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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Story of Books + +Author: Gertrude Burford Rawlings + +Release Date: August 13, 2010 [EBook #33413] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF BOOKS *** + + + + +Produced by Adrian Mastronardi, Jana Srna and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div id="tnote"> +<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b></p> +<p>Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as +possible, including inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation; +changes (corrections of spelling and punctuation) made to the +original text are marked <ins title="transcriber's note">like this</ins>. +The original text appears when hovering the cursor over the marked text.</p> +<p>The illustrations have been moved to be closer to the text that +references them.</p> +</div> + +<div id="text-block"> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: x-large; margin: 6em auto;">THE STORY OF BOOKS</p> + + + +<div id="useful-knowledge" class="page-break"> +<p class="center" style="margin-bottom: 3em;"><b>The Useful Knowledge Library</b></p> + + +<p>PLANT LIFE. By <span class="smcap">Grant Allen</span>.</p> + +<p>ARCHITECTURE. By <span class="smcap">P. L. Waterhouse</span>.</p> + +<p>THE STARS. By <span class="smcap">G. F. Chambers</span>, F.R.A.S.</p> + +<p>THE SOLAR SYSTEM. By <span class="smcap">George F. +Chambers</span>, F.R.A.S.</p> + +<p>FOREST AND STREAM. By <span class="smcap">James Rodway</span>.</p> + +<p>THE MIND. By Prof. <span class="smcap">J. M. Baldwin</span>.</p> + +<p>THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD. By +the Rev. <span class="smcap">E. D. Price</span>, F.G.S.</p> + +<p>EXTINCT CIVILIZATIONS OF THE EAST. +By <span class="smcap">Robert E. Anderson</span>, M.A., F.A.S.</p> + +<p>THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. By <span class="smcap">M. M. +Pattison Muir</span>, M.A.</p> + +<p>A PIECE OF COAL. By <span class="smcap">E. A. Martin</span>.</p> + +<p>THE EARTH IN PAST AGES. By <span class="smcap">H. G. +Seeley</span>, F.R.S.</p> + +<p>BIRD-LIFE. By <span class="smcap">W. P. Pycraft</span>.</p> + +<p>GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY. By <span class="smcap">Joseph +Jacobs</span>.</p> + +<p>PRIMITIVE MAN. By <span class="smcap">Edward Clodd</span>.</p> + +<p>THOUGHT AND FEELING. By <span class="smcap">Frederick +Ryland</span>, M.A.</p> + +<p>THE BRITISH RACE. By <span class="smcap">John Munro</span>.</p> + +<p>GERM LIFE. By <span class="smcap">H. W. Conn</span>.</p> + +<p>ANIMAL LIFE. By <span class="smcap">B. Lindsay</span>.</p> + +<p>COTTON PLANT. By <span class="smcap">F. Wilkinson</span>, F.G.S.</p> + +<p>ECLIPSES. By <span class="smcap">G. F. Chambers</span>, F.R.A.S.</p> + +<p>ELECTRICITY. By <span class="smcap">J. Munro</span>.</p> + +<p>WEATHER. By <span class="smcap">G. F. Chambers</span>, F.R.A.S.</p> + +<p>WILD FLOWERS. By Rev. Prof. <span class="smcap">Henslow</span>.</p> + +<p class="center" style="margin-top: 2em;">LONDON: HODDER AND STOUGHTON</p> +</div> + + + +<div class="figcenter page-break" style="width: 417px; margin: 6em auto;"> +<a name="Frontispiece"></a> +<img src="images/f0004-image.jpg" width="417" height="604" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>EARLY PRINTERS AT WORK.</small></div> +</div> + + + +<h1 style="line-height: 1.5em; margin: 2em auto;"><small>THE</small><br/> +STORY OF BOOKS</h1> + +<p class="center" style="line-height: 2.5em;">BY<br/> +<big>GERTRUDE BURFORD RAWLINGS</big></p> + +<p class="center"><i>Author of “The Story of the British Coinage”</i></p> + +<p class="center" style="font-size: larger; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 6em auto;">HODDER AND STOUGHTON<br/> +PUBLISHERS, LONDON</p> + + + +<div class="page-break"> +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_vii" title="vii"> </a> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> +</div> + + +<table id="toc" summary="Contents"> +<tr> + <th colspan="2">CHAP.</th> + <th class="page">PAGE</th> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter">I.</td> + <td class="title">Introductory</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">9</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter">II.</td> + <td class="title">The Preservation of Literature</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter">III.</td> + <td class="title">Books and Libraries in Classical Times</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">26</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter">IV.</td> + <td class="title">Books in Mediæval Times</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">36</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter">V.</td> + <td class="title">Libraries in Mediæval Times</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">56</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter">VI.</td> + <td class="title">The Beginning of Printing</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">70</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter">VII.</td> + <td class="title">Who Invented Moveable Types?</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">81</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter">VIII.</td> + <td class="title">Gutenberg and the Mentz Press</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">89</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter">IX.</td> + <td class="title">Early Printing</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">103</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter">X.</td> + <td class="title">Early Printing in Italy and some other Countries</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">110</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter">XI.</td> + <td class="title">Early Printing in England</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">118</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter">XII.</td> + <td class="title">Early Printing in Scotland</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">131</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter">XIII.</td> + <td class="title">Early Printing in Ireland</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter">XIV.</td> + <td class="title">Book Bindings</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="chapter">XV.</td> + <td class="title">How a Modern Book is Produced</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">159</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title" colspan="2">Postscript</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#AUTHORS_POSTSCRIPT">164</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title" colspan="2">Index</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#INDEX">166</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + + +<div class="page-break"> +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_viii" title="viii"> </a> +<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> +</div> + + +<table id="loi" summary="Illustrations"> +<tr> + <td class="title">Early Printers at Work</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Frontispiece"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <th class="page" colspan="2" style="padding-top: 8px;">PAGE</th> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Page from the Book of Kells</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Page_from_Book_of_Kells">38</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Part of Page from the Book of Kells</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Part_of_page_from_Book_of_Kells">39</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Page from the Lindisfarne Gospels</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Page_from_Lindisfarne_Gospels">44</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Page from the Biblia Pauperum</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Page_from_Biblia_Pauperum">76</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Type <ins title="of">of the</ins> Mentz Indulgence</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Type_of_Mentz_Indulgence">95</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Page from the Mazarin Bible</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Page_from_Mazarin_Bible">98</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Type of the Mazarin Bible</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Type_of_Mazarin_Bible">99</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Type of the Subiaco Lactantius</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Type_of_Subiaco_Lactantius">111</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Type of the Aldine Virgil, 1501</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Type_of_Aldine_Virgil">114</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Type of Caxton's Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophres, +Westminster, 1477</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Type_of_Caxton">123</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Boys Learning Grammar</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Boys_Learning_Grammar">125</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Caxton's Device</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Caxtons_Device">127</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Type of Wynkyn de Worde's Higden's Polychronicon, London, 1495</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Type_of_Wynkyn_de_Worde">129</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Myllar's Device</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Myllars_Device">132</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Title Page of O'Kearney's Irish Alphabet and Catechism</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Title_page_of_OKearney">140</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td class="title">Upper Cover of Melissenda's Psalter</td> + <td class="page"><a href="#Cover_of_Melissendas_Psalter">149</a></td> +</tr></table> + + + +<div class="page-break"> +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_9" title="9"> </a> +<p class="center" style="font-size: x-large; margin-top: 6em;">THE STORY OF BOOKS</p> +</div> + +<hr/> + +<h2 style="margin-top: 1em;"><a name="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br/><br/> +<small>INTRODUCTORY</small></a></h2> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="first-word">The</span> book family is a very old and a very noble +one, and has rendered great service to mankind, +although, as with other great houses, all its members +are not of equal worth and distinction. But +since books are so common nowadays as to be +taken quite as matters of course, probably few +people give any thought to the long chain of +events which, reaching from the dim past up to +our own day, has been necessary for their evolution. +Yet if we look round on our bookshelves, +whether we measure their contents by hundreds +or by thousands, and consider how mighty is the +power of these inanimate combinations of “rag-paper +with black ink on them,” and how all but +limitless their field of action, it is but a step +further to wonder what the first books were like. +Given the living, working brain to fashion thoughts +and create fancies, to whom did it first occur to +write a book, what language and characters and +material did he use, when did he write, and what +did he write about? And although these questions +can never be answered, an attempt to follow +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_10" title="10"> </a>them up will lead the inquirer into many fascinating +bye-ways of knowledge. It is not, however, +the purpose of these pages to deal at length with +the ancient history of the <em>manuscript</em> book, but, +after briefly noticing the chief links which connect +the volumes of to-day with primeval records, to +present to the reader a few of the many points +of interest offered by the modern history of the +<em>printed</em> book.</p> + +<hr class="vertical-space"/> + +<p><b>The Beginning of Writing.</b>—Books began with +writing, and writing began at the time when man +first bethought himself to make records, so that +the progenitor of the beautiful handwriting and no +less beautiful print of the civilised world is to be +looked for in the rude drawing which primeval +man scratched with a pointed flint on a smooth +bone, or on a rock, representing the beast he +hunted, or perhaps himself, or one of his fellows. +The exact degree of importance he attached to +these drawings we cannot hope to discover. +They may have been cherished from purely +æsthetic motives, or they may have served, at +times, a merely utilitarian end and acted, perhaps, +as memoranda. However this may be, these +early drawings are the germs from which sprang +writing, the parent of books, and liberator of +literature, that great force of which a book is but +the vehicle. How these drawings were gradually +changed into letters, in other words, the story +of the alphabet, has been already told in this +series by Mr Edward Clodd, and therefore we +need not deal further with the subject here.</p> + +<p>Writing once learned, and alphabets once +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_11" title="11"> </a>formulated, the machinery for making books, with +the human mind as its mainspring, was fairly in +motion. “Certainly the Art of Writing,” says +Carlyle, “is the most miraculous of all things +man has devised.… With the art of Writing, +of which Printing is a simple, an inevitable and +comparatively insignificant corollary, the true +reign of miracles for mankind commenced.” +That these words only express the feeling of our +far away ancestors, a cursory glance into the +mythology of various peoples will prove. For +wherever there is a tradition respecting writing, +that tradition almost invariably, if not always, +connects the great invention with the gods or +with some sacred person. The Egyptians attributed +it to Thoth, the Babylonians and Assyrians +to Nebo, the Buddhists to Buddha, the Greeks +to Hermes. The Scandinavians honoured Odin +as the first cutter of the mysterious runes, and +the Irish derived their ogham from the sacred +Ogma of the Tuatha de Danaan. And it is +noteworthy how, from time immemorial, writing, +and the making of books, have been considered +high and honourable accomplishments, and how +closely they have ever been connected with the +holy functions of priesthood.</p> + +<hr class="vertical-space"/> + +<p><b>Materials for Writing and Books.</b>—The early +forms of books were various, and, to modern eyes, +more or less clumsy. Wood or bark was one +of the oldest substances used to receive writing. +Stone was no doubt older still, but stone inscriptions +are outside our subject. The early Greeks +and Romans employed tablets of soft metal, and +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_12" title="12"> </a>wooden leaves coated with wax, when they had +anything to write, impressing the characters with +a stilus. Thus Pausanius relates that he saw +the original copy of Hesiod's <cite>Works and Days</cite> +written on leaden tablets. The wooden leaves, +when bound together at one side, foreshadowed +the form of book which is now almost universal, +and were called by the Romans <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">caudex</i>, or <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">codex</i> +(originally meaning a tree-stump), in distinction +to the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">volumen</i>, which was always a parchment or +papyrus roll. The oldest manuscript in existence, +however, is on papyrus, which, as is well known, +was the chief writing-material of the ancient +world. Although the discovery that skins of +animals, when properly prepared, formed a convenient +and durable writing-material, was made +at a very early date, the papyrus held its own as +the writing-material of literary Egypt, Greece, +and Rome, until about the fourth or fifth century +of our era.</p> + +<p>The books of Babylonia and Assyria took the +form of thick clay tablets of various sizes. The +wedge-shaped characters they bore were made by +impressing the wet, soft clay with a triangular-pointed +instrument of wood, bone, or metal. The +tablet was then baked, and as recent discoveries +prove, rendered exceedingly durable. It is a +matter of conjecture as to whether the form of +the original documents of the Old Testament was +that of the Babylonian tablets, or of the Egyptian +papyrus rolls, or of rolls of parchment. Perhaps +all three were employed by the various biblical +writers at different times.</p> + +<p>It is stretching a point, perhaps, to include +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_13" title="13"> </a>among writing materials the tablets of bamboo +bark which bore the earliest Chinese characters, +since the inscriptions were carved. The Chinese, +however, soon discarded such primitive uses, and +the paper which is so indispensable to-day was +invented by them at a very early date, though it +remained unknown to Europe until the Arabs +introduced it about the tenth century, <small>A.D.</small> One +of the earliest extant writings on paper is an +Arabic “Treatise on the Nourishment of the +Human Body,” written in 960 <small>A.D.</small>, but it seems +to have been printing which really brought paper +into fashion, for paper manuscripts are rare compared +with those of parchment and vellum.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br/><br/> +<small>THE PRESERVATION OF LITERATURE</small></a></h2> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="first-word">It</span> is easier to find the beginning of writing than +the beginning of literature. Although we know +for certain that the ancient nations of the world +had books and libraries, that they preserved +traditions, stored records and knowledge, and +assisted memory by means of their tablets, +their monuments, and their papyri, we shall probably +never know when the art of writing was +first applied to strictly literary purposes, and still +less likely is it that we shall ever discover when +works of the imagination were first recorded for +the edification of mankind. It is not very rash, +however, to assume that as soon as the art had +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_14" title="14"> </a>developed the ancients put it to much the same +uses as we do, except, perhaps, that they did not +vulgarise it, and no one wrote who had not something +to write about. But we are not without +specimens of antique literatures. Egypt has preserved +for us many different specimens of her +literary produce of thousands of years ago—historical +records, works of religion and philosophy, +fiction, magic, and funeral ritual. Assyria has +bequeathed to us hundreds of the clay books +which formed the great royal library at Nineveh, +books of records, mythology, morals, grammar, +astronomy, astrology, magic; books of reference, +such as geographical tables, lists of temples, +plants, birds, and other things. In the Old Testament +we have all that now remains of Israelitish +writings, and the early literatures of China and +India are also partly known to us. After these the +writings of Greece and Rome are of comparatively +recent origin, and moreover, they are nearer to us +in other respects besides the merely chronological. +The literature of Greece, dating from the far +Homeric age, grew up a strong and beautiful +factor in Greek life, and Rome, drawing first her +alphabet and then her literature from the land +before which she stooped, even while she conquered +it, passed them on as an everlasting possession +to the peoples of the western world. The +fact of the literary pre-eminence of Greece partly +helps to explain why Greek manuscripts form the +bulk of the early writings now extant.</p> + +<p>In considering how early literature has been +preserved, therefore, we are hardly concerned +with Egyptian papyri or cuneiform tablets, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_15" title="15"> </a>but with the writings of Greece and Rome, or +writings produced under Greek or Roman influence. +And it is curious that while the libraries +and books of older nations have survived in comparatively +large numbers, there should be no +Greek literary manuscripts older than about 160 +<small>B.C.</small>, and even these are very fragmentary and +scarce. The earliest Latin document known +is dated 55 <small>A.D.</small>, and is an unimportant wax +tablet from Pompeii. For this lack of early documents +many causes are responsible, and those +who remember that it is not human beings only +who suffer from the vicissitudes inseparable from +existence will wonder, not that we have so few +ancient writings in our present possession, but +that we have any. The evidence of many curious +and interesting discoveries of manuscripts made +from time to time goes to show that accident, +rather than design, has worked out their preservation, +and that the civilised world owes its present +store of ancient literature more to good luck +than good management, to use a handy colloquialism. +It is true, of course, that in early days +there were many who guarded books as very +precious things, but in times of wars and tumults +people would naturally give little thought to +such superfluities. Fire and war have been the +agencies most destructive of books, in the opinion +of the author of <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Philobiblon</cite>, but carelessness +and ignorance, wanton destruction and natural +decay, are also accountable for some part of the +great losses which have wasted so large a share +of the literary heritage, and although we are +deeply indebted to monastic work for the transmission +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_16" title="16"> </a>of classic lore as well as of Christian +compositions, we can hardly conclude that the +monkish scribes wrote solely for the benefit of +posterity. Their immediate purpose, no doubt, +and naturally so, was much narrower, and identified +the service of God with the enrichment of +their houses. Besides, they did not hesitate to +erase older writings in order that they might use +the parchment again for their own, whenever it +suited them to do so.</p> + +<p>Before noting some of the ways by which +ancient literature has come down to the present +day, let us for a moment transport ourselves into +the past, and see how a wealthy Roman lover of +letters would set about gathering a collection of +books. Having no lack of means, all that is best +in the literary world will be at his service. He +will first take care that the works of every Greek +writer which can possibly be obtained, as well as +those of Roman authors, are represented in his +library by well-written papyrus rolls containing +good, correct texts. If he can obtain old manuscripts +or original autographs of famous writers, +so much the better; but whereas ordinary volumes +will cost him comparatively little, on these he +must expend large sums. If a book on which he +has set his heart is not to be purchased, he may +be able to obtain the loan of it, so that it may be +transcribed for him by his <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">librarius</i> or writing-slave. +If he can neither borrow nor purchase +what he desires, he may commission the bookseller +to send for it to Alexandria, where there is +an unrivalled store of books and many skilled +scribes ready to make copies of them.</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_17" title="17"> </a> +But it is not easy to estimate with any degree +of certainty the quantity of literary material available, +say, at the time of the establishment of the +first public library in Rome, which was probably +about 39 <small>B.C.</small> Books were common and booksellers +flourished. Greek and Roman writings +were preserved on papyrus, not neglected or lost, +and the various parts of what we now call the +Old Testament probably existed in the Hebrew +synagogues. We may, perhaps, assume that the +Roman book collector, did he choose to take the +necessary trouble, might add to his collection +some of the writings of ancient Egypt. But no +doubt Greek and Latin authors only are of value +in his eyes. At this point it is dangerous to +speculate further, and we must leave the +imaginary Roman, and, advancing to our own +time, where we are on surer ground, ask what +remnants of old records and literature have come +down to us, and how have they been preserved?</p> + +<p>It will be disappointing news, perhaps, to those +to whom the facts are fresh, that no original manuscript +of any classical author, and no original +manuscript of any part of the Bible, Old Testament +or New, has yet come to light. Nothing is known +of any of these documents except through the +medium of copies, and in some cases very many +copies indeed intervene between us and the +original. For instance, the oldest Homeric +manuscript known, with the exception of one or +two fragments, is not older than the first century +<small>B.C.</small>, and the most ancient Biblical manuscript +known, a fragment of a Psalter, is assigned to the +late third or early fourth century <small>A.D.</small> The +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_18" title="18"> </a>earliest New Testament manuscript extant, the +first leaf of a book of St Matthew's Gospel, is +also no older than the third century. It is +curious, too, that no ancient Greek manuscripts +have been found either in Greece or Italy +excepting some rolls discovered in the ruins of +Herculaneum. One reason for this is no doubt +the fact that when Roman armies assailed Athens +and other Greek cities they despoiled them not +only of their statues and works of art, but of +their books as well. These went to furnish the +libraries of Rome, though it is probable that certain +of them found their way back to Greece in +company with some of Rome's own literary +produce when Constantine set up his capital and +founded a library at Byzantium. Another means +by which Greek manuscripts left the country was +afforded by the eagerness of Ptolemy II. to +extend the great library of Alexandria, to which +end he bought books in all parts of Greece, and +particularly in Athens and Rhodes.</p> + +<p>The Roman libraries did not survive the +onslaughts of the barbarians, who seem to have +carried out a very thorough work of destruction +in the Eternal City. But it is not unlikely that +in some cases books, among other portable +treasures, were carried away when their owners +sought refuge in less troubled localities, such as +Constantinople or Alexandria. Still, the fact +remains that the contents of the Roman libraries +have disappeared, and that for the ancient manuscripts +now in our possession we are indebted to +the tombs, the temples, the monasteries, and the +sands of Egypt. Sometimes—to show the strange +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_19" title="19"> </a>adventures of some of these manuscripts—the +cartonnage cases in which mummies of the later +period were enclosed, were made of papyrus +documents, which apparently had been treated as +waste paper and put to all sorts of undignified +uses. The two oldest classical papyri known, +consisting of fragments of Plato's <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Phœdo</cite> and +of the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Antiope</cite> of Euripides, were recovered from +mummy-cases, and are supposed to date from +the third century <small>B.C.</small> Other important Greek +texts which have been preserved by Egypt are +Aristotle's <cite>Constitution of Athens</cite>, the <cite>Mimes</cite> of +Herodas, the <cite>Odes</cite> of Bacchylides, the <cite>Gospel</cite> and +<cite>Apocalypse</cite> of Peter, the Book of Enoch, &c.</p> + +<p>But here we have to take into consideration a +new and important factor in literary as in other +matters—the spread of Christianity. With such +obvious exceptions as the cuneiform records, +or the Egyptian writings, and similar remains, the +bulk of the manuscripts (as manuscripts, not as +compositions) is the work of (Christian) religious +houses, and it is easy to see that we owe much to +the labours of the monks and ecclesiastics who +have transmitted to us not only the earliest and +most valuable works of the Church's own writers, +but also the chief part of the literature of Greece +and Rome. As Mr Falconer Madan says in +his <cite>Books in Manuscript</cite>, “the number and +importance of the MSS. of Virgil and the four +Gospels is greater than of any other ancient +authors whatever,” and it is safe to assume that +all these Gospel MSS., and perhaps all the +Virgil MSS. also, were the handiwork of churchmen.</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_20" title="20"> </a> +As an example of the manuscript treasures +yielded by Egypt may be instanced the find at +Behnesa, a village standing on the site of the +Roman city of Oxyrhynchus, one of the chief +centres of early Christianity in Egypt. Here, in +1896, Mr B. P. Grenfell and Mr A. S. Hunt, +searching for papyri on behalf of the Egypt +Exploration Fund, lighted upon one of the +richest hunting-grounds yet discovered. The +result of their excavations was that about 270 +boxes of manuscripts were brought to England, +while 150 of the best rolls were left at the +Cairo Museum. I am unable to give the size of +the boxes, but Professor Flinders Petrie's statement +that “the publication of this great collection +of literature and documents will probably occupy +a decade or two, and will place our knowledge of +the Roman and early Christian age on a new +footing,” will testify to the extent and importance +of the find.</p> + +<p>In this collection the document which +excited most interest was a papyrus leaf bearing +some scraps of Greek, to which the name of +<span class="greek" lang="grc" xml:lang="grc" title="LOGIA IÊSOU">ΛΟΓΙΑ ΙΗΣΟΥ</span>, or Sayings of our Lord, has been +given. This leaf is at present assigned to a date +between 150 and 300 <small>A.D.</small> The Logia are eight +in number, and while three of them are closely +similar to certain passages in the Gospels, the rest +are new. Another valuable document was the +fragment of St Matthew's Gospel alluded to +above, which, written in the third century, is a +hundred years older than any New Testament +manuscript hitherto known. Classical documents +also were found in great numbers, and included +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_21" title="21"> </a>a new <cite>Ode</cite> of Sappho, which, however, is +unfortunately imperfect. It was transcribed +probably about the third century <small>A.D.</small></p> + +<p>Many Coptic, Syriac, and Arabic manuscripts +have been recovered from the numerous monasteries +of Palestine, Asia Minor, and Egypt. Several +travellers who have managed to overcome the +suspicion of the monks and their unwillingness to +open their literary hoards to strangers, or to part +with any of the volumes, have found immense +numbers of books hidden under dust and rubbish +in vaults and cellars or stowed away in chests, +where they were probably thrust at some time +when danger threatened them. Books written in +these monasteries themselves in earlier days, or +brought thither from other monasteries further +east, have thus lain forgotten or neglected for +centuries, or, if they were noticed at all, it was +only that they might be put to some ignoble use. +Thus some were found acting as covers to two +large jars which had formerly held preserves. +“I was allowed to purchase these vellum manuscripts,” +says the author of <cite>Monasteries of the +Levant</cite>, “as they were considered to be useless +by the monks, principally, I believe, because there +were no more preserves in the jars.” In another +case some large volumes were found in use as +footstools to protect the bare feet of the monks +from the cold stone floor of their chapel.</p> + +<p>As we have already seen, Christian scribes not +only preserved the writings of the Fathers of the +Church, as well as the Holy Scriptures, but also +directed much of their attention to the classic +works of poetry and philosophy. In every +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_22" title="22"> </a>monastery from Ireland to Asia Minor, from +Seville to Jerusalem, the work of transcribing and +transmitting sacred and secular literature was +carried on, and had we at the present day one half +of the fruits of this labour we should be rich indeed. +But we have also seen that many causes +have contributed to the destruction of old writings, +of which carelessness and ignorance are by +no means the least. The well-known story of +Tischendorf's discovery of the oldest copy of the +New Testament in existence,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> in a basket of +fuel at a monastery near Mount Sinai is but a +single example, and that a modern one, of the +dangers to which these ancient books were +liable, and to which they too often fell victims. +The danger was long ago recognised, however, and +a canon of the third Council of Constantinople, +held in <ins title="719,">719</ins> <small>A.D.</small>, enacted “That nobody whatever +be allowed to injure the book of the Old and +New Testament, or those of our holy preachers +and doctors, nor to cut them up, nor to give them +to dealers in books, or perfumers, or any other +person to be erased, except they have been +rendered useless by moths or water or in some +other way. He who shall do any such thing +shall be excommunicated for one year.” The +same Council also ordered the burning of heretical +books.</p> + +<p>With the revival of learning in the fourteenth +century there came an awakened interest in ancient +writings. They were eagerly sought for in the +monasteries of Europe, and the learned of Italy +were especially instrumental in recovering the +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_23" title="23"> </a>neglected classical works. It has been said that +almost all the classical authors were discovered +or rediscovered either in Italy or through the researches +of Italians. Petrarch, with whose name +the Renaissance is inseparably associated, and a +contemporary of our Richard de Bury, took great +pains to form a collection of the works of Cicero, +whose <cite>Epistles</cite> he was fortunate enough to rescue +from destroying oblivion. He tells us that when +he met strangers, and they asked him what he +desired from their country, he would reply, +“Nothing, but the works of Cicero.” He also +sent money to France, Germany, Spain, Greece, +and England that these books might be bought +for him, and if while travelling he came across +any ancient monastery he would turn aside and +explore its book treasures.</p> + +<p>Poggio Bracciolini, a learned Italian of the +fifteenth century, has also made himself famous +by his ardent pursuit of the remains of classical +literature, and by aiding the interest in them +which the Renaissance had awakened. He +searched Europe for manuscripts to such good +purpose that he unearthed a valuable text of +Quintilian's <cite>Institutes</cite>, “almost perishing at the +bottom of a dark neglected tower,” in the +monastery of St Gall, and recovered many other +classical writings by his industry, including some +of the <cite>Orations</cite> of Cicero; Lucretius; Manilius, +and others. He also rescued the writings of +Tertullian.</p> + +<p>We may perhaps believe that even by this time +the surviving treasures of the old storehouses of +literature have not yet been all brought to light. +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_24" title="24"> </a>Renan discovered in the large collection of +manuscripts still preserved in the monastery of +Monte Casino in Italy, some unpublished pages of +Abelard's <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Theologia Christiana</cite>, and other valuable +finds besides, and it is quite possible that many +more surprises are awaiting an enterprising and +diligent searcher.