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Forster</title> + <style type="text/css" media="screen"> + /* Reset styles to avoid cross-browser problems */ + html, body, div, span, h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6, p, blockquote, pre, +a, abbr, acronym, cite, del, em, img, ins, strong, sub, sup, /*ol, ul, li,*/ + table, caption, tbody, tfoot, thead, tr, th, td { margin: 0; +padding: 0; border: 0; outline: 0; font-size: 100%; vertical-align: baseline; +background: transparent; } + body { line-height: 1; } + ol, ul { list-style: none; } + ins { text-decoration: none; } + del { text-decoration: line-through; } + abbr, img { text-decoration: none; } + table { border-collapse: collapse; border-spacing: 0; } + + + /* Overall document styles start here */ + html { margin:1em; font-family: serif; } + body { margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; } + p { text-align: justify; line-height: 1.3; text-indent: 1em; } + h1, h2 { text-align: center; font-weight: normal; clear: both; +color:#a5210a;} + h3 {text-align:center; font-weight:normal;margin:2em 0 1em;} + blockquote {margin:1em 2em; font-size:.9em;} + + img {border: none;} + .figcenter {padding: 1em; margin: auto; text-align: center;} + .figright {padding: 1em; margin:0em; float: right;width:auto; +text-align:center;} + .figleft {padding: 1em; float: left;width:auto;text-align:center;} + p.caption {text-indent: 0em; text-align: center; font-size: +0.7em;width:80%;margin:auto;} + + /* Page number styling */ + .pagenum { position: absolute; left: 2%; font-size: 10px; + font-weight:normal; font-variant:normal; font-style: normal; + letter-spacing: normal; +text-indent: 0em; text-align: right; color: gray; } + .pagenum:after { content: attr(title); } /* Comment/uncomment this +instruction to hide/show page numbers*/ + .disguise { color:window; } /* Used to make some page numbers +invisible but still anchors. Used on pages that do not have page numbers printed +on them but are included in the numbering scheme, or full-page illustrations +that have been moved out of order. */ + + /* Parts, Chapters and Sections */ + .chapter, .part {margin:5em 0em;clear:both;} + .chapter h2, .part h2 {font-size:1.5em; margin:0em auto 1em; +text-align:center;padding-top:85px;} + .head_style_1 {background-image:url('images/headstyle1.png'); +background-position: top; +background-repeat: no-repeat;width:500px;height:250px;margin:auto;} + .head_style_2 {background-image: url('images/headstyle2.png'); +background-position: top;background-repeat: no-repeat; +width:500px;height:150px;margin:auto;} + .head_style_2 h2 {padding-top:30px;} + + p.first_paragraph {text-indent:0em;} + .first_word {font-variant:small-caps;font-size:1.5em;line-height:1;} + img.init {float:left; margin:0 .5em 0 -.7em; position:relative;} + p.init {text-indent:0em;text-indent:-1em;} + p.init:first-letter {color:window;} + + .chapter ol {list-style-type: decimal;} + .chapter li {line-height: 1.3;margin:.5em;} + .li_title {font-style:italic;} + + #authorities {margin:-3em auto 5em;border-top:1px gray solid;} + #authorities p {font-style:italic;} + #authorities ul {} + #authorities li {line-height:1.3;} + + .subhead, .byline {font-size:.9em;text-indent:0;text-align:center; +width:400px;margin:1em auto;} + .byline {font-style:italic;} + .reprint_statement {font-size:.8em;margin-top:1em;} + + /* Frontmatter */ + #title_page {border-top:2px gray solid;padding-top:5em;} + #title_page h1 {font-size:2em;clear:both;} + #title_page p {text-align:center;text-indent:0em;margin:3em 0;} + #copyright_statement {font-size:.9em;font-style:italic; +padding:5em 0;} + #subtitle {width:80%;padding-left:10%; + font-size:1.75em;text-indent:0em;} + #left_date {display:block;float:left;width:50%;} + #right_date {} + + /* Endmatter */ + #the_end {margin:5em 0 2em;text-align:center; +padding-bottom:5em;border-bottom:1px gray solid;} + #the_end p {font-style:italic;font-size:.9em;text-align:center;} + + + /* Anchors */ + a:link {color: #3A3E9D; background-color: inherit; + text-decoration: none;} + a:visited {color: #000066; background-color: inherit; + text-decoration: none;} + a:hover {color: #A8480E; background-color: #CC9;} + + h1.pg {text-align: center; + font-weight: bold; + font-size: 190%; } + h3.pg {text-align: center; + font-weight: bold; + font-size: 110%; } + hr.full { width: 100%; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + height: 4px; + border-width: 4px 0 0 0; + border-style: solid; + border-color: #000000; + clear: both; } + pre {font-size: 85%;} + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, From Xylographs to Lead Molds; A.D. +1440-A.D. +1921, by H. C. Forster</h1> +<p> </p> +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = +"http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p> </p> +<p>Title: From Xylographs to Lead Molds; A.D. 1440-A.D. 1921</p> +<p>Author: H. C. Forster</p> +<p>Release Date: August 24, 2010 [eBook #33497]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FROM XYLOGRAPHS TO LEAD MOLDS; A.D. +1440-A.D. 1921***</p> +<p> </p> +<h3 class="pg">E-text prepared by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier,<br />and the +Project +Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />(http://www.pgdp.net)</h3> +<p> </p> + + <div id="title_page"><a class="pagenum disguise" id="page3" +title="3"> </a> + <h1>FROM XYLOGRAPHS<br /> + TO LEAD MOLDS</h1> + + <p id="subtitle"><span id="left_date">AD 1440</span> <span +id="right_date">AD 1921</span></p> + + <div id="device" class="figcenter"> + <img src="images/device.png" width="138" height="200" +alt="Publisher Device" /> + </div> + + <p id="copyright_statement">Copyright, 1921<br /> + The Rapid Electrotype Company<br /> + Cincinnati, Ohio</p> + </div> + + <div id="foreword" class="part"><a class="pagenum disguise" id="page4" +title="4"> </a> + <h2>FOREWORD</h2> + <p class="first_paragraph"><span +class="first_word">Printing</span> has been called “the art + preservative of all arts.” The invention + of individual movable cast-metal + type, between A. D. 1440 and 1446, made + printing a commercial possibility.</p> + + <p>The subsequent rapid spread of the art, in + the hands of students and craftsmen, may be + said to have been the centrifugal force of the + Renaissance and the Revival of Learning, + which age, if it can be chronologically delimited, + began A. D. 1453.</p> + + <p>Printing divulged to the masses the ancient + classics which had been locked up in monasteries + and accessible only to clerics and the + nobility. The common people began to read. + Education became popularized.</p> + + <p>This brochure is a brief history of the + evolution from xylographs to the methods + used today for duplicating a typographical + printing surface in a solid piece.</p> + </div> + + <div id="chapter_1" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page5" +title="5"> </a> + <div class="head_style_1"> + <h2>INDIVIDUAL<br /> + MOVABLE CAST-METAL + TYPE + </h2> + </div> + + <div> + <img class="init" src="images/init-t.png" width="106" +height="100" alt="T" /> + <p class="init"><span class="first_word">The</span> art of +writing, and that of printing + from wooden blocks, and all the subsidiary + arts of illuminating, decorating + and binding manuscripts and books, + had long passed out of the exclusive + hands of the monasteries into the hands + of students and artisans, before printing with individual + movable cast-metal type was invented. This epoch + making invention came into practical use between A. D. + 1440 and 1446.</p> + </div> + + <p>When, therefore, Johannes Koelhoff of Lubeck, Germany, + printed the “Cologne Chronicle” in 1499, he + used individual movable cast-metal type. Typographic + printing had long before superseded Xylographic printing, + that is, printing from a solid block of wood on which type + of an entire page were cut individually by hand.</p> + + <p>Between the invention of individual movable cast-metal + type and the perfection by the Earl of Stanhope of + his printing-press, (a period of about three hundred and + sixty years), very few improvements had been made in + the mechanics of printing. Everything we know today + about the art has come into use since 1799, and if Koelhoff + had come to life in 1799 and been permitted to + resume his occupation of printer, he would have found + himself practically familiar with the mechanical equipment + <a class="pagenum" id="page6" title="6"> </a>of his craft as used in +the establishment of the + Stanhope Press in that last year of the eighteenth century.</p> + + <p>Centuries before 1440 printing is believed to have + been attempted in China; presumably about the beginning + of the Christian era. It is said that in the year + A. D. 175 the text of the Chinese classics was cut into + tablets which were erected outside the national university + at Peking, and that impressions—probably rubbings—were + taken of them. Some of these fac-simile impressions + are still in existence, it is asserted.</p> + + <p>Xylography was also practiced in China long before + Europe knew the art. It can be traced as far back as + the sixth century, when the founder of the Suy dynasty + is said to have had the remains of the Chinese classics + engraved on wood, though it was not until the tenth + century that printed books became common in China.</p> + + <p>The authorities of the British Museum also report + that Chinese writers give the name of a certain Pi Sheng + who, in the eleventh century, invented movable type, + and the Department of Oriental Printed Books and + Manuscripts of the same institution possesses a copy of + the Wen hsien tung Kao, a Chinese encyclopedia printed + in Korea from movable type in A. D. 1337.</p> + + <p>To the Koreans also is attributed the invention of + copper type in the beginning of the 15th century, and + the inspection of books bearing the dates of that period + seems to show that they used such type, even if they + did not invent them.</p> + + <p>The first authentic European printing produced from + individual movable type of which we have any recorded + impression, bears the date of A. D. 1454. These documents + are two different editions of the same Letters of + Indulgence issued in that year by Pope Nicholas V. in + <a class="pagenum" id="page7" title="7"> </a>behalf of the Kingdom +of Cyprus. We do not know, + however, whether they were printed from metal or wood + type.</p> + + <p><img class="figleft" src="images/fig1.png" width="242" +height="383" alt="A monk at work." />As to the <em>exact</em> date of the +invention of printing from + individual movable type in Europe, we know only that + it was some time prior to A. D. + 1454. Where and by whom the + invention came about, a dispute + has been waged for more than + four hundred years; one of the + most hotly contested questions + in history. In short, Koelhoff + was in part responsible for starting + this dispute. He published + in his “Cologne Chronicle” a + statement by Ulrich Zell, a + printer of Mainz in Germany and + a contemporary of Gutenberg, + that Gutenberg <em>had improved</em>, + but <em>not invented</em> the art, which he attributes to Coster + of Haarlem, in the Netherlands, in the year 1440. Gutenberg + stole Coster’s type, according to Zell, and printed + from them in 1442. Other unrefutable evidence shows + that Gutenberg could not have begun printing at Mainz + before the end of 1450.</p> + + <p>In addition to Gutenberg and Coster we also find + Waldfoghel of Avignon, in France, and Castaldi of Felte, + in Italy, mentioned as claimants of this invention. The + value of their respective pretensions has been summed up + by one well known authority in the words, “Holland has + books, but no documents. France has documents, but + no books. Italy has neither books, nor documents, + while Germany has both books and documents.” + <a class="pagenum" id="page8" title="8"> </a> + As the case stands at present, after careful and impartial + examination of all available evidence, no choice + is left but to attribute the invention of printing with + individual movable cast-metal type to Lourens Janszoon + Coster of Haarlem in the Netherlands between the + years 1440 and 1446 and not to Gutenberg of Mainz in + Germany.