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diff --git a/33514-8.txt b/33514-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cb66aab --- /dev/null +++ b/33514-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2149 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Organic +Evolution, by Carl Von Nägeli + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Organic Evolution + +Author: Carl Von Nägeli + +Release Date: August 23, 2010 [EBook #33514] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + + + + + A + MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL + THEORY OF + ORGANIC EVOLUTION + + BY + CARL VON NÄGELI + + + SECOND EDITION + + + CHICAGO + THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO. + 1914 + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1898 + BY THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO. + CHICAGO + + + + + PREFATORY NOTE. + + +Mr. V. A. Clark, as a student in horticulture in the University +of Vermont, first undertook a critical examination of Nägeli's +_Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Evolution_ as a part of his regular +junior work. After a half year's study and the preparation of a short +thesis, Mr. Clark had become so far intimate with Nägeli's work as to +make it seem best for him to continue the study through his senior year. +This study involved extended translations from the text, including +Nägeli's _Summary_, which, considering its difficult accessibility +to American students, has been chosen for publication. The work has +been done chiefly by Mr. Clark, but has all been under my immediate +supervision, and I have given the whole matter a final restudy and +revision. Those who have had any experience with similar work will know +how impossible it is that all mistakes should have been avoided, and it +would be a kindness to the translators if readers would point out any +defects, in order that they may be corrected. + + F. A. WAUGH. + +University of Vermont, + July 1, 1898. + + + + + A MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL + THEORY OF ORGANIC + EVOLUTION. + + + + + SUMMARY. + + +In this summary I shall in general pursue a course the reverse of that +which my main work follows.[A] I shall proceed from the primitive, +unorganized condition of matter and endeavor to show how organized +micellar substance has arisen in it, and how, from this micellar +substance, organisms with their manifold properties have arisen. +Since such a synthesis of organisms out of known forms of matter and +force is still far removed from a conclusion strictly in accord with +physical law, the process becomes comprehensible and obvious only by +exact knowledge of the discussion that has preceded. Although the +synthetic method reveals more clearly the weaknesses of the theory +than do analytic investigations, yet I considered it helpful to +make this presentation in order to give a clearer idea of the +mechanico-physiological theory, and at the same time to test its +worth. + + [A] See Appendix, Translators' Notes. + + +1. FORMATION OF UNORGANIZED BODIES (CRYSTALS). + +When separated and promiscuously moving molecules of any substance in +solution or in a melted condition pass into the solid form by reason of +removal of the causes of separation and motion (warmth or solvent), they +arrange themselves into solid masses impermeable to liquids. These +minute bodies grow by accretion, and when molecular forces are permitted +to act undisturbed, assume the regular outer form and inner structure of +crystals. The number of crystals, their size, changes of form and +growth, all depend on external conditions. + + +2. FORMATION OF LIVING ORGANIZED (MICELLAR) BODIES. + +Certain organic compounds, among them albumen, are neither soluble, +despite their great affinity for water, nor are they fusible, and hence +are produced in the micellar form. These compounds are formed in water, +where the molecules that arise immediately adjoining each other arrange +themselves into incipient crystals, or micellæ. Only such of the +molecules as are formed subsequently and come in contact with a micella +contribute to its increase in size, while the others, on account of +their insolubility, produce new micellæ. For this reason the micellæ +remain so small that they are invisible, even with the microscope. + +On account of their great affinity for water the micellæ surround +themselves with a thick film of it. The attraction of these micellæ for +matter of their own kind is felt outside this film. Hence the micellæ +with their films unite themselves into solid masses permeated with +water, unless other forces overcome attraction and re-establish a +micellar solution (as in albumen, glue, gum), where the slightly moving +micellæ show a tendency to cling together in chain-like and other +aggregations. Very often there are found, especially in albumen, half +liquid modifications intermediate in fluidity between the solid masses +and the micellar solution. + +The internal and external constitution of micellar bodies depends +essentially on the size, form and dynamic nature of their micellæ, since +these efficients condition the original arrangement of the micellæ and +the insertion in proper order of those formed later. External conditions +have slight influence on structure, and affect outer form chiefly in so +far as they can mechanically hinder free development. + +The micellæ of albumen or plasma are susceptible of the greatest +diversity of form, size and chemical composition, since they originate +from unlike mixtures of various albumen compounds, and besides are mixed +with various organic and inorganic substances. For this reason the +plasma behaves, both chemically and physically, in many unlike ways, and +in consequence of the variable relation of the micellæ to water, the +plasma shows all degrees of micellar solution up to quite solid masses. + + +3. SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. LIFE. GROWTH. + +If molecular forces are so combined in an inorganic substratum that +spontaneous formation of albumen takes place, then by the combination of +the micellæ the primordial plasma masses of spontaneous generation are +given. Within these plasma masses the production of albumen goes on more +easily under the influence of their molecular forces than in the liquid +without. Hence the compounds present in the organic substratum and +capable of forming albumen enter preferably into the masses of plasma, +and by intussusception of micellæ of albumen, cause growth. Here life +exists in its simplest form. (See page 47.) + +Spontaneous generation presupposes the origin of plasma-micellæ from +molecules, and hence cannot be brought about by solutions of albumens or +peptones, since these are micellar solutions. Life presupposes the +intussusception of plasma-micellæ; hence it ceases as soon as the +arrangement of micellæ is so far disordered by injurious influences that +that process of growth becomes impossible. + +The resulting organism must be perfectly simple, a mass of plasma with +micellæ as yet unarranged, because any organization without a preceding +organizing activity is inconceivable. For this reason known organisms +cannot have orginated spontaneously; a kingdom of simpler beings must +have preceded them (_Probien_--the sub-organic kingdom). + +The growth of the masses of plasma continues as long as the conditions +of nutrition are favorable. If these become unfavorable, a resting +period (latent life) or partial or total death occurs, according to +circumstances (as lack of nutritive material, lowering of temperature, +comparative exsiccation). The growth of plants and animals is nothing +else than the continuation of the growth begun in the primordial plasma. +This growth still continues wherever the primordial plasma exists. + + +4. PARTIAL DEATH OF THE INDIVIDUAL: REPRODUCTION. + +Since the primordial masses of plasma continue to attract nutritive +materials indefinitely and apply them to growth, the nutritive materials +are used up in one place and another and the substance which is no +longer nourished is in great measure disintegrated. A general condition +of equilibrium now sets in, in which the viable plasma masses continue +to gain just as much in growth as there is dead plasma broken down and +changed back into the original nutritive materials. + +In the primordial condition this balancing process is irregular and +accidental and remains so even later in many of the lowest organisms. +Little by little it becomes phylogenetically more regular by individuals +attaining to a more definite size and term of life, while only the germs +detached from them remain viable. This phenomenon known as reproduction +has a double origin. + +_A._ The portions of primordial plasma that grow to a more considerable +size as soft, half-liquid masses break up by the mechanical action of +external circumstances into smaller portions of indefinite number and +size. This typifies irregular and accidental reproduction of the lowest +order. + +In the offspring of the primordial plasma division becomes gradually +more and more regular as a result of the increasing organization of the +substance, and especially as a result of the formation of an envelope +about it, till finally in the microscopically small masses, which are +now called cells, division into two parts always appears, after these +masses have grown to perhaps double their original size. After division +the two halves separate from each other and represent independent +individuals. + +In the further course of phylogeny the division of the cells into two +parts takes place regularly. But the cells remain united to each other +and form multicellular individuals, which increase by cell division and +which at times in the lowest stages are divided at regular intervals +into smaller individuals, perhaps even at last into single cells, but +from which there are periodically given off cells that develop as germ +cells into new multicellular individuals. + +_B._ Another phenomenon which appears in the primordial plasma or its +immediate offspring is the death of the greater part of the plasma under +certain unfavorable conditions of nutrition, while the smaller part +continues to be nourished at its expense and in that case remains viable +during the dormant period. + +In the offspring this phenomenon gradually becomes free cell formation, +which takes place before the resting stage or before the death of many +unicellular and multicellular organisms, and which forms germ cells from +a part of the contents of the parent cells. + +The formation of germ cells by cell division (_A_), or by free cell +formation (_B_) is reproduction of the organism. The germ cells are the +elements in which the life and growth of the parental individual are +continued. + + +5. MORPHOLOGY OF THE IDIOPLASM IN GENERAL. + +The larger part of the unarranged, soft and homogenous primordial +plasma, which grows by intussusception, becomes watery soma-plasm, with +unarranged and easily