</p> + +<p>But although the monasteries had so large a +share in the work of the preservation of literature, +the monks themselves wrought harm as well as +good, for in their zeal to record sacred compositions +they frequently destroyed older and +often more valuable documents by scraping off +the original writing and substituting other. This +was done for economy's sake, when writing +material was costly, and parchments thus treated +are known as palimpsests. Owing to this reprehensible +practice, many literary treasures have +been irretrievably lost. Our Anglo-Saxon literature, +for instance, is not represented by any contemporary +copies. The Anglo-Norman writers had +a contempt for the old English manuscripts, and +turned them into palimpsests without the slightest +idea that there could be any value in them, and +attached far more importance to the writing they +themselves were about to make. Thus it happens +that we are in the same position with regard to +Anglo-Saxon literature as with regard to classical +authors. No original documents exist, and it is +known to us solely through copies, single copies, +in most cases. Beowulf, for instance, is represented +only by a manuscript of the first half of +the eleventh century, and Caedmon by a manuscript +of the tenth century.</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_25" title="25"> </a> +With the invention and spread of the knowledge +of printing, however, the risk of loss was greatly +reduced. Such ancient writings as came into +the printer's hands were given a fresh lease of +life which in many cases was of indefinite length, +or rather, of practically eternal duration. But +the fact of being printed was not invariably a +safeguard. Some of the works of the early +printers have disappeared completely, and many +are represented only by single copies. The +strange history of the British Museum copy of +the famous <cite>Book of St Albans</cite>, will serve to show +the vicissitudes with which the relics of the past +have to contend in their journey down the ages.</p> + +<p>At the end of the last century the library of an +old Lincolnshire house was overhauled by someone +who disdainfully turned out of it all unbound +books, and had them destroyed. A few of the +condemned books, however, were begged by the +gardener. Among them was the Book of St +Albans. At the gardener's death his son threw +away some of the rescued volumes, but kept the +“Book.” At the son's death, his widow sold +such books as he had left, to a pedlar, for the +sum of ninepence. The pedlar re-sold them to +a chemist in Gainsborough for shop-paper, but +observing the strange wood-cuts in the “Book,” +the chemist offered it to a stationer for a guinea. +The stationer would not purchase, but said he +would display it in his window as a curiosity. +Here it attracted attention, and five pounds was +offered for it by a gentleman in the neighbourhood. +The stationer, finding the volume an +object of desire, gave the chemist two pounds +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_26" title="26"> </a>for it and eventually sold it to a bookseller for +seven guineas. Of this bookseller the Right +Hon. Thomas Grenville bought it for seventy +pounds, and bequeathed it to the British Museum +with the rest of his magnificent library. This +story I give on the authority of Mr Blades, who +also, to instance the way in which books travel +about and turn up in odd places, relates that a +brother of Bishop Heber's, who had been for +years seeking for a book printed by Colard +Mansion, but without success, one day received +a fine copy from the bishop, who had bought it +from a native on the banks of the Ganges.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br/><br/> +<small>BOOKS AND LIBRARIES IN CLASSICAL TIMES</small></a></h2> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="first-word">In</span> literary Greece and Rome, so far as we can +tell from the somewhat meagre information handed +down to us, literature was pursued for her own +sake, and filthy lucre did not enter into the calculations +of authors, who appear to have been satisfied +if their works met with the approval of those +who were competent to judge of them. Literature +walked alone, and had not as yet entered +into partnership with commerce. The writing of +books for pecuniary profit is a wholly modern +development, and even now it is more often an +aspiration than a realisation.</p> + +<p>In those days, when an author desired to +make known a work, he would read it aloud to +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_27" title="27"> </a>an invited party of friends. This reading of +original compositions became in time a common +item of the programme provided by a host for +the entertainment of his guests, and it is not +difficult to imagine that such a custom was often +subjected to grave abuse, from the guests' point +of view. Later, the private reading developed +into the public lecture. Lectures of this kind +became very frequent in Rome, and we are told +that it was looked upon as a sort of festival when +a fashionable author announced a reading. But +we are also told that some of the audience often +treated a lecturer of mediocre merit with scant +courtesy, entering late and leaving early, and +frequently they who applauded most were those +who had listened least. The public reading is +recorded of a poem composed by Nero. It was +read to the people on the Capitol, and the manuscript, +which was written in letters of gold, was +afterwards deposited in the temple of Jupiter +Capitolinus.</p> + +<p>If a work happened to attract attention by +reason of its author's reputation or its own merit, +it was copied by students or others who had +heard and admired it. This was the only way +in which literary productions could be dispersed +and made known to the public at large, or a +collection of books be gathered together. As +the literary taste developed, those who were sufficiently +wealthy kept slaves whose sole business +it was to copy books, which books might be +either the original works of their master, who by +this means disseminated his compositions, or the +works of others, for the benefit of their master's +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_28" title="28"> </a>library. These slaves, being of necessity well +educated and skilful scribes, were purchased at +high prices and held in great esteem by their +owners. But obviously it was only the rich who +could command such service, and ordinary folk +had to resort to the bookseller.</p> + +<p>The booksellers of Athens and Rome were +those who made copies of books, or employed +slaves to make them, and sold or let them on hire +to those who had need of them. The author had +no voice in these matters. There was nothing to +prevent anyone who borrowed or otherwise got +possession of his work from making copies of the +manuscript if he chose, and making money from +the copies if he could. “Copyright” was a +word unknown in those days, and for centuries +after. The booksellers advertised their wares by +notices affixed to the door-posts of their shops, +giving the names of new or desirable works, and +sometimes read these works aloud to their friends +and patrons. Their shops were favourite places +of resort for persons of leisure and literary tastes.</p> + +<p>Copyists of books retained a high place in the +order of things literary until the introduction of +printing, and without their labours we should +know nothing of ancient literature, seeing that no +original manuscript of any classical author has +survived. And apart from its purely literary +value, which is variable, the work of the early +mediæval scribes in many instances reaches a +high artistic standard, and exhibits marvellous +skill in an accomplishment now numbered among +the lost arts.</p> + +<p>On the subject of libraries, as on all literary +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_29" title="29"> </a>matters in ancient times, hardly any solid information +is available. But we know that Egypt +was to the fore in this respect as in so many +others. Yet of all the collections of books which, +since they are frequently alluded to in the inscriptions, +she undoubtedly possessed, stored in her +kings' palaces and her temple archives, there is +only one which is mentioned in history, and that +by a single historian. According to Diodorus +Siculus, this library was made by Osymandyas, +who was king of Egypt at a date which has not +been precisely determined. He tells us that its +entrance exhibited the inscription: “Place of +Healing for the Soul,” or, as it has been variously +rendered, “Balsam for the Soul,” or, “Dispensary +of the Mind.” Although doubt has been thrown +on the perfect accuracy of the historian in introducing +the name of Osymandyas in this connection, +modern Egyptologists have identified the +plan of the library with a hall of the great +“palace temple” of Rameses II., the “Ramesium” +or “Memnonium” at Thebes. The door-jambs +of this hall utter their own testimony to its +ancient use, for they bear the figures of Thoth, +the god of writing, and Saf, a goddess who is accompanied +by the titles “Lady of Letters” and +“Presider over the Hall of Books.” Astle, in +<cite>The Origin and Progress of Writing</cite>, says that the +books and colleges of Egypt were destroyed by +the Persians, but Matter, on the other hand, in +<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">L'École d'Alexandrie</cite>, declares that the temple +archives were in existence in the Greek and +Roman periods. Probably Astle's statement is +not intended to be as sweeping as it appears.</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_30" title="30"> </a> +Babylonia and Assyria also had their libraries. +According to Professor Sayce (<cite>The Higher +Criticism and the Monuments</cite>) they were “filled +with libraries, and the libraries with thousands of +books.” The royal library already referred to as +furnishing so rich a treasure of cuneiform tablets, +was begun by Sennacherib, who reigned 705–681 +<small>B.C.</small>, and completed by Assur-bani-pal, who reigned +about 668–626 <small>B.C.</small></p> + +<p>There were libraries, too, in Palestine, in early +days, but we know nothing of them. They may +have been archives or places where records were +kept, rather than libraries as we understand the +term. The name of Kirjath-sepher, a city near +Hebron, means “city of books,” and survives from +pre-Israelitish times. By the Jews, records and +“the book of the law” were preserved in the +temple.</p> + +<p>Almost as scanty are the accounts of the +libraries of ancient Greece. The tyrant Pisistratus, +537–527 <small>B.C.</small>, has been credited, traditionally, +with the establishment in Athens of the first +public library, but although he encouraged letters +and the preservation of literature there is no good +reason for accepting the tradition as authentic.</p> + +<p>But of all libraries those of Alexandria were +the largest and most celebrated, and yet, notwithstanding +their eminence, the accounts relating to +them are confused and contradictory. Alexandria, +which, although situated in Egypt, was a Greek +and not an Egyptian city, was founded by Alexander +the Great in 332 <small>B.C.</small>, and rapidly rose to a +high position. Its buildings, its learning, its +luxury, and its books, became world-famous. +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_31" title="31"> </a>The first library was established by Ptolemy +Soter, a ruler of literary tastes, about 300 <small>B.C.</small>, +and was situated in that part of the city known as +the Bruchium. Copyists were employed to +transcribe manuscripts for the benefit of the +institution, and it is said that under Ptolemy +Euergetes all books brought into Egypt were +seized and sent to the library to be transcribed. +The copies were returned to the owners, whose +wishes were evidently not consulted, in place of +the originals, which went to enrich the store in +the great library.</p> + +<p>Ptolemy Philadelphus is said to have supplemented +Soter's library by another, which was +lodged in the Temple of Serapis, but it has been +conjectured, with more probability, that the +Serapeum collection began with the temple +archives, to which the Ptolemies made additions +from time to time; these additions, as some have +affirmed, including part of Aristotle's library. +But here, also, contradictions are encountered, +and it seems impossible to say exactly whether +this statement refers to Aristotle's autograph +writings, or to copies of them, or to manuscripts +of other authors' works formerly in his possession.</p> + +<p>It was Ptolemy Philadelphus, we are told by +Galen, who gave the Athenians fifteen talents, a +great convoy of provisions, and exemption from +tribute, in exchange for the autographs and +originals of the tragedies of Æschylus, Sophocles, +and Euripides.</p> + +<p>Two other libraries also helped to make up the +glory of Alexandria; one in the Sebasteum, or +Temple of Augustus, and one in connection with +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_32" title="32"> </a>the Museum. The latter, however, was a much +later foundation. The museum or university itself, +had been instituted by Ptolemy Soter, and though +it was quite distinct from the library which is associated +with his name, there was doubtless some +relationship between the two. Her museum and +libraries, and the encouragement she offered to +learning, combined to set Alexandria at the head +of the literary world, and to make her “the first +great seat of literary Hellenism” (Jebb). She +was also the centre of the book industry, that is, +of the reproduction of books, as distinguished +from their first production. This was owing in a +large measure to the number of professional +copyists attracted by the facilities afforded to +them, and to the fact that the papyrus trade had +its headquarters here.</p> + +<p>Another famous library of this period was that +of the Kings of Pergamus, founded by Attalus I., +who reigned from 241 to 197 <small>B.C.</small> Between Pergamus +and Alexandria there was vigorous competition. +In the end, however, Alexandria had +the satisfaction of seeing her rival completely +humbled, for Antony presented the books of +Pergamus, stated to have been about two hundred +thousand in number, to Cleopatra, who added +them to Alexandria's treasures. At least, so says +Plutarch, but Plutarch's authority for the statement +was Calvisius, whose veracity was not above +suspicion.</p> + +<p>How the enormous accumulation of manuscripts +gathered by Alexandria came to perish so +utterly is not clear. The Romans accidentally +fired the Bruchium when they reduced the city, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_33" title="33"> </a>but according to several accounts there were still +a goodly number of books remaining at the time +of the Saracen invasion in 638 <small>A.D.</small> The story +of the Caliph Omar's reply to a plea for the +preservation of the books is well known. “If they +contain anything contrary to the word of God,” +he is reported to have said, “they are evil; if not, +they are superfluous,” and forthwith he had them +distributed among the four thousand baths of +the city, which they provided with fuel for six +months. But several authorities doubt this story, +and assert that long before Omar's time the +Alexandrian libraries had ceased to exist.</p> + +<p>Though very far from being as full as could be +wished, the accounts of libraries in Rome are +more numerous than any relating to libraries in +other parts of the ancient world. Besides the +collections of books made by private persons, +which in one or two instances were generously +opened to the public by the owner, there were +the imperial libraries, and the more strictly public +libraries. Among the emperors whose names are +especially associated with the gathering and preservation +of books are Augustus, Tiberius and +Trajan. Julius Cæsar had formed a scheme for +the establishment of a public library, but it is +not clear whether it was ever carried out or no. +Domitian, to replace the library in the Capitol, +which had been destroyed, sent scholars abroad +to collect manuscripts and to copy some of those +at Alexandria. Under Constantine the Roman +public libraries numbered twenty-nine, and were +very frequently lodged in the temples.</p> + +<p>Last in point of date come the libraries of +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_34" title="34"> </a>Byzantium, the city which the Emperor Constantine +in 330 <small>A.D.</small> made the capital of the +eastern portion of the empire, and named after +himself. He at once began to gather books +there, and his successors followed his example. +Thus various libraries were established, and those +which survived the fires which occurred from +time to time in the city, existed until its capture +by the Turks in 1452. On this occasion, and +also after the assault by the Crusaders in 1203, +the libraries probably suffered. It is said, too, +by some that Leo III. wantonly destroyed a +large number of books, but the assertion cannot +be proved. Among the lost treasures of Constantinople +was “the only authentic copy” of the +proceedings of the Council of Nice, held in 325 +<small>A.D.</small> to deal with the Arian heresy.</p> + +<p>The ultimate fate of the imperial library at +Constantinople yet remains a problem. Some +are of opinion that it was destroyed by Amurath IV., +and that none but comparatively unimportant +Arabic and other Oriental manuscripts make up +the Sultan's library. Some believe that, in spite +of repeated assertions to the contrary on the part +of Turkish officials and others, there somewhere +lies a secret hoard, neglected and uncared for, +perhaps, but nevertheless existent, of ancient and +valuable Greek manuscripts. The Seraglio has +usually been considered to be the repository of +this hoard, and access to the Seraglio is very +difficult and almost impossible to obtain. In the +year 1800 Professor Carlyle, during his travels in +the East, took enormous pains and used every +means in his power to reach the bottom of the +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_35" title="35"> </a>mystery surrounding the Seraglio treasures. He +was assured by every Turkish officer whom he +consulted on the subject that no Greek manuscripts +existed there; and when by dint of influence +in high quarters and much patience and perseverance +he at length gained permission to examine +the Seraglio library, he found that it consisted +chiefly of Arabic manuscripts, and contained not +a single Greek, Latin, or Hebrew writing. The +library, or such part of it as the Professor was +shown, was approached through a mosque, and +consisted of a small cruciform chamber, measuring +only twelve yards at its greatest width. One +arm of the cross served as an ante-chamber, and +the other three contained the book-cases. The +books were laid on their sides, one on the other, +the ends outward. Their titles were written on +the edges of the leaves.</p> + +<p>The result of the <ins title="professor's">Professor's</ins> researches went +to confirm the belief held by so many that no +Greek manuscripts had survived. On the other +hand, the jealousy and suspicion of the Turks +would render it at least possible that despite +the apparent straightforwardness with which Mr +Carlyle was treated, there were stores of manuscripts +which were kept back from him.</p> + +<p>A final touch of mystery was given to this +fascinating subject by a tradition concerning a +certain building in Constantinople which had +been closed up ever since the time of the Turkish +conquest in the fifteenth century. Of the existence +of this building Professor Carlyle was certain. +The tradition asserted that it contained many of +the former possessions of the Greek emperors, and +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_36" title="36"> </a>among these possessions Professor Carlyle expected +that the remains of the imperial library +would be found, if such remains existed.</p> + +<p>Of other libraries of olden times, such as those +of Antioch and Ephesus, or those in private +possession in the country houses of Italy and +Gaul, and which perished at the hands of the +barbarians, it is not necessary to speak more +fully. It is sufficient to point out that they +existed, and that though we possess few details as +to their furniture or arrangement, we are justified +in concluding that the latter, at any rate, were +luxuriously appointed. It must not be inferred, +however, that all the books which disappeared +from these various centres were of necessity +destroyed. Many, and particularly some of the +Byzantine manuscripts, were dispersed over +Europe, and survive to enrich our libraries and +museums of to-day.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br/><br/> +<small>BOOKS IN MEDIÆVAL TIMES</small></a></h2> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="first-word">The</span> books of the Middle Ages are a special subject +in themselves, since they include all the +illuminated manuscripts of Ireland, England and +the Continent. We can therefore do little more +than indicate their historical place in the story +of books.</p> + +<p>We have only to look at a mediæval illuminated +manuscript to understand how books were regarded +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_37" title="37"> </a>in those days, and with what lavish expenditure +of time and skill the quaint characters were +traced and the ornaments designed and executed. +And having looked, we gather that books, being +rare, were appreciated; and being sacred, were +reverenced; and that it was deemed a worthy +thing to make a good book and to make +it beautiful. Sometimes the monkish artist's +handiwork had a result not foreseen by him, for +we read that when St Boniface, the Saxon +missionary who gave his life to the conversion of +Germany, wrote to ask the Abbess Eadburga for +a missal, he desired that the colours might be gay +and bright, “even as a glittering lamp and an +illumination for the hearts of the Gentiles.” It is +easy to imagine how the brilliant pages would +attract the colour-loving barbarians, and prepare +the way for friendly advances.</p> + +<p>It is probable that the custom of ornamenting +books with drawings was derived from the +Egyptians by the Greeks, and from the Greeks by +the Romans, among whom decorated books were +common, although they are known to us chiefly +by means of copies preserved in Byzantine and +Italian manuscripts of a more recent period. +These, and a few examples dating from the time +of Constantine, exhibit a style evidently derived +from classical models.</p> + +<p>A survey of mediæval books properly begins +with the early Irish manuscripts, which stand at +the head of a long and glorious line stretching, +chronologically, from the seventh century of our +era to the fifteenth. Although it is not known +where the art was born to which these wonderful +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_38" title="38"> </a>productions of Celtic pen-craft owe their origin, +it is Ireland, nevertheless, which has provided us +with the earliest and finest examples of this work, +the marvels of skill and beauty which, summed +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_39" title="39"> </a>up, as it were, in the Book of Kells, the Book of +Durrow, and others, set the Irish manuscripts +beyond imitation or rivalry.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 414px;"> +<a name="Page_from_Book_of_Kells"></a> +<img src="images/p0038-image.jpg" width="414" height="531" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>PAGE FROM THE BOOK OF KELLS</small> (<i>reduced.</i>)</div> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 423px;"> +<a name="Part_of_page_from_Book_of_Kells"></a> +<img src="images/p0039-image.jpg" width="423" height="195" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>PART OF PAGE FROM THE BOOK OF KELLS</small> (<i>exact size.</i>)</div> +</div> + +<p>Most of these books are Psalters, or Gospels, +in Latin, while the remainder consist of missals and +other religious compilations, and of them all the +Book of Kells is the most famous. It was written +in the seventh century, and probably indicates +the highest point of skill reached by the Irish +artist-scribes, or as regards its own particular style +of ornamentation, by any artist-scribes whatever. +It is a book of the Gospels written (in Latin) on +vellum, and the size of the volume, of the writing, +and of the initial letters is unusually large. The +leaves measure 13½ x 9½ inches. The illustrations +represent various incidents in the life of Christ, +and portraits of the Evangelists, accompanied by +formal designs. Ornamentation is largely introduced +into the text, and the first few words of each +Gospel are so lavishly decorated and have initial +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_40" title="40"> </a>letters of such size that in each case they occupy +the whole of a page.</p> + +<p>The book just described was preserved at +Kells until the early part of the seventeenth +century. It then passed into Archbishop Ussher's +possession, and finally into the library of Trinity +College, Dublin, where it is now treasured.</p> + +<p>Of course it is impossible to give here a reproduction +of a page of this marvellous book in its +proper size and colours. Our illustrations, however, +may convey a little idea of the accuracy and +minuteness of the work, which, it is hardly +necessary to say, was done entirely by hand, and +will serve as a text for a brief summary of the chief +features of Irish book art. The design here shown +is composed of a diagonal cross set in a rectangular +frame, having in each angle a symbol of one of +the four Evangelists. The colours in this design, +as reproduced by Professor Westwood in his +<cite>Miniatures and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and +Irish Manuscripts</cite>, principally consist of red, dark +and light mauve, green, yellow, and blue-grey. +The animals depicted are quaint, but not ridiculous, +and the figure of St Matthew, in the upper +angle of the cross, though stiff and ungraceful, is +less peculiar than other figures in the book. The +Irish artist was always more successful in designing +and executing geometrical systems of ornamentation +than in representing living figures.</p> + +<p>The interlacing, which forms a large part of +the design under consideration, is a characteristic +of Celtic work. The regularity with which the +bands pass under and over, even in the most +complicated patterns, is very remarkable, and +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_41" title="41"> </a>errors are rarely to be detected. The spirals +which occupy the four panels at the ends and +sides of the frame are also typical of this school +of art. The firmness and accuracy of their drawing +testify to the excellent eyesight as well as +to the steady hand and technical skill of the +artist.</p> + +<p>The prevailing feature of Celtic ornament as +shown in illuminated manuscripts is the geometrical +nature of the designs. The human figure +when introduced into the native Irish books is +absurdly grotesque, for its delineation seems to +have been beyond the artist's skill, or, more +correctly, to have lain in another category, and +to have belonged to a style distinct from that in +which he excelled. At a later period, figure drawing +became a marked characteristic of English +decorated manuscripts, and English artists +attained to a high degree of skill in this branch +of their art.</p> + +<p>Bright colours were employed in the Irish +manuscripts, but gold and silver are conspicuous +by their absence, and did not appear in the manuscripts +of these islands until Celtic art had been +touched by continental influence.</p> + +<p>The tradition that the Book of Kells was +written by the great St Columba himself, reminds +us that at this period nearly all books were the +handiwork of monks and ecclesiastics, and in all +monasteries the transcribing of the Scriptures and +devotional works was part of the established order +of things. Columba, we know, was a famous +scribe, and took great pleasure in copying +books. He is said to have transcribed no less +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_42" title="42"> </a>than three hundred volumes, and all books written +by him were believed to be miraculously preserved +from danger by water. As an instance of +this, Adamnan relates the following story:—</p> + +<p>“A book of hymns for the office of every day +in the week, and in the handwriting of St +Columba, having slipt, with the leathern satchel +which contained it, from the shoulder of a boy +who fell from a bridge, was immersed in a certain +river in the province of the Lagenians (Leinster). +This very book lay in the water from the Feast of +the Nativity of our Lord till the end of the +Paschal season, and was afterwards found on the +bank of the river” uninjured, and as clean and +dry as if it had never been in the water at all. +“And we have ascertained as undoubted truth,” +continues Adamnan, “from those who were well +informed in the matter, that the like things +happened in several places with regard to books +written by the hand of St Columba;” and he adds +that the account just given he received from +“certain truthful, excellent, and honourable men +who saw the book itself, perfectly white and +beautiful, after a submersion of so many days, as +we have stated.”</p> + +<p>By Irish missionaries the art of book writing +was taught to Britain, chiefly through the school +of Lindisfarne, where was produced the famous +Lindisfarne Gospels, or Book of St Cuthbert. +This magnificent work, which is one of the +choicest treasures of the British Museum, was +as highly esteemed by its contemporaries as by +ourselves, though perhaps not for quite the same +reasons. Tradition has it that when Lindisfarne +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_43" title="43"> </a>was threatened by the Northmen and the monks +had to fly, they took with them the body of St +Cuthbert, in obedience to his dying behest, and +this book. They attempted to seek refuge in +Ireland, but their boat had scarcely reached the +open sea when it met a storm so violent that +through the pitching of the little vessel the book +fell overboard. Sorrowfully they put back, but +during the night St Cuthbert appeared to one of +the monks and ordered him to seek for the book +in the sea. On beginning their search, they +found that the tide had ebbed much further than +it was wont to do, and going out about three +miles they came upon the holy book, not a whit +the worse for its misadventure. “By this,” says +the old historian, “were their hearts refreshed +with much joy.” And the book was afterwards +named in the priory rolls as “the Book of St +Cuthbert, which fell into the sea.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 416px;"> +<a name="Page_from_Lindisfarne_Gospels"></a> +<img src="images/p0044-image.jpg" width="416" height="514" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>PAGE FROM THE LINDISFARNE GOSPELS</small> (<i>reduced.</i>)</div> +</div> + +<p>This notable volume is an excellent example of +Celtic book art in the beginning of its transition +stage, a stage which marks the approach to the +two schools which were the result of the +combination of Celtic and continental influences +in the hands of intelligent and skilful Anglo-Saxon +scribes—the Hiberno-Saxon and the +English schools. It contains the four Gospels +written in Latin, and arranged in double columns, +each Gospel being preceded by a full-page formal +design of Celtic work and a full-page portrait of +the Evangelist. The conjunction of these two +distinct styles of ornament forms one of the chief +points of interest in the book. The formal +designs of interlaced, spiral, and key patterns, so +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_44" title="44"> </a>characteristic of Celtic work, show its near kinship +to the Irish books, while the portraits prove an +almost equally close connection with Roman and +Byzantine models. There is reason to believe +that the classical element is due to the influence +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_45" title="45"> </a>of an Italian or Byzantine book or books brought +to Lindisfarne by Theodore, Archbishop of +Canterbury, and his friend Adrian, an Italian +abbot, when the archbishop visited the island for +the purpose of consecrating Aidan's church.</p> + +<p>The Lindisfarne Gospels accompanied St +Cuthbert's body to Durham in 995, but rather +more than a century later was restored to Lindisfarne, +and remained there until the monastery +which had replaced St Aidan's foundation was +dissolved at the Reformation. It is then lost +sight of until it reappears in the famous Cotton +Library, with which it is now possessed by the +nation.</p> + +<p>The English school of illumination had its +chief seat at Winchester. Its work is characterised +by its figure drawing, and while the foliage ornament +introduced, together with the gold which +was largely used in the Winchester manuscripts, +indicate continental influence, the interlaced and +other patterns are derived from the Irish school. +Of this class of manuscript the Benedictional of +Æthelwold, in the Duke of Devonshire's library, +may serve as a typical example. It was written +for Æthelwold, Bishop of Winchester, by his +chaplain Godemann, towards the end of the tenth +century. Were it practicable to offer the reader +a reproduction of one of its pages, it would be +seen that it exactly illustrates what has just +been said. Its figure drawing and foliated +ornamentation are among its most striking +features.</p> + +<p>The Norman Conquest opened up the English +school of art more widely to continental influence, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_46" title="46"> </a>with the result that towards the end of the +thirteenth and beginning of the fourteenth +centuries the English manuscripts were unsurpassed +by any in Europe. As a typical specimen +of the illuminations of this period, we may with +propriety select one which has been described by +Sir Edward Maunde Thompson as “the very +finest of its kind,” and “probably unique in its +combination of excellence of drawing, brilliance of +illumination, and variety and extent of subjects.” +It is a Psalter dating from the fourteenth century, +and known as Queen Mary's Psalter, because a +customs officer of the port of London, who intercepted +it as it was about to be taken out of the +country, presented it to the Queen in 1553. +This magnificent book is now in the British +Museum.</p> + +<p>During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries a +large number of Bibles and Psalters were written, +and made up the greater part of the book-output +of the larger monasteries, to which we are indebted +for all our fine pieces of manuscript +work. Indeed, most of the decorated manuscripts +of this period are occupied with the +Scriptures, services, liturgies, and other matters +of the kind, and on such the best work was +lavished. Later, however, the growing taste for +romances and stories induced a corresponding +tendency to decorate these secular manuscripts +too, and some very fine work of this class was +produced, especially in France. The books of +the chronicles of England and of France, written in +the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, were also +largely adorned with painted miniatures.</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_47" title="47"> </a> +Nearly all the writing of Europe was done in +the religious houses. In most of the larger +monasteries there was a scriptorium, or writing-room, +where Bibles, Psalters, and service books, +and patristic and classical writings were <ins title="transscribed">transcribed</ins>, +chronicles and histories compiled, and +beautiful specimens of the illuminator's art carefully, +skilfully, and lovingly executed.