</p> + + <p>Zell’s statement in the “Cologne Chronicle” of 1499 is + further substantiated by Hadrianus Junius in his “Batavia.” + Junius stated that printing from individual movable + type was invented by Coster in Haarlem, and that + the “Speculum Humanae Salvationes” was one of his + first productions. These two statements were made + independently of each other and both are corroborated + by books to which they refer.</p> + + <p>The “Speculum Humanae Salvationes,” attributed to + Coster by Junius was partly a folio Latin block-book, + and partly typographically printed. From this and + other records it has been clearly established that Coster + began as a xylographer and ended as a typographical + printer, and before 1472 he had manufactured and extensively + used at least seven different styles of primitive + looking individual movable cast-metal type.</p> + + <p>According to tradition, while he was walking in a wood + near Haarlem, Coster cut some letters in the bark of a + beech tree, and with them, reversely impressed one by + one on paper, he composed one or two lines as an example + for the children of his son-in-law.</p> + + <p>Junius does not say it, but clearly implies that, in this + way, Coster came to the idea of the movability of the + characters, the first step in the invention of typography. + He perceived the advantage and utility of such insulated + characters, which hitherto he had been cutting together + <a class="pagenum" id="page9" title="9"> </a>on one block, and so +the invention of printing with + individual movable type was made.</p> + + <p>The questions as to whether he continued to print + with movable “wooden” type, or even printed books + with them, cannot be answered, because no such books + or fragments of them have come down to us. Junius’ + words on this point are ambiguous, and yet, upon the + examination of the first edition of the Dutch Spiegel (of + which two copies are preserved at Haarlem) no one would + deny that there are grounds for this belief. The dancing + condition of the lines and letters make it almost impossible + to think that they are impressions from metal type. + But for how long and to what extent movable wooden + type were employed, if at all, cannot be positively + stated.</p> + + <p>However, this idea of movability, and the accidental + way in which it was discovered, form together the pith + of the Haarlem tradition as told by Junius. Nothing + seems more natural than that a block-printer should cut + such separate letters as Coster did on the bark of a tree + and thereupon perceive that they could be used over and + over again for a variety of words on different pages, + while those which he used to cut in a solid block only + served him for one page and for one purpose.</p> + + <p>It is equally clear from the Haarlem tradition that the + art of casting metal type was the second stage in the + invention, a development or outcome of the primary + idea of “movable letters,” for Junius says that Coster + “afterwards changed the beechen characters into leaden, + and the latter again into tin ones.”</p> + + <p>Theod. Bibliander, in 1548, was the first to speak of + movable wooden type and to describe them. First they + cut their letters, he reports, on wood blocks the size of + <a class="pagenum" id="page10" title="10"> </a>an entire page; but +because the labor and cost of that + way was so great, they devised movable wooden type, + perforated and joined one to another by a thread.</p> + + <p>Bibliander does not say that he had ever seen such + type himself, but Dan Speckle or Specklin (d. 1589) who + ascribed the invention to Mentelin, asserts that he saw + some of these wooden type at Straussburg; and Angelo + Roccho asserted in 1591 that he had seen at Venice type + perforated and joined one to another by a thread, but + he does not state whether they were of wood or of metal.</p> + + <p>There is a theory also that between block-printing and + printing with movable cast-metal type there was an + intermediate stage of printing with “sculpto-fusi” + type; that is, a type of which the shank had to be cast + in a quadrilateral mold and the characters or letters + engraved afterwards by hand. This theory was suggested + by some one who could not believe in wooden + type and yet wished to account for the marked irregularities + of the type used to print the earliest books.</p> + + <p>Granting that all the earlier works of typography preserved + to us are impressions of cast-metal type, there are + still differences of opinion, especially among practical + printers and type-founders, as to the probable methods + employed to cast them. It is considered unlikely, although + not impossible, that the invention of printing + passed all at once from xylography to the perfect typography + of the punch, matrix, and mold.</p> + + <p>The types that Coster made and used were supposed + to have been manufactured in one of three or four probable + ways.</p> + + <p>Bernard believed that the first movable cast-metal + type were molded in sand, since that method of casting + was known to the silversmiths and trinket-makers of + <a class="pagenum" id="page11" title="11"> </a>the fifteenth +century. In substantiation of his theory he + exhibits a specimen of a word cast as a unit for him by + this process, roughly similar to a modern linotype slug.</p> + + <p>A second suggested mode was that of casting in clay + molds, by a method very similar to that used in the + sand process, and resulting in like peculiarities and + variations in the type.</p> + + <p>Ottley, in his “Invention of Printing,” was the chief + exponent of this theory. He believed that type were + made by pouring molten lead into + molds of clay or plaster, after the + ordinary manner used from time + immemorial in casting statues and + other articles of metal.</p> + + <p><img class="figleft" src="images/fig2.png" width="207" +height="313" alt="A workman with a brayer" />The imperfections in the type + cast by the sand and clay processes—the + difficulty of uneven + heights in the various type—is + supposed to have been surmounted + either by locking up the form with + the type-face downward on the + composing stone, or by perforating the type, either at + the time of casting or afterwards, and holding them + in their places by means of a wire or thread through + the perforations.</p> + + <p>To this cause has been attributed the numerous misprints + in those early specimens of the printers’ art, to + correct which would have involved the unthreading of + every line in which a typographical error occurred.</p> + + <p>A striking proof that the lines were put into the form + one by one, as a piece, instead of type by type, is shown + in a blunder in the “Speculum” of Coster where the + whole of a last reference line is “turned.” It is as if a + <a class="pagenum" id="page12" title="12"> </a>modern linotype slug +were put in the form up-side-down.</p> + + <p>A third suggestion as to the method by which the type + of those early days of printing may have been produced + is described as a system that the type-founders of about + 1800 called Polytypage, which is a cast facsimile copy + of an engraved block of type matter. Lambinet, who is + responsible for this suggestion, explains that this method + really means an early adoption of the stereotyping + process.</p> + + <p>Lambinet thought that the early printers may have + discovered a way of molding in cooling metal so as to + get a matrix-plate impression of an entire page. Upon + this matrix they would pour molten lead or tin and by + the aid of a roller, press the fused metal evenly so as to + make it penetrate into all the hollows and corners of the + letters. This tablet of lead or tin, when cooled, being + easily detached from the matrix, would then reveal the + letters of the alphabet reversed and in relief, similar to + a present day stereotype. The individual letters, of + course, could easily be cut apart by a sharp tool, and + the molding operation could be repeated, using the + same matrix. The metal type faces so produced would + be fixed on wooden shanks, type high, and the font + would be complete.</p> + + <p>It is impossible to suppose, however, that the Mainz + psalter of 1457, which Lambinet points to as a specimen + of this mode of execution, is the impression, not of type + at all, but a collection of “casts” mounted on wood.</p> + + <p>Yet another theory has been proposed by Dr. Ch. + Enschede, head of the celebrated type foundry of that + name in Haarlem. Enschede concludes that the Costerian + type were produced from leaden matrices and the + latter from brass patrices. Their bad, irregular condition + <a class="pagenum" id="page13" title="13"> </a>was due to the tools +being imperfect, and Coster in + the first practice of his invention was inexperienced and + therefore bound to produce such imperfections as are + found in the Speculum. Coster’s type were cast in one + tempo, that is, the character itself and the shank cast + at the same time in one piece.</p> + + <p>Gutenberg’s patrices, according to Enschede, were + made like bookbinders’ stamps, of yellow copper, i. e., + brass. With such patrices only lead matrices could be + made, but the latter could be produced in two ways. + Molten lead could be poured over the patrices or the + patrices could be pressed into cold lead. The first mode + is somewhat complex, but the matrix would have a + smooth surface and need no further adjustment.</p> + + <p>The second mode is more simple, but required great + force, although lead is a soft metal. Moreover the surface + of the matrix would have to be trimmed, as the + impression forces the metal downwards and sidewards, + which makes the surface uneven, though by this pressure + the lead becomes firmer and more compact, to the + advantage of the type-founder.</p> + + <p>Enschede thinks that Gutenberg obtained his matrices + by the second mode. He arrives at this conclusion + by reason of the fact that Gutenberg’s types were sharper + in their impressions than Coster’s. Developing this + theory, he believes that Gutenberg had each letter engraved + on a brass plate 2 mm. thick, therefore a mere + letter without anything underneath it. This brass letter + patrix was pressed, by means of a small flat plate, so + far into the lead that its back formed an unbroken plane + with the top surface of the lead, and was then removed.</p> + + <p>After the matrix had been made this way, the type + were cast, which was done, not by pouring metal into + <a class="pagenum" id="page14" title="14"> </a>the matrix, but by +pressing the latter into semi-fused + metal. In this way a great many letters could be cast + from one matrix without any injury to it. Gutenberg’s + method was to cast in two tempos, according to Enschede, + that is, the character was cast first and the shank was + cast by another operation joining it to the character.</p> + + <p>Enschede warns us, however, that his theories are + simply those of a practical founder and not a bibliographer’s. + But since no tools used by those early + printers and type-founders have come to light to prove + or disprove him, his theory is as valuable as any others + advanced as to the methods used for casting type in + those primitive days of printing.</p> + + <p>The shape of the type used as early as 1470 does not + seem to differ materially from those of the present day. + This is evident from old type which were discovered in + 1878 in the bed of the river Saone, near Lyons, opposite + the site of one of the fifteenth century printing-houses + of that city.