movable micellæ. The smaller part is converted in +the course of phylogeny into idioplasm, in which at certain favorable +points the micellæ that are being stored up under the influence of +molecular forces arrange themselves into groups by similar orientations, +and hence form bodies of less water content and greater solidity. Each +body of idioplasm consists originally of only one group of micellæ, +which, however, necessarily breaks up with increasing additions into +several groups. On account of the dynamic influence of the groups of +micellæ upon their own growth, they become in part more distinct and +more definitely separated, in part again differentiated by new irregular +intussusception. This phylogenetic process is continued indefinitely, +by which the combination of forces produces a new configuration, and +conversely, by which a new configuration produces a new combination of +forces, so that the body of idioplasm merely takes on a continually +increasing complexity of configuration by the action of the internal +forces--that is, by the molecular forces of the micellæ of the albumen +under the influence of which growth proceeds. This constitutes the +_automatic perfecting process_ or progression of the idioplasm, and +entropy of organic matter. (See p. 47.) + +The above described phylogenetic perfecting process of the idoplasm, +which operates through internal causes, is scarcely affected by +differences of nutrition and by climatic conditions influencing +nutrition. On the other hand all those external forces which act as +stimuli during a long period of time in an unvarying manner have a very +noticeable influence on the intussusception of micellæ in the idioplasm +and on the molecular processes going on among the micellæ. The action of +stimuli determines the particular structure of the groups of micellæ +added under the direction of the perfecting process. Thus the +configuration of the idioplasm becomes continually more and more complex +and at the same time assumes a local adaptation corresponding to +external conditions. This constitutes adaptation of the idioplasm. + + +6. FUNCTION OF THE IDIOPLASM IN GENERAL. + +The unarranged micellæ of the albumen of the spontaneously generated +plasma are as yet in no way superior to the unorganized condition from +which they have arisen, except in this that under the influence of their +molecular forces the formation of similar new albumen micellæ follows +more easily. But as by the further action of molecular forces +idioplasmic bodies are formed with groups of smilarly oriented micellæ, +the molecular forces of these micellæ amount by summation to molar +forces and thereby new chemical processes are introduced; plastic +products are formed from plasmic and non-plasmic materials, and molar +movements are introduced. And since idioplasmic bodies are formed under +the influence of external stimuli, their plastic products always appear +with a definite character of adaptation to environment. + +Then, as the idioplasmic body becomes continually more complex in the +further course of phylogeny, and consists of a greater number of groups +of micellæ differing from each other, the organisms become more complex +and differentiate into a greater number of parts, because each group of +micellæ of the idioplasm produces its specific effect with regard to +inner structure, outer form, and function. + + +7. DETERMINANTS: THEIR ORIGIN AND DISAPPEARANCE. + +Since a particular cluster or group of micellæ of the idioplasm produces +a particular phenomenon in the organism, the former is designated as the +determinant (_Anlage_, see p. 49) of the latter. Thus the organism must +contain at least as many determinants in its idioplasm as there are +different phenomena in its inheritable ontogeny; and if new phenomena +appear in it, new clusters of micellæ must previously have been +introduced into the idioplasm, or the orientation and arrangement of +clusters already present must have been changed. The formation of such a +determinant, whether it concerns the perfecting of the organism or its +adaptation to environment, always proceeds very slowly, and as a rule +has no effect before its completion. Hence along with perfected +determinants the idioplasm always contains growing and incomplete +determinants. + +If a phylogenetic line comes under the influence of other external +conditions and other external stimuli than those which have hitherto +acted upon it, a new and corresponding arrangement of the micellæ +appears phylogenetically in the idioplasm. At the same time the other +adaptation determinants remain either undisturbed, or the new +determinant is formed at the expense of related determinants which are +already present and which may at last entirely vanish. Hence along with +growing and complete determinants the idioplasm always contains likewise +weakened and vanishing determinants. From the fact that a phylogenetic +race is thrown repeatedly among different external conditions, it may at +last unite in its idioplasm a large number of developing, mature, and +vanishing adaptation determinants. This number is noticeably increased +if in consequence of interbreeding a fusion of related idioplasms take +place. + + +8. DEFINITE NOTIONS WITH REGARD TO THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE IDIOPLASM. + +Since in the phylogenetic development of the plasma the thicker +idioplasm is differentiated from the more fluid soma-plasm (§ 5), the +former has the tendency by nature to assume a reticular arrangement. The +strands of this network consist, in conformity with their origin, of +parallel rows of micellæ extending lengthwise. These rows of micellæ +are combined into more or less complex arrangements, so that the cross +section of the strand represents the configuration of the idioplasm.[B] + + [B] Nägeli makes his idioplasm ramify throughout the organism in + unbroken continuity, much like a system of nerves in the higher + animals. This idea with Nägeli was purely speculative. It was + known that the protoplasm is in connection throughout the + organism, but it has been proved more recently that only the + somatic protoplasm is thus connected. The part in which the + essential nature of the organism is contained is localized + in the nucleus and hence might properly be designated as + nucleoplasm, as Weismann suggests. If the idioplasm is + localized in the nucleus, it cannot be continuous throughout + the system, as Nägeli assumes. But this objection applies only + to a detail of the theory and does not affect the fundamental + conception,--that of a portion of the protoplasm which is + differentiated from the rest and represents a definite molecular + structure which determines the specific nature of the + organism.--_Trans._ + +Each ontogeny (individual) begins in a minute germ cell, in which a +small quantity of idioplasm is contained. In the cell divisions, by +which the organism grows, the idioplasm divides into as many parts as +there are single cells, while it continually increases in quantity in a +corresponding degree. The ontogenetic increase of the idioplasm takes +place by length growth of the strands--that is, by intercalation of +micellæ in each row of cells of the strands, which thereby grow in +length without changing the configuration of the cross section.[C] +Accordingly, each strand of idioplasm contains all the determinants that +the particular individual has inherited in the germ cell, and each cell +of the organism is idioplasmatically qualified to become the germ cell +of a new individual. Whether this qualification may be realized depends +upon the nature of the soma-plasm. In the lower plants this power +belongs to each individual cell; in the higher plants many cells have +lost it; in the animal kingdom it is possessed in general only by cells +normally set apart as asexual or sexual reproductive cells. + + [C] Hence, according to Nägeli, every cell of the organism has + idioplasm of identical structure. This at once suggests the + objection, how can the idioplasm, for instance, of a pollen + grain be the same as that of a leaf? Identical idioplasms should + always produce identical structures. Nägeli attempts to explain + this difficulty by attributing the different results to + different "conditions of tension and movement," i.e., a + dynamical difference between the idioplasms of the different + parts of the organism. (_Abstammungslehre_, p. 53.) + + This idea of differences of structure being due to dynamic + rather than to material causes plays a considerable part in + Nägeli's theory, but is the point on which he speaks with least + certainty--in fact with a noticeable hesitation. He does not + clearly explain the phrase "conditions of tension and movement," + nor does he give a convincing explanation of the known phenomena + as results of the action of dynamic influence. + + Nägeli is not the only one who posits dynamic rather than + material differences as to the basis of diversities of + structure. More recently, Cope has built up a system of + evolution founded largely on this idea.--_Trans._ + +The continued phylogenetic formation of the threads of idioplasm takes +place by growth in the cross section, which contains the sum of all the +determinants and changes in general only when new rows of micellæ are +intercalated. But the rows of micellæ of the idioplasm join closely to +each other, according to their thickness, so that only rarely new rows +can enter, and then only at those definite places where the cohesion is +less strong and hence is overcome. The cohesion varies irregularly +because the configuration of the cross section, conformably to its +origin, is never regular; the disruptive tensions are brought about by +the unequal growth in length of the individual rows of micellæ. Dynamic +influences have a decisive effect upon cohesion and disruptive tensions. +The groups of micellæ of the configuration already obtained exercise +these dynamic influences upon each other; and these dynamic influences +can be modified by stimuli from without. + +The idioplasm continually alters its configuration with its growth in +successive ontogenies, but comparatively very slowly, so that it makes a +minute advance from the germ of one generation to the germ of the next. +The summation of these increments of advance through a whole line of +evolution represents the race history of an organism, since the latter +is connected only by its idioplasm in unbroken continuity with the +micellar beginning of its race. + + +9. DEFINITE NOTIONS REGARDING THE FUNCTION OF THE IDIOPLASM. + +A plasmic substance causes definite chemical and physical changes only +when it is present in a certain condition of motion. The peculiar agency +which the idioplasm has in each ontogenetic stage of development and in +each part of the organism depends on the activity of a definite group of +micellæ in the cross section of the strand or of a complex of such +groups, while this local stimulus controls the chemical and physical +processes