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Paul Carus</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>An extract from the author's larger work, "The
+Soul of Man." <b>Price, 30c.</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox9">
+  <p class="alignleft">The Psychology of Reasoning</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Alfred Binet</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by Adam Gowan Whyte. <b>Cloth, 75c
+net</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox10">
+  <p class="alignleft">Has the Psychological Laboratory Proved Helpful?</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By L. M. Billia</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated from the French by Lydia G. Robinson.
+<b>Pp. 16. Paper, 15c net.</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox11">
+  <p class="alignleft">A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Organic Evolution</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Carl von Nageli</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Summary. <b>30c.</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox12">
+  <p class="alignleft">Experiments on the Generation of Insects</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Francesco Redi</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated from the Italian edition of 1688 by
+Mab Bigelow. <b>Illustrated. Cloth, $2.00 net</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox13">
+  <p class="alignleft">Science and Faith, or Man as an Animal, and Man
+as a Member of Society, with a Discussion on Animal Societies</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Paul Topinard</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by T. J. McCormack. <b>Price, $1.50 net</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox14">
+  <p class="alignleft">A First Book in Organic Evolution</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By D. Kerfoot Shute</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Written especially for the use of students. <b>Illustrated,
+seven colored plates, 2d ed. Cloth, $1.25;
+paper, 60c net</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox15">
+  <p class="alignleft">On Germinal Selection as a Source of Definite Variation</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By August Weismann</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by T. J. McCormack. <b>Paper, 30c</b></p></div>
+
+
+
+<div id="textbox16">
+  <p class="alignleft">Popular Scientific Lectures</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Ernst Mach</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by T. J. McCormack. <b>Illustrated.
+$1.50 net; paper, 60c net</b></p></div>
+
+
+
+<div id="textbox17">
+  <p class="alignleft">Contributions to the Analysis of the Sensations</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Ernst Mach</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by C. M. Williams. <b>Price, $1.25 net</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox18">
+  <p class="alignleft">Space and Geometry in the Light of Physiological, Psychological and Physical Inquiry</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Ernst Mach</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by T. J. McCormack. <b>Cloth, gilt
+top, $1.00 net</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox19">
+  <p class="alignleft">The History and the Root of the Principle of the Conservation of Energy</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Ernst Mach</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by Philip E. B. Jourdain. <b>Cloth, $1.25
+net</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox20">
+  <p class="alignleft">On the Inheritance of Acquired Characters</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By Eugenio Rignano</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by Basil C. H. Harvey. With an appendix
+"On the Mnemonic Origin and Nature of
+Affective Tendencies." <b>Cloth, $3.00 net</b></p></div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox21">
+  <p class="alignleft">Darwin and After Darwin</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By George J. Romanes</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>An exposition of the Darwinian theory and a discussion
+of post-Darwinian Questions. <b>Three volumes, $4.00 net.</b></p>
+
+<p>Part I. The Darwinian Theory. <b>Cloth, $2.00.</b></p>
+
+<p>Part II. Post-Darwinian Questions: Heredity
+and Utility. <b>Cloth, $1.50.</b></p>
+
+<p>Part III. Post-Darwinian Questions: Isolation
+and Physiological Selection. <b>Cloth, $1.00.</b></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div id="textbox22">
+  <p class="alignleft">An Examination of Weismannism</p>
+  <p class="alignright">By George J. Romanes</p>
+</div>
+<div style="clear: both;"></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>Cloth, $1.00 net; paper, 40c net.</b></p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+<h3>Send for complete list.<br />
+OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.<br />
+<small>(Scientific and Educational Books)</small><br />
+122 S. Michigan Ave.<br />
+Chicago</h3>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h4>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</h4>
+
+<p>Footnotes have been moved to the end of the text just after the appendix.</p>
+
+<p>Other than that, printer's inconsistencies in spelling, punctuation, and
+ligature usage have been retained.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of
+Organic Evolution, by Carl Von Nägeli
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL ***
+
+***** This file should be named 33514-h.htm or 33514-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/5/1/33514/
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/33514.txt b/33514.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..04a8013
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33514.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,2149 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Organic
+Evolution, by Carl Von Naegeli
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Organic Evolution
+
+Author: Carl Von Naegeli
+
+Release Date: August 23, 2010 [EBook #33514]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                                   A
+                        MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL
+                               THEORY OF
+                           ORGANIC EVOLUTION
+
+                                  BY
+                            CARL VON NAeGELI
+
+
+                            SECOND EDITION
+
+
+                                CHICAGO
+                     THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.
+                                 1914
+
+
+
+                            COPYRIGHT, 1898
+                   BY THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.
+                                CHICAGO
+
+
+
+
+                            PREFATORY NOTE.
+
+
+Mr. V. A. Clark, as a student in horticulture in the University
+of Vermont, first undertook a critical examination of Naegeli's
+_Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Evolution_ as a part of his regular
+junior work. After a half year's study and the preparation of a short
+thesis, Mr. Clark had become so far intimate with Naegeli's work as to
+make it seem best for him to continue the study through his senior year.
+This study involved extended translations from the text, including
+Naegeli's _Summary_, which, considering its difficult accessibility
+to American students, has been chosen for publication. The work has
+been done chiefly by Mr. Clark, but has all been under my immediate
+supervision, and I have given the whole matter a final restudy and
+revision. Those who have had any experience with similar work will know
+how impossible it is that all mistakes should have been avoided, and it
+would be a kindness to the translators if readers would point out any
+defects, in order that they may be corrected.
+
+                                                        F. A. WAUGH.
+
+University of Vermont,
+    July 1, 1898.
+
+
+
+
+                       A MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL
+                           THEORY OF ORGANIC
+                              EVOLUTION.
+
+
+
+
+                               SUMMARY.
+
+
+In this summary I shall in general pursue a course the reverse of that
+which my main work follows.[A] I shall proceed from the primitive,
+unorganized condition of matter and endeavor to show how organized
+micellar substance has arisen in it, and how, from this micellar
+substance, organisms with their manifold properties have arisen.
+Since such a synthesis of organisms out of known forms of matter and
+force is still far removed from a conclusion strictly in accord with
+physical law, the process becomes comprehensible and obvious only by
+exact knowledge of the discussion that has preceded. Although the
+synthetic method reveals more clearly the weaknesses of the theory
+than do analytic investigations, yet I considered it helpful to
+make this presentation in order to give a clearer idea of the
+mechanico-physiological theory, and at the same time to test its
+worth.
+
+    [A] See Appendix, Translators' Notes.
+
+
+1. FORMATION OF UNORGANIZED BODIES (CRYSTALS).
+
+When separated and promiscuously moving molecules of any substance in
+solution or in a melted condition pass into the solid form by reason of
+removal of the causes of separation and motion (warmth or solvent), they
+arrange themselves into solid masses impermeable to liquids. These
+minute bodies grow by accretion, and when molecular forces are permitted
+to act undisturbed, assume the regular outer form and inner structure of
+crystals. The number of crystals, their size, changes of form and
+growth, all depend on external conditions.
+
+
+2. FORMATION OF LIVING ORGANIZED (MICELLAR) BODIES.
+
+Certain organic compounds, among them albumen, are neither soluble,
+despite their great affinity for water, nor are they fusible, and hence
+are produced in the micellar form. These compounds are formed in water,
+where the molecules that arise immediately adjoining each other arrange
+themselves into incipient crystals, or micellae. Only such of the
+molecules as are formed subsequently and come in contact with a micella
+contribute to its increase in size, while the others, on account of
+their insolubility, produce new micellae. For this reason the micellae
+remain so small that they are invisible, even with the microscope.
+
+On account of their great affinity for water the micellae surround
+themselves with a thick film of it. The attraction of these micellae for
+matter of their own kind is felt outside this film. Hence the micellae
+with their films unite themselves into solid masses permeated with
+water, unless other forces overcome attraction and re-establish a
+micellar solution (as in albumen, glue, gum), where the slightly moving
+micellae show a tendency to cling together in chain-like and other
+aggregations. Very often there are found, especially in albumen, half
+liquid modifications intermediate in fluidity between the solid masses
+and the micellar solution.
+
+The internal and external constitution of micellar bodies depends
+essentially on the size, form and dynamic nature of their micellae, since
+these efficients condition the original arrangement of the micellae and
+the insertion in proper order of those formed later. External conditions
+have slight influence on structure, and affect outer form chiefly in so
+far as they can mechanically hinder free development.
+
+The micellae of albumen or plasma are susceptible of the greatest
+diversity of form, size and chemical composition, since they originate
+from unlike mixtures of various albumen compounds, and besides are mixed
+with various organic and inorganic substances. For this reason the
+plasma behaves, both chemically and physically, in many unlike ways, and
+in consequence of the variable relation of the micellae to water, the
+plasma shows all degrees of micellar solution up to quite solid masses.
+
+
+3. SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. LIFE. GROWTH.
+
+If molecular forces are so combined in an inorganic substratum that
+spontaneous formation of albumen takes place, then by the combination of
+the micellae the primordial plasma masses of spontaneous generation are
+given. Within these plasma masses the production of albumen goes on more
+easily under the influence of their molecular forces than in the liquid
+without. Hence the compounds present in the organic substratum and
+capable of forming albumen enter preferably into the masses of plasma,
+and by intussusception of micellae of albumen, cause growth. Here life
+exists in its simplest form. (See page 47.)
+
+Spontaneous generation presupposes the origin of plasma-micellae from
+molecules, and hence cannot be brought about by solutions of albumens or
+peptones, since these are micellar solutions. Life presupposes the
+intussusception of plasma-micellae; hence it ceases as soon as the
+arrangement of micellae is so far disordered by injurious influences that
+that process of growth becomes impossible.
+
+The resulting organism must be perfectly simple, a mass of plasma with
+micellae as yet unarranged, because any organization without a preceding
+organizing activity is inconceivable. For this reason known organisms
+cannot have orginated spontaneously; a kingdom of simpler beings must
+have preceded them (_Probien_--the sub-organic kingdom).