</p> + + <p>Also a page in Joh. Neider’s “Lepra Moralis” printed + by Conrad Homburch in Cologne in 1476 shows the + accidental impression of a type pulled up from its + place in the course of printing by the ink-ball, and laid + at length on the face of the form, leaving its exact profile + indented upon the page.</p> + + <p>This accidental imprint shows a small circle, and it is + presumed that the type were pierced latterly by a + circular hole, which did not penetrate the whole thickness + of the letter, and served, like the nick in modern + type, to enable the compositor to tell by touch which way + to set the letter in his stick.</p> + + <p>The fact that a letter was pulled out of the form seems + to show that the type composing the line could not have + <a class="pagenum" id="page15" title="15"> </a>been threaded +together, as set forth by Ottley in his + theory of clay molds for casting type. It is to be + remembered, however, that in the early days of printing, + every printer was his own type-founder. The method + of casting type had not been standardized and each + printer had his own individual ideas both as to the kind + of characters and the method used in casting them. + Some may have threaded their type together in lines + and others may have simply locked them up in the form + face downward in the composing stone to overcome any + irregularities caused by crude methods of casting.</p> + + <p>Vinc. Fineschi, of Florence, in Italy, gives an extract + from the cost-book of the Ripoli press, about 1480, which + shows that steel, brass, copper, tin, lead and iron were + all used in the manufacture of type at that period.</p> + + <p>Today we have the wizardry of mechanical production + in the manufacture of type. The linotype and + monotype machines, uncanny in their operations, have + also come into common practice. Without them printing + would seem almost as primitive, in typography, as + it was in its infancy.</p> + + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page16" title="16"> </a>[Blank +Page] --> + </div> + + <div id="chapter_2" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page17" +title="17"> </a> + <div class="head_style_1"> + <h2>STEREOTYPING</h2> + </div> + + <div> + <img class="init" src="images/init-a.png" width="96" +height="100" alt="A" /> + <p class="init"><span class="first_word">About</span> the +beginning of the eighteenth + century a certain Van der Meyer, of + Antwerp, made the next step towards a + definite improvement in typography, the + first that had been attempted since the + invention of printing from movable, + cast-metal type. Van der Meyer prepared the composed + pages of the Bible by soldering together the bottom of + the type in the form. This was the first “stereotype,” + a term derived from two Greek words meaning literally + “solidtype.”</p> + </div> + + <p>This method met one requirement. It prevented the + “pi-ing” of the type, but it had the disadvantage of + holding in comparative idleness a large and costly mass + of type useless for any other purpose, and it was not + generally practiced.</p> + + <p>This was followed in 1730, by William Ged, a goldsmith + of Edinburgh, who is credited with casting printing-plates + in plaster-of-paris molds for the University + of Cambridge Bible. These plates, however, were destroyed + by jealous printers and thrown aside, resulting + in the process being abandoned for many years.</p> + + <p>In the meantime several other improvements along + this line were undergoing experiment. Firmin Didot, + (1764-1836), a printer of Paris, cast type of a hard + <a class="pagenum" id="page18" title="18"> </a>alloy, and when his +book-pages were composed, made an + impression of them on a sheet of soft lead, thus forming + a mold. Molten metal was then poured into a shallow + tray, and just as this was on the point of solidifying, but + still plastic, the lead-mold of the book-page was pressed + on the soft metal in the tray. This process called Polytypage, + was but partly successful; it could be used only + for small pages, and the plates were too often defective. + A process similar to this is what Lambinet thought the + printers of the latter half of the fifteenth century might + have used as one of the probable methods to cast their + metal types.</p> + + <p>These and other experiments, however, were leading + to the real stereotyping process which developed later.</p> + + <p>Early in the nineteenth century, Earl Stanhope, of + England, re-introduced Ged’s stereotyping process with + many improvements.</p> + + <p>One or more pages of type were locked in a chase, the + surface of the type being oiled to prevent the subsequent + mold from sticking. The mold was made by pouring + a semi-fluid composition of plaster-of-paris mixed with + a little fine salt to make the plaster settle solidly. While + the plaster was still soft, it was carefully pressed down + and rolled smooth on top to give a uniform thickness to + the mold and to expel any air there might be in the + plaster. When the plaster became solid, it formed a + perfect matrix of the type pages.</p> + + <p>The moisture in those early plaster molds was expelled + by baking them in an oven for three or four + hours. A later method for drying was practiced by + suspending the mold directly over the metal-pots or to + float them on the surface of the molten metal. By this + <a class="pagenum" id="page19" title="19"> </a>means the drying +could be accomplished in a half-hour + or so.</p> + + <p>In the process of casting, several of these plaster + molds were placed side by side face downward in a + special casting-pan. The pan was one and three-quarters + or two inches deep, and a lid on the pan screwed down on + the back of the molds. By means of a crane the casting + pan with its molds was then lowered into the pot of + molten metal which ran into the + pan at the corners and sides. + The mold was allowed to remain + ten minutes or so in the + metal-pot, or until the face of + the inverted mold was entirely + filled with the metal.</p> + + <p><img class="figleft" src="images/fig3.png" width="228" +height="310" alt="A man pours from a ladle." />A later method of casting from + a plaster mold was to place it in + a frame with a smooth, flat plate + opposite the face of the mold and + to enclose the open space at one + end and on the two sides. The casting space thus formed + was then turned with the open end up and metal was + poured in with a ladle, in a manner similar to the method + still employed for casting job-work stereotypes. The + distance between the flat plate and the mold was + adjusted to make a stereotype plate of the required + thickness.</p> + + <p>After the removal and cooling of the casting pan, the + plates were freed from the plaster and the surplus metal + cut off. Only one cast could be made, as the mold was + usually destroyed in removing the cast. The stereotype + was then sent to the finishing department, where the + <a class="pagenum" id="page20" title="20"> </a>face was cleaned and +examined for defective letters, then + trimmed on the sides and planed off uniformly on the + back to the desired thickness, in the same manner as a + stereotype is treated today. A defective letter could be + mortised out of the plate and a good type inserted in its + place. In cases where a whole line or other part was + imperfect, another mold was made of as much of the + form as was necessary and the new cast inserted and + soldered to the plate.</p> + + <p>There were many and varied experiments made in the + earlier development of this idea of producing a duplicate + printing form in a single piece. That such a process was + highly desirable was universally recognized, and the + conviction that some practicable and economical method + was feasible was a continual incentive which gradually + led to better results.</p> + </div> + + <div id="chapter_3" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page21" +title="21"> </a> + <div class="head_style_2"> + <h2>STEREOTYPING<br /> + IN AMERICA</h2> + </div> + <div> + <img class="init" src="images/init-a.png" width="96" +height="100" alt="A" /> + <p class="init"><span class="first_word">Although</span> +credit is given to John Watts, + an Englishman then working in America, + for making the first stereotype plates + here, the real introduction of the process + into the United States was by David + Bruce. <img class="figright" src="images/fig4.png" width="209" +height="222" alt="A man brushes ink" />This was in 1813. Bruce had + learned the printer’s trade in Edinburgh and later came + to America, where after a few years he was joined by his + brother George in establishing the firm of D. & G. + Bruce, printers. Hearing of the new process of stereotyping + in England, he went over there to learn about it. + He could get very little information + about the process + there, but came back + with some practical ideas + which he proceeded to carry + out. Bruce and his brother + also began type-founding + about this time, and abandoned + the business of printing. + Later they gave up + the work of stereotyping.</p> + </div> + + <p>The first book stereotyped + in the United States + was the New Testament, in 1814. Bibles and school + books were the first works to be stereotyped; then came + other books which were demanded in many editions, + such as the works of popular authors.</p> + + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page22" title="22"> </a>[Blank +Page] --> + + </div> + + <div id="chapter_4" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page23" +title="23"> </a> + <div class="head_style_2"> + <h2>THE<br /> + PAPIER MACHE MATRIX</h2> + </div> + <div> + <img class="init" src="images/init-t.png" width="106" +height="100" alt="T" /> + <p class="init"><span class="first_word">The</span> papier- +mache (literally, mashed paper) + matrix was first successfully used + for casting stereotypes for book pages + in France in 1848. Charles Craske, an + engraver of New York, introduced the + method into the stereotype trade of the + United States in 1850, and in 1854 he stereotyped a page + of the “<cite>New York Herald</cite>” and later made +stereotypes + for other New York newspapers.</p> + </div> + <p>The modern wet stereotype “flong,” in common use + today, consists of several layers of special paper pasted + together to form a thick sheet. The base is a sheet of + special soft stock similar to firm blotting-paper, such as + is used between leaves of small blank books. Three or + four sheets of strong, white tissue are next added, each + sheet except the last being uniformly covered with the + paste. The pasting must be done with great care so as + to cover the entire surface of each sheet and at the same + time to press out all air bubbles. The sheets must then + be pressed smoothly but not squeezed so hard as to force + the paste out and must be kept moist until used. In + newspaper syndicate plants, the “flong” is made automatically + by a specially devised machine into which the + various kinds of paper used are fed from rolls, the + pasting and cutting into sheets being mechanical.</p> + + <p>In molding a papier-mache matrix, the moist “flong” + is laid on the original molding form to be duplicated, + the molding form being in place on the table of the + molding press. The “flong” is covered with several + blankets of thick felt and the table of the molding press + <a class="pagenum" id="page24" title="24"> </a>is then automatically +moved in under a powerful roller + which squeezes the moist flong down into the form. At + the end of its travel the table is automatically brought + back again under the rollers to the position from which + it started. The speed of the roller and the table is + synchronized to obviate any possibility of the mat + becoming wrinkled by sliding.</p> + + <p>The molded matrix and the pattern with the blanket + still on it is then transferred to the drying press, in which + under a hot platten it is again squeezed and allowed to + remain for a few minutes until the moisture is completely + expelled from the molded flong. The drying press is + kept at a high temperature, usually by steam heat.