</p> + +<p>Books, however, were not only written in the +monasteries, but read as well. The rule of St +Benedict insisted that the steady reading of books +by the brethren should form part of the daily +round. Archbishop Lanfranc, also, in his orders +for the English Benedictines, directed that once +a year books were to be distributed and borrowed +volumes to be restored. For this purpose, the +librarian was to have a carpet laid down in the +Chapter House, the monks were to assemble, +and the names of those to whom books had been +lent were to be read out. Each in turn had to +answer to his name, and restore his book, and he +who had neglected to avail himself of his privilege, +and had left his book unread, was to fall +on his face and implore forgiveness. Then the +books were re-distributed for study during the +ensuing year. This custom was generally followed +by all the monasteries of Lanfranc's time.</p> + +<p>Richard Aungervyle, Bishop of Durham, born +in 1281 at Bury St Edmund's, and therefore +usually known as Richard de Bury, gives a +vivacious picture of the attitude of a book-lover +of the Middle Ages in his <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Philobiblon</cite>, or <cite>Lover of +Books</cite>. He there sings the praises of books, and +voices their lament over their ill-treatment by +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_48" title="48"> </a>degenerate clerks and by the unlearned. He +also tells how he gathered his library, which was +then the largest and best in England. <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Philobiblon</cite> +is written in vigorous and even violent language, +and is worth quoting.</p> + +<p>Books, according to this extravagant eulogy, +are “wells of living water,” “golden urns in which +manna is laid up, or rather, indeed, honeycombs,” +“the four-streamed river of Paradise, where the +human mind is fed, and the arid intellect moistened +and watered.” “You, O Books, are the golden +vessels of the temple, the arms of the clerical +militia, with which the missiles of the most wicked +are destroyed, fruitful olives, vines of Engedi, fig-trees +knowing no sterility, burning lamps to be +ever held in the hand.”</p> + +<p>Then the books are made to utter their plaint +because of the indignity to which they are subjected +by the degenerate clergy. “We are expelled +from the domiciles of the clergy, apportioned +to us by hereditary right, in some interior +chamber of which we had our peaceful cells; +but, to their shame, in these nefarious times we +are altogether banished to suffer opprobrium out +of doors; our places, moreover, are occupied by +hounds and hawks, and sometimes by a biped +beast: woman, to wit …; wherefore this beast, +ever jealous of our studies, and at all times implacable, +spying us at last in a corner, protected +only by the web of some long-deceased spider, +drawing her forehead into wrinkles, laughs us to +scorn, abuses us in virulent speeches, points us +out as the only superfluous furniture in the house, +complains that we are useless for any purpose +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_49" title="49"> </a>of domestic economy whatever, and recommends +our being bartered away forthwith for costly +head dresses, cambric, silk, twice-dipped purple +garments, woollen, linen, and furs.”</p> + +<p>After this terrible picture of feminine ignorance +and malevolence, it is refreshing to turn to the +achievements of the pious Diemudis, by way of +contrast. Diemudis was a nun of Wessobrunn +in Bavaria, who lived in the eleventh century. +Nuns are not often referred to as writers, but of +this lady it is recorded that she wrote “in a +most beautiful and legible character” no less than +thirty-one books, some of which were in two, +three, and even six volumes. These she transcribed +“to the praise of God, and of the holy +apostles Peter and Paul, the patrons of this +monastery.”</p> + +<p>Although the greater part of the book-writing +of this time was done in the monasteries and by +monks and ecclesiastics, there were also secular +professional writers, a class who had followed +this occupation from very early days. They +consisted of antiquarii, librarii, and illuminators, +though sometimes the functions of all three were +performed by one person. They were employed +chiefly by the religious houses, to assist in the +transcription and restoration of their books, and +by the lawyers, for whom they transcribed legal +documents. The antiquarii were the highest in +rank, for their work did not consist merely of +writing or copying, but included the restoration +of faulty pages, the revision of texts, the repair +of bindings, and other delicate tasks connected +with the older and more valuable books which +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_50" title="50"> </a>could not be entrusted to the librarii or common +scribes. On the whole, the production of books +was more of an industry in those days than we +should believe possible, unless we admit that the +Dark Ages were not quite as dark as they have +been painted. “There was always about us in +our halls,” says Richard de Bury, who no doubt +was a munificent patron of all scribes and book-workers, +“no small assemblage of antiquaries, +scribes, bookbinders, correctors, illuminators, and +generally of all such persons as were qualified to +labour in the service of books.”</p> + +<p>Books of a great size were frequently monuments +of patience and industry, and sometimes +half a lifetime was devoted to a single volume. +Books therefore fetched high prices, though they +were not always paid for in money. In 1174 +the Prior of St Swithun's, Winchester, gave the +Canons of Dorchester in Oxfordshire, for Bede's +Homilies and St Augustine's Psalter, twelve +measures of barley, and a pall on which was +embroidered in silver the history of St Birinus' +conversion of the Saxon King Cynegils. A +hundred years later a Bible “fairly written,” that +is, finely written, was sold in this country for fifty +marks, or about £33. At this period a sheep +cost one shilling. In the time of Richard de +Bury a common scribe earned a halfpenny a day. +About 1380 some of the expenses attending the +production of an <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Evangeliarium</cite>, or book of the +liturgical Gospels, included thirteen and fourpence +for the writing, four and threepence for +the illuminating, three and fourpence for the +binding, and tenpence a day for eighteen weeks, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_51" title="51"> </a>in all fifteen shillings, for the writer's “commons,” +or food.</p> + +<p>The book-writers or copyists became, later, the +booksellers, very much as they did in old Rome. +Sometimes they both wrote and sold the books, +and sometimes the sellers employed the writers to +write for them, or the writers employed the sellers +to sell for them. Publishers as yet did not exist. +Practically the only method of publication known +consisted of the reading of a work on three days +in succession before the heads of the University, +or other public judges, and the sanctioning of its +transcription and reproduction. The booksellers +were called “stationers,” either because they +transacted their business at open stalls or stations, +or perhaps from the fact that <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">statio</i> is low Latin +for <em>shop</em>; and since they were also the vendors +of parchment and other writing-materials, the +word “stationer” is still used to designate those +who carry on a similar trade to-day. As early +as 1403 there was already formed in London a +society or brotherhood “of the Craft of Writers +of Text-letter,” and “those commonly called +‘Limners,’” or Illuminators, for in that year they +petitioned the Lord Mayor for permission to elect +Wardens empowered to see that the trades were +honourably pursued and to punish those of the +craft who dealt disloyally or who rebelled against +the Wardens' authority. This petition was granted. +By 1501 the Company of Stationers was established, +and it is highly probable that this was +only the Brotherhood of Text-writers and Limners +under the more general designation.</p> + +<p>The well-known names of Paternoster Row, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_52" title="52"> </a>Amen Corner, Ave Maria Lane, and Creed +Lane still remain to show us where the London +stationers who sold the common religious leaflets +and devotional books of the day had their stalls, +close to St Paul's Cathedral, and in some cases +even against the walls of the Cathedral itself, and +where, too, the makers of beads and paternosters +plied their trade. And Londoners at least will +not need to be reminded that at this very moment +Paternoster Row is almost entirely inhabited by +sellers of books, religious and otherwise. There +is also a queer open-air stall on the south side +which serves to carry on the ancient tradition of +the place.</p> + +<p>Societies similar to that of the Text-Writers +and Limners of London also existed on the +Continent, and especially at Bruges, in which +city literature and book-production flourished +under the patronage of Philippe le Bon, Duke of +Burgundy, who himself gave constant employment +to numerous writers, copyists, translators, +and illuminators in the work of building up +his famous library. The members of the +Guild of St John the Evangelist in Bruges +represented no less than fifteen different trades +or professions connected with books and writing. +They included:</p> + +<ul style="list-style-type: none; padding: 0; width: 18em; max-width: 90%; margin: auto;"> +<li>Booksellers,</li> +<li>Printsellers,</li> +<li>Painters of vignettes,</li> +<li>Painters,</li> +<li>Scriveners and copiers of books,</li> +<li>Schoolmasters and schoolmistresses,</li> +<li>Illuminators,</li> +<li><a class="pagenum" name="Page_53" title="53"> </a>Printers,</li> +<li>Bookbinders,</li> +<li>Curriers,</li> +<li>Cloth shearers,</li> +<li>Parchment and vellum makers,</li> +<li>Boss carvers,</li> +<li>Letter engravers,</li> +<li>Figure engravers.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Of course, the printers here mentioned would +at first be block-printers only, as will be shown +presently. And it is worth noticing that in all +this long list, which cannot be called at all +exclusive, there is no mention of authors.</p> + +<p>The mediæval booksellers were not all +permitted to ply their trade in their own way. +Since the supply of books for the students +depended on them, the Universities of Paris, +Oxford, and elsewhere deemed it their duty to +keep them under control, having in view the +maintenance of pure texts and the interests of +the students, at whose expense the booksellers +were not to be permitted to fatten. By the rules +of the University of Paris the bookseller was +required to be a man of wide learning and high +character, and to bind himself to observe the laws +regarding books laid down by the University. +He was forbidden to offer any transcript for sale +until it had been examined and found correct; +and were any inaccuracy detected in it by the +examiner, he was liable to a fine or the burning +of the book, according to the magnitude of his +error. The price of books was also fixed by the +University, and the vendor forbidden to make +more than a certain rate of profit on each volume. +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_54" title="54"> </a>Again, the bookseller could not purchase any +books without the sanction of the University, for +fear that he might be the means of disseminating +heretical or immoral literature. Later, it was +made obligatory on him to lend out books on +hire to those who could not afford to buy them, +and to expose in his shop a list of these books +and the charges at which they were to be had. +The poor booksellers, thus hedged about with +restrictions, often joined some other occupation +to that of selling manuscripts in order to make +both ends meet, but when this practice came to +the notice of the University they were censured +for degrading their noble profession by mixing +with it “vile trades.” But presumably no such +rules as the above hampered the booksellers of +non-university towns, such as London.</p> + +<p>The control assumed by the Universities over +the book trade presently extended to interference +with original writings and a censorship +of literature. With the introduction of printing +and the consequent increase of books and of the +facilities for reproducing them this censorship was +taken up by the Church.</p> + +<p>Ecclesiastical censorship, however, was not +the outcome of the Universities' assumption of +control over the book trade. It sprang from the +jealousy of the clergy, who opposed the spread of +knowledge among the people—some, perhaps, +because they knew that knowledge in ignorant +hands is dangerous, and others because they +feared their own prestige might suffer. This +feeling existed before printing, though printing +brought it to a head. For instance, in 1415 the +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_55" title="55"> </a>penalty in this country for reading the Scriptures +in the vernacular was forfeiture of land, cattle, +body, life, and goods by the offenders and their +heirs for ever, and that they should be condemned +for heretics to God, enemies to the Crown, and +most errant traitors to the land. They were +refused right of sanctuary, and if they persisted +in the offence or relapsed after a pardon were +first to be hanged for treason against the King +and then burned for heresy against God. Thus +the clergy upheld and encouraged a censorship +of the press. As early as 1479 Conrad de +Homborch, a Cologne printer, had issued a +Bible accompanied by canons, etc., which was +“allowed and approved by the University of +Cologne,” and in 1486 the Archbishop of Mentz +issued a mandate forbidding the translation into +the vulgar tongue of Greek, Latin, and other +books, without the previous approbation of the +University. Finally, in 1515, a bull of Leo X. +required Bishops and Inquisitors to examine all +books before they came to be printed, and to +suppress any heretical matter.</p> + +<p>The Vicar of Croydon, preaching at St Paul's +Cross about the time of the spread of the art of +printing, is said to have declared that “we must +root out printing or printing will root out us.” +But an ecclesiastical censorship over the English +press was not established until 1559, when an +Injunction issued by Queen Elizabeth provides +that, because of the publication of unfruitful, +vain, and infamous books and papers, “no +manner of person shall print any manner of +boke or paper <ins title="..">…</ins> except the same be first +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_56" title="56"> </a>licenced by her maiestie … or by .vi. of her +privy counsel, or be perused and licensed by the +archbysshops of Cantorbury and Yorke, the +bishop of London,” etc. The Injunction extended +also to “pampheletes, playes, and +balletes,” so that “nothinge therein should be +either heretical, sedicious, or vnsemely for +Christian eares.” Classical authors, however, and +works hitherto commonly received in universities +and schools were not touched by the Injunction.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br/><br/> +<small>LIBRARIES IN MEDIÆVAL TIMES</small></a></h2> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="first-word">During</span> the rule of the Arabs in Northern Africa +and in Spain, thousands of manuscripts were +gathered together in their chief cities, such as +Cairo and Cordova, and many Arabic-Spanish +and Moorish writings have been preserved in the +Escurial Library, though a large part of this +library was burnt in 1671. With these exceptions, +the collections of books belonging to the +various religious houses were practically the only +libraries of early mediæval times. These collections, +to begin with, were very small; so small, +indeed, that there was no need to set apart a +special room for them. Library buildings were +not erected till the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries, +when the accumulation of books rendered +them necessary, and those which are found in +connection with old foundations will always prove +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_57" title="57"> </a>to have been added later. It is said, however, +that Gozbert, abbot of St Gall in the ninth +century, who founded the library there by collecting +what was then the large number of four +hundred books, allotted them a special room +over the scriptorium. But as a rule the books +were kept in the church, and then, as the number +increased, in the cloisters. The cloister was the +common living-room of the monks, where they +read and studied, and carried out most of their +daily duties. The books were either stored in +presses, though no such press remains to show +us upon what pattern they were built, or in recesses +in the wall, probably closed by doors. +Two of these recesses may be seen in the +cloisters at Worcester. In Cistercian houses, +says Mr J. W. Clark, to whose Rede Lecture +(1894) I am indebted for these details, this +recess developed “into a small square room without +a window, and but little larger than an ordinary +cupboard. In the plans of Clairvaux and +Kirkstall this room is placed between the chapter-house +and the transept of the church; and similar +rooms, in similar situations, have been found at +Fountains, Beaulieu, Tintern, Netley, etc.” The +books were placed on shelves round the walls. +When the cloister windows came to be glazed, so +as to afford better protection from the weather +for the persons and things within the cloister, +they were occasionally decorated with allusions +to the authors of the books in the adjacent +presses.</p> + +<p>Sometimes <em>carrells</em> were set up in the cloister, +a carrell being a sort of pew, in which study +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_58" title="58"> </a>could be conducted with more privacy than in +the open cloister. The carrell was placed so that +it was closed at one end by one of the cloister +windows and remained open at the other. +Examples still survive at Gloucester.</p> + +<p>The arrangement of the libraries which were +subsequently added to most of the larger monasteries +in the fifteenth century is unknown, as +none of the furniture or fittings seem to have +come down to the present day either in this +country or in France or Italy. But Mr Clark +thinks that the collegiate libraries will give us +the key to the plan of the monastic libraries, +since the rules relating to the libraries of Oxford +and Cambridge were framed on those which +obtained in the “book-houses” of the religious +foundations. From these collegiate libraries we +gather that it was customary to chain the books, +so that they might be accessible to all and yet +secure from those who might wish to appropriate +them temporarily or otherwise. The shelf to +which the volumes were fastened took the form +or an “elongated lectern or desk,” at which the +reader might sit. Pembroke College and <ins title="Queen's">Queens'</ins> +College, Cambridge, had desks of this type, which +was also in use on the Continent. In some +places the desks were modified by the addition of +shelves above or below.</p> + +<p>Mr Falconer Madan, in his <cite>Books in Manuscript</cite>, +quotes the following account, which he +translates from the Latin register of Titchfield +Abbey, written at the end of the fourteenth century, +and which shows the care and method with +which the books were kept: “The arrangement +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_59" title="59"> </a>of the library of the monastery of Tychefeld is +this:—There are in the library of <ins title="Tychefield">Tychefeld</ins> four +cases (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">columnæ</i>) in which to place books, of +which two, the first and second, are in the eastern +face; on the southern face is the third, and on +the northern face the fourth. And each of them +has eight shelves (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">gradus</i>), marked with a letter +and number affixed on the front of each shelf.… +So all and singular the volumes of the said +library are fully marked on the first leaf and elsewhere +on the shelf belonging to the book, with +certain numbered letters. And in order that +what is in the library may be more quickly found, +the marking of the shelves of the said library, the +inscriptions in the books, and the reference in +the register, in all points agree with each other. +Anno domini, MCCCC.” Then is shown the order +in which the books lie on the shelves. Briefly, +the sequence of subjects and books is as follows:—Bibles, +Bibles with commentary, theology, lives +of saints, sermons, canon law, commentaries on +canon law, civil law, medicine, arts, grammar, +miscellaneous volumes, logic and philosophy, +English law, eighteen French volumes, and a +hundred and two liturgical volumes. Titchfield +Abbey owned altogether over a thousand +volumes.</p> + +<p>The monastic librarian, as we should call him, +was known as the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">armarius</i>, since he had charge +of the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">armaria</i> or book-presses. He frequently +united this office to that of precentor or leader of +the choir, for at first the service-books were his chief +care. It was his business to make the catalogue, +to examine the volumes from time to time to see +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_60" title="60"> </a>that mould or book-worms or other dangers were +not threatening them, to give out books for transcription, +and to distribute the various writing-materials +used in the scriptorium or writing-room. +He had also to collate such works as were bound +to follow one text, such as Bibles, missals, monastic +rules, etc. To these duties he often added +that of secretary to the abbot and to the monastery +generally.</p> + +<p>Many catalogues of monastic libraries are +extant, and several belonging to continental +foundations were compiled at a very early +period. Of the library of St Gall, founded by +the Abbé Gozbert in 816, a contemporary catalogue +still exists. The St Gall library contained +four hundred volumes, a large number for those +days, and, moreover, was provided with a special +room, a chamber over the scriptorium. It is not +easy to see why in this and other cases of the co-existence +of a library and a scriptorium one +room was not made to do duty for both. But +to return to the catalogues. Another early +example is that of the Abbey of Clugni, in +France, made in 831, and forming part of an +inventory of the Abbey property. The Benedictine +Abbey of Reichenau, on the Rhine, had +four catalogues compiled in the ninth century—two +of the books in the library, one of certain +transcriptions made and added thereto, and one +of additions to the library from other sources. +Among English monastic book-lists, there is one +of Whitby Abbey, which appears to have been +made in 1180, and the library of Glastonbury +Abbey, which excited the wonder and admiration +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_61" title="61"> </a>of Leland, and which was started by St +Dunstan round a nucleus of a few books formerly +brought to the Abbey by Irish missionaries, was +catalogued in 1247 or 1248. Catalogues of the +books at Canterbury (Christ Church and St +Augustine's monastery), Peterborough, Durham, +Leicester, Ramsey, and other foundations are +also known, and these, with the notices of +Leland, form our only sources of information as +to these various literary storehouses.</p> + +<p>As regards their contents, the Scriptures, +missals, service-books, and similar manuscripts +formed the larger part of the monastic libraries, +but besides these they included copies of patristic +and classical works, devotional and moral writings, +lives of saints, chronicles, books on medicine, +grammar, philosophy, logic, and, later, romances +and fiction were admitted into this somewhat +austere company. The catalogue of the “boc-house” +of the monastery of St Augustine at +Canterbury, written towards the close of the +fifteenth century, names many romantic works, +including the <cite>Four Sons of Aymon</cite>, <cite>Guy of +Warwick</cite>, <cite>The Book of Lancelot</cite>, <cite>The Story +of the Graal</cite>, <cite>Sir Perceval de Galois</cite>, <cite>The +Seven Sages</cite>, and others, and of some of these +there is more than one copy.</p> + +<p>Books were frequently lent to other monasteries, +or to poor clerks and students. It was +considered a sacred duty thus to share the +benefits of the books with others; but sometimes +the custodians of the precious volumes, aware of +the failures of memory to which book-borrowers +have ever been peculiarly liable, were so averse +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_62" title="62"> </a>from running the risk of lending that the libraries +were placed under anathema, and could not be +lent under pain of excommunication. But the +selfishness and injustice of such a practice being +recognised, it was formally condemned by the +Council of Paris in 1212, and the anathemas +annulled. Anathemas were also pronounced +against any who should steal or otherwise alienate +a book from its lawful owners.</p> + +<p>But as even in mediæval days there were +those who loved books better than honesty, the +loan of a volume was accompanied by legal +forms and ceremonies, and the borrower, whatever +his station or character, had to sign a bond +for the due return of the work, and often to +deposit security as well. Thus, when about +1225 the Dean of York presented several Bibles +for the use of the students of Oxford, he did so +on condition that those who used them should +deposit a cautionary pledge. Again, in 1299, +John de Pontissara, Bishop of Winchester, borrowed +from the convent of St Swithun the +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Bibliam bene glossatum</cite>, i.e. the Bible with annotations, +and gave a bond for its return. And in +1471, when books had become much more +common, no less a person than the King of +France, desiring to borrow some Arabian medical +works from the Faculty of Medicine at Paris, +had not only to deposit some costly plate as +security, but to find a nobleman to act as surety +with him for the return of the books, under pain +of a heavy forfeit.</p> + +<p>Many of the great monastic libraries owed +their origin to the liberality of one donor, usually +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_63" title="63"> </a>an ecclesiastic. Among other libraries destroyed +by the Danes was the fine collection of books at +Wearmouth monastery, made by Benedict Biscop, +the first English book collector, who was so +eager in the cause of books that he is said to +have made no less than five journeys to Rome in +order to search for them. Part of his library +was given to the Abbey at Jarrow, and shared +the same fate as the books at Wearmouth.</p> + +<p>One of the earliest English libraries was that of +Christ Church, <i>i.e.</i> the Cathedral, at Canterbury. +On the authority of the Canterbury Book, a +fifteenth century manuscript preserved at Cambridge, +this library began with the nine books +said to have been brought from Rome by St +Augustine. These nine books were a Bible in +two volumes, a Psalter, a Book of Gospels, the +Lives of the Apostles, the Lives of the Martyrs, +and an Exposition of the Gospels and Epistles. +This collection was enriched by the magnificent +scriptural and classical volumes brought from +the continent by Archbishop Theodore in the +seventh century. Under Archbishop Chicheley, +in the fifteenth century, this library was provided +with a dwelling of its own, built over the Prior's +Chapel, and containing sixteen bookcases of +four shelves each. At this time a catalogue was +already in existence, made by Prior Eastry at the +end of the thirteenth or beginning of the fourteenth +century, and records about three thousand +volumes.</p> + +<p>The monastery of St Mary's at York owned +a library which was founded by Archbishop +Egbert. Egbert's pupil Alcuin, whom Charlemagne +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_64" title="64"> </a>charged with the care of the educational +interests of his empire, soon after taking up +his residence at St Martin's at Tours, desired +the emperor to send to Britain for “those books +which we so much need; thus transplanting into +France the flowers of Britain, that the garden of +Paradise may not be confined to York, but may +send some of its scions to Tours.”</p> + +<p>Richard de Bury, the famous old book collector +or bibliomaniac to whom reference has already +been made, bequeathed his books, which outnumbered +all other collections in this country, +to the University of Oxford, where they were +housed in Durham College, which he had endowed. +He has left an interesting account of +how he gathered his treasures, which may fitly be +quoted here. Aided by royal favour, he tells us, +“we acquired a most ample facility of visiting at +pleasure and of hunting as it were some of the +most delightful coverts, the public and private +libraries both of the regulars and the seculars.… +Then the cabinets of the most notable +monasteries were opened, cases were unlocked, +caskets were unclasped, and astonished volumes +which had slumbered for long ages in their +sepulchres were roused up, and those that lay +hid in dark places were overwhelmed with a new +light.… Thus the sacred vessels of science +came into the power of our disposal, some being +given, some sold, and not a few lent for a time.” +The embassies with which he was charged by +Edward III. gave him opportunity for hunting +continental coverts also. “What a rush of the +flood of pleasure rejoiced our hearts as often as +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_65" title="65"> </a>we visited Paris, the paradise of the world!… +There, in very deed, with an open treasury and +untied purse-strings, we scattered money with a +light heart, and redeemed inestimable books with +dirt and dust.” Richard de Bury also furthered +his collection by making friends of the mendicant +friars, and “allured them with the most familiar +affability into a devotion to his person, and having +allured, cherished them for the love of God +with munificent liberality.” The affability and +liberality of the good bishop attained their object, +and the devoted friars went about everywhere, +searching and finding, and whenever he visited +them, placed the treasures of their houses at his +disposal. Although the mendicant orders were +originally forbidden property of any kind, this +rule was afterwards greatly relaxed, especially as +regards books, and in Richard de Bury's time the +friars had amassed large libraries and were well-known +as keen collectors.</p> + +<p>In France it was not an uncommon practice +for a monastery to levy a tax on its members +or its dependent houses for the increase of its +library, and in several houses it was customary +for a novice to present writing materials at his +entry and a book at the conclusion of his novitiate. +As early as the close of the eleventh century +Marchwart, Abbot of Corvey in North Germany, +made it a rule that every novice on making his +profession should add a book to the library.</p> + +<p>The monastic libraries met their doom at the +time of the Reformation and of the suppression +of the religious houses. Nearly all the books at +Oxford, including the gifts of Richard de Bury, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_66" title="66"> </a>were burnt by the mob, and under Elizabeth the +royal commissioners ordered the destruction of all +“capes, vestments, albes, missals, books, crosses, +and such other idolatrous and superstitious monuments +whatsoever.” Since those who ought to +have been more enlightened classed missals and +books among idolatrous and superstitious monuments, +it is not to be wondered at that the +ignorant and undiscriminating mob should glory +in their wanton destruction. Books that escaped +the fire or the fury of the mob were put to various +uses as waste paper. They were employed for +“scouring candlesticks and cleaning boots,” for +the wrapping up of the wares of “grocers and +soap-sellers,” and were exported by shiploads for +the use of continental bookbinders. On the +continent, too, fire, wars, plunder, and suppression +dispersed or destroyed many of the monastic +collections.</p> + +<p>A comparatively recent instance of book destruction +caused by the fury of the rabble is +afforded by the great losses undergone by Bristol +Cathedral library in the riots which took place +in connection with the passing of the Reform +Bill. The palace was set on fire, and the library, +which was lodged in the Chapter-house, was +brought out and most of the volumes hurled into +the flames. Others were thrown into the river, +into ditches, and about the streets, and although +about eleven hundred were subsequently recovered +from second-hand clothes dealers and +marine stores, only two copies and one set remained +intact.</p> + +<p>As a natural consequence of the revival of +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_67" title="67"> </a>learning in the fourteenth century, private libraries +began to increase in size and in number, and the +collection of books was no longer left to monks +and priests. King John of France gathered a +little library, some say of only twenty volumes, +which laid the foundation of the great Royal +Library, now the Bibliothèque Nationale. These +he bequeathed to his son, Charles V., who increased +the number to nine hundred, for his +known fondness for books and reading obtained +for him presentation volumes from many of his +subjects. His books included works of devotion, +astrology, medicine, law, history, and romance, +with a few classical authors. Most of them were +finely written on vellum, and sumptuously bound +in jewelled and gold-bedecked covers. They +were lodged in three rooms in the Louvre, in a +tower called “La Tour de la libraire.” These +rooms had wainscots of Irish [bog?] oak, and +ceilings of cypress “curiously carved.” According +to Henault, the library of the Louvre was +sent to England by the Duke of Bedford while +Regent of France, and only a few volumes afterwards +found their way back to Paris.</p> + +<p>One of the finest libraries of this period was +possessed by Philippe le Bon, Duke of Burgundy. +It contained nearly two thousand volumes, mostly +magnificent folios clothed in silk and satin, and +ornamented with gold and precious stones. +Books were now the fashion, the fashionable +possessions, the fashionable gifts, among those +who were wealthy enough to afford them. Louis +de Bruges, Seigneur de la Gruthyse, was another +famous collector, whose books were no less +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_68" title="68"> </a>splendid in their size, beauty and costliness, +than those of the Duke of Burgundy. His collection +was afterwards added to the Royal +Library, and some of its treasures still exist in +the Bibliothèque Nationale.</p> + +<p>The rich and cultured of Italy were also busily +collecting books and forming libraries. A library +was made by Cardinal Bessarion at a cost of +thirty thousand sequins, and afterwards became +the property of the church of St Mark at Venice. +Venice already possessed a small collection of +books given to it by Petrarch, but the gift was so +little thought of that it lay neglected in the +Palazzo Molina until some of the volumes had +crumbled to powder, and others had petrified, as +it were, through the damp.