by dynamic influence and by transmission of a specific mode of +motion, even to a microscopically small distance. + +The effective stimulus in a plasmic substance is dependent on its own +nature and the influence which it receives from without. Which group of +micellæ in the idioplasm receives the stimulus depends on the +configuration, on the preceding stimuli and on the position in the +individual organism in which the idioplasm is found. The determinants +have arisen one after another during the whole period of evolution from +the primordial cell. The configuration of the idioplasm is a character +of phylogeny and the determinants in it have by nature the tendency to +develop in the order in which they were formed. Further, since the +ontogeny begins as a unicellular organism with the formation of a germ +cell, that determinant of the idioplasm comes first to development, +which has developed in the unicellular ancestor. Just so the succeeding +stages of ontogeny depend for the time being on the development of the +determinants having their origin in the corresponding stage of +phylogeny. Both causes acting together--the phylogenetic configuration +of the idioplasm and the successive morphological stages of development +of the individual conditioned on it--necessarily result in the ontogeny +being the repetition of the phylogeny. + +If the whole remaining line of idioplasmic determinants in an ontogeny +has reached development, the development of the germ-forming +determinants finally follows as well from the configuration of the +idioplasm as from the nature of the organism. The individual is capable +of reproduction and the new ontogenies begin in the reproductive cells. + + +10. TRANSMISSION OF IDIOPLASMIC DETERMINANTS IN LOCAL VARIATION AND IN +FECUNDATION. + +The automatic progressive or perfecting transformation of the idioplasm +is probably active in all stages of development, and proceeds regularly +in all parts of the organism, because the idioplasm preserves its +configuration at all times and places during the ontogeny. External +stimuli impign upon the organism usually at a definite point, but they +not only effect a local transformation of the idioplasm but also +reproduce themselves in a dynamic manner in the entire idioplasm, which +is in unbroken connection throughout the whole individual. The idioplasm +is thus changed everywhere in the same manner, so that the germ cells +that are given off at any point feel and inherit the effects of those +local stimuli. + +In the formation of the germ cells in sexual reproduction, the +idioplasms of both parents must come into contact with each other, +whereupon there results either a material union and formation of a mixed +idioplasm or perhaps rather a dynamic action; and through these agencies +there is produced a remodeled form which is, however, exactly equivalent +to the combined idioplasms entering into it. Fertilization by diosmose +of the spermatic substance is impossible.[D] + + [D] This assertion is a direct corollary from the structure of + the determinants and the idioplasm. If the idioplasm of the + fertilizing cell were to pass through the membrane about the + ovum by osmosis, its organized structure would be + lost.--_Trans._ + +In the idioplasm of a germ cell arising from the crossing of unlike +individuals the micellar rows of the individual determinants have +sometimes an intermediate constitution and produce characteristics in +the organism which are intermediate between the characteristics of the +parents. Sometimes the micellar rows derived from the father and mother +respectively lie side by side unchanged in the idioplasm of the +offspring in distinct groupings and may reproduce in the organism their +respective characteristics side by side, or only one of them may +develop, while the other remains latent. + +On account of the union of both idioplasms as the result of fecundation, +two sexually mature organisms are the more able to form with each other +a viable germ cell, the nearer they are genetically related--that is, +the more nearly the male and female idioplasms correspond in their +configuration and chemical nature, because in this case the micellar +arrangements are best suited to each other, and the idioplasm of the new +fertile germ cell receives its most suitable nourishment from the +mother. If, however, self-fecundation or the closest in-and-in breeding +often yields products of less virility and is avoided by nature, this +is the result of injurious influences which make themselves felt later +on. This is because incompatibilities may be present in too closely +related idioplasms and these are sources of weakness in unrestricted +development. The more complicated is the idioplasm, the oftener this +occurs, whereas absolute lack of crossing is not detrimental to the +simplest (asexual) organisms. + + +11. ACTION OF EXTERNAL INFLUENCES.[E] + +The environment provides the organism above all with force and matter +for its life processes. It causes no permanent variation and has only an +ontogenetic significance, if the limits of the idioplasmic elasticity +are not exceeded; it maintains the growth and metabolic assimilation of +the individual, and conditions individual (not hereditary) differences, +which constitute "nutrition varieties." (See page 30.) These appear as +the direct results of operating causes. + + [E] In order to explain adaptations Nägeli assumes that external + influences, if acting at the same point in a given manner for a + long time, may induce slight adaptive variations which are + perpetuated and increased. On the important subject of + adaptation in general Nägeli is almost diametrically opposed to + Darwin and Weismann. Nägeli assigns to the principle of utility + a very limited sphere; Weismann regards adaptation as + all-powerful. According to Nägeli, the organic world would have + become much what it is, if natural selection and adaptation had + performed no part in the operations of nature. He aptly says, + that natural selection prunes the phylogenetic tree, but does + not cause new branches to grow. He allows that the principle of + selection is well suited to explain the adaptation of organisms + to their environment and the suitableness and physiological + peculiarities of their structure, but he asserts that in the + definiteness of variation of plants and in their progressive + differentiation there is evidence of a higher and controlling + perfecting principle.--_Trans._ + +When the stress of environment exceeds the limits of idioplasmic +elasticity, its influence brings about permanent variations, which are +imperceptibly small, it is true, in the single individual, but which, +when the stimulus is active for a long period of time in the same +manner, increase to perceptible magnitude. These variations are +inheritable in the phylogenetic sense and contribute to the formation of +varieties and species; they always appear as the results of more or less +secondary reactions which make their appearance with stimuli exerted by +external causes. + +External stimuli exerted on the organism are reproduced in the +idioplasm. Since the stimulus is discontinued with each change of the +ontogeny and only the idioplasm persists, permanent variations are +produced only in the idioplasm by those conditions that produce visible +transformations in the mature organism. + +The phylogenetic action of external stimuli gives the definite character +of adaptation to the idioplasm as it becomes more complex from inner +causes and probably these external stimuli have the power to alter this +impress only as new idioplasm is automatically formed. + +If an external cause acts continuously upon a phylogenetic line, the +corresponding variation of the idioplasm reaches, after a time, a +maximum, and thus comes to an end, either because the nature of the +substance permits no new rearrangement or because the stimulus is no +longer active. The cessation of the stimulus results from a micellar +rearrangement which indicates the character of the adaptation. If the +action of the stimulus lasts for only a short time, the incipient +rearrangement of the idioplasm stops, or proceeds independently on +account of the impulse received, and the determinant becomes capable of +development, even after the impulse has long ceased to act. + +Since various intervening transpositions follow upon a stimulus in the +organism, the final result which appears as a reaction may turn out +variously. The same external causes may, according to the nature of the +organism and other circumstances, have very unlike variations as a +result. But the internal rearrangement produces in a definite case very +definite variations. + +On account of the various intermediate steps it is often difficult to +discover the external cause of a given adaptive variation. In many cases +we recognize it without difficulty in a definite mechanical process or +in warmth, light or evaporation. For the most part the stimulus awakens +in the organism merely a want, which the reaction of the organism +endeavors to supply. Hence it appears that want or lack alone is able to +bring about such reactions. Moreover, in the sphere of sex, electric(?) +attractions and repulsions co-operate between the idioplasmic +determinants to produce phylogenetic variations. + +The adaptations of the fully developed organism, which are the results +of external influences, consist either only of a specific molecular +character (irritability), by virtue of which the individual is capable +of responding to those influences with temporary or permanent phenomena, +or they consist of finished arrangements. The latter have, in general, a +double function: either they protect the organism from external +influences whose results they are, or they place it in a condition to +apply such environmental influences to their advantage. The +preponderance of the one or the other led to the development of the +plant or the animal kingdom. In the one case the primordial plasma +formed in the cellulose cell wall a stimulus-proof covering. On account +of this cell membrane being insensible to stimuli, adaptations in the +plant kingdom were restricted essentially to the spheres of nutrition +and reproduction. In the other case the irritability and mobility of the +primordial plasma increased so that it was placed in a condition to +avoid the irritant or make it serviceable by accommodating itself to it. +The cells sensible to irritants led in the animal kingdom to the +formation of organs of sense and the nervous system. + + +12. CONDITIONS OF PHYLOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE DETERMINANTS. ATAVISM. + +In the primordial condition, formation and development of the +determinants coincide, since the plasma constituting the organism +possesses the capability of growing by intussusception of new micellæ +and of changing this growth through the action of inner and outer +causes. But as the primordial plasma differentiates into idioplasm and +soma-plasm, the formation