</p> + + <p>The matrix thus dried out to a thick, flexible cardboard + is then ready for the casting of the stereotype, + which is done by pouring molten stereotype metal against + the face of the matrix placed in a casting-box designed + for this purpose. A successive number of stereotypes + can be cast for the same mat before it is injured by the + hot metal. For job-work stereotyping the casting-box + is flat, and the molten metal is either poured by hand or + automatically pumped in the casting-box.</p> + + <p>After the stereotype is cast it is flattened, rough + shaved, smooth shaved, bevelled or blocked on wood; + the wood base trimmed and then planed type-high for + printing press use.</p> + + <p>The large daily papers cast the full-page stereotype + from which the paper is printed in an automatic casting + machine which forms a curved plate, trimmed and + bevelled, to fit the cylinder of the press.</p> + + <p>Stereotyping was for many years the chief means of + making plates for books and also for commercial printing. + <a class="pagenum" id="page25" title="25"> </a>It has several +advantages. The first, obviously, is the + advantage which it shares with several other methods of + providing a solid printing plate made by molding from + an original form of type or engraving. Its peculiar + advantage, however, is that it is the quickest method of + producing a duplicate plate from an original.</p> + + <p>In comparison with electrotyping, however, it has + two distinct disadvantages. One is that it is not adapted + for reproducing the fine lines of engravings and type + faces. In addition it is comparatively shallow and does + not possess a sharp, clean printing face. The other disadvantage + is that a stereotype is relatively soft and + quickly worn.</p> + + <p>Stereotypes have been made more durable, to withstand + the wear of printing, by the deposition of a film of + harder metal—copper or nickel—on the face of the + plate after it has been cast. This, however, is not + satisfactory, as it involves not only another operation, + but also makes an already shallow printing plate that + much shallower and increases the probability of it printing + “dirty,” which is one of the chief objections to the + stereotype in itself. This practice is not recommended.</p> + + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page26" title="26"> </a>[Blank +Page] --> + </div> + + <div id="chapter_5" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page27" +title="27"> </a> + <div class="head_style_1"> + <h2>ELECTROTYPING</h2> + </div> + + <div> + <img class="init" src="images/init-i.png" width="98" +height="100" alt="I" /> + <p class="init"><span class="first_word">In</span> 1799, +Allesandro Volta, of Pavia, in + Italy, constructed the first electric battery, + which came to be called the Voltaic + pile. Improvements in the form of + Volta’s battery were made almost immediately + by William Cruickshank, in England, + who discovered in experimenting with it that he + could by its power electrolyze or chemically decompose + the salts of certain metals in solution. Both copper and + silver, he found, could be precipitated from their salt + solutions and deposited upon a plate immersed in the + solution.</p> + </div> + + <p>This observation was the first step in the process of + electroplating, which is electrotyping when applied to the + art of typography.</p> + + <p>In 1837, thirty-eight years after Volta’s discovery, Mr. + Thomas Spencer of Liverpool, England, accidentally + stumbled upon the first realization of the electrotyping + process.</p> + + <p>While experimenting with a modification of a Daniell + battery, he used an English copper penny as one of the + poles instead of a plain piece of copper. A deposition of + copper from the solution in the battery took place upon + the penny, and upon removing the wire which attached + <a class="pagenum" id="page28" title="28"> </a>the penny to the zinc +plate a portion of the copper + deposit was pulled off the penny also.</p> + + <p>This first copper electrotype shell Spencer found to be + an exact duplicate or mold of part of the head and + lettering on the coin. <em>It was as smooth and as sharp + as the original.</em></p> + + <p>It was some time later, however, before this suggested + to him any useful application of the process. Another + accident made him appreciate the full value of his + discovery. This time he carelessly dropped some varnish + on a strip of copper which he was going to use in the same + way he did the penny. Upon removing the copper from + the battery he observed that there was no deposition of + copper on those parts of the strip where the varnish had + dropped.</p> + + <p>Spencer then conceived the idea of applying this + principle to the arts by coating a piece of copper with + varnish or wax and engraving a design in the coating, + thus exposing the copper strip in the engraved lines. + He did this, and then deposited copper in the design so + engraved. Upon removing the coating the design was + exposed in relief on the piece of copper.</p> + + <p>On September 13, 1839, Spencer read a paper before + the Polytechnic Institution of Liverpool, which he accompanied + with specimens of both electrotypes made by this + process and of printing from these electrotypes. The + publication of this paper acted like an electric shock upon + society.</p> + + <p>Developing his process, Spencer first used lead as the + plastic medium in which to mold printing surfaces, and + it is to be noted in this connection that in doing so he + anticipated Dr. Albert’s lead mold by considerably + over three quarters of a century. + <a class="pagenum" id="page29" title="29"> </a> + Spencer impressed a form of type on a planed piece of + sheet-lead and subjected both of them to the action of + a screw-press. A perfectly sharp mold of the type + form was thus made in the lead. This lead mold was + placed in a battery, and at the end of <em>eight days</em> a + copper shell one eighth of an inch in thickness had been + deposited. <img class="figleft" src="images/fig5.png" width="248" +height="358" alt="A man holds a beaker of liquid." />It was then removed + from the apparatus and the + rough edge of the deposited + copper filed off. Being subjected + to heat, the copper shell + loosened from the lead-mold. + Spencer called this a “copper + stereotype.”</p> + + <p>The next step in developing + the electrotyping process, after + Spencer had demonstrated the + practical application of the + electro-chemical deposition of + a copper shell on a mold, was + made by a Mr. Robert Murray. Mr. Murray was + the first to use plumbago, or black-lead, to give the + surface of non-metallic bodies electro-conductive + properties. He discovered that he could coat a mold of + bees-wax with black-lead and deposit thereon a copper + shell. This was in 1840.</p> + + <p>In the same year Smee’s battery was invented. This + was a marked improvement and was a most important + step towards making electrotyping a commercial possibility.</p> + + <p>Thus in 1840, four hundred years after the probable + date of the invention of printing from individual + movable cast-metal type, and over forty years after + <a class="pagenum" id="page30" title="30"> </a>the foundation of +electrotyping was laid by Volta, + electrotyping, as a practical method of reproducing a + commercial typographical printing surface, came into + existence.</p> + + <p>Mr. E. Palmer, in England, using Spencer’s method, + was the first to receive a patent for producing a metallic + printing plate with the printing surfaces in relief. This + patent is dated 1841. Palmer followed this in the + succeeding year by a further patent for engraving through + a wax-coated matrix-plate to form the printing surfaces + in the <em>positive</em> electrotype taken from it. This process + was termed by Palmer, “Glyphography.”</p> + + <p>The “whites” or low spots in Palmer’s Glyphographs + were “built-up” in the wax mold through adding wax + by hand, assisted by various ingeniously constructed + tools which were heated. After “building-up,” the wax + was black-leaded and the copper deposition on the + surface of the wax mold was obtained. This copper + deposit, or shell, was then tinned on the back, backed up + with lead, mounted on wood, and trimmed type-high. + These processes are the essentials used today in electrotyping.</p> + + <p>One of the earliest works illustrated by the Palmer + process is “The History and Antiquities of Brentford, + Ealing, and Chiswick,” by T. Faulkner, published in + 1845, and the word “Glyphography” occurs at the foot + of many illustrations contained in it.</p> + + <p>In 1839 the first attempt was made at commercial + electrotyping in America. In that year, Joseph A. + Adams, a wood-engraver connected with Harper & Bros. + in New York, experimented along lines similar to those + Spencer had pursued, but using a wood-cut from which to + mold. His electrotypes were made by taking an impression + <a class="pagenum" id="page31" title="31"> </a>from the wood-cut in +an alloy of soft metal of + which bismuth was probably the chief ingredient, and + immersing the metal mold in an ordinary Voltaic + battery for the deposition of the copper shell. In making + the impression, however, the wood-cut was destroyed so, + that this method of making an electrotype was not + commercially practical.</p> + + <p><img class="figright" src="images/fig6.png" width="237" +height="367" alt="A man operates a screw press" />The year following Adams + took advantage of Smee’s battery + and made an electrotype + which was used in Mape’s Magazine + in 1841. He also employed + this process for making + illustrations for Harper’s Family + Bible, issued between 1842 and + 1844.</p> + + <p>The first successful commercial + electrotyper in America was + John W. Wilcox, of Boston. A + wood carver named Chandler, + told Mr. Wilcox that if he could repeat what Adams + of New York had done with a wood-cut in 1839 that + he, Chandler, would lend him the necessary wood-cuts + for experimental purposes. In less than sixty days + in 1846, Mr. Wilcox had put into practical use every + essential principle known for the next twenty-five years + in electrotyping.</p> + + <p>In 1855, Mr. Gay of New York first used tin-foil for + the purpose of soldering the copper shells to the metal + backing.</p> + + <p>During the same year, a Mr. Adams of Brooklyn, + New York, invented the dry-brush black-leading machine.</p> + + <p>Steven D. Tucker, of New York, developed and + <a class="pagenum" id="page32" title="32"> </a>patented in 1866 the +type of dry-brush black-leading + machine which is in common use today.</p> + + <p>In 1871, Silas P. Knight, of Harper & Bros., New York, + invented the wet black-leading process, and in 1872 took + out another patent for an improvement on this process. + Mr. Knight’s method of wet black-leading was not + generally adopted by the electrotypers of that time and + gradually became almost unknown.</p> + + <p>Undoubtedly, the cause of this was that the method of + dry black-leading was good enough for type and woodcut + work. The half-tone had not been invented at that + time, and it was only after the invention of the half-tone + that a better method of black-leading became necessary.</p> + + <p>Thirty-seven years after Mr. Knight had successfully + used his process of wet black-leading a patent was + granted to Frank L. Learman, of Buffalo, New York, for + a wet black-leader. Since that time numerous patents + have been taken out on different methods of using the + wet process, which is universally recognized today as the + best method of graphiting the surface of a mold.</p> + + <p>In 1870, Joseph A. Adams patented a process for covering + the surface of the mold after it had been black-leaded + with powdered tin. This was for the purpose of + quickening the deposition of the copper shell when the + molds were in the batteries, and from this undoubtedly + came the oxidizing process of coating the surface of the + molds with chemical copper invented by Silas Knight, + which has long been and is now in use.