+
+The growth of the masses of plasma continues as long as the conditions
+of nutrition are favorable. If these become unfavorable, a resting
+period (latent life) or partial or total death occurs, according to
+circumstances (as lack of nutritive material, lowering of temperature,
+comparative exsiccation). The growth of plants and animals is nothing
+else than the continuation of the growth begun in the primordial plasma.
+This growth still continues wherever the primordial plasma exists.
+
+
+4. PARTIAL DEATH OF THE INDIVIDUAL: REPRODUCTION.
+
+Since the primordial masses of plasma continue to attract nutritive
+materials indefinitely and apply them to growth, the nutritive materials
+are used up in one place and another and the substance which is no
+longer nourished is in great measure disintegrated. A general condition
+of equilibrium now sets in, in which the viable plasma masses continue
+to gain just as much in growth as there is dead plasma broken down and
+changed back into the original nutritive materials.
+
+In the primordial condition this balancing process is irregular and
+accidental and remains so even later in many of the lowest organisms.
+Little by little it becomes phylogenetically more regular by individuals
+attaining to a more definite size and term of life, while only the germs
+detached from them remain viable. This phenomenon known as reproduction
+has a double origin.
+
+_A._ The portions of primordial plasma that grow to a more considerable
+size as soft, half-liquid masses break up by the mechanical action of
+external circumstances into smaller portions of indefinite number and
+size. This typifies irregular and accidental reproduction of the lowest
+order.
+
+In the offspring of the primordial plasma division becomes gradually
+more and more regular as a result of the increasing organization of the
+substance, and especially as a result of the formation of an envelope
+about it, till finally in the microscopically small masses, which are
+now called cells, division into two parts always appears, after these
+masses have grown to perhaps double their original size. After division
+the two halves separate from each other and represent independent
+individuals.
+
+In the further course of phylogeny the division of the cells into two
+parts takes place regularly. But the cells remain united to each other
+and form multicellular individuals, which increase by cell division and
+which at times in the lowest stages are divided at regular intervals
+into smaller individuals, perhaps even at last into single cells, but
+from which there are periodically given off cells that develop as germ
+cells into new multicellular individuals.
+
+_B._ Another phenomenon which appears in the primordial plasma or its
+immediate offspring is the death of the greater part of the plasma under
+certain unfavorable conditions of nutrition, while the smaller part
+continues to be nourished at its expense and in that case remains viable
+during the dormant period.
+
+In the offspring this phenomenon gradually becomes free cell formation,
+which takes place before the resting stage or before the death of many
+unicellular and multicellular organisms, and which forms germ cells from
+a part of the contents of the parent cells.
+
+The formation of germ cells by cell division (_A_), or by free cell
+formation (_B_) is reproduction of the organism. The germ cells are the
+elements in which the life and growth of the parental individual are
+continued.
+
+
+5. MORPHOLOGY OF THE IDIOPLASM IN GENERAL.
+
+The larger part of the unarranged, soft and homogenous primordial
+plasma, which grows by intussusception, becomes watery soma-plasm, with
+unarranged and easily movable micellae. The smaller part is converted in
+the course of phylogeny into idioplasm, in which at certain favorable
+points the micellae that are being stored up under the influence of
+molecular forces arrange themselves into groups by similar orientations,
+and hence form bodies of less water content and greater solidity. Each
+body of idioplasm consists originally of only one group of micellae,
+which, however, necessarily breaks up with increasing additions into
+several groups. On account of the dynamic influence of the groups of
+micellae upon their own growth, they become in part more distinct and
+more definitely separated, in part again differentiated by new irregular
+intussusception. This phylogenetic process is continued indefinitely,
+by which the combination of forces produces a new configuration, and
+conversely, by which a new configuration produces a new combination of
+forces, so that the body of idioplasm merely takes on a continually
+increasing complexity of configuration by the action of the internal
+forces--that is, by the molecular forces of the micellae of the albumen
+under the influence of which growth proceeds. This constitutes the
+_automatic perfecting process_ or progression of the idioplasm, and
+entropy of organic matter. (See p. 47.)
+
+The above described phylogenetic perfecting process of the idoplasm,
+which operates through internal causes, is scarcely affected by
+differences of nutrition and by climatic conditions influencing
+nutrition. On the other hand all those external forces which act as
+stimuli during a long period of time in an unvarying manner have a very
+noticeable influence on the intussusception of micellae in the idioplasm
+and on the molecular processes going on among the micellae. The action of
+stimuli determines the particular structure of the groups of micellae
+added under the direction of the perfecting process. Thus the
+configuration of the idioplasm becomes continually more and more complex
+and at the same time assumes a local adaptation corresponding to
+external conditions. This constitutes adaptation of the idioplasm.
+
+
+6. FUNCTION OF THE IDIOPLASM IN GENERAL.
+
+The unarranged micellae of the albumen of the spontaneously generated
+plasma are as yet in no way superior to the unorganized condition from
+which they have arisen, except in this that under the influence of their
+molecular forces the formation of similar new albumen micellae follows
+more easily. But as by the further action of molecular forces
+idioplasmic bodies are formed with groups of smilarly oriented micellae,
+the molecular forces of these micellae amount by summation to molar
+forces and thereby new chemical processes are introduced; plastic
+products are formed from plasmic and non-plasmic materials, and molar
+movements are introduced. And since idioplasmic bodies are formed under
+the influence of external stimuli, their plastic products always appear
+with a definite character of adaptation to environment.
+
+Then, as the idioplasmic body becomes continually more complex in the
+further course of phylogeny, and consists of a greater number of groups
+of micellae differing from each other, the organisms become more complex
+and differentiate into a greater number of parts, because each group of
+micellae of the idioplasm produces its specific effect with regard to
+inner structure, outer form, and function.
+
+
+7. DETERMINANTS: THEIR ORIGIN AND DISAPPEARANCE.
+
+Since a particular cluster or group of micellae of the idioplasm produces
+a particular phenomenon in the organism, the former is designated as the
+determinant (_Anlage_, see p. 49) of the latter. Thus the organism must
+contain at least as many determinants in its idioplasm as there are
+different phenomena in its inheritable ontogeny; and if new phenomena
+appear in it, new clusters of micellae must previously have been
+introduced into the idioplasm, or the orientation and arrangement of
+clusters already present must have been changed. The formation of such a
+determinant, whether it concerns the perfecting of the organism or its
+adaptation to environment, always proceeds very slowly, and as a rule
+has no effect before its completion. Hence along with perfected
+determinants the idioplasm always contains growing and incomplete
+determinants.
+
+If a phylogenetic line comes under the influence of other external
+conditions and other external stimuli than those which have hitherto
+acted upon it, a new and corresponding arrangement of the micellae
+appears phylogenetically in the idioplasm. At the same time the other
+adaptation determinants remain either undisturbed, or the new
+determinant is formed at the expense of related determinants which are
+already present and which may at last entirely vanish. Hence along with
+growing and complete determinants the idioplasm always contains likewise
+weakened and vanishing determinants. From the fact that a phylogenetic
+race is thrown repeatedly among different external conditions, it may at
+last unite in its idioplasm a large number of developing, mature, and
+vanishing adaptation determinants. This number is noticeably increased
+if in consequence of interbreeding a fusion of related idioplasms take
+place.
+
+
+8. DEFINITE NOTIONS WITH REGARD TO THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE IDIOPLASM.
+
+Since in the phylogenetic development of the plasma the thicker
+idioplasm is differentiated from the more fluid soma-plasm (Sec. 5), the
+former has the tendency by nature to assume a reticular arrangement. The
+strands of this network consist, in conformity with their origin, of
+parallel rows of micellae extending lengthwise. These rows of micellae
+are combined into more or less complex arrangements, so that the cross
+section of the strand represents the configuration of the idioplasm.[B]
+
+    [B] Naegeli makes his idioplasm ramify throughout the organism in
+    unbroken continuity, much like a system of nerves in the higher
+    animals. This idea with Naegeli was purely speculative. It was
+    known that the protoplasm is in connection throughout the
+    organism, but it has been proved more recently that only the
+    somatic protoplasm is thus connected. The part in which the
+    essential nature of the organism is contained is localized
+    in the nucleus and hence might properly be designated as
+    nucleoplasm, as Weismann suggests. If the idioplasm is
+    localized in the nucleus, it cannot be continuous throughout
+    the system, as Naegeli assumes. But this objection applies only
+    to a detail of the theory and does not affect the fundamental
+    conception,--that of a portion of the protoplasm which is
+    differentiated from the rest and represents a definite molecular
+    structure which determines the specific nature of the
+    organism.--_Trans._
+
+Each ontogeny (individual) begins in a minute germ cell, in which a
+small quantity of idioplasm is contained. In the cell divisions, by
+which the organism grows, the idioplasm divides into as many parts as
+there are single cells, while it continually increases in quantity in a
+corresponding degree. The ontogenetic increase of the idioplasm takes
+place by length growth of the strands--that is, by intercalation of
+micellae in each row of cells of the strands, which thereby grow in
+length without changing the configuration of the cross section.[C]
+Accordingly, each strand of idioplasm contains all the determinants that
+the particular individual has inherited in the germ cell, and each cell
+of the organism is idioplasmatically qualified to become the germ cell
+of a new individual. Whether this qualification may be realized depends
+upon the nature of the soma-plasm. In the lower plants this power
+belongs to each individual cell; in the higher plants many cells have
+lost it; in the animal kingdom it is possessed in general only by cells
+normally set apart as asexual or sexual reproductive cells.
+
+    [C] Hence, according to Naegeli, every cell of the organism has
+    idioplasm of identical structure. This at once suggests the
+    objection, how can the idioplasm, for instance, of a pollen
+    grain be the same as that of a leaf? Identical idioplasms should
+    always produce identical structures. Naegeli attempts to explain
+    this difficulty by attributing the different results to
+    different "conditions of tension and movement," i.e., a
+    dynamical difference between the idioplasms of the different
+    parts of the organism. (_Abstammungslehre_, p. 53.)