of determinants consists in the transformation +of the idioplasm, while the development of determinants consists in the +production of soma-plasm and of non-plasmic substances under the +influence of the idioplasm. + +Only the mature determinant is able to develop, especially if, at the +same time, a related and heretofore active determinant must be forced +back into the latent condition. But the determinant of an absolutely new +form of adaptation, which does not take the place of a preceding one, +must develop enough before it can become outwardly manifest, for it to +be possessed of a sufficient amount of molecular energy to render its +activity possible. For this reason the characteristics of the developed +organism change abruptly, notwithstanding the fact that the +transformation of the idioplasm has proceeded very gradually. + +The configuration of the idioplasm becomes continually more complex +through the automatic action of the perfecting process, and by this +means the organism ascends to higher stages of organization. Hence the +viable determinants of organization or perfection are always overtaken +after a certain time by that movement and forced into the latent +condition. They then become continually weaker, and are at last +completely destroyed. Only in the first period after their becoming +latent can such determinants pass again into a developmental condition +and thus allow the organism to revert to the next preceding stage of +organization. + +Since the configuration of the idioplasm, which becomes more complex +from internal causes, always assumes a definite character of adaptation +in consequence of the action of external causes, the adaptation +determinants capable of development may become more and more weakened +and at last latent when other external causes produce other adaptation +determinants. But these determinants may be revived by the renewed +activity of the former causes, and thus rendered capable of development. +Hence the organism may show the most various reversions with respect to +its adaptations. But in such reversions the earlier forms never quite +return, because in the meanwhile the idioplasm has changed somewhat in +consequence of its automatic progress, and therefore lends to the +adaptations which assume the earlier character a somewhat different +expression. + + +13. ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE DETERMINANTS. + +Since the capability of the primordial plasma to grow is the original +and only vital quality (_Anlage_), the whole ontogeny in this first +stage consists in the growth of the detached parts to the adult size. In +the same way the development of the determinants in all the following +stages is nothing more than the growth of the substance detached as a +germ cell after the manner of the changes in the character of the +idioplasm in the course of phylogeny. In this manner all determinants +may in the lower stages of organization reach development, but in the +higher stages an increasing number of them must remain latent. + +Among the viable determinants there are some that develop +unconditionally during each ontogenetic period; there are also +alternative determinants of which one or the other unconditionally +develops; lastly, there are some that develop only under favorable +circumstances. Which of two alternative determinants shall develop +depends sometimes on internal, sometimes on external causes, according +as the specific determinant has arisen phylogenetically through the +action of internal or external causes. Climatic and nutritive influences +especially affect the appearance of indefinitely developing +determinants. Just so, when a determinant may develop repeatedly (as is +so common in the plant kingdom) it depends especially on nutrition +whether the corresponding phenomenon is repeated at intervals of greater +or less length. A weakened determinant is sometimes temporarily +developed by the operation of a definite stimulus. + +If the integrity of the organism sustains an injury in consequence of +abnormal interferences, determinants develop exceptionally at unusual +points. The process is induced by accumulation of nutritive matter and +by external stimuli under the force of necessity, to which the injured +organism is sensible. + + +14. ESSENTIAL NATURE OF THE ORGANISM. + +The essential nature of a thing is the sum total of its causes and +effects. Organisms arise from a germ cell which consists of idioplasm +and in turn they produce like germ cells. Their nature depends also on +their idioplasm, _i.e._, on the sum total of their idioplasmic +determinants. Observation of organisms, even in their fullest life +history, gives us an imperfect and even false conception of their true +nature. This is because observation reveals only the outer gross +characters, and even these in a modification dependent upon accidental +effects of nutrition, and does not reveal the finer characters founded +in molecular physiology and morphology, and especially the characters +latent in the idioplasm. + +For the examination of idioplasmic differences we are restricted to +visible characters. Hence a knowledge of the nature of an organism +presupposes a complete investigation of its characters in their +succession during the whole ontogeny. The results must, however, be +tested and completed by comparison with other organisms and by the most +comprehensive experimental procedure, possible, (as by culture under +various conditions, and crossing with nearer and more remote relatives). +The characteristics of nutrition varieties and accidental crosses must +be separated from specific characteristics by experimental procedure, +and latent determinants must be brought out by the same means. + + +15. REPRODUCTION, AND RELATION BETWEEN PARENTS AND OFFSPRING. + +Reproduction is nothing more than a transition from one generation to +the next following, mediated by the idioplasm of the germ cell. In +asexual (monogenic) reproduction there is continuity of the same +idioplasm. Therefore the parent continues in the offspring its specific +life, as the stem continues its specific life in the branch. All the +peculiarities conditioned by the idioplasm remain unchanged in the +offspring. The latter, as the immediate continuation of the preceding +ontogeny, starts from the point at which the germ cell left it, so that +immediately after the germ cell is separated at the close of the +ontogeny or before, the offspring passes at one time rapidly through +the whole ontogeny, at another only the remainder or a part of it (the +latter in alternation of generations and in asexual propagation of +phanerogams). + +In sexual (digenic) reproduction the formation of the germ cell is +brought about by the union in equal parts of both parental idioplasms. +The offspring is the organism resulting from the union of the force and +matter of the parents, and represents in its nature the united +continuation of their ontogenies. The characteristics of development of +the child depend however on the viability of the determinants of the +mingled idioplasms in which a new equilibrium has been formed. Hence if +the child bears more resemblance to the father or to the mother, it +follows that some of the inherited determinants develop while the others +remain latent. If the child has certain visible characteristics more +marked than either parent, it becomes possible only by the development +of determinants which had previously been latent. The fact that the +mother furnishes the germ cell with nutritive plasm and that she +nourishes it for a considerable time does not increase the number of +maternal determinants nor their capability of development. + +If two corresponding characters, one derived from the father, the other +from the mother, come into conflict in sexual reproduction, the one or +the other, or even a third alternative characteristic, which heretofore +was present as a latent determinant, may develop in the child. But also +both parental characters may appear at once and in various combinations. +Whether the development follows in the one way or the other depends on +the strength of the individual determinants, on the kind of their +idioplasmic arrangement, and on their agreement with the nature of the +newly formed idioplasm. + + +16. HEREDITY AND VARIATION. + +If heredity and variation are defined according to the true nature of +organisms, they are only apparent opposites. Since idioplasm alone is +transmitted from one ontogeny to the next following, the phylogenetic +development consists solely in the continual progress of the idioplasm +and the whole genealogical tree from the primordial drop of plasma up to +the organism of the present day (plant or animal) is, strictly speaking, +nothing else than an individual consisting of idioplasm, which at each +ontogeny forms a new individual body, corresponding to its advance. + +In this idioplasmic individual the _automatic_ or _perfecting variation_ +is always active, so that the idioplasm of a phylogenetic line always +grows by propagation of the determinants contained within it, as a tree +grows larger through its whole duration of life by branching. On the +other hand the _adaptation variation_ caused by external stimuli is +present only in those periods of the phylogenetic line in which the +idioplasm, and together with this the individual, do not possess the +obtainable maximum of adaptation to their environment for the time +being. Both of these variations of the idioplasm take place so slowly +that only after a long series of generations do the new determinants +become capable of developing and revealing themselves in the +transmutation of visible characters. + +Aside from the phylogenetic variations already named, which take place +according to the measure of ontogenetic growth, the idioplasm undergoes, +as a result of crossing, as well as in changes of the ontogeny, +_gamogenic variations_ which may be designated as stationary, since in +the mingling of sexually different idioplasms there arise only new +arrangements of determinants already present, but no new formation of +determinants takes place. Hence in this way arise also new combinations +of developmental characteristics. + +As a result of external injurious influences, abnormal variations, or +_pathological variations_, appear in the idioplasm. These consist of +disturbances of equilibrium, which take place also without new formation +of determinants. Thereby the determinants already present are caused to +develop in abnormal relations, and mostly in reversions. + +Apart from the inheritable variations of the idioplasm just enumerated, +and the transformations of visible characters involved in it, the +soma-plasm and the non-plasmic substances experience, by the influence +of nutrition and climate, greater or less variations, which constitute +_nutrition varieties_, and since the idioplasm remains unaffected in +general, last only so long as the causes which called them forth.