</p> + + <p>Perhaps one of the greatest forward steps in the + development of electrotyping was made when the plating + dynamo was invented. The first adoption of a dynamo + in place of Smee’s battery took place in 1872. With the + Smee type of battery it required from thirty to forty-eight + <a class="pagenum" id="page33" title="33"> </a>hours to deposit a +copper shell thick enough for + commercial use. With the invention of the plating + dynamo and its improvements, the time of depositing the + shell was reduced so that now two hours is the common + time that a mold is kept in the tubs or batteries. This + quickening of the time required to deposit the shell was + one of the most essential features in the development of + commercial electrotyping.</p> + + <p>From the first hand-screw presses, which were successfully + used for molding, to the modern high-power, + motor-driven, hydraulic presses, for working either in + wax or lead, is a far cry.</p> + + <p>The invention of the half-tone, together with the + invention of the modern two-revolution cylinder press + which has brought printing into its present state of + perfection, made necessary radical improvements in the + machinery for making electrotypes. These improvements + have been steady in their development, but the + fundamental points of the process are practically those + which have been in use from the start of commercial + electrotyping.</p> + + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page34" title="34"> </a>[Blank +Page] --> + </div> + + <div id="chapter_6" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page35" +title="35"> </a> + <div class="head_style_2"> + <h2>ELECTROTYPING BY<br /> + THE WAX MOLD PROCESS + </h2> + </div> + <div> + <img class="init" src="images/init-a.png" width="96" +height="100" alt="A" /> + <p class="init"><span class="first_word">An electrotype</span> +is a facsimile printing + plate duplicated from an original. + The original may be either type, a woodcut, + a zinc or a copper etching such as + a line-cut or a half-tone, or it may be + a combination of type-matter and line-cuts + or half-tones.</p> + </div> + + <p>We commonly think of electrotypes as printing plates + made of copper, but any metal which can be electrochemically + deposited may be used. Because of their + wearing qualities and economy, however, copper and + nickel are the two metals commercially used for electrotyping.</p> + + <p>Briefly, an electrotype is made by taking an impression + of the original in a plastic substance, thus forming a + mold or matrix; depositing copper or nickel on the mold; + removing the copper or nickel shell from the mold + and backing it with a semi-hard metal; trimming + the metal to printing-plate thickness, and bevelling, or + blocking on wood, the trimmed plate for printing-press + use.</p> + + <p>In modern practice more than twenty-five different + operations are necessary to make a finished electrotype + ready for the press. They may be enumerated, as + follows:</p> + <ol> + <li><span class="li_title">Case-making.</span> The flowing of +a molding compound composed of “ozokerite,” a resinol-mineral wax, +onto the case. The case is of copper.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Flashing the Case.</span> Passing a +flame over the <a class="pagenum" id="page36" title="36"> </a>surface of +the melted ozokerite immediately after flowing the case in order to remove air- +bubbles.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Case-shaving.</span> The automatic +shaving of the top surface of the flowed case after the ozokerite has hardened +to give it a smooth, even surface for molding.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Graphiting.</span> Brushing surface +of case with molding graphite to prevent the pattern from sticking to the wax +mold.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Molding.</span> Making an +impression from the original zinc line etching, half-tone or type form in the +waxed case. This is done by means of a hydraulically operated molding +press.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Cutting-down.</span> The levelling +off by hand, using a sharp trowel shaped tool, of the splurge after the +impression has been made. Flashing is also used here to remove the burr left +around the letters after the cutting down process.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Building-up.</span> The adding of +wax by hand to the blank spaces in the molded case so that in the finished +electrotype they will be well below the printing face.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Black-leading.</span> Making the +face of the molded case electrically conductive by applying graphite.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Stopping-out.</span> Insulating +with a thin coating of wax the edges and back of the copper case to prevent +copper being deposited except on the face of the mold.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Pumping-out or Oxidizing.</span> +Coating the face of the molded case with chemical copper to hasten deposition of +copper shell in the bath.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Deposition of Shell.</span> The +molded case is put in the electrolytic bath for the deposition of shell +thereon.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Releasing Shell from Molds.</span> +Stripping the deposited shell from the waxed mold by dashing hot <a +class="pagenum" id="page37" title="37"> </a>water on it. The wax is melted +off case and used again.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Washing Copper Shell.</span> Hot +lye-water or steam is used to clean off any wax sticking to it.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Trimming Copper Shell.</span> Rough +edges of shell outside the guard line trimmed off.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Aciding Copper Shell.</span> An +application of fluxing medium to back of copper shell so that tin will +adhere.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Tinning Copper Shell.</span> Tin- +foil is melted on the back of the copper shell. This is the solder between the +copper shell and the metal back, without which the metal backing would not +adhere to the shell.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Backing-up.</span> The flowing of +electrotype metal on the back of the tinned copper shell for the purpose of +making a foundation for printing (electrotype metal is an alloy of 94 per cent +lead; 3 per cent tin for flowing and 3 per cent antimony for hardness).</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Scrubbing the Cast.</span> A power +operated scrubbing machine using a hydro-carbon oil as the cleansing medium to +clean the printing face of the electrotypes.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Cast-sawing.</span> Sawing off the +surplus metal of the cast before finishing.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Flattening the Casts.</span> Hand +operation with mallet and flattening block to take the warp out of the +electrotype caused by the contraction of the metal in cooling.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Rough-shaving.</span> Planing off +superfluous metal from the back of the electrotype.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Finishing.</span> Putting the +printing surface of the electrotype in perfect condition for press after leaving +the foundry department. This is done by hand and requires a high degree of +skill.</li> + <li><span class="li_title"><a class="pagenum" id="page38" +title="38"> </a>Smooth-shaving.</span> The finishing shave of metal from +back of electrotype to bring it to the required thickness.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Routing.</span> Cutting out the +high but non-printing surfaces of the electrotype by a routing machine.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Guard-line Sawing.</span> Cutting +the guard lines or bearers off the electrotype to practically the finished size +before blocking or bevelling.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Blocking.</span> Fastening the +plate on wood base with brads driven through the metal.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Trimming.</span> Trimming the wood +mounted electrotype to its exact finished size.</li> + <li><span class="li_title">Type-high Machining.</span> Used +for planing the bottom of the wood base so that the mounted electrotype is of +printing press requirements, i. e., .918″ high.</li> + </ol> + + </div> + + <div id="chapter_7" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page39" +title="39"> </a> + <div class="head_style_2"> + <h2>ELECTROTYPING BY<br /> + THE LEAD MOLD PROCESS + </h2> + </div> + <div> + <img class="init" src="images/init-e.png" width="97" +height="100" alt="E" /> + <p class="init"><span class="first_word">Electrotypes</span> +made by the genuine + Dr. Albert Lead Mold Process are + always duplicates of fine-screen half-tones + or mezzo-tints used for the highest + class of commercial job-work, such as + three and four color process or duo-tone + printing on paper with a highly glazed surface.</p> + </div> + + <p><img class="figright" src="images/fig7.png" width="194" +height="240" alt="A hydraulic press" />The largest press used in lead molding +will give a + maximum pressure of two thousand tons per square + inch on a thirty inch ram hydraulically operated. The + weight of this press is over thirty thousand pounds.</p> + + <p>In the lead mold process + the plastic medium + used is a soft thin sheet of + what is called “impression + lead,” .040 inches thick, + instead of wax, and the lead + is placed on top of the + original to be duplicated, + instead of vice-versa, as + in the wax-molding process. + No “building-up” + nor “black-leading” is + necessary.</p> + + <p>In all other respects the + consecutive steps towards the completion of the lead + mold plate are identical to those used in the Wax Mold + Process.</p> + + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page40" title="40"> </a>[Blank +Page] --> + </div> + + <div id="chapter_8" class="chapter"><a class="pagenum" id="page41" +title="41"> </a> + <div class="head_style_1"> + <h2>ALUMINOTYPES</h2> + </div> + + <div> + <img class="init" src="images/init-t.png" width="106" +height="100" alt="T" /> + <p class="init"><span class="first_word">The</span> age long +progress in the development + and perfection of typographical printing + surfaces, from the period of Xylographic + blocks on through the successive inventions + of individual movable cast-metal + type, stereotyping and electrotyping, by + both the wax and lead-molding processes, reaches its + culmination in <em>Aluminotypes</em>.</p> + </div> + + <p>Briefly, it is a method of casting printing plates of + aluminum alloy in molds made from a composition of + plaster-of-paris. In its essential points it is a modern + adaptation of the process credited to William Ged of + Edinburgh in 1730 and afterwards modified and improved + in the early 19th century by Earl Stanhope of England.</p> + + <p>In practice, the original to be duplicated is placed on + a molding-slab. A molding frame is set upon the slab + and enclosing the original. A special kind of oil is + then sprayed on the face of the original. This is to + facilitate the release of the plaster mold so that it will + not “tear” when it is ready to be lifted off the original + after solidifying, and at the same time to retain the + sharpness of the mold.</p> + + <p>The molding medium of plaster composition in a + semi-liquefied state is then poured on to the original in + the molding frame. The surplus plaster is scraped off + flush with the top of the molding frame. + <a class="pagenum" id="page42" title="42"> </a> + After the plaster matrix in its molding frame has set + sufficiently it is released by means of cams from the + working pattern on the molding-slab.