+
+    This idea of differences of structure being due to dynamic
+    rather than to material causes plays a considerable part in
+    Naegeli's theory, but is the point on which he speaks with least
+    certainty--in fact with a noticeable hesitation. He does not
+    clearly explain the phrase "conditions of tension and movement,"
+    nor does he give a convincing explanation of the known phenomena
+    as results of the action of dynamic influence.
+
+    Naegeli is not the only one who posits dynamic rather than
+    material differences as to the basis of diversities of
+    structure. More recently, Cope has built up a system of
+    evolution founded largely on this idea.--_Trans._
+
+The continued phylogenetic formation of the threads of idioplasm takes
+place by growth in the cross section, which contains the sum of all the
+determinants and changes in general only when new rows of micellae are
+intercalated. But the rows of micellae of the idioplasm join closely to
+each other, according to their thickness, so that only rarely new rows
+can enter, and then only at those definite places where the cohesion is
+less strong and hence is overcome. The cohesion varies irregularly
+because the configuration of the cross section, conformably to its
+origin, is never regular; the disruptive tensions are brought about by
+the unequal growth in length of the individual rows of micellae. Dynamic
+influences have a decisive effect upon cohesion and disruptive tensions.
+The groups of micellae of the configuration already obtained exercise
+these dynamic influences upon each other; and these dynamic influences
+can be modified by stimuli from without.
+
+The idioplasm continually alters its configuration with its growth in
+successive ontogenies, but comparatively very slowly, so that it makes a
+minute advance from the germ of one generation to the germ of the next.
+The summation of these increments of advance through a whole line of
+evolution represents the race history of an organism, since the latter
+is connected only by its idioplasm in unbroken continuity with the
+micellar beginning of its race.
+
+
+9. DEFINITE NOTIONS REGARDING THE FUNCTION OF THE IDIOPLASM.
+
+A plasmic substance causes definite chemical and physical changes only
+when it is present in a certain condition of motion. The peculiar agency
+which the idioplasm has in each ontogenetic stage of development and in
+each part of the organism depends on the activity of a definite group of
+micellae in the cross section of the strand or of a complex of such
+groups, while this local stimulus controls the chemical and physical
+processes by dynamic influence and by transmission of a specific mode of
+motion, even to a microscopically small distance.
+
+The effective stimulus in a plasmic substance is dependent on its own
+nature and the influence which it receives from without. Which group of
+micellae in the idioplasm receives the stimulus depends on the
+configuration, on the preceding stimuli and on the position in the
+individual organism in which the idioplasm is found. The determinants
+have arisen one after another during the whole period of evolution from
+the primordial cell. The configuration of the idioplasm is a character
+of phylogeny and the determinants in it have by nature the tendency to
+develop in the order in which they were formed. Further, since the
+ontogeny begins as a unicellular organism with the formation of a germ
+cell, that determinant of the idioplasm comes first to development,
+which has developed in the unicellular ancestor. Just so the succeeding
+stages of ontogeny depend for the time being on the development of the
+determinants having their origin in the corresponding stage of
+phylogeny. Both causes acting together--the phylogenetic configuration
+of the idioplasm and the successive morphological stages of development
+of the individual conditioned on it--necessarily result in the ontogeny
+being the repetition of the phylogeny.
+
+If the whole remaining line of idioplasmic determinants in an ontogeny
+has reached development, the development of the germ-forming
+determinants finally follows as well from the configuration of the
+idioplasm as from the nature of the organism. The individual is capable
+of reproduction and the new ontogenies begin in the reproductive cells.
+
+
+10. TRANSMISSION OF IDIOPLASMIC DETERMINANTS IN LOCAL VARIATION AND IN
+FECUNDATION.
+
+The automatic progressive or perfecting transformation of the idioplasm
+is probably active in all stages of development, and proceeds regularly
+in all parts of the organism, because the idioplasm preserves its
+configuration at all times and places during the ontogeny. External
+stimuli impign upon the organism usually at a definite point, but they
+not only effect a local transformation of the idioplasm but also
+reproduce themselves in a dynamic manner in the entire idioplasm, which
+is in unbroken connection throughout the whole individual. The idioplasm
+is thus changed everywhere in the same manner, so that the germ cells
+that are given off at any point feel and inherit the effects of those
+local stimuli.
+
+In the formation of the germ cells in sexual reproduction, the
+idioplasms of both parents must come into contact with each other,
+whereupon there results either a material union and formation of a mixed
+idioplasm or perhaps rather a dynamic action; and through these agencies
+there is produced a remodeled form which is, however, exactly equivalent
+to the combined idioplasms entering into it. Fertilization by diosmose
+of the spermatic substance is impossible.[D]
+
+    [D] This assertion is a direct corollary from the structure of
+    the determinants and the idioplasm. If the idioplasm of the
+    fertilizing cell were to pass through the membrane about the
+    ovum by osmosis, its organized structure would be
+    lost.--_Trans._
+
+In the idioplasm of a germ cell arising from the crossing of unlike
+individuals the micellar rows of the individual determinants have
+sometimes an intermediate constitution and produce characteristics in
+the organism which are intermediate between the characteristics of the
+parents. Sometimes the micellar rows derived from the father and mother
+respectively lie side by side unchanged in the idioplasm of the
+offspring in distinct groupings and may reproduce in the organism their
+respective characteristics side by side, or only one of them may
+develop, while the other remains latent.
+
+On account of the union of both idioplasms as the result of fecundation,
+two sexually mature organisms are the more able to form with each other
+a viable germ cell, the nearer they are genetically related--that is,
+the more nearly the male and female idioplasms correspond in their
+configuration and chemical nature, because in this case the micellar
+arrangements are best suited to each other, and the idioplasm of the new
+fertile germ cell receives its most suitable nourishment from the
+mother. If, however, self-fecundation or the closest in-and-in breeding
+often yields products of less virility and is avoided by nature, this
+is the result of injurious influences which make themselves felt later
+on. This is because incompatibilities may be present in too closely
+related idioplasms and these are sources of weakness in unrestricted
+development. The more complicated is the idioplasm, the oftener this
+occurs, whereas absolute lack of crossing is not detrimental to the
+simplest (asexual) organisms.
+
+
+11. ACTION OF EXTERNAL INFLUENCES.[E]
+
+The environment provides the organism above all with force and matter
+for its life processes. It causes no permanent variation and has only an
+ontogenetic significance, if the limits of the idioplasmic elasticity
+are not exceeded; it maintains the growth and metabolic assimilation of
+the individual, and conditions individual (not hereditary) differences,
+which constitute "nutrition varieties." (See page 30.) These appear as
+the direct results of operating causes.
+
+    [E] In order to explain adaptations Naegeli assumes that external
+    influences, if acting at the same point in a given manner for a
+    long time, may induce slight adaptive variations which are
+    perpetuated and increased. On the important subject of
+    adaptation in general Naegeli is almost diametrically opposed to
+    Darwin and Weismann. Naegeli assigns to the principle of utility
+    a very limited sphere; Weismann regards adaptation as
+    all-powerful. According to Naegeli, the organic world would have
+    become much what it is, if natural selection and adaptation had
+    performed no part in the operations of nature. He aptly says,
+    that natural selection prunes the phylogenetic tree, but does
+    not cause new branches to grow. He allows that the principle of
+    selection is well suited to explain the adaptation of organisms
+    to their environment and the suitableness and physiological
+    peculiarities of their structure, but he asserts that in the
+    definiteness of variation of plants and in their progressive
+    differentiation there is evidence of a higher and controlling
+    perfecting principle.--_Trans._
+
+When the stress of environment exceeds the limits of idioplasmic
+elasticity, its influence brings about permanent variations, which are
+imperceptibly small, it is true, in the single individual, but which,
+when the stimulus is active for a long period of time in the same
+manner, increase to perceptible magnitude. These variations are
+inheritable in the phylogenetic sense and contribute to the formation of
+varieties and species; they always appear as the results of more or less
+secondary reactions which make their appearance with stimuli exerted by
+external causes.
+
+External stimuli exerted on the organism are reproduced in the
+idioplasm. Since the stimulus is discontinued with each change of the
+ontogeny and only the idioplasm persists, permanent variations are
+produced only in the idioplasm by those conditions that produce visible
+transformations in the mature organism.
+
+The phylogenetic action of external stimuli gives the definite character
+of adaptation to the idioplasm as it becomes more complex from inner
+causes and probably these external stimuli have the power to alter this
+impress only as new idioplasm is automatically formed.
+
+If an external cause acts continuously upon a phylogenetic line, the
+corresponding variation of the idioplasm reaches, after a time, a
+maximum, and thus comes to an end, either because the nature of the
+substance permits no new rearrangement or because the stimulus is no
+longer active. The cessation of the stimulus results from a micellar
+rearrangement which indicates the character of the adaptation. If the
+action of the stimulus lasts for only a short time, the incipient
+rearrangement of the idioplasm stops, or proceeds independently on
+account of the impulse received, and the determinant becomes capable of
+development, even after the impulse has long ceased to act.
+
+Since various intervening transpositions follow upon a stimulus in the
+organism, the final result which appears as a reaction may turn out
+variously. The same external causes may, according to the nature of the
+organism and other circumstances, have very unlike variations as a
+result. But the internal rearrangement produces in a definite case very
+definite variations.
+
+On account of the various intermediate steps it is often difficult to
+discover the external cause of a given adaptive variation. In many cases
+we recognize it without difficulty in a definite mechanical process or
+in warmth, light or evaporation. For the most part the stimulus awakens
+in the organism merely a want, which the reaction of the organism
+endeavors to supply. Hence it appears that want or lack alone is able to
+bring about such reactions. Moreover, in the sphere of sex, electric(?)
+attractions and repulsions co-operate between the idioplasmic
+determinants to produce phylogenetic variations.
+
+The adaptations of the fully developed organism, which are the results
+of external influences, consist either only of a specific molecular
+character (irritability), by virtue of which the individual is capable
+of responding to those influences with temporary or permanent phenomena,
+or they consist of finished arrangements. The latter have, in general, a
+double function: either they protect the organism from external
+influences whose results they are, or they place it in a condition to
+apply such environmental influences to their advantage. The
+preponderance of the one or the other led to the development of the
+plant or the animal kingdom. In the one case the primordial plasma
+formed in the cellulose cell wall a stimulus-proof covering. On account
+of this cell membrane being insensible to stimuli, adaptations in the
+plant kingdom were restricted essentially to the spheres of nutrition
+and reproduction. In the other case the irritability and mobility of the
+primordial plasma increased so that it was placed in a condition to
+avoid the irritant or make it serviceable by accommodating itself to it.