[F] + + [F] Nägeli, like Weismann, arrives at the conclusion that + acquired characters are not inherited. He was not content, + however, to rest the generalization upon purely speculative + grounds, but undertook the experimental demonstration. After + seventeen years of work by himself and son, especially upon + several species of Hieracium, he satisfied himself that his + theory was true to the facts. We all know now how far he fell + short of settling the question.--_Trans._ + +If we have in mind the inner nature of the organism, there is, properly +speaking, no such specific phenomenon as heredity, since the +phylogenetic line is a continuous idioplasmic individual. In this sense +heredity is nothing more than the persistence of organized substance in +a movement in which variations are automatically induced, or the +necessary transition of one idioplasmic configuration into the next +following. It is present, not only among plant and animal individuals +which are ontogenetically separated, but also everywhere within these +individuals, where individual parts (cells, organs) follow each other in +time. Hereditary phenomena are those that necessarily pass over to +following generations, and in general those that are located in the +idioplasm, since non-idioplasmic substance can be hereditary only +through a limited number of cell generations. + +Variations and heredity are generally estimated, not according to the +inner nature of the mature individuals, but according to their relation +in successive generations, since heredity is assumed when the +ontogenetic characters remain the same, and variation when previously +latent characters become visible. But these phenomena belong to another +department of science; they concern the possibility and reality of +development of the idioplasmic determinants. + + +17. VARIETY, RACE, MODIFICATION. + +From the multifarious variations of organisms proceed various categories +of kinship. _Varieties_ arise by extremely slow changes in the idioplasm +due to the perfecting process and adaptation. Since these are +conditioned by the same causes, they follow in all individuals of the +same variety in uniform manner. Varieties are uniform, entirely constant +under the most various external conditions, in general cross only with +difficulty with related varieties, are not varied by accidental crosses, +and persist through geological periods. Varieties belong to feral nature +rather than to culture; they can assume all possible modifications +without injury to their specific characteristics, but can show no +distinctions of races, for all beginnings of race formation are +destroyed by free intercrossing. They differ from species only in that +they are to be designated as more closely related species, or species as +more remotely related varieties. Every other distinguishing +characteristic is wanting. + +_Races_ arise from gamogenic or pathological variations of the +idioplasm. In the former case they presuppose crossing between related +varieties or species, in the latter case an increased sensibility and +weakening of the idioplasm. Very often both causes co-operate, since +crossing follows more easily when the idioplasm is weakened by hurtful +influences and since the irritability and weakening of the idioplasm +increases if crossing has preceded. Race formation begins in single +individuals. Among several individuals it begins in various directions +because the causes are different and hence may display a great +multiformity. Races are distinguished by more or less abnormal +characteristics; they arise quickly--often in a single generation--and +present various degrees of stability. This stability is insured to some +extent only by the strictest in-and-in breeding. All races disappear +through crossing, likewise many races that have arisen from pathological +variations disappear even in sexual reproduction (in self-fecundation). +Races belong exclusively to cultivation, where they can develop and +exist protected from free intercrossing. + +While varieties and races arise by progressional or stationary variation +of the idioplasm, _modifications_ are produced by such influences of +nutrition and climate as act only on the soma-plasm and the non-plasmic +substances, and hence do not give rise to inheritable characters in the +organism. Modifications persist only so long as their causes, and under +other environments immediately pass over into the modifications +corresponding to them. The transition is completed in the lowest plants +during a limited number of cell generations; in an individual of the +higher plants on the same stem during the growth of a single year. Each +variety and each race appears clothed in a definite modification, and +can change it within a range peculiar to itself.[A] + + [G] The distinctions which Nägeli here erects are, of course, + purely arbitrary, and his definitions are suitable for use only + in his own thesis.--_Trans._ + + +18. SOCIAL AND INDIVIDUAL ORIGIN OF SPECIES. + +The species arises neither from the _nutrition variety_ nor from the +_race_; it is always a more advanced variety, and hence species +formation is identical with variety formation. Cause for variation and +consequently for variety formation is always shown, either when, +environment remaining the same, the automatic variation of the idioplasm +has advanced so far that the ontogeny is raised to a higher grade of +organization and division of labor, or when external stimuli act for a +sufficiently long time in a manner not in harmony with the previous +adaptation. Hence various varieties arise easily from a uniform kinship, +when these are thrown among unlike external influences by local +separation, because in the separated places on the one hand the +automatic evolution proceeds with unequal rapidity, and on the other +hand adaptation takes place unequally. + +But in general different varieties arise socially from a uniform +kinship. This is because the related individuals living together are +unequally stimulated on account of the great inequality of external +influences which may exist at the smallest distances; and also because +with slight individual differences unlike reactions often follow upon +the same external influences. If identically similar individuals are +equally inclined to very different reactions toward the same stimulus, +sometimes the direction of the first variation decides the character of +the adaptation and therefore the nature of the variety, because the +variation, when once begun, progresses unswervingly even under somewhat +different circumstances.[H] Hence divergent variations are found growing +together in all places, which variations have begun at different though +neighboring points by transformation of the idioplasm and are soon +intermingled on account of the easy dissemination of seed. + + [H] It is interesting to compare this statement with Weismann's + recent theory of Germinal Selection.--_Trans._ + +The social formation of varieties is not in general interrupted by +crossing, a process which governs only the formation of races. It is +confirmed according to experience by the universally recurring fact that +several beginnings of the most closely related varieties appear +together not only in the same region, but even at the same points, while +the geographical distribution of the more marked varieties and of +related species offers no conclusion as to their origin, but only as to +the last great migration of the plant world, because they arose before +this period, as indeed appears from their distribution. + +Just as different varieties arise simultaneously from one kinship at the +same place, the same variety may arise in places far separated, when the +analogous external exciting causes occasion an identical transformation +in the idioplasm. The experimental proof lies in the fact that like +beginnings of varieties often appear at great distances from each other. + +An apparent social origin of varieties is indicated, when, after having +come together in migration, they first develop the unlike determinants +which they have gained in various locations. An apparently individual +origin of the same or different varieties is indicated, when the +formation of the determinants take place at one and the same place, but +their development follows only after the kindred has been scattered by +migration. + + +19. GENERAL RELATION OF THE PHYLOGENETIC LINES IN THE ORGANIC KINGDOMS. + +Since the nature of an organism is contained in the sum of its +idioplasmic determinants alone, the evolution of a phylogeny consists in +the evolution of the idioplasm. This is perceived from the succession +of the visible ontogenetic characteristics which in general run parallel +with it. The idioplasm varies in two ways: (1) by an _automatic +perfecting process_; (2) by _adaptation to environment_. + +By virtue of the _automatic variation_ of the idioplasm the ontogenies +of a phylogenetic line attain to a continually more complex organization +and greater differentiation of function. In this differentiation, +however, only the qualitative differences are of importance; +quantitative and numerical gradations may be disregarded. The more +complex admits of more combinations than the simpler; hence if a +phylogeny reaches a higher stage by automatic evolution it may branch +into several lines, of which each appears as the continuation of the +parent stock. + +Since _adaptive variations_ depend only on the transmutations of +environment, an organism may rise to a higher organization and division +of labor by continually adapting itself to the changed environment. But +the organism may also change its adaptation while it remains at the same +stage of organization. And since the adaptive variation is quickly +perfected as compared with automatic evolution, although extremely +slowly as compared with the duration of the ontogeny, an organization +may change its adaptation several times while it remains at the same +grade of organization and division of labor. Since there are also +numerous different kinds of adaptation, a phyletic line may divide at +each point into several adaptive forms, which appear in the taxonomic +system as species, genera, often even as whole families, while in other +cases various degrees of organization have appeared in one family. + + +20. LAWS OF EVOLUTION OF THE PLANT KINGDOM. + +In the sub-organic kingdom, which precedes the plant and animal +kingdoms, (see page 5), there are gradually formed from the +spontaneously generated plasma independent cells with their +characteristic properties, _i.e._, growth by intussusception of micellæ, +formation of a plasmic cuticle, and a non-plasmic membrane about the +same, division of the cells, separation of the cells thus formed, and +free cell formation within the cell contents. These properties are +inherited from the sub-organic kingdom by the plants and animals which +follow in the next stage of phylogeny. The evolution of the plant +kingdom proceeds through the following regular processes, which continue +to operate through the