</p> + +<p>Of English collectors of this period Richard de +Bury was the most famous. As has already been +stated, he possessed the largest number of books +in the country, and these he bequeathed to the +University of Oxford. The Aungervyle Library, +as it was called, was destroyed at the Reformation. +Guy de Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, +also had a very fine collection. He preferred +romances, however, to theology or law, and his +library contained many such works. At his death +he bequeathed it to the Abbey of Bordesley, in +Worcestershire.</p> + +<p>The English kings had not as yet paid much +attention to books. Eleven are mentioned in the +wardrobe accounts as belonging to Edward I., +and not until the time of Henry VII. was any +serious consideration given to the formation of +the Royal Library.</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_69" title="69"> </a> +Among the more famous continental book collectors +of a later period were Matthias Corvinus, +King of Hungary, and Frederick, Duke of +Urbino. The library of the King of Hungary +perhaps excelled all others in its size and +splendour. It is said to have contained nearly +fifty thousand volumes, but only a comparatively +small number survived the barbarous attack of +the Turks, who stole the jewels from the bindings +and destroyed the books themselves. The Duke +of Urbino's library was scarcely less magnificent, +and was distinguished by its completeness. All +obtainable works were represented, and no imperfect +copies admitted. The duke had thirty-four +transcribers in his service.</p> + +<p>After the monastic libraries had been destroyed, +and when old ideas were beginning to +give place to new, the restrictions formerly +placed on the reading of the Scriptures by the +people at large were withdrawn. In an Injunction, +dated 1559, Elizabeth ordered that the +people were to be exhorted to read the Bible, +not discouraged, and she directed the clergy to +provide at the parish expense a book of the +whole Bible in English within three months, +and within twelve months a copy of Erasmus' +Paraphrases upon the Gospels, also in English. +These books were to be set up in the church for +the use and reading of the parishioners. The +chain is not mentioned in the Injunction, but was +probably adopted as a matter of course. Chained +books in churches thus became common, and +besides the Bible, very generally included copies +of Fox's <cite>Book of Martyrs</cite> and Jewel's <cite>Apology +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_70" title="70"> </a>for the Church of England</cite>. The chained books +at St Luke's, Chelsea, consist of a Vinegar Bible, +a Prayer Book, the Homilies, and two copies +of the <cite>Book of Martyrs</cite>.</p> + +<p>The custom of chaining books, as we have +seen, was followed in the college libraries, and +obtained also in church libraries in England and +on the continent. Among the still existing +libraries whose books are thus secured are those +of Hereford Cathedral and Wimborne Minster +in England, and the church of St Wallberg at +Zutphen, in Holland. The last, however, was +not always chained, and thereby hangs a tale. +Once upon a time the Devil, having a spite +against the good books of which it was composed, +despoiled it of some of its best volumes. +The mark of his cloven hoof upon the flagged +floor gave the clue to the identity of the thief, +whereupon the custodians of the books had them +secured by chains sprinkled with holy water, by +which means the malice of the Evil One was +made of none effect.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI<br/><br/> +<small>THE BEGINNING OF PRINTING</small></a></h2> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="first-word">The</span> germs of the invention which, in spite of +Carlyle's somewhat slighting reference, has +proved itself hardly less momentous in the +world's history than the conception of the idea +of writing, are to be found in the stamps with +which the ancients impressed patterns or names +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_71" title="71"> </a>upon vases or other objects, or in the device and +name-bearing seals which were in common use +among the nations of antiquity. But these +stamps and seals could be used only to impress +some plastic material, not to make ink or other +marks upon paper; and for the first example of +printing, as we understand the word, we must +look to China, where, it is said, as early as the +sixth century, <small>A.D.</small>, engraved wooden plates were +used for the production of books. The Chinese, +however, kept their invention to themselves, or +at any rate it spread no further than Japan, until +many years later; and although in the tenth century +the knowledge of printing was carried as far +as Egypt, Europeans seem to have made the discovery +for themselves, quite independently of +help from the East, both as regards block-printing +and the use of moveable type.</p> + +<p>In Europe, as in China, the first printing was +done by means of a block, that is, a slab of wood +on which the design was carved in relief, and +from which, when inked, an impression could be +transferred to paper or other material. This +process is known as block-printing, and in +Europe was principally used for the production +of illustrations, the text, which came to be added +later, being accessory and subordinate to the +picture.</p> + +<p>The first European block-prints are pictures +of saints, roughly printed on a leaf of paper and +usually rudely coloured. Heinecken, whose +<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Idée general d'une Collection complette d'Estampes</cite> +(1771) is still a standard work, is of opinion that +pictures of this class were first executed by the +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_72" title="72"> </a>old makers of playing-cards, and that the playing-cards +themselves were printed from wood and +not drawn separately by hand. In this case the +cards should rank as the earliest examples of +block-printing, or wood-engraving. Heinecken +has not been alone in entertaining this opinion, +but, on the other hand, there are some who +consider that the portraits represent the first +woodcuts, and that the early playing-cards were +drawn and painted by hand.</p> + +<p>The single-leaf portraits of saints were produced +chiefly, or perhaps solely, in Germany, and +examples are now rare. It is curious that +most of those which have survived to the present +day have been found in German religious houses, +pasted inside the covers of old books, and thus +shielded from the destruction to which their +fragile nature rendered them liable. One +specimen, which has the reputation of being the +earliest extant with which a date can be connected, +is the well-known St Christopher, which +represents the saint carrying the child Christ +over a stream, after an old legend. This specimen +bears the date 1423, and was discovered pasted +in the cover of a mediæval manuscript in the +monastery at Buxheim, in Swabia, and is now in +the John Rylands Library at Manchester. The +date, however, may be only that of the engraving +of the block, and not the year of printing. A +theory was put forward by Mr H. F. Holt, at +the meeting of the British Archaeological Association +in 1868, that this St Christopher, so far from +being the earliest known specimen of printing of +any sort, belonged to a period subsequent to the +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_73" title="73"> </a>invention of typography, and that the date 1423 +refers only to the jubilee year of the saint, and +not to the execution of the print. He also held +that the block-books, to which we refer below, +were not the predecessors of type-printed books, +as they are usually considered to be, but merely +cheap substitutes for the costly works of the +early printers. But these theories, though not +disproved, do not receive the support of bibliographers +in general.</p> + +<p>Another early woodcut is the Brussels Print, +which is in the Royal Library at Brussels. It is +ostensibly dated 1418, but although this date is +accepted by some, it has most probably been +tampered with, and therefore the position of the +print is at least doubtful. It is of Flemish origin, +and represents the Virgin and Child, accompanied +by SS. Barbara, Catharine, Veronica and +Margaret. Other prints exist which are not +dated, and it is quite possible that some of these +may be older than the St Christopher, though +no definite statements as to their date can be +made. It is certain, however, that the art of +block-printing was known in the closing years of +the fourteenth century, and that it was practised +thenceforward until about 1510, that is, some +years after the invention of typography. In +many manuscripts of the period, printed illustrations +were inserted by means of blocks, either to +save time, or because the scribe's skill did not +extend to drawings.</p> + +<p>These early woodcuts were the forerunners of +the better known block-books, which also, according +to Heinecken, were at first the work of the +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_74" title="74"> </a>card-makers. Block-books consisted of prints +accompanied by a descriptive or explanatory text, +both text and illustration being printed from the +same block. Since they were intended for the +moral instruction of those whose education did +not fit them for the study of more elaborate +works, they generally deal with Scriptural and +religious subjects. The earliest of all the block-books +was the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Biblia Pauperum</cite>, or “Bible of +the Poor,” so called because it was designed for +the edification of persons of unlearned minds and +light purses, who could neither have afforded the +high prices demanded for ordinary manuscript +copies, nor have read such copies had they +owned them. The <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Biblia Pauperum</cite>, however, +exactly met their want. It is not so much a +book to read, as a book to look at. It has a +text, it is true, but the text is subordinate to the +pictures.</p> + +<p>The <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Biblia Pauperum</cite> is on paper, as paper was +cheaper than vellum and considered quite good +enough for the purpose. One side only of each +leaf was printed, two pages being printed from +one block, and the sheets folded once and +arranged in sequence, not “quired” or “nested.” +The resulting order was that of two printed pages +face to face, followed by two blank pages face to +face. The illustrations are of scenes from sacred +history, and portraits of Biblical personages, +accompanied by explanatory Latin or German +texts in Gothic characters. The original designer +and compiler of this favourite block-book is unknown, +but he certainly worked on lines laid +down by some much older author and artist, for +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_75" title="75"> </a>manuscript works of similar nature existed at +least as early as the beginning of the fourteenth +century. The earliest known instance of a composition +of the kind, however, is a series of +enamels on an antependium or altar-frontal in +the St Leopold Chapel at <ins title="Klosterneuberg">Klosterneuburg</ins>, near +Vienna, which originally contained forty-five +pictures dealing with Biblical subjects, arranged +in the same order as in the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Biblia Pauperum</cite>, and +which were executed by Nicolas de Verdun, in +1181. Some attribute the inception of the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Biblia +Pauperum</cite> to Ansgarius, first Bishop of Hamburg, +in the ninth century, others to Wernher, a German +monk of the twelfth century, but it seems unlikely +that the point will ever be decided. The +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Biblia Pauperum</cite> is usually supposed to have +been first printed xylographically in Holland, +and type-printed editions were issued later from +Bamberg, Paris and Vienna.</p> + +<p>To modern eyes the illustrations of this book +are strange and wonderful indeed. “The designer +certainly had no thought of irreverence,” +says De Vinne, “but many of the designs are +really ludicrous. Some of the anachronisms are: +Gideon arrayed in plate-armour, with mediæval +helmet and visor and Turkish scimitar; David +and Solomon in rakish, wide-brimmed hats bearing +high, conical crowns; the translation of +Elijah in a four-wheeled vehicle resembling the +modern farmer's hay-wagon. Slouched hats, +puffed doublets, light legged breeches and pointed +shoes are seen in the apparel of the Israelites +who are not represented as priests or soldiers. +Some houses have Italian towers and some have +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_76" title="76"> </a>Moorish minarets, but in none of the pictures is +there an exhibition of pointed Gothic architecture.”</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 417px;"> +<a name="Page_from_Biblia_Pauperum"></a> +<img src="images/p0076-image.png" width="417" height="536" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>PAGE FROM THE BIBLIA PAUPERUM (SECOND EDITION).</small></div> +</div> + +<p>Our illustration gives a reduced representation +of a page from the second edition of the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Biblia +Pauperum</cite>, dating from about 1450. The middle +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_77" title="77"> </a>panel shows Christ rising from the tomb, and the +wonder and fear of the Roman guards; the left-hand +panel shows Samson carrying off the gates +of the city of Gaza, and the right-hand panel the +disgorging of Jonah by the whale. The upper +part of the text shows how that Samson and +Jonah were types of Christ, and the four little +figures represent David, Jacob, Hosea, and +Siphonias (Zephaniah), the texts on the scrolls +being quotations from their words.</p> + +<p>The accompanying rhymes are as follows:—</p> + +<div class="poem" style="width: 22em;"> +<div class="stanza"> +Obsessus turbis: Sāpson valvas tulit urbis.<br/> +Quem saxum texit: ingens tumulum Jesus exit.<br/> +De tumulo Christe: surgens te denotat iste. +</div> +</div> + +<p class="poem-translation">(In the midst of crowds, Samson removes the +gates of the city. The anointed Jesus, whom the +stone covered, rises from the tomb. This man +[Jonah] rising from the tomb, denotes Thee, O +Christ!)</p> + +<p>Another very popular block-book, of German +origin, was the curious compilation known as +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ars Moriendi</cite>—the Art of Dying—or, as it is +sometimes called, <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Temptationes Demonis</cite>, or +Temptation of Demons. It describes how dying +persons are beset by all manner of temptations, +the final triumph of the good, and the +sad end of the wicked, with suitable emotions +on the part of the attendant angels, and the +hideous demons by which the temptations are +personified. This work was greatly in vogue in +the fifteenth century, and after the invention of +type-printing was reproduced in various parts of +France, Italy, Germany and Holland.</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_78" title="78"> </a> +The only block-book without illustrations was +the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Donatus de octibus partibus orationis</cite>, or Donatus +on the Eight Parts of Speech, shortly known +as Donatus. It was <em>the</em> Latin grammar of the +period, and was the work of Donatus, a famous +Roman grammarian of the fourth century. Large +numbers were printed both from blocks and from +type, but xylographic fragments are scarce, and +none are known of any date before the second +half of the <ins title="fifteen">fifteenth</ins> century. Yet it is believed +that probably more copies of this work were +printed than of any other block-book whatever. +Besides its lack of illustrations, the xylographic +Donatus is unique among block-books from the +fact that it was printed on vellum and not on +paper, and (another unusual feature) on both +sides of the leaf. Vellum was dear, and had to +be made the most of, and no doubt was used +only because a paper book would have fared +badly at the hands of the schoolboys.</p> + +<p>Only one block-book is known to have been +printed in France, and that is <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Les Neuf Preux</cite>, +or the Nine Champions. The nine champions +are divided into three groups: first, classical +heroes—Hector, Alexander and Julius Cæsar; +next, Biblical heroes—Joshua, David and Judas +Maccabæus; and lastly, heroes of romance—Arthur, +Charlemagne and Godefroi of Boulogne. +The portraits of these celebrities are accompanied +by verses. This block-book dates from about +1455.</p> + +<p>Other block-books were the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Speculum Humanæ +Salvationis</cite>, <cite>the Apocalypse of St John</cite>, <cite>the Book +of Canticles</cite>, <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Defensorium Inviolatæ Virginitatis +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_79" title="79"> </a>Beatæ Mariæ Virginis</cite>, <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Mirabilia Romæ</cite>; various +German almanacks, and a <cite lang="de" xml:lang="de">Planetenbuch</cite>, this last +representing the heavenly bodies and their influence +on human life. The last of the block-books, +so far as is known, was the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Opera nova +contemplativa</cite>, which was executed at Venice about +1510.</p> + +<p>From one point of view the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Speculum Humanæ +Salvationis</cite>, or Mirror of Salvation, is the most +curious of its kind. It is looked upon as the +connecting link between block-books proper and +type-printed books. Its purpose seems to have +been to afford instruction in the facts and lessons +of the Christian religion, beginning with the fall +of Satan. It is founded on an old and once +popular manuscript work sometimes ascribed to +Brother John, a Benedictine monk of the thirteenth +or fourteenth century. Four so-called “editions” +of the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Speculum</cite> are known, two of which are in +Latin rhyme, and two in Dutch prose, all four +having many points in common and standing +apart from the later and dated editions afterwards +produced in Germany, Holland, and +France.</p> + +<p>In these early copies the body of the work +consists of a text printed from moveable types, +with a block-printed illustration at the head of +each page. But one of the Latin editions is +remarkable for having twenty pages of the text +printed from wood blocks. How and why these +xylographic pages appear in a book whose remaining +forty-two pages are printed from types +is a mystery. They are inserted at intervals +among the other leaves, and for this and other +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_80" title="80"> </a>reasons it is considered improbable that they +were printed from blocks originally intended for +a block-book, to help to eke out a not very +plentiful stock of type. Moreover, no entirely +xylographic <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Speculum</cite> exists to lend colour to +such a theory.</p> + +<p>The time and place of origin of the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Speculum</cite> +are unknown, and bibliographers are not +agreed as to the order in which the several +“editions” appeared. But such evidence as +exists points to Holland as the home of the +printed <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Speculum</cite>, and those who believe that +Coster of Haarlem invented typography, credit +him with having produced it.</p> + +<p>Block-books are nearly all of German, Dutch, +or Flemish workmanship. As a rule the illustrations +are roughly coloured by hand. The +method by which they were printed is generally +supposed to have been that of laying a dampened +sheet of paper on the inked block, and rubbing +it with a dabber or frotton until the impression +was worked up. But De Vinne, in his <cite>History +of Printing</cite>, says that there are practical reasons +against the correctness of this view, and considers +it more probable that a rude hand-press was +used.</p> + +<p>Those who wish to see some modern examples +of block-printing may be referred to the books +printed by the late William Morris at the celebrated +Kelmscott Press at Hammersmith. The +title-pages and initial words of these volumes +were executed by means of wood blocks, and are +as beautiful examples of block-printing as the +texts of the works they adorn are of typography. +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_81" title="81"> </a>All the Kelmscott printing, whose history, though +most interesting, is nevertheless outside the present +subject, was done by hand presses.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII<br/><br/> +<small>WHO INVENTED MOVEABLE TYPES?</small></a></h2> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="first-word">The</span> wood-block, however, was merely a stepping-stone +to the greatest of all events in the history +of printing, the invention of moveable types; that +is, of letters formed separately, which, after being +grouped into words, and sentences, and paragraphs, +could be redistributed and used again for +all sorts of books. Here once more our Chinese +friends were ahead of the rest of the world, for, +more than four centuries before German printers +existed, Picheng, a Chinese smith, had shown +his countrymen how to print from moveable types +made of burnt clay. But the process which was to +prove of such untold value to those who employed +the simple Roman alphabet was almost useless +to the Chinese, since the immense number of +their characters rendered the older method the +less tedious and cumbersome of the two. In +China and Japan, therefore, the use of moveable +types was of short duration. In Europe, however, +when the art of printing from moveable types +once became known, the case was very different.</p> + +<p>Once upon a time, as a magnate of the city +of Haarlem was walking in a wood near the city, +he idly cut some letters on the bark of a beech +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_82" title="82"> </a>tree. It then suddenly occurred to him that +these letters might be impressed upon paper; +whereupon he made some impressions of them +for the amusement of his grandchildren. This, +we have learned from our youth up, is how the +art of printing came to be discovered. But unfortunately, +this legend is not to be relied upon. +As a matter of fact, the first inventor of printing +is unknown, and even as regards moveable types +it is impossible to say with absolute certainty +when or by whom the idea was first conceived. +Daunon, in his <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Analyse des Opinions diverses sur +l'origine de l'Imprimerie</cite>, tells us that no less than +fifteen towns claim to be the birthplace of printing, +and that a still larger number of persons +have been put forward as its inventors, from +Saturn, Job, and Charlemagne downwards. The +arguments for or against the pretensions of Saturn, +Job, and Charlemagne, and, indeed, of the +majority of the personages whose names have +been mentioned in this connection, do not call +for notice. For although the first printer is not +known, many believe that they can point him +out with tolerable certainty, and in the fierce +battle which has raged round the question of the +identity of the inventor of moveable types, two +names alone have been used as the respective +war-cries of the opposing armies. One is Johann +Gutenberg of Mentz, and the other, Laurenz +Coster of Haarlem.</p> + +<p>Although the balance of opinion is now, and +always has been, in favour of Gutenberg, the +battle has been long and furious. The diligence +of the disputants in collecting data in support +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_83" title="83"> </a>of their theories has been equalled only by the +vigour and ferocity with which some of their +number have maintained their opinions. Each +side has charged the other with forging evidence, +and ink and abuse have been freely poured out +in the cause of typographical truth. Yet though +sought for during several centuries, no conclusive +proof has been discovered by either side; typographical +truth remains in her well, and the +identity of the inventor of moveable types seems +almost as hard to determine as that of the man +in the iron mask or the writer of the letters of +Junius. The partisans of Coster have been as +eminent and as able as those of Gutenberg, and +thus the unlearned enquirer finds it difficult to +declare for one rather than the other, without +investigating for himself all the ins and outs of +this involved subject. Even then, without some +previous bias in one or the other direction, he +would probably find himself halting between two +opinions. Such an investigation is obviously out +of the question here, and even were it practicable +it could hardly be lipped that where so many +doctors disagree our modest effort would produce +any valuable result. We shall therefore do no +more than briefly set forth some of the chief +arguments on either side as fairly as may be, but +without attempting an exhaustive examination of +the evidence, first, however, declaring ourselves +as followers of the majority and partisans of +Gutenberg, by way of sheet anchor.</p> + +<p>Those who advocate the claims of Holland +against Germany largely base their belief on the +existence of various printed books and fragments +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_84" title="84"> </a>of Dutch origin, undated, and affording no clue +to the time and place at which they were printed, +or to their printer, whether Coster or another. +It is much more likely, they say, that these were +the first rude attempts at typography, and that +they gave the idea to the Mentz printers, who +forthwith improved upon it, than that the Mentz +printers should have given the idea to the Dutch, +who, so far from improving upon it, produced these +clumsy imitations of fine German work. And +Mr Hessels, who made a complete examination +of the evidence in favour of Gutenberg, was +unable to say either that Gutenberg invented +type-printing, or that he did not invent it. On +the other hand, “it is certainly possible,” say the +writers of the <cite>Guide to the British Museum</cite>, “that +actual printing may have been previously executed +in Holland; although, to our minds, the improbability +of the printers who are asserted to +have produced <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Donatus</cite> and the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Speculum</cite> from +moveable types ten years before Gutenberg having +produced nothing but the like kind of work for +nearly twenty years after him outweighs all the +arguments which have been advanced in support +of their claim. It is at all events certain that, +without some very direct and positive evidence +on the other side, mankind will continue to +regard Gutenberg as the parent of the art, and +Mainz as its birthplace.”</p> + +<p>Within recent years a claim for the honour of +the invention has been put forward on behalf of +quite another part of the world. Some early +fifteenth century documents discovered at +Avignon make unmistakable references to +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_85" title="85"> </a>printing, and not to xylography, and from them +we learn that Procopius Waldfoghel, a silver-smith +of Prague, was engaged in printing at +Avignon in 1444, and had undertaken to cut a +set of Hebrew types for a Jew whom he had previously +instructed in the art of printing. No +specimens of his work are known, and it is therefore +impossible to say exactly to what process +these records refer, but it has been conjectured +that it may have been some method of stamping +letters from cut type, and not from cast type by +means of a press.</p> + +<p>Since Coster is the hero of the well-known +story quoted above, and since as regards our +present purpose there is less to be said of him +than of Gutenberg, we will briefly recapitulate +what is known about him, and the foundations +on which his fame as a typographer rests, before +dealing more at length with Gutenberg and the +Mentz press.</p> + +<p>It does not seem easy to account for the +existence of what the partisans of Gutenberg +contemptuously term the Coster legend. It has +been conjectured, somewhat plausibly, that +Haarlem's jealousy of the superiority and fame +of Mentz and its printers began very early, and +arose from the narrow vanity of those Haarlemers +who imagined that the first printing press in +Haarlem must necessarily be the first printing +press in the world. However this may be, the +legend arose, and waxed strong, and many +believed in it.</p> + +<p>Laurenz Janssoen, or Coster, was born in +Haarlem about 1370. He is said to have held +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_86" title="86"> </a>various high offices, such as sheriff, treasurer, +officer of the city guard, and especially that of +Coster to the great church of Haarlem. Coster +means sacristan or sexton, but the position was +one of far greater honour than is now associated +with it. But another account, which is supported +by all the available records, represents +him as a tallow-chandler, and subsequently as an +innkeeper, and if he had anything at all to do +with the great church, it was only that he supplied +it with candles. But whether chandler or +coster, nothing is heard of him as a printer +until 1568, more than a hundred years after his +alleged success in printing from types—in itself +a strange fact, since if Coster were the inventor, +why were the Mentz printers allowed to appropriate +all the credit to themselves, unchallenged +by Coster's kinsfolk or countrymen, and +supported by the opinions of sixty-two writers, +including Caxton, the chronicler Fabian, +Trithemius, and the compilers of the Cologne +and Nuremberg chronicles? It is true that +“few sometimes may know when thousands +err,” but silence is no proof of truth, and if +Coster's representatives possessed the truth, how +came they to withhold it from a deluded +world?</p> + +<p>Although Coster is not named till 1568, the +claims of Haarlem to be the birthplace of +printing had been put forward (for the first +time) some years earlier by Jan Van Zuyren +in a work on the Invention of Typography, of +which only a fragment remains. The claims of +Haarlem, he says, “are at this day fresh in the +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_87" title="87"> </a>remembrance of our fathers, to whom, so to +express myself, they have been transmitted from +hand to hand from their ancestors.” Thus, +though probably writing in all good faith, Van +Zuyren bases his statements on nothing better +than tradition. “The city of Mentz,” he goes +on to say, “without doubt merits great praise +for having been the first to publish to the world, +in a becoming garb, an invention which she +received from us, for having perfected and embellished +an art as yet rude and imperfect.… +It is certain that the foundations of this +splendid art were laid in our city of Haarlem, +rudely, indeed, but still the first.”</p> + +<p>Coornhert, an engraver, and a partner of Van +Zuyren, repeats the same statements, and on the +same basis, in the preface to a translation of +Cicero which he published in 1561, but is acute +enough to see that the case for Haarlem is nearly +hopeless. “I am aware,” he says, “that in consequence +of the blameable neglect of our ancestors, +the common opinion that this art was +invented at Mentz is now firmly established, that +it is in vain to hope to change it, even by the +best evidence and the most irrefragable proof.” +He proceeds to declare his conviction of the +justice of Haarlem's claim, because of “the faithful +testimonies of men alike respectable from their +age and authority, who not only have often told +me of the family of the inventor, and of his name +and surname, but have even described to me the +rude manner of printing first used, and pointed +out to me with their fingers the abode of the +first printer. And therefore, not because I am +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_88" title="88"> </a>jealous of the glory of others, but because I love +truth, and desire to pay all tribute to the honour +of our city which is justly her due, I have thought +it incumbent upon me to mention these things.” +Yet it is strange that he did not think it incumbent +upon him to mention the name and surname +of the inventor, since he had been told them so +often.</p> + +<p>Hadrian Junius, said to have been the most +learned man in Holland after Erasmus, is the +first to give to the world the fully-developed +legend of Coster. This he does in his <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Batavia</cite>, +which was finished in 1568 and published +posthumously twenty years later. It is he who +first mentions Coster by name, and gives the +story of the walk in the woods. He relates how +Coster devised block-printing, and calling in the +help of his son-in-law, Thomas Peter, produced +the block-book <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Speculum Humanæ Salvationis</cite>, +and then advanced to types of wood, then to +types of lead, and finally to types of lead and tin +combined. Prospering in his new art, he engaged +numerous workmen, one of whom, probably +named Johann Faust, as soon as he had mastered +the process of printing and of casting type, stole his +master's types and other apparatus one Christmas +Eve, and fled to Amsterdam, thence to Cologne, +and finally to Mentz. For all this Junius also +adduces no better authority than hearsay, but +nevertheless it is his statements which have +brought Coster to the front and given him such +reputation as he now enjoys.</p> + +<p>No books bearing Coster's name are known, +though this in itself is no argument against him, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_89" title="89"> </a>for the name of Gutenberg himself is not found +in any of his own productions. It is not only +highly improbable that Coster was the first +printer, but also doubtful whether he printed +anything at all. But those who think otherwise +consider that the idea of printing occurred to +him about 1428 or 1430, and that he executed, +among other books, the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Biblia Pauperum</cite>, the +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Speculum</cite>, the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ars Moriendi</cite>, and <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Donatus</cite>.</p> + +<p>The people of Holland still retain their faith +in Coster. Statues have been erected, medals +struck, tablets put up, and holidays observed in +his honour.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII<br/><br/> +<small>GUTENBERG AND THE MENTZ PRESS</small></a></h2> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="first-word">Johann</span> or Hans Gutenberg was born at Mentz +in or about the year 1400. His father's name +was Gensfleisch, but he is always known by his +mother's maiden name of Gutenberg or Gutemberg. +It was customary in Germany at that +time for a son to assume his mother's name if +it happened that she had no other kinsman to +carry it on. Of Gutenberg's early life, of his +education or profession, we know nothing. But +we know that his family, with many of their +fellow-citizens, left Mentz when Gutenberg was +about twenty years of age, on account of the +disturbed state of the city. They probably went +to Strasburg, but this is uncertain. In 1430 +Gutenberg's name appears among others in an +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_90" title="90"> </a>amnesty, granted to such of the Mentz citizens +as had left the city, by the Elector Conrad III., +but apparently he continued to live in Strasburg. +Two years later he visited Mentz, probably +about a pension granted by the magistrates to +his widowed mother. This is practically all that +is known of the earlier part of Gutenberg's life.