+The cells sensible to irritants led in the animal kingdom to the
+formation of organs of sense and the nervous system.
+
+
+12. CONDITIONS OF PHYLOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE DETERMINANTS. ATAVISM.
+
+In the primordial condition, formation and development of the
+determinants coincide, since the plasma constituting the organism
+possesses the capability of growing by intussusception of new micellae
+and of changing this growth through the action of inner and outer
+causes. But as the primordial plasma differentiates into idioplasm and
+soma-plasm, the formation of determinants consists in the transformation
+of the idioplasm, while the development of determinants consists in the
+production of soma-plasm and of non-plasmic substances under the
+influence of the idioplasm.
+
+Only the mature determinant is able to develop, especially if, at the
+same time, a related and heretofore active determinant must be forced
+back into the latent condition. But the determinant of an absolutely new
+form of adaptation, which does not take the place of a preceding one,
+must develop enough before it can become outwardly manifest, for it to
+be possessed of a sufficient amount of molecular energy to render its
+activity possible. For this reason the characteristics of the developed
+organism change abruptly, notwithstanding the fact that the
+transformation of the idioplasm has proceeded very gradually.
+
+The configuration of the idioplasm becomes continually more complex
+through the automatic action of the perfecting process, and by this
+means the organism ascends to higher stages of organization. Hence the
+viable determinants of organization or perfection are always overtaken
+after a certain time by that movement and forced into the latent
+condition. They then become continually weaker, and are at last
+completely destroyed. Only in the first period after their becoming
+latent can such determinants pass again into a developmental condition
+and thus allow the organism to revert to the next preceding stage of
+organization.
+
+Since the configuration of the idioplasm, which becomes more complex
+from internal causes, always assumes a definite character of adaptation
+in consequence of the action of external causes, the adaptation
+determinants capable of development may become more and more weakened
+and at last latent when other external causes produce other adaptation
+determinants. But these determinants may be revived by the renewed
+activity of the former causes, and thus rendered capable of development.
+Hence the organism may show the most various reversions with respect to
+its adaptations. But in such reversions the earlier forms never quite
+return, because in the meanwhile the idioplasm has changed somewhat in
+consequence of its automatic progress, and therefore lends to the
+adaptations which assume the earlier character a somewhat different
+expression.
+
+
+13. ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE DETERMINANTS.
+
+Since the capability of the primordial plasma to grow is the original
+and only vital quality (_Anlage_), the whole ontogeny in this first
+stage consists in the growth of the detached parts to the adult size. In
+the same way the development of the determinants in all the following
+stages is nothing more than the growth of the substance detached as a
+germ cell after the manner of the changes in the character of the
+idioplasm in the course of phylogeny. In this manner all determinants
+may in the lower stages of organization reach development, but in the
+higher stages an increasing number of them must remain latent.
+
+Among the viable determinants there are some that develop
+unconditionally during each ontogenetic period; there are also
+alternative determinants of which one or the other unconditionally
+develops; lastly, there are some that develop only under favorable
+circumstances. Which of two alternative determinants shall develop
+depends sometimes on internal, sometimes on external causes, according
+as the specific determinant has arisen phylogenetically through the
+action of internal or external causes. Climatic and nutritive influences
+especially affect the appearance of indefinitely developing
+determinants. Just so, when a determinant may develop repeatedly (as is
+so common in the plant kingdom) it depends especially on nutrition
+whether the corresponding phenomenon is repeated at intervals of greater
+or less length. A weakened determinant is sometimes temporarily
+developed by the operation of a definite stimulus.
+
+If the integrity of the organism sustains an injury in consequence of
+abnormal interferences, determinants develop exceptionally at unusual
+points. The process is induced by accumulation of nutritive matter and
+by external stimuli under the force of necessity, to which the injured
+organism is sensible.
+
+
+14. ESSENTIAL NATURE OF THE ORGANISM.
+
+The essential nature of a thing is the sum total of its causes and
+effects. Organisms arise from a germ cell which consists of idioplasm
+and in turn they produce like germ cells. Their nature depends also on
+their idioplasm, _i.e._, on the sum total of their idioplasmic
+determinants. Observation of organisms, even in their fullest life
+history, gives us an imperfect and even false conception of their true
+nature. This is because observation reveals only the outer gross
+characters, and even these in a modification dependent upon accidental
+effects of nutrition, and does not reveal the finer characters founded
+in molecular physiology and morphology, and especially the characters
+latent in the idioplasm.
+
+For the examination of idioplasmic differences we are restricted to
+visible characters. Hence a knowledge of the nature of an organism
+presupposes a complete investigation of its characters in their
+succession during the whole ontogeny. The results must, however, be
+tested and completed by comparison with other organisms and by the most
+comprehensive experimental procedure, possible, (as by culture under
+various conditions, and crossing with nearer and more remote relatives).
+The characteristics of nutrition varieties and accidental crosses must
+be separated from specific characteristics by experimental procedure,
+and latent determinants must be brought out by the same means.
+
+
+15. REPRODUCTION, AND RELATION BETWEEN PARENTS AND OFFSPRING.
+
+Reproduction is nothing more than a transition from one generation to
+the next following, mediated by the idioplasm of the germ cell. In
+asexual (monogenic) reproduction there is continuity of the same
+idioplasm. Therefore the parent continues in the offspring its specific
+life, as the stem continues its specific life in the branch. All the
+peculiarities conditioned by the idioplasm remain unchanged in the
+offspring. The latter, as the immediate continuation of the preceding
+ontogeny, starts from the point at which the germ cell left it, so that
+immediately after the germ cell is separated at the close of the
+ontogeny or before, the offspring passes at one time rapidly through
+the whole ontogeny, at another only the remainder or a part of it (the
+latter in alternation of generations and in asexual propagation of
+phanerogams).
+
+In sexual (digenic) reproduction the formation of the germ cell is
+brought about by the union in equal parts of both parental idioplasms.
+The offspring is the organism resulting from the union of the force and
+matter of the parents, and represents in its nature the united
+continuation of their ontogenies. The characteristics of development of
+the child depend however on the viability of the determinants of the
+mingled idioplasms in which a new equilibrium has been formed. Hence if
+the child bears more resemblance to the father or to the mother, it
+follows that some of the inherited determinants develop while the others
+remain latent. If the child has certain visible characteristics more
+marked than either parent, it becomes possible only by the development
+of determinants which had previously been latent. The fact that the
+mother furnishes the germ cell with nutritive plasm and that she
+nourishes it for a considerable time does not increase the number of
+maternal determinants nor their capability of development.
+
+If two corresponding characters, one derived from the father, the other
+from the mother, come into conflict in sexual reproduction, the one or
+the other, or even a third alternative characteristic, which heretofore
+was present as a latent determinant, may develop in the child. But also
+both parental characters may appear at once and in various combinations.
+Whether the development follows in the one way or the other depends on
+the strength of the individual determinants, on the kind of their
+idioplasmic arrangement, and on their agreement with the nature of the
+newly formed idioplasm.
+
+
+16. HEREDITY AND VARIATION.
+
+If heredity and variation are defined according to the true nature of
+organisms, they are only apparent opposites. Since idioplasm alone is
+transmitted from one ontogeny to the next following, the phylogenetic
+development consists solely in the continual progress of the idioplasm
+and the whole genealogical tree from the primordial drop of plasma up to
+the organism of the present day (plant or animal) is, strictly speaking,
+nothing else than an individual consisting of idioplasm, which at each
+ontogeny forms a new individual body, corresponding to its advance.
+
+In this idioplasmic individual the _automatic_ or _perfecting variation_
+is always active, so that the idioplasm of a phylogenetic line always
+grows by propagation of the determinants contained within it, as a tree
+grows larger through its whole duration of life by branching. On the
+other hand the _adaptation variation_ caused by external stimuli is
+present only in those periods of the phylogenetic line in which the
+idioplasm, and together with this the individual, do not possess the
+obtainable maximum of adaptation to their environment for the time
+being. Both of these variations of the idioplasm take place so slowly
+that only after a long series of generations do the new determinants
+become capable of developing and revealing themselves in the
+transmutation of visible characters.
+
+Aside from the phylogenetic variations already named, which take place
+according to the measure of ontogenetic growth, the idioplasm undergoes,
+as a result of crossing, as well as in changes of the ontogeny,
+_gamogenic variations_ which may be designated as stationary, since in
+the mingling of sexually different idioplasms there arise only new
+arrangements of determinants already present, but no new formation of
+determinants takes place. Hence in this way arise also new combinations
+of developmental characteristics.
+
+As a result of external injurious influences, abnormal variations, or
+_pathological variations_, appear in the idioplasm. These consist of
+disturbances of equilibrium, which take place also without new formation
+of determinants. Thereby the determinants already present are caused to
+develop in abnormal relations, and mostly in reversions.
+
+Apart from the inheritable variations of the idioplasm just enumerated,
+and the transformations of visible characters involved in it, the
+soma-plasm and the non-plasmic substances experience, by the influence
+of nutrition and climate, greater or less variations, which constitute
+_nutrition varieties_, and since the idioplasm remains unaffected in
+general, last only so long as the causes which called them forth.[F]
+
+    [F] Naegeli, like Weismann, arrives at the conclusion that
+    acquired characters are not inherited. He was not content,
+    however, to rest the generalization upon purely speculative
+    grounds, but undertook the experimental demonstration. After
+    seventeen years of work by himself and son, especially upon
+    several species of Hieracium, he satisfied himself that his
+    theory was true to the facts. We all know now how far he fell
+    short of settling the question.--_Trans._
+
+If we have in mind the inner nature of the organism, there is, properly
+speaking, no such specific phenomenon as heredity, since the
+phylogenetic line is a continuous idioplasmic individual. In this sense
+heredity is nothing more than the persistence of organized substance in
+a movement in which variations are automatically induced, or the
+necessary transition of one idioplasmic configuration into the next
+following. It is present, not only among plant and animal individuals
+which are ontogenetically separated, but also everywhere within these
+individuals, where individual parts (cells, organs) follow each other in
+time. Hereditary phenomena are those that necessarily pass over to
+following generations, and in general those that are located in the
+idioplasm, since non-idioplasmic substance can be hereditary only
+through a limited number of cell generations.