entire phylogenetic series. + +_Law of Phylogenetic Combination._--The simplest of all plants are cells +of round form, which grow and reproduce themselves by division, budding +or free cell formation. From the fact that the younger generation of +cells, instead of separating from each other and growing to independent +plant individuals, remain united with each other, multicellular plants +arise from unicellular. The same transformation of the reproductive +cells into non-separable tissue cells is repeated several times in +multicellular plants and serves to enlarge the individual. There is +manifested in this phylogenetic process the tendency of the plant to +combine in the higher stages into one complex whole those parts which in +the lower stages tend to be independent. A similar unifying tendency is +revealed also in those plant members which have arisen by +differentiation and represent a system only by their being connected at +certain points. These combine in the higher stages and form ultimately +continuous tissues. + +_Law of Phylogenetic Complication or Ampliation, Differentiation and +Reduction._--The cells, and, in general, the parts of plants which lie +near each other in space or follow upon each other in time, are always +alike in the lower stages. By differentiation they become unlike, so +that the sum of the functions which at first fall to the lot of all +parts without distinction now is shared among the individual parts. By +this means each part can perform its own special function so much the +better. Differentiation is repeated in the course of the phylogeny, +since at first all parts of an ontogeny diverge into two or more parts, +then the parts of these parts divide again, etc. Along with this process +of division another process is always active, which, as it were, +prepares the way for the former, namely, ampliation, by virtue of which +the growth of the whole ontogeny or of single stages of it undergoes a +quantitative increase, so that an organ acquires a greater number of +cells, and an individual a greater number of organs. After this increase +in number of parts in a stage of ontogeny, differentiation follows as +far as the nature of the functions permits, by the parts most separated +passing into each other by intermediate gradations. By the further +phylogenetic process of reduction the intermediate forms are suppressed. +At last only the extreme products of differentiation lie near each other +in space or follow upon each other in time; and these products are as +limited in quantity and number as possible. + +Along with the above named phylogenetic processes, which take place by +the automatic increase of the idioplasm, external influences are always +active. These lend to the organism at times a local stamp corresponding +to its environment, and follow the law of adaptation. + + +21. ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS IN RELATION TO PHYLOGENY. + +Since the simplest plants are cells and the more complex ones are formed +from cells, a whole phylogenetic line may be regarded as a series of +cell generations following one after another. In the lowest forms all +cell generations are like each other; in all others they show +differences which become continually greater and more numerous. Thus +alternation of generations in cells exists, because the successive +generations become more and more complicated at each succeeding period. +Among these periods the ontogenetic period or ontogeny embraces all +generations from one cell to the return of the exactly similar kind of +cell. In the lowest forms of cell differentiation the cells of +successive generations are all independent; the ontogenetic period +consists of a cycle of generations of unicellular plants. Later the cell +generations of an ontogeny are united by parts into plant individuals; +the ontogenetic period consists of a cycle of multicellular and +unicellular, or only of multicellular plant generations. If all the cell +generations of an ontogenetic period have been united into a single +individual, the successive plant generations are alike and alternation +of generations has ceased. + +The unlikeness of the generations arises either from inner causes of +temporary differentiation alone, or by temporary differentiation which +receives a definite imprint by the change of seasons. But in the latter +case the characteristic of adaptation is again lost in the course of the +phylogeny and alternation of generations follows then without regard to +the season. If the given adaptation is united in the lower plants with +alternation of generations during the ontogenetic periods, one of the +unlike plant generations is repeated an indefinite number of times +(repetitional generation), while the other unlike plant generation +appears only once and then at the beginning of the resting stage and +remains latent in the form of a resting spore till the beginning of the +next period of generation. With this peculiar transition generation, +which has arisen in the lower stages asexually, and in the following +higher stages by the union of a male and a female cell, and which hence +is hermaphrodite, there are generally associated later two other single +generations--_viz._, a generation preceding and one following the +hermaphrodite, the former as a sex-producing generation, the other as a +sex-produced generation. + +The phylogenetic significance of the alternation of generations consists +in its representing a transition stage from the unicellular to the +simpler multicellular and from the latter to the more complex +multicellular plants. The plant generations of any phylogenetic stage +increase by ampliation, become unlike by differentiation in time +(alternation of generations), and unite in a plant individual, whose +unlike ontogenetic stages correspond to the unlike plant generations of +the earlier ancestral series. + + +22. MORPHOLOGY AS THE SCIENCE OF PHYLOGENY. + +All organic phenomena belong, according to their causes, to two +different classes: (1) Those belonging to one group are the results of +external influences in each ontogeny and are not inherited; they +represent nutrition varieties, are experimentally demonstrable, and +constitute the subject matter of experimental physiology. (2) The others +are inherited and again transmitted; they belong to the physiology of +the idioplasm. This subject is mainly occupied with the origin of the +determinants, hence with the formation of varieties and species. It is +not the subject of experiment, and constitutes the phylogeny or the +physiology of the formation of determinants. A sub-division of this +subject is occupied with the development of the determinants already +present, hence with the formation of races. It is elucidated especially +by experiments in crossing and may be designated as the physiology of +the development of the determinants. + +The morphological phenomena which find their application in taxonomy, +belong exclusively to phylogeny. Their ontogenetic history does not +explain their true significance; this can be known only in a +phylogenetic way by comparison of one phenomenon with those phenomena +from which it has arisen in the course of evolution. + + +23. PLANT CLASSIFICATION FROM THE STANDPOINT OF PHYLOGENY. + +Spontaneous generation has taken place at all times and in all places, +in as far as the necessary conditions were concurrently present. (See +page 47). After spontaneous generation the automatic phylogenetic +evolution begins and advances constantly. Consequently the phylogenetic +line rises from time to time to higher stages of organization and +division of labor, but dies of old age if the automatic perfecting +process ceases. The phylogenetic lines of organisms now living have +therefore an unequal age; those of the most highly developed plants and +animals had their origin in the earliest periods of organic life, those +of the lowest organisms in the most recent periods. Hence no general +genetic relation exists among lines now living; only those that are +nearly related and have reached approximately equal stages of +organization may be regarded as branches of the same phylogenetic stock. +A phylogenetic plant system does not exist in fact, but only in figure. + +If genetic relation between two races is assumed, either as a reality or +as a symbol, the degree of relationship is determined in a theoretically +exact manner by the number and length of the phylogenetic steps which +are found either between them both or between them and the common +starting point, according as races belong to the same or collateral +lines. The fact that two organisms belong to the same line of descent is +recognized from the ontogeny of the higher including the ontogeny of the +lower. + +Since only a proportionately small number of known forms can appear as +types of the supposed stages of evolution, only a few phylogenetic +lines, and these only in a general way, may be established, on account +of the great incompleteness of the present plant world. Such a line +proceeds from the green filamentous algæ through the liverworts to the +vascular plants. Among the phanerogams, apparently so numerously +represented, only phylogenetic series of individual organs can be +ascertained, but no phylogenetic series of families. A phylogenetic +system of phanerogams is not to be hazarded in the roughest outline. +Even the relative rank of the two chief divisions of the angiosperms, +the monocotyledons and dicotyledons, is a matter of question, as also +which family in each of these divisions is to be considered the most +perfect. + + + + +APPENDIX. + +TRANSLATORS' NOTES. + + +_The Mechanico-physiological Theory of Evolution_, +(_Mechanisch-Physiologische Theorie der Abstammungslehre_), +by Carl von Nägeli, was published in Munich and Leipsic in 1884 in a +large octavo volume of 822 pages, including two large appendices. The +_Abstammungslehre_ proper, including the summary, occupies 552 pages, +and constitutes, in its way, one of the most important contributions to +theoretical biology. It is difficult to understand how a work of so much +consequence should have received such comparatively small notice in this +country, especially as Nägeli's theories seemed calculated by nature to +appeal much more strongly to American students than do, for instance, +those of Weismann, who has been studied ten times as much as Nägeli. +This is doubtless due, in part, to the fact that we have had no English +translation of Nägeli's work, a circumstance much to be regretted. + +The foregoing translation of the summary from _Abstammungslehre_ +goes but a small way toward making Nägeli's theories accessible to +English-reading students, but it will, at least, be better than nothing. +The work covers a great range of subjects, all, however, having a +certain relationship to each other. In the main part of the book the +discussion is presented in the following order: (1) Idioplasm as bearer +of the inheritable determinants; (2) Spontaneous generation; (3) Causes +of