</p> + + <p>The plaster matrix is then placed in a drying oven, + through which a forced draft of hot air is kept circulating + at high pressure. The thorough drying of the mold + takes approximately ninety minutes.</p> + + <p>When the plaster mold has become sufficiently dried, + a round hole is cut through the bottom of the matrix in + an offset of the molding frame. This hole is the gate + through which the molten aluminum is forced. The + mold is then securely locked upright in a specially + designed casting machine.</p> + + <p>The Aluminotype is cast by pressure and not by + pouring as in the case of stereotypes, which depend + entirely upon gravity. Fused aluminum alloy is poured + into a hopper on the casting machine. A piston operated + by the agency of compressed air forces the aluminum + evenly into all parts of the plaster matrix.</p> + + <p>When the cast is completed the molding frame is + taken from the casting machine and the Aluminotype + removed from its plaster-of-paris matrix.</p> + </div> + + <div id="authorities"> + <p>AUTHORITIES:</p> + <ul> + <li>“An Outline of the History of Printing,” by R. A. +Peddie.</li> + <li>“Typographical Printing Surfaces,” by L. A. Legros.</li> + <li>“Manual of Electro-Metallurgy,” by Napier.</li> + <li>“The Encyclopedia Brittanica.”</li> + <li>“Electrotyping and Stereotyping” Typographical Technical +Series, Vol. XV.</li> + <li>The Rapid Electrotype Company.</li> + </ul> + + </div> + + <div id="drawing" class="part"><a class="pagenum" id="page43" +title="43"> </a> + <div class="head_style_1"> + <h2>THE MAKING<br /> + OF THE FOOLPROOF<br /> + NEWSPAPER DRAWING</h2> + </div> + <p class="subhead">SOME ADVERTISING PICTURES PRINT WELL—OTHERS + DO NOT. WHY? IT’S ALL A MATTER + OF GOING ABOUT IT IN A KNOW-HOW WAY</p> + + <p class="byline">By J. LIVINGSTON LARNED</p> + + <div> + <img class="init" src="images/init-a.png" width="96" +height="100" alt="A" /> + <p class="init"><span class="first_word">An</span> advertiser— +perhaps one of the largest + users of newspaper space in the country—sprang + a surprise recently on his ad-manager. + Into the office he came, one + day, grim-visaged, jaw set, fire in his + eyes, and armed with no less than fifty + clippings from exchanges.</p> + </div> + + <p>And on the amazed ad-manager’s desk he placed two + conglomerate piles of advertising matter. One represented + the national newspaper campaign of his own + industry; the other a collection of newspaper advertisements, + picked at random.</p> + + <p>“I think I have conclusive proof,” said he, in no mild + mood, “that you fellows are not as efficient as you might + be. Here are our advertisements—from papers everywhere. + The illustrations print abominably! Look at + them. The matter has been called to my attention + many times—by the newspapers themselves, by our + road representatives and by local dealers. They say + our electro service and our straight national campaigns + <a class="pagenum" id="page44" title="44"> </a>are all muddied up +with pictures that nobody can + decipher. Here’s conclusive proof of it. Not a clean-looking + cut in the series and you can’t blame it on paper + and press work and all that—they’re <em>all</em> bad!”</p> + + <p>The advertising manager glanced casually at the + exhibits. The criticism was valid. Here was a daily + newspaper campaign, running into space valued at + approximately sixty thousand dollars, and the displays, + three-fourths illustration, were mussy, involved, smeared + up, and unsatisfactory from a reproductive standpoint. + Solid black backgrounds were a sickly, washed-out gray + and in other places intricate pen work had “run-together.”</p> + + <p>It was equally true that clippings of competitive + advertising and advertising in general, selected at random, + were strangely clean-cut. The comparison was + startling.</p> + + <p>“Mr. X,” finally observed the ad-manager, “I see what + you mean; all of us in this department have known of it, + kept track of it; and the remarkable part of the entire + situation is that these results can be traced back to you + and your personal insistence on a certain type of pen + and ink design, executed in a specific technique. These + matters came up for your supervision and O. K. You + did not care for the bold, simple outline drawings first + submitted. You preferred too many, and a glut of + detail. All of which is not compatible with newspaper + printing, even in large space. We were afraid of this + and said so at the time. Our objection was overruled. + It’s one thing to prefer a pleasing, perhaps highly + artistic pen technique and quite another to apply it to + fast presses, poor ink and hurried make-ready. A great + many things can happen, and <em>do</em> happen, to a newspaper + design before it is printed and in the readers’ hands.”</p> + + <h3><a class="pagenum" id="page45" title="45"> </a>DISREGARDING +FUNDAMENTALS</h3> + + <p>Sometimes it is better to come out with the frank, + brutal truth. In a great many instances, poor newspaper + reproduction is the direct result of some executive’s + marked preference for a certain artist or a certain + technique, regardless of whether the man is qualified to + draw for this field, or whether the technique is fitted for + the purpose.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, there is, unquestionably, a strange, + well nigh inexcusable disregard of certain fundamentals + of the business. There is too much swivel-chair composure; + too much beatific reassurance, when proofs are + submitted on good paper, from a flat-bed engraver-house + press. A newspaper series is very apt to look + 100 per cent when presented on the final electro sheet, or + bound into a neat booklet for the dealer and printed on + coated stock. These are ostrich methods!</p> + + <p>In certain advertising agencies there is a standing + rule in the matter of newspaper plates that all proofs + must be pulled on newspaper stock—and a very inferior + grade. A newspaper press is used, an entire series coming + off at once. There is no make-ready to speak of.</p> + + <p>By this process no one is deceived. You see exactly + what will happen, or nearly so, when the series fares + forth to newspapers all over the country.</p> + + <p>The executive mentioned above had collected newspapers, + big and little, from the four points of the compass. + And he had collected a liberal number of perfectly satisfactory + newspaper advertisements of the illustrated + variety. Blacks were clean black, Ben Day tints held + their own, there was no congestion, no smudging, no + mishap of any sort.</p> + + <p>If certain rules are followed, any newspaper advertising + <a class="pagenum" id="page46" title="46"> </a>illustration can be +made “fool-proof.” You can be + absolutely certain of a printable result, despite all + exigencies, all drawbacks, all hazards.</p> + + <p>Failure usually follows a desire to attempt something + beyond that which has been tried and is wholly practical. + For the present, at least, users of newspaper space <em>must</em> + bow to the inevitable. They <em>must</em> realize that there + is a well-defined limit to what can be done mechanically. + They must <em>not</em> defiantly experiment, although the desire + to “do something new” and to be original is entirely + praiseworthy.</p> + + <h3>THINGS YOU CAN’T DO</h3> + + <p>If you use half-tones, have them made very coarse + screen—nothing finer than 60 line. Stop out whites and + eliminate backgrounds. The high-light half-tone is a + modern development with many virtues. If a portrait + is used, take out all background.</p> + + <p>There is a way of retouching photographs that will + minimize the danger of poor printing. The artist + strengthens weak contrasts, not with a brush and paint, + but with a pen and waterproof black ink. He also uses + areas of pure white. Successful reproduction is dependent + upon <em>sharp</em>, clear, vigorous <em>contrasts</em>.</p> + + <p>Stippling is one of the best substitutes for the half-tone. + This simply means dotting-in a subject. It is a time-consuming, + laborious process, but it means line plates + and the elimination of middle tones—which are disastrous.</p> + + <p>There was a time when certain clever inventions of the + paper manufacturer could be employed for half-tone + effects in line. For example, a Ross Board is manufactured + with an assortment of patterned surfaces. + When brush or crayon or pencil is drawn over them, + <a class="pagenum" id="page47" title="47"> </a>they give effects +that may not be duplicated in straight + pen and ink on plain white drawing board. Some of + these papers have a chalk surface. Some have imitation + half-tone patterns, straight-line designs, etc. It is possible + to scratch away certain portions with a sharp knife. + <em>Do not use them</em> as matters now stand in newspaper + printing. They will not “stand reduction” and only + very coarse tints reproduce satisfactorily.</p> + + <p><em>Special Caution</em>—Do not allow artists to make + original drawings for newspaper use much larger than + twice the size. Here is one of the greatest evils of the + day. The artist seems possessed to make his original + on a full sheet of paper, when he knows that the plate is + for two or three newspaper columns. What happens? + An illustration which makes a handsome showing in the + original will inevitably fill-in when reduced to “actual + size.” Figure it out yourself—look at it through a + reducing glass. Lines that seem wide apart almost + touch in the congestion that follows great reduction. + The really wise and shrewd artist makes his newspaper + drawing <em>actual</em> size.</p> + + <p>Not more than a dozen Ben Day patterns can be used + safely—now—in newspapers. Do you know the meaning + of “Ben Day?” It is a mechanical tint, printed + mechanically either on the plate, by the engraver, or on + the original drawing, from an inked gelatine surface and + rubbed on with a stilus. Magazine reproduction accepts + it in all its forms. Newspaper stock muddies it up when + it is too fine. In any event, when selecting a pattern, + see that it is an open one and have it put on the engraving—not + the design. If on the design it means a reduction. + If on the plate it means no reduction, but precisely as + shown in the Ben Day book of patterns. + <a class="pagenum" id="page48" title="48"> </a> + Avoid complex line treatments and techniques, such + as cross-hatching and the laying in of many very fine + 290 pen lines close together. They look well in the + original—they seldom print well on newspaper stock. + They reduce abominably.</p> + + <p>Any newspaper illustration should have plenty of + white margin to “relieve it.” When a drawing is + cramped, packed in, suffocated by side rules, borders and + text, it suffers.</p> + + <p>Clear outline drawings, with an occasional dash of + black, prove most efficient for newspaper reproduction. + They <em>can’t</em> fill in, they <em>can’t</em> smudge, they +<em>can’t</em> become + contaminated by clots of printing ink or defects in the + newspaper stock. Not even fast press work can damage + their printability. But remember, not all outline drawings + are alike—great originality of technique can be + secured.</p> + + <h3>CAREFUL OF BLACK AREAS</h3> + + <p>Large areas of solid black are not advisable. Think + it over. Ink flows irregularly on newspaper presses. + One copy may show up exactly as in the original; the + next may develop a white halo, a gray tendency, a + smeary, half-baked look. No two impressions will be + quite the same. And it is logical to see that this is apt + to be so. Any imperfection or irregularity in the ink + roller will cause it, or the collection of foreign matter on + cut or roller. Any black area larger than two inches + square is a hazard.