+
+Variations and heredity are generally estimated, not according to the
+inner nature of the mature individuals, but according to their relation
+in successive generations, since heredity is assumed when the
+ontogenetic characters remain the same, and variation when previously
+latent characters become visible. But these phenomena belong to another
+department of science; they concern the possibility and reality of
+development of the idioplasmic determinants.
+
+
+17. VARIETY, RACE, MODIFICATION.
+
+From the multifarious variations of organisms proceed various categories
+of kinship. _Varieties_ arise by extremely slow changes in the idioplasm
+due to the perfecting process and adaptation. Since these are
+conditioned by the same causes, they follow in all individuals of the
+same variety in uniform manner. Varieties are uniform, entirely constant
+under the most various external conditions, in general cross only with
+difficulty with related varieties, are not varied by accidental crosses,
+and persist through geological periods. Varieties belong to feral nature
+rather than to culture; they can assume all possible modifications
+without injury to their specific characteristics, but can show no
+distinctions of races, for all beginnings of race formation are
+destroyed by free intercrossing. They differ from species only in that
+they are to be designated as more closely related species, or species as
+more remotely related varieties. Every other distinguishing
+characteristic is wanting.
+
+_Races_ arise from gamogenic or pathological variations of the
+idioplasm. In the former case they presuppose crossing between related
+varieties or species, in the latter case an increased sensibility and
+weakening of the idioplasm. Very often both causes co-operate, since
+crossing follows more easily when the idioplasm is weakened by hurtful
+influences and since the irritability and weakening of the idioplasm
+increases if crossing has preceded. Race formation begins in single
+individuals. Among several individuals it begins in various directions
+because the causes are different and hence may display a great
+multiformity. Races are distinguished by more or less abnormal
+characteristics; they arise quickly--often in a single generation--and
+present various degrees of stability. This stability is insured to some
+extent only by the strictest in-and-in breeding. All races disappear
+through crossing, likewise many races that have arisen from pathological
+variations disappear even in sexual reproduction (in self-fecundation).
+Races belong exclusively to cultivation, where they can develop and
+exist protected from free intercrossing.
+
+While varieties and races arise by progressional or stationary variation
+of the idioplasm, _modifications_ are produced by such influences of
+nutrition and climate as act only on the soma-plasm and the non-plasmic
+substances, and hence do not give rise to inheritable characters in the
+organism. Modifications persist only so long as their causes, and under
+other environments immediately pass over into the modifications
+corresponding to them. The transition is completed in the lowest plants
+during a limited number of cell generations; in an individual of the
+higher plants on the same stem during the growth of a single year. Each
+variety and each race appears clothed in a definite modification, and
+can change it within a range peculiar to itself.[A]
+
+    [G] The distinctions which Naegeli here erects are, of course,
+    purely arbitrary, and his definitions are suitable for use only
+    in his own thesis.--_Trans._
+
+
+18. SOCIAL AND INDIVIDUAL ORIGIN OF SPECIES.
+
+The species arises neither from the _nutrition variety_ nor from the
+_race_; it is always a more advanced variety, and hence species
+formation is identical with variety formation. Cause for variation and
+consequently for variety formation is always shown, either when,
+environment remaining the same, the automatic variation of the idioplasm
+has advanced so far that the ontogeny is raised to a higher grade of
+organization and division of labor, or when external stimuli act for a
+sufficiently long time in a manner not in harmony with the previous
+adaptation. Hence various varieties arise easily from a uniform kinship,
+when these are thrown among unlike external influences by local
+separation, because in the separated places on the one hand the
+automatic evolution proceeds with unequal rapidity, and on the other
+hand adaptation takes place unequally.
+
+But in general different varieties arise socially from a uniform
+kinship. This is because the related individuals living together are
+unequally stimulated on account of the great inequality of external
+influences which may exist at the smallest distances; and also because
+with slight individual differences unlike reactions often follow upon
+the same external influences. If identically similar individuals are
+equally inclined to very different reactions toward the same stimulus,
+sometimes the direction of the first variation decides the character of
+the adaptation and therefore the nature of the variety, because the
+variation, when once begun, progresses unswervingly even under somewhat
+different circumstances.[H] Hence divergent variations are found growing
+together in all places, which variations have begun at different though
+neighboring points by transformation of the idioplasm and are soon
+intermingled on account of the easy dissemination of seed.
+
+    [H] It is interesting to compare this statement with Weismann's
+    recent theory of Germinal Selection.--_Trans._
+
+The social formation of varieties is not in general interrupted by
+crossing, a process which governs only the formation of races. It is
+confirmed according to experience by the universally recurring fact that
+several beginnings of the most closely related varieties appear
+together not only in the same region, but even at the same points, while
+the geographical distribution of the more marked varieties and of
+related species offers no conclusion as to their origin, but only as to
+the last great migration of the plant world, because they arose before
+this period, as indeed appears from their distribution.
+
+Just as different varieties arise simultaneously from one kinship at the
+same place, the same variety may arise in places far separated, when the
+analogous external exciting causes occasion an identical transformation
+in the idioplasm. The experimental proof lies in the fact that like
+beginnings of varieties often appear at great distances from each other.
+
+An apparent social origin of varieties is indicated, when, after having
+come together in migration, they first develop the unlike determinants
+which they have gained in various locations. An apparently individual
+origin of the same or different varieties is indicated, when the
+formation of the determinants take place at one and the same place, but
+their development follows only after the kindred has been scattered by
+migration.
+
+
+19. GENERAL RELATION OF THE PHYLOGENETIC LINES IN THE ORGANIC KINGDOMS.
+
+Since the nature of an organism is contained in the sum of its
+idioplasmic determinants alone, the evolution of a phylogeny consists in
+the evolution of the idioplasm. This is perceived from the succession
+of the visible ontogenetic characteristics which in general run parallel
+with it. The idioplasm varies in two ways: (1) by an _automatic
+perfecting process_; (2) by _adaptation to environment_.
+
+By virtue of the _automatic variation_ of the idioplasm the ontogenies
+of a phylogenetic line attain to a continually more complex organization
+and greater differentiation of function. In this differentiation,
+however, only the qualitative differences are of importance;
+quantitative and numerical gradations may be disregarded. The more
+complex admits of more combinations than the simpler; hence if a
+phylogeny reaches a higher stage by automatic evolution it may branch
+into several lines, of which each appears as the continuation of the
+parent stock.
+
+Since _adaptive variations_ depend only on the transmutations of
+environment, an organism may rise to a higher organization and division
+of labor by continually adapting itself to the changed environment. But
+the organism may also change its adaptation while it remains at the same
+stage of organization. And since the adaptive variation is quickly
+perfected as compared with automatic evolution, although extremely
+slowly as compared with the duration of the ontogeny, an organization
+may change its adaptation several times while it remains at the same
+grade of organization and division of labor. Since there are also
+numerous different kinds of adaptation, a phyletic line may divide at
+each point into several adaptive forms, which appear in the taxonomic
+system as species, genera, often even as whole families, while in other
+cases various degrees of organization have appeared in one family.
+
+
+20. LAWS OF EVOLUTION OF THE PLANT KINGDOM.
+
+In the sub-organic kingdom, which precedes the plant and animal
+kingdoms, (see page 5), there are gradually formed from the
+spontaneously generated plasma independent cells with their
+characteristic properties, _i.e._, growth by intussusception of micellae,
+formation of a plasmic cuticle, and a non-plasmic membrane about the
+same, division of the cells, separation of the cells thus formed, and
+free cell formation within the cell contents. These properties are
+inherited from the sub-organic kingdom by the plants and animals which
+follow in the next stage of phylogeny. The evolution of the plant
+kingdom proceeds through the following regular processes, which continue
+to operate through the entire phylogenetic series.
+
+_Law of Phylogenetic Combination._--The simplest of all plants are cells
+of round form, which grow and reproduce themselves by division, budding
+or free cell formation. From the fact that the younger generation of
+cells, instead of separating from each other and growing to independent
+plant individuals, remain united with each other, multicellular plants
+arise from unicellular. The same transformation of the reproductive
+cells into non-separable tissue cells is repeated several times in
+multicellular plants and serves to enlarge the individual. There is
+manifested in this phylogenetic process the tendency of the plant to
+combine in the higher stages into one complex whole those parts which in
+the lower stages tend to be independent. A similar unifying tendency is
+revealed also in those plant members which have arisen by
+differentiation and represent a system only by their being connected at
+certain points. These combine in the higher stages and form ultimately
+continuous tissues.
+
+_Law of Phylogenetic Complication or Ampliation, Differentiation and
+Reduction._--The cells, and, in general, the parts of plants which lie
+near each other in space or follow upon each other in time, are always
+alike in the lower stages. By differentiation they become unlike, so
+that the sum of the functions which at first fall to the lot of all
+parts without distinction now is shared among the individual parts. By
+this means each part can perform its own special function so much the
+better. Differentiation is repeated in the course of the phylogeny,
+since at first all parts of an ontogeny diverge into two or more parts,
+then the parts of these parts divide again, etc. Along with this process
+of division another process is always active, which, as it were,
+prepares the way for the former, namely, ampliation, by virtue of which
+the growth of the whole ontogeny or of single stages of it undergoes a
+quantitative increase, so that an organ acquires a greater number of
+cells, and an individual a greater number of organs. After this increase
+in number of parts in a stage of ontogeny, differentiation follows as
+far as the nature of the functions permits, by the parts most separated
+passing into each other by intermediate gradations. By the further
+phylogenetic process of reduction the intermediate forms are suppressed.
+At last only the extreme products of differentiation lie near each other
+in space or follow upon each other in time; and these products are as
+limited in quantity and number as possible.