variation; (4) Determinants and visible characters, in which the +origin and function of the determinants is presented; (5) Variety, race, +"nutrition variety," heredity and variation; (6) Criticism of the +Darwinian theory of natural selection, in which the author urges seven +objections to that theory; (7) Laws of evolution of the plant kingdom; +(8) Alternation of generations from the standpoint of phylogeny; (9) +Morphology and classification as phylogenetic sciences; (10) A +comprehensive summary of the whole work, a translation of which is +given in the foregoing pages. + +In the first part of the work Nägeli sets forth his micellar theory of +the structure of organized bodies. This is one of his most important +contributions to science. Until recent years it has been the only theory +given in botanical text-books. At the present time its only competitor +is Strasburger's lamellar theory, and even this has not superseded +Nägeli's work to any great degree. + +The reader who may not be familiar with the micellar theory will find +the general idea from the following brief sketch adapted from Vines's +_Plant Physiology_: + + "Nägeli's micellar theory was developed from his study of + organized bodies, especially of cell walls and starch grains. + From the behavior of organized substance toward water absorbed + by it, he concluded that water does not penetrate into the + micellæ, but only among them, thus merely separating them more + from each other. He reasoned that if water should penetrate into + the micella, its structure would be disintegrated. Hence he + argued that organized bodies consist of solid micellæ, which, + with their respective films of water, are held together by: (1) + The attraction of the micellæ for each other, which varies + inversely as the square of the distance. (2) The attraction of + the micellæ for water, which varies inversely as some higher + power of the distance. (3) The force which holds together the + ultimate chemical molecules of which each micella consists. + + "Since the swelling up of organized bodies does not take place + equally in all three dimensions of space, and on account of + their double refraction, Nägeli inferred that in form the + micellæ are crystals, probably parallelopipedal, with + rectangular or rhomboidal bases." + +The law that "bodies attract each other with a force which varies +inversely as the square of the distance," has been proven only in its +application to the heavenly bodies. Nägeli has applied this law to +molecules, unsupported, however, by any evidence other than that of +analogy. On the other hand, there is evidence that molecules do not +invariably act according to this law. + +Spontaneous generation (p. 4) was an important item in Nägeli's +doctrine, and might almost be said to be fundamental to it, although it +is not really necessary to the internal perfecting principle, which may +be regarded as the chief feature of the Mechanico-Physiological Theory. +Up to 1865 Nägeli believed in the spontaneous origin of many fungi, and +thought that it could be demonstrated. He was obliged to abandon the +experimental evidence, but to the close of his life held the views of +abiogenesis presented in the accompanying translation. + +The characteristic and most interesting feature of the +Mechanico-Physiological Theory is certainly Nägeli's conception of an +automatic perfecting principle (_Autonome Vervollkommnung_). This +conception may be briefly outlined as follows: + +1. The essential part of the reproductive plasm, termed idioplasm, since +it divides and passes over from generation to generation, in higher as +well as in lower organisms, has a continuous or "immortal" existence.[I] + + [I] Nägeli's idioplasm corresponds in many respects, though by + no means in all, to Weismann's germ-plasm. Weismann's idea of + continuity or "immortality," which has been so widely noticed, + is set forth with equal clearness, though with less emphasis, by + Nägeli. + +2. During this continuous life the idioplasm goes through a development +of its own, just as an individual organism goes through a certain cycle +of development during its individual life. This development consists in +a constantly increasing complexity of structure and differentiation of +function. + +3. This development is automatic, resulting from internal forces or +movements, (_Vervollkommnungs-bewegungen_). + +4. As a result of the increasing complexity of structure in the +idioplasm the entire organism, which in each generation rearises +therefrom, becomes, from generation to generation, more and more complex +with greater and greater differentiation of function. Thus the +progression of the idioplasm controls the phylogeny of the race. It +marks out the course of evolution. + +5. Since, according to Nägeli, new life with new idioplasms, may arise +wherever and whenever the necessary conditions combine, the present +organic world is not made up from branchings of a single original +idioplasm, but each race or group may have its own specific idioplasm; +and, since this has its own characteristic structure and its own +specific internal perfecting forces, it passes through its own peculiar +evolution, carrying with it its own depending race of organisms. + +The fact that animals and plants at the present time show such various +degrees of organization is also accounted for on the last supposition, +for those of lowlier organization are merely of more recent origin and +have not progressed so far in idioplasmic development. + +This automatic perfecting principle has been the mark of much criticism. +Some have confounded it with the mystical _nisus formativus_, or +formative principle of preceding theorists. But, as Weismann remarks, +Nägeli's phyletic force is conceived as a thoroughly scientific +mechanical principle. Nägeli has simply made application in the organic +world of the principle of entropy, as stated in the mechanical theory of +heat. Nägeli himself also compares his internal perfecting principle to +mechanical inertia. He says, "the force of evolution once started in a +given direction, tends to continue in the same direction. This +constitutes the law of inertia in the organic world." + + * * * * * + +Two other matters remain to be noticed. The first of these is Nägeli's +use of the German word _Anlage_. We have been unable to give a perfectly +satisfactory translation of this word in its technical meaning. We have +received some comfort, though but little help, from the experience of +the translators of similar works. Selmar Schoenland, in translating from +Weismann, renders it variously as "germ," "germ of structure," "germ (of +Nägeli)," "germ of Nägeli," "Nägeli's preformed germ of structure," +"preformed germs," "tendency." Another translator renders the word as +"constitutional element." The translation, "determinant," which we have +selected is an appropriation of an analogous but not absolutely +identical technical term from Weismann's _Germinal Selection_. The use +of the word in this connection is open to the objection that it has +previously been used technically for a somewhat different idea by +another author. M. C. Potter, in his translation of Warming's +_Systematic Botany_, following Dr. E. L. Mark, renders the word _Anlage_ +as "fundament." Dr. H. C. Porter, in his translation of the _Bonn +Text-Book of Botany_, renders the same word as "rudiment." + +In general the word Anlage means beginning, plan, disposition to +anything, and hence involves the ideas of origin, organization and +tendency. Sanders defines the word in one of its meanings as: "The act +of planning or beginning anything; the act of laying the foundation of +any work intended to be carried on toward completion, in order that from +the beginning made, a definite thing may be developed or may develop +itself"; (_i.e._, to determine, in the sense of limiting to a particular +purpose or direction, hence determinant). "Also, the thing begun or +planned, considered as the basis and germ of the further development of +that which has already originated." + +In its restricted use as applied to organisms it would mean "germ," in +the sense of embryonic starting point. More specifically, it is a +portion of plastic, organized substance, functioning as an individual +and containing potentially an elemental organ plus a formative power. In +Nägeli's own words, "There exists an essential difference between the +substance of a mature organism which does not possess the capability of +further development, and the substance of an egg, which does possess +this capability. By virtue of this difference the egg-substance is +characterized as the _Anlage_, or germ of the mature organism. All +characteristics of the adult condition are potentially contained in the +ovum." + +Nägeli was not the first to assume the existence of a unit of +organization intermediate between the molecule and the cell. E. B. +Wilson, in his _The Cell in Inheritance and Development_, states the +case as follows: + + "That the cell consists of more elementary units of + organization, is indicated by _a priori_ evidence so cogent as + to have driven many of the foremost leaders of biological + thought into the belief that such units must exist, whether or + not the microscope reveals them to view. The modern conception + of ultra-cellular units, ranking between the molecule and the + cell, was first definitely suggested by Brücke in 1861. + + "This idea of ultra-cellular units is common to most + morphologists and physiologists. We are compelled by the most + stringent evidence to admit that the ultimate basis of living + matter is not a single chemical substance, but a mixture of many + substances that are self-perpetuating without their loss of + specific character."