</p> + + <p>Advertisers often think that masses of solid black will + make an advertisement “stand out.” They would if + they printed a smooth, even black—which they seldom + do. But liberal white margins are far more potent in + <a class="pagenum" id="page49" title="49"> </a>attracting attention +and in segregating an advertisement + from mixed company than solid blacks.</p> + + <p>The <em>appearance</em> of large areas of black may be + secured via subterfuge. One method is to form the + background of heavy black lines, quite close together. + The white spaces between save the printing. Look at + straight type through a magnifying glass. Not even + type is printed clear black. Then what chance would an + even surface of large proportion have?</p> + + <p>Newspaper cuts should be “routed deep.” Routing is + merely the deepening or entire cutting away of extraneous + matter on the engraving—that is, where there + is no printing surface. The smudges of hideous design + often seen are really an impression of a metal surface + that has not been routed out properly. Every engraving + should be examined critically for such defects.</p> + + <p>Avoid placing a shaded area against a black area. As + we have intimated, the heart and soul of the successful + newspaper drawing is <em>contrast</em>.</p> + + <p>The beginning of every advertisement or series of + advertisements is represented in terms of a first visualization. + It is in pencil. These should be made same + size—that is, the actual size they are to eventually + appear. Then no one, the artist least of all, is fooled by + disparity of proportions.</p> + + <h3>KEEP IT SIMPLE</h3> + + <p>The visualizer should keep one cardinal point in mind. + Keep newspaper advertisements simple. The less there + is in them the better. Thirty-two of the ads selected by + our advertising friend, mentioned earlier in the story, + were good because they were simple. Type was held to + blocks, and with as little change in style, size and + character of type as possible. + <a class="pagenum" id="page50" title="50"> </a> + All of them were characterized by liberal white margins. + It is the best known way of fighting back the opposition + of the surrounding appeals on the same page.</p> + + <p>There’s a good test possible. Make a photographic + print of your advertisement, the size it is to appear, and + paste it on a newspaper page—not a New York or + Chicago paper, but a page in the “Bingville Banner.”</p> + + <p>Before plates are made or even before pen and ink + drawings are fully completed, you can change, rearrange, + eliminate, or add to, as the case may be.</p> + + <p>The wise advertiser is the one who in preparing an + elaborate and extensive newspaper campaign keys it in + its printing qualities, not to the best papers on the list, + but to the ones that are worst printed. This may mean + the undreamed of thing of 100 per cent perfect!</p> + + <p>No advertiser can hope to secure full efficiency from + a campaign if it presents a smudged and confused + appearance. Newspapers are trig things in their own + right. Their column rules and their precision of type + make this an arbitrary condition. There is really nothing + finer and cleaner and more pleasing to the human + eye than a well-composed newspaper, hot from the press. + Ugly advertisements can make an ugly newspaper. They + can even spoil the set-up and typography in general of + the reading sections.</p> + + <p>A newspaper is held responsible if returns from a + single advertisement or a campaign are not satisfactory. + It is looked upon as a “poor medium.” Yet how many + times the true fault can be traced to the message itself. + Full efficiency in advertising is the result of full efficiency + in the copy * * *.</p> + + <p class="reprint_statement">(Reprinted by the kind permission of +The Bureau of Advertising, + the American Newspapers Publishers Association, Mr. William A. + Thompson, Director.)</p> + + </div> + + <div id="plates" class="part"><a class="pagenum" id="page51" +title="51"> </a> + <div class="head_style_1"> + <h2>NEWSPAPER<br /> + ADVERTISING PLATES</h2> + </div> + + <div> + <img class="init" src="images/init-m.png" width="97" +height="100" alt="M" /> + <p class="init"><span class="first_word">Mechanical</span> +production of any kind is + an unsympathetic and inexorable thing, + and the modern large daily newspaper, + in its mechanical production, is unsympathetic + and inexorable to the highest + degree. It reproduces exactly and impartially + from all the different material supplied to it.</p> + </div> + <p>Your ad-plate is locked into the form with the other + matter composing the page. A hurried lock-up, and the + form is molded into a mat and stereotyped. Fast + presses and cheap ink do the rest.</p> + + <p>If your ad does not show up well in the first few + impressions run off, the press grinds on just the same, + with little or no make-ready. Once they start, it is + too late to stop to allow the press-room foreman to + investigate why a certain ad does not print up well. + The “Daily Bugle” must get on the streets, if possible, + before its competitors with the important scoop that the + Beghum of Swat has just died. If you have supplied the + best material for the newspapers to work with, the clean-cut + reproduction of your advertisement is insured. If + you have been penny-wise and pound-foolish in saving + a few cents on your ad-plate, all the dollars you spent on + art, typography and white space for your ad are on the + knees of the gods and liable to be spilled off the said + <a class="pagenum" id="page52" title="52"> </a>knees, and your ad is +messy looking when it appears. + The advertiser invariably blames the newspaper and + the newspaper passes the buck on to the plate-maker. + The printed appearance of the ad is largely determined + by the kind of plate furnished to the newspaper.</p> + + <p>The large daily newspapers are entirely dependent + upon the stereotyping process for the necessary speed + required in production. They do not print directly from + type or cuts. The big advantage of stereotyping in this + connection lies in the fact that it is the quickest method + of producing a solid, duplicate printing plate from an + original molding form. After locking up a page form, + it can be molded, the matrix dried and the plate cast + and ready for the press in about ten minutes.</p> + + <p>Therefore, only unmounted plates should be sent to + the large daily papers and not wood mounted, as it takes + too long for the heat to pass through the wood base in + drying the mat.</p> + + <p>The unmounted plate is placed on a metal base, + (because heat passes through metal quickly in drying + the mat) and then locked in the form with the type and + other matter composing the entire page. A mat is then + molded from the complete form and a curved stereotype + is cast from this page mat. It is from this curved full + page stereotype that the large daily newspaper is actually + printed.</p> + + <p>Since they must duplicate the plates sent to them by + the stereotyping process, your expensively prepared + advertisement, if it is to appear sharp and clean in the + valuable space it uses, should be electrotyped by your + plate-maker. A stereotype duplicated from an electrotype + will print cleaner than a stereotype duplicated from + a stereotype by reason of the fact that mats molded by + <a class="pagenum" id="page53" title="53"> </a>the newspaper from +electrotypes are sharper and deeper + than when they are molded from stereotypes.</p> + + <p>Electrotypes have a distinctly sharper and harder face + and are deeper than stereotypes. The very nature of + the process and materials used in their manufacture + makes this superiority inevitable. Wax is used as the + plastic medium in which to mold electrotypes, whereas + for stereotypes paper is used. Sharpness and depth + cannot be molded into paper as it can into wax.</p> + + <p>Neither will stereotype metal poured by gravity against + a paper matrix mold be as sharp and deep as copper + deposited electrolytically on a wax mold.</p> + + <p>It follows, therefore, that when an unmounted electrotype + is supplied to the “Chicago Tribune” or the + “New York Journal” or the “San Francisco Call” + they are stereotyping your ad in the page form from a + plate molded in wax directly from the original.</p> + + <p>On the other hand, when you supply a stereotype of + your ad to the large dailies this stereotype is already + one step removed from the original master plate and + means that two paper mats intervene between the + original supplied to the plate-maker and the final stereotype + of the page containing your advertisement. In + short, they are duplicating a stereotype from a stereotype + and each duplication means a loss in sharpness and + depth; therefore they should be supplied with a sharp + electrotype from which to make their final page mat.</p> + + <p>Obviously when a stereotype is supplied to the large + dailies they are working from a plate that is neither + sharp nor deep to start with, as would be the case if you + sent them an electrotype from which to work. An + electrotype is economy in the end and will save you + grief, when the cost of space is considered. + <a class="pagenum" id="page54" title="54"> </a> + Should you desire economy, order your plate-maker + to send mats—copy considered—to the large dailies. A + mat is less expensive than a stereotype and will reproduce + your advertisement equally as well.</p> + + <p>When you send them a mat instead of an electro there + is one more duplication for the newspapers to make in + producing the final stereotype from which they print, + but the mat which your plate-maker furnishes them is + at least molded directly from the original plate, so that + it is sharper and deeper than the mat the newspapers + have to make when you furnish them a stereotype from + which to work. When you furnish the large dailies with + the mat they cast a flat stereotype first, which is locked + up in the form with the other matter composing the + page. This entire form is then molded into a mat and + stereotyped.</p> + + <p>The small dailies and country newspapers print directly + from type and cuts. They use a flat-bed press. For this + reason it is necessary that the advertising-plate or + dealers cut which you furnish to them should be mounted + type-high.</p> + + <p>The best plate you can furnish them is none too good; + their make-ready and the general handling of their + material is not of the highest order in efficiency as compared + to the large dailies, and it is entirely probable + that even with a good sharp electrotype, your advertisement + may not show to advantage. With a stereotype, + the liability of smudgy printing is greatly enhanced.</p> + + <p>The Rapid Electrotype Company knows the mechanical + equipment of the different newspapers throughout + the United States. It sends mounted plates to those + papers that print directly from type and cuts, and + unmounted plates to those that stereotype their forms. + <a class="pagenum" id="page55" title="55"> </a>This detail is left +entirely to their discretion. The names + of the towns to which your advertisement or dealers-cut + is to be shipped is all the information they require in + order to determine whether or not to ship mounted or + unmounted plates.</p> + + <!-- <a class="pagenum" id="page56" title="56"> </a>[Blank +Page] --> + </div> + + <div id="rect" class="part"><a class="pagenum" id="page57" +title="57"> </a> + <div class="head_style_1"> + <h2>THE<br /> + RAPID ELECTROTYPE<br /> + COMPANY</h2> + </div> + + <div> + <img class="init" src="images/init-t.png" width="106" +height="100" alt="T" /> + <p class="init"><span class="first_word">The Rapid Electrotype +Company</span> + of Cincinnati was organized in + July, 1899, and incorporated under the + laws of Ohio in May, 1902. It has been + in service over a fifth of a century.