</p> + +<p>It is curious that nearly all the recorded information +concerning Gutenberg is in connection +either with lawsuits or with the raising of money. +From the contracts for borrowing or repaying +money into which he entered, we gather that he +was always hard pressed, and that his invention +ran away with a good deal of gold and paid +back none. Gutenberg cast his bread on the +waters, and it is we who have found it.</p> + +<p>The first known event of his life which directly +concerns our subject is a lawsuit brought against +him by Georg Dritzehn. Mr Hessels implies, +though he does not actually state, that he suspects +the authenticity of the records of this trial. +But no proof of their falsity can be adduced, and +the integrity of the documents otherwise remains +unquestioned. They cannot now, however, be +subjected to further examination, for they were +burnt in 1870 at the time of the siege of Strasburg.</p> + +<p>The action in question was brought against +Gutenberg in 1439 by Georg Dritzehn, the +brother of one Andres Dritzehn, deceased, for +the restitution of certain rights which he considered +due to himself as his brother's heir. +From the testimony of the witnesses as set +down in the records of the trial, we gather that +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_91" title="91"> </a>Gutenberg had entered into partnership with +Hans Riffe, Andres Dritzehn, and Andres Heilmann; +and one of the witnesses deposed that +Dritzehn, on his death-bed, asserted that Gutenberg +had concealed “several arts from them, +which he was not obliged to show them.” This +did not please them, so they made a fresh +arrangement with Gutenberg and further payments +into the exchequer, to the end that +Gutenberg “should conceal from them none +of the arts he knew.”</p> + +<p>Again, Lorentz Beildeck testified that after +Andres Dritzehn's death, Gutenberg sent him +to Claus, Andres' brother, to tell him “that he +should not show to anyone the press which he had +under his care,” but that “he should take great +care and go to the press and open this by means +of two little buttons whereby the pieces would +fall asunder. He should, thereupon, put those +pieces in or on the press, after which nobody +could see or comprehend anything.”</p> + +<p>Besides this, Hans Niger von Bischoviszheim +said that Andres Dritzehn applied to him for +a loan, and when witness asked him his occupation, +answered that he was a maker of looking-glasses. +Later on, a pilgrimage “to Aix-la-Chapelle +about the looking-glasses” is mentioned.</p> + +<p>By these records, from Mr Hessels' translation +of which the above quotations are taken, two +things at least are made clear. First, that +Gutenberg was in possession of the knowledge +of an art unknown to his companions, which he +was desirous of keeping to himself, and which +those not in the secret wished to learn; and +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_92" title="92"> </a>secondly, that a press containing some important +and mysterious “pieces,” which was not to be +exhibited to outsiders until the pieces had been +separated, played a prominent part in this secret +work. The “looking-glasses,” apparently, were +imaginary, and intended for the misleading of too +curious enquirers. But it has been ingeniously +suggested that the word <i lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">spiegel</i>, or looking-glass, +was a cryptic reference to the <cite lang="nl" xml:lang="nl">Spiegel onser +Behoudenisse</cite>, or <cite>Mirror of Salvation</cite>, and that +Gutenberg and his assistants were engaged in +preparing the printed <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Speculum</cite> for sale at the +forthcoming fair held on the occasion of the +pilgrimages to Aix-la-Chapelle in 1439. This +part of his plan, however, was frustrated by the +postponement of the fair for a year.</p> + +<p>It is hardly to be doubted that the researches +privately conducted in the deserted convent of +St Arbogastus, where Gutenberg dwelt, concerned +the great invention usually linked with +his name. Were this probability an absolute +certainty, then Strasburg might successfully dispute +with Mentz the title of birthplace of the art +of printing. But to what stage Gutenberg carried +his labours in the old convent, or how far he proceeded +towards the goal of his ambition, is not +known, though it has been conjectured that +possibly he and those in his confidence got as +far as the making of matrices for types, and that +perhaps even the types used for the earliest +extant specimens of type-printing were cast there, +although not used until Gutenberg had returned +to Mentz. On the other hand, there are many +who think that matrices and punches are due to +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_93" title="93"> </a>the ingenuity of Peter Schoeffer, to whom reference +is made below.</p> + +<p>When Gutenberg left Strasburg for Mentz is +not known, but he was in the latter city in 1448, +as is testified by a deed relating to a loan which +he had raised. His constant pecuniary difficulties +resulted in his entering into partnership, in 1450, +with the goldsmith Johann Fust, or Faust, a rich +burgher of Mentz, who contributed large loans +towards the working expenses, and was evidently +to share in the profits of the press. Fust or +Faust, the printer of Mentz, has sometimes been +identified with the Faust of German legend. +The dealings in the black art related of the one +have also been ascribed to the other by various +story-tellers, some of whom say that in Paris +Faust the printer narrowly escaped being burnt +as a wizard for selling books which looked like +manuscripts, and yet were not manuscripts. The +first printed letters, it should be observed, were +exactly copied from the manuscript letters then +in vogue.</p> + +<p>The first really definite recorded event in the +history of Gutenberg's printing was a lawsuit +brought against him by Fust, in 1455, when +Gutenberg had to give an account of the receipts +and expenditure relating to his work, and +to hand over to Fust all his apparatus in discharge +of his debt. The partnership was of +course dissolved, Gutenberg left Mentz, and Fust +continued the printing assisted by Peter Schoeffer. +Schoeffer was a servant of Fust's, who had further +associated himself with the establishment by +marrying Fust's daughter, and to him some attribute +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_94" title="94"> </a>the improvement of the methods then +employed by devising matrices and punches for +casting metal types. It has even been suggested +that this device of his, communicated to Fust, +induced the latter to rid himself of Gutenberg by +demanding repayment of his advances when +Gutenberg was unable to meet the call, and that +having gained possession of his partner's apparatus, +he was able, with the help of Schoeffer +and his inventions, to carry on the work to his +own profit and glory. But it is difficult to know +whether to look upon Fust as a grasping and +treacherous money-lender, or as a prudent and +enterprising man of business. However this +may be, at the time of the lawsuit the work of +years was already perfected, printing with moveable +types was now an accomplished thing, and +the great Mazarin Bible, if not finished, was at +any rate on the point of completion.</p> + +<p>The earliest extant specimens of printing from +types, however, are assigned to the year 1454. +These are some Letters of Indulgence issued by +Pope Nicholas V. to the supporters of the King +of Cyprus in his war with the Turks. They consist +of single sheets of vellum, printed on one +side only, and measuring <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">c.</i> 11 x 7 inches. They +fall into two classes, of each of which there were +various issues; that is to say, (1) those containing +thirty lines, and (2) those containing thirty-one +lines. The thirty-line Indulgence is printed +partly in the type used for the Mazarin Bible. +The thirty-one-line Indulgence is partly printed +in type which is the same as that used for books +printed by Albrecht Pfister at Bamberg, and for +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_95" title="95"> </a>a Bible which disputes with the Mazarin Bible +the position of the first printed book. Who +printed these Indulgences is not certainly known. +Both emanated from the Mentz press, and it is +not unreasonable to believe that both were executed +by Gutenberg, since the Mazarin Bible is +most probably his work, and since the types used +by Pfister were perhaps at one time possessed by +Gutenberg. Still, the point is not clear, and the +more general view is that they were the work of +two different printers. Some attribute the thirty-line +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_96" title="96"> </a>Indulgence to Schoeffer, on the ground that +some of its initial letters are reproduced in an +Indulgence of 1489 known to be of Schoeffer's +workmanship. Yet there seems no reason why +Schoeffer in 1489 should not have made use of +Gutenberg's types—indeed, it is very probable +that he had every chance of doing so, as may be +seen from the above account of the dissolution of +partnership between Gutenberg and Fust.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 411px;"> +<a name="Type_of_Mentz_Indulgence"></a> +<img src="images/p0095-image.jpg" width="411" height="375" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>TYPE OF THE MENTZ INDULGENCE</small> (30-line, <i>exact size</i>).</div> +</div> + +<p>Those who assign the thirty-line specimen to +Schoeffer consider the thirty-one-line specimen to +be Gutenberg's work. “And though we have no +proof of this,” says Mr E. Gordon Duff, who +holds this view, “or indeed of Gutenberg's having +printed any book at all, there is a strong +weight of circumstantial evidence in his favour.” +It may be taken for granted, then, although proof +is wanting, that Gutenberg printed at least one of +these Indulgences, and perhaps both. In any +case, these are the first productions of the printing-press +to which a definite date can be assigned. +Some of them have a printed date, and in other +copies the date has been inserted in manuscript. +The earliest specimens of each class belong to +the year 1454.</p> + +<p>The next production of the Mentz press, as is +generally believed, is the beautiful volume known +as the Gutenberg Bible, or the Mazarin Bible, +because it was a copy in the library of Cardinal +Mazarin which first attracted attention and led +bibliographers to enquire into its history. It +illustrates a most remarkable fact—that is, the +extraordinary degree of perfection to which the +art of printing attained all but simultaneously +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_97" title="97"> </a>with its birth. Even though we cannot tell how +long Gutenberg experimented before producing +this book, it is none the less amazing that as a +specimen of typographic art the Mazarin Bible +has never been excelled even by the cleverest +printers and the most modern and elaborate +apparatus. It was probably not begun before +1450, the year when Gutenberg and Fust joined +forces, and was completed certainly not later +than 1456. This latter date is fixed by a +colophon written in the second volume of the +copy in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris, +which informs us that “this book was illuminated, +bound, and perfected by Heinrich Cremer, vicar +of the collegiate church of St Stephen in Mentz, +on the Feast of the Assumption of the Blessed +Virgin, in the year of our Lord 1456. Thanks +be to God. Hallelujah.” A similar note is +affixed to the first volume.</p> + +<p>It is believed by competent authorities that +this and all very early printed books were printed +one page at a time, owing to an inadequate +supply of type, a process exceedingly slow and +productive of numerous small variations in the +text. The work of printing the Mazarin Bible +was in all probability interrupted to allow of the +execution of the more immediately needed +Letters of Indulgence, in certain parts of which, +as we have said, some of the types used in the +Mazarin Bible are employed.</p> + +<p>We must not omit to mention here another +Bible issued from Mentz about this time. It has +thirty-six lines to a column, and is therefore +known as the thirty-six line Bible, in distinction +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_98" title="98"> </a>to the forty-two line or Mazarin Bible. It exhibits +a larger type, and is regarded by some +as the first book printed at the Mentz press, +and, for all that can be proved to the contrary, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_99" title="99"> </a>it is so. Although the point is still undecided, +this volume may at any rate be safely regarded +as contemporary with the Mazarin Bible.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 414px;"> +<a name="Page_from_Mazarin_Bible"></a> +<img src="images/p0098-image.png" width="414" height="556" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>PAGE FROM THE MAZARIN BIBLE</small> (<i>reduced</i>).</div> +</div> + +<p>The Mazarin Bible is in Latin, and printed in +the characters known as Gothic, or black letter. +These were closely modelled on the form of +the handwriting used at that time for Bibles and +kindred works. It is in two volumes, and each +page, excepting a few at the beginning, has two +columns of forty-two lines, and each is provided +with rubrics, inserted by hand, while the small +initials of the sentences have a touch of red, also +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_100" title="100"> </a>put in by hand. Some copies are of vellum, +others of paper. But henceforward the use of +vellum declines.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 422px;"> +<a name="Type_of_Mazarin_Bible"></a> +<img src="images/p0099-image.png" width="422" height="369" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>TYPE OF THE MAZARIN BIBLE</small> (<i>exact size</i>).</div> +</div> + +<p>The Mazarin Bible is usually considered to be +the joint work of Gutenberg and Fust. Mr +Winter Jones has conjectured that the metal +types used in early printing were cut by the +goldsmiths, and that Fust's skill, as well as his +money, were pressed into Gutenberg's service. +But if, as some have thought, Fust provided +money only, while Gutenberg was the working +partner, then Fust would hardly have been concerned +in its actual production until 1455, +when he and Gutenberg separated. Even then—supposing +the book to have been still unfinished—it +is quite possible that Schoeffer did +the work. But no one is able to decide the +exact parts played by those three associated +and most noted printers of Mentz; conjecture +alone can allot them.</p> + +<p>Gutenberg returned to Mentz in 1456, and +made a fresh start, aided financially by Dr +Conrad Homery. Here again we are confronted +with a want of direct evidence, and +can point to no books as certainly being the +work of Gutenberg. But there are good reasons +for believing that under this new arrangement he +printed the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Catholicon</cite>, or Latin grammar and +dictionary, of John of Genoa; the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tractatus +racionis et conscientiæ</cite> of Matthæus de Cracovia; +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Summa de articulis fidei</cite> of Aquinas; and an +Indulgence of 1461. There is a colophon to +the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Catholicon</cite> which may possibly have been +written by Gutenberg, which runs as follows:—</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_101" title="101"> </a> +“By the assistance of the Most High, at Whose +will the tongues of children become eloquent, and +Who often reveals to babes what He hides from +the wise, this renowned book, the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Catholicon</cite>, was +printed and perfected in the year of the Incarnation +1460, in the beloved city of Mentz (which +belongs to the illustrious German nation, whom +God has consented to prefer and to raise with +such an exalted light of the mind and free +grace, above the other nations of the earth), not +by means of reed, stile, or pen, but by the admirable +proportion, harmony, and connection of the +punches and types.” A metrical doxology follows.</p> + +<p>A few other and smaller works have also been +believed to have been executed by Gutenberg at +this time, but with no certainty.</p> + +<p>In 1465 Gutenberg was made one of the +gentlemen of the court to Adolph II., Count of +Nassau and Archbishop of Mentz, and presumably +abandoned his printing on acceding to this +dignity. In 1467 or 1468 Gutenberg died, and +thus ends the meagre list of facts which we +have concerning the life and career of the first +printer.</p> + +<p>To nearly every question which we might wish +to ask about Gutenberg and his work, one of two +answers has to be given—“It is not known,” or +“Perhaps.” He does not speak for himself, and +none of his personal acquaintance, or his family, +if he had any, speak for him. We have no reason +to believe that his work brought him any particular +honour, and certainly it brought him no +wealth. It has been suggested, however, that +the post offered to him by the Archbishop was +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_102" title="102"> </a>in recognition of his invention, since there is +no other reason apparent why the dignity was +conferred. But we may well conclude this +account of Gutenberg with De Vinne's words, +that “there is no other instance in modern +history, excepting, possibly, Shakespeare, of a man +who did so much and said so little about it.”</p> + +<p>Fust, the former partner of Gutenberg, died +in 1466, leaving a son to succeed him in the +partnership with Schoeffer, and Schoeffer died +about 1502. Of his three sons (all printers), +the eldest, Johann, continued to work at Mentz +until about 1533.</p> + +<p>The most notable books issued by Fust and +Schoeffer were the Psalter of 1457, and the Latin +Bible of 1462. The Bible of 1462 is the first +Bible with a date. The Psalter of 1457 is famous +as being the first printed Psalter, the first printed +book with a date, the first example of printing +in colours, the first book with a printed colophon, +and the first printed work containing musical +notes, though these last are not printed but +inserted by hand.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> The colour printing is +shown by the red and blue initials, but by +what process they were executed has been the +subject of much discussion. They are generally +supposed to have been added after the rest of +the page had been printed, by means of a stamp. +The colophon is written in the curious Latin +affected by the early printers, and Mr Pollard +offers the following as a rough rendering:—</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_103" title="103"> </a> +“The present book of Psalms, adorned with +beauty of capitals, and sufficiently marked out +with rubrics, has been thus fashioned by an +ingenious invention of printing and stamping, +and to the worship of God diligently brought +to completion by Johann Fust, a citizen of +Mentz, and Peter Schoffer of Gernsheim, in the +year of our Lord, 1457, on the Vigil of the Feast +of the Assumption.”</p> + +<p>These two printers also produced, in 1465, +an edition of the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Officiis</cite> of Cicero, which +shares with the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lactantius</cite>, printed in the same +year at Subiaco, near Rome, by Sweynheim and +Pannartz, the honour of exhibiting to the world +the first Greek types, and with the same printers' +Cicero <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Oratore</cite>, that of being the first printed +Latin classic, unless an undated <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Officiis</cite>, +printed at Cologne by Ulrich Zel about this +time, is the real “first.”</p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX<br/><br/> +<small>EARLY PRINTING</small></a></h2> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="first-word">Wherever</span> typography originated, it was from +Mentz that it was taught to the world. The +disturbances in that city in 1462 drove many of +its citizens from their homes, and the German +printers were thus dispersed over Europe. Within +a little more than twenty years from the time of +the first issue from the Mentz printing-press, other +presses were established at Strasburg, Bamberg, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_104" title="104"> </a>Cologne, <ins title="Augsberg">Augsburg</ins>, Nuremberg, Spires, Ulm, +Lubeck, and Breslau; Basle, Rome, Venice, +Florence, Naples, and many other Italian cities; +Paris and Lyons; Bruges; and, in 1477, at +Westminster.</p> + +<p>Before the end of the fifteenth century eighteen +European countries were printing books. Italy +heads the list with seventy-one cities in which +presses were at work, Germany follows with +fifty, France with thirty-six, Spain with twenty-six, +Holland with fourteen; and after these +England's four printing-places—Westminster, +London, Oxford, and St Albans—make a somewhat +small show. Some other countries, however, +had but one printing-town. With the +possible exception of Holland, England and +Scotland are the only countries which are indebted +to a native and not (as in every case +save that of Ireland) to a German for the introduction +of printing.</p> + +<p>The early printers were more than mere workmen. +They were usually editors and publishers +as well. Some of them were associated with +scholars who did the editorial work: Sweynheim +and Pannartz, for instance, the first to set up a +press in Italy, had the benefit of the services of +the Bishop of Aleria, and their rival, Ulric Hahn, +enjoyed for a while the assistance of the celebrated +Campanus. Aldus Manutius, too, the +founder of the Aldine press at Venice, though +himself a literary man and a learned editor, +availed himself of the help of several Greek +scholars in the revising and correcting of classical +texts. The exact relations of these editors to the +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_105" title="105"> </a>printers, however, is not known. The English +printer, Caxton, who also was a scholar, usually, +though not invariably, edited his publications +himself.</p> + +<p>The first printers were also booksellers, and +sold other people's books as well as their own. +Several of their catalogues or advertisements still +exist. The earliest known book advertisements +are some issued by Peter Schoeffer, one, dating +from about 1469, giving a list of twenty-one +books for sale by himself or his agents in the +several towns where he had established branches +of his business, and another advertising an edition +of St Jerome's <cite>Epistles</cite> published by Schoeffer at +Mentz in 1470. An advertisement by Caxton is +also extant, and being short, as well as interesting, +may be quoted here. It is as follows:—</p> + +<blockquote class="black-letter"> +<p>If it plese ony man spirituel or temporel to +bye ony pyes,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> of two and thre comemoracios +of salisburi vse enpryntid after the forme of +this preset lettre whiche ben wel and truly +correct, late hym come to westmonester in to +the almonesrye at the reed pale and he shal haue +them good chepe.</p> + +<p class="center" lang="la" xml:lang="la">Supplico stet cedula.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>The date of this notice is about 1477 or 1478. +Other extant examples of early advertisements +are those of John Mentelin, a Strasburg printer, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_106" title="106"> </a>issued about 1470, and of Antony Koburger, +of Nuremberg, issued about ten years later. +In 1495 Koburger advertised the Nuremberg +Chronicle.</p> + +<p>Early printed books exhibit a very limited +range of subject, and were hardly ever used to +introduce a new contemporary writer. Theology +and jurisprudence in Germany, and the classics +in Italy, inaugurated the new invention, and +lighter fare was not served to the patrons of +printed literature until a later date. Italy made +the first departure, and took up history, romance, +and poetry. France began with the classics, and +then neglected them for romances and more +popular works, but at the same time became +noted for the beautifully illuminated service-books +produced at Paris and Rouen, and which +supplied the clergy of both France and England. +England, who received printing twelve years after +Italy and seven years after France, made more +variety in her books than any. Caxton's productions +consist of works dealing with subjects +of wider interest, even if less learned and improving—romances, +chess, good manners, <cite>Æsop's +Fables</cite>, the <cite>Canterbury Tales</cite>, and the <cite>Adventures +of Reynard the Fox</cite>.</p> + +<p>From what sort of type the Bible usually considered +to be the first printed book was produced +is not known. Some competent authorities think +that wooden types were used. Others are in favour +of metal, and like the late Mr Winter Jones, scout +the notion of wooden types and consider them +“impossible things.” But Skeen, in his <cite>Early +Typography</cite>, declares that hard wood would print +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_107" title="107"> </a>better than soft lead, such as Blades hints that +Caxton's types were made of, and to illustrate +the possibility of wooden types prints a word in +Gothic characters from letters cut in boxwood. +The objections made to types of this nature are +that they would be too weak to bear the press, +could never stand washing and cleaning, and +would swell when wet and shrink when dried. +Some have thought that the early types were +made by stamping half-molten metal with wooden +punches, and so forming matrices from which the +types were subsequently cast.</p> + +<p>As we have already noticed in connection with +the Mazarin Bible, the forms of the types were +copied from the Gothic or black letter characters +in which Bibles, psalters, and missals were then +written. When Roman type was first cut is +uncertain. The “R” printer of Strasburg, whose +name is unknown, and whose works are dated only +by conjecture, may have been the first to use it. It +was employed by Sweynheim and Pannartz in +1467, and by the first printers in Paris and +Venice. It was brought to the greatest perfection +by Nicolas Jenson, a Frenchman working in +Venice. Caxton never employed it, and it was +not introduced into England until 1509. In that +year Richard Pynson, a London printer and a +naturalised Englishman, though Norman by birth, +used some Roman type in portions of the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sermo +Fratris Hieronymi de Ferrara</cite>, and in 1518 he +produced <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Oratio Ricardi Pacaei</cite>, which was entirely +printed in these characters.</p> + +<p>Had the idea of the title-page, in the modern +sense of the term, a very obvious idea, as it seems +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_108" title="108"> </a>to us, occurred to the first printers, we should not +have to sharpen our wits on the hundred and one +doubtful points with which the subject of early +bibliography bristles. To-day, the title-page not +only introduces the book itself, but declares the +name of the writer and the publisher, and the +time and place of publication. But during the +first sixty years of printing title-pages were rare, +and the old methods followed by the scribes in +writing their manuscript books still obtained. +The subject matter began with “Incipit” or +“Here beginneth,” etc., according to the language +in which the work was written, and such +information as the printer considered it desirable +to impart was contained in the colophon, or note +affixed to the end of the book.</p> + +<p>More often than not these colophons are +irritatingly reticent, and withhold the very thing +we want to know. At other times they are informing, +and in some cases amusing. Dr Garnett +has suggested that as a literary pastime some one +might do worse than collect fifteenth-century +colophons into a volume, for the sake of their +biographical and personal interest, but I am not +aware that his idea has been carried out. Two +colophons have already been quoted here, the +first printed colophon (see <a href="#Page_103">p. 103</a>) and one which +is possibly from the pen of Gutenberg (see <a href="#Page_101">p. 101</a>). +A quaint specimen found in a volume of Cicero's +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Orationes Philippicæ</cite>, printed at Rome by Ulrich +Hahn, about 1470, descends to puns. It is in +Latin verse, and supposed by some to have been +written by Cardinal Campanus, who edited several +of Hahn's publications. It informs the descendants +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_109" title="109"> </a>of the Geese who saved the Capitol, that +they need have no more fear for their feathers, +for the art of Ulrich the <i>Cock</i> (German <i lang="de" xml:lang="de">Hahn</i> += Latin <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gallus</i> = English <i>Cock</i>) will provide a +potent substitute for quills. A colophon to +Cicero's <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epistolæ Familiares</cite>, printed at Venice in +1469 by Joannes de Spira, declares with pardonable +pride that he had printed two editions of +three hundred copies in four months.</p> + +<p>The first book with any attempt at a title-page +is the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Sermo ad Populum Predicabilis</cite>, printed at +Cologne in 1470 by Arnold Therhoernen, but a +full title-page was not generally adopted till fifty +years later. The first English title-page is very +brief, and reads as follows:—</p> + +<blockquote class="black-letter"> +<p>A passing gode lityll boke necessarye & +behouefull agenst the Pestilence.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>This gode lityll boke, written by Canutus, Bishop +of Aarhaus, was printed in London about 1482 +by Machlinia. A later development of the title-page +was a full-page woodcut, headed by the +name of the work, as in the <cite class="black-letter">Kynge Richarde +cuer du lyon</cite>, printed in 1528 by Wynkyn de +Worde. The same woodcut does duty in another +of the same printer's books for Robert the Devil.</p> + +<p>Early title-pages in Latin sometimes render +the names of familiar places of publication in a +very unfamiliar form. London may appear as +Augusta Trinobantum, Edinburgh as Aneda, +Dublin as Eblana. Some towns are easily +recognised by their Latin names, such as Roma +or Venetiæ; others are less obvious, such as +Moguntia, or Mentz; Lutetia, or Paris; Argentina, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_110" title="110"> </a>or Strasburg. Several places had more than +one Latin form of name. London, for example, was +also Londinum, and Edinburgh, Edemburgem.</p> + +<p>Pagination, or numbering of the pages, was +first introduced by Arnold Therhoernen, in the +same book in which he gives us the first title-page, +and to which reference has already been +made. He did not place the figures at the top +corner, however, but in the centre of the right +hand margin.</p> + +<p>The practice of printing the first word of a leaf +at the foot of the leaf preceding, as a guide for +the arrangement of the sheets, was first employed +by Vindelinus de Spira, of Venice, in the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tacitus</cite> +which he printed about 1469.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X<br/><br/> +<small>EARLY PRINTING IN ITALY AND SOME OTHER +COUNTRIES</small></a></h2> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="first-word">The</span> new invention found more favour in Italy +than in any other country, for more presses were +established there than anywhere else. The +printers, however, were all Germans, and before +1480 about 110 German typographers were at +work in twenty-seven Italian cities. They kept +the secrets of their trade well to themselves, +and not till 1471 was any printing executed +by an Italian. In May of that year the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De +Medicinis Universalibus</cite> of Mesua was executed +at Venice by Clement of Padua, who accomplished +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_111" title="111"> </a>the truly wonderful feat of teaching himself +how to print. Another Italian, Joannes +Phillipus de Lignamine, printed at Rome some +time before July 26, 1471, and it is therefore +uncertain whether he or Clement of Padua was +the first native printer of Italy.</p> + +<p>The first press established in Italy was that set +up in the Benedictine monastery of St Scholastica +at Subiaco, a few miles from Rome, by two +German typographers, Conrad Sweynheim and +Arnold Pannartz. There they issued Cicero's +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Oratore</cite> in 1465, the first book printed in +Italy. In their petition to the Pope, referred to +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_112" title="112"> </a>below, they say that they had printed a <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Donatus</cite>, +presumably before the Cicero, but no such +work is known, and some have thought it was +only a block-book. In the same year they issued +the works of Lactantius, “the Christian Cicero,” +the first dated book executed in Italy. It is also +one of the earliest books to adopt a more +elaborate punctuation than the simple oblique +line and full stop in general use. The <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lactantius</cite> +has a colon, full stop, and notes of admiration +and interrogation. Both these books are printed +in a pleasing type which is neither Gothic nor +Roman, but midway between the two.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;"> +<a name="Type_of_Subiaco_Lactantius"></a> +<img src="images/p0111-image.png" width="420" height="374" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>TYPE OF THE SUBIACO LACTANTIUS</small> (<i>exact size.</i>)</div> +</div> + +<p>Two years later Sweynheim and Pannartz +removed to Rome, where their countryman, +Ulric Hahn, was already at work, and prosecuted +their business with so much energy, and +apparently so little prudence or regard to the +works of other printers, that at the end of five +years they had printed no less than 12,475 +sheets which they could not sell, and were in +such financial straits that they petitioned the +Pope for assistance for themselves and their +families. Whether they obtained it is unknown, +but the partnership was soon after dissolved, and +the name of Pannartz alone appears in books of +1475 and 1476. When these two printers died +is uncertain.</p> + +<p>Venice was the next city of Italy to take up +the new art. There, in 1469, Joannes de Spira, +or John of Spires, executed Cicero's <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epistolæ +ad Familiares</cite>. He obtained a privilege from +the Venetian Senate with regard to his productions, +and, more than that, a monopoly of book-printing +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_113" title="113"> </a>in Venice for five years. He died, +however, less than a year later, and his monopoly +with him. His brother Vindelinus carried on +his work, and was succeeded by Nicolas Jenson, +a Frenchman, who, from a technical point of +view, was perhaps the most skilful and artistic +of early typographers.