[J] + + [J] For a fuller discussion of the notion of these hypothetical + units of organic existence, see Weismann's Germinal Selection, + (Open Court Publishing Co., Chicago, 1896), especially the foot + note, page 230. + +Nägeli's _Laws of Evolution_ are also worth special notice. As stated in +the body of _Abstammungslehre_ they are as follows: + +1. Asexual reproductive cells which arise by division, remain united and +become tissue cells. + +2. Asexual reproductive cells which arise by budding, instead of +separating, become cell branches or branched cell threads. + +3. Reproductive cells which arise by free cell formation become bodies +which form a part of the cell contents. + +4. Parts of a plant which arise by differentiation lie side by side and +form a body of web-like or tissue-like structure. + +5. A definite and previously limited growth continues, or a definite +formation of parts of an ontogeny which has previously been present but +once, is repeated. (Ampliation.) + +6. The parts of an ontogeny become dissimilar, since the functions which +were previously united become differentiated and since new dissimilar +functions are produced in the various parts. This differentiation is +either one of space between the parts of the ontogeny that appear near +each other, or one of time between those that are derived from each +other. + +7. Parts which have become dissimilar by differentiation undergo a +reduction, in which the intermediate forms are suppressed and at last +only the qualitatively dissimilar forms with qualitatively dissimilar +functions remain. + +8. The environment in which plants live operates in different ways, +directly as a stimulus or indirectly as a felt necessity and by this +means lends to their forms and activities a definite expression of time +and place, and thus brings about different adaptations. These become +permanent through heredity, but are again gradually lost if other +adaptations supersede them. + +Laws 1 to 4 may be expressed as one--the law of combination: Similar +parts that are wholly or partly separated have the tendency to unite +more and more completely and intimately into one continuous tissue. + +The laws of ampliation (5), differentiation (6), and reduction (7), may +be summarized in one as follows: While increasing in size the similar +parts of an ontogeny become internally dissimilar and the dissimilarity +increases as the transition forms of the dissimilar parts vanish. Hence +only the extreme forms remain. + + * * * * * + +It may also interest the reader to know that Nägeli was the first to +propose the general theory of cell formation as accepted at the present +day. + + + + + BRIEF STATEMENT OF THE WORK OF THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY + + +If one asked for a brief description of the work of the Open Court +Company, one would probably get the answer that the Company publishes +books and articles on Science, Religion, and Philosophy. That is not +quite exact; for that describes the ideal to which the Open Court +Company is continually striving rather than the actual work it is doing. +The ideal is Religion on a firm basis of Science, a Science of +Philosophy, and a Philosophy of Science: the only path which can lead to +this great ideal synthesis is the detailed and careful study of +sciences, religions, and philosophies. + +It was this ideal that prompted the late Mr. Edward Carl Hegeler of La +Salle, Illinois, in the United States of America, to found a Company to +publish books with the object of establishing ethics and religion upon a +scientific basis. Such ideals are as old as philosophy itself. Among +modern philosophies, that founded by Comte tried, probably in the most +explicit fashion of all, to found a religion on the basis of positive +science; and at one time it appeared likely to have a lasting success. +But it is now quite plain that no philosophy which hopes to be permanent +can neglect history or put itself into uncritical opposition to the +systems that have for centuries expressed some of the dearest and +highest aspirations of mankind. It is unprejudiced and fearless +historical and critical investigation--non-sectarian in the widest +sense--in both religion, science, and philosophy, that must go before +any satisfactory synthesis. This is a great part of the work of the Open +Court Company. + +Let us consider what non-sectarianism means. We cannot, for example, +isolate a single domain of science in a particular country and at a +particular time--say, mechanics in England in the eighteenth +century--and hope to make of it a thoroughly complete object of study. +In natural science, for example, we make conventional divisions simply +with the object of saving labor when dealing with the huge mass of +material that experience offers. But the narrowest specialist knows that +all workers in science, religion, and philosophy seek the Truth; and +that the Truth is bounded neither by space nor by time nor by man-made +divisions. A man may rightly conclude that he stands little chance of +finding out very much of the Truth, and so he may voluntarily limit his +view to a certain roughly defined domain of facts and thoughts, and +become, for example, what is called a "biologist," a "physicist," a +"higher critic," or, if he thinks that he may discover rather more of +the Truth, a "philosopher." + +And let us carry a clear understanding of a lofty aim into religion as +well. It is our duty, as rational beings, to be non-sectarian. It is not +a merit to allow ignorance to blind us to the glimpses of Truth that we +sometimes get from prophets, poets, and priests of other religions and +other philosophies than our own. If we think that there is more truth or +sacredness in our own, let us use every means to make this sacredness or +this truth appear evident to others. But, in justice, let us also +fearlessly discuss other religions and philosophies, and discover their +greater merits, if any, as compared with our own. If, after careful +investigation, we arrive at the belief in the truth or falsehood of +anything in these religions or philosophies, let us state our grounds +for believing so in the fullest possible way. Only by so doing can we +fulfil the duties of being true to ourselves and helpful to others. + +Sometimes the work of a critic is said to be "merely destructive." This +idea rests on a most harmful misunderstanding. Criticism consists not +only in the pointing out of error, but in the pointing out of truth as +well. Error is simply a psychological condition of blindness to the +truth; and the discovery of errors committed by other people or +ourselves is not--as many superficial people like to say--the pulling +down of a structure already raised, unless an error can be called a +structure which is built out of the fictions of our imagination which +have no objective existence. Criticism often enables us to discover more +of the Truth, and nobody can do more than _discover_ Truth: nobody +_creates_ Truth, any more than Columbus created America. + +Nowadays all intelligent men and women agree that all knowledge must be +subjected to criticism, and the best men and women act on these beliefs. +The books and magazines published by the Open Court Company are intended +to help these men and women. + +We will dwell a little longer on the subject of religion, because it is +in religion that the majority of us have the one region of ideals above +our bodily needs. It is rare, though of course not unknown, that Science +or Philosophy satisfies the spiritual needs--the purest of human +cravings. Nowadays, most of us realize that an anti-scientific attitude +of religion is impossible. If there were an opposition between "science" +and "religion," there would be no question as to which side would be +victorious. More particularly during the last seventy years, "religion," +conscious of the opposition which a rather crude doctrine which was +called "science" had towards it, has been gradually, and often somewhat +ludicrously, trying to bring itself more into conformity with that +"science." The result is painful to the student of human nature; though +it has its amusing sides, just as had the militant denial, on the part +of those who were "on the side of the angels" about fifty years ago, of +certain deductions from facts. What is called a "conflict between +religion and science" always has ended in a victory for "science" and an +agnosticism which ousted religion. And thus many see that it is +desirable that the matured results of science should enter into the +fabric of our religious convictions. For the realization of this +purpose, the Open Court Company publishes two periodicals, _The Monist_, +a quarterly magazine devoted to the philosophy of science, and _The Open +Court_, an illustrated monthly devoted to the science of religion and +the religion of science. In addition, the Open Court Company publishes +books that directly or indirectly advance its aim--books on Philosophy, +which, in contrast with the old metaphysicism, lay the foundations of a +philosophy of science; books on the history of philosophies; books on +mathematics and other lines of thought which are indispensable for a +rational and scientific conception of the world; books that have a +bearing on the doctrine of Evolution; books on the history of Religions, +especially on the development of Christianity and on Higher Criticism; +and books on Comparative Religion, on Psychology, on Education, and on +Ethics. Above all, in all the works careful, sympathetic, and scholarly +criticism is aimed at. Criticism is the joint result of love of Truth +and independence of thought; rightly understood, it is not only a +preliminary to a work of synthesis, but it is part of synthesis itself. +No synthesis, in fact, is more than a discovery of Truth: from past +history we know that syntheses have often blinded men to the Truth, +though that was naturally not their intention. + +On the subject of independence of thought it may be proper shortly to +refer to the work of Dr. Paul Carus, who has been, since the end of +1887, closely associated with the Open Court Company and its +publications. Only two things need be said here. In the first place, it +was owing to the need he felt for keeping his independence of thought +that he resigned a post in Germany and came, first to England and then +to America. In the second place, his views, which are also, broadly +speaking, the views for which the Open Court Company works, may be +characterized both as monism and positivism, though his philosophy +differs considerably from Hæckel's monism, which is practically +materialism, and even more so from the French positivism of Comte and +from agnosticism, its English equivalent. In his philosophy, _form_ +plays the most important part. Form is the significant feature of both +objective existence and subjective thought. Matter and energy only +denote reality, but form characterizes quality. Science traces form, and +the nature of all things, the human character included, is constituted +by form. In the formal sciences again, that which is the core of their +usefulness as general propositions is the character of _anyness_, the +use of which justifies the method of generalization. Here lies the root +of the kinship of Dr. Carus's philosophy with modern logic, and allows +him to reconstruct the old artistic and religious ideas upon a new and +modern ground. In this sense, he himself has characterized his +philosophy as a _philosophy of form_. + + + + + A Partial List of Books in the + OPEN COURT SCIENCE SERIES + + + PROBLEMS OF SCIENCE + BY FEDERIGO ENRIQUES + + Authorized translation by Katherine Royce, with an introduction + by Josiah Royce. =Pp. 375. Price, $2.50.= + +"The end for which we ought to strive today is a scientific education, +which shall enable the workers in any field whatsoever to understand +better how the object of their own research is subordinated to more +general problems." + +The author is professor of projective geometry and geometric drawing in +the University of Bologna, and is one of the most conspicuous of +contemporary Italian scientists. + + +The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution By E. D. Cope + + =Illustrated. 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