</p> + </div> + + <p>Prior to the organization of The Rapid + Electrotype Company, electrotyping was, on the whole, + a localized business. The Rapid Electrotype Company + pioneered in the service of making and distributing newspaper + advertising plates—electrotypes, aluminotypes, + stereotypes, and mats—direct from its factory in Cincinnati + to newspapers and dealers throughout the United + States.</p> + + <p>The originality of this service, intelligently rendered to + advertising agencies and advertisers, was one of the + reasons for the increase of their capacity from only + five thousand square inches of plate matter daily in 1899 + to one million square inches per day in 1921, and from an + organization of only nine men to one of over two hundred + and fifty, working in day and night shifts.</p> + + <p>Their new factory is unquestionably the largest of its + kind in the world, especially designed and equipped for + the making and distribution of newspaper ad plates of + all kinds. Over forty-five thousand square feet of floor + space is devoted to this service, and with their highly + <a class="pagenum" id="page58" title="58"> </a>developed co- +operative facilities they occupy a unique + place in the advertising plans of many large national + advertisers and advertising agencies.</p> + + <h3>FACTORY PRACTICE</h3> + + <p>Developing and serving an ever increasing volume of + business has brought about a specialization in the factory + practice of The Rapid Electrotype Company. It has + kept pace with the demands upon its production and + has made improvements in manufacturing methods + designed to cut-corners in cost of manufacture, to be + shared with its customers, and to make its service truly + Rapid for all emergencies, without sacrificing quality.</p> + + <p>Its commercial job-plate department is a separate + and distinct unit from the newspaper advertising-plate + department.</p> + + <p>The character of the respective requirements of + commercial job-plates and newspaper advertising plates + make this departmental production advisable.</p> + + <p>A lead-molding press, built by The F. Wesel Mfg. + Co., weighing over thirty-thousand pounds, and developing + two thousand tons pressure per square inch on a + thirty inch hydraulically operated ram is used in the + job-plate department. On this press are duplicated, from + the finest screen half-tones, the highest quality electrotypes + and nickeltypes to be used in three and four color + process printing.</p> + + <p>The preponderating volume of its business, however, + is the production of newspaper electrotypes, and it is in + this department that The Rapid Electrotype Company + has made distinct improvements in manufacturing practice + by methods and machinery designed and constructed + by its own engineers in its own machine shop.</p> + + <h3><a class="pagenum" id="page59" title="59"> </a>BLACK +LEADING</h3> + + <p>The Rapid Electrotype Company has built a new + type of machine for use in this important phase of the + electrotyping art. It is a combination Dry-Wet Machine, + designed by its own engineering staff.</p> + + <p>Those familiar with electrotypes well know the superiority + of the wet black leading process, especially for + half-tones, stipple, Ben Day or fine type, where much of + the detail and sharpness is lost in dry black leading, + because of the crushing effect the brushes have on the + wax mold. In this new type of black leading machine + this fault is entirely eliminated, as the brushes never + come in contact with the printing face of the mold; + they merely polish the high built-up spots, thereby insuring + better electrical conductivity to the wax, and + a more uniform deposition of the copper shell.</p> + + <p>Two of these especially designed machines are in + constant operation in the ad department, which means + the highest grade of advertising plates.</p> + + <h3>DEPOSITING THE SHELL</h3> + + <p>Those who are not technically familiar with electrochemistry + are prone to think that the length of time a + mold is kept in the electrolytic bath, i. e., the copper + bath, determines the thickness of the shell deposited + thereon. As a matter of fact, one electrotyper may keep + his molds in the copper bath for three hours and get + only as thick a shell as another who keeps his in but two + hours. The element of time does not determine the + thickness nor quality of the shell deposited.</p> + + <p>The determining factors in this phase of electrotyping + are the composition of the electrolytic bath, its temperature, + and the current density applied. In addition, + <a class="pagenum" id="page60" title="60"> </a>the purity of the +materials, the cleanliness of the batteries, + the perfection of the electrical connections as well as + the distance between the anode and the cathode are all + matters of importance. These factors are all variables + and must be confined between narrow limits.</p> + + <p>This important phase of manufacture in The Rapid + Electrotype Company is under the supervision of an + electro-chemical engineer.</p> + + <p>Plus this fact is the accuracy of mechanical operation + in handling wax molds from the time they are put into + the batteries until they are taken out with the shell + deposited thereon and ready for tinning and backing-up.</p> + + <p>The molded cases are suspended at regular intervals + of twenty inches from an endless chain-conveyor operating + directly over the batteries. This conveyor carries the + cases edge-wise through the electrolytic bath between two + rows of anodes which are four inches apart. At the end + of each battery the conveyor automatically lifts the + cases out and over into the next battery in the series, of + which there are seven. The eighth tub contains pure + running water for washing the case after the complete + deposition of the shell.</p> + + <p>The speed of this conveyor is regulated so that when + the molded case has reached the end of its journey + through the series of seven batteries, the other factors + also being regulated, a shell of uniform thickness and + texture throughout is deposited thereon.</p> + + <p>This automatic handling of the cases in the batteries + eliminates the necessity of the battery-man pulling the + case out of the bath by hand from time to time in order + to peel back a corner of the shell to see if it is thick + enough, which is the common practice. In other words, + <a class="pagenum" id="page61" title="61"> </a>the element of human +guess-work is eliminated, and in + addition, the items of time and handling are greatly + reduced.</p> + + <h3>BACKING UP THE SHELL</h3> + + <p>Backing-up the shells with the metal base, i. e., casting, + is done automatically by The Rapid Electrotype Company.</p> + + <p>A rotary casting-table with a capacity of ten pans + revolves around its axis on a plane that brings each pan + immediately below a spout through which the required + metal is automatically flowed from the bottom of the + metal pot on the tinned shell placed therein. When the + required metal backing has been flowed, the table turns + to bring the next pan with its shell under the metal-spout. + The amount of metal flowed is exactly regulated. + As the casting table completes a circuit, the first shell + backed up has cooled so that it can be removed to the + scrubbing machine.</p> + + <p>This method, of course, eliminates the hand-ladling of + hot metal from the metal-pot to the casting-table, as is + the ordinary practice, and obviates any possibility of the + oxidized metal or dross on the surface getting into the + casts, besides effecting a marked economy in time and + handling. In addition, it casts the plates flat, thereby + eliminating about 75 per cent of the finishing, which, of + course, means a better printing plate. Three of these + machines are used.</p> + + <p>The Rapid Electrotype Company developed and built + these casting-machines in its own machine shop and owns + the patents covering them.</p> + + <h3>THE ALUMINOTYPE PROCESS</h3> + + <p>The development, perfection and introduction of the + Aluminotype Process for duplicating a printing surface + <a class="pagenum" id="page62" title="62"> </a>in a solid piece is +one of the outstanding accomplishments + of The Rapid Electrotype Company, and marks a distinct + step in advance of the other and older methods used in + the graphic arts, for certain classes of printing.</p> + + <p>Aluminotypes are much harder than an electrotype or + stereotype and have as sharp and deep a printing face as + an electrotype. The Aluminotype process will reproduce + as sharp and clear as the electrotyping process an eighty + line screen half-tone, which is really too fine a screen for + newspaper printing.</p> + + <p>A distinct advantage Aluminotypes have is in the + item of weight. An Aluminotype, unmounted, weighs + only one quarter as much as an unmounted electrotype + or stereotype of the same size. When mounted on a + wood base an Aluminotype weighs just one half as much + as an electrotype or stereotype of the same size mounted + on wood. In a national advertising campaign where a + general list of newspapers is used Aluminotypes, by + reason of their light weight, effect a marked saving in + parcel-post or express charges. This saving in postage + is especially noticeable in the case of foreign country + newspaper campaigns.</p> + + <p>In addition, because of their toughness, a saving can + be made in packing Aluminotypes, inasmuch as they do + not require the expensive precautions in packing to avoid + injury in transportation that electrotypes or stereotypes + do. They will not bend; their printing face cannot be + injured by the ordinary mishaps attendant upon handling + in transportation. For all practical purposes it can be + said that Aluminotypes are indestructible.</p> + + <h3>MATRICES</h3> + + <p>The ordinary practice followed in making mats is to + use an electrotype or stereotype pattern plate made + <a class="pagenum" id="page63" title="63"> </a>from the original +form. Sometimes the original itself + is used.</p> + + <p>The first mat molded from an electrotype pattern + plate will be sharp. The next one molded will be a + little less sharp than the first. The third one molded + will be slightly less sharp than the second one. In other + words, with every succeeding mold, the electrotype or + stereotype pattern plate is mashed a little by the pressure + of the matrix press until it has to be discarded and a new + one used.</p> + + <p>The five-thousandth mat made by the Rapid Electrotype + Company from the same pattern plate is as sharp + as the first one molded. This is because an <em>aluminotype</em> + pattern is used from which to mold. <em>Aluminotypes</em> + will not mash under the pressure of the matrix + press, as they are much harder than electrotypes.</p> + + <h3>THE SHIPPING DEPARTMENT</h3> + + <p>The shipping department of The Rapid Electrotype + Company is one of the most important and highly + systematized in the entire organization, and in the + manner of handling orders for distribution to newspapers + in large campaigns or in making bulk shipment direct to + the advertisers is unique.</p> + + <p>It is in this department that the packing and routing + of advertising plates to newspapers or dealers is done. + A system of triple checking each item of all orders + precludes, as far as is humanly possible, any error in + filling accurately all specifications.</p> + + </div> + + <div id="the_end"><a class="pagenum" id="page64" title="64"> </a> + <p>This brochure was compiled + by H. C. Forster of The + Rapid Electrotype Co.</p> + </div> + +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FROM XYLOGRAPHS TO LEAD MOLDS; A.D. +1440-A.D. 1921***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 33497-h.txt or 33497-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a +href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/3/4/9/33497">http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/ +4/9/33497</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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