+
+Along with the above named phylogenetic processes, which take place by
+the automatic increase of the idioplasm, external influences are always
+active. These lend to the organism at times a local stamp corresponding
+to its environment, and follow the law of adaptation.
+
+
+21. ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS IN RELATION TO PHYLOGENY.
+
+Since the simplest plants are cells and the more complex ones are formed
+from cells, a whole phylogenetic line may be regarded as a series of
+cell generations following one after another. In the lowest forms all
+cell generations are like each other; in all others they show
+differences which become continually greater and more numerous. Thus
+alternation of generations in cells exists, because the successive
+generations become more and more complicated at each succeeding period.
+Among these periods the ontogenetic period or ontogeny embraces all
+generations from one cell to the return of the exactly similar kind of
+cell. In the lowest forms of cell differentiation the cells of
+successive generations are all independent; the ontogenetic period
+consists of a cycle of generations of unicellular plants. Later the cell
+generations of an ontogeny are united by parts into plant individuals;
+the ontogenetic period consists of a cycle of multicellular and
+unicellular, or only of multicellular plant generations. If all the cell
+generations of an ontogenetic period have been united into a single
+individual, the successive plant generations are alike and alternation
+of generations has ceased.
+
+The unlikeness of the generations arises either from inner causes of
+temporary differentiation alone, or by temporary differentiation which
+receives a definite imprint by the change of seasons. But in the latter
+case the characteristic of adaptation is again lost in the course of the
+phylogeny and alternation of generations follows then without regard to
+the season. If the given adaptation is united in the lower plants with
+alternation of generations during the ontogenetic periods, one of the
+unlike plant generations is repeated an indefinite number of times
+(repetitional generation), while the other unlike plant generation
+appears only once and then at the beginning of the resting stage and
+remains latent in the form of a resting spore till the beginning of the
+next period of generation. With this peculiar transition generation,
+which has arisen in the lower stages asexually, and in the following
+higher stages by the union of a male and a female cell, and which hence
+is hermaphrodite, there are generally associated later two other single
+generations--_viz._, a generation preceding and one following the
+hermaphrodite, the former as a sex-producing generation, the other as a
+sex-produced generation.
+
+The phylogenetic significance of the alternation of generations consists
+in its representing a transition stage from the unicellular to the
+simpler multicellular and from the latter to the more complex
+multicellular plants. The plant generations of any phylogenetic stage
+increase by ampliation, become unlike by differentiation in time
+(alternation of generations), and unite in a plant individual, whose
+unlike ontogenetic stages correspond to the unlike plant generations of
+the earlier ancestral series.
+
+
+22. MORPHOLOGY AS THE SCIENCE OF PHYLOGENY.
+
+All organic phenomena belong, according to their causes, to two
+different classes: (1) Those belonging to one group are the results of
+external influences in each ontogeny and are not inherited; they
+represent nutrition varieties, are experimentally demonstrable, and
+constitute the subject matter of experimental physiology. (2) The others
+are inherited and again transmitted; they belong to the physiology of
+the idioplasm. This subject is mainly occupied with the origin of the
+determinants, hence with the formation of varieties and species. It is
+not the subject of experiment, and constitutes the phylogeny or the
+physiology of the formation of determinants. A sub-division of this
+subject is occupied with the development of the determinants already
+present, hence with the formation of races. It is elucidated especially
+by experiments in crossing and may be designated as the physiology of
+the development of the determinants.
+
+The morphological phenomena which find their application in taxonomy,
+belong exclusively to phylogeny. Their ontogenetic history does not
+explain their true significance; this can be known only in a
+phylogenetic way by comparison of one phenomenon with those phenomena
+from which it has arisen in the course of evolution.
+
+
+23. PLANT CLASSIFICATION FROM THE STANDPOINT OF PHYLOGENY.
+
+Spontaneous generation has taken place at all times and in all places,
+in as far as the necessary conditions were concurrently present. (See
+page 47). After spontaneous generation the automatic phylogenetic
+evolution begins and advances constantly. Consequently the phylogenetic
+line rises from time to time to higher stages of organization and
+division of labor, but dies of old age if the automatic perfecting
+process ceases. The phylogenetic lines of organisms now living have
+therefore an unequal age; those of the most highly developed plants and
+animals had their origin in the earliest periods of organic life, those
+of the lowest organisms in the most recent periods. Hence no general
+genetic relation exists among lines now living; only those that are
+nearly related and have reached approximately equal stages of
+organization may be regarded as branches of the same phylogenetic stock.
+A phylogenetic plant system does not exist in fact, but only in figure.
+
+If genetic relation between two races is assumed, either as a reality or
+as a symbol, the degree of relationship is determined in a theoretically
+exact manner by the number and length of the phylogenetic steps which
+are found either between them both or between them and the common
+starting point, according as races belong to the same or collateral
+lines. The fact that two organisms belong to the same line of descent is
+recognized from the ontogeny of the higher including the ontogeny of the
+lower.
+
+Since only a proportionately small number of known forms can appear as
+types of the supposed stages of evolution, only a few phylogenetic
+lines, and these only in a general way, may be established, on account
+of the great incompleteness of the present plant world. Such a line
+proceeds from the green filamentous algae through the liverworts to the
+vascular plants. Among the phanerogams, apparently so numerously
+represented, only phylogenetic series of individual organs can be
+ascertained, but no phylogenetic series of families. A phylogenetic
+system of phanerogams is not to be hazarded in the roughest outline.
+Even the relative rank of the two chief divisions of the angiosperms,
+the monocotyledons and dicotyledons, is a matter of question, as also
+which family in each of these divisions is to be considered the most
+perfect.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+TRANSLATORS' NOTES.
+
+
+_The Mechanico-physiological Theory of Evolution_,
+(_Mechanisch-Physiologische Theorie der Abstammungslehre_),
+by Carl von Naegeli, was published in Munich and Leipsic in 1884 in a
+large octavo volume of 822 pages, including two large appendices. The
+_Abstammungslehre_ proper, including the summary, occupies 552 pages,
+and constitutes, in its way, one of the most important contributions to
+theoretical biology. It is difficult to understand how a work of so much
+consequence should have received such comparatively small notice in this
+country, especially as Naegeli's theories seemed calculated by nature to
+appeal much more strongly to American students than do, for instance,
+those of Weismann, who has been studied ten times as much as Naegeli.
+This is doubtless due, in part, to the fact that we have had no English
+translation of Naegeli's work, a circumstance much to be regretted.
+
+The foregoing translation of the summary from _Abstammungslehre_
+goes but a small way toward making Naegeli's theories accessible to
+English-reading students, but it will, at least, be better than nothing.
+The work covers a great range of subjects, all, however, having a
+certain relationship to each other. In the main part of the book the
+discussion is presented in the following order: (1) Idioplasm as bearer
+of the inheritable determinants; (2) Spontaneous generation; (3) Causes
+of variation; (4) Determinants and visible characters, in which the
+origin and function of the determinants is presented; (5) Variety, race,
+"nutrition variety," heredity and variation; (6) Criticism of the
+Darwinian theory of natural selection, in which the author urges seven
+objections to that theory; (7) Laws of evolution of the plant kingdom;
+(8) Alternation of generations from the standpoint of phylogeny; (9)
+Morphology and classification as phylogenetic sciences; (10) A
+comprehensive summary of the whole work, a translation of which is
+given in the foregoing pages.
+
+In the first part of the work Naegeli sets forth his micellar theory of
+the structure of organized bodies. This is one of his most important
+contributions to science. Until recent years it has been the only theory
+given in botanical text-books. At the present time its only competitor
+is Strasburger's lamellar theory, and even this has not superseded
+Naegeli's work to any great degree.
+
+The reader who may not be familiar with the micellar theory will find
+the general idea from the following brief sketch adapted from Vines's
+_Plant Physiology_:
+
+    "Naegeli's micellar theory was developed from his study of
+    organized bodies, especially of cell walls and starch grains.
+    From the behavior of organized substance toward water absorbed
+    by it, he concluded that water does not penetrate into the
+    micellae, but only among them, thus merely separating them more
+    from each other. He reasoned that if water should penetrate into
+    the micella, its structure would be disintegrated. Hence he
+    argued that organized bodies consist of solid micellae, which,
+    with their respective films of water, are held together by: (1)
+    The attraction of the micellae for each other, which varies
+    inversely as the square of the distance. (2) The attraction of
+    the micellae for water, which varies inversely as some higher
+    power of the distance. (3) The force which holds together the
+    ultimate chemical molecules of which each micella consists.
+
+    "Since the swelling up of organized bodies does not take place
+    equally in all three dimensions of space, and on account of
+    their double refraction, Naegeli inferred that in form the
+    micellae are crystals, probably parallelopipedal, with
+    rectangular or rhomboidal bases."
+
+The law that "bodies attract each other with a force which varies
+inversely as the square of the distance," has been proven only in its
+application to the heavenly bodies. Naegeli has applied this law to
+molecules, unsupported, however, by any evidence other than that of
+analogy. On the other hand, there is evidence that molecules do not
+invariably act according to this law.
+
+Spontaneous generation (p. 4) was an important item in Naegeli's
+doctrine, and might almost be said to be fundamental to it, although it
+is not really necessary to the internal perfecting principle, which may
+be regarded as the chief feature of the Mechanico-Physiological Theory.
+Up to 1865 Naegeli believed in the spontaneous origin of many fungi, and
+thought that it could be demonstrated. He was obliged to abandon the
+experimental evidence, but to the close of his life held the views of
+abiogenesis presented in the accompanying translation.
+
+The characteristic and most interesting feature of the
+Mechanico-Physiological Theory is certainly Naegeli's conception of an
+automatic perfecting principle (_Autonome Vervollkommnung_). This
+conception may be briefly outlined as follows:
+
+1. The essential part of the reproductive plasm, termed idioplasm, since
+it divides and passes over from generation to generation, in higher as
+well as in lower organisms, has a continuous or "immortal" existence.[I]
+
+    [I] Naegeli's idioplasm corresponds in many respects, though by
+    no means in all, to Weismann's germ-plasm. Weismann's idea of
+    continuity or "immortality," which has been so widely noticed,
+    is set forth with equal clearness, though with less emphasis, by
+    Naegeli.