</p> + +<p>The most famous printer of Venice, however, +and the most famous printer of Italy, and +perhaps of the world, is Aldus Manutius, born in +1450, but his fame rests less on his actual +printing, which, though good, is not unequalled, +than upon the efforts he made for popularising +literature, and bringing cheap, yet well-produced +books within the reach of the many. He saw +that the works printed in such numbers by the +Venetian printers, who paid attention to quantity +and cheapness and altogether ignored the +quality of their productions, were faulty and +corrupt, and that textually as well as typographically +there was room for improvement. He +applied himself to the study of the classics, above +all to the Greek, hitherto neglected or published +through Latin translations, and secured the +assistance of many eminent scholars, and then, +having obtained good texts, turned his thoughts +to type and format. The types he cast for his +first book, Lascaris' <cite>Greek Grammar</cite>, were +superior to the Greek types then in use. Next +he designed a new Roman type, modelled, so it +is said, upon the handwriting of Petrarch. It +called forth admiration, and won fame under the +name of the “Aldino” type. Its use has continued +to the present day, and it is known to almost +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_114" title="114"> </a>everyone as <i>Italic</i>. It was cut by Francesco +de Bologna, who was probably identical with +Francesco Raibolini, that painter-goldsmith who +signed himself on his pictures as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Aurifex</i>, and on +his gold-work as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Pictor</i>.</p> + +<p>The advantage of the Aldino type, at the +time of its invention, when type was large and +required a comparatively great deal of space, +was that its size and form permitted the printed +matter to be much compressed, while losing +nothing in clearness. The book for which it was +used could be made smaller, and printed more +cheaply. In 1501 Aldus inaugurated his new +type by issuing a <cite>Virgil</cite> printed throughout in +“Aldino.” It occupied two hundred and twenty-eight +leaves, and was of a neat and novel shape, +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_115" title="115"> </a>measuring just six by three and a half inches. +This book, which was sold for about two shillings +of our money, marks Aldus as the pioneer of +cheap literature—literature not for the wealthy +alone, but for all who loved books. A proof of the +popularity of the new departure is afforded by the +fact that the <cite>Virgil</cite> was immediately forged, that +is to say, reproduced in a number of exceedingly +inferior copies, by an unknown printer of Lyons.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 395px;"> +<a name="Type_of_Aldine_Virgil"></a> +<img src="images/p0114-image.png" width="395" height="330" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>TYPE OF THE ALDINE VIRGIL</small>, 1501 (<i>exact size.</i>)</div> +</div> + +<p>The Aldine mark, which appears on Aldus' +edition of Dante's <cite lang="it" xml:lang="it">Terze Rime</cite> in 1502, and on +nearly all the numerous works subsequently issued +from this famous press, is a dolphin twined about +an anchor, and the name <span class="smcap">Aldvs</span> divided by the +upper part of the anchor. This device continued +to be used after the death of Aldus Manutius +in 1515 by his descendants, who carried on the +work of the press until 1597.</p> + +<p>France was somewhat late in availing herself +of the advantages offered by the new art, although +Peter Schoeffer had had a bookseller's shop in +Paris. In 1470, Guillaume Fichet, Rector of the +Sorbonne, invited three German printers—Ulric +Gering, Michael Friburger and Martin Cranz—to +come and set up a printing-press at the Sorbonne. +The first work they produced there was +the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epistolæ</cite> of Gasparinus Barzizius. For this +and a few other volumes they used a very beautiful +Roman type, but after the closing of the +Sorbonne press in 1472 they established other +presses elsewhere in Paris and adopted a Gothic +character similar to that of the contemporary +French manuscripts, and therefore more likely +to be popular with French readers.</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_116" title="116"> </a> +The first work printed in the French language, +however, is believed to have been executed, +chiefly, at any rate, by an Englishman, probably +at Bruges, five years later, that is, about 1476. +The book was <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Recueil des Histoires de Troyes</cite>, +the Englishman was William Caxton. Caxton +also printed at the same place, and about the +year 1475, the first book in the English language—a +translation of <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Recueil</cite>. In both these +works he may have been assisted by Colard +Mansion, believed by some to have been his +typographical tutor, though so eminent an +authority as Mr Blades holds that <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Recueil</cite> +was printed by Mansion alone, and that Caxton +had no hand in it. As with so many other +questions concerning early typography, there +seems to be no means of deciding the point.</p> + +<p>The first work in French which was issued +in Paris was the <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Grands Chroniques de France</cite>, +printed by Pasquier Bonhomme in 1477.</p> + +<p>Holland and the Low Countries can show no +printed book with a date earlier than 1473, +while the celebrated city of Haarlem's first +dated book was produced ten years later. But +printing was very possibly practised in these +countries at an earlier period, and some undated +books exist which those who ascribe the invention +of typography to Holland consider to have +been executed by Dutch printers before any +German books had been given to the world. +Those who stand by Germany of course think +otherwise.</p> + +<p>In the year just named—1473—Nycolaum +Ketelaer and Gerard de Leempt produced Peter +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_117" title="117"> </a>Comestor's <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Historia Scholastica</cite> at Utrecht, and +Alost and Louvain also started printing. The +types of John Veldener, the first Louvain printer, +have a great resemblance to those used by Caxton, +and have led some to believe that Veldener +supplied Caxton with the types he first used +at Westminster. About the same time, Colard +Mansion, noted for his association either as +teacher or assistant with Caxton, is supposed +to have introduced printing into Bruges. His +first dated book was a <cite>Boccaccio</cite> of 1476, and +he continued to print until 1484, when he issued +a fine edition, in French, of Ovid's <cite>Metamorphoses</cite>. +After this nothing more is known of +him. Blades thinks that his printing brought +him financial ruin, and suggests that he may +have joined his old friend Caxton at Westminster, +and helped him in his work, but this +is only conjecture. We have already seen that +it was from Colard Mansion's press that the +first printed books in the English and French +languages were produced.</p> + +<p>The first Brussels press was established by the +Brethren of the Common Life, a community who +had hitherto made a speciality of the production +of manuscript books. At what date they began +to print in Brussels is uncertain, but their first +dated book, the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Gnotosolitos sive speculum conscientiae</cite>, +is of the year 1476. The Brethren also +had an earlier press at Marienthal, near Mentz, +and subsequently set up others at Rostock, +Nuremberg, and Gouda.</p> + +<p>The Elzevirs belong to a somewhat later period +than that with which we are concerned in these +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_118" title="118"> </a>chapters, but a name so famous in bibliographical +annals as theirs cannot well be passed over. The +first of the Elzevirs was Louis, a native of +Louvain, who in 1580 established a book-shop +in Leyden, gained the patronage of the university, +and opened an important trade with foreign +countries. Certain of his sons and successors +became printers as well as booksellers, and produced +work of the highest excellence. Some +of them opened shops or set up presses at +Amsterdam, The Hague, and Utrecht, and also +established agencies or branches elsewhere, and +extended their trade all over Europe. The history +of the partnerships between different members +of the family, and of the sixteen hundred and +odd publications which they printed or sold, is +a complicated subject upon which there is no +need to enter here. The last of the Elzevirs, a +degenerate great-great-grandson of the first Louis +Elzevir, was Abraham Elzevir of Leyden, who +died in 1712, leaving no heir, and at whose +decease the press and apparatus were sold.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI<br/><br/> +<small>EARLY PRINTING IN ENGLAND</small></a></h2> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="first-word">The</span> first name on the list of early English +printers, it is hardly necessary to say, is that of +Caxton. In his <cite>Life and Typography of William +Caxton</cite>, the late Mr Blades has told all there +is to be known of Caxton's life, and a great deal +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_119" title="119"> </a>about Caxton's work; and although as regards +the latter half of the subject there are authorities +who dissent from some of the theories he advances, +Mr Blades' monograph remains the +standard work on the matter of England's first +printer and the recognised source of information +concerning him and his books.</p> + +<p>But notwithstanding Mr Blades' industry and +learning, our knowledge of the early part of +Caxton's life is very scanty, and is derived +mainly from what Caxton himself tells us in +the prologue to his first literary production, the +English translation of the French romance by +Le Fevre, entitled <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Recueil des Histoires de +Troyes</cite>, or, Anglicised, <cite>The Recuyell of the Histories +of Troye</cite>. Speaking of his boldness in undertaking +the work, he refers to the “symplenes and +vnperfightness that I had in both langages, that +is to wete in frenshe and in englissh, for in france +was I neuer, and was born & lerned myn +englissh in kente in the weeld where I doubte +not is spoken as brode and rude englissh as is in +ony place of englond.” He was born probably +in 1422 or 1423, and further than this we +know nothing of him till his apprenticeship to +Robert Large, a London mercer. Large died +before Caxton's term of apprenticeship expired, +and the next we hear of young Caxton is that he +was living on the Continent, probably at Bruges. +At the time he wrote the prologue from which +quotation has just been made, that is about 1475, +he had been for thirty years “for the most parte +in the contres of Braband, flanders, holand, and +zeland.” Yet notwithstanding so long a residence +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_120" title="120"> </a>in the Low Countries, he describes himself +as “mercer of y<sup>e</sup> cyte of London.”</p> + +<p>As a wool merchant in Bruges he prospered, +and in time rose to be Governor of the Company +of Merchant Adventurers, or “The English +Nation,” and in that capacity probably dwelt at +the <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Domus Angliæ</i>, the Company's headquarters +in Bruges. In 1468, and while holding this +honourable and important position, he began +his translation of <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Le Recueil</cite>, but soon laid it +aside, unfinished. Two years later he took it +up again, but by this time he had resigned the +governorship, and was engaged in the service of +the Duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV. +of England. When or why he took this position, +and in what capacity he served the Duchess, is +not known, but it was her influence which brought +about the completion of his literary work and +indirectly caused the subsequent metamorphosis +of the mercer into the typographer. In the prologue +to <cite>The Recuyell</cite> he relates that the duchess +commanded him to finish the translation which +he had begun, and this lady's “dredefull comādement,” +he says, “y durste in no wyse disobey +because y am a servāt vnto her sayde grace and +resseiue of her yerly ffee and other many goode +and grete benefetes.”</p> + +<p><cite>The Recuyell of the Histories of Troye</cite>, when +finished, immediately found favour in the eyes of +the English dwellers in Bruges, who, rejoiced to +have the favourite romance of the day in their +own tongue, demanded more copies than one +pair of hands could supply. So because of the +weariness and labour of writing, and because of +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_121" title="121"> </a>his promise to various friends to provide them +with the book, “I haue practysed & lerned,” +he tells us, “at my grete charge and dispense, +to ordeyne this said book in prynte after the +maner & forme as ye may here see, and is +not wreton with penne and ynke, as other bokes +ben, to thende that every man may haue them +attones.”</p> + +<p>Where Caxton gained his knowledge of printing +is a matter of dispute. Mr Blades holds that +he was taught by Colard Mansion, the first printer +of Bruges, others that he learned at Cologne. +Mr Blades adduces in support of his view the +similarity of the types of Mansion and Caxton, +the reproduction in Caxton's work of various +peculiarities to be observed in Mansion's, the +improbability that Caxton would have travelled +to Cologne to get what was already at hand in +the city where he lived, and the absence in his +work “of any typographical link between him +and the Mentz school.” For the Cologne theory +Wynkyn de Worde, who carried on the work of +Caxton's printing-office at Westminster after the +latter's death, supplies some foundation in his +edition of Bartholomæus <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Proprietatibus +Rerum</cite>, where he says:</p> + +<div class="poem" style="width: 27em;"> +<div class="stanza"> +“And also of your charyte call to remembraunce<br/> +The soule of William Caxton, the first prynter of this boke<br/> +In laten tongue at Coleyn, hymself to avaunce,<br/> +That every well-disposed man may thereon loke.” +</div> +</div> + +<p>As usual there is something to be said on both +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_122" title="122"> </a>sides, but leaving this debateable ground we will +only add that the <cite>Recuyell of the <ins title="Historyes">Histories</ins> of +Troye</cite>, translated by himself from the French, is +generally considered to be the first book printed +by Caxton, perhaps with Mansion's help, and +probably at Bruges, and in or about the year +1475. It is also the first printed book in English. +It was followed about 1476 by the French +version of the same work, and by the famous +<cite>Game and Play of the Chesse Moralised</cite>. This +was once believed to be the first book printed on +English soil, but it is now assigned to Caxton's +press on the Continent, probably at Bruges.</p> + +<p>About 1476 Caxton returned to England, and +set up his press at Westminster. It has been +asserted that he worked in the scriptorium, but +it is not known that Westminster Abbey ever had +a scriptorium. Others have thought that he +printed in some other part of the Abbey. His +office, however, was situated in the Almonry, in +the Abbey precincts, and was called the Red Pale, +but it is now impossible to identify the place +where it stood. In 1477 Caxton produced <cite>The +Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophres</cite>, the first +book, so far as is known, ever printed in +England.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;"> +<a name="Type_of_Caxton"></a> +<img src="images/p0123-image.png" width="415" height="366" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>TYPE OF CAXTON'S DICTES OR SAYENGIS OF THE +PHILOSOPHRES, WESTMINSTER</small>, 1477 (<i>exact size.</i>)</div> +</div> + +<p>The Westminster printer was patronised by +the king and by the mighty of the land, and also +by the Duchess of Burgundy, and with his pen, +as well as with his press, he sought to supply the +books and literature which the taste of the time +demanded. “The clergy wanted service-books,” +says Mr Blades, “and Caxton accordingly provided +them with psalters, commemorations and +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_123" title="123"> </a>directories; the preachers wanted sermons, and +were supplied with the ‘Golden Legend,’ and +other similar books; the ‘prynces, lordes, barons, +knyghtes & gentilmen’ were craving for +‘joyous and pleysaunt historyes’ of chivalry, +and the press at the ‘Red Pale’ produced a fresh +romance nearly every year.” From his arrival +at Westminster about 1476 until his death about +1491—the date is not exactly known—Caxton was +continually occupied in translating, editing, and +printing, though beyond the prologues, epilogues, +and colophons to his various publications he +composed little himself, his principal work being +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_124" title="124"> </a>the addition of a book to Higden's <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Polychronicon</cite>, +bringing that history down to 1460. His translations +number twenty-two.</p> + +<p>The long list of his printed works includes a +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Horæ</cite>, printed about 1478, and now represented +only by a fragment, which is of great interest +as being probably the earliest English-printed +service-book extant. It was found in the cover +of another old book, and is now in the Bodleian +Library.</p> + +<p>Other books printed by Caxton were the +<cite>Canterbury Tales</cite>; <cite>Boethius</cite>; <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Parvus et Magnus +Catho</cite>, a mediæval school-book, the third edition +of which contains two woodcuts, probably the +earliest produced in England; <cite>The Historye of +Reynart the Foxe</cite>, translated from the Dutch by +Caxton; <cite>A Book of the Chesse Moralysed</cite>, a +second edition of the <cite>Game and Play of the +Chesse</cite>, printed by Caxton abroad; <cite>The Cronicles +of Englond</cite>; <cite>The Pylgremage of the Sowle</cite>, believed +to have been translated from the French +by Lydgate; Gower's <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Confessio Amantis</cite>; <cite>The +Knyght of the Toure</cite>, translated by Caxton from +the French; <cite>The Golden Legend</cite>, consisting of +lives of saints compiled by Caxton from French +and Latin texts; <cite>The Fables of Esope</cite>, etc., translated +by Caxton from the French; Chaucer's +<cite>Book of Fame</cite>; <cite>Troylus and Creside</cite>; Malory's +<cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Morte d'Arthur</cite>; <cite>The Book of Good Manners</cite>, +translated by Caxton from the French of Jacques +Legrand; <cite>Statutes of Henry VII.</cite>, in English, the +“earliest known volume of printed statutes”; +<cite>The Governal of Helthe</cite>, from the Latin, author +and translator unknown, the “earliest medical +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_125" title="125"> </a>work printed in English”; <cite>Divers Ghostly +Matters</cite>, including tracts on the seven points of +true love and everlasting wisdom, the Twelve +Profits of Tribulation, and the Rule of St Benet; +<cite>The Fifteen Oes and other Prayers</cite>, printed by +command of “our liege ladi Elizabeth … +Quene of Englonde, and of the … pryncesse +Margarete,” and the “prouffytable boke for +mānes soule and right comfortable to the body +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_126" title="126"> </a>and specyally in aduersitee and trybulacyon, +whiche boke is called <cite>The Chastysing of Goddes +Chyldern</cite>.”</p> + +<p>Between seventy and eighty different books, +besides indulgences and other small productions, +are attributed to Caxton's press, and the works +just named will serve to give an idea of their +diversity and range. Some of the most popular +were printed more than once; of the <cite>Golden +Legend</cite>, for example, three editions are known, +and of the <cite>Dictes or Sayings</cite>, the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Horæ</cite>, and +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Parvus et Magnus Catho</cite>, and several others, +two editions are known. There is also a strong +probability that many of Caxton's productions +have been lost altogether, since thirty-eight of +those yet extant are represented either by single +copies or by fragments.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 519px;"> +<a name="Boys_Learning_Grammar"></a> +<img src="images/p0125-image.jpg" width="519" height="417" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>BOYS LEARNING GRAMMAR</small>, from Caxton's “Catho” and +“Mirrour of the World.”</div> +</div> + +<p>Caxton, according to Mr Blades, used six +different founts of Gothic type, but Mr E. +Gordon Duff, in his <cite>Early English Printing</cite>, +credits him with eight founts. His books +are all printed on paper, with the exception +of a copy of the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Speculum Vitæ Christi</cite> in +the British Museum, and one of the <cite>Doctrinal +of Sapyence</cite>, in the Royal Library at Windsor +Castle.</p> + +<p>The well-known device of Caxton was not used +by him till 1487. It is usually understood to +stand for W.C. 74, but its exact meaning is not +known. Blades believes that it refers to the +date of printing of <cite>The Recuyell</cite>, the first product +of Caxton's typographical skill.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;"> +<a name="Caxtons_Device"></a> +<img src="images/p0127-image.jpg" width="415" height="497" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>CAXTON'S DEVICE.</small></div> +</div> + +<p>In 1480, three or four years after Caxton had +settled at Westminster, John Lettou, a foreigner +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_127" title="127"> </a>of whom little is known, established the first +London printing-press.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> His workmanship was +particularly good, and he was the first in this +country to print two columns to the page. He +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_128" title="128"> </a>subsequently took into partnership William de +Machlinia, and according to the colophon of +their <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Tenores Novelli</cite> the office of these two +printers was located in the Church of All Saints', +but this piece of information is too vague to +assist in the identification of the spot. Machlinia +is afterwards found working alone in an office +near the Flete Bridge. His later books were +printed in Holborn.</p> + +<p>A well-known name is that of Wynkyn de +Worde, a native of Holland, and at one time +assistant to Caxton. At Caxton's death he became +master of the Red Pale, and issued a +number of books “from Caxton's house in Westminster,” +including reprints of several of Caxton's +publications. He made use of some modified +forms of Caxton's device, but he also had a +device of his own, which first appears in the +<cite>Book of Courtesye</cite> printed some time before 1493. +He printed, among other works, the <cite>Golden +Legend</cite>, the <cite>Book of Courtesye</cite>, Bonaventura's +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Speculum Vitæ Christi</cite>, Higden's <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Polychronicon</cite>, +which appeared in 1495 and is the first English +book with printed musical notes; <ins title="Bartholomæus">Bartholomæus'</ins> +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Proprietatibus Rerum</cite>, which appeared about +1495 and is the first book printed on English-made +paper, and which has already been noticed +as the authority for supposing that Caxton learned +printing at Cologne; the <cite>Boke of St Albans</cite>, the +<cite>Chronicles of England</cite>, <cite lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">Morte D'Arthur</cite>, <cite>The +Canterbury Tales</cite>, etc., etc. He also issued a +host of sermons, almanacs, and other minor +works.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;"> +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_129" title="129"> </a> +<a name="Type_of_Wynkyn_de_Worde"></a> +<img src="images/p0129-image.png" width="393" height="600" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>TYPE OF WYNKYN DE WORDE'S HIGDEN'S POLYCHRONICON, +LONDON</small>, 1495 (<i>exact size.</i>)</div> +</div> + +<p>In 1500 Wynkyn de Worde moved from +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_130" title="130"> </a>Caxton's house in Westminster to the Sign of +the Sun, in Fleet Street, and presently opened +another place of business at the Sign of Our +Lady of Pity, in St Paul's Churchyard.</p> + +<p>About a year after Caxton had established +himself at the Red Pale, and had issued the +<cite>Dictes or Sayengis</cite>, and two years before the +city of London had attained to the dignity of +a printing-press, typography began to be practised +at Oxford, but by whom is not known, though +very possibly by Theodore Rood of Cologne. +The first Oxford book was the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Exposicio in +Simbolum Apostolorum</cite> of St Jerome, a work +which happens to be dated 1468, and has thereby +led some to assign to Oxford the credit of having +printed the first book in this country. But that +date is now acknowledged to be a printer's error +for 1478. A similar misprint led to a similar +error as to the first book printed in Venice. +The <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Decor Puellarum</cite>, executed by Nicolas +Jenson, purports to have appeared in 1461, and +thus was at one time supposed to be the first +book printed in Venice, but the date is now +recognised as a misprint for 1471, which leaves +John of Spires the first Venetian printer and his +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Epistolæ familiares</cite> of Cicero, 1469, the first +Venetian printed book.</p> + +<p>Cambridge was more than forty years later +than Oxford in providing herself with a printing-press.</p> + +<p>In the same year that London began to print +appeared the first books from the press at the +Abbey of St Albans, namely, <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Augustini Dacti +elegancie</cite>, and the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Nova Rhetorica</cite> of Saona. As +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_131" title="131"> </a>both were printed in 1480 it is uncertain which +is the earlier. This press was probably started +in 1479, but of the printer nothing is known, +except that when Wynkyn de Worde reprinted +the <cite>Chronicles of England</cite> from a copy printed at +St Albans, he refers to him as the St Albans +“scole mayster.” The famous <cite>Bokys of Haukyng +and Huntyng, and also of Cootarmuris</cite>, commonly +known as the Book of St Albans, written by the +accomplished Juliana Berners, prioress of the +neighbouring nunnery of Sopwell, was printed at +the monastery in 1486, and reprinted ten years +later by Wynkyn de Worde.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII<br/><br/> +<small>EARLY PRINTING IN SCOTLAND</small></a></h2> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="first-word">Scotland</span> was one of the last of the countries of +Europe to appreciate the advantages of typography +so far as to possess herself of a printing-press. +She was also, as we have pointed out in a +previous chapter, the only one, save England, +and possibly Holland, to have the art of printing +brought to her by one of her own sons and not +by a foreigner.</p> + +<p>The first Scottish printer was Andrew Myllar, +an Edinburgh bookseller, who imported books +from England and from France, and who, in the +latter country, learned how to print. Two books +are extant which were printed for him on the +continent, probably at Rouen by Laurence +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_132" title="132"> </a>Hostingue, and these are worth noticing. The +first may speak for itself, through its colophon, +of which the following is a translation:—“The +Book of certain ‘Words Equivocal,’ in alphabetical +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_133" title="133"> </a>order, along with an interpretation in +the English tongue, has been happily finished. +Which <ins title="Androw">Andrew</ins> Myllar, a Scotsman, has been +solicitous should be printed, with admirable art +and corrected with diligent care, both in orthographic +style, according to the ability available, +and cleared from obscurity. In the year of the +Christian Redemption, One thousand five hundred +and fifth.” The second book is an <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Expositio +Sequentiarum</cite>, or Book of Sequences, of the +Salisbury use, printed in 1506.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 417px;"> +<a name="Myllars_Device"></a> +<img src="images/p0132-image.jpg" width="417" height="544" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>MYLLAR'S DEVICE.</small></div> +</div> + +<p>In 1507 Myllar was taken into partnership by +Walter Chepman, and fortified by a royal +privilege these two set up the first Scottish +printing-press, with plant and types and workmen +brought by Myllar from France. Chepman +furnished the capital and Myllar the knowledge. +Their press was situated at the foot of Blackfriars +Wynd in the Southgate in Edinburgh. The +privilege sets forth that Myllar and Chepman +have “at our instance and request, for our +plesour, the honour and proffit of our Realme +and Liegis, takin on thame to furnis and bring +hame ane prent, with all stuff belangand tharto, +and expert men to use the sammyn for imprenting +within our Realme the bukis of our +Lawis, actis of parliament, cronicles, mess bukis,” +etc.</p> + +<p>It is believed that the favour and encouragement +shown to Myllar and Chepman by the +King was the result of the influence of William +Elphinstone, Bishop of Aberdeen, who had prepared +a Breviary, <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Breviarum Aberdonense</cite>, which +he wished to be used by his countrymen to the +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_134" title="134"> </a>exclusion of the Salisbury Missal, and that the +real purpose of the promotion of the first printing-press +in Scotland was the printing of this +work. For the privilege goes on to say: “And +alis it is divisit and thocht expedient be us and +our consall, that in tyme cuming mess bukis, +efter our awin scottis use, and with legendis of +Scottis sanctis, as is now gaderit and ekit be ane +Reverend fader in God, and our traist consalour +Williame bischope of abirdene and utheris, be +usit generaly within al our Realme alssone as the +sammyn may be imprentit and providet, and that +na maner of sic bukis of Salusbery use be brocht +to be sauld within our Realme in tym cuming.” +Anyone infringing this decree was to be punished +and the books forfeited.</p> + +<p>But the earliest work of the Southgate press +consisted of literature of a lighter sort, and, when +dated at all, is dated 1508, while the Breviary did +not make its appearance till later. These early +productions, which survive only in fragments, +included <cite>The Porteous of Noblenes</cite>, <cite>The Knightly +Tale of Golagros and Gawane</cite>, <cite>Sir Eglamoure of +Artoys</cite>, <cite>The Maying or Disport</cite> of Chaucer, and +several others. <cite>The Maying or Disport</cite> of +Chaucer is the most perfect specimen remaining, +and its exact date can be ascertained from its +colophon, which reads as follows:—</p> + +<blockquote class="black-letter"> +<p>Heir endis the maying and disport of Chaucer. +Imprētit in the southgait of Edinburgh be +Walter chepman and Androw myllar the fourth +day of <ins title="apile">aprile</ins> the yhere of God M.CCCCC. +and viii yheris.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_135" title="135"> </a> +The <cite>Maying and Disport</cite> is better known as +the <cite>Complaynt of a Lover's Life</cite>, or the <cite>Complaynt +of the Black Knight</cite>.</p> + +<hr class="vertical-space"/> + +<p>Strange to say, we hear no more of Myllar +after this. But Chepman comes forward again +in connection with the Breviary (though it is +uncertain whether he was its printer), and probably +printed some other books which have +been lost. The Breviary is a small octavo in +two volumes, the first of which appeared in 1509 +and the other in 1510. It is printed in red and +black Gothic characters. The conclusion of the +Latin colophon to the second volume may be +rendered as follows:—</p> + +<p>“Printed in the town of Edinburgh, by the +command and at the charge of the honourable +gentleman Walter Chepman, merchant in the +said town, on the fourth day of June in the year +of our Lord 1510.”</p> + +<p>The next Scottish printer, so far as is known, +was a certain John Story, though only an <cite>Office +of Our Lady of Pity</cite>, accompanied by a legend +on the subject of the relics of St Andrew, remains +to testify to us of his existence. It was printed +“by command of Charles Steele,” and Dr Dickson +dates it at (perhaps) about 1520.</p> + +<p>Rather more than twenty years later, Thomas +Davidson became King's Printer in Edinburgh. +His only dated work was <cite>The Nevv Actis And +Constitvtionis of Parliament Maid Be The Rycht +Excellent Prince Iames The Fift Kyng of Scottis +1540</cite>. The title-page of this book consists of +a large woodcut of the Scottish arms, above +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_136" title="136"> </a>which is the title in four lines printed in Roman +capitals. This book also displays all three forms +of type—black letter, Roman, and Italic. Its +colophon, which is printed in Italics, is as +follows:—</p> + +<p><i>Imprentit in Edinburgh, be Thomas Davidson, +dweling abone the nether bow, on the north syde of +the gait, the aucht day of Februarii, the zeir of +God. 1541. zeris.</i></p> + +<p>But there is some of Davidson's undated work +which is earlier than this, though it is not known +for certain when he began to print. Of these +undated publications, <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Ad Serenissimum Scotorum +Regem Iacobum Quintum de suscepto Regni Regimine +a diis feliciter ominato Strena</cite> is notable as +affording the earliest example of the use of +Roman type by a Scottish printer, for its title is +printed in these characters. Only one copy is +known, and that is in the British Museum. +Opinions differ as to its date, but the majority +assign it to the year 1528.