+
+2. During this continuous life the idioplasm goes through a development
+of its own, just as an individual organism goes through a certain cycle
+of development during its individual life. This development consists in
+a constantly increasing complexity of structure and differentiation of
+function.
+
+3. This development is automatic, resulting from internal forces or
+movements, (_Vervollkommnungs-bewegungen_).
+
+4. As a result of the increasing complexity of structure in the
+idioplasm the entire organism, which in each generation rearises
+therefrom, becomes, from generation to generation, more and more complex
+with greater and greater differentiation of function. Thus the
+progression of the idioplasm controls the phylogeny of the race. It
+marks out the course of evolution.
+
+5. Since, according to Naegeli, new life with new idioplasms, may arise
+wherever and whenever the necessary conditions combine, the present
+organic world is not made up from branchings of a single original
+idioplasm, but each race or group may have its own specific idioplasm;
+and, since this has its own characteristic structure and its own
+specific internal perfecting forces, it passes through its own peculiar
+evolution, carrying with it its own depending race of organisms.
+
+The fact that animals and plants at the present time show such various
+degrees of organization is also accounted for on the last supposition,
+for those of lowlier organization are merely of more recent origin and
+have not progressed so far in idioplasmic development.
+
+This automatic perfecting principle has been the mark of much criticism.
+Some have confounded it with the mystical _nisus formativus_, or
+formative principle of preceding theorists. But, as Weismann remarks,
+Naegeli's phyletic force is conceived as a thoroughly scientific
+mechanical principle. Naegeli has simply made application in the organic
+world of the principle of entropy, as stated in the mechanical theory of
+heat. Naegeli himself also compares his internal perfecting principle to
+mechanical inertia. He says, "the force of evolution once started in a
+given direction, tends to continue in the same direction. This
+constitutes the law of inertia in the organic world."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Two other matters remain to be noticed. The first of these is Naegeli's
+use of the German word _Anlage_. We have been unable to give a perfectly
+satisfactory translation of this word in its technical meaning. We have
+received some comfort, though but little help, from the experience of
+the translators of similar works. Selmar Schoenland, in translating from
+Weismann, renders it variously as "germ," "germ of structure," "germ (of
+Naegeli)," "germ of Naegeli," "Naegeli's preformed germ of structure,"
+"preformed germs," "tendency." Another translator renders the word as
+"constitutional element." The translation, "determinant," which we have
+selected is an appropriation of an analogous but not absolutely
+identical technical term from Weismann's _Germinal Selection_. The use
+of the word in this connection is open to the objection that it has
+previously been used technically for a somewhat different idea by
+another author. M. C. Potter, in his translation of Warming's
+_Systematic Botany_, following Dr. E. L. Mark, renders the word _Anlage_
+as "fundament." Dr. H. C. Porter, in his translation of the _Bonn
+Text-Book of Botany_, renders the same word as "rudiment."
+
+In general the word Anlage means beginning, plan, disposition to
+anything, and hence involves the ideas of origin, organization and
+tendency. Sanders defines the word in one of its meanings as: "The act
+of planning or beginning anything; the act of laying the foundation of
+any work intended to be carried on toward completion, in order that from
+the beginning made, a definite thing may be developed or may develop
+itself"; (_i.e._, to determine, in the sense of limiting to a particular
+purpose or direction, hence determinant). "Also, the thing begun or
+planned, considered as the basis and germ of the further development of
+that which has already originated."
+
+In its restricted use as applied to organisms it would mean "germ," in
+the sense of embryonic starting point. More specifically, it is a
+portion of plastic, organized substance, functioning as an individual
+and containing potentially an elemental organ plus a formative power. In
+Naegeli's own words, "There exists an essential difference between the
+substance of a mature organism which does not possess the capability of
+further development, and the substance of an egg, which does possess
+this capability. By virtue of this difference the egg-substance is
+characterized as the _Anlage_, or germ of the mature organism. All
+characteristics of the adult condition are potentially contained in the
+ovum."
+
+Naegeli was not the first to assume the existence of a unit of
+organization intermediate between the molecule and the cell. E. B.
+Wilson, in his _The Cell in Inheritance and Development_, states the
+case as follows:
+
+    "That the cell consists of more elementary units of
+    organization, is indicated by _a priori_ evidence so cogent as
+    to have driven many of the foremost leaders of biological
+    thought into the belief that such units must exist, whether or
+    not the microscope reveals them to view. The modern conception
+    of ultra-cellular units, ranking between the molecule and the
+    cell, was first definitely suggested by Bruecke in 1861.
+
+    "This idea of ultra-cellular units is common to most
+    morphologists and physiologists. We are compelled by the most
+    stringent evidence to admit that the ultimate basis of living
+    matter is not a single chemical substance, but a mixture of many
+    substances that are self-perpetuating without their loss of
+    specific character."[J]
+
+    [J] For a fuller discussion of the notion of these hypothetical
+    units of organic existence, see Weismann's Germinal Selection,
+    (Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago, 1896), especially the foot
+    note, page 230.
+
+Naegeli's _Laws of Evolution_ are also worth special notice. As stated in
+the body of _Abstammungslehre_ they are as follows:
+
+1. Asexual reproductive cells which arise by division, remain united and
+become tissue cells.
+
+2. Asexual reproductive cells which arise by budding, instead of
+separating, become cell branches or branched cell threads.
+
+3. Reproductive cells which arise by free cell formation become bodies
+which form a part of the cell contents.
+
+4. Parts of a plant which arise by differentiation lie side by side and
+form a body of web-like or tissue-like structure.
+
+5. A definite and previously limited growth continues, or a definite
+formation of parts of an ontogeny which has previously been present but
+once, is repeated. (Ampliation.)
+
+6. The parts of an ontogeny become dissimilar, since the functions which
+were previously united become differentiated and since new dissimilar
+functions are produced in the various parts. This differentiation is
+either one of space between the parts of the ontogeny that appear near
+each other, or one of time between those that are derived from each
+other.
+
+7. Parts which have become dissimilar by differentiation undergo a
+reduction, in which the intermediate forms are suppressed and at last
+only the qualitatively dissimilar forms with qualitatively dissimilar
+functions remain.
+
+8. The environment in which plants live operates in different ways,
+directly as a stimulus or indirectly as a felt necessity and by this
+means lends to their forms and activities a definite expression of time
+and place, and thus brings about different adaptations. These become
+permanent through heredity, but are again gradually lost if other
+adaptations supersede them.
+
+Laws 1 to 4 may be expressed as one--the law of combination: Similar
+parts that are wholly or partly separated have the tendency to unite
+more and more completely and intimately into one continuous tissue.
+
+The laws of ampliation (5), differentiation (6), and reduction (7), may
+be summarized in one as follows: While increasing in size the similar
+parts of an ontogeny become internally dissimilar and the dissimilarity
+increases as the transition forms of the dissimilar parts vanish. Hence
+only the extreme forms remain.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It may also interest the reader to know that Naegeli was the first to
+propose the general theory of cell formation as accepted at the present
+day.
+
+
+
+
+    BRIEF STATEMENT OF THE WORK OF THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY
+
+
+If one asked for a brief description of the work of the Open Court
+Company, one would probably get the answer that the Company publishes
+books and articles on Science, Religion, and Philosophy. That is not
+quite exact; for that describes the ideal to which the Open Court
+Company is continually striving rather than the actual work it is doing.
+The ideal is Religion on a firm basis of Science, a Science of
+Philosophy, and a Philosophy of Science: the only path which can lead to
+this great ideal synthesis is the detailed and careful study of
+sciences, religions, and philosophies.
+
+It was this ideal that prompted the late Mr. Edward Carl Hegeler of La
+Salle, Illinois, in the United States of America, to found a Company to
+publish books with the object of establishing ethics and religion upon a
+scientific basis. Such ideals are as old as philosophy itself. Among
+modern philosophies, that founded by Comte tried, probably in the most
+explicit fashion of all, to found a religion on the basis of positive
+science; and at one time it appeared likely to have a lasting success.
+But it is now quite plain that no philosophy which hopes to be permanent
+can neglect history or put itself into uncritical opposition to the
+systems that have for centuries expressed some of the dearest and
+highest aspirations of mankind. It is unprejudiced and fearless
+historical and critical investigation--non-sectarian in the widest
+sense--in both religion, science, and philosophy, that must go before
+any satisfactory synthesis. This is a great part of the work of the Open
+Court Company.
+
+Let us consider what non-sectarianism means. We cannot, for example,
+isolate a single domain of science in a particular country and at a
+particular time--say, mechanics in England in the eighteenth
+century--and hope to make of it a thoroughly complete object of study.
+In natural science, for example, we make conventional divisions simply
+with the object of saving labor when dealing with the huge mass of
+material that experience offers. But the narrowest specialist knows that
+all workers in science, religion, and philosophy seek the Truth; and
+that the Truth is bounded neither by space nor by time nor by man-made
+divisions. A man may rightly conclude that he stands little chance of
+finding out very much of the Truth, and so he may voluntarily limit his
+view to a certain roughly defined domain of facts and thoughts, and
+become, for example, what is called a "biologist," a "physicist," a
+"higher critic," or, if he thinks that he may discover rather more of
+the Truth, a "philosopher."
+
+And let us carry a clear understanding of a lofty aim into religion as
+well. It is our duty, as rational beings, to be non-sectarian. It is not
+a merit to allow ignorance to blind us to the glimpses of Truth that we
+sometimes get from prophets, poets, and priests of other religions and
+other philosophies than our own. If we think that there is more truth or
+sacredness in our own, let us use every means to make this sacredness or
+this truth appear evident to others. But, in justice, let us also
+fearlessly discuss other religions and philosophies, and discover their
+greater merits, if any, as compared with our own. If, after careful
+investigation, we arrive at the belief in the truth or falsehood of
+anything in these religions or philosophies, let us state our grounds
+for believing so in the fullest possible way. Only by so doing can we
+fulfil the duties of being true to ourselves and helpful to others.