</p> + +<p>Davidson's most important production, however, +was his beautiful folio edition of Bellenden's +translation of Hector Boece's work, <cite>The hystory +and croniklis of Scotland</cite>. This, says Dr Dickson, +is “an almost unrivalled specimen of early British +typography. It is one of those gems which the +earlier period of the art so frequently produced, +but which no future efforts of the press have +surpassed or even equalled.” It has a title-page +similar to that of the <cite>Nevv Actis</cite>, but the title +itself is printed in handsome red Gothic characters. +Dr Dickson, to whose learned <cite>Annals of Scottish +Printing</cite> (completed, on account of the author's +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_137" title="137"> </a>ill-health, by Mr J. P. Edmond) I am indebted for +the details of early Scottish typography given +above, assigns this book to the year 1542.</p> + +<p>Having seen the printing-press fairly set to +work in Scotland, it will not be necessary here +to notice its later productions. But before closing +the chapter it will be interesting to observe +that Edinburgh was the place of publication of +the first work printed in the Gaelic language. +This was Bishop Carswell's translation of the +Scottish Prayer-Book, which was printed in 1567 +by Roibeard (Robert) Lekprevik. It is in the +form of Gaelic common at that time to both +Scotland and Ireland, and therefore as regards +language it forestalls the <cite>Irish Alphabet and +Catechism</cite>, Dublin, 1571, to which reference is +made below. The type of Carswell's Prayer-Book, +however, is Roman. The following is a +translation of its title-page, made by Dr +M'Lauchlan:—</p> + +<blockquote> +<p class="center">FORMS OF<br/> +<span class="smcap">Prayer and</span></p> + +<p class="no-indent">administration of the sacraments and catechism +of the Christian faith, here below. According +as they are practised in the churches of Scotland +which have loved and accepted the faithful gospel +of God, on having put away the false faith, turned +from the Latin and English into Gaelic by Mr +John Carswell Minister of the Church of God in +the bounds of Argyll, whose other name is Bishop +of the Isles.</p> + +<p><small>No other foundation can any man lay save that which is +laid even Jesus Christ.</small></p> + +<p class="center"><small>1 Cor. 3.</small></p> +</blockquote> + +<p class="center"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_138" title="138"> </a> +Printed in dún Edin whose other name is Dún +monaidh the 24th day of April 1567,</p> + +<p class="center">By Roibeard Lekprevik.</p> + +<p>Lekprevik, whose first work, so far as is known, +was produced in 1561, printed not only in Edinburgh, +but also in Stirling and St Andrews, at +different times.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII<br/><br/> +<small>EARLY PRINTING IN IRELAND</small></a></h2> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="first-word">In</span> heading a chapter “Early Printing in Ireland,” +one is somewhat reminded of the celebrated +chapter on snakes. As a matter of fact, however, +there is no real analogy. Ireland was very slow +to adopt the printing-press, and made little use +of it when she did adopt it, yet it would not +be quite accurate to say that there was no early +printing in Ireland. But it can truthfully be said +that Ireland's early printing was late—late, that +is, compared with that of other countries.</p> + +<p>The first typographical work known to have +been produced in Ireland is the Book of Common +Prayer—the First Prayer-Book of Edward VI.—which +was printed in Dublin in 1551 by Humfrey +Powell. Powell was a printer in Holborn Conduit +in 1548, and in 1551 went to Dublin and +set up as King's Printer. A “Proclamation … +against the rebels of the O'Conors.… Imprynted +at Dublyn, by Humfrey Powell, 16th +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_139" title="139"> </a>August, 1564,” seems to be the only other known +specimen of his Dublin printing.</p> + +<p>The colophon of the first book printed on +Irish ground is as follows:—</p> + +<blockquote> +<p class="black-letter">Imprinted by Humfrey Powell, Printer to +the Kynges Maiestie, in his hyghnesse realme +of Ireland, dwellyng in the citee of Dublin in +the great toure by the Crane.</p> + +<p class="center" lang="la" xml:lang="la"><i>Cum priuilegio ad imprimendum solum</i><br/> +<span class="smcap">Anno Domini</span><br/> +M.D.LI.</p> +</blockquote> + +<p>This Prayer-book is exceedingly rare. The +British Museum possesses no copy, but has to +content itself with photographs showing the title, +colophon, etc., of that in the library of Trinity +College, Dublin. Emanuel College, Cambridge, +has one which formerly belonged to Archbishop +Sancroft. Cotton, in his <cite>Typographical Gazetteer</cite>, +says that Powell's Prayer-book is most creditable +to the early Irish press. It is in the English +language, and printed in black letter.</p> + +<p>The first book printed in the Gaelic language, +though in Roman type, has already been spoken +of. The first Gaelic type was exhibited to the +world in a tiny volume of fifty-four pages printed +at Dublin in 1571, and entitled <cite>Irish Alphabet +and Catechism</cite>. This was compiled by John +O'Kearney, and contained the elements of the +Irish language, the Catechism, some prayers, and +Archbishop Parker's articles of the Christian rule. +The following is a facsimile of the title-page to +which a translation is added:—</p> + +<blockquote> +<p class="center smcap"><a class="pagenum" name="Page_141" title="141"> </a> +Irish Alphabet and Catechism.</p> + +<p>Precept or instruction of a Christian, together +with certain articles of the Christian rule, which +are proper for everyone to adopt who would be +submissive to the ordinance of God and of the +Queen in this Kingdom; translated from Latin +and English into Irish by John O'Kearney.</p> + +<div class="poem" style="width: 18em;"> +<div class="stanza"> +Awake, why sleepest thou, O Lord?<br/> +Arise, cast us not off for ever. +<div class="right">Ps. xliv. ver. 23.</div> +</div> +</div> + +<hr class="small-line"/> + +<p>Printed in Irish in the town of the Ford of +the Hurdles, at the cost of Master John Usher, +alderman, at the head of the Bridge, the 20th +day of June 1571.</p> + +<p class="center">With the privilege of the great Queen.</p> + +<hr class="small-line"/> + +<p class="center">1571</p> +</blockquote> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;"> +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_140" title="140"> </a> +<a name="Title_page_of_OKearney"></a> +<img src="images/p0140-image.jpg" width="415" height="674" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">title-page of <ins title="OKearney's">O'Kearney's</ins> Irish alphabet and +catechism</span> (<i>slightly reduced</i>)</div> +</div> + +<p>This book was produced by John O'Kearney, +sometime treasurer of St Patrick's Cathedral, +and his friend Nicholas Walsh, chancellor of +St Patrick's and afterwards Bishop of Ossory, +and the John Usher who defrayed the expense +was then Collector of Customs of the port of +Dublin. Its appearance was considered a momentous +event by those concerned with it, for +great benefits were anticipated for the Irish +people as soon as “their national tongue and +its own dear alphabet” were reduced to print, as +O'Kearney states at some length in the preface. +He also tells us that the types from which this +volume was printed were provided “at the cost +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_142" title="142"> </a>of the high, pious, great, and mighty prince +Elizabeth.”</p> + +<p>In this connection it is worth while to notice +two extant records, one among the State Papers +(Irish Series) and the other among the Acts of +the Privy Council. From the first, made some +time in December 1567, we gather that Queen +Elizabeth had already paid £66. 13s. 4d. “for +the making of carecters for the testament in +irishe,” and that this Testament was not yet in +the press. The second (August 1587) states that +the New Testament was translated into Irish by +Walsh and O'Kearney, but “never imprynted, +partlie for want of proper characters and men of +that nacion and language skillful in the mystery +of pryntyng,” and partly on account of the cost.</p> + +<p>I can find no other record of the provision of +a fount of Irish types at the Queen's expense, and +having no more definite information at hand on +this point, and taking into consideration the +contents of the book—an Irish alphabet, and +directions for reading Irish, and a catechism, etc. +(by way of exercise?)—its diminutive size and the +imperfection of its print, I venture the suggestion +that O'Kearney's work was printed as a trial of +the new types given by the Queen and intended +for printing the New Testament. This view is +supported by the first words of the preface: +“Here, O reader, you have the first value and +fruit of that great instructive work, which I have +been producing and devising for you for a long +time, that is, the faithful and perfect type of the +Gaelic tongue.” The conclusion seems to be +that the types were inadequate for the larger +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_143" title="143"> </a>work, and that for some reason there was a difficulty +about supplying more or finding anyone to +undertake the printing.</p> + +<p>The preface further says, after requesting corrections +and amendments as regards the typography: +“And it is not alone that I am asking +you to give this kind friendly correction to the +printing, but also to the translation or rendering +made of this catechism put forth as far back as +1563 of the age of the Lord and [which] is now +more correct and complete, with the principal +articles of the Christian faith associated therewith.” +This has led some to think that there +was an earlier edition of the <cite>Alphabet and +Catechism</cite>. But it seems plain that O'Kearney +refers to the Catechism only, not to the whole +book, and equally plain that the 1563 work, +whatever it was, was not printed in Irish type, or +there would have been no special occasion to +glorify the 1571 <cite>Alphabet and Catechism</cite>. Since +nothing is known of the <cite>Catechism</cite> of 1563, it is +very possible that it existed only in manuscript +and never went to press.</p> + +<p>I have gone into this matter of the <cite>Irish +Alphabet and Catechism</cite> of 1571 somewhat at +length, because I am not aware that it has ever +yet received detailed attention. The quotations +I have given from the preface are from an anonymous +manuscript translation inserted in the +British Museum copy.</p> + +<p>O'Kearney's <cite>Irish Alphabet and Catechism</cite> is +so rare that only three copies are known to exist: +one being in the British Museum, one in the +Bodleian Library, and one in the library of +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_144" title="144"> </a>Lincoln Cathedral. The fount of types from +which it was printed was not quite correct; for +instance, the small Roman “a” is used, and an +“H” is introduced, a letter foreign to the Gaelic +alphabet.</p> + +<p>During the seventeenth century, and even later, +most of the Irish books were sent to be printed +on the continent or in England. Several books +by Irish authors, chiefly catechisms, works on the +language, and dictionaries, bear the names of +Louvain, Antwerp, Rome or Paris, such as the +<cite>Catechism</cite> of Bonaventure Hussey, printed at +Louvain in 1608, and reprinted at Antwerp in +1611 and 1618.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV<br/><br/> +<small>BOOK BINDINGS</small></a></h2> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="first-word">A book</span> as we know it is usually contained in a +case or cover intended primarily for its protection. +The fastening together of the different +sections of the book, and the providing it with a +cover, and, incidentally, the decoration of that +cover, come under the head of bookbinding, or +bibliopegy, as the learned call it. The process of +binding consists of two parts: first, the arrangement +of the leaves and sections in proper order, +their preparation for sewing by beating or pressing, +the stitching of them together, and the +fastening of them into the cover. This is called +“forwarding.” The other half of the work is the +lettering and decoration of the cover, and is called +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_145" title="145"> </a>“finishing.” With the decoration of the cover +only can we concern ourselves here.</p> + +<p>The art of binding books is far older than the art +of printing. The first known attempt to provide +a cover by way of protection for a document was +made by the workman who devised a clay case +for the clay tablet-books of Babylonia, but this is +as far from our notion of bookbinding as the +tablets themselves are from our notion of books. +Nor do the Roman bindings, which consisted of +coloured parchment wrappers, come much nearer +the modern conception. The ivory cases of the +double-folding wax tablets or diptychs, too, of the +second and third centuries, <small>A.D.</small>, are also outside +the pale, strictly speaking, but they deserve +mention on account of the beautiful carving with +which they are decorated, and on which some of +the finest Byzantine art was expended.</p> + +<p>One of the earliest bookbinders or book-cover +decorators whose name has come down to us +was Dagæus, an Irish monk, and a clever worker +in metals. Among the many beautiful objects +in metal wrought in the old Irish monasteries +were skilfully designed covers and clasps for the +books which were so highly prized in the “Isle +of Saints.” Nor were covers alone deemed sufficient +protection from wear and tear. Satchels, +or polaires, such as that mentioned in Adamnan's +story of the miraculous preservation of St +Columba's Hymn-book, were in common use +for conveying books from place to place. Very +few specimens now remain, but there is one at +Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, containing +an Irish missal, and another, which is preserved +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_146" title="146"> </a>at Trinity College, Dublin, together with the +<cite>Book of Armagh</cite>, to which it belongs, is thus +described by the Rev. T. K. Abbott, in the +<cite>Book of Trinity College</cite>:—</p> + +<p>“An interesting object connected with the +<cite>Book of Armagh</cite> is its leather satchel, finely +embossed with figures of animals and interlaced +work. It is formed of a single piece of leather, +36 in. long and 12½ broad, folded so as to make +a flat-sided pouch, 12 in. high, 12¾ broad, and +2¼ deep. Part of it is doubled over to make a +flap, in which are eight brass-bound slits, corresponding +to as many brass loops projecting from +the case, in which ran two rods, meeting in the +middle, where they were secured by a lock. In +early times, in Irish monastic libraries, books +were kept in such satchels, which were suspended +by straps from hooks in the wall. Thus it is +related in an old legend that <ins title="“on">‘on</ins> the night of +Longaradh's death all the book-satchels in Ireland +fell <ins title="down.”">down.’”</ins></p> + +<p>In Ireland, too, specially valuable volumes were +enclosed in a book-shrine, or cumhdach; and +although, like the satchels, these cumhdachs are +not bindings in the proper sense of the word, yet +since they were intended for the same purpose +as bindings, that is, the protection of the book, +it will not be out of place to speak of them here.</p> + +<p>The use of bookshrines in Ireland was very +possibly the survival of an early custom of the +primitive Church. It seems to have been applied +chiefly, if not always, to books too precious or +sacred to be read. We are told that a Psalter +belonging to the O'Donels was fastened up in a +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_147" title="147"> </a>case that was not to be opened; and were it ever +unclosed, deaths and disasters would ensue to +the clan. If borne by a priest of unblemished +character thrice round their troops before a +battle, it was believed to have the power of +granting them victory, provided their cause were +a righteous one.</p> + +<p>Cumhdachs were also used in Scotland, but +no Scottish examples have survived. The oldest +cumhdach now existing is one in the Museum of +the Royal Irish Academy, which was made for +the MS. known as Molaise's Gospels, at the +beginning of the eleventh century. It is of +bronze, and ornamented with silver plates bearing +gilt patterns. Another book-shrine, made for +the Stowe Missal a little later, is of oak, covered +with silver plates, and decorated with a large +oval crystal in the middle of one side. The +Book of Kells once had a golden cumhdach, we +are told, or, more correctly, perhaps, a cumhdach +covered with gold plates; but when the book was +stolen from the church of Kells in 1006 it was +despoiled of its costly case, with which the robbers +made off, leaving the most precious part of their +booty, the book itself, lying on the ground hidden +by a sod.</p> + +<p>One of the earliest bookbinders in this country +was a bishop, Ethilwold of Lindisfarne, who +bound the great Book of the Gospels that his +predecessor Eadfrid had written. For the same +book Billfrið the anchorite made a beautiful +metal cover, gilded and bejewelled. The Lindisfarne +Gospels still exists, but the cover which +now contains it, though costly, is quite new. +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_148" title="148"> </a>Like most ancient book covers the original one +has been lost, or destroyed for the sake of its +valuable material.</p> + +<p>Among the earlier mediæval bindings those +of the Byzantine school of art rank very high. +They were exceedingly splendid, for gold was +their prevailing feature, and jewels and enamel +were also lavished upon them.</p> + +<p>The ordinary books of the middle ages were +usually bound in substantial oak boards covered +with leather, and often having clasps, corners, +and protecting bosses of metal. In the twelfth +century the English leather bindings produced at +London, Winchester, Durham and other centres, +were pre-eminent. Miss Prideaux instances some +books which were bound for Bishop Pudsey, and +which are now in the cathedral library of Durham, +as “perhaps the finest monuments of this class of +work in existence.” The sides of these volumes +are blind-tooled; that is, the designs are impressed +by means of dies or tools with various patterns +and representations of men and of fabulous +creatures, but not gilded.</p> + +<p>Certain volumes, however, were treated with +particular honour, either at the expense of a +wealthy and book-loving owner, or for the purpose +of presentation to some great personage, +and for these sumptuous bindings the materials +employed were various and costly. A Latin +psalter which was written for Melissenda, wife +of Fulk, Count of Anjou and King of Jerusalem, +has a very wonderful French binding. The +covers are of wood, and each bears a series of +delicate ivory carvings of Byzantine work. The +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_149" title="149"> </a>upper cover shows incidents in the life of David, +and symbolical figures, and the lower cover +scenes representing the works of Mercy, with +figures of birds and animals. Rubies and +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_150" title="150"> </a>turquoises dotted here and there help to +beautify the ivory. This book is in the British +Museum.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 419px;"> +<a name="Cover_of_Melissendas_Psalter"></a> +<img src="images/p0149-image.jpg" width="419" height="563" alt="" title="" /> +<div class="caption"><small>UPPER COVER OF MELISSENDA'S PSALTER</small> (<i>reduced</i>).</div> +</div> + +<p>Another specimen in the same collection may +be taken as an example of the use of enamel as a +decoration for bindings. This is a Latin manuscript +of the Gospels of SS. Luke and John, which +is enclosed in wooden boards bound in red +leather. In the upper cover is a sunk panel +of Limoges enamel on copper gilt, representing +Christ in glory. The work is of the thirteenth +century. These enamelled bindings were often +additionally decorated with gold and jewels.</p> + +<p>A curious little modification of the ordinary +leather binding was sometimes made in the case +of small devotional works. The leather of the +back and sides was continued at the bottom in a +long tapering slip, at the end of which was a kind +of button, so that the book might be fastened to +the dress or girdle. Slender chains were often +used for the same purpose.</p> + +<p>About the time of the invention of printing, +leather bindings began to be decorated with gold +tooling. Tooling is the name given to the +designs impressed upon the leather with various +small dies so manipulated as to make a connected +pattern. When the impressions are gilded +the dull leather is brightened and beautified in +proportion to the skill and taste expended by the +workman. The art of gold tooling is believed to +have originated in the East, and to have been +brought to Italy by Venetian traders, or, as it has +also been suggested, through the manuscripts +which were dispersed at the fall of Constantinople. +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_151" title="151"> </a>In any case, it was in Italy that it was +first adopted and brought to perfection, and other +European countries learned the art from Italian +craftsmen. Chief among the early Italian gilt +bindings are those made of the finest leathers +and inscribed <small>THO. MAIOLI ET AMICORVM</small>. +Nothing whatever is known of Thomasso Maioli, +except that he had a large library and spared no +expense in clothing his books in bibliopegic +purple and fine linen.</p> + +<p>What Maioli appears to have been among +Italian book-collectors, Jean Grolier, Vicomte +d'Aguisy, was among French bibliophiles. He +held for a time the post of Treasurer of the +Duchy of Milan, and while in Italy he collected +books for his library and made the acquaintance +of Aldus Manutius. Many of the Aldine books +are dedicated to him, for Aldus occasionally +stood in need of financial aid and found in +Grolier a generous and practical patron of literature. +Some of the famous bindings which distinguish +Grolier's books were executed in Italy, +others in France, where Italian bookbinders were +then teaching their art to the native workmen. +They display the same style of design that +decorates the books of Maioli, and Maioli's +benevolent inscription too, Grolier adapted to +his own use, and stamped upon certain of his +books <small>IO. GROLIERII ET AMICORVM</small>. The exact +signification of these words is obscure. At +first sight they might appear to refer delicately +to the joy with which the owner of the book +would place it at the disposal of his friends, but +this does not accord with what is known of the +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_152" title="152"> </a>character of book-lovers. Perhaps their only +meaning is that Maioli and Grolier were at all +times ready to please their friends and to gratify +themselves by exhibiting their treasures. But +since several copies of the same work are known +to have been bound for Grolier—for instance, +five copies of the Aldine Virgil—it has been +suggested that he occasionally made presents of +his books, though he drew the line at lending +them.</p> + +<p>Grolier's copy of the <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Medicina</cite> of Celsus, +which is in the British Museum, is bound in a +somewhat different style from that usually associated +with his name. It is in brown leather; +blind-tooled except for some gold and coloured +roundels in different parts of the device. In the +centre of both covers is a medallion in colours, +that on the upper cover representing Curtius leaping +into the abyss in the Forum, and that on +the lower cover representing the defence of the +bridge by Horatius. This is an Italian binding.</p> + +<p>Although it was Italy who first improved upon +the usual methods of mediæval binding, and +from her that France took lessons in this new +and better way of clothing books, it was France +who was destined to bring the art to its highest +excellence. Having learned her lesson, she perfected +herself in it, and the workmen of the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, such as +Geoffroy Tory, Nicholas, Clovis, and Robert +Eve, and Le Gascon, carried French bookbinding +into the very first rank, where it may be considered +to remain to this day.</p> + +<p>Some of the finest French examples extant are +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_153" title="153"> </a>those which were executed for Henry II. and +Diana of Poitiers, Duchess of Valentinois. Both +were ardent bibliophiles, and both indulged in +very sumptuous bindings for their books. Some +of the chief treasures in our great libraries to-day +are the beautiful volumes which Henry presented +to the duchess, and which are ornamented with +the royal lilies of France, accompanied by the +bows and arrows and crescents which were Diana's +own badges and the initials of the king and the +duchess.</p> + +<p>Catherine de Medicis also was an enthusiastic +book collector, which may surprise those who +think that a person who is devoted to books is +necessarily harmless. Some of her books she +brought to France as part of her dowry, others +she acquired by fair means or foul as was most +convenient, and to their bindings she paid particular +attention and kept a staff of bookbinders +in her employ.</p> + +<p>To such a pitch of extravagance did the bibliophiles +of the period go in the binding of their +books, that in 1583 Henry III. of France decreed +that ordinary citizens should not use more than +four diamonds to the decoration of one book, +and the nobility not more than five. The king +himself, however, was as extravagant as any of +his subjects, at any rate as regards the designs +he favoured. Many of his books are clad in +black morocco, bearing representations of skulls, +cross-bones, tears, and other melancholy emblems. +He developed his taste for these strange decorations, +it is said, when, as Duke of Anjou, he +loved and lost Mary of Clèves.</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_154" title="154"> </a> +The early printers at first executed their own +bookbinding, but presently left it to the stationers. +It was generally only the larger works which they +thought worth covering, and the small ones were +simply stitched. Antony Koburger, of whom +mention has already been made, bound his own +books and ornamented them in a style peculiarly +his own. Caxton bound his according to the +prevailing fashion, with leather sides, plain or +blind-tooled with diagonal lines, forming diamond-shaped +compartments in each of which is +stamped a species of dragon.</p> + +<p>About the sixteenth century it became fashionable +to have one's books</p> + +<div class="poem" style="width: 20em;"> +<div class="stanza"> +“Full goodly bound in pleasant coverture<br/> +<span class="i1">Of damask, satin, or else of velvet pure,”</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="no-indent">as a writer of the time expresses it, and this style +naturally lent itself to the needleworked decoration. +This decoration was especially favoured in +England, and the ladies of the period executed +some very fine pieces of embroidery as “pleasant +covertures” for their books, using coloured silks +and gold and silver thread on velvet or other +material. One of the earliest embroidered bindings +covers a description of the Holy Land, written +by Martin Brion, and dedicated to Henry VIII. +It is of crimson velvet, with the English arms +enclosed in the Garter, between two H's, and the +Tudor rose in each corner, and it is worked in silks, +gold thread, and seed pearls. Queen Elizabeth +is said to have preferred embroidered bindings +to those of leather, and to have been very skilful +in working them. The copy of <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">De Antiquitate +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_155" title="155"> </a>Britannicæ Ecclesiæ</cite>, which the author, Archbishop +Parker, presented to the Queen, has a +cover which is very elaborately embroidered +indeed. It is of contemporary English work, +and is thus described in the British Museum +<cite>Guide to the Printed Books exhibited in the King's +Library</cite>:—</p> + +<p>“Green velvet, having as a border a representation +of the paling of a deer park, embroidered +in gold and silver thread; the border on the +upper cover enclosing a rose bush bearing red +and white roses, surrounded by various other +flowers, and by deer; the lower cover has a +similar border, but contains deer, snakes, plants +and flowers; the whole being executed in gold +and silver thread and coloured silks. On the +back are embroidered red and white roses.” +Embroidered bindings remained in fashion during +the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and plain +velvet, too, was often used, sometimes with gold +or silver mounts.</p> + +<p>The old Royal Library, which was given to the +nation by George II., contains a large number of +sumptuous bookbindings; and that our Sovereigns +were not unmindful of the welfare of their literary +treasures may also be gathered from various +entries in the Wardrobe Books and from other +documents. Thus, we read that Edward IV. +paid Alice Clavers, “for the makyng of xvj. laces +and xvj. tassels for the garnysshing of divers of the +kinge's bookes ijs. viijd.”; and “Piers Bauduyn, +stacioner, for bynding gilding and dressing of a +booke called <cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Titus Livius</cite> xxs., for binding gilding +and dressing of a booke of the <cite>The Holy Trinity</cite> +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_156" title="156"> </a>xvjs.,” and so on. Again, in the bill delivered +to Henry VIII. by Thomas Berthelet, his +majesty's printer and binder, are found such +entries as these:—</p> + +<p>“Item delyvered to the kinge's highnes the vj. +day of January a Psalter in englische and latine +covered with crimoysyn satyne, 2s.”</p> + +<p>“Item delyvered to the kinge's hyghnes for a +little Psalter, takyng out of one booke and settyng +in an other in the same place, and for gorgeous +binding of the same booke xijd.; and to the +Goldesmythe for taking off the claspes and corners +and for setting on the same ageyne xvjd.”</p> + +<p>Among the various styles which may be classed +as fancy bindings may be instanced the seventeenth +century tortoise-shell covers with silver +mounts and ornaments, which have a very handsome +effect, and the mosaic decoration of the +same period. This mosaic decoration was made +by inlaying minute pieces of differently coloured +leathers, and finishing them with gold tooling. +It was work which called for great dexterity in +manipulation, and in skilful hands the result was +very pretty and graceful.</p> + +<p>Even from this slight sketch it will be seen +that bookbindings have always presented unlimited +opportunities for originality on the part +of the worker, as regards both design and +material. Wood and leather, gold and silver, +ivory and precious stones, coloured enamels, +impressed papier-mâché, gold-tooled leather and +embroidered fabric, pasteboard and parchment, +have all been pressed into the service, and the +subject of bookbindings is a fascinating branch +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_157" title="157"> </a>of book history. But from their nature bindings +are difficult to describe in an interesting manner, +and words can hardly do justice to them without +the aid of facsimile illustrations.</p> + +<p>The ordinary bindings of to-day are practically +confined to two styles, the cloth and the leather, +and those combinations of leather and cloth +or leather and paper which make the covers of +half-bound and quarter-bound volumes. Cloth +binding, the binding of the nineteenth century, +is an English invention, and came into use in +1823. On the Continent books are still issued +in paper covers and badly stitched, on the +assumption that if worth binding at all, they will +be bound by the purchaser as he pleases. But +although the English commercial cloth binding is +often charged for far too highly, no one can deny +its convenience, and its superiority over the paper +undress of foreign works. Moreover, it is the +homely, everyday garb of the great majority of +our favourite volumes, and though, no doubt, it +is delightful to possess books sumptuously bound, +book-lovers of less ambition, or of lighter purses +than those who can command such luxuries, are +not very much to be pitied. There is something +characteristic about a book in a cloth cover +which it loses when it dons the livery of its +owner's library. Cloth is not only more varied +in texture, but admits of greater freedom and +variety of design than does leather, so there is +something to be said in its favour in spite of the +contention that direct handicraft is preferable to +handicraft which works through a machine, and +that one of a batch of bindings printed by the +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_158" title="158"> </a>thousand is not to be compared with a single +specimen of tooled leather which has cost a pair +of human hands hours of careful toil. The little +libraries with which so many of us have to be +contented owe their bright and cheerful appearance +to the cloth covers of the books, in which +each book stands out with modest directness, +wearing its individuality instead of losing it in +a crowd of neighbours dressed exactly like itself. +In a series uniformly bound, however, a family +likeness is not only admissible, but pleasing. It +gives an idea of unison among, perhaps, widely +differing individuals. But the unison which is +becoming to a family makes a community monotonous.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, something stronger than +cloth is necessary when books are to be subjected +to special wear and tear, and desirable when a +volume is to be particularly honoured or when +the library it is to enter is large and important. +Protection is the first purpose of a binding, and +endurance its first quality, and the experience of +centuries has shown that the walls in the fairy-tale +were right when they said,</p> + +<div class="poem" style="width: 20em;"> +<div class="stanza"> +“Gilding will fade in damp weather,<br/> +<span class="i1">To endure, there is nothing like <em class="smcap">leather</em>.”</span> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="no-indent">In which, perhaps, the book-lover will see a +parable. For, after all, the book is the thing, +and the cover a mere circumstance, and those +who wish to make books merely pegs to hang +bindings upon deserve to have no books at +all. Yet it is right that though the binding +should not be raised above the book, it should +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_159" title="159"> </a>be worthy of the book, and much of the cheap +and good literature which is now within the +reach of all who care to stretch out their hands +for it, is clothed in a manner to which no exception +can be taken on any score. Those who +have not realised how charming some of the +modern bookbindings can be, should consult the +winter number of <cite>The Studio</cite> for 1899–1900.</p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV<br/><br/> +<small>HOW A MODERN BOOK IS PRODUCED</small></a></h2> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="first-word">A description</span> of the methods by which a +modern book is produced has to begin at the +second stage of the proceedings. The processes +of the first stage, including the writing of the +book and the arrangements between the publisher +and the author, differ, of course, in individual +cases. The processes of the second stage, +however, are common to a large proportion of the +books produced at the present day, though it +will be easily understood that they can be dealt +with but summarily in this chapter, and that as +regards detail much variation is possible.</p> + +<p>The second stage in the history of a modern +book may be said to begin with the overhauling +which the manuscript receives at the hands of +the printer's “Reader,” who goes over it with +the view of instructing the compositor regarding +capitals, punctuation, chapter headings and other +details. Although these are considered minor +and merely clerical details which are frequently +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_160" title="160"> </a>neglected or misused in writing, it is essential +that they be carefully attended to in print. Many +examples can be given of amusing misprints and +alterations of meaning caused by even such a +trifle as the misplacing of a comma. When this +overhauling is completed the manuscript is ready +to be sent to the composing room where the types +are set up.</p> + +<p>From experience the printer knows that many +authors get a different impression of what they have +written when they see it in type from what they +had when they read it in manuscript, and it frequently +happens that alterations on proof are very +numerous in consequence. When either from +this or any other cause numerous alterations are +anticipated, the matter is first set up in long slips +called “galleys,” and not put at once into page +form. As soon as a few of those galleys are +composed an impression called a “proof” is +taken from the types so set, and this proof is +passed to a reader whose duty is to see that a +correct copy is made of the manuscript, and that +the spelling is accurate and the punctuation good. +This is a work commanding considerable intelligence +and experience, as the number of types +required for a printed page is very great, and +even the most expert compositor cannot avoid +mistakes. This marked proof is returned to the +compositor to make the necessary corrections. +Fresh proofs are got till no further errors are +detected, when a final proof is pulled and sent +to the author, who makes such alterations as he +may desire.</p> + +<p>When the corrected proofs are returned by the +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_161" title="161"> </a>author they are given to the compositor, who +makes the required alterations in the type. After +this a revised proof is submitted. When the +author is satisfied that the reading is as he wishes +he returns the proofs, and the galleys are now +made into page form. If it is not expected that +the author will make many changes the types are +arranged in page shape before any proofs are +shown to him, and the work goes through somewhat +more quickly.</p> + +<p>When the types are divided into pages they +are placed in sets or “formes,” each forme being +secured in an iron frame called a “chase,” which +can be conveniently moved about. Each chase is +of a size to enclose as many pages as will cover +one side of the sheet of paper to be used in +printing. Fifty years ago only one or two sizes +of paper were made, and the size of sheet generally +used for books was that which allowed eight +pages of library size on one side, hence called +“octavo” size, or when folded another way +allowed twelve pages, hence “twelvemo” or +“duodecimo.” Other sizes occasionally used are +called “sixteenmo” or “sextodecimo,” “eighteenmo” +or “octodecimo,” etc.</p> + +<p>With larger sized printing machines now driven +by steam or electricity, there is greater variety in +the size of formes and papers used in printing. +In all cases, however, the number of pages laid +down for one side of paper must divide by four. +The pages are set in the chase in special positions, +so that when the sheet is printed on both +sides and folded over and over for binding they +will appear in proper sequence.</p> + +<p><a class="pagenum" name="Page_162" title="162"> </a> +When only a small edition of a book is wanted +the printing is generally done direct from the +types, but when a large number of copies is +required or frequent editions are expected, stereotype +or electrotype plates are made. By this +means the types are released for further use and +other advantages obtained.</p> + +<p>Stereotype plates are cakes of white metal +carrying merely the face of the types, and were +formerly made by taking from the types a mould +of plaster of Paris. They are now formed by +beating or pressing a prepared pulp of papier-mâché +into the face of the lettering. The mould +thus obtained is dried and hardened by heat, +then molten metal is run into it of requisite thickness. +This plate after being properly dressed is +fitted on a block equal in height to the type +stem, and takes the place in the frame or chase +that would have been occupied by the types.</p> + +<p>The process of stereotyping is fairly quick and +economical, but electrotypes are better suited for +higher class work and are much more durable. +In this process an impression is taken from the +type on a surface of wax heated to the necessary +degree of plasticity. When the wax mould has +cooled and hardened it is placed in a galvanic +current, where a thin coat of copper is deposited +on its face. This coat is then detached from the +mould and backed with white metal to give it +the requisite body and stiffness and the electrotype +is now, like the stereotype, a metal plate +which can be fixed on a block and secured in a +frame ready for the printing machine.</p> + +<p>It is outside the scope of this work to describe +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_163" title="163"> </a>minutely the marvellous machinery used in +printing. It is interesting to know that the first +printers had no machine but a screw handpress +by which they laboriously worked off their books +page by page, and that even so late as the middle +of the nineteenth century all books with scarcely +an exception were printed at handpresses which +enabled two men to throw off about two hundred +and fifty copies of a comparatively small-sized +sheet in the hour. Now the machines commonly +in use, attended by only a man and a lad, throw +off from a thousand to fifteen hundred copies in +an hour of a sheet four or even eight times the +old size.</p> + +<p>Books are almost universally printed on what +is called the flat-bed machine, so-called because +the types or plates are placed on an iron table +which with them travels to and fro under a series +of revolving rollers constantly being fed with a +supply of ink which they transfer to the types or +plates. Immediately these get beyond the inking +rollers they pass under a revolving cylinder with +a set of grippers attached, which open and shut +with each revolution. These grippers take hold +of the sheet of paper and carry it round with the +cylinder. When it comes in contact with the +types or plates travelling underneath, the impression +or print is made. Some machines complete +the printing of the sheet on both sides at one +operation. In others the sheet is reversed and +is printed on the other side by passing through +a second time. In either case the sheet forms +only a section of a book; the complete volume +is made up of a number of these sections, folded +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_164" title="164"> </a>and collated in proper order in the bindery. +There they are sewn together and fixed in the +case or cover.</p> + +<p>For illustrated books the pictures were formerly +produced by engraving on wood, but they are now +chiefly photographed from the artist's drawing on +a light sensitive film spread on a metal plate, +and etched in by acids. In whatever way produced, +when printed with the text they are +always relief blocks which are placed in proper +position in the chase alongside the types or +plates. Coloured illustrations are produced by +successive printings. Special illustrations are +frequently produced separately by other processes +and inserted in the volume by the binder.</p> + +<p>Machines of a different construction, such as +the rotary press, and capable of a very much +higher rate of production, are in use for printing +newspapers and periodicals with a large circulation, +but these do not properly come into consideration +when telling how a modern book is +made.</p> + +<p>[<i>The above chapter has been kindly contributed +by the printers of this volume.</i></p> + +<p class="right" style="margin-right: 3em;"><i>G. B. R.</i>]</p> + + + +<hr style="margin-top: 8em;"/> + +<h2 style="margin-top: 0;"><a name="AUTHORS_POSTSCRIPT">AUTHOR'S POSTSCRIPT.</a></h2> + + +<p>In our endeavour to note the chief points in +the history of books, and in considering the +manifold interests which are bound up with their +bodies, we have had to neglect their minds. +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_165" title="165"> </a>To have tried even to touch upon the vast subject +of literature in our story would have been as +futile as an attempt to transport the ocean in +a thimble. For literature consists of all that is +transferable of human knowledge and experience, +all that is expressible of human thought on +whatever matter in heaven or earth has been +dreamed of in man's philosophy. And though +our aggregate of knowledge be small, it is vastly +beyond the comprehension of one individual +being.</p> + +<p>Of the influence of books, and their manifold +uses, also, this is not the place to speak. Moreover, +even had the theme been unheeded by +abler pens, no one who loves books needs to be +told to how many magic portals they are the +keys, while he who loves them not would not +understand for all the telling in the world.</p> + + + +<div class="page-break"> +<a class="pagenum" name="Page_166" title="166"> </a> +<h2><a name="INDEX">INDEX</a></h2> +</div> + +<hr class="small-line"/> + +<h3>A.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Aberdeen Breviary, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>–135.</li> + +<li>Advertisements, early booksellers', <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li>Alcuin, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> + +<li>Aldus Manutius, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + +<li>Aleria, Bp. of, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Alexandria, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>–32.</li> + +<li>Alost, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li>Alphabet, the, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + +<li>Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + +<li>Antiquarii, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li>Antwerp, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li>Arabs, the, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + +<li>Assyria, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li>Assyrians, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + +<li><ins title="Augsberg">Augsburg</ins>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Aungervyle, R. (<i>see</i> <a href="#Richard_de_Bury" class="smcap">Richard de Bury</a>).</li> + +<li>Ave Maria Lane, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Avignon, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>B.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Babylonia, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Babylonians, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + +<li>Bamberg, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li>Basle, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Benedict Biscop, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li>Beowulf, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li>Berthelet, Thomas, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> + +<li>Bible, the, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Mazarin or Gutenberg, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>–100.</li> + +<li>—— thirty-six-line, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Mentz, 1462, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + +<li>Biblia Pauperum, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>–77, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li> + +<li>Bibliothèque Nationale, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li>Bindings, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + +<li>Block-books, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + +<li>Block-printing, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li>Bonhomme, Pasquier, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + +<li>Book of Durrow, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Kells, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>–41.</li> + +<li>—— St Albans, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + +<li>—— St Cuthbert (<i>see</i> <a href="#Lindisfarne_Gospels" class="smcap">Lindisfarne Gospels</a>).</li> + +<li>Book, production of modern, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li> + +<li>Bookbinding, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>–159.</li> + +<li>Books, adventures of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li>—— beginning of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> + +<li>—— chained, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li>—— heretical, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li>—— in classical times, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> + +<li>—— in monasteries, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>–24, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>—— not to be destroyed, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li>—— ornamenting of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li><a class="pagenum" name="Page_167" title="167"> </a> +—— prices of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + +<li>—— sizes of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li> + +<li>Booksellers, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>–54.</li> + +<li>Bordesley Abbey, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li>Breslau, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Brethren of the Common Life, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li>Breviary, Aberdeen, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>–135.</li> + +<li>Bruges, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>–122.</li> + +<li>Brussels, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li>“Brussels” Print, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li>Byzantium, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>C.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Caedmon, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li>Cambridge, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>Campanus, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Canterbury, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li>Carrells, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>Carswell's Prayer-book, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> + +<li>Catalogues, early booksellers', <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li>—— monastic library, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>–61.</li> + +<li>Catechism, Irish Alphabet and, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>–144.</li> + +<li>Caxton, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>–107, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>–126, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Censorship, Ecclesiastical, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> + +<li>—— University, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> + +<li>Chelsea, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li>Chepman, Walter, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> + +<li>China, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li>Clairvaux Abbey, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>Clement of Padua, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li>Clugni, Abbey of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>Cologne, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + +<li>Colophons, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> + +<li>Copyists, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Copyright, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> + +<li>Corvey, Abbot of, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li> + +<li>Coster, Laurenz, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>–89.</li> + +<li>Cranz, Martin, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + +<li>Creed Lane, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li> + +<li>Cumhdachs, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>D.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Davidson, Thomas, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + +<li>Dictes or Sayengis, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + +<li>Diemudis, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li>Donatus, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li>Dorchester, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> + +<li>Dublin, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>–139, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li>Durham, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>E.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Edinburgh, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Egypt, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>–31, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> + +<li>Electrotype plates, printing from, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Elzevirs, the, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + +<li>England, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>F.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><span class="smcap">Faust</span> or <span class="smcap">Fust</span>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li>Fichet, Guillaume, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + +<li>Florence, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Fountains Abbey, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li><a class="pagenum" name="Page_168" title="168"> </a> +France, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Friburger, Michael, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>G.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Game and Playe of the Chesse, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> + +<li>Gering, Ulric, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + +<li>Germany, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + +<li>Glastonbury Abbey, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>Gloucester, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li>Greece, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li> + +<li>Greeks, the, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + +<li>Grolier, Jean, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Guild of St John the Evangelist, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Gutenberg, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>–85, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>–92, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>H.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Haarlem, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>–82, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>–87, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + +<li>Hahn, Ulric, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li>Herculaneum, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + +<li>Hereford Cathedral, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li>Holborn, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Holland, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + +<li>Hostingue, Laurence, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>I.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Illuminators, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Ireland, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li>Irish Alphabet and Catechism, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li> + +<li>Italy, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li> + +<li>Italic type, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>J.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Japan, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> + +<li>Jenson, Nicolas, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li>Junius, Hadrian, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>K.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><span class="smcap">Kelmscott</span> press, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + +<li>Ketelaer, Nycolaum, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + +<li>Kirkstall Abbey, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li><ins title="Klosterneuberg">Klosterneuburg</ins>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li>Koburger, Antony, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>L.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Lanfranc, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> + +<li>Latin document, earliest, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> + +<li>Latin names of towns, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> + +<li>Leempt, Gerard de, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> + +<li>Lettou, John, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + +<li>Leicester, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Lekprevik, Roibeard, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Leland, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Leyden, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + +<li>Libraries, ancient, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>–36.</li> + +<li>—— collegiate, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> + +<li>—— monastic, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>–65.</li> + +<li>Librarii, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li>Lignamine, J. P. de, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Lindisfarne_Gospels">Lindisfarne Gospels</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>–45, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> + +<li><a class="pagenum" name="Page_169" title="169"> </a> +Lincoln Cathedral, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li>Literature, Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li>—— beginning of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> + +<li>—— of Greece, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li>Literatures, antique, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + +<li>London, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + +<li>Louvain, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li>Lubeck, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Lyons, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>M.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Machlinia, William de, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>Maioli, Thomasso, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> + +<li>Mansion, Colard, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> + +<li>Manuscript, oldest Biblical, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>—— oldest Homeric, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>—— oldest New Testament, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + +<li>Manuscripts, Arabic, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Arabic-Spanish, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Byzantine, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Classical, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Coptic, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + +<li>—— of Four Gospels, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Greek, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Hiberno-Saxon, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Illuminated, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>–46.</li> + +<li>—— Irish, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>–41, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Italian, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Moorish, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> + +<li>—— printed illustrations in, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Syriac, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Winchester, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li> + +<li>—— of Virgil, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> + +<li>Marienthal, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li>Mentelin, John, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li>Mentz, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>–98, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> + +<li>Monasteries, books in, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>–24, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li>Monastic writing, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> + +<li>Morris, William, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> + +<li>Musical notes printed, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>Myllar, Andrew, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>–135.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>N.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Naples, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Netley Abbey, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>New Testament, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li> + +<li>Nineveh, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li> + +<li>Nuremberg, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>O.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><span class="smcap">O'Kearney</span>, John, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>–143.</li> + +<li>Old Testament, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> + +<li>Omar, Caliph, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li> + +<li>Oxford, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li>Oxyrhynchus, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>P.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Paternoster Row, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Palestine, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> + +<li>Palimpsests, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> + +<li>Pannartz (<i>see</i> <a href="#Sweynheim" class="smcap">Sweynheim</a>).</li> + +<li>Papyrus, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> + +<li>Paris, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Council of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> + +<li><a class="pagenum" name="Page_170" title="170"> </a> +Philobiblon, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li> + +<li>Peterborough, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Petrarch, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + +<li>Pfister, Albrecht, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> + +<li>Poggio Bracciolini, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li> + +<li>Powell, Humfrey, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Printed illustrations in MSS., <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li> + +<li>Printers as editors and publishers, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>—— as booksellers, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li>—— as bookbinders, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>Printing, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>–144.</li> + +<li>—— in colours, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + +<li>—— machines for, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> + +<li>Psalter, <ins title="Melissanda's">Melissenda's</ins>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>–150.</li> + +<li>—— Mentz, 1457, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Queen Mary's, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li> + +<li>Publication, mediæval, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li>Publishers, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Pye or Pica, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li>Pynson, Richard, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>R.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">“R” Printer, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li>Ramsey Abbey, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> + +<li>Reichenau Abbey, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Richard_de_Bury">Richard de Bury</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> + +<li>Romans, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + +<li>Rome, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + +<li>Rood, Theodore, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li>Rostock, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li>Rouen, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + +<li>Royal Library of England, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li> + +<li>—— of France, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>S.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Satchels or Polaires, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> + +<li><ins title="Schœffer">Schoeffer</ins>, Peter, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> + +<li>Scandinavians, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + +<li>Scotland, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> + +<li>Seraglio library, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li> + +<li>Sopwell, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + +<li>Spain, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Speculum Humanæ Salvationis, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>–80, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <ins title="89"><a href="#Page_89">89</a>,</ins> <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Spira">Spira</a>, John de, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Vindelinus de, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li> + +<li>Spires, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>—— John of (<i>see</i> <a href="#Spira" class="smcap">Spira</a>).</li> + +<li>St Albans, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> + +<li>St Andrews, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>St Boniface, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> + +<li>St Columba, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>“St Christopher” Print, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> + +<li>St Gall, Abbey of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>St Paul's Cathedral, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> + +<li>Stationers, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Company of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li>Stereotype plates, printing from, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li> + +<li>Stirling, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> + +<li>Story, John, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li> + +<li>Strasburg, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + +<li>Subiaco, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> + +<li><a name="Sweynheim">Sweynheim</a> and Pannartz, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>T.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Tablets, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> + +<li>The Hague, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> + +<li><a class="pagenum" name="Page_171" title="171"> </a> +Theodore, Abp., <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li> + +<li>Therhoernen, Arnold, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> + +<li>Tintern Abbey, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>Titchfield Abbey, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> + +<li>Title-page, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>–109.</li> + +<li>Tooling, <ins title="150,"><a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</ins></li> + +<li>Type or Types, Aldino, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Caxton's, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Early, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Gaelic or Irish, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>–143.</li> + +<li>—— Gothic, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Greek, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Italic, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Moveable, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>–89.</li> + +<li>—— Roman, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Subiaco, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Scottish printers', <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li> + +<li>—— Wood and metal, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>U.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="smcap">Ulm, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> + +<li>Usher, John, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> + +<li>Utrecht, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>V.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><span class="smcap">Veldener</span>, John, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li> + +<li>Venice, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> + +<li>Vienna, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> + +<li>Virgil, Aldine, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>W.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><span class="smcap">Waldfoghel</span>, Procopius, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li> + +<li>Walsh, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> + +<li>Westminster, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>–123, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> + +<li>Whitby, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li> + +<li>Wimborne Minster, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> + +<li>Winchester, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> + +<li>Woodcuts, early English, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li> + +<li>Worcester, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li> + +<li>Writers of Text Letter, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li> + +<li>Writing, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> + +<li>Wynkyn de Worde, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<h3>Z.</h3> + +<ul class="index"> +<li><span class="smcap">Zel</span>, Ulric, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li> + +<li>Zutphen, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> +</ul> + + +<p class="center" style="margin: 6em auto;"><small>TURNBULL AND SPEARS, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH.</small></p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" href="#FNanchor_1_1" class="label">[1]</a> The Codex Sinaiticus, now at St Petersburg.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" href="#FNanchor_2_2" class="label">[2]</a> The first printed musical notes appear in de Gerson's +<cite lang="la" xml:lang="la">Collectorium super Magnificat</cite>, printed at Esslingen in +1473 by Conrad Fyner.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" href="#FNanchor_3_3" class="label">[3]</a> The Pye, or Pica, directed how saints'-days falling in +Lent, Easter, Whitsuntide, and the octave of Trinity, +were to be observed with respect to the “commemorations” +of these seasons.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" href="#FNanchor_4_4" class="label">[4]</a> It is hardly necessary to remind the reader that at this +period Westminster was quite distinct from London.</p></div> +</div> + +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Story of Books, by Gertrude Burford Rawlings + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF BOOKS *** + +***** This file should be named 33413-h.htm or 33413-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/4/1/33413/ + +Produced by Adrian Mastronardi, Jana Srna and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was 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