+
+Sometimes the work of a critic is said to be "merely destructive." This
+idea rests on a most harmful misunderstanding. Criticism consists not
+only in the pointing out of error, but in the pointing out of truth as
+well. Error is simply a psychological condition of blindness to the
+truth; and the discovery of errors committed by other people or
+ourselves is not--as many superficial people like to say--the pulling
+down of a structure already raised, unless an error can be called a
+structure which is built out of the fictions of our imagination which
+have no objective existence. Criticism often enables us to discover more
+of the Truth, and nobody can do more than _discover_ Truth: nobody
+_creates_ Truth, any more than Columbus created America.
+
+Nowadays all intelligent men and women agree that all knowledge must be
+subjected to criticism, and the best men and women act on these beliefs.
+The books and magazines published by the Open Court Company are intended
+to help these men and women.
+
+We will dwell a little longer on the subject of religion, because it is
+in religion that the majority of us have the one region of ideals above
+our bodily needs. It is rare, though of course not unknown, that Science
+or Philosophy satisfies the spiritual needs--the purest of human
+cravings. Nowadays, most of us realize that an anti-scientific attitude
+of religion is impossible. If there were an opposition between "science"
+and "religion," there would be no question as to which side would be
+victorious. More particularly during the last seventy years, "religion,"
+conscious of the opposition which a rather crude doctrine which was
+called "science" had towards it, has been gradually, and often somewhat
+ludicrously, trying to bring itself more into conformity with that
+"science." The result is painful to the student of human nature; though
+it has its amusing sides, just as had the militant denial, on the part
+of those who were "on the side of the angels" about fifty years ago, of
+certain deductions from facts. What is called a "conflict between
+religion and science" always has ended in a victory for "science" and an
+agnosticism which ousted religion. And thus many see that it is
+desirable that the matured results of science should enter into the
+fabric of our religious convictions. For the realization of this
+purpose, the Open Court Company publishes two periodicals, _The Monist_,
+a quarterly magazine devoted to the philosophy of science, and _The Open
+Court_, an illustrated monthly devoted to the science of religion and
+the religion of science. In addition, the Open Court Company publishes
+books that directly or indirectly advance its aim--books on Philosophy,
+which, in contrast with the old metaphysicism, lay the foundations of a
+philosophy of science; books on the history of philosophies; books on
+mathematics and other lines of thought which are indispensable for a
+rational and scientific conception of the world; books that have a
+bearing on the doctrine of Evolution; books on the history of Religions,
+especially on the development of Christianity and on Higher Criticism;
+and books on Comparative Religion, on Psychology, on Education, and on
+Ethics. Above all, in all the works careful, sympathetic, and scholarly
+criticism is aimed at. Criticism is the joint result of love of Truth
+and independence of thought; rightly understood, it is not only a
+preliminary to a work of synthesis, but it is part of synthesis itself.
+No synthesis, in fact, is more than a discovery of Truth: from past
+history we know that syntheses have often blinded men to the Truth,
+though that was naturally not their intention.
+
+On the subject of independence of thought it may be proper shortly to
+refer to the work of Dr. Paul Carus, who has been, since the end of
+1887, closely associated with the Open Court Company and its
+publications. Only two things need be said here. In the first place, it
+was owing to the need he felt for keeping his independence of thought
+that he resigned a post in Germany and came, first to England and then
+to America. In the second place, his views, which are also, broadly
+speaking, the views for which the Open Court Company works, may be
+characterized both as monism and positivism, though his philosophy
+differs considerably from Haeckel's monism, which is practically
+materialism, and even more so from the French positivism of Comte and
+from agnosticism, its English equivalent. In his philosophy, _form_
+plays the most important part. Form is the significant feature of both
+objective existence and subjective thought. Matter and energy only
+denote reality, but form characterizes quality. Science traces form, and
+the nature of all things, the human character included, is constituted
+by form. In the formal sciences again, that which is the core of their
+usefulness as general propositions is the character of _anyness_, the
+use of which justifies the method of generalization. Here lies the root
+of the kinship of Dr. Carus's philosophy with modern logic, and allows
+him to reconstruct the old artistic and religious ideas upon a new and
+modern ground. In this sense, he himself has characterized his
+philosophy as a _philosophy of form_.
+
+
+
+
+                    A Partial List of Books in the
+                      OPEN COURT SCIENCE SERIES
+
+
+                         PROBLEMS OF SCIENCE
+                         BY FEDERIGO ENRIQUES
+
+    Authorized translation by Katherine Royce, with an introduction
+    by Josiah Royce. =Pp. 375. Price, $2.50.=
+
+"The end for which we ought to strive today is a scientific education,
+which shall enable the workers in any field whatsoever to understand
+better how the object of their own research is subordinated to more
+general problems."
+
+The author is professor of projective geometry and geometric drawing in
+the University of Bologna, and is one of the most conspicuous of
+contemporary Italian scientists.
+
+
+The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution                 By E. D. Cope
+
+    =Illustrated. Cloth, $2.00 net=
+
+
+The Soul of Man                                          By Paul Carus
+
+    An investigation of the facts of physiological and experimental
+    psychology. =Illustrated. Cloth, $1.50 net; paper, 85c.=
+
+
+Plant Breeding                                        By Hugo De Vries
+
+    Comments on the experiments of Nilsson and Burbank.
+    =Illustrated. Cloth, gilt, $1.50 net=
+
+
+The Rise of Man                                          By Paul Carus
+
+    A sketch of the human race. =Illustrated. Boards, cloth back,
+    75c net=
+
+
+Species and Varieties, Their Origin and Mutation      By Hugo De Vries
+
+    Edited by D. T. MacDougal. =Price, $5.00 net=
+
+
+The Mutation Theory                                   By Hugo De Vries
+
+    Experiments and observations on the origin of species in the
+    vegetable kingdom. (2 vols.) Translated by Prof. A. B. Farmer
+    and A. D. Darbishire. =Numerous illustrations, colored plates.
+    Cloth, per volume $4.00 net.=
+
+
+Intracellular Pangenesis                              By Hugo De Vries
+
+    Including a paper on fertilization and hybridization. Translated
+    from the German by C. Stuart Gager. =Cloth, $3.00 net.=
+
+
+On Memory and the Specific Energies of the Nervous     By Ewald Hering
+System
+
+    New edition, including "The Theory of Nerve Activity."
+    =Price, $1.00; paper, 30c.=
+
+
+Psychology of the Nervous System                         By Paul Carus
+
+    An extract from the author's larger work, "The Soul of Man."
+    =Price, 30c.=
+
+
+The Psychology of Reasoning                            By Alfred Binet
+
+    Translated by Adam Gowan Whyte. =Cloth, 75c net=
+
+
+Has the Psychological Laboratory Proved Helpful?       By L. M. Billia
+
+    Translated from the French by Lydia G. Robinson. =Pp. 16. Paper,
+    15c net.=
+
+
+A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of
+Organic Evolution                                   By Carl von Nageli
+
+    Summary. =30c.=
+
+
+Experiments on the Generation of Insects             By Francesco Redi
+
+    Translated from the Italian edition of 1688 by Mab Bigelow.
+    =Illustrated. Cloth, $2.00 net=
+
+
+Science and Faith, or Man as an Animal, and Man
+as a Member of Society, with a Discussion on
+Animal Societies                                      By Paul Topinard
+
+    Translated by T. J. McCormack. =Price, $1.50 net=
+
+
+A First Book in Organic Evolution                  By D. Kerfoot Shute
+
+    Written especially for the use of students. =Illustrated, seven
+    colored plates, 2d ed. Cloth, $1.25; paper, 60c net=
+
+
+On Germinal Selection as a Source of Definite
+Variation                                           By August Weismann
+
+    Translated by T. J. McCormack. =Paper, 30c=
+
+
+Popular Scientific Lectures                              By Ernst Mach
+
+    Translated by T. J. McCormack. =Illustrated. $1.50 net; paper,
+    60c net=
+
+
+Contributions to the Analysis of the Sensations          By Ernst Mach
+
+    Translated by C. M. Williams. =Price, $1.25 net=
+
+
+Space and Geometry in the Light of Physiological,
+Psychological and Physical Inquiry                       By Ernst Mach
+
+    Translated by T. J. McCormack. =Cloth, gilt top, $1.00 net=
+
+
+The History and the Root of the Principle
+of the Conservation of Energy                            By Ernst Mach
+
+    Translated by Philip E. B. Jourdain. =Cloth, $1.25 net=
+
+
+On the Inheritance of Acquired Characters           By Eugenio Rignano
+
+    Translated by Basil C. H. Harvey. With an appendix "On the
+    Mnemonic Origin and Nature of Affective Tendencies." =Cloth,
+    $3.00 net=
+
+
+Darwin and After Darwin                           By George J. Romanes
+
+    An exposition of the Darwinian theory and a discussion of
+    post-Darwinian Questions. =Three volumes, $4.00 net.=
+
+    Part I. The Darwinian Theory. =Cloth, $2.00.=
+
+    Part II. Post-Darwinian Questions: Heredity and Utility. =Cloth,
+    $1.50.=
+
+    Part III. Post-Darwinian Questions: Isolation and Physiological
+    Selection. =Cloth, $1.00.=
+
+
+An Examination of Weismannism                     By George J. Romanes
+
+    =Cloth, $1.00 net; paper, 40c net.=
+
+
+                        Send for complete list.
+
+                       OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.
+                   (Scientific and Educational Books)
+                          122 S. Michigan Ave.
+                                Chicago
+
+
+
+
+                          TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+
+1. Passages in italics are surrounded by _underscores_ and the ones in
+bold are indicated by =bold=.
+
+2. Footnotes have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the end
+of the paragraph referring to it.
+
+3. Other than that, printer's inconsistencies in spelling, punctuation,
+and ligature usage have been retained.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of
+Organic Evolution, by Carl Von Naegeli
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL ***
+
+***** This file should be named 33514.txt or 33514.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/5/1/33514/
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/33514.zip b/33514.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a557e